,the ,golden ,bough                     
,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion       
,by                   ,james ,george    
,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 
,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge
         ,professor of ,social          
,anthropology in the ,university of     
,liverpool                              
,vol4 ,,viii4 of ,,xii4                 
,part ,v3 ,spirits of the ,corn and of  
the ,wild4                              
,vol4 #b of #b4                         
,new ,york and ,london                  
,mac,millan and ,co4                    
#aiab            ,,contents             
,chapter ,,ix4 ,ancient ,deities of     
,vegetation as ,animals4      #a4       
,dionysus1 the ,goat and the ,bull4     
#b4 ,demeter1 the ,pig and the ,horse4  
#c4 ,attis1 ,adonis1 and the ,pig4      
#d4 ,osiris1 the ,pig and the ,bull4    
#e4 ,virbius and the ,horse4  ,chapter  
,x4 ,eating ,the ,god4      #a4 ,the    
,sacrament of ,first-,fruits4      #b4  
,eating the ,god among the ,aztecs4     

#c4 ,many ,manii at ,aricia4  ,chapter  
,,xi4 ,the ,sacrifice of ,first-,fruits4
  ,chapter ,,xii4 ,homoeopathic ,magic  
of a ,flesh ,diet4  ,chapter ,,xiii4    
,killing ,the ,divine ,animal4      #a4 
,killing the ,sacred ,buzzard4      #b4 
,killing the ,sacred ,ram4      #c4     
,killing the ,sacred ,serpent4      #d4 
,killing the ,sacred ,turtles4      #e4 
,killing the ,sacred ,bear4  ,chapter   
,,xiv4 ,the ,propitiation of ,wild      
,animals by ,hunters4  ,chapter ,,xv4   
,the ,propitiation of ,vermin by        
,farmers4      #a4 ,the ,enemies of the 
,crops4      #b4 ,mouse ,apollo and     
,wolf ,apollo4  ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the    
,transmigration of ,human ,souls ,into  
,animals4  ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,types of   
,animal ,sacrament4      #a4 ,the       
,egyptian and the ,aino ,types of       
,sacrament4      #b4 ,processions with  
,sacred ,animals4      #c4 ,the ,rites  
of ,plough ,monday4  ,note3 ,the        
,ceremony of the ,horse at              
,rice-,harvest ,among ,the ,garos4      

,index4  ,footnotes                     
,cover ,art    ,transcriber's ,note3    
,the above cover image was produced by  
the submitter  at ,distributed          
,proofreaders1 and is being placed into 
the public domain4            ,,chapter 
,,ix4 ,,ancient ,,deities ,,of          
,,vegetation ,,as ,,animals4            
#a4 ,dionysus1 the ,goat and the ,bull4 
7,m#a7 ,however we may explain it1 the  
fact remains that in peasant folk-lore  
the corn-spirit is very commonly        
conceived and represented in animal     
form4  ,may not this fact explain the   
relation in which certain animals stood 
to  the ancient deities of vegetation1  
,dionysus1 ,demeter1 ,adonis1 ,attis1   
and  ,osiris8    7,m#b7 ,to begin with  
,dionysus4 ,we have seen that he was    
represented  sometimes as a goat and    
sometimes as a bull47#a7 ,as a goat he  
can hardly be  separated from the minor 
divinities1 the ,pans1 ,satyrs1 and     
,silenuses1 all  of whom are closely    
associated with him and are represented 

more or less  completely in the form of 
goats4 ,thus1 ,pan was regularly        
portrayed in  sculpture and painting    
with the face and legs of a goat47#b7   
,the ,satyrs  were depicted with pointed
 goat-ears1 and sometimes with sprouting
 horns  and short tails47#c7 ,they were 
sometimes spoken of simply as goats27#d7
 and  in the drama their parts were     
played by men dressed in goatskins47#e7 
,silenus is represented in art clad in a
 goatskin47#f7 ,further1 the ,fauns1    
the ,italian counterpart of the ,greek  
,pans and ,satyrs1 are described as     
being half goats1 with goat-feet and    
goat-horns47#g7 ,again1 all these minor 
goat-formed divinities partake more or  
less clearly of the character of        
woodland deities4 ,thus1 ,pan was called
 by the ,arcadians the ,lord of the     
,wood47#h7 ,the ,silenuses associated   
with the tree-nymphs47#i7 ,the ,fauns   
are  expressly designated as woodland   
deities27#aj7 and their character as    
such  is still further brought out by   

their association1 or even              
identification1  with ,silvanus and the 
,silvanuses1 who1 as their name of      
itself indicates1  are spirits of the   
woods47#aa7 ,lastly1 the association of 
the ,satyrs with  the ,silenuses1       
,fauns1 and ,silvanuses17#ab7 proves    
that the ,satyrs also were  woodland    
deities4 ,these goat-formed spirits of  
the woods have their  counterparts in   
the folk-lore of ,northern ,europe4     
,thus1 the ,russian  wood-spirits1      
called ,ljeschie 7from ljes1 8wood07 are
 believed to  appear partly in human    
shape1 but with the horns1 ears1 and    
legs of goats4  ,the ,ljeschi can alter 
his stature at pleasure2 when he walks  
in the wood  he is as tall as the trees2
 when he walks in the meadows he is no  
higher  than the grass4 ,some of the    
,ljeschie are spirits of the corn as    
well as  of the wood2 before harvest    
they are as tall as the corn-stalks1 but
 after  it they shrink to the height of 
the stubble47#ac7 ,this brings out--what

 we  have remarked before--the close    
connexion between tree-spirits and      
corn-spirits1 and shews how easily the  
former may melt into the latter4        
,similarly the ,fauns1 though           
wood-spirits1 were believed to foster   
the  growth of the crops47#ad7 ,we have 
already seen how often the corn-spirit  
is  represented in folk-custom as a     
goat47#ae7 ,on the whole1 then1 as      
,mannhardt  argues17#af7 the ,pans1     
,satyrs1 and ,fauns perhaps belong to a 
widely  diffused class of wood-spirits  
conceived in goat-form4 ,the fondness of
  goats for straying in woods and       
nibbling the bark of trees1 to which    
indeed they are most destructive1 is an 
obvious and perhaps sufficient  reason  
why wood-spirits should so often be     
supposed to take the form of  goats4    
,the inconsistency of a god of          
vegetation subsisting upon the          
vegetation which he personifies is not  
one to strike the primitive mind4  ,such
 inconsistencies arise when the deity1  

ceasing to be immanent in the           
vegetation1 comes to be regarded as its 
owner or lord2 for the idea of  owning  
the vegetation naturally leads to that  
of subsisting on it4 ,we have  already  
seen that the corn-spirit1 originally   
conceived as immanent in the  corn1     
afterwards comes to be regarded as its  
owner1 who lives on it and is  reduced  
to poverty and want by being deprived of
 it47#ag7    7,m#c7 ,thus the           
representation of wood-spirits in the   
form of goats appears  to be both       
widespread and1 to the primitive mind1  
natural4 ,therefore when  we find1 as we
 have done1 that ,dionysus--a           
tree-god--is sometimes  represented in  
goat-form17#ah7 we can hardly avoid     
concluding that this  representation is 
simply a part of his proper character as
 a tree-god and  is not to be explained 
by the fusion of two distinct and       
independent  worships1 in one of which  
he originally appeared as a tree-god and
 in the  other as a goat4 ,if such a    

fusion took place in the case of        
,dionysus1 it  must equally have taken  
place in the case of the ,pans and      
,satyrs of  ,greece1 the ,fauns of      
,italy1 and the ,ljeschie of ,russia4   
,that such a  fusion of two wholly      
disconnected worships should have       
occurred once is  possible2 that it     
should have occurred twice independently
 is improbable2  that it should have    
occurred thrice independently is so     
unlikely as to be  practically          
incredible4    7,m#d7 ,dionysus was also
 figured1 as we have seen17#ai7 in the  
shape of a  bull4 ,after what has gone  
before we are naturally led to expect   
that his  bull form must have been only 
another expression for his character as 
a  deity of vegetation1 especially as   
the bull is a common embodiment of the  
corn-spirit in ,northern ,europe27#bj7  
and the close association of ,dionysus  
with ,demeter and ,persephone in the    
mysteries of ,eleusis shews that he had 
at least strong agricultural affinities4

 ,the other possible explanation of  the
 bull-shaped ,dionysus would be that the
 conception of him as a bull was        
originally entirely distinct from the   
conception of him as a deity of         
vegetation1 and that the fusion of the  
two conceptions was due to some  such   
circumstance as the union of two tribes1
 one of which had previously  worshipped
 a bull-god and the other a tree-god4   
,this appears to be the  view taken by  
,mr4 ,andrew ,lang1 who suggests that   
the bull-formed ,dionysus  8had either  
been developed out of1 or had succeeded 
to1 the worship of a  bull-totem407#ba7 
,of course this is possible4 ,but it is 
not yet certain  that the ,aryans ever  
had totemism47#bb7 ,on the other hand1  
it is quite  certain that many ,aryan   
peoples have conceived deities of       
vegetation as  embodied in animal forms4
 ,therefore when we find amongst an     
,aryan people  like the ,greeks a deity 
of vegetation represented as an animal1 
the  presumption must be in favour of   

explaining this by a principle which is 
certainly known to have influenced the  
,aryan race rather than by one which  is
 not certainly known to have done so4   
,in the present state of our  knowledge1
 therefore1 it is safer to regard the   
bull form of ,dionysus as  being1 like  
his goat form1 an expression of his     
proper character as a  deity of         
vegetation4    7,m#e7 ,the probability  
of this view will be somewhat increased 
if it can be  shewn that in other rites 
than those of ,dionysus the ancients    
slew an ox  as a representative of the  
spirit of vegetation4 ,this they appear 
to have  done in the ,athenian sacrifice
 known as 8the murder of the ox0        
7bouphonia74 ,it took place about the   
end of ,june or beginning of ,july1     
that is1 about the time when the        
threshing is nearly over in ,attica4    
,according to tradition the sacrifice   
was instituted to procure a cessation   
of drought and dearth which had         
afflicted the land4 ,the ritual was as  

follows4 ,barley mixed with wheat1 or   
cakes made of them1 were laid upon  the 
bronze altar of ,zeus ,polieus on the   
,acropolis4 ,oxen were driven round  the
 altar1 and the ox which went up to the 
altar and ate the offering on  it was   
sacrificed4 ,the axe and knife with     
which the beast was slain had  been     
previously wetted with water brought by 
maidens called  8water-carriers40 ,the  
weapons were then sharpened and handed  
to the  butchers1 one of whom felled the
 ox with the axe and another cut its    
throat with the knife4 ,as soon as he   
had felled the ox1 the former threw  the
 axe from him and fled2 and the man who 
cut the beast's throat  apparently      
imitated his example4 ,meantime the ox  
was skinned and all  present partook of 
its flesh4 ,then the hide was stuffed   
with straw and  sewed up2 next the      
stuffed animal was set on its feet and  
yoked to a  plough as if it were        
ploughing4 ,a trial then took place in  
an ancient  law-court presided over by  

the ,king 7as he was called7 to         
determine who  had murdered the ox4 ,the
 maidens who had brought the water      
accused the men  who had sharpened the  
axe and knife2 the men who had sharpened
 the axe and  knife blamed the men who  
had handed these implements to the      
butchers2 the  men who had handed the   
implements to the butchers blamed the   
butchers2 and  the butchers laid the    
blame on the axe and knife1 which were  
accordingly  found guilty1 condemned and
 cast into the sea47#bc7    7,m#f7 ,the 
name of this sacrifice1--8the murder of 
the ox107#bd7--the pains  taken by each 
person who had a hand in the slaughter  
to lay the blame on  some one else1     
together with the formal trial and      
punishment of the axe or  knife or both1
 prove that the ox was here regarded not
 merely as a victim  offered to a god1  
but as itself a sacred creature1 the    
slaughter of which  was sacrilege or    
murder4 ,this is borne out by a         
statement of ,varro that to  kill an ox 

was formerly a capital crime in         
,attica47#be7 ,the mode of  selecting   
the victim suggests that the ox which   
tasted the corn was viewed  as the      
corn-deity taking possession of his own4
 ,this interpretation is  supported by  
the following custom4 ,in ,beauce1 in   
the district of ,orleans1  on the       
twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth of ,april 
they make a straw-man called  8the great
 mondard40 ,for they say that the old   
mondard is now dead and  it is necessary
 to make a new one4 ,the straw-man is   
carried in solemn  procession up and    
down the village and at last is placed  
upon the oldest  apple-tree4 ,there he  
remains till the apples are gathered1   
when he is  taken down and thrown into  
the water1 or he is burned and his ashes
 cast  into water4 ,but the person who  
plucks the first fruit from the tree    
succeeds to the title of 8the great     
mondard107#bf7 ,here the straw figure1  
called 8the great mondard0 and placed on
 the oldest apple-tree in  spring1      

represents the spirit of the tree1 who1 
dead in winter1 revives  when the       
apple-blossoms appear on the boughs4    
,thus the person who plucks  the first  
fruit from the tree and thereby receives
 the name of 8the great  mondard0 must  
be regarded as a representative of the  
tree-spirit4  ,primitive peoples are    
usually reluctant to taste the annual   
first-fruits  of any crop1 until some   
ceremony has been performed which makes 
it safe  and pious for them to do so4   
,the reason of this reluctance appears  
to be a  belief that the first-fruits   
either belong to or actually contain a  
divinity4 ,therefore when a man or      
animal is seen boldly to appropriate the
  sacred first-fruits1 he or it is      
naturally regarded as the divinity      
himself in human or animal form taking  
possession of his own4 ,the time of  the
 ,athenian sacrifice1 which fell about  
the close of the threshing1  suggests   
that the wheat and barley laid upon the 
altar were a harvest  offering2 and the 

sacramental character of the subsequent 
repast--all  partaking of the flesh of  
the divine animal--would make it        
parallel to the  harvest-suppers of     
modern ,europe1 in which1 as we have    
seen1 the flesh of  the animal who      
stands for the corn-spirit is eaten by  
the harvesters4  ,again1 the tradition  
that the sacrifice was instituted in    
order to put an  end to drought and     
famine is in favour of taking it as a   
harvest festival4  ,the resurrection of 
the corn-spirit1 enacted by setting up  
the stuffed ox  and yoking it to the    
plough1 may be compared with the        
resurrection of the  tree-spirit in the 
person of his representative1 the ,wild 
,man47#bg7    7,m#g7 ,still more        
clearly1 perhaps1 does the              
identification of the  corn-spirit with 
an ox come out in the sacrificial ritual
 which the ,greeks  of ,magnesia on the 
,maeander observed in honour of ,zeus   
,sosipolis1 a god  whose title of       
,sosipolis 78,saviour of the ,city07    

marks him as the  equivalent of ,zeus   
,polieus 78,zeus of the ,city074 ,the   
details of the ritual  are happily      
preserved in an inscription1 which      
records a decree of the  council and of 
the people for the regulation of the    
whole proceedings4  ,every year at a    
festival in the month of ,heraeon the   
magistrates bought  the finest bull that
 could be had for money1 and at the new 
moon of the  month of ,cronion1 at the  
time when the sowing was about to begin1
 they and  the priests dedicated the    
animal to ,zeus ,sosipolis1 while solemn
 prayers  were offered by the voice of a
 sacred herald for the welfare of the   
city1  of the land1 and of the people1  
for peace and wealth1 for the corn-crops
  and all other fruits1 and for the     
cattle4 ,thereafter the sacred animal   
was  kept throughout the winter1 its    
keep being undertaken by a contractor1  
who  was bound by law to drive the bull 
to the market and there collect         
contributions for its maintenance from  

all the hucksters and in particular     
from the corn-chandlers2 and a prospect 
was held out to such as  contributed    
that it would go well with them4        
,finally1 after having been  thus       
maintained at the public cost for some  
months1 the bull was led forth  with    
great pomp and sacrificed in the        
market-place on the twelfth day of  the 
month ,artemision1 which is believed to 
have been equivalent to the  ,attic     
month of ,thargelion and to the ,english
 month of ,may1 the season when  the    
corn is reaped in the ,greek lowlands4  
,in the procession which attended  the  
animal to the place of sacrifice the    
senators1 the priests1 the  magistrates1
 the young people1 and the victors in   
the games all bore a  part1 and at the  
head of the procession were borne the   
images of the  ,twelve ,gods attired in 
festal array1 while a fluteplayer1 a    
piper1 and a  harper discoursed solemn  
music47#bh7 ,now in the bull1 which was 
thus  dedicated at the time of sowing   

and kept at the cost of the pious1 and  
especially of corn-chandlers1 to be     
finally sacrificed at harvest1 it is    
reasonable to see an embodiment of the  
corn-spirit4 ,regarded as such the      
animal was consecrated when the seed was
 committed to the earth2 it was  fed and
 kept all the time the corn was growing 
in order that by its  beneficent        
energies it might foster that growth2   
and at last1 to complete  the parallel1 
when the corn was reaped the animal was 
slain1 the cutting  of the stalks being 
regarded as the death of the            
corn-spirit47#bi7  ,similarly we have   
seen that in the harvest-fields and on  
the  threshing-floors of modern ,europe 
the corn-spirit is often conceived in   
the form of a bull1 an ox1 or a calf1   
which is supposed to be killed at       
reaping or threshing2 and1 further1 we  
saw that the conception is  sometimes   
carried out in practice by slaughtering 
a real ox or a real calf  on the        
harvest-field4 ,thus the parallelism    

between the ancient ,greek and  the     
modern ,european idea of the corn-spirit
 embodied in the form of a bull  appears
 to be very close4    7,m#h7 ,on the    
interpretation which ,i have adopted of 
the sacrifices offered  to ,zeus        
,polieus and ,zeus ,sosipolis the       
corn-spirit is conceived as a male1  not
 as a female1 as ,zeus1 not as ,demeter 
or ,persephone4 ,in this there is  no   
inconsistency4 ,at the stage of thought 
which the ,greeks had reached  long     
before the dawn of history they supposed
 the processes of  reproduction in      
nature to be carried on by a male and a 
female principle  in conjunction2 they  
did not believe1 like some backward     
savages1 that the  female principle     
alone suffices for that purpose1 and    
that the aid of the  male principle is  
superfluous4 ,hence1 as we have seen1   
they imagined that  the goddesses of the
 corn1 the mother ,demeter and the      
daughter ,persephone1  had each her male
 partner with whom she united for the   

production of the  crops4 ,the partner  
of ,demeter was ,zeus1 the partner of   
,persephone was his  brother ,pluto1 the
 ,subterranean ,zeus1 as he was called2 
and reasons have  been shewn for        
thinking that the marriage of one or    
other of these divine  pairs was        
solemnised at ,eleusis as part of the   
,great ,mysteries in order to  promote  
the growth of the corn47#cj7    7,m#i7  
,the ox appears as a representative of  
the corn-spirit in other parts  of the  
world4 ,at ,great ,bassam1 in ,guinea1  
two oxen are slain annually to  procure 
a good harvest4 ,if the sacrifice is to 
be effectual1 it is  necessary that the 
oxen should weep4 ,so all the women of  
the village sit  in front of the beasts1
 chanting1 8,the ox will weep2 yes1 he  
will weep60  ,from time to time one of  
the women walks round the beasts1       
throwing manioc  meal or palm wine upon 
them1 especially into their eyes4 ,when 
tears roll  down from the eyes of the   
oxen1 the people dance1 singing1 8,the  

ox weeps6  the ox weeps60 ,then two men 
seize the tails of the beasts and cut   
them off  at one blow4 ,it is believed  
that a great misfortune will happen in  
the  course of the year if the tails are
 not severed at one blow4 ,the oxen are 
afterwards killed1 and their flesh is   
eaten by the chiefs47#ca7 ,here the     
tears of the oxen1 like those of the    
human victims amongst the ,khonds and   
the ,aztecs17#cb7 are probably a        
rain-charm4 ,we have already seen that  
the  virtue of the corn-spirit1 embodied
 in animal form1 is sometimes supposed  
to reside in the tail1 and that the last
 handful of corn is sometimes  conceived
 as the tail of the corn spirit47#cc7   
,in the ,mithraic religion  this        
conception is graphically set forth in  
some of the numerous  sculptures which  
represent ,mithras kneeling on the back 
of a bull and  plunging a knife into its
 flank2 for on certain of these         
monuments the  tail of the bull ends in 
three stalks of corn1 and in one of them

  corn-stalks instead of blood are seen 
issuing from the wound inflicted by  the
 knife47#cd7 ,such representations      
certainly suggest that the bull1 whose  
sacrifice appears to have formed a      
leading feature in the ,mithraic ritual1
  was conceived1 in one at least of its 
aspects1 as an incarnation of the       
corn-spirit4    7,m#aj7 ,still more     
clearly does the ox appear as a         
personification of the  corn-spirit in a
 ceremony which is observed in all the  
provinces and  districts of ,china to   
welcome the approach of spring4 ,on the 
first day of  spring1 usually on the    
third or fourth of ,february1 which is  
also the  beginning of the ,chinese ,new
 ,year1 the governor or prefect of the  
city  goes in procession to the east    
gate of the city1 and sacrifices to the 
,divine ,husbandman1 who is represented 
with a bull's head on the body of a     
man4 ,a large effigy of an ox1 cow1 or  
buffalo has been prepared for the       
occasion1 and stands outside of the east

 gate1 with agricultural  implements    
beside it4 ,the figure is made of       
differently-coloured pieces of  paper   
pasted on a framework either by a blind 
man or according to the  directions of a
 necromancer4 ,the colours of the paper 
prognosticate the  character of the     
coming year2 if red prevails1 there will
 be many fires2  if white1 there will be
 floods and rain2 and so with the other 
colours4  ,the mandarins walk slowly    
round the ox1 beating it severely at    
each step  with rods of various hues4   
,it is filled with five kinds of grain1 
which  pour forth when the effigy is    
broken by the blows of the rods4 ,the   
paper  fragments are then set on fire1  
and a scramble takes place for the      
burning  fragments1 because the people  
believe that whoever gets one of them is
  sure to be fortunate throughout the   
year4 ,a live buffalo is next killed1   
and its flesh is divided among the      
mandarins4 ,according to one account1   
the effigy of the ox is made of clay1   

and1 after being beaten by the          
governor1 is stoned by the people till  
they break it in pieces1 8from  which   
they expect an abundant year407#ce7 ,but
 the ceremony varies somewhat  in the   
different provinces4 ,according to      
another account the effigy of the  cow1 
made of earthenware1 with gilded horns1 
is borne in procession1 and  is of such 
colossal dimensions that forty or fifty 
men can hardly carry  it4 ,behind this  
monstrous cow walks a boy with one foot 
shod and the other  bare1 personifying  
the ,genius of ,industry4 ,he beats the 
effigy with a rod1  as if to drive it   
forward4 ,a great many little clay cows 
are afterwards  taken out of the large  
one and distributed among the people4   
,both the big  cow and the little ones  
are then broken in pieces1 and the      
people take the  sherds home with them  
in order to grind them to powder and    
strew the  powder on their fields1 for  
they think thus to secure a plentiful   
harvest47#cf7 ,in the cities nearest to 

,weihaiwei1 in northern ,china1 the     
ceremony of 8the ,beginning of ,spring0 
is a moveable feast1 which falls        
usually in the first moon4 ,the local   
magistrate and his attendants go in     
procession to the eastern suburbs of the
 city to 8meet the ,spring40 ,a  great  
pasteboard effigy of an ox is carried in
 the procession1 together  with another 
pasteboard image of a man called        
,mang-,shen1 8who represents  either the
 typical ox-driver or ploughman or the  
god of ,agriculture40 ,on  the return of
 the procession to the magistrate's     
court1 that dignitary  himself and his  
principal colleagues beat and prod the  
pasteboard ox with  wands1 after which  
the effigy is burned along with the     
image of its  attendant4 ,the colours   
and apparel of the two effigies         
correspond with the  forecasts of the   
,chinese almanack4 ,thus if the head of 
the ox is yellow1  the summer will be   
very hot2 if it is green1 the spring    
will be sickly2 if  it is red1 there    

will be a drought2 if it is black1 there
 will be much  rain2 if it is white1    
there will be high winds4 ,if           
,mang-,shen wears a hat1  the year will 
be dry2 if he is bareheaded1 it will be 
rainy2 and so on  with the other        
articles of his apparel4 ,besides the   
pasteboard ox a  miniature ox made of   
clay is also supposed to be             
provided47#cg7 ,in ,chinese  the        
ceremony is called indifferently        
8beating the ox0 and 8beating the       
spring10 which seems to prove that the  
ox is identified with the vernal        
energies of nature4 ,we may suppose that
 originally the ox which figures in  the
 rite was a living animal1 but ever     
since the beginning of our era1  when   
the custom first appears in history1 it 
has been an effigy of  terra-cotta or   
pasteboard4 ,to this day the ,chinese   
calendar devotes a page  to a picture of
 8the ox of spring0 with ,mang1 the     
tutelary genius of  spring1 standing    
beside it and grasping a willow-bough1  

with which he is  about to beat the     
animal for the purpose of stimulating   
its reproductive  virtue47#ch7 ,in one  
form of this ,chinese custom the        
corn-spirit appears to  be plainly      
represented by the corn-filled ox1 whose
 fragments may  therefore be supposed to
 bring fertility with them4 ,we may     
compare the  ,silesian custom of burning
 the effigy of ,death1 scrambling for   
the burning  fragments1 and burying them
 in the fields to secure a good crop1   
and the  ,florentine custom of sawing   
the ,old ,woman and scrambling for the  
dried  fruits with which she was        
filled47#ci7 ,both these customs1 like  
their  ,chinese counterpart1 are        
observed in spring4    7,m#aa7,the      
practice of beating an earthenware or   
pasteboard image of an ox  in spring is 
not confined to ,china proper1 but seems
 to be widely spread  in the east of    
,asia2 for example1 it has been recorded
 at ,kashgar and in  ,annam4 ,thus a    
,french traveller has described how at  

,kashgar1 on the third  of ,february    
#ahib1 a mandarin1 clad in his finest   
robes and borne in a  magnificent       
palanquin1 conducted solemnly through   
the streets the  pasteboard image of an 
ox1 8a sacred animal devoted to the     
deity of spring  who gives life to the  
fields4 ,it is thus carried to some     
distance outside  of the town on the    
eastern side4 ,the official who acts as 
pontiff  ceremoniously offers food and  
libations to it in order to obtain a    
fruitful year1 and next day it is       
demolished by the lashes of a           
whip407#dj7  ,again1 in ,annam1 every   
year at the approach of spring the      
,department of  ,rites publishes        
instructions to the provincial governors
 as to the manner  in which the festival
 of the inauguration of spring is to be 
celebrated4  ,among the indispensable   
features of the festival are the figures
 of an ox  and its warder made of       
terra-cotta4 ,the attitudes of the two  
and the  colours to be applied to them  

are carefully prescribed every year in  
the  ,chinese calendar4 ,popular opinion
 attributes to the colour of the ox and 
the accoutrement of its warder1 who is  
called ,mang ,than1 a certain  influence
 on the crops of the year3 a green1     
yellow1 and black buffalo               
prognosticates an abundant harvest3 a   
red or white buffalo foretells  wretched
 crops and great droughts or hurricanes4
 ,if ,mang ,than is  represented wearing
 a large hat1 the year will be rainy2 if
 on the other  hand he is bareheaded1   
long barren droughts are to be feared4  
,nay1 the  public credulity goes so far 
as to draw good or evil omens from the  
cheerfulness or ill humour which may be 
detected on the features of the  ,warder
 of the ,ox4 ,having been duly prepared 
in accordance with the  directions of   
the almanack1 the ox and its warder are 
carried in  procession1 followed by the 
mandarins and the people1 to the altar  
of  ,spring1 which is usually to be     
found in every provincial capital4      

,there  the provincial governor offers  
fruits1 flowers1 and incense to the     
,genius  of ,spring 7,xuan ,quan71 and  
gold and silver paper money are burnt on
 the  altar in profusion4 ,lastly the ox
 and his warder are buried in a spot    
which has been indicated by a           
geomancer47#da7 ,it is interesting to   
observe  that the three colours of the  
ox which are taken to prognosticate good
  crops1 to wit1 green1 yellow1 and     
black1 are precisely the colours which  
the ancients attributed to ,demeter1 the
 goddess of the corn47#db7    7,m#ab7   
,the great importance which the ,chinese
 attach to the performance of  rites for
 the fertility of the ground is proved  
by an ancient custom which  is1 or was  
till lately1 observed every year in     
spring4 ,on an appointed day  the       
emperor himself1 attended by the highest
 dignitaries of the state1  guides with 
his own hand the ox-drawn plough down   
several furrows and  scatters the seed  
in a sacred field1 or 8field of ,god10  

as it is called1  the produce of which  
is afterwards examined from time to time
 with anxious  care by the ,governor of 
,peking1 who draws omens from the       
appearance of the  ears2 it is a very   
happy omen if he should chance to find  
thirteen ears  growing on one stalk4 ,to
 prepare himself for the celebration of 
this  solemn rite the emperor is        
expected to fast and remain continent   
for three  days previously1 and the     
princes and mandarins who accompany him 
to the  field are bound to observe      
similar restrictions4 ,the corn grown on
 the  holy field which has thus been    
ploughed by the imperial hands is       
collected  in yellow sacks and stored in
 a special granary to be used by the    
emperor  in certain solemn sacrifices   
which he offers to the god ,chan ,ti and
 to his  own ancestors4 ,in the         
provinces of ,china the season of       
ploughing is  similarly inaugurated by  
the provincial governors as             
representatives of  the emperor47#dc7   

7,m#ac7 ,the sacred field1 or 8field of 
,god10 in which the emperor of ,china   
thus ceremonially opens the ploughing   
for the year1 and of which the  produce 
is employed in sacrifice1 reminds us of 
the ,rarian plain at  ,eleusis1 in which
 a sacred ploughing similarly took place
 every year1 and  of which the produce  
was in like manner devoted to           
sacrifice47#dd7 ,further1  it recalls   
the little sacred rice-fields on which  
the ,kayans of central  ,borneo         
inaugurate the various operations of the
 agricultural year by  performing them  
in miniature47#de7 ,as ,i have already  
pointed out1 all such  consecrated      
enclosures were probably in origin what 
we may call spiritual  preserves1 that  
is1 patches of ground which men set     
apart for the  exclusive use of the     
corn-spirit to console him for the      
depredations they  committed on all the 
rest of his domains4 ,again1 the rule of
 fasting and  continence observed by the
 ,emperor of ,china and his august      

colleagues  before they put their hands 
to the plough resembles the similar     
customs of  abstinence practised by many
 savages as a preparation for engaging  
in the  various labours of the          
field47#df7    7,m#ad7 ,on the whole we 
may perhaps conclude that both as a goat
 and as a  bull ,dionysus was           
essentially a god of vegetation4 ,the   
,chinese and  ,european customs which ,i
 have cited7#dg7 may perhaps shed light 
on the  custom of rending a live bull or
 goat at the rites of ,dionysus4 ,the   
animal  was torn in fragments1 as the   
,khond victim was cut in pieces1 in     
order  that the worshippers might each  
secure a portion of the life-giving and 
fertilising influence of the god4 ,the  
flesh was eaten raw as a sacrament1  and
 we may conjecture that some of it was  
taken home to be buried in the  fields1 
or otherwise employed so as to convey to
 the fruits of the earth  the quickening
 influence of the god of vegetation4    
,the resurrection of  ,dionysus1 related

 in his myth1 may have been enacted in  
his rites by  stuffing and setting up   
the slain ox1 as was done at the        
,athenian  bouphonia4           #b4     
,demeter1 the ,pig and the ,horse4      
7,m#ae7 ,passing next to the            
corn-goddess ,demeter1 and remembering  
that in  ,european folk-lore the pig is 
a common embodiment of the              
corn-spirit17#dh7  we may now ask       
whether the pig1 which was so closely   
associated with  ,demeter1 may not have 
been originally the goddess herself in  
animal form8  ,the pig was sacred to    
her27#di7 in art she was portrayed      
carrying or  accompanied by a pig27#ej7 
and the pig was regularly sacrificed in 
her  mysteries1 the reason assigned     
being that the pig injures the corn and 
is  therefore an enemy of the           
goddess47#ea7 ,but after an animal has  
been  conceived as a god1 or a god as an
 animal1 it sometimes happens1 as we    
have seen1 that the god sloughs off his 
animal form and becomes purely          

anthropomorphic2 and that then the      
animal1 which at first had been slain   
in the character of the god1 comes to be
 viewed as a victim offered to the  god 
on the ground of its hostility to the   
deity2 in short1 the god is  sacrificed 
to himself on the ground that he is his 
own enemy4 ,this  happened to           
,dionysus17#eb7 and it may have happened
 to ,demeter also4 ,and in  fact the    
rites of one of her festivals1 the      
,thesmophoria1 bear out the  view that  
originally the pig was an embodiment of 
the corn-goddess  herself1 either       
,demeter or her daughter and double     
,persephone4 ,the ,attic  ,thesmophoria 
was an autumn festival1 celebrated by   
women alone in  ,october17#ec7 and      
appears to have represented with        
mourning rites the  descent of          
,persephone 7or ,demeter77#ed7 into the 
lower world1 and with joy  her return   
from the dead47#ee7 ,hence the name     
,descent or ,ascent variously  applied  
to the first1 and the name ,kalligeneia 

7fair-born7 applied to  the third day of
 the festival4 ,now from an old scholium
 on ,lucian7#ef7 we  learn some details 
about the mode of celebrating the       
,thesmophoria1 which  shed important    
light on the part of the festival called
 the ,descent or the  ,ascent4 ,the     
scholiast tells us that it was customary
 at the ,thesmophoria  to throw pigs1   
cakes of dough1 and branches of         
pine-trees into 8the chasms  of ,demeter
 and ,persephone10 which appear to have 
been sacred caverns or  vaults47#eg7 ,in
 these caverns or vaults there were said
 to be serpents1  which guarded the     
caverns and consumed most of the flesh  
of the pigs and  dough-cakes which were 
thrown in4 ,afterwards--apparently at   
the next annual  festival7#eh7--the     
decayed remains of the pigs1 the cakes1 
and the  pine-branches were fetched by  
women called 8drawers10 who1 after      
observing  rules of ceremonial purity   
for three days1 descended into the      
caverns1  and1 frightening away the     

serpents by clapping their hands1       
brought up the  remains and placed them 
on the altar4 ,whoever got a piece of   
the decayed  flesh and cakes1 and sowed 
it with the seed-corn in his field1 was 
believed to be sure of a good crop4     
,with the feeding of the serpents in    
the vaults by the women we may compare  
an ancient ,italian ritual4 ,at         
,lanuvium a serpent lived in a sacred   
cave within a grove of ,juno4 ,on       
certain appointed days a number of holy 
maidens1 with their eyes bandaged1      
entered the grove carrying cakes of     
barley in their hands4 ,led1 as it was  
believed1 by the divine spirit1 they    
walked straight to the serpent's den    
and offered him the cakes4 ,if they were
 chaste1 the serpent ate the cakes1  the
 parents of the girls rejoiced1 and     
farmers prognosticated an abundant      
harvest4 ,but if the girls were         
unchaste1 the serpent left the cakes    
untasted1 and ants came and crumbled the
 rejected viands and so removed  them   

bit by bit from the sacred grove1       
thereby purifying the hallowed spot     
from the stain it had contracted by the 
presence of a defiled maiden47#ei7      
7,m#af7 ,to explain the rude and ancient
 ritual of the ,thesmophoria the        
following legend was told4 ,at the      
moment when ,pluto carried off          
,persephone1 a swineherd called         
,eubuleus chanced to be herding his     
swine on  the spot1 and his herd was    
engulfed in the chasm down which ,pluto 
vanished  with ,persephone4 ,accordingly
 at the ,thesmophoria pigs were annually
 thrown  into caverns to commemorate the
 disappearance of the swine of          
,eubuleus47#fj7 ,it follows from this   
that the casting of the pigs into the   
vaults at the ,thesmophoria formed part 
of the dramatic representation of       
,persephone's descent into the lower    
world2 and as no image of ,persephone   
appears to have been thrown in1 we may  
infer that the descent of the pigs  was 
not so much an accompaniment of her     

descent as the descent itself1 in       
short1 that the pigs were ,persephone4  
,afterwards when ,persephone or         
,demeter 7for the two are equivalent7   
took on human form1 a reason had to  be 
found for the custom of throwing pigs   
into caverns at her festival2 and  this 
was done by saying that when ,pluto     
carried off ,persephone1 there  happened
 to be some swine browsing near1 which  
were swallowed up along  with her4 ,the 
story is obviously a forced and awkward 
attempt to bridge  over the gulf between
 the old conception of the corn-spirit  
as a pig and  the new conception of her 
as an anthropomorphic goddess4 ,a trace 
of the  older conception survived in the
 legend that when the sad mother was    
searching for traces of the vanished    
,persephone1 the footprints of the  lost
 one were obliterated by the footprints 
of a pig27#fa7 originally1 we  may      
conjecture1 the footprints of the pig   
were the footprints of  ,persephone and 
of ,demeter herself4 ,a consciousness of

 the intimate  connexion of the pig with
 the corn lurks in the legend that the  
swineherd  ,eubuleus was a brother of   
,triptolemus1 to whom ,demeter first    
imparted the  secret of the corn4       
,indeed1 according to one version of the
 story1  ,eubuleus himself received1    
jointly with his brother ,triptolemus1  
the gift  of the corn from ,demeter as a
 reward for revealing to her the fate of
  ,persephone47#fb7 ,further1 it is to  
be noted that at the ,thesmophoria the  
women appear to have eaten swine's      
flesh47#fc7 ,the meal1 if ,i am right1  
must have been a solemn sacrament or    
communion1 the worshippers partaking  of
 the body of the god4    7,m#ag7 ,as    
thus explained1 the ,thesmophoria has   
its analogies in the  folk-customs of   
,northern ,europe which have been       
already described4 ,just as  at the     
,thesmophoria--an autumn festival in    
honour of the  corn-goddess--swine's    
flesh was partly eaten1 partly kept in  
caverns till  the following year1 when  

it was taken up to be sown with the     
seed-corn in  the fields for the purpose
 of securing a good crop2 so in the     
neighbourhood of ,grenoble the goat     
killed on the harvest-field is partly   
eaten at the harvest-supper1 partly     
pickled and kept till the next          
harvest27#fd7 so at ,pouilly the ox     
killed on the harvest-field is partly   
eaten by the harvesters1 partly pickled 
and kept till the first day of  sowing  
in spring17#fe7 probably to be then     
mixed with the seed1 or eaten by  the   
ploughmen1 or both2 so at ,udvarhely the
 feathers of the cock which is  killed  
in the last sheaf at harvest are kept   
till spring1 and then sown  with the    
seed on the field27#ff7 so in ,hesse and
 ,meiningen the flesh of  pigs is eaten 
on ,ash ,wednesday or ,candlemas1 and   
the bones are kept till  sowing-time1   
when they are put into the field sown or
 mixed with the seed  in the bag27#fg7  
so1 lastly1 the corn from the last sheaf
 is kept till  ,christmas1 made into the

 ,yule ,boar1 and afterwards broken and 
mixed with  the seed-corn at sowing in  
spring47#fh7 ,thus1 to put it generally1
 the  corn-spirit is killed in animal   
form in autumn2 part of his flesh is    
eaten  as a sacrament by his            
worshippers2 and part of it is kept till
 next  sowing-time or harvest as a      
pledge and security for the continuance 
or  renewal of the corn-spirit's        
energies4 ,whether in the interval      
between  autumn and spring he is        
conceived as dead1 or whether1 like the 
ox in the  bouphonia1 he is supposed to 
come to life again immediately after    
being  killed1 is not clear4 ,at the    
,thesmophoria1 according to ,clement and
  ,pausanias1 as emended by             
,lobeck17#fi7 the pigs were thrown in   
alive1 and  were supposed to reappear at
 the festival of the following year4    
,here1  therefore1 if we accept         
,lobeck's emendations1 the corn-spirit  
is conceived  as alive throughout the   
year2 he lives and works under ground1  

but is  brought up each autumn to be    
renewed and then replaced in his        
subterranean  abode47#gj7    7,m#ah7 ,if
 persons of fastidious taste should     
object that the ,greeks never  could    
have conceived ,demeter and ,persephone 
to be embodied in the form of  pigs1 it 
may be answered that in the cave of     
,phigalia in ,arcadia the ,black        
,demeter was portrayed with the head and
 mane of a horse on the body of a       
woman47#ga7 ,between the portrait of a  
goddess as a pig1 and the portrait of   
her as a woman with a horse's head1     
there is little to choose in respect  of
 barbarism4 ,the legend told of the     
,phigalian ,demeter indicates that the  
horse was one of the animal forms       
assumed in ancient ,greece1 as in modern
  ,europe17#gb7 by the corn-spirit4 ,it 
was said that in her search for her     
daughter1 ,demeter assumed the form of a
 mare to escape the addresses of        
,poseidon1 and that1 offended at his    
importunity1 she withdrew in dudgeon  to

 a cave not far from ,phigalia in the   
highlands of ,western ,arcadia4 ,the    
very cavern1 now turned into a little   
,christian chapel with its holy         
pictures1 is still shewn to the curious 
traveller far down the side of  that    
profound ravine through which the       
brawling ,neda winds under  overhanging 
woods to the sea4 ,there1 robed in      
black1 she tarried so long  that the    
fruits of the earth were perishing1 and 
mankind would have died  of famine if   
,pan had not soothed the angry goddess  
and persuaded her to  quit the cave4 ,in
 memory of this event1 the ,phigalians  
set up an image of  the ,black ,demeter 
in the cave2 it represented a woman     
dressed in a long  robe1 with the head  
and mane of a horse47#gc7 ,the ,black   
,demeter1 in whose  absence the fruits  
of the earth perish1 is plainly a       
mythical expression  for the bare wintry
 earth stripped of its summer mantle of 
green4           #c4 ,attis1 ,adonis1   
and the ,pig4      7,m#ai7 ,passing now 

to ,attis and ,adonis1 we may note a few
 facts which seem  to shew that these   
deities of vegetation had also1 like    
other deities of  the same class1 their 
animal embodiments4 ,the worshippers of 
,attis  abstained from eating the flesh 
of swine47#gd7 ,this appears to indicate
  that the pig was regarded as an       
embodiment of ,attis4 ,and the legend   
that  ,attis was killed by a boar7#ge7  
points in the same direction4 ,for after
 the  examples of the goat ,dionysus and
 the pig ,demeter it may almost be laid 
down as a rule that an animal which is  
said to have injured a god was          
originally the god himself4 ,perhaps the
 cry of 8,hyes ,attes6 ,hyes            
,attes607#gf7 which was raised by the   
worshippers of ,attis1 may be neither   
more nor less than 8,pig ,attis6 ,pig   
,attis60--hyes being possibly a         
,phrygian form of the ,greek hs1 8a     
pig407#gg7    7,m#bj7 ,in regard to     
,adonis1 his connexion with the boar was
 not always  explained by the story that

 he had been killed by the animal47#gh7 
,according to another story1 a boar rent
 with his tusk the bark of the tree  in 
which the infant ,adonis was born47#gi7 
,according to yet another story1  he    
perished at the hands of ,hephaestus on 
,mount ,lebanon while he was  hunting   
wild boars47#hj7 ,these variations in   
the legend serve to shew that1  while   
the connexion of the boar with ,adonis  
was certain1 the reason of the          
connexion was not understood1 and that  
consequently different stories were     
devised to explain it4 ,certainly the   
pig ranked as a sacred animal among  the
 ,syrians4 ,at the great religious      
metropolis of ,hierapolis on the        
,euphrates pigs were neither sacrificed 
nor eaten1 and if a man touched a  pig  
he was unclean for the rest of the day4 
,some people said this was  because the 
pigs were unclean2 others said it was   
because the pigs were  sacred47#ha7     
,this difference of opinion points to a 
hazy state of religious  thought in     

which the ideas of sanctity and         
uncleanness are not yet sharply         
distinguished1 both being blent in a    
sort of vaporous solution to which we   
give the name of taboo4 ,it is quite    
consistent with this that the pig       
should have been held to be an          
embodiment of the divine ,adonis1 and   
the  analogies of ,dionysus and ,demeter
 make it probable that the story of the 
hostility of the animal to the god was  
only a late misapprehension of the  old 
view of the god as embodied in a pig4   
,the rule that pigs were not  sacrificed
 or eaten by worshippers of ,attis and  
presumably of ,adonis1 does  not exclude
 the possibility that in these rituals  
the pig was slain on  solemn occasions  
as a representative of the god and      
consumed sacramentally  by the          
worshippers4 ,indeed1 the sacramental   
killing and eating of an  animal implies
 that the animal is sacred1 and that1 as
 a general rule1 it  is spared47#hb7    
7,m#ba7 ,the attitude of the ,jews to   

the pig was as ambiguous as that of the 
heathen ,syrians towards the same       
animal4 ,the ,greeks could not decide   
whether the ,jews worshipped swine or   
abominated them47#hc7 ,on the one hand  
they might not eat swine2 but on the    
other hand they might not kill them4    
,and if the former rule speaks for the  
uncleanness1 the latter speaks still    
more strongly for the sanctity of the   
animal4 ,for whereas both rules may1    
and one rule must1 be explained on the  
supposition that the pig was  sacred2   
neither rule must1 and one rule cannot1 
be explained on the  supposition that   
the pig was unclean4 ,if1 therefore1 we 
prefer the former  supposition1 we must 
conclude that1 originally at least1 the 
pig was  revered rather than abhorred by
 the ,israelites4 ,we are confirmed in  
this  opinion by observing that down to 
the time of ,isaiah some of the ,jews   
used  to meet secretly in gardens to eat
 the flesh of swine and mice as a       
religious rite47#hd7 ,doubtless this was

 a very ancient ceremony1 dating  from a
 time when both the pig and the mouse   
were venerated as divine1 and  when     
their flesh was partaken of             
sacramentally on rare and solemn        
occasions as the body and blood of gods4
 ,and in general it may be said  that   
all so-called unclean animals were      
originally sacred2 the reason for  not  
eating them was that they were divine4  
#d4 ,osiris1 the ,pig and the ,bull4    
7,m#bb7 ,in ancient ,egypt1 within      
historical times1 the pig occupied the  
same  dubious position as in ,syria and 
,palestine1 though at first sight its   
uncleanness is more prominent than its  
sanctity4 ,the ,egyptians are  generally
 said by ,greek writers to have abhorred
 the pig as a foul and  loathsome       
animal47#he7 ,if a man so much as       
touched a pig in passing1 he  stepped   
into the river with all his clothes on1 
to wash off the taint47#hf7  ,to drink  
pig's milk was believed to cause leprosy
 to the drinker47#hg7  ,swineherds1     

though natives of ,egypt1 were forbidden
 to enter any temple1  and they were the
 only men who were thus excluded4 ,no   
one would give his  daughter in marriage
 to a swineherd1 or marry a swineherd's 
daughter2 the  swineherds married among 
themselves47#hh7 ,yet once a year the   
,egyptians  sacrificed pigs to the moon 
and to ,osiris1 and not only sacrificed 
them1  but ate of their flesh1 though on
 any other day of the year they would   
neither sacrifice them nor taste of     
their flesh4 ,those who were too poor   
to offer a pig on this day baked cakes  
of dough1 and offered them              
instead47#hi7 ,this can hardly be       
explained except by the supposition that
  the pig was a sacred animal which was 
eaten sacramentally by his  worshippers 
once a year4    7,m#bc7 ,the view that  
in ,egypt the pig was sacred is borne   
out by the very  facts which1 to        
moderns1 might seem to prove the        
contrary4 ,thus the  ,egyptians thought1
 as we have seen1 that to drink pig's   

milk produced  leprosy4 ,but exactly    
analogous views are held by savages     
about the animals  and plants which they
 deem most sacred4 ,thus in the island  
of ,wetar  7between ,new ,guinea and    
,celebes7 people believe themselves to  
be variously  descended from wild pigs1 
serpents1 crocodiles1 turtles1 dogs1 and
 eels2 a  man may not eat an animal of  
the kind from which he is descended2 if 
he  does so1 he will become a leper1 and
 go mad47#ij7 ,amongst the ,omaha       
,indians  of ,north ,america men whose  
totem is the elk1 believe that if they  
ate the  flesh of the male elk they     
would break out in boils and white spots
 in  different parts of their           
bodies47#ia7 ,in the same tribe men     
whose totem is  the red maize1 think    
that if they ate red maize they would   
have running  sores all round their     
mouths47#ib7 ,the ,bush negroes of      
,surinam1 who  practise totemism1       
believe that if they ate the capia 7an  
animal like a  pig7 it would give them  

leprosy27#ic7 perhaps the capia is one  
of their  totems4 ,the ,syrians1 in     
antiquity1 who esteemed fish sacred1    
thought that  if they ate fish their    
bodies would break out in ulcers1 and   
their feet  and stomach would swell     
up47#id7 ,the ,nyanja-speaking tribes of
 ,central  ,angoniland1 in ,british     
,central ,africa1 believe that if a     
person eats his  totemic animal1 his    
body will break out in spots4 ,the cure 
for this  eruption of the skin is to    
bathe the body in a decoction made from 
the  bone of the animal1 the eating of  
which caused the malady47#ie7 ,the      
,wagogo  of ,german ,east ,africa       
imagine that the sin of eating the      
totemic animal is  visited not on the   
sinner himself but on his innocent      
kinsfolk4 ,thus when  they see a child  
with a scald head1 they say at once that
 its father has  been eating his totem  
and that is why the poor child has scabs
 on its  pate47#if7 ,among the ,wahehe1 
another tribe of ,german ,east ,africa1 

a man who  suffers from scab or other   
skin disease will often set the trouble 
down to  his having unwittingly partaken
 of his totemic animal47#ig7 ,similarly 
among  the ,waheia1 another tribe of the
 same region1 if a man kills or eats the
  totemic animal of his clan1 he is     
supposed to suffer from an eruption of  
the skin47#ih7 ,in like manner the      
,bantu tribes of ,kavirondo1 in ,central
  ,africa1 hold that the eating of the  
totem produces a severe cutaneous       
eruption1 which can however be cured by 
mixing an extract of certain herbs  with
 the fat of a black ox and rubbing the  
body of the sufferer all over  with the 
mixture47#ii7 ,the ,chasas of ,orissa   
believe that if they were to  injure    
their totemic animal1 they would be     
attacked by leprosy and their  line     
would die out47#ajj7 ,these examples    
prove that the eating of a sacred       
animal is often believed to produce     
leprosy or other skin-diseases2 so  far1
 therefore1 they support the view that  

the pig must have been sacred  in       
,egypt1 since the effect of drinking its
 milk was believed to be  leprosy4 ,such
 fancies may perhaps have been sometimes
 suggested by the  observation that the 
eating of semi-putrid flesh1 to which   
some savages  are addicted1 is apt to be
 followed by eruptions on the skin4     
,indeed1 many  modern authorities       
attribute leprosy to this cause1        
particularly to the  eating of half     
rotten fish47#aja7 ,it seems not        
impossible that the  abhorrence which   
the ,hebrews entertained of leprosy1 and
 the pains which  they took to seclude  
lepers from the community1 may have been
 based on  religious as well as on      
purely sanitary grounds2 they may have  
imagined  that the disfigurement of the 
sufferers was a penalty which they had  
incurred by some infraction of taboo4   
,certainly we read in the ,old          
,testament of cases of leprosy which the
 historian regarded as the direct       
consequence of sin47#ajb7    7,m#bd7    

,again1 the rule that1 after touching a 
pig1 a man had to wash  himself and his 
clothes1 also favours the view of the   
sanctity of the pig4  ,for it is a      
common belief that the effect of contact
 with a sacred object  must be removed1 
by washing or otherwise1 before a man is
 free to mingle  with his fellows4 ,thus
 the ,jews wash their hands after       
reading the sacred  scriptures4 ,before 
coming forth from the tabernacle after  
the  sin-offering1 the high priest had  
to wash himself1 and put off the        
garments which he had worn in the holy  
place47#ajc7 ,it was a rule of ,greek   
ritual that1 in offering an expiatory   
sacrifice1 the sacrificer should not    
touch the sacrifice1 and that1 after the
 offering was made1 he must wash  his   
body and his clothes in a river or      
spring before he could enter a city  or 
his own house47#ajd7 ,the ,parjas1 a    
small tribe of the ,central ,provinces  
in ,india1 are divided into clans which 
have for their respective totems  the   

tiger1 the tortoise1 the goat1 a big    
lizard1 a dove1 and so on4 ,if a  man   
accidentally kills his totemic animal1  
8the earthen cooking-pots of  his       
household are thrown away1 the clothes  
are washed1 and the house is  purified  
with water in which the bark of the     
mango or jamun tree  7,eugenia          
jambolana7 has been steeped4 ,this is in
 sign of mourning1 as it  is thought    
that such an act will bring             
misfortune407#aje7 ,if a ,chadwar of    
the ,central ,provinces who has the pig 
for his totem should even see a pig     
killed by somebody else1 he will throw  
away the household crockery and  clean  
the house as if on the death of a member
 of his family47#ajf7 ,the  ,polynesians
 felt strongly the need of ridding      
themselves of the sacred  contagion1 if 
it may be so called1 which they caught  
by touching sacred  objects4 ,various   
ceremonies were performed for the       
purpose of removing  this contagion4 ,we
 have seen1 for example1 how in ,tonga a

 man who happened  to touch a sacred    
chief1 or anything personally belonging 
to him1 had to  perform a certain       
ceremony before he could feed himself   
with his hands2  otherwise it was       
believed that he would swell up and die1
 or at least be  afflicted with scrofula
 or some other disease47#ajg7 ,we have  
seen1 too1  what fatal effects are      
supposed to follow1 and do actually     
follow1 from  contact with a sacred     
object in ,new ,zealand47#ajh7 ,in      
short1 primitive man  believes that what
 is sacred is dangerous2 it is pervaded 
by a sort of  electrical sanctity which 
communicates a shock to1 even if it does
 not  kill1 whatever comes in contact   
with it4 ,hence the savage is unwilling 
to  touch or even to see that which he  
deems peculiarly holy4 ,thus ,bechuanas1
  of the ,crocodile clan1 think it      
8hateful and unlucky0 to meet or see a  
crocodile2 the sight is thought to cause
 inflammation of the eyes4 ,yet the     
crocodile is their most sacred object2  

they call it their father1 swear by  it1
 and celebrate it in their              
festivals47#aji7 ,the goat is the sacred
  animal of the ,madenassana ,bushmen2  
yet 8to look upon it would be to render 
the man for the time impure1 as well as 
to cause him undefined                  
uneasiness407#aaj7 ,the ,elk clan1 among
 the ,omaha ,indians1 believe that even 
to touch the male elk would be followed 
by an eruption of boils and white  spots
 on the body47#aaa7 ,members of the     
,reptile clan in the same tribe  think  
that if one of them touches or smells a 
snake1 it will make his hair            
white47#aab7 ,in ,samoa people whose god
 was a butterfly believed that if  they 
caught a butterfly it would strike them 
dead47#aac7 ,again1 in ,samoa  the      
reddish-seared leaves of the banana-tree
 were commonly used as plates  for      
handing food2 but if any member of the  
,wild ,pigeon family had used  banana   
leaves for this purpose1 it was supposed
 that he would suffer from  rheumatic   

swellings or an eruption all over the   
body like  chicken-pox47#aad7 ,the ,mori
 clan of the ,bhils in ,central ,india  
worship the  peacock as their totem and 
make offerings of grain to it2 yet      
members of  the clan believe that were  
they even to set foot on the tracks of a
  peacock they would afterwards suffer  
from some disease1 and if a woman  sees 
a peacock she must veil her face and    
look away47#aae7 ,thus the  primitive   
mind seems to conceive of holiness as a 
sort of dangerous virus1  which a       
prudent man will shun as far as         
possible1 and of which1 if he  should   
chance to be infected by it1 he will    
carefully disinfect himself by  some    
form of ceremonial purification4        
7,m#be7 ,in the light of these parallels
 the beliefs and customs of the         
,egyptians touching the pig are probably
 to be explained as based upon an       
opinion of the extreme sanctity rather  
than of the extreme uncleanness of  the 
animal2 or rather1 to put it more       

correctly1 they imply that the  animal  
was looked on1 not simply as a filthy   
and disgusting creature1 but  as a being
 endowed with high supernatural powers1 
and that as such it was  regarded with  
that primitive sentiment of religious   
awe and fear in which  the feelings of  
reverence and abhorrence are almost     
equally blended4 ,the  ancients         
themselves seem to have been aware that 
there was another side to  the horror   
with which swine seemed to inspire the  
,egyptians4 ,for the ,greek  astronomer 
and mathematician ,eudoxus1 who resided 
fourteen months in ,egypt  and conversed
 with the priests17#aaf7 was of opinion 
that the ,egyptians  spared the pig1 not
 out of abhorrence1 but from a regard to
 its utility in  agriculture2 for1      
according to him1 when the ,nile had    
subsided1 herds of  swine were turned   
loose over the fields to tread the seed 
down into the  moist earth47#aag7 ,but  
when a being is thus the object of mixed
 and  implicitly contradictory feelings1

 he may be said to occupy a position of 
unstable equilibrium4 ,in course of time
 one of the contradictory feelings  is  
likely to prevail over the other1 and   
according as the feeling which  finally 
predominates is that of reverence or    
abhorrence1 the being who is  the object
 of it will rise into a god or sink into
 a devil4 ,the latter1 on  the whole1   
was the fate of the pig in ,egypt4 ,for 
in historical times the  fear and horror
 of the pig seem certainly to have      
outweighed the reverence  and worship of
 which he may once have been the object1
 and of which1 even  in his fallen      
state1 he never quite lost trace4 ,he   
came to be looked on as  an embodiment  
of ,set or ,typhon1 the ,egyptian devil 
and enemy of ,osiris4  ,for it was in   
the shape of a black pig that ,typhon   
injured the eye of the  god ,horus1 who 
burned him and instituted the sacrifice 
of the pig1 the  sun-god ,ra having     
declared the beast abominable47#aah7    
,again1 the story  that ,typhon was     

hunting a boar when he discovered and   
mangled the body of  ,osiris1 and that  
this was the reason why pigs were       
sacrificed once a  year17#aai7 is       
clearly a modernised version of an older
 story that ,osiris1  like ,adonis and  
,attis1 was slain or mangled by a boar1 
or by ,typhon in the  form of a boar4   
,thus1 the annual sacrifice of a pig to 
,osiris might  naturally be interpreted 
as vengeance inflicted on the hostile   
animal that  had slain or mangled the   
god4 ,but1 in the first place1 when an  
animal is  thus killed as a solemn      
sacrifice once and once only in the     
year1 it  generally or always means that
 the animal is divine1 that he is spared
 and  respected the rest of the year as 
a god and slain1 when he is slain1 also 
in the character of a god47#abj7 ,in the
 second place1 the examples of          
,dionysus and ,demeter1 if not of ,attis
 and ,adonis1 have taught us that the   
animal which is sacrificed to a god on  
the ground that he is the god's  enemy  

may have been1 and probably was1        
originally the god himself4  ,therefore1
 the annual sacrifice of a pig to       
,osiris1 coupled with the  alleged      
hostility of the animal to the god1     
tends to shew1 first1 that  originally  
the pig was a god1 and1 second1 that he 
was ,osiris4 ,at a later  age1 when     
,osiris became anthropomorphic and his  
original relation to the  pig had been  
forgotten1 the animal was first         
distinguished from him1 and  afterwards 
opposed as an enemy to him by           
mythologists who could think of  no     
reason for killing a beast in connexion 
with the worship of a god  except that  
the beast was the god's enemy2 or1 as   
,plutarch puts it1 not  that which is   
dear to the gods1 but that which is the 
contrary1 is fit to  be                 
sacrificed47#aba7 ,at this later stage  
the havoc which a wild boar  notoriously
 makes amongst the corn would supply a  
plausible reason for  regarding him as  
the foe of the corn-spirit1 though      

originally1 if ,i am  right1 the very   
freedom with which the boar ranged at   
will through the  corn led people to    
identify him with the corn-spirit1 to   
whom he was  afterwards opposed as an   
enemy4    7,m#bf7 ,as the depredations  
committed by wild swine on the growing  
crops in  countries where these         
creatures abound are necessarily        
unfamiliar to most  ,english readers1 it
 may be well to illustrate them by      
examples4 ,thus1 for  instance1 in      
,palestine the wild boar 8is eagerly    
chased and destroyed on  account of the 
frightful ravages it makes among the    
crops4 ,not only does  it devour any    
fruits within reach1 but in a single    
night a party of wild  boars will uproot
 a whole field1 and destroy the         
husbandman's hopes for  the year4 ,the  
places they love to frequent are the    
reedy marshes and  thickets by rivers   
and lakes1 and they swarm in the        
thickets all along the  banks of the    
,jordan from ,jericho to the ,lake of   

,gennesaret4 ,from these  fastnesses1   
whence neither dog nor man can dislodge 
them1 they make  nightly forays upon the
 corn-fields and root-crops of the      
villagers1  returning at daybreak to    
their coverts4 ,about ,jericho they are 
especially  destructive1 and when the   
barley crop is ripening1 the husbandmen 
have to  keep nightly watch to drive    
them away4 ,their presence can always be
  detected by the crashing noise they   
make in forcing their way through the   
thickets1 when the men fire1 guided by  
the sound407#abb7 ,wild pigs are the    
special enemies of the crops in ,south  
,africa2 the fences constructed by  the 
,zulus round their gardens are mainly   
designed to guard against the           
devastating depredations of these       
brutes1 though porcupines1 baboons1     
hippopotamuses1 and elephants also make 
havoc of the ripe grain4 ,sometimes     
small huts are erected on platforms in  
the gardens1 and in these huts  watchers
 are set to scare away the nocturnal    

invaders47#abc7 ,so in ,british         
,central ,africa sentinels are posted   
day and night in huts raised on         
platforms to protect the maize fields   
from the inroads of baboons and of  wild
 pigs1 which are still more destructive 
than the baboons1 for they  grub up the 
plants as well as devour the grain2 and 
the watchers drum  continually on any   
metal they have at hand to keep the     
marauders at  bay47#abd7 ,in the island 
of ,nias whole fields are sometimes     
trampled down  by these pests between   
sunset and sunrise4 ,often the stillness
 of the  serene equatorial night is     
broken by the strident cries of the     
watchers of  the fields2 the sound goes 
echoing through the wooded valleys for a
 long  time1 and here and there a dull  
grunting tells that the efforts of the  
sentinels have not been in vain47#abe7  
,in ,northern ,luzon1 of the ,philippine
  ,archipelago1 the rice-fields are     
similarly exposed to the depredations of
  wild hogs1 and watchers remain on     

guard day and night in outlooks1        
sometimes in commodious structures of   
stone erected for the purpose1 who  burn
 fires at night to frighten the animals 
away47#abf7 ,at the beginning of  their 
annual agricultural labours the ,banars 
of ,cambodia pray to ,yang-,seri  that  
he would be pleased to give them plenty 
of rice and to prevent the  wild boars  
from eating it up47#abg7 ,in ,gayo-land1
 a district of ,sumatra1  the worst     
enemies of the rice crops are wild swine
 and field mice2 the  whole of the      
harvest is sometimes destroyed by their 
inroads47#abh7 ,among  the ,kai of      
,german ,new ,guinea people who are     
engaged in the labour of the  fields    
will on no account eat pork4 ,the reason
 is that pigs1 both wild and  tame1 are 
the most dangerous foes of the crops2   
therefore it seems clear  to the mind of
 the ,kai that if a field labourer were 
to eat pork1 the  flesh of the dead pig 
in his stomach would attract the living 
pigs into  the field47#abi7 ,perhaps    

this superstition1 based on the         
principle of  sympathetic magic1 may    
explain the aversion to pork which was  
entertained  by some of the agricultural
 peoples of the ,eastern ,mediterranean 
in  antiquity4    7,m#bg7 ,to people    
thus familiarised with the ravages of   
wild boars among the  ripe crops the    
idea might naturally present itself that
 the animal is  either the enemy of the 
corn-god or perhaps the corn-god himself
 come in  person to enjoy his own       
despite all the efforts of mankind to   
keep him out  of his rights4 ,hence we  
can understand how an agricultural      
people like the  ancient ,egyptians may 
have identified the wild boar either    
with their  corn-god ,osiris or with his
 enemy ,typhon4 ,the view which         
identifies the  pig with ,osiris derives
 not a little support from the sacrifice
 of pigs to  him on the very day on     
which1 according to tradition1 ,osiris  
himself was  killed27#acj7 for thus the 
killing of the pig was the annual       

representation  of the killing of       
,osiris1 just as the throwing of the    
pigs into the  caverns at the           
,thesmophoria was an annual             
representation of the descent of        
,persephone into the lower world2 and   
both customs are parallel to the        
,european practice of killing a goat1   
cock1 and so forth1 at harvest as a     
representative of the corn-spirit4      
7,m#bh7 ,again1 the theory that the pig1
 originally ,osiris himself1  afterwards
 came to be regarded as an embodiment of
 his enemy ,typhon1 is  supported by the
 similar relation of red-haired men and 
red oxen to  ,typhon4 ,for in regard to 
the red-haired men who were burned and  
whose  ashes were scattered with        
winnowing-fans1 we have seen fair       
grounds for  believing that originally1 
like the red-haired puppies killed at   
,rome in  spring1 they were             
representatives of the corn-spirit      
himself1 that is1 of  ,osiris1 and were 
slain for the express purpose of making 

the corn turn red  or golden47#aca7 ,yet
 at a later time these men were         
explained to be  representatives1 not of
 ,osiris1 but of his enemy              
,typhon17#acb7 and the  killing of them 
was regarded as an act of vengeance     
inflicted on the enemy  of the god4     
,similarly1 the red oxen sacrificed by  
the ,egyptians were said  to be offered 
on the ground of their resemblance to   
,typhon27#acc7 though it  is more likely
 that originally they were slain on the 
ground of their  resemblance to the     
corn-spirit ,osiris4 ,we have seen that 
the ox is a  common representative of   
the corn-spirit and is slain as such on 
the  harvest-field4    7,m#bi7 ,osiris  
was regularly identified with the bull  
,apis of ,memphis and  the bull ,mnevis 
of ,heliopolis47#acd7 ,but it is hard to
 say whether these  bulls were          
embodiments of him as the corn-spirit1  
as the red oxen appear  to have been1 or
 whether they were not in origin        
entirely distinct deities  who came to  

be fused with ,osiris at a later time4  
,the universality of the  worship of    
these two bulls7#ace7 seems to put them 
on a different footing  from the        
ordinary sacred animals whose worships  
were purely local4 ,hence  if the latter
 were evolved from totems1 as they may  
have been1 some other  origin would have
 to be found for the worship of ,apis   
and ,mnevis4 ,if these  bulls were not  
originally embodiments of the corn-god  
,osiris1 they may  possibly be          
descendants of the sacred cattle        
worshipped by a pastoral  people47#acf7 
,if this were so1 ancient ,egypt would  
exhibit a stratification  of three great
 types of religion or superstition      
corresponding to three  great stages of 
society4 ,totemism1 which may be roughly
 described as a  species of             
superstitious respect paid to wild      
animals and plants by many  tribes in   
the hunting stage of society1 would be  
represented by the  worship of the local
 sacred animals2 the worship of cattle1 

which belongs  to society in the        
pastoral stage1 would be represented by 
the cults of  ,apis and ,mnevis2 and the
 worship of cultivated plants1 which is 
peculiar  to society in the agricultural
 stage1 would be represented by the     
religion  of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,the    
,egyptian reverence for cows1 which were
 never  killed17#acg7 might belong      
either to the second or the third of    
these  stages4 ,the consecration of cows
 to ,isis1 who was portrayed with cow's 
horns7#ach7 and may have been supposed  
to be incarnate in the animals1  would  
indicate that they1 like the red oxen1  
were embodiments of the  corn-spirit4   
,however1 this identification of ,isis  
with the cow1 like that  of ,osiris with
 the bulls ,apis and ,mnevis1 may be    
only an effect of  syncretism4 ,but     
whatever the original relation of ,apis 
to ,osiris may have  been1 there is one 
fact about the former which ought not to
 be passed over  in a disquisition on   
the custom of killing a god4 ,although  

the bull ,apis  was worshipped as a god 
with much pomp and profound reverence1  
he was not  suffered to live beyond a   
certain length of time which was        
prescribed by  the sacred books1 and on 
the expiry of which he was drowned in a 
holy  spring47#aci7 ,the limit1         
according to ,plutarch1 was twenty-five 
years27#adj7  but it cannot always have 
been enforced1 for the tombs of the     
,apis bulls  have been discovered in    
modern times1 and from the inscriptions 
on them it  appears that in the         
twenty-second dynasty two of the holy   
steers lived  more than twenty-six      
years47#ada7    7,m#cj7 ,to prevent     
misunderstandings it may be well to add 
that what ,i have  just said as to the  
stratification of three great types of  
religion or  superstition corresponding 
to three great types of society is not  
meant to  sketch1 even in outline1 the  
evolution of religion as a whole4 ,i by 
no  means wish to suggest that the      
reverence for wild animals and plants1  

the  reverence for domestic cattle1 and 
the reverence for cultivated plants are 
the only forms of religion or           
superstition which prevail at the       
corresponding stages of social          
development2 all that ,i desire to      
convey is  that they are characteristic 
of these stages respectively4 ,the      
elements  which make up any religious   
system are far too numerous and their   
interaction far too complex to be       
adequately summed up in a few simple    
formulas4 ,to mention only a single     
factor of which ,i have taken no account
  in indicating roughly a certain       
correspondence between the strata of    
religion and of society1 the fear of the
 spirits of the dead appears to  have   
been one of the most powerful factors1  
perhaps1 indeed1 the most  powerful of  
all1 in shaping the course of religious 
evolution at every  stage of social     
development from the lowest to the      
highest2 and for that  very reason it is
 not specially characteristic of any one

 form of society4  ,and the three types 
of religion or superstition which ,i    
have selected as  characteristic of     
three stages of society are far from    
being strictly  limited each to its     
corresponding step in the social ladder4
 ,for example1  although totemism1 or a 
particular species of reverence paid by 
groups of  men to wild animals and      
plants1 probably always originated in   
the hunting  stage of society1 it has by
 no means been confined to that         
primitive phase  of human development   
but has often survived not only into the
 pastoral but  into the agricultural    
stage1 as we may see for example by the 
case of many  tribes in ,africa1 ,india1
 and ,america2 and it seems likely that 
a similar  overlapping of the various   
strata takes place in every instance4   
,in short1  we cannot really dissect the
 history of mankind as it were with a   
knife  into a series of neat sections   
each sharply marked off from all the    
rest  by a texture and colour of its    

own2 we may indeed do so theoretically  
for  the convenience of exposition1 but 
practically the textures interlace1 the 
colours melt and run into each other by 
insensible gradations that defy  the    
edge of the finest instrument of        
analysis which we can apply to them4    
,it is a mere truism to say that the    
abstract generalisations of science  can
 never adequately comprehend all the    
particulars of concrete reality4  ,the  
facts of nature will always burst the   
narrow bonds of human theories4         
7,m#ca7 ,before quitting this part of   
our subject it may be well to           
illustrate by one or two examples the   
reverence which primitive pastoral      
tribes pay to their cattle1 since1 as ,i
 have just indicated1 the worship  of   
sacred bulls by the ancient ,egyptians1 
like the modern ,hindoo worship  of     
cows1 may very well have been directly  
derived from a similar respect  paid by 
their remote ancestors to their cattle4 
,a good instance is  supplied by the    

,dinka1 a large cattle-breeding tribe1  
or rather nation1 of  the ,white ,nile4 
8,every idea and thought of the ,dinka10
 says ,schweinfurth1  8is how to acquire
 and maintain cattle3 a kind of         
reverence would seem to  be paid to     
them2 even their offal is considered of 
high importance2 the  dung1 which is    
burnt to ashes for sleeping in and for  
smearing their  persons1 and the urine1 
which is used for washing and as a      
substitute for  salt1 are their daily   
requisites4 ,it must be owned that it is
 hard to  reconcile this latter usage   
with our ideas of cleanliness4 ,a cow is
 never  slaughtered1 but when sick it is
 segregated from the rest1 and carefully
  tended in the large huts built for the
 purpose4 ,only those that die          
naturally or by an accident are used as 
food4 ,all this1 which exists among     
most of the pastoral tribes of ,africa1 
may perchance appear to be a  lingering 
remnant of an exploded cattle-worship2  
but ,i may draw attention  to the fact  

that the ,dinka are by no means         
disinclined to partake of any  feast of 
their flesh1 provided that the          
slaughtered animal was not their  own   
property4 ,it is thus more the delight  
of actual possession1 than any          
superstitious estimate1 that makes the  
cow to them an object of reverence4     
,indescribable is the grief when either 
death or rapine has robbed a ,dinka  of 
his cattle4 ,he is prepared to redeem   
their loss by the heaviest  sacrifices1 
for they are dearer to him than wife or 
child4 ,a dead cow is  not1 however1    
wantonly buried2 the negro is not       
sentimental enough for  that2 such an   
occurrence is soon bruited abroad1 and  
the neighbours  institute a carousal1   
which is quite an epoch in their        
monotonous life4  ,the bereaved owner   
himself is1 however1 too much afflicted 
at the loss to  be able to touch a      
morsel of the carcass of his departed   
beast4 ,not  unfrequently in their      
sorrow the ,dinka remain for days silent

 and  abstracted1 as though their       
trouble were too heavy for them to      
bear407#adb7  ,a rich ,dinka will       
sometimes keep a favourite ox and treat 
it with such  marks of respect that an  
observer has compared the animal to the 
,apis of  the ancient ,egyptians4 8,here
 and there10 we are told1 8beside the   
hut of a  wealthy negro is set up a     
great withered tree4 ,from its boughs   
hang  vessels containing food and       
perhaps trophies of war2 to its trunk is
  fastened the great drum 7,noqara71    
which summons to war or to the dance4   
,to this tree1 separated from the rest  
of the cattle1 is tethered a great  fat 
ox4 ,it is of a white colour passing    
into a slaty grey on the shoulders  and 
legs3 its long horns are artificially   
bent to opposite sides and  adorned with
 bunches of hair3 the tuft of the tail  
is cut off4 ,this is the  makwi1 the    
,apis of the negro4 ,his master1 who has
 singled him out from  his youth for his
 colour and certain marks1 has cherished

 and reared him  in order that he may   
one day be his pride in the eyes of the 
village4 ,he  has gelded him1 adorned   
him1 trained him to walk at the head of 
the herd1  to dance1 and to fight4 ,his 
makwi is always an object of his        
tenderest  attention2 he never fails to 
bring him a bundle of the finest herbs2 
if he  can procure a bell1 he hangs it  
round the animal's neck2 and at evening1
  if he has milk or meria enough for    
guests1 the drum is beaten to summon    
the youth to come and dance round the   
deified ox407#adc7    7,m#cb7 ,again1   
speaking of the ,nuehr1 another pastoral
 tribe of the ,upper  ,nile1 a traveller
 tells us that 8as among the ,dinka1 so 
among the  ,nuehr-negroes the cattle    
enjoy a respect1 indeed we may say a    
veneration1  which reminds us of the    
animal worship of the ancient           
,egyptians1  especially of that of the  
holy steer ,apis1 though the respect may
 be  grounded on the simple fact that   
cattle are the only possession of these 

negroes4 ,the largest and handsomest    
bull is the leader of the herd2 he is   
decked with bunches of hair and small   
bells1 marked out from the rest in      
every way1 and regarded as the guardian 
genius of the herd as well as of  the   
family4 ,his loss is the greatest       
misfortune that can befall his owner4   
,at night his master drives the animal  
round the herd1 couched about the  smoky
 fire1 and sings of his beauty and      
courage1 while the bull signifies  his  
contentment by a complacent lowing4 ,to 
him his master every morning  commits   
the herd1 in order that he may guide    
them to the best pastures and  guard    
them from danger2 in him he reveres his 
ideal of all that is  beautiful and     
strong2 nay he designates him by the    
same name which he  applies to his own  
dim conception of a ,supreme ,being1    
,nyeledit1 and to  the thunder407#add7  
#e4 ,virbius and the ,horse4            
7,m#cc7 ,we are now in a position to    
hazard a conjecture as to the meaning of

  the tradition that ,virbius1 the first
 of the divine ,kings of the ,wood at   
,aricia1 had been killed in the         
character of ,hippolytus by             
horses47#ade7  ,having found1 first1    
that spirits of the corn are not        
infrequently  represented in the form of
 horses27#adf7 and1 second1 that the    
animal which  in later legends is said  
to have injured the god was sometimes   
originally  the god himself1 we may     
conjecture that the horses by which     
,virbius or  ,hippolytus was said to    
have been slain were really embodiments 
of him as a  deity of vegetation4 ,the  
myth that he had been killed by horses  
was  probably invented to explain       
certain features in his worship1 amongst
  others the custom of excluding horses 
from his sacred grove4 ,for myth        
changes while custom remains constant2  
men continue to do what their  fathers  
did before them1 though the reasons on  
which their fathers acted  have been    
long forgotten4 ,the history of religion

 is a long attempt to  reconcile old    
custom with new reason1 to find a sound 
theory for an absurd  practice4 ,in the 
case before us we may be sure that the  
myth is more  modern than the custom and
 by no means represents the original    
reason for  excluding horses from the   
grove4 ,from their exclusion it might be
 inferred  that horses could not be the 
sacred animals or embodiments of the god
 of  the grove4 ,but the inference would
 be rash4 ,the goat was at one time a   
sacred animal or embodiment of ,athena1 
as may be inferred from the  practice of
 representing the goddess clad in a     
goat-skin 7aegis74 ,yet  the goat was   
neither sacrificed to her as a rule1 nor
 allowed to enter her  great sanctuary1 
the ,acropolis at ,athens4 ,the reason  
alleged for this was  that the goat     
injured the olive1 the sacred tree of   
,athena47#adg7 ,so far1  therefore1 the 
relation of the goat of ,athena is      
parallel to the relation  of the horse  
to ,virbius1 both animals being excluded

 from the sanctuary on  the ground of   
injury done by them to the god4 ,but    
from ,varro we learn that  there was an 
exception to the rule which excluded the
 goat from the  ,acropolis4 ,once a     
year1 he says1 the goat was driven on to
 the ,acropolis  for a necessary        
sacrifice47#adh7 ,now1 as has been      
remarked before1 when an  animal is     
sacrificed once and once only in the    
year1 it is probably slain1  not as a   
victim offered to the god1 but as a     
representative of the god  himself4     
,therefore we may infer that if a goat  
was sacrificed on the  ,acropolis once a
 year1 it was sacrificed in the         
character of ,athena  herself27#adi7 and
 it may be conjectured that the skin of 
the sacrificed  animal was placed on the
 statue of the goddess and formed the   
aegis1  which would thus be renewed     
annually4 ,similarly at ,thebes in      
,egypt rams  were sacred and were not   
sacrificed4 ,but on one day in the year 
a ram was  killed1 and its skin was     

placed on the statue of the god         
,ammon47#aej7 ,now1  if we knew the     
ritual of the ,arician grove better1 we 
might find that the  rule of excluding  
horses from it1 like the rule of        
excluding goats from  the ,acropolis at 
,athens1 was subject to an annual       
exception1 a horse being  once a year   
taken into the grove and sacrificed as  
an embodiment of the  god               
,virbius47#aea7 ,by the usual           
misunderstanding the horse thus killed  
would come in time to be regarded as an 
enemy offered up in sacrifice to  the   
god whom he had injured1 like the pig   
which was sacrificed to ,demeter  and   
,osiris or the goat which was sacrificed
 to ,dionysus1 and possibly to  ,athena4
 ,it is so easy for a writer to record a
 rule without noticing an  exception    
that we need not wonder at finding the  
rule of the ,arician grove  recorded    
without any mention of an exception such
 as ,i suppose4 ,if we had  had only the
 statements of ,athenaeus and ,pliny1 we

 should have known only  the rule which 
forbade the sacrifice of goats to       
,athena and excluded them  from the     
,acropolis1 without being aware of the  
important exception which  the fortunate
 preservation of ,varro's work has      
revealed to us4    7,m#cd7 ,the         
conjecture that once a year a horse may 
have been sacrificed in  the ,arician   
grove as a representative of the deity  
of the grove derives  some support from 
the similar sacrifice of a horse which  
took place once a  year at ,rome4 ,on   
the fifteenth of ,october in each year a
 chariot-race was  run on the ,field of 
,mars4 ,stabbed with a spear1 the       
right-hand horse of  the victorious team
 was then sacrificed to ,mars for the   
purpose of  ensuring good crops1 and its
 head was cut off and adorned with a    
string of  loaves4 ,thereupon the       
inhabitants of two wards--the ,sacred   
,way and the  ,subura--contended with   
each other who should get the head4 ,if 
the people of  the ,sacred ,way got it1 

they fastened it to a wall of the king's
 house2 if  the people of the ,subura   
got it1 they fastened it to the         
,mamilian tower4  ,the horse's tail was 
cut off and carried to the king's house 
with such  speed that the blood dripped 
on the hearth of the house47#aeb7       
,further1 it  appears that the blood of 
the horse was caught and preserved till 
the  twenty-first of ,april1 when the   
,vestal virgins mixed it with the blood 
of  the unborn calves which had been    
sacrificed six days before4 ,the mixture
  was then distributed to shepherds1 and
 used by them for fumigating their      
flocks47#aec7    7,m#ce7 ,in this       
ceremony the decoration of the horse's  
head7#aed7 with a  string of loaves1 and
 the alleged object of the sacrifice1   
namely1 to  procure a good harvest1 seem
 to indicate that the horse was killed  
as one  of those animal representatives 
of the corn-spirit of which we have     
found  so many examples4 ,the custom of 
cutting off the horse's tail is like the

  ,african custom of cutting off the    
tails of the oxen and sacrificing them  
to obtain a good crop47#aee7 ,in both   
the ,roman and the ,african custom the  
animal apparently stands for the        
corn-spirit1 and its fructifying power  
is  supposed to reside especially in its
 tail4 ,the latter idea occurs1 as we   
have seen1 in ,european folk-lore47#aef7
 ,again1 the practice of fumigating  the
 cattle in spring with the blood of the 
horse may be compared with the  practice
 of giving the ,old ,wife1 the ,maiden1 
or the clyack sheaf as  fodder to the   
horses in spring or the cattle at       
,christmas1 and giving the  ,yule ,boar 
to the ploughing oxen or horses to eat  
in spring47#aeg7 ,all these  usages aim 
at ensuring the blessing of the         
corn-spirit on the homestead  and its   
inmates and storing it up for another   
year4    7,m#cf7 ,the ,roman sacrifice  
of the ,october horse1 as it was called1
 carries  us back to the early days when
 the ,subura1 afterwards a low and      

squalid  quarter of the great           
metropolis1 was still a separate        
village1 whose  inhabitants engaged in a
 friendly contest on the harvest-field  
with their  neighbours of ,rome1 then a 
little rural town4 ,the ,field of ,mars 
on which  the ceremony took place lay   
beside the ,tiber1 and formed part of   
the  king's domain down to the abolition
 of the monarchy4 ,for tradition ran    
that at the time when the last of the   
kings was driven from ,rome1 the corn   
stood ripe for the sickle on the crown  
lands beside the river2 but no one      
would eat the accursed grain and it was 
flung into the river in such heaps      
that1 the water being low with the      
summer heat1 it formed the nucleus of   
an island47#aeh7 ,the horse sacrifice   
was thus an old autumn custom observed  
upon the king's corn-fields at the end  
of the harvest4 ,the tail and blood  of 
the horse1 as the chief parts of the    
corn-spirit's representative1 were      
taken to the king's house and kept      

there2 just as in ,germany the          
harvest-cock is nailed on the gable or  
over the door of the farmhouse2 and  as 
the last sheaf1 in the form of the      
,maiden1 is carried home and kept  over 
the fireplace in the ,highlands of      
,scotland4 ,thus the blessing of the    
corn-spirit was brought to the king's   
house and hearth and1 through them1  to 
the community of which he was the head4 
,similarly in the spring and  autumn    
customs of ,northern ,europe the        
,maypole is sometimes set up in front   
of the house of the mayor or            
burgomaster1 and the last sheaf at      
harvest is  brought to him as the head  
of the village4 ,but while the tail and 
blood  fell to the king1 the            
neighbouring village of the ,subura1    
which no doubt  once had a similar      
ceremony of its own1 was gratified by   
being allowed to  compete for the prize 
of the horse's head4 ,the ,mamilian     
tower1 to which  the ,suburans nailed   
the horse's head when they succeeded in 

carrying it  off1 appears to have been a
 peel-tower or keep of the old ,mamilian
 family1  the magnates of the           
village47#aei7 ,the ceremony thus       
performed on the  king's fields and at  
his house on behalf of the whole town   
and of the  neighbouring village        
presupposes a time when each township   
performed a  similar ceremony on its own
 fields4 ,in the rural districts of     
,latium the  villages may have continued
 to observe the custom1 each on its own 
land1  long after the ,roman hamlets had
 merged their separate harvest-homes in 
the common celebration on the king's    
lands4 ,there is no intrinsic           
improbability in the supposition that   
the sacred grove of ,aricia1 like the   
,field of ,mars at ,rome1 may have been 
the scene of a common harvest           
celebration1 at which a horse was       
sacrificed with the same rude rites on  
behalf of the neighbouring villages4    
,the horse would represent the          
fructifying spirit both of the tree and 

of the corn1 for the two ideas  melt    
into each other1 as we see in customs   
like the ,harvest-,may4    7,m#cg7      
,however1 it should be borne in mind    
that the evidence for thus  interpreting
 the relation of horses to ,virbius is  
exceedingly slender1 and  that the      
custom of excluding horses from the     
sacred ,arician grove may have  been    
based on some other superstitious motive
 which entirely escapes us4  ,at the    
city of ,ialysus in ,rhodes there was a 
sanctuary of ,alectrona1 one  of the    
daughters of the ,sun1 into which no    
horse1 ass1 mule1 or beast of  burden of
 any kind might enter4 ,any person who  
broke the law by  introducing one of    
these animals into the holy precinct1   
had to purify the  place by a sacrifice2
 and the same atonement had to be made  
by any man who  brought shoes or any    
portion of a pig within the sacred      
boundaries4 ,and  whoever drove or      
suffered his sheep to stray into the    
precinct was obliged  to pay a fine of  

one obol for every sheep that set foot  
in it47#afj7 ,the  reasons for these    
prohibitions are quite unknown2 and the 
taboo on horses  is particularly        
remarkable1 since the ,rhodians were in 
the habit of  offering a chariot and    
horses every year to the ,sun1 the      
father of  ,alectrona17#afa7 doubtless  
in order that he might ride on them     
through the  sky4 ,did they think that  
it was not for the daughter of the ,sun 
to meddle  with horses1 which were the  
peculiar property of her father8 ,the   
conjecture may perhaps be supported by  
an analogy drawn from ,west ,africa4    
,the ,ewe negroes of the ,slave ,coast  
conceive the ,rain-god ,nyikpl as a man 
who rides a horse1 and who may be seen  
galloping on it through the sky in  the 
form of a shooting star4 ,hence in the  
town of ,angla1 where he  generally     
resides when he is at home1 no person   
may appear on horseback in  the streets1
 that being apparently regarded as an   
impious usurpation of  the style of the 

deity4 ,in former days even ,europeans  
were forbidden to  ride on horseback in 
,angla2 and missionaries who attempted  
to set the  local prejudice at defiance 
have been pelted with sticks and dirt by
 the  outraged natives47#afb7 ,another  
deity who suffered not horses to enter  
his  sacred place was ,rakelimalaza1 a  
,malagasy god whose name signifies      
8renowned1 although diminutive40 ,his   
residence was a village situated on  the
 top of a hill about seven miles east of
 ,tananarivo4 ,but horses were  not the 
only animal or thing to which this      
fastidious being entertained a  rooted  
aversion4 8,within the limits of the    
ground which is considered  sacred1 and 
which embraces a wide circumference in  
the immediate vicinity  of the idol's   
residence1 it is strictly forbidden to  
bring1 or to suffer  to come1 certain   
animals and certain objects1 which are  
carefully  specified by the keepers of  
the idol4 ,things thus forbidden are    
called  fady2 a term of similar import  

with the well-known tabu of the ,south  
,sea  ,islands4 ,every idol has its own 
particular fady4 ,the things prohibited 
by ,rakelimalaza are1 guns1 gunpowder1  
pigs1 onions1 sifotra 7a shell-fish     
resembling a snail71 sitry 7a small     
animal resembling the young  crocodile71
 striped or spotted robes1 anything of a
 black colour1 goats1  horses1 meat     
distributed at funerals or at the       
tangena1 and cats and  owls4 ,its       
keepers are forbidden to enter any house
 where there is a  corpse2 and in       
crossing a river they are not permitted 
to say1 #8,carry me1'  otherwise they   
place themselves in danger of being     
seized by the  crocodiles2 and in war   
they must not talk1 or they are in      
danger of being  shot407#afc7 ,to       
attempt to discover the particular      
reasons for all these  numerous and     
varied taboos would obviously be futile2
 many of them may be  based on          
accidental circumstances which for us   
are lost past recovery4 ,but  it may be 

worth while to observe that a variety of
 taboos was enforced at  other ancient  
,greek shrines besides the sanctuary of 
,alectrona at ,ialysus4  ,for example1  
no person was allowed to enter the      
sanctuary of the ,mistress  at ,lycosura
 in ,arcadia clad in black1 purple1 or  
flowered vestments1 or  wearing shoes or
 a ring1 or with his or her hair plaited
 or covered1 or  carrying flowers in his
 hand27#afd7 and no pomegranates might  
be brought  into the sanctuary1 though  
all other fruits of the orchard were    
free to  enter47#afe7 ,these instances  
may warn us against the danger of       
arguing too  confidently in favour of   
any one of the many possible reasons    
which may  have moved the old ,latins to
 exclude horses from the sacred ,arician
 grove4  ,the domain of primitive       
superstition1 in spite of the           
encroachments of  science1 is indeed    
still to a great extent a trackless     
wilderness1 a  tangled maze1 in the     
gloomy recesses of which the forlorn    

explorer may  wander for ever without a 
light and without a clue4               
,,chapter ,x4 ,,eating ,,the ,,god4     
#a4 ,the ,sacrament of ,first-,fruits4  
7,m#ch7 ,we have now seen that the      
corn-spirit is represented sometimes in 
human1 sometimes in animal form1 and    
that in both cases he is killed in  the 
person of his representative and eaten  
sacramentally4 ,to find examples  of    
actually killing the human              
representative of the corn-spirit we had
  naturally to go to savage races2 but  
the harvest-suppers of our ,european    
peasants have furnished unmistakable    
examples of the sacramental eating of   
animals as representatives of the       
corn-spirit4 ,but further1 as might have
  been anticipated1 the new corn is     
itself eaten sacramentally1 that is1 as 
the body of the corn-spirit4 ,in        
,wermland1 ,sweden1 the farmer's wife   
uses  the grain of the last sheaf to    
bake a loaf in the shape of a little    
girl2  this loaf is divided amongst the 

whole household and eaten by them47#aff7
  ,here the loaf represents the         
corn-spirit conceived as a maiden2 just 
as in  ,scotland the corn-spirit is     
similarly conceived and represented by  
the  last sheaf made up in the form of a
 woman and bearing the name of the      
,maiden4 ,as usual1 the corn-spirit is  
believed to reside in the last sheaf2   
and to eat a loaf made from the last    
sheaf is1 therefore1 to eat the         
corn-spirit itself4 ,similarly at ,la   
,palisse1 in ,france1 a man made of     
dough is hung upon the fir-tree which is
 carried on the last  harvest-waggon4   
,the tree and the dough-man are taken to
 the mayor's house  and kept there till 
the vintage is over4 ,then the close of 
the harvest is  celebrated by a feast at
 which the mayor breaks the dough-man in
 pieces  and gives the pieces to the    
people to eat47#afg7    7,m#ci7 ,in     
these examples the corn-spirit is       
represented and eaten in human  shape4  
,in other cases1 though the new corn is 

not baked in loaves of human  shape1    
still the solemn ceremonies with which  
it is eaten suffice to  indicate that it
 is partaken of sacramentally1 that is1 
as the body of the  corn-spirit4 ,for   
example1 the following ceremonies used  
to be observed by  ,lithuanian peasants 
at eating the new corn4 ,about the time 
of the autumn  sowing1 when all the corn
 had been got in and the threshing had  
begun1  each farmer held a festival     
called ,sabarios1 that is1 8the mixing  
or  throwing together40 ,he took nine   
good handfuls of each kind of           
crop--wheat1  barley1 oats1 flax1 beans1
 lentils1 and the rest2 and each handful
 he  divided into three parts4 ,the     
twenty-seven portions of each grain were
  then thrown on a heap and all mixed up
 together4 ,the grain used had to be    
that which was first threshed and       
winnowed and which had been set aside   
and kept for this purpose4 ,a part of   
the grain thus mixed was employed to    
bake little loaves1 one for each of the 

household2 the rest was mixed with  more
 barley or oats and made into beer4 ,the
 first beer brewed from this  mixture   
was for the drinking of the farmer1 his 
wife1 and children2 the  second brew was
 for the servants4 ,the beer being      
ready1 the farmer chose  an evening when
 no stranger was expected4 ,then he     
knelt down before the  barrel of beer1  
drew a jugful of the liquor and poured  
it on the bung of  the barrel1 saying1  
8,o fruitful earth1 make rye and barley 
and all kinds  of corn to flourish40    
,next he took the jug to the parlour1   
where his wife  and children awaited    
him4 ,on the floor of the parlour lay   
bound a black or  white or speckled 7not
 a red7 cock and a hen of the same      
colour and of the  same brood1 which    
must have been hatched within the year4 
,then the farmer  knelt down1 with the  
jug in his hand1 and thanked ,god for   
the harvest and  prayed for a good crop 
next year4 ,next all lifted up their    
hands and said1  8,o ,god1 and thou1 ,o 

earth1 we give you this cock and hen as 
a free-will  offering40 ,with that the  
farmer killed the fowls with the blows  
of a  wooden spoon1 for he might not cut
 their heads off4 ,after the first      
prayer  and after killing each of the   
birds he poured out a third of the beer4
  ,then his wife boiled the fowls in a  
new pot which had never been used       
before4 ,after that1 a bushel was set1  
bottom upwards1 on the floor1 and on  it
 were placed the little loaves mentioned
 above and the boiled fowls4  ,next the 
new beer was fetched1 together with a   
ladle and three mugs1 none  of which was
 used except on this occasion4 ,when the
 farmer had ladled the  beer into the   
mugs1 the family knelt down round the   
bushel4 ,the father  then uttered a     
prayer and drank off the three mugs of  
beer4 ,the rest  followed his example4  
,then the loaves and the flesh of the   
fowls were  eaten1 after which the beer 
went round again1 till every one had    
emptied  each of the three mugs nine    

times4 ,none of the food should remain  
over2  but if anything did happen to be 
left1 it was consumed next morning with 
the same ceremonies4 ,the bones were    
given to the dog to eat2 if he did not  
eat them all up1 the remains were buried
 under the dung in the  cattle-stall4   
,this ceremony was observed at the      
beginning of ,december4 ,on  the day on 
which it took place no bad word might be
 spoken47#afh7    7,m#dj7 ,such was the 
custom about two hundred years or more  
ago4 ,at the  present day in ,lithuania1
 when new potatoes or loaves made from  
the new  corn are being eaten1 all the  
people at table pull each other's       
hair47#afi7  ,the meaning of this last  
custom is obscure1 but a similar custom 
was  certainly observed by the heathen  
,lithuanians at their solemn            
sacrifices47#agj7 ,many of the          
,esthonians of the island of ,oesel will
 not  eat bread baked of the new corn   
till they have first taken a bite at a  
piece of iron47#aga7 ,the iron is here  

plainly a charm1 intended to render     
harmless the spirit that is in the      
corn47#agb7 ,in ,sutherlandshire at the 
present day1 when the new potatoes are  
dug all the family must taste them1     
otherwise 8the spirits in them the      
potatoes take offence1 and the  potatoes
 would not keep407#agc7 ,in one part of 
,yorkshire it is still  customary for   
the clergyman to cut the first corn2 and
 my informant  believes that the corn so
 cut is used to make the communion      
bread47#agd7 ,if  the latter part of the
 custom is correctly reported 7and      
analogy is all in  its favour71 it shews
 how the ,christian communion has       
absorbed within  itself a sacrament     
which is doubtless far older than       
,christianity4    7,m#da7 ,among the    
heathen ,cheremiss on the left bank of  
the ,volga1 when the  first bread baked 
from the new corn is to be eaten1 the   
villagers assemble  in the house of the 
oldest inhabitant1 the eastern door is  
opened1 and all  pray with their faces  

towards it4 ,then the sorcerer or priest
 gives to  each of them a mug of beer1  
which they drain2 next he cuts and hands
 to  every person a morsel of the loaf1 
which they partake of4 ,finally1 the    
young people go to the elders and bowing
 down to the earth before them  say1    
8,we pray ,god that you may live1 and   
that ,god may let us pray next  year for
 new corn40 ,the rest of the day is     
passed in mirth and dancing4  ,the whole
 ceremony1 observes the writer who has  
described it1 looks almost  like a      
caricature of the ,eucharist47#age7     
,according to another account1  each    
,cheremiss householder on this occasion1
 after bathing1 places some of  each    
kind of grain1 together with malt1      
cakes1 and drink1 in a vessel1  which he
 holds up to the sun1 at the same time  
thanking the gods for the  good things  
which they have bestowed upon him47#agf7
 ,but this part of the  ceremony is a   
sacrifice rather than a sacrament of the
 new corn4    7,m#db7 ,the ,aino or     

,ainu of ,japan are said to distinguish 
various kinds of  millet as male and    
female respectively1 and these kinds1   
taken together1  are called 8the divine 
husband and wife cereal0 7,umurek haru  
kamui74  8,therefore before millet is   
pounded and made into cakes for general 
eating1 the old men have a few made for 
themselves first to worship4 ,when  they
 are ready they pray to them very       
earnestly and say3--#8,o thou cereal    
deity1 we worship thee4 ,thou hast grown
 very well this year1 and thy  flavour  
will be sweet4 ,thou art good4 ,the     
goddess of fire will be glad1  and we   
also shall rejoice greatly4 ,o thou god1
 ,o thou divine cereal1 do  thou nourish
 the people4 ,i now partake of thee4 ,i 
worship thee and give  thee thanks4'    
,after having thus prayed1 they1 the    
worshippers1 take a cake  and eat it1   
and from this time the people may all   
partake of the new  millet4 ,and so with
 many gestures of homage and words of   
prayer this kind  of food is dedicated  

to the well-being of the ,ainu4 ,no     
doubt the cereal  offering is regarded  
as a tribute paid to god1 but that god  
is no other  than the seed itself2 and  
it is only a god in so far as it is     
beneficial  to the human body407#agg7   
7,m#dc7 ,the natives of the ,reef       
,islands in ,melanesia describe as      
follows the  ceremonies which they      
observe at eating new fruits3 8,when the
 fruit of  trees that are eatable1 such 
as bread-fruit1 or ninas 7nuts7 is      
nearly  ripe1 about a month before the  
time that people eat it1 they all go    
together into the bush4 ,they must all  
go together for this #8holy eating1'    
and when they return they all assemble  
in one place1 and no one will be        
absent2 they sit down and cook          
bread-fruit4 ,while it is being cooked  
no  one will eat beforehand1 but they   
set it in order and cook it with        
reverence1 and with the belief that the 
spirit has granted that food to  them   
and they return thanks to him for it4   

,when it is cooked a certain man  takes 
a bread-fruit and climbs up a tree1 and 
all the people stand on the  ground and 
they all look up1 and when he has       
reached the top they shout  out1 and    
when they have shouted they call out1   
#8,this is the bread-fruit of  the whole
 land'2 then he throws down the         
bread-fruit and they pick it up  and    
shout out again and give thanks1 for    
they think that the spirit who  protects
 the fruit will hear4 ,their thoughts   
are thus also with regard to  the yam1  
there is no difference1 it is all the   
same2 they think that a  spirit gives   
them food1 and the people assemble      
together and thank the  spirit4 ,in     
every island they think that there is a 
spirit presiding over  food407#agh7     
7,m#dd7 ,at ,bourail1 in ,new           
,caledonia1 the eating of the first yams
 of the  season is a solemn ceremony4   
,the women may take no part in it2      
indeed for  five days previously they   
may not even shew themselves on any     

pretext1 and  must hide in the forest4  
,but the men of other tribes are invited
 to share  in the festivity4 ,on the day
 of the ceremony seven or eight yams are
 dug  up with the greatest precaution1  
wrapt in leaves1 and carried before the 
great wooden images1 ten or twelve feet 
high1 rudely carved in human form  and  
painted black1 red1 and white1 which    
represent the ancestors of the  tribe4  
,special pots1 only used on these       
occasions1 are then disinterred by      
boys1 who cook the new yams in them1 eat
 them1 and afterwards bury the  pots in 
the places where they found them4       
,thereupon the chief or the  oldest man 
mounts a ladder and addresses the crowd 
in a long and voluble  harangue1 telling
 them how their forefathers always      
respected the feast of  the first yams1 
and exhorting the young men of the tribe
 to do the same in  the time to come4   
,after that1 turning towards the        
ancestral images1 he  prays them to give
 a good crop of yams every year to the  

people and their  descendants1 adjuring 
them to remember how1 while they were   
still on  earth1 they always ate to     
their heart's content1 and beseeching   
them to  reflect that their sons and    
grandsons naturally desire to do the    
same4  ,when the orator has finished his
 discourse1 and his hearers have        
signified  their approval of his        
eloquence by a loud grunt1 the new yams 
are dressed  and eaten1 each family     
cooking them in a pot of its own47#agi7 
7,m#de7 ,at the close of the rice       
harvest in the ,east ,indian island of  
,buru1  each clan 7fenna7 meets at a    
common sacramental meal1 to which every 
member of the clan is bound to          
contribute a little of the new rice4    
,this  meal is called 8eating the soul  
of the rice10 a name which clearly      
indicates the sacramental character of  
the repast4 ,some of the rice is  also  
set apart and offered to the            
spirits47#ahj7 ,amongst the ,alfoors of 
,minahassa1 in the north of ,celebes1   

the priest sows the first rice-seed  and
 plucks the first ripe rice in each     
field4 ,this rice he roasts and  grinds 
into meal1 and gives some of it to each 
of the household47#aha7  ,shortly before
 the rice-harvest in ,bolang ,mongondo1 
another district of  ,celebes1 an       
offering is made of a small pig or a    
fowl4 ,then the priest  plucks a little 
rice1 first on his own field and next on
 those of his  neighbours4 ,all the rice
 thus plucked by him he dries along with
 his own1  and then gives it back to the
 respective owners1 who have it ground  
and  boiled4 ,when it is boiled the     
women take it back1 with an egg1 to the 
priest1 who offers the egg in sacrifice 
and returns the rice to the women4  ,of 
this rice every member of the family1   
down to the youngest child1 must        
partake4 ,after this ceremony every one 
is free to get in his rice47#ahb7       
7,m#df7 ,on the north coast of ,ceram   
every owner of a rice-field begins      
planting by making six holes in the     

middle of the field and depositing      
rice-seed in them4 ,when the crop is    
ripe1 the rice which has sprouted from  
these six holes must be the first to be 
reaped and the first to be eaten  by the
 owner at the common harvest-feast of   
the village4 ,when all the  owners of   
the fields have thus partaken of the    
rice that was first planted  and first  
reaped in their fields1 the other       
villagers may help themselves  to rice  
out of the pot4 ,not till this feast has
 been held may the owners  of           
rice-fields sell their rice47#ahc7      
,among the ,kayans of ,central ,borneo1 
who1 as we have seen1 believe rice to be
 animated by a soul17#ahd7 before a     
family partakes of the new rice at      
harvest1 a priestess must touch the     
face and breast of every person with a  
magical instrument 7kahe parei7         
consisting of the husk of a certain     
fruit adorned with strings of beads4    
,after this ceremony has been performed 
on every member of the family1 he  or   

she eats a few grains of the new rice   
and drinks a little water4 ,when  all   
have complied with this ritual1 the     
feast begins47#ahe7    7,m#dg7 ,amongst 
the ,burghers or ,badagas1 a tribe of   
the ,neilgherry ,hills in  ,southern    
,india1 the first handful of seed is    
sown and the first sheaf  reaped by a   
,curumbar--a man of a different tribe1  
the members of which the  ,burghers     
regard as sorcerers4 ,the grain         
contained in the first sheaf 8is  that  
day reduced to meal1 made into cakes1   
and1 being offered as a  first-fruit    
oblation1 is1 together with the         
remainder of the sacrificed  animal1    
partaken of by the ,burgher and the     
whole of his family1 as the  meat of a  
federal offering and sacrifice407#ahf7  
,amongst the ,coorgs of  ,southern      
,india the man who is to cut the first  
sheaf of rice at harvest is  chosen by  
an astrologer4 ,at sunset the whole     
household takes a hot bath  and then    
goes to the rice-field1 where the chosen

 reaper cuts an armful of  rice with a  
new sickle1 and distributes two or more 
stalks to all present4  ,then all return
 to the threshing-floor4 ,a bundle of   
leaves is adorned with  a stalk of rice 
and fastened to the post in the centre  
of the  threshing-floor4 ,enough of the 
new rice is now threshed1 cleaned1 and  
ground to provide flour for the         
dough-cakes which each member of the    
household is to eat4 ,then they go to   
the door of the house1 where the        
mistress washes the feet of the         
sheaf-cutter1 and presents to him1 and  
after him to all the rest1 a brass      
vessel full of milk1 honey1 and sugar1  
from which each person takes a draught4 
,next the man who cut the sheaf  kneads 
a cake of rice-meal1 plantains1 milk1   
honey1 seven new rice corns1  seven     
pieces of coco-nut1 and so on4 ,every   
one receives a little of his  cake on an
 ,ashvatha leaf1 and eats it4 ,the      
ceremony is then over and the           
sheaf-cutter mixes with the company4    

,when he was engaged in cutting the     
rice no one might touch him47#ahg7      
,among the ,hindoos of ,southern ,india 
the  eating of the new rice is the      
occasion of a family festival called    
,pongol4  ,the new rice is boiled in a  
new pot on a fire which is kindled at   
noon on  the day when1 according to     
,hindoo astrologers1 the sun enters the 
tropic  of ,capricorn4 ,the boiling of  
the pot is watched with great anxiety by
 the  whole family1 for as the milk     
boils1 so will the coming year be4 ,if  
the  milk boils rapidly1 the year will  
be prosperous2 but it will be the       
reverse if the milk boils slowly4 ,some 
of the new boiled rice is offered  to   
the image of ,gaea2 then every one      
partakes of it47#ahh7 ,in some parts  of
 ,northern ,india the festival of the   
new crop is known as ,navan1 that  is1  
8new grain40 ,when the crop is ripe1 the
 owner takes the omens1 goes to  the    
field1 plucks five or six ears of barley
 in the spring crop and one of  the     

millets in the autumn harvest4 ,this is 
brought home1 parched1 and  mixed with  
coarse sugar1 butter1 and curds4 ,some  
of it is thrown on the  fire in the name
 of the village gods and deceased       
ancestors2 the rest is  eaten by the    
family47#ahi7 ,at ,gilgit1 in the       
,hindoo ,koosh1 before  wheat-harvest   
begins1 a member of every household     
gathers a handful of  ears of corn      
secretly at dusk4 ,a few of the ears are
 hung up over the door  of the house1   
and the rest are roasted next morning1  
and eaten steeped in  milk4 ,the day is 
spent in rejoicings1 and next morning   
the harvest  begins47#aij7    7,m#dh7   
,the ,chams of ,binh-,thuan1 in         
,indo-,china1 may not reap the          
rice-harvest until they have offered the
 first-fruits to ,po-,nagar1 the        
goddess of agriculture1 and have        
consumed them sacramentally4 ,these     
first-fruits are gathered from certain  
sacred fields called  ,hamou-,klk-,laoa 
or 8fields of secret tillage10 which are

 both sown and  reaped with peculiar    
ceremonies4 ,apparently the tilling of  
the earth is  considered a crime which  
must be perpetrated secretly and        
afterwards  atoned for4 ,on a lucky day 
in ,june1 at the first cock-crow1 two   
men lead  the buffaloes and the plough  
to the sacred field1 round which they   
draw  three furrows in profound silence 
and then retire4 ,afterwards at dawn the
  owner of the land comes lounging by1  
as if by the merest chance4 ,at sight   
of the furrows he stops1 pretends to be 
much surprised1 and cries out1  8,who   
has been secretly ploughing my field    
this night80 ,hastening home1 he  kills 
a kid or some fowls1 cooks the victuals1
 and prepares five quids of  betel1 some
 candles1 a flask of oil1 and lustral   
water of three different  sorts4 ,with  
these offerings and the plough drawn by 
the buffaloes1 he  returns to the field1
 where he lights the candles and        
spreading out the  victuals worships    
,po-,nagar and the other deities1       

saying3 8,i know not who  has secretly  
ploughed my field this night4 ,pardon1  
ye gods1 those who have  done this      
wrong4 ,accept these offerings4 ,bless  
us4 ,suffer us to proceed  with this    
work40 ,then1 speaking in the name of   
the deities1 he gives the  reassuring   
answer1 8,all right4 ,plough away60     
,with the lustral water he  washes or   
sprinkles the buffaloes1 the yoke1 and  
the plough4 ,the oil  serves to anoint  
the plough and to pour libations on the 
ground4 ,the five  quids of betel are   
buried in the field4 ,thereupon the     
owner sows a handful  of rice on the    
three furrows that have been traced1 and
 eats the victuals  with his people4    
,after all these rites have been duly   
performed1 he may  plough and sow his   
land as he likes4 ,when the rice has    
grown high enough  in this 8field of    
secret tillage0 to hide pigeons1        
offerings of ducks1  eggs1 and fowls are
 made to the deities2 and fresh         
offerings1 which  generally consist of  

five plates of rice1 two boiled fowls1 a
 bottle of  spirits1 and five quids of  
betel1 are made to ,po-,nagar and the   
rest at the  time when the rice is in   
bloom4 ,finally1 when the rice in 8the  
field of  secret tillage0 is ripe1 it   
has to be reaped before any of the rest4
  ,offerings of food1 such as boiled    
fowls1 plates of rice1 cakes1 and so    
forth1 are spread out on the field2 a   
candle is lit1 and a priest or1 in  his 
absence1 the owner prays to the guardian
 deities to come and partake  of the    
food set before them4 ,after that the   
owner of the land cuts three  stalks of 
rice with a sickle in the middle of the 
field1 then he cuts  three handfuls at  
the side1 and places the whole in a     
napkin4 ,these are  the first-fruits    
offered to ,po-,nagar1 the goddess of   
agriculture4 ,on being  taken home the  
rice from the three handfuls is husked1 
pounded in a  mortar1 and presented to  
the goddess with these words3 8,taste1  
,o goddess1  these first-fruits which   

have just been reaped40 ,this rice is   
afterwards  eaten1 while the straw and  
husks are burned4 ,having eaten the     
first-fruits  of the rice1 the owner    
takes the three stalks cut in the middle
 of the  field1 passes them through the 
smoke of the precious eagle-wood1 and   
hangs  them up in his house1 where they 
remain till the next sowing-time comes  
round4 ,the grain from these three      
stalks will form the seed of the three  
furrows in 8the field of secret         
tillage40 ,not till these ceremonies    
have  been performed is the proprietor  
at liberty to reap the rest of that     
field  and all the others47#aia7        
7,m#di7 ,the ceremony of eating the new 
yams at ,onitsha1 on the ,niger1 is     
thus described3 8,each headman brought  
out six yams1 and cut down young        
branches of palm-leaves and placed them 
before his gate1 roasted three of  the  
yams1 and got some kola-nuts and fish4  
,after the yam is roasted1 the  ,libia1 
or country doctor1 takes the yam1       

scrapes it into a sort of meal1  and    
divides it into halves2 he then takes   
one piece1 and places it on the  lips of
 the person who is going to eat the new 
yam4 ,the eater then blows  up the steam
 from the hot yam1 and afterwards pokes 
the whole into his  mouth1 and says1    
#8,i thank ,god for being permitted to  
eat the new yam'2 he  then begins to    
chew it heartily1 with fish             
likewise407#aib7    7,m#ej7 ,among the  
,ewe negroes of ,west ,africa the eating
 of the new yams is  the greatest       
festival of the year2 it usually falls  
at the beginning of  ,september1 and its
 character is predominantly religious4  
,we possess a  native account of the    
festival as it is celebrated by the     
tribe of the ,hos  in ,togoland4 ,when  
the yams are ripe and ready to be dug up
 and brought  home1 two days are devoted
 to cleansing the town of all ills1     
whether  spiritual or material1 as a    
solemn preparation for the ensuing      
celebration4 ,when these rites of       

purification1 which will be described in
  a later part of this work1 have been  
accomplished1 then1 in the words of  the
 native account1 8the people make ready 
to eat the new yams4 ,and the  manner of
 making ready consists in going to the  
fields and digging the  yams4 ,however1 
they do not bring them home but lay them
 down somewhere on  the way4 ,the reason
 why they do not bring them home is that
 the people  have not yet been on the   
place where they sacrifice to the deity4
 ,when  they wish to go thither1 the way
 to the sacrificial place of ,agbasia   
must  first be cleared of grass4        
,afterwards the people come with their  
drums1  which they beat loudly4 ,when   
they are come to the place of sacrifice1
 they  first raise two great mounds of  
earth1 and they bring to the place of   
sacrifice palm wine1 uncooked and cooked
 yams1 and meal mixed with oil4  ,first 
of all the uncooked yams are cut in two 
through the middle1 and then  this      
prayer is offered3 #8,agbasia1 thou art 

he who has given the yams2  therefore   
here is thine own6 ,we thank thee       
sincerely4 ,may the eating of  the yams 
be a great joy1 and may no quarrel      
intervene6' ,thereupon they lay  down on
 the ground yams mixed with oil and not 
mixed with oil4 ,in doing so  they say  
to ,agbasia1 #8,he who eats not the     
white yams1 to him belong the  yams     
mixed with oil2 and he who eats not the 
yams mixed with oil1 to him  belong the 
white yams4' ,they do the same with the 
meal that is mixed with  oil and with   
the meal that is not mixed with oil4    
,thereby they say3 #8,here  we bring    
thee all that thou hast given us4 ,eat  
thereof what thou  pleasest6' ,after    
that they pour palm wine into one pot   
and water into  another1 and say1       
#8,when one has eaten1 one drinks       
water4' ,thereby the  drums sound1 songs
 are sung1 and the priest says3 #8,our  
father ,agbasia1 we  pray thee1 let us  
hear no more evil but good only6 ,when  
women are with  child1 let them bear    

twins and triplets1 that we may increase
 and  multiply6 ,when the time for      
sowing the yams comes again1 make it to 
rain  upon them even more than hitherto1
 in order that we may come again and    
thank thee more sincerely than          
hitherto6' ,thereupon the priest pours  
water  on one of the mounds1 makes a    
paste with it1 and calls the people     
thither4  ,then he dips his finger in   
the slime and smears it on their brows1 
temples1 and breasts1 saying1 #8,this is
 the slime of ,agbasia1 wherewith ,i    
smear you1 that ye may remain in life4' 
,after that they disperse and go  home4 
,further1 the prayers and offerings of  
the individual peasants on the  occasion
 of the yam festival are described as   
follows4 8,in the evening1  when the    
town is swept clean1 the people go to   
the fields to fetch yams1  which1       
however1 they may not yet bring into the
 town and therefore they  hide them in  
the forest4 ,as soon as the high priest 
quits the town next  morning to go to   

the sacrificial place of his god1 the   
women set out to  fetch the yams which  
they had deposited4 ,now they begin to  
cook4 ,many  people kill fowls or goats1
 and others buy fish for the festival4  
,when the  yams are sodden1 a little is 
broken off1 mixed with oil1 and laid1   
together with uncooked yams1 on the     
ground at the entrance to the           
homestead4 ,thereby the house-father    
says3 #8,that belongs to all those      
7gods7 who abide at the fence4' ,he does
 the same under the door of the  house  
and says3 #8,that belongs to all those  
7gods7 who dwell with me4' ,then  he    
goes to the loom1 and brings it its     
offering1 and says3 #8,that belongs  to 
all the 8,artificers0 who have helped me
 in weaving4' ,after that he lays  all  
his charms on a mat spread in the house1
 and brings them also their  offering1  
and speaks with them40    8,another     
account describes the priestly functions
 of the house-father  still more fully4 
,every house-father takes a raw piece of

 yam and goes  with it to his loom      
7agbati7 and prays3 #8,may the          
,artificers take this  yam and eat6     
,when they practise their art1 may it   
prosper6' ,again he takes  a raw yam and
 goes with it under the house-door and  
prays3 #8,o my  guardian-spirit 7aklama7
 and all ye gods who pay heed to this   
house1  come and eat yams6 ,when ,i also
 eat of them1 may ,i remain healthy and 
nowhere feel pain6 ,may my housemates   
all remain healthy6' ,after he has      
invoked their protection on his family1 
he takes a cooked yam1 crumbles it  on a
 stone1 and mixes it with red oil4 ,with
 this mixture he goes again to  the loom
 and prays as before4 ,but even that is 
not the end of the worship  of the      
,artificers4 ,he again crumbles a cooked
 yam1 but this time he does  not mix it 
with red oil2 he goes to the entrance of
 the homestead and  prays again to the  
loom3 #8,he among the ,artificers who   
does not relish yams  mixed with oil1   
let him come and take the white yam and 

eat it6' ,from  there he goes again     
under the house-door and prays3 #8,he of
 my guardian  gods and he of the        
watchers of the house who likes not yams
 mixed with  oil1 let him come and take 
the white yam from my hand and eat6'    
,from the  house-door he steps into the 
midst of the chamber and says3 #8,he who
  relishes not the yams mixed with oil1 
may eat the white2 he who relishes  not 
the white may eat the red2 and he who   
relishes not the red may eat the        
uncooked6' ,with this prayer he has     
completed his duties as house-priest4   
,just as the weaver prays to his loom1  
so the hunter prays to his musket1  the 
smith to his hammer and anvil1 and the  
carpenter to his plane and saw4         
8,now1 while the free people begin to   
cook the yams so soon as the priest  has
 left the town1 the slaves of the ,earth
 ,gods1 the ,trkluwo1 must  first as    
children perform their duties to the    
priest of their gods4 ,each  of these   
children receives from his parents on   

the morning of the ,yam  ,festival two  
pieces of yam1 which he brings to the   
priest of his god4 ,the  priest cuts off
 a small piece of the yam and divides   
the piece again into  four pieces4 ,the 
child kneels before him and lolls out   
his tongue4 ,holding  two of these      
pieces of yam in his hands1 the priest  
utters a prayer over  the child and     
touches his tongue five times with the  
pieces of yam4 ,then  the child         
stretches his hands out1 each of which  
the priest touches five  times with the 
same pieces of yam and prays as before4 
,then he touches  both feet of the child
 five times and prays for the third     
time4 ,he takes  half of the            
cowry-shells which the child has        
brought1 fastens them on a  string1 and 
hangs it round the child's neck4        
,thereby the child gets leave  to eat   
new yams4    8,after all these          
preparations the yams are pounded into a
 mash1 and every  one calls his brother1
 that he may eat with him4 ,when the    

meal is over1  the people are called    
together to amuse themselves and to     
drink palm wine4  ,in the afternoon     
every one bathes1 puts on a new garment1
 and girds  himself with a new          
loin-cloth407#aic7    7,m#ea7 ,the      
,ashantees celebrate the festival of the
 new yams early in  ,september2 until it
 is over none of the people may taste of
 the new yams4  8,the ,yam ,custom10 we 
are told1 8is like the ,saturnalia2     
neither theft1  intrigue1 nor assault   
are punishable during the continuance1  
but the  grossest liberty prevails1 and 
each sex abandons itself to its         
passions40  ,an eye-witness has         
described the scene at ,coomassie1 the  
capital3 8,the  next morning the ,king  
ordered a large quantity of rum to be   
poured into  brass pans1 in various     
parts of the town2 the crowd pressing   
around1 and  drinking like hogs2 freemen
 and slaves1 women and children1        
striking1  kicking1 and trampling each  
other under foot1 pushed head foremost  

into  the pans1 and spilling much more  
than they drank4 ,in less than an hour1 
excepting the principal men1 not a sober
 person was to be seen1 parties of      
four1 reeling and rolling under the     
weight of another1 whom they affected   
to be carrying home2 strings of women   
covered with red paint1 hand in  hand1  
falling down like rows of cards2 the    
commonest mechanics and slaves          
furiously declaiming on state palavers2 
the most discordant music1 the  most    
obscene songs1 children of both sexes   
prostrate in insensibility4 ,all  wore  
their handsomest cloths1 which they     
trailed after them to a great  length1  
in a drunken emulation of extravagance  
and dirtiness40 ,about a  hundred       
persons1 mostly culprits reserved for   
the purpose1 used to be  sacrificed at  
this festival in ,coomassie4 ,all the   
chiefs killed several  slaves that their
 blood might flow into the hole from    
which the new yam  was taken4 ,such as  
could not afford to kill slaves took the

 head of a  slave who had already been  
sacrificed and placed it in the hole4   
,about ten  days after these ceremonies 
the whole of the royal household ate new
 yams  for the first time in the        
market-place1 the ,king himself being in
  attendance4 ,next day he and his      
captains set off before sunrise to      
perform  their annual ablutions in the  
river ,dah2 almost all the inhabitants  
of the  capital followed him1 so that   
the streets appeared to be deserted4    
,the  following day the ,king1 attended 
by his suite1 washed in the marsh at the
  south-east end of the town and laved  
the water not only over himself but     
also over the chairs1 stools1 gold and  
silver plate1 and the articles of       
furniture which were set aside for his  
special use47#aid7 ,from another        
account it appears that the ,king of    
,ashantee must eat the new yams before  
any of his subjects was at liberty to do
 so47#aie7 ,similarly in the ,west      
,african kingdom of ,assinie1 which     

forms part of the ,french possessions of
  ,senegal1 the king must eat the new   
yams eight full days before the people  
may taste them47#aif7    7,m#eb7 ,a     
second festival of yams used to be      
celebrated at ,coomassie in  ,december1 
when the king or a fetish priest        
consecrated the new yams before  they   
could be eaten by common folk4 ,on one  
of the days of this ,december           
celebration all the laws were suspended1
 and every man might do what  seemed    
good in his own eyes3 he might even1    
contrary to custom1 look at  the king's 
wives1 to the number of several         
hundreds1 when they returned  with the  
king and his suite from washing in the  
fetish water of ,tana4 ,all  that day   
drinking went on1 and the noise and     
uproar were prolonged far  into the     
night4 ,early in the morning a human    
victim was sacrificed3 the  first man   
found near the gates of the palace was  
seized1 butchered1 and  cut in pieces1  
and the executioners danced with the    

bleeding fragments of  the victim in    
their hands or fastened round their     
necks4 ,before he ate of  the new yams  
the king washed himself in fetish water 
brought from distant  springs1 and the  
chiefs performed similar                
ablutions47#aig7 ,in ,benin the new     
yams might not be eaten until the king  
had performed certain ceremonies1  among
 which one is said to have been a       
pretence of making a yam to grow in  a  
pot4 ,dancing1 merrymaking1 and farces  
or plays formed part of the  festival2  
the city was crowded with people1 and   
they indulged in a regular  orgie47#aih7
    7,m#ec7 ,among the ,nandi of        
,british ,east ,africa1 when the        
eleusine grain is  ripening in autumn1  
every woman who owns a cornfield goes   
out into it with  her daughters1 and    
they all pluck some of the ripe grain4  
,each of the  women then fixes one grain
 in her necklace and chews another1     
which she  rubs on her forehead1 throat1
 and breast4 ,no mark of joy escapes    

them2  sorrowfully they cut a basketful 
of the new corn1 and carrying it home   
place it in the loft to dry4 ,as the    
ceiling is of wickerwork1 a good deal   
of the grain drops through the crevices 
and falls into the fire1 where it       
explodes with a crackling noise4 ,the   
people make no attempt to prevent  this 
waste2 for they regard the crackling of 
the grain in the fire as a  sign that   
the souls of the dead are partaking of  
it4 ,a few days later  porridge is made 
from the new grain and served up with   
milk at the evening  meal4 ,all the     
members of the family take some of the  
porridge and dab it  on the walls and   
roofs of the huts2 also they put a      
little in their mouths  and spit it out 
towards the east and on the outside of  
the huts4 ,then1  holding up some of the
 grain in his hand1 the head of the     
family prays to  ,god for health and    
strength1 and likewise for milk1 and    
everybody present  repeats the words of 
the prayer after him47#aii7 ,amongst the

 ,baganda1 when  the beans were ripe1 a 
woman would call her eldest son to eat  
some of the  first which she cooked2 if 
she neglected to do so1 it was believed 
that  she would incur the displeasure of
 the gods and fall ill4 ,after the meal 
her husband jumped over her1 and the    
beans might thereafter be eaten by      
all47#bjj7    7,m#ed7 ,amongst the      
,caffres of ,natal and ,zululand1 no one
 may eat of the new  fruits till after a
 festival which marks the beginning of  
the ,caffre year  and falls at the end  
of ,december or the beginning of        
,january4 ,all the  people assemble at  
the king's kraal1 where they feast and  
dance4 ,before  they separate the       
8dedication of the people0 takes place4 
,various fruits  of the earth1 as corn1 
mealies1 and pumpkins1 mixed with the   
flesh of a  sacrificed animal and with  
8medicine10 are boiled in great pots1   
and a  little of this food is placed in 
each man's mouth by the king himself4   
,after thus partaking of the sanctified 

fruits1 a man is himself sanctified  for
 the whole year1 and may immediately get
 in his crops47#bja7 ,it is  believed   
that if any man were to partake of the  
new fruits before the  festival1 he     
would die27#bjb7 if he were detected1 he
 would be put to  death1 or at least all
 his cattle would be taken from         
him47#bjc7 ,the  holiness of the new    
fruits is well marked by the rule that  
they must be  cooked in a special pot   
which is used only for this purpose1 and
 on a new  fire kindled by a magician   
through the friction of two sticks which
 are  called 8husband and wife40 ,these 
sticks are prepared by the sorcerers    
from  the wood of the ,uzwati tree and  
belong exclusively to the chief4 ,the   
8wife0 is the shorter of the two4 ,when 
the magician has kindled the new  fire  
on which the new fruits are to be       
cooked1 he hands the fire-sticks  back  
to the chief1 for no other hand may     
touch them2 and they are then put  away 
till they are required next season4 ,the

 sticks are regarded as in a  measure   
sacred1 and no one1 except the chief's  
personal servant1 may go to  the side of
 the hut where they are kept4 ,no pot   
but the one used for the  preparation of
 this feast may be set on a fire made by
 the friction of the  8husband and      
wife40 ,when the feast is over1 the fire
 is carefully  extinguished1 and the pot
 is put away with the fire-sticks1 where
 it  remains untouched for another      
year47#bjd7    7,m#ee7 ,a remarkable    
feature of the festival1 as it is       
observed at the court  of the ,zulu     
king1 is a dance performed by the king  
himself in a mantle of  grass or1       
according to another account1 of herbs  
and corn-leaves4 ,this  mantle is       
afterwards burnt and its ashes are      
scattered and trodden into  the ground  
by cattle47#bje7 ,further1 it is worthy 
of notice that the  festival is         
described as a saturnalia1 and we are   
told that 8a great deal  of noise and   
dancing goes on1 and people are not     

supposed to be  responsible for what    
they say or do407#bjf7 ,thus1 for       
example1 among the  ,pondos the festival
 includes a period of license1 during   
the continuance  of which the chief     
abdicates his functions and any crime   
may be committed  with impunity4 ,the   
description of the ,pondo festival      
comprises so many  interesting features 
that ,i will reproduce it entire4 8,when
 a ,pondo chief  is to hold the feast of
 first-fruits1 some of his people       
procure a ripe  plant of the gourd      
family1 pumpkin or calabash1 from       
another tribe4 ,this  is cooked2 the    
inside cleaned out1 and the rind made   
ready for use as a  vessel4 ,it is then 
presented to the chief with much        
ceremony4 ,the  first-fruits are now    
brought forward1 and a sacrifice1       
generally a young  bull1 is offered1    
after which the feast commences4 ,the   
chief issues  certain orders for the    
conduct of the proceedings1 tastes the  
fruits which  are served in the         

gourd-dish with which he has been       
presented1 and then  abdicates all his  
functions while the festival lasts4 ,the
 cattle from all  the neighbouring      
villages are collected in the vicinity1 
and now they are  brought together1 and 
the bulls incited to fight to determine 
which is to  be king among them for the 
next year4 ,the young people engage in  
games and  dances1 feats of strength and
 running4 ,after these are over the     
whole  community give themselves over to
 disorder1 debauchery1 and riot4 ,in    
their  bull-fights and games they but   
did honour to the powers of nature1 and 
now1 as they eat and drink1 the same    
powers are honoured in another form  and
 by other rites4 ,there is no one in    
authority to keep order1 and every  man 
does what seems good in his own eyes4   
,should a man stab his neighbour  he    
escapes all punishment1 and so too with 
all other crimes against the  person1   
property1 and morality4 ,people are even
 permitted to abuse the  chief to his   

face1 an offence which at any other time
 would meet with  summary vengeance and 
an unceremonious dispatch to join the   
ancestors4  ,while the feast continues1 
a deafening noise is kept up by         
drumming1  shouting1 hand-clapping1 and 
every kind of instrument that can be    
made to  emit sound4 ,men advance to the
 chief and explain their origin1 and    
also  the object they hold sacred1 by   
imitating the sounds and movements of   
their most sacred animal4 ,this is the  
person's totem4 ,others imitate the     
gurgling made by an enemy when stabbed  
in the throat4 ,those who adopt this    
latter emblem are known as #8children of
 the spear4' ,when the ceremonies1      
revels1 and mummeries are ended1 the    
chief repairs to his accustomed  place1 
and sitting down there1 by that act     
resumes his kingly functions4  ,he calls
 the bravest of his braves before him1  
who is immediately clothed  and         
decorated with skins of animals         
suggestive of courage and strategy4 ,he 

performs a dance amid the frenzied      
shouting of the multitude1 after which  
the chief declares the festival at an   
end and harvest commenced407#bjg7       
,another writer1 speaking of the ,zulu  
festival of first-fruits as it was      
celebrated in the time of the ferocious 
despot ,chaka1 says that 8at this       
period the chiefs are allowed to        
converse unreservedly with the king1    
speaking with great freedom1 and in some
 measure to be dictatorial407#bjh7      
,again1 another traveller1 who visited  
the ,zulus in the reign of ,king        
,panda1 tells us that 8in spite of the  
practice of the most absolute  despotism
 there are three days in the year when  
the nation in its turn has  the right to
 call the king to a severe account for  
his acts4 ,it is at the  general        
assembly of the warriors1 when the maize
 is ripe1 that the lively  discussions  
take place and the questions are put to 
which the king must  answer at once in a
 manner satisfactory to the people4 ,i  

have then seen  simple warriors come    
leaping from the ranks1 assume the style
 of fluent  and excessively energetic   
orators1 and not only confront the fiery
 glare  of ,panda1 but even attack him  
before everybody1 blame his acts1 call  
them  infamous and base1 compel him to  
vindicate his conduct1 and then refute  
his vindication by dissecting it and    
exposing its falsehood1 finally         
proceeding to haughty threats and       
winding up the harangue with a gesture  
of contempt407#bji7 ,such liberties     
taken with the despotic ,zulu kings seem
  to point to a time when they too1 like
 the ,pondo chiefs1 abdicated or were   
deposed during the festival4 ,perhaps we
 may even go a step further4 ,we  have  
seen that on this occasion the ,zulu    
king dances in a mantle of grass  or of 
herbs and corn-leaves1 which is         
afterwards burnt and the ashes          
scattered and trodden into the ground4  
,this custom seems clearly intended  to 
promote the fertility of the earth1 and 

in earlier times the same end  may have 
been compassed by burning the king      
himself and dispersing his  ashes2 for  
we have seen that a ,bechuana tribe1 of 
the same ,bantu stock as  the ,zulus1   
were wont to sacrifice a human victim   
for the good of the crops  and to       
scatter his ashes over the ground47#baj7
 ,in this connexion it should  be borne 
in mind that we have found independent  
evidence of a custom of  putting the    
,zulu king to death whenever his bodily 
strength began to  fail47#baa7          
7,m#ef7 ,among the ,bechuanas it is a   
rule that before they partake of the new
  crops they must purify themselves4    
,the purification takes place at the    
commencement of the new year on a day in
 ,january which is fixed by the  chief4 
,it begins in the great kraal of the    
tribe1 where all the adult  males       
assemble4 ,each of them takes in his    
hand leaves of a gourd called by  the   
natives lerotse 7described as something 
between a pumpkin and a  vegetable      

marrow72 and having crushed the leaves  
he anoints with the  expressed juice his
 big toes and his navel2 many people    
indeed apply the  juice to all the      
joints of their body1 but the           
better-informed say that  this is a     
vulgar departure from ancient custom4   
,after this ceremony in the  great kraal
 every man goes home to his own kraal1  
assembles all the  members of his       
family1 men1 women1 and children1 and   
smears them all with  the juice of the  
lerotse leaves4 ,some of the leaves are 
also pounded1  mixed with milk in a     
large wooden dish1 and given to the dogs
 to lap up4  ,then the porridge plate of
 each member of the family is rubbed    
with the  lerotse leaves4 ,when this    
purification has been completed1 but not
  before1 the people are free to eat of 
the new crops4 ,on the night after  the 
purification every man was bound1 as a  
matter of ritual1 to sleep with  his    
chief wife4 ,if she had been unfaithful 
to him during the past year1 it  was    

incumbent on her to confess her sin     
before she fulfilled her part of  the   
ceremony4 ,having confessed she was     
purified by a medicine-man1 who         
fumigated her with the smoke produced by
 burning a bean plant4 ,thereupon       
husband and wife cut each other slightly
 under the navel1 and each of them      
rubbed his or her blood1 mixed with     
8medicine10 into the other's wound4     
,that completed the purification of the 
woman1 and the pair might now  proceed  
with the rest of the rite4 ,should a    
married man be from home at  the time   
when the annual purification ceremony is
 performed1 he is thought  to be in a   
very sad plight2 indeed his chances of  
surviving for another  year are supposed
 to be small4 ,on his return home1 he   
dare not enter his  own house1 for he   
would pollute it1 and if even his shadow
 were to fall on  one of his children1  
the child would die4 ,he must wait till 
his wife comes  to him and brings him a 
calabash of water to drink1 which is a  

sign that  she has waited for his return
 to perform the rite of purification    
together4 ,but if she does not bring the
 water1 he knows that in his  absence   
she has performed the rite with some    
other man1 and it becomes  necessary to 
purge her by means of fumigation and    
blood-letting1 as  described before4    
,but even when that purgation is        
completed1 husband and  wife may not    
indulge in connubial intercourse for the
 rest of the year1  that is1 until the  
next annual purification has taken      
place4 ,the ,bechuanas  think that 8any 
breach of this rule will be punished    
with supernatural  penalties--the       
husband1 wife1 or child will die407#bab7
    7,m#eg7 ,among the ,matabele1       
another ,bantu tribe of ,south ,africa1 
no one  might partake of the new fruits 
till the king had first tasted of them2 
any one who was known to have broken the
 law was instantly put to death4  ,on   
this occasion the regiments assembled at
 ,bulawayo1 the capital1 and  danced in 

a great semicircle before the king1 who 
occasionally joined in  the dance4 ,when
 he did so1 the medicine-men and their  
satellites1 armed  with thorn-bushes1   
rushed about among the dancers and      
incited them to  fresh efforts by a     
vigorous application of the thorns to   
the bodies of  such as seemed to flag4  
,the king's wives also sang and danced  
before him  in long lines1 holding the  
marriage ring in their right hands and  
green  boughs in their left4 ,on the    
third day of the festival hundreds of   
oxen  were sacrificed3 the flesh and    
blood of the black or sacred cattle were
  converted into charms2 while the      
carcases of the rest were cut up and    
distributed among the people1 who       
feasted upon them4 ,the fourth day was  
specially set apart for the ceremony of 
the first-fruits4 ,in the morning  all  
the people went down to the river to    
wash1 and on their return a             
witch-doctor or medicine-man took a dish
 of the new vegetables and corn1  mixed 

with charms1 and scattered the contents 
by handfuls among the crowd1  who seized
 and ate them4 ,after that the people   
were free to eat the new  crops4        
,according to one account1 this festival
 of first-fruits was held at  the first 
full moon which followed the summer     
solstice 7the twenty-first  of ,december
 in the southern hemisphere72 according 
to another account1 it  took place a few
 days after the full moon of ,february1 
which marked the  beginning of the      
,matabele year47#bac7    7,m#eh7 ,the   
,ovambo or1 as they call themselves1 the
 ,ovakuanjama1 of  ,south-,west ,africa1
 may not partake of the new fruits of   
the omuongo  tree1 which ripen in       
,february and from which an intoxicating
 beverage is  extracted1 until certain  
ceremonies have been performed4 ,among  
other  things husband and wife mutually 
offer each other one of the fruits1 make
  white strokes with chalk each on the  
brow1 cheeks1 and nose of the other1    
and accompany the action with the formal

 expression of good wishes4 ,if  this   
ceremony1 which seems to mark the       
beginning of the ,new ,year1 were       
omitted1 they believe that they would be
 attacked by a painful disease of  the  
knee-joints which would cripple         
them47#bad7    7,m#ei7 ,the ,bororo     
,indians of ,brazil think that it would 
be certain death to  eat the new maize  
before it has been blessed by the       
medicine-man4 ,the  ceremony of blessing
 it is as follows4 ,the half-ripe husk  
is washed and  placed before the        
medicine-man1 who by dancing and singing
 for several  hours1 and by incessant   
smoking1 works himself up into a state  
of ecstasy1  whereupon he bites into the
 husk1 trembling in every limb and      
uttering  shrieks from time to time4 ,a 
similar ceremony is performed whenever a
  large animal or a large fish is       
killed4 ,the ,bororo are firmly         
persuaded  that were any man to touch   
unconsecrated maize or meat1 before the 
ceremony had been completed1 he and his 

whole tribe would perish47#bae7         
7,m#fj7 ,amongst the ,creek ,indians of 
,north ,america1 the busk or festival   
of first-fruits was the chief ceremony  
of the year47#baf7 ,it was held in      
,july or ,august1 when the corn was     
ripe1 and marked the end of the old year
  and the beginning of the new one4     
,before it took place1 none of the      
,indians would eat or even handle any   
part of the new harvest4 ,sometimes     
each town had its own busk2 sometimes   
several towns united to hold one in     
common4 ,before celebrating the busk1   
the people provided themselves with  new
 clothes and new household utensils and 
furniture2 they collected their  old    
clothes and rubbish1 together with all  
the remaining grain and other  old      
provisions1 cast them together in one   
common heap1 and consumed them  with    
fire47#bag7 ,as a preparation for the   
ceremony1 all the fires in the  village 
were extinguished1 and the ashes swept  
clean away4 ,in particular1  the hearth 

or altar of the temple was dug up and   
the ashes carried out4  ,then the chief 
priest put some roots of the            
button-snake plant1 with some  green    
tobacco leaves and a little of the new  
fruits1 at the bottom of the  fireplace1
 which he afterwards commanded to be    
covered up with white clay1  and wetted 
over with clean water4 ,a thick arbour  
of green branches of  young trees was   
then made over the altar47#bah7         
,meanwhile the women at home  were      
cleaning out their houses1 renewing the 
old hearths1 and scouring all  the      
cooking vessels that they might be ready
 to receive the new fire and  the new   
fruits47#bai7 ,the public or sacred     
square was carefully swept of  even the 
smallest crumbs of previous feasts1 8for
 fear of polluting the  first-fruit     
offerings40 ,also every vessel that had 
contained or had been  used about any   
food during the expiring year was       
removed from the temple  before sunset4 
,then all the men who were not known to 

have violated the  law of the           
first-fruit offering and that of        
marriage during the year were  summoned 
by a crier to enter the holy square and 
observe a solemn fast4  ,but the women  
7except six old ones71 the children1 and
 all who had not  attained the rank of  
warriors were forbidden to enter the    
square4  ,sentinels were also posted at 
the corners of the square to keep out   
all  persons deemed impure and all      
animals4 ,a strict fast was then        
observed for  two nights and a day1 the 
devotees drinking a bitter decoction of 
button-snake root 8in order to vomit and
 purge their sinful bodies40 ,that  the 
people outside the square might also be 
purified1 one of the old men  laid down 
a quantity of green tobacco at a corner 
of the square2 this was  carried off by 
an old woman and distributed to the     
people without1 who  chewed and         
swallowed it 8in order to afflict their 
souls40 ,during this  general fast1 the 
women1 children1 and men of weak        

constitution were  allowed to eat after 
mid-day1 but not before4 ,on the morning
 when the fast  ended1 the women brought
 a quantity of the old year's food to   
the outside  of the sacred square4      
,these provisions were then fetched in  
and set before  the famished multitude1 
but all traces of them had to be removed
 before  noon4 ,when the sun was        
declining from the meridian1 all the    
people were  commanded by the voice of a
 crier to stay within doors1 to do no   
bad act1  and to be sure to extinguish  
and throw away every spark of the old   
fire4  ,universal silence now reigned4  
,then the high priest made the new fire 
by  the friction of two pieces of wood1 
and placed it on the altar under the    
green arbour4 ,this new fire was        
believed to atone for all past crimes   
except murder4 ,next a basket of new    
fruits was brought2 the high priest     
took out a little of each sort of fruit1
 rubbed it with bear's oil1 and  offered
 it1 together with some flesh1 8to the  

bountiful holy spirit of  fire1 as a    
first-fruit offering1 and an annual     
oblation for sin40 ,he also  consecrated
 the sacred emetics 7the button-snake   
root and the cassina or  black-drink7 by
 pouring a little of them into the fire4
 ,the persons who  had remained outside 
now approached1 without entering1 the   
sacred square2  and the chief priest    
thereupon made a speech1 exhorting the  
people to  observe their old rites and  
customs1 announcing that the new divine 
fire  had purged away the sins of the   
past year1 and earnestly warning the    
women  that1 if any of them had not     
extinguished the old fire1 or had       
contracted  any impurity1 they must     
forthwith depart1 8lest the divine fire 
should  spoil both them and the people40
 ,some of the new fire was then set down
  outside the holy square2 the women    
carried it home joyfully1 and laid it   
on their unpolluted hearths4 ,when      
several towns had united to celebrate   
the festival1 the new fire might thus be

 carried for several miles4 ,the  new   
fruits were then dressed on the new     
fires and eaten with bear's oil1  which 
was deemed indispensable4 ,at one point 
of the festival the men  rubbed the new 
corn between their hands1 then on their 
faces and  breasts47#bbj7 ,during the   
festival which followed1 the warriors1  
dressed in  their wild martial array1   
their heads covered with white down and 
carrying  white feathers in their hands1
 danced round the sacred arbour1 under  
which  burned the new fire4 ,the        
ceremonies lasted eight days1 during    
which the  strictest continence was     
practised4 ,towards the conclusion of   
the festival  the warriors fought a mock
 battle2 then the men and women         
together1 in  three circles1 danced     
round the sacred fire4 ,lastly1 all the 
people  smeared themselves with white   
clay and bathed in running water4 ,they 
came  out of the water believing that no
 evil could now befall them for what    
they had done amiss in the past4 ,so    

they departed in joy and peace4         
7,m#fa7 ,ceremonies of the same general 
type are still annually observed by  the
 ,yuchi ,indians of ,oklahoma1 who      
belong to the ,creek nation but speak a 
different language4 ,the rites are said 
to have been instituted by the ,sun4    
,they are solemnised in the public      
square1 and are timed so as to coincide 
with the ripening of the corn1 which    
usually takes place about the middle  or
 early part of ,july4 ,continence and   
abstinence from salt are prescribed     
during their celebration1 and all the   
men must fast for twelve hours  before  
they take the emetic4 ,a sacred new fire
 is kindled by striking two  stones     
against each other1 after which all the 
males are scarified or  scratched by an 
official on the arm or breast1 so as to 
let blood flow and  drip on the ground  
of the public square4 ,this bleeding of 
the men is said  to be symbolical of the
 origin of the ,yuchi people2 for the   
first ,yuchi  sprang from some drops of 

blood which the mother of the ,sun let  
fall on  earth at one of her monthly    
periods4 ,hence the ,yuchi call         
themselves the  ,children of the ,sun4  
,the solemn rite of scratching is       
followed by the no  less solemn rite of 
vomiting4 ,this also was instituted by  
the ,sun4 ,he  taught the ,indians to   
steep the button-snake root and the red 
root in  water and to drink the         
decoction1 in order that they might     
vomit and so  purify their bodies       
against sickness during the ensuing     
year4 ,they think  that if they did not 
thus purge themselves before eating the 
new corn1  they would fall sick4 ,the   
chief of the town is charged with the   
solemn  duty of preparing the nauseous  
concoction1 and he is assisted by four  
boys  who have been initiated into the  
mysteries4 ,the pots containing the     
stuff  are decorated on the rim with a  
pattern representing the sun1 and they  
stand east of the fire near the middle  
of the public square4 ,the order of     

drinking is regulated by the rank of the
 drinkers4 ,when the sun is about  the  
zenith1 the four noblest come forward1  
face eastward1 and gulp down  the vile  
but salutary potion2 then they retire to
 their places and await  the usual      
results4 ,when they feel the inward     
workings of the draught1 they  step out 
of the square and discharge the contents
 of their stomachs in a  place set apart
 for the purpose4 ,they are followed by 
another party of  four1 and that by     
another1 and so on1 till all the men    
have thus purged  themselves4 ,the rite 
is repeated several times4 ,when it is  
over1 they all  go to water and wash off
 the paint with which they were adorned2
 then  returning to their places in the 
square they feast on the new corn4      
,after  a rest of some hours the men    
engage in ball play1 not as a mere      
recreation  but as a matter of ritual4  
,sides are chosen2 every player is      
equipped with  two rackets1 and the aim 
of each side is to drive the ball       

through their  opponents' goal1 which   
consists of two uprights and a          
cross-piece4 ,the two  goals stand east 
and west of each other4 ,during the     
following night  dancing is kept up1 and
 a general laxity1 degenerating into    
debauchery1  prevails2 but parents and  
elders wink at the excesses of the young
 folk4  ,among the dances are some in   
which the dancers mimick the motions and
  cries of their totemic animals1 such  
as ducks1 buzzards1 rabbits1 fish1      
buffaloes1 chickens1 and owls47#bba7    
7,m#fb7 ,to this day1 also1 the remnant 
of the ,seminole ,indians of ,florida1 a
  people of the same stock as the       
,creeks17#bbb7 hold an annual           
purification  and festival called the   
,green ,corn ,dance1 at which the new   
corn is eaten4  ,on the evening of the  
first day of the festival they quaff a  
nauseous  8,black ,drink10 as it is     
called1 which acts both as an emetic and
 a  purgative2 they believe that he who 
does not drink of this liquor cannot    

safely eat the new green corn1 and      
besides that he will be sick at some    
time in the year4 ,while the liquor is  
being drunk1 the dancing begins1 and    
the medicine-men join in it4 ,next day  
they eat of the green corn2 the         
following day they fast1 probably from  
fear of polluting the sacred food  in   
their stomachs by contact with common   
food2 but the third day they hold  a    
great feast47#bbc7 ,further1 the        
,natchez ,indians1 another tribe of the 
same stock1 who used to inhabit a       
district on the lower course and eastern
  bank of the ,mississippi1 ate the new 
corn sacramentally at a great  festival 
which has been fully described by ,du   
,pratz1 the ,french historian  of       
,louisiana4 ,as his work is probably not
 easily accessible to many of my        
readers1 ,i shall perhaps consult their 
convenience by extracting his           
description entire4 ,the ,natchez1 he   
tells us1 began their year in ,march    
and divided it into thirteen moons4     

,their sixth moon1 which answered to    
our ,august1 was the ,mulberry ,moon1   
and the seventh was the moon of ,maize  
or ,great ,corn4 8,this feast is beyond 
dispute the most solemn of all4 ,it     
principally consists in eating in       
common1 and in a religious manner1 of   
new corn1 which had been sown expressly 
with that design1 with suitable         
ceremonies4 ,this corn is sown upon a   
spot of ground never before  cultivated2
 which ground is dressed and prepared by
 the warriors alone1  who also are the  
only persons that sow the corn1 weed it1
 reap it1 and  gather it4 ,when this    
corn is near ripe1 the warriors fix on a
 place proper  for the general feast1   
and close adjoining to that they form a 
round  granary1 the bottom and sides of 
which are of cane2 this they fill with  
the corn1 and when they have finished   
the harvest1 and covered the  granary1  
they acquaint the ,great ,sun17#bbd7 who
 appoints the day for the  general      
feast4 ,some days before the feast1 they

 build huts for the ,great  ,sun1 and   
for all the other families1 round the   
granary1 that of the ,great  ,sun being 
raised upon a mound of earth about two  
feet high4 ,on the  feast-day the whole 
nation set out from their village at    
sun-rising1  leaving behind only the    
aged and infirm that are not able to    
travel1 and a  few warriors1 who are to 
carry the ,great ,sun on a litter upon  
their  shoulders4 ,the seat of this     
litter is covered with several          
deer-skins1 and  to its four sides are  
fastened four bars which cross each     
other1 and are  supported by eight men1 
who at every hundred paces transfer     
their burden  to eight other men1 and   
thus successively transport it to the   
place where  the feast is celebrated1   
which may be near two miles from the    
village4  ,about nine o'clock the ,great
 ,sun comes out of his hut dressed in   
the  ornaments of his dignity1 and being
 placed in his litter1 which has a      
canopy at the head formed of flowers1 he

 is carried in a few minutes to  the    
sacred granary1 shouts of joy re-echoing
 on all sides4 ,before he  alights he   
makes the tour of the whole place       
deliberately1 and when he  comes before 
the corn1 he salutes it thrice with the 
words hoo1 hoo1  hoo1 lengthened and    
pronounced respectfully4 ,the salutation
 is repeated  by the whole nation1 who  
pronounce the word hoo nine times       
distinctly1  and at the ninth time he   
alights and places himself on his       
throne4    7,m#fc7 8,immediately after  
they light a fire by rubbing two pieces 
of wood  violently against each other1  
and when everything is prepared for     
dressing  the corn1 the chief of war1   
accompanied by the warriors belonging to
 each  family1 presents himself before  
the throne1 and addresses the ,sun in   
these  words1 #8,speak1 for ,i hear     
thee4' ,the sovereign then rises up1    
bows towards  the four quarters of the  
world1 and advancing to the granary1    
lifts his  eyes and hands to heaven1 and

 says1 ',give us corn'3 upon which the  
great  chief of war1 the princes and    
princesses1 and all the men1 thank him  
separately by pronouncing the word hoo4 
,the corn is then distributed1  first to
 the female ,suns1 and then to all the  
women1 who run with it to  their huts1  
and dress it with the utmost dispatch4  
,when the corn is  dressed in all the   
huts1 a plate of it is put into the     
hands of the ,great  ,sun1 who presents 
it to the four quarters of the world1   
and then says to  the chief of war1     
#8,eat'2 upon this signal the warriors  
begin to eat in all  the huts2 after    
them the boys of whatever age1 excepting
 those who are on  the breast2 and last 
of all the women4 ,when the warriors    
have finished  their repast1 they form  
themselves into two choirs before the   
huts1 and  sing war songs for half an   
hour2 after which the chief of war1 and 
all the  warriors in succession1 recount
 their brave exploits1 and mention1 in a
  boasting manner1 the number of enemies

 they have slain4 ,the youths are  next 
allowed to harangue1 and each tells in  
the best manner he can1 not  what he has
 done1 but what he intends to do2 and if
 his discourse merits  approbation1 he  
is answered by a general hoo2 if not1   
the warriors hang  down their heads and 
are silent4    7,m#fd7 8,this great     
solemnity is concluded with a general   
dance by  torch-light4 ,upwards of two  
hundred torches of dried canes1 each of 
the  thickness of a child1 are lighted  
round the place1 where the men and women
  often continue dancing till daylight2 
and the following is the disposition  of
 their dance4 ,a man places himself on  
the ground with a pot covered with  a   
deer-skin1 in the manner of a drum1 to  
beat time to the dancers2 round  him the
 women form themselves into a circle1   
not joining hands1 but at  some distance
 from each other2 and they are inclosed 
by the men in another  circle1 who have 
in each hand a chichicois1 or calabash1 
with a stick  thrust through it to serve

 for a handle4 ,when the dance begins1  
the women  move round the men in the    
centre1 from left to right1 and the men 
contrariwise from right to left1 and    
they sometimes narrow and sometimes     
widen their circles4 ,in this manner the
 dance continues without  intermission  
the whole night1 new performers         
successively taking the place  of those 
who are wearied and fatigued4    7,m#fe7
 8,next morning no person is seen abroad
 before the ,great ,sun comes  out of   
his hut1 which is generally about nine  
o'clock1 and then upon a  signal made by
 the drum1 the warriors make their      
appearance distinguished  into two      
troops1 by the feathers which they wear 
on their heads4 ,one of  these troops is
 headed by the ,great ,sun1 and the     
other by the chief of  war1 who begin a 
new diversion by tossing a ball of      
deer-skin stuffed with  ,spanish beard  
from the one to the other4 ,the warriors
 quickly take part in  the sport1 and a 
violent contest ensues which of the two 

parties shall  drive the ball to the hut
 of the opposite chief4 ,the diversion  
generally  lasts two hours1 and the     
victors are allowed to wear the feathers
 of  superiority till the following     
year1 or till the next time they play at
  the ball4 ,after this the warriors    
perform the war dance2 and last of all  
they go and bathe2 an exercise which    
they are very fond of when they are     
heated or fatigued4    8,the rest of    
that day is employed as the preceding2  
for the feast holds as  long as any of  
the corn remains4 ,when it is all eat   
up1 the ,great ,sun is  carried back in 
his litter1 and they all return to the  
village1 after  which he sends the      
warriors to hunt both for themselves and
 him407#bbe7    7,m#ff7 ,even tribes    
which do not till the ground sometimes  
observe analogous  ceremonies when they 
gather the first wild fruits or dig the 
first roots  of the season4 ,thus among 
the ,salish and ,tinneh ,indians of     
,north-,west  ,america1 8before the     

young people eat the first berries or   
roots of the  season1 they always       
addressed the fruit or plant1 and begged
 for its  favour and aid4 ,in some      
tribes regular ,first-fruit ceremonies  
were  annually held at the time of      
picking the wild fruit or gathering the 
roots1 and also among the salmon-eating 
tribes when the run of the  #8sockeye'  
salmon began4 ,these ceremonies were not
 so much thanksgivings1  as performances
 to ensure a plentiful crop or supply of
 the particular  object desired1 for if 
they were not properly and reverently   
carried out  there was danger of giving 
offence to the #8spirits' of the        
objects1 and  being deprived of them40  
,for example1 these ,indians are fond of
 the young  shoots or suckers of the    
wild raspberry1 and they observe the    
following  ceremony at gathering the    
first of them in season4 8,when the     
shoots are  ready to pick1 that is1 when
 they are about six or eight inches     
above the  ground1 the chief1 or        

directing elder of the community1       
instructs his wife  or his daughters to 
pluck a small bundle of these and       
prepare them for  eating4 ,this they do1
 using a new pot or kettle for cooking  
them in4 ,in  the meantime all the      
settlement comes together to take part  
in the  ceremony4 ,they stand in a great
 circle1 the presiding chief1 elder1 or 
medicine-man as the case may be1 and his
 assistants being in their midst4       
,whoever is conducting the ceremony now 
silently invokes the spirit of the      
plants1 the tenor of his prayer being   
that it will be propitious to them  and 
grant them a good supply of the suckers4
 ,while the invocation is being  made   
all in the circle must keep their eyes  
reverently closed1 this being  an       
essential part in all such ceremonies1  
the non-observance of which  would anger
 the spirits and cause them to withhold 
the favours sought4 ,to  ensure this    
being strictly done1 the assisting      
elders are armed with long  wands with  

which they strike any person found      
opening his eyes during the  prayer4    
,after this part of the ceremony is over
 the cooked suckers are  handed to the  
presiding officer in a newly carved     
dish1 and a small  portion is given to  
each person present1 who reverently and 
decorously  eats it4 ,this brings the   
ceremony to a close4 ,later1 when the   
berries of  this plant are ripe1 a      
second and similar ceremony takes       
place407#bbf7    7,m#fg7 ,the ,thompson 
,indians of ,british ,columbia cook and 
eat the sunflower  root 7,balsamorrhiza 
sagittata1 ,nutt471 but they used to    
regard it as a  mysterious being1 and   
observed a number of taboos in connexion
 with it2  for example1 women who were  
engaged in digging or cooking the root  
must  practise continence1 and no man   
might come near the oven where the women
  were baking the root4 ,when young     
people ate the first berries1 roots1 or 
other products of the season1 they      
addressed a prayer to the               

,sunflower-,root as follows3 8,i inform 
thee that ,i intend to eat thee4        
,mayest thou always help me to ascend1  
so that ,i may always be able to  reach 
the tops of mountains1 and may ,i never 
be clumsy6 ,i ask this from  thee1      
,sunflower-,root4 ,thou art the greatest
 of all in mystery40 ,to omit  this     
prayer would make the eater lazy and    
cause him to sleep long in the  morning4
 ,again1 when the first tobacco of the  
season was gathered and  smoked for the 
first time1 the inhabitants of each     
lodge among the  ,thompson ,indians     
observed the following ceremony4 ,an    
elderly man assembled  all the inmates1 
often outside the lodge and generally   
after sunset1 and  caused all the adult 
men and women1 who were in the habit of 
smoking1 to  sit down in a circle1 while
 he stood in the middle4 ,sometimes he  
made a  long speech to the people1 but  
as a rule he simply said1 8,be it known 
to  you that we will cut up the chief10 
meaning by the chief the tobacco4 ,so   

saying he cut up some of the tobacco1   
and after mixing it with bear-berry     
leaves he filled a large pipe1 lighted  
it1 and handed it to each person1       
following the sun's course4 ,everybody  
took one whiff1 and holding up his  or  
her hands1 the palms close together1    
blew the smoke downwards between  the   
fingers and over the breast2 and as the 
smoke descended1 he crossed  his hands  
on his breast1 and rubbing his chest and
 shoulders with both  hands1 as if he   
were rubbing the smoke in1 he prayed3   
8,lengthen my breath1  chief1 so that ,i
 may never be sick1 and so that ,i may  
not die for a long  time to come40 ,by  
the chief he meant the tobacco4 ,when   
every one had had  his whiff1 the       
tobacco was cut up small and a piece    
given to each  person47#bbg7    7,m#fh7 
,these customs of the ,thompson and     
other ,indian tribes of ,north-,west    
,america are instructive1 because they  
clearly indicate the motive1 or at      
least one of the motives1 which         

underlies the ceremonies observed at    
eating the first fruits of the season4  
,that motive in the case of these       
,indians is simply a belief that the    
plant itself is animated by a  conscious
 and more or less powerful spirit1 who  
must be propitiated before  the people  
can safely partake of the fruits or     
roots which are supposed to  be part of 
his body4 ,now if this is true of wild  
fruits and roots1 we may  infer with    
some probability that it is also true of
 cultivated fruits and  roots1 such as  
yams1 and in particular that it holds   
good of the cereals1  such as wheat1    
barley1 oats1 rice1 and maize4 ,in all  
cases it seems  reasonable to infer that
 the scruples which savages manifest at 
eating the  first fruits of any crop1   
and the ceremonies which they observe   
before  they overcome their scruples1   
are due at least in large measure to a  
notion that the plant or tree is        
animated by a spirit or even a deity1   
whose leave must be obtained1 or whose  

favour must be sought before it is      
possible to partake with safety of the  
new crop4 ,this indeed is plainly       
affirmed of the ,aino3 they call the    
millet 8the divine cereal10 8the  cereal
 deity10 and they pray to and worship   
him before they will eat of  the cakes  
made from the new millet47#bbh7 ,and    
even where the indwelling  divinity of  
the first fruits is not expressly       
affirmed1 it appears to be  implied both
 by the solemn preparations made for    
eating them and by the  danger supposed 
to be incurred by persons who venture to
 partake of them  without observing the 
prescribed ritual4 ,in all such cases1  
accordingly1  we may not improperly     
describe the eating of the new fruits as
 a sacrament  or communion with a deity1
 or at all events with a powerful       
spirit4    7,m#fi7 ,among the usages    
which point to this conclusion are the  
custom of  employing either new or      
specially reserved vessels to hold the  
new  fruits17#bbi7 and the practice of  

purifying the persons of the            
communicants  and even the houses and   
streets of the whole town1 before it is 
lawful to  engage in the solemn act of  
communion with the divinity47#bcj7 ,of  
all the  modes of purification adopted  
on these occasions none perhaps brings  
out  the sacramental virtue of the rite 
so clearly as the ,creek and ,seminole  
practice of taking a purgative before   
swallowing the new corn4 ,the  intention
 is thereby to prevent the sacred food  
from being polluted by  contact with    
common food in the stomach of the eater4
 ,for the same reason  ,catholics       
partake of the ,eucharist fasting2 and  
among the pastoral ,masai  of ,eastern  
,africa the young warriors1 who live on 
meat and milk  exclusively1 are obliged 
to eat nothing but milk for so many days
 and then  nothing but meat for so many 
more1 and before they pass from the one 
food  to the other they must make sure  
that none of the old food remains in    
their stomachs2 this they do by         

swallowing a very powerful purgative and
  emetic47#bca7 ,similarly1 among the   
,suk1 a tribe of ,british ,east ,africa1
 no  one may partake of meat and milk on
 the same day1 and if he has chewed raw 
millet he is forbidden to drink milk for
 seven days47#bcb7 ,among the           
,wataturu1 another people of ,eastern   
,africa akin to the ,masai1 a warrior   
who had eaten antelope's flesh might not
 drink of milk on the same  day47#bcc7  
,similarly among the ,central ,esquimaux
 the rules prohibiting  contact between 
venison and the flesh of marine animals 
are very strict4  ,the ,esquimaux       
themselves say that the goddess ,sedna  
dislikes the deer1 and  therefore they  
may not bring that animal into contact  
with her favourites1  the sea beasts4   
,hence the meat of the whale1 the seal1 
or the walrus may  not be eaten on the  
same day with venison4 ,both sorts of   
meat may not even  lie on the floor of  
the hut or behind the lamps at the same 
time4 ,if a man  who has eaten venison  

in the morning happens to enter a hut in
 which the  flesh of seal is being      
cooked1 he is allowed to eat venison on 
the bed1  but it must be wrapt up before
 being carried into the hut1 and he must
  take care to keep clear of the floor4 
,before changing from one food to the   
other the ,esquimaux must wash          
themselves47#bcd7 ,again1 just as the   
,esquimaux think that their goddess     
would be offended if venison met seal   
or whale or walrus meat in the eater's  
stomach1 so the ,melanesians of         
,florida1 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 
believe that if a man who has eaten     
pork or fish or shell-fish or the flesh 
of a certain sort of cuscus were  to    
enter a garden immediately afterwards1  
the ghosts who preside over the  garden 
and cause the fruits to grow would be   
angry and the crop would  consequently  
suffer2 but three or four days after    
partaking of such  victuals1 when the   
food has quite left his stomach1 he may 
enter the  garden without offence to the

 ghosts or injury to the crop47#bce7 ,in
 like  manner the ancient ,greeks1 of   
whose intellectual kinship with savages 
like  the ,esquimaux and the            
,melanesians we have already met with   
many proofs1  laid it down as a rule    
that a man who had partaken of the black
 ram  offered to ,pelops at ,olympia    
might not enter into the temple of      
,zeus1 and  that persons who had        
sacrificed to ,telephus at ,pergamus    
might not go up to  the temple of       
,aesculapius until they had washed      
themselves17#bcf7 just as  the          
,esquimaux who have eaten venison must  
wash before they may partake of  seal or
 whale or walrus meat4 ,again1 at       
,lindus in ,rhodes there was a          
sanctuary of some god or hero unknown   
into which no one who had partaken  of  
goat's flesh or peas-pudding might enter
 for three days1 and no one who  had    
eaten cheese might enter for one        
day47#bcg7 ,the prescribed interval was 
probably calculated to allow the        

obnoxious food to pass out of the body  
of  the eater before he entered into the
 presence of the deity1 who for some    
reason or other cherished an antipathy  
to these particular viands4 ,at         
,castabus in the ,carian ,chersonese    
there was a sanctuary of ,hemithea1     
which  no one might approach who had    
either eaten pork or touched a          
pig47#bch7    7,m#gj7 ,in some of the   
festivals which we have examined1 as in 
the  ,cheremiss1 ,buru1 ,cham1 ,ewe1 and
 ,creek ceremonies1 the sacrament of    
first-fruits is combined with a         
sacrifice or presentation of them to    
gods  or spirits17#bci7 and in course of
 time the sacrifice of first-fruits     
tends  to throw the sacrament into the  
shade1 if not to supersede it4 ,the mere
  fact of offering the first-fruits to  
the gods or spirits comes now to be     
thought a sufficient preparation for    
eating the new corn2 the higher  powers 
having received their share1 man is free
 to enjoy the rest4 ,this  mode of      

viewing the new fruits implies that they
 are regarded no longer as  themselves  
instinct with divine life1 but merely as
 a gift bestowed by the  gods upon man1 
who is bound to express his gratitude   
and homage to his  divine benefactors by
 returning to them a portion of their   
bounty4 ,more  examples of the          
sacrifice1 as distinct from sacrament1  
of first-fruits  will be given          
presently47#bdj7           #b4 ,eating  
the ,god among the ,aztecs4      7,m#ga7
 ,the custom of eating bread            
sacramentally as the body of a god was  
practised by the ,aztecs before the     
discovery and conquest of ,mexico by the
  ,spaniards4 ,twice a year1 in ,may and
 ,december1 an image of the great       
,mexican god ,huitzilopochtli or        
,vitzilipuztli was made of dough1 then  
broken in pieces1 and solemnly eaten by 
his worshippers4 ,the ,may ceremony  is 
thus described by the historian ,acosta3
 8,the ,mexicans in the month of  ,may  
made their principal feast to their god 

,vitzilipuztli1 and two days  before    
this feast1 the virgins whereof ,i have 
spoken 7the which were shut  up and     
secluded in the same temple and were as 
it were religious women7  did mingle a  
quantity of the seed of beets with      
roasted maize1 and then  they did mould 
it with honey1 making an idol of that   
paste in bigness like  to that of wood1 
putting instead of eyes grains of green 
glass1 of blue or  white2 and for teeth 
grains of maize set forth with all the  
ornament and  furniture that ,i have    
said4 ,this being finished1 all the     
noblemen came and  brought it an        
exquisite and rich garment1 like unto   
that of the idol1  wherewith they did   
attire it4 ,being thus clad and deckt1  
they did set it  in an azured chair and 
in a litter to carry it on their        
shoulders4 ,the  morning of this feast  
being come1 an hour before day all the  
maidens came  forth attired in white1   
with new ornaments1 the which that day  
were called  the ,sisters of their god  

,vitzilipuztli1 they came crowned with  
garlands of  maize roasted and parched1 
being like unto azahar or the flower of 
orange2  and about their necks they had 
great chains of the same1 which went    
bauldrickwise under their left arm4     
,their cheeks were dyed with vermilion1 
their arms from the elbow to the wrist  
were covered with red parrots'          
feathers40 ,young men1 dressed in red   
robes and crowned like the virgins  with
 maize1 then carried the idol in its    
litter to the foot of the great         
pyramid-shaped temple1 up the steep and 
narrow steps of which it was drawn  to  
the music of flutes1 trumpets1 cornets1 
and drums4 8,while they mounted  up the 
idol all the people stood in the court  
with much reverence and  fear4 ,being   
mounted to the top1 and that they had   
placed it in a little  lodge of roses   
which they held ready1 presently came   
the young men1 which  strewed many      
flowers of sundry kinds1 wherewith they 
filled the temple  both within and      

without4 ,this done1 all the virgins    
came out of their  convent1 bringing    
pieces of paste compounded of beets and 
roasted maize1  which was of the same   
paste whereof their idol was made and   
compounded1  and they were of the       
fashion of great bones4 ,they delivered 
them to the  young men1 who carried them
 up and laid them at the idol's feet1   
wherewith  they filled the whole place  
that it could receive no more4 ,they    
called  these morsels of paste the flesh
 and bones of ,vitzilipuztli4 ,having   
laid  abroad these bones1 presently came
 all the ancients of the temple1        
priests1 ,levites1 and all the rest of  
the ministers1 according to their       
dignities and antiquities 7for herein   
there was a strict order amongst  them7 
one after another1 with their veils of  
diverse colours and works1  every one   
according to his dignity and office1    
having garlands upon their  heads and   
chains of flowers about their necks2    
after them came their gods  and         

goddesses whom they worshipped1 of      
diverse figures1 attired in the  same   
livery2 then putting themselves in order
 about those morsels and  pieces of     
paste1 they used certain ceremonies with
 singing and dancing4 ,by  means whereof
 they were blessed and consecrated for  
the flesh and bones of  this idol4 ,this
 ceremony and blessing 7whereby they    
were taken for the  flesh and bones of  
the idol7 being ended1 they honoured    
those pieces in  the same sort as their 
god4    7,m#gb7 8,then come forth the   
sacrificers1 who began the sacrifice of 
men in  the manner as hath been spoken1 
and that day they did sacrifice a       
greater  number than at any other time1 
for that it was the most solemn feast   
they  observed4 ,the sacrifices being   
ended1 all the young men and maids came 
out  of the temple attired as before1   
and being placed in order and rank1 one 
directly against another1 they danced by
 drums1 the which sounded in  praise of 
the feast1 and of the idol which they   

did celebrate4 ,to which  song all the  
most ancient and greatest noblemen did  
answer dancing about  them1 making a    
great circle1 as their use is1 the young
 men and maids  remaining always in the 
midst4 ,all the city came to this goodly
 spectacle1  and there was a commandment
 very strictly observed throughout all  
the  land1 that the day of the feast of 
the idol of ,vitzilipuztli they should  
eat no other meat but this paste1 with  
honey1 whereof the idol was made4  ,and 
this should be eaten at the point of    
day1 and they should drink no  water nor
 any other thing till after noon3 they  
held it for an ill sign1  yea1 for      
sacrilege to do the contrary3 but after 
the ceremonies ended1 it  was lawful for
 them to eat anything4 ,during the time 
of this ceremony they  hid the water    
from their little children1 admonishing 
all such as had the  use of reason not  
to drink any water2 which1 if they did1 
the anger of ,god  would come upon them1
 and they should die1 which they did    

observe very  carefully and strictly4   
,the ceremonies1 dancing1 and sacrifice 
ended1 they  went to unclothe           
themselves1 and the priests and         
superiors of the temple  took the idol  
of paste1 which they spoiled of all the 
ornaments it had1  and made many pieces1
 as well of the idol itself as of the   
truncheons  which they consecrated1 and 
then they gave them to the people in    
manner of  a communion1 beginning with  
the greater1 and continuing unto the    
rest1  both men1 women1 and little      
children1 who received it with such     
tears1  fear1 and reverence as it was an
 admirable thing1 saying that they did  
eat  the flesh and bones of ,god1       
wherewith they were grieved4 ,such as   
had any  sick folks demanded thereof for
 them1 and carried it with great        
reverence  and veneration407#bda7       
7,m#gc7 ,from this interesting passage  
we learn that the ancient ,mexicans1    
even before the arrival of ,christian   
missionaries1 were fully acquainted     

with the theological doctrine of        
transubstantiation and acted upon it in 
the solemn rites of their religion4     
,they believed that by consecrating     
bread their priests could turn it into  
the very body of their god1 so that  all
 who thereupon partook of the           
consecrated bread entered into a mystic 
communion with the deity by receiving a 
portion of his divine substance  into   
themselves4 ,the doctrine of            
transubstantiation1 or the magical      
conversion of bread into flesh1 was also
 familiar to the ,aryans of ancient     
,india long before the spread and even  
the rise of ,christianity4 ,the         
,brahmans taught that the rice-cakes    
offered in sacrifice were substitutes   
for human beings1 and that they were    
actually converted into the real  bodies
 of men by the manipulation of the      
priest4 ,we read that 8when it  7the    
rice-cake7 still consists of rice-meal1 
it is the hair4 ,when he pours  water on
 it1 it becomes skin4 ,when he mixes it1

 it becomes flesh3 for then  it becomes 
consistent2 and consistent also is the  
flesh4 ,when it is baked1  it becomes   
bone3 for then it becomes somewhat hard2
 and hard is the bone4  ,and when he is 
about to take it off 7the fire7 and     
sprinkles it with  butter1 he changes it
 into marrow4 ,this is the completeness 
which they  call the fivefold animal    
sacrifice407#bdb7 ,these remarkable     
transformations1 daily wrought by the   
priest1 on the rice-wafer1 were1        
however1 nothing at all to those which  
the gods themselves accomplished  when  
they first instituted the rite4 ,for the
 horse and the ox which they  sacrificed
 became a bos gaurus and a gayal        
respectively2 the sheep was  turned into
 a camel2 and the goat was converted    
into a remarkable species  of deer1     
enriched with eight legs1 which slew    
lions and elephants47#bdc7 ,on  the     
whole it would seem that neither the    
ancient ,hindoos nor the ancient        
,mexicans had much to learn from the    

most refined mysteries of ,catholic     
theology4    7,m#gd7 ,now1 too1 we can  
perfectly understand why on the day of  
their solemn  communion with the deity  
the ,mexicans refused to eat any other  
food than  the consecrated bread which  
they revered as the very flesh and bones
 of  their ,god1 and why up till noon   
they might drink nothing at all1 not    
even  water4 ,they feared no doubt to   
defile the portion of ,god in their     
stomachs  by contact with common things4
 ,a similar pious fear led the ,creek   
and  ,seminole ,indians1 as we saw1 to  
adopt the more thoroughgoing expedient  
of  rinsing out their insides by a      
strong purgative before they dared to   
partake of the sacrament of             
first-fruits47#bdd7 ,we can now also    
conjecture  the reason why ,zulu boys1  
after eating the flesh of the black bull
 at the  feast of first-fruits1 are     
forbidden to drink anything till the    
next  day47#bde7    7,m#ge7 ,at the     
festival of the winter solstice in      

,december the ,aztecs killed  their god 
,huitzilopochtli in effigy first and ate
 him afterwards4 ,as a  preparation for 
this solemn ceremony an image of the    
deity in the likeness  of a man was     
fashioned out of seeds of various sorts1
 which were kneaded  into a dough with  
the blood of children4 ,the bones of the
 god were  represented by pieces of     
acacia wood4 ,this image was placed on  
the chief  altar of the temple1 and on  
the day of the festival the king offered
  incense to it4 ,early next day it was 
taken down and set on its feet in a     
great hall4 ,then a priest1 who bore the
 name and acted the part of the god     
,quetzalcoatl1 took a flint-tipped dart 
and hurled it into the breast of  the   
dough-image1 piercing it through and    
through4 ,this was called 8killing  the 
god ,huitzilopochtli so that his body   
might be eaten40 ,one of the  priests   
cut out the heart of the image and gave 
it to the king to eat4 ,the  rest of the
 image was divided into minute pieces1  

of which every man great  and small1    
down to the male children in the cradle1
 received one to eat4  ,but no woman    
might taste a morsel4 ,the ceremony was 
called teoqualo1  that is1 8god is      
eaten407#bdf7    7,m#gf7 ,at another    
festival the ,mexicans made little      
images like men1 which  stood for the   
cloud-capped mountains4 ,these images   
were moulded of a paste  of various     
seeds and were dressed in paper         
ornaments4 ,some people  fashioned five1
 others ten1 others as many as fifteen  
of them4 ,having been  made1 they were  
placed in the oratory of each house and 
worshipped4 ,four  times in the course  
of the night offerings of food were     
brought to them in  tiny vessels2 and   
people sang and played the flute before 
them through all  the hours of darkness4
 ,at break of day the priests stabbed   
the images with  a weaver's instrument1 
cut off their heads1 and tore out their 
hearts1  which they presented to the    
master of the house on a green saucer4  

,the  bodies of the images were then    
eaten by all the family1 especially by  
the  servants1 8in order that by eating 
them they might be preserved from       
certain distempers1 to which those      
persons who were negligent of worship   
to those deities conceived themselves to
 be subject407#bdg7 ,in some cities  of 
,mexico1 as in ,tlacopan and            
,coyohuacan1 an idol was fashioned out  
of  grains of various kinds1 and the    
warriors ate it in the belief that the  
sacred food would increase their forces 
fourfold when they marched to the       
fight47#bdh7 ,at certain festivals held 
thrice a year in ,nicaragua all the     
men1 beginning with the priests and     
chiefs1 drew blood from their tongues   
and genital organs with sharp knives of 
flint1 allowed it to drip on some       
sheaves of maize1 and then ate the      
bloody grain as a blessed food47#bdi7   
7,m#gg7 ,but the ,mexicans did not      
always content themselves with eating   
their  gods in the outward and visible  

shape of bread or grain2 it was not even
  enough that this material vehicle of  
the divine life should be kneaded and   
fortified with human blood4 ,they       
craved1 as it seems1 after a closer     
union  with the living god1 and attained
 it by devouring the flesh of a real    
man1  who1 after he had paraded for a   
time in the trappings and received the  
honours of a god1 was slaughtered and   
eaten by his cannibal worshippers4  ,the
 deity thus consumed in effigy was      
,tetzcatlipoca1 and the man chosen to   
represent him and die in his stead was a
 young captive of handsome person  and  
illustrious birth4 ,during his captivity
 the youth thus doomed to play  the     
fatal part of divinity was allowed to   
range the streets of ,mexico  freely1   
escorted by a distinguished train1 who  
paid him as much respect as  if he had  
been indeed the god himself instead of  
only his living image4  ,twenty days    
before the festival at which the tragic 
mockery was to end1  that he might taste

 all the joys of this transient world to
 which he must  soon bid farewell1 he   
received in marriage four women1 from   
whom he parted  only when he took his   
place in the last solemn procession4    
,arrived at the  foot of the sacred     
pyramid on the top of which he was to   
die1 the  sacrificers saluted him and   
led him up the long staircase4 ,on the  
summit  five of them seized him and held
 him down on his back upon the          
sacrificial  stone1 while the high      
priest1 after bowing to the god he was  
about to  kill1 cut open his breast and 
tore out the throbbing heart with the   
accustomed rites4 ,but instead of being 
kicked down the staircase and sent      
rolling from step to step like the      
corpses of common victims1 the body of  
the dead god was carried respectfully   
down1 and his flesh1 chopped up  small1 
was distributed among the priests and   
nobles as a blessed food4 ,the  head1   
being severed from the trunk1 was       
preserved in a sacred place along  with 

the white and grinning skulls of all the
 other victims who had lived  and died  
in the character of the god             
,tetzcatlipoca47#bej7    7,m#gh7 ,the   
custom of entering into communion with a
 god by eating of his  effigy survived  
till lately among the ,huichol ,indians 
of ,mexico4 ,in a  narrow valley1 at the
 foot of a beetling crag of red rock1   
they have a  small thatched temple of   
the ,god of fire1 and here down to      
recent years  stood a small image of the
 deity in human form roughly carved out 
of  solidified volcanic ash4 ,the idol  
was very dirty and smeared with blood1  
and in his right side was a hole1 which 
owed its existence to the piety  and    
devotion of his worshippers4 ,for they  
believed that the power of  healing and 
a knowledge of mysteries could be       
acquired by eating a little  of the     
god's holy body1 and accordingly        
shamans1 or medicine-men1 who  desired  
to lay in a stock of these              
accomplishments1 so useful in the       

exercise of their profession1 were wont 
to repair to the temple1 where1  having 
deposited an offering of food or a      
votive bowl1 they scraped off  with     
their finger-nails some particles of the
 god's body and swallowed  them4 ,after 
engaging in this form of communion with 
the deity they had to  abstain from salt
 and from all carnal converse with their
 wives for five  months47#bea7 ,again1  
the ,malas1 a caste of pariahs in       
,southern ,india1  communicate with the 
goddess ,sunkalamma by eating her       
effigy4 ,the  communion takes place at  
marriage4 ,an image of the goddess in   
the form of  a truncated cone is made   
out of rice and green grain cooked      
together1 and  it is decorated with a   
nose jewel1 garlands1 and other         
religious symbols4  ,offerings of rice1 
frankincense1 camphor1 and a coco-nut   
are then made to  the image1 and a ram  
or he-goat is sacrificed4 ,after the    
sacrifice has  been presented1 all the  
persons assembled prostrate themselves  

in silence  before the image1 then they 
break it in pieces1 and distributing the
  pieces among themselves they swallow  
them4 ,in this way they are1 no doubt1  
believed to absorb the divine essence of
 the goddess whose broken body has  just
 passed into their stomachs47#beb7 ,in  
,europe the ,catholic ,church has       
resorted to similar means for enabling  
the pious to enjoy the ineffable        
privilege of eating the persons of the  
,infant ,god and his ,mother4 ,for this 
purpose images of the ,madonna are      
printed on some soluble and harmless    
substance and sold in sheets like       
postage stamps4 ,the worshipper buys as 
many of these sacred emblems as he has  
occasion for1 and affixing one or  more 
of them to his food swallows the bolus4 
,the practice is not confined  to the   
poor and ignorant4 ,in his youth ,count 
von ,hoensbroech and his  devout mother 
used thus to consume portions of ,god   
and his ,mother with  their meals47#bec7
           #c4 ,many ,manii at ,aricia4 

7,m#gi7 ,we are now able to suggest an  
explanation of the proverb 8,there are  
many ,manii at ,aricia407#bed7 ,certain 
loaves made in the shape of men were    
called by the ,romans maniae1 and it    
appears that this kind of loaf was      
especially made at ,aricia47#bee7 ,now1 
,mania1 the name of one of these        
loaves1 was also the name of the ,mother
 or ,grandmother of ,ghosts17#bef7 to   
whom woollen effigies of men and women  
were dedicated at the festival of  the  
,compitalia4 ,these effigies were hung  
at the doors of all the houses in       
,rome2 one effigy was hung up for every 
free person in the house1 and one       
effigy1 of a different kind1 for every  
slave4 ,the reason was that on this  day
 the ghosts of the dead were believed to
 be going about1 and it was  hoped that1
 either out of good nature or through   
simple inadvertence1 they  would carry  
off the effigies at the door instead of 
the living people in  the house4        
,according to tradition1 these woollen  

figures were substitutes  for a former  
custom of sacrificing human             
beings47#beg7 ,upon data so  fragmentary
 and uncertain1 it is impossible to     
build with confidence2 but  it seems    
worth suggesting that the loaves in     
human form1 which appear to  have been  
baked at ,aricia1 were sacramental      
bread1 and that in the old  days1 when  
the divine ,king of the ,wood was       
annually slain1 loaves were  made in his
 image1 like the paste figures of the   
gods in ,mexico1 ,india1  and ,europe1  
and were eaten sacramentally by his     
worshippers47#beh7 ,the  ,mexican       
sacraments in honour of ,huitzilopochtli
 were also accompanied by  the sacrifice
 of human victims4 ,the tradition that  
the founder of the  sacred grove at     
,aricia was a man named ,manius1 from   
whom many ,manii were  descended1 would 
thus be an etymological myth invented to
 explain the name  maniae as applied to 
these sacramental loaves4 ,a dim        
recollection of the  original connexion 

of the loaves with human sacrifices may 
perhaps be  traced in the story that the
 effigies dedicated to ,mania at the    
,compitalia  were substitutes for human 
victims4 ,the story itself1 however1 is 
probably  devoid of foundation1 since   
the practice of putting up dummies to   
divert  the attention of ghosts or      
demons from living people is not        
uncommon4 ,as  the practice is both     
widely spread and very characteristic of
 the manner  of thought of primitive    
man1 who tries in a thousand ways to    
outwit the  malice of spiritual beings1 
,i may be pardoned for devoting a few   
pages to  its illustration1 even though 
in doing so ,i diverge somewhat from the
  strict line of argument4 ,i would ask 
the reader to observe that the          
vicarious use of images1 with which we  
are here concerned1 differs wholly  in  
principle from the sympathetic use of   
them which we examined  before27#bei7   
and that while the sympathetic use      
belongs purely to magic1  the vicarious 

use falls within the domain of religion4
    7,m#hj7 ,the ,tibetans stand in fear
 of innumerable earth-demons1 all of    
whom  are under the authority of ,old   
,mother ,khn-ma4 ,this goddess1 who may 
be  compared to the ,roman ,mania1 the  
,mother or ,grandmother of ,ghosts1 is  
dressed in golden-yellow robes1 holds a 
golden noose in her hand1 and  rides on 
a ram4 ,in order to bar the             
dwelling-house against the foul  fiends1
 of whom ,old ,mother ,khn-ma is        
mistress1 an elaborate structure        
somewhat resembling a chandelier is     
fixed above the door on the outside of  
the house4 ,it contains a ram's skull1 a
 variety of precious objects such  as   
gold-leaf1 silver1 and turquoise1 also  
some dry food1 such as rice1  wheat1 and
 pulse1 and finally images or pictures  
of a man1 a woman1 and a  house4 8,the  
object of these figures of a man1 wife1 
and house is to  deceive the demons     
should they still come in spite of this 
offering1 and  to mislead them into the 

belief that the foregoing pictures are  
the  inmates of the house1 so that they 
may wreak their wrath on these bits of  
wood and so save the real human         
occupants40 ,when all is ready1 a priest
  prays to ,old ,mother ,khn-ma that she
 would be pleased to accept these       
dainty offerings and to close the open  
doors of the earth1 in order that  the  
demons may not come forth to infest and 
injure the household47#bfj7    7,m#ha7  
,further1 it is often supposed that the 
spirits of persons who have  recently   
departed this life are apt to carry off 
with them to the world of  the dead the 
souls of their surviving relations4     
,hence the savage resorts  to the device
 of making up of dummies or effigies    
which he puts in the way  of the ghost1 
hoping that the dull-witted spirit will 
mistake them for  real people and so    
leave the survivors in peace4 ,hence in 
,tahiti the  priest who performed the   
funeral rites used to lay some slips of 
plantain  leaf-stalk on the breast and  

under the arms of the corpse1 saying1   
8,there  are your family1 there is your 
child1 there is your wife1 there is your
  father1 and there is your mother4 ,be 
satisfied yonder 7that is1 in the  world
 of spirits74 ,look not towards those   
who are left in the world40 ,this       
ceremony1 we are told1 was designed 8to 
impart contentment to the  departed1 and
 to prevent the spirit from repairing to
 the places of his  former resort1 and  
so distressing the survivors407#bfa7    
,when the  ,galelareese bury a corpse1  
they bury with it the stem of a         
banana-tree for  company1 in order that 
the dead person may not seek a companion
 among the  living4 ,just as the coffin 
is being lowered into the earth1 one of 
the  bystanders steps up and throws a   
young banana-tree into the grave1       
saying1  8,friend1 you must miss your   
companions of this earth2 here1 take    
this as a  comrade407#bfb7 ,in the      
,banks ,islands1 ,melanesia1 the ghost  
of a woman who  has died in childbed    

cannot go away to ,panoi or ghost-land  
if her child  lives1 for she cannot     
leave the baby behind4 ,hence to bilk   
her ghost they  tie up a piece of       
banana-trunk loosely in leaves and lay  
it on her bosom  in the grave4 ,so away 
she goes1 thinking she has her baby with
 her1 and as  she goes the banana-stalk 
keeps slipping about in the leaves1 and 
she  fancies it is the child stirring at
 her breast4 ,thus she is happy1 till   
she comes to ghost-land and finds she   
has been deceived2 for a baby of        
banana-stalk cannot pass muster among   
the ghosts4 ,so back she comes  tearing 
in grief and rage to look for the child2
 but meantime the infant  has been      
artfully removed to another house1 where
 the dead mother cannot  find it1 though
 she looks for it everywhere47#bfc7 ,in 
the ,pelew ,islands1  when a woman has  
died in childbed1 her spirit comes and  
cries1 8,give me  the child60 ,so to    
beguile her they bury the stem of a     
young banana-tree  with her body1       

cutting it short and laying it between  
her right arm and  her breast47#bfd7    
,the same device is adopted for the same
 purpose in the  island of ,timor47#bfe7
 ,in like circumstances negroes of the  
,niger ,delta  force a piece of the stem
 of a plantain into the womb of the dead
 mother1  in order to make her think    
that she has her babe with her and so to
  prevent her spirit from coming back to
 claim the living child47#bff7 ,among   
the ,yorubas of ,west ,africa1 when one 
of twins dies1 the mother carries       
about1 along with the surviving child1 a
 small wooden figure roughly  fashioned 
in human shape and of the sex of the    
dead twin4 ,this figure is  intended not
 merely to keep the live child from     
pining for its lost  comrade1 but also  
to give the spirit of the dead child    
something into  which it can enter      
without disturbing its little brother or
 sister47#bfg7  ,among the ,tschwi of   
,west ,africa a lady observed a sickly  
child with an  image beside it which she

 took for a doll4 ,but it was no doll1  
it was an  effigy of the child's dead   
twin which was being kept near the      
survivor as  a habitation for the little
 ghost1 lest it should wander homeless  
and1  feeling lonely1 call its companion
 away after it along the dark road of   
death47#bfh7    7,m#hb7 ,at ,onitsha1 a 
town on the left bank of the ,niger1 a  
missionary once  met a funeral          
procession which he describes as very   
singular4 ,the real  body had already   
been buried in the house1 but a piece of
 wood in the form  of a sofa and covered
 up was being borne by two persons on   
their heads1  attended by a procession  
of six men and six women4 ,the men      
carried  cutlasses and the women clapped
 their hands as they passed along each  
street1 crying1 8,this is the dead body 
of him that is dead1 and is gone  into  
the world of spirits40 ,meantime the    
rest of the villagers had to keep       
indoors47#bfi7 ,the sham corpse was     
probably intended as a lure to draw away

  prowling demons from the real body4   
,so among the ,angoni1 who inhabit the  
western bank of ,lake ,nyassa1 there is 
a common belief that demons hover  about
 the dying and dead before burial in    
order to snatch away their souls  to    
join their own evil order4 ,guns are    
fired and drums are beaten to repel     
these spiritual foes1 but a surer way of
 baulking their machinations is to  have
 a mock funeral and so mislead and      
confound them4 ,a sham corpse is  made  
up out of anything that comes to hand1  
and it is treated exactly as  if it were
 what it pretends to be4 ,this lay      
figure is then carried some  distance to
 a grave1 followed by a great crowd     
weeping and wailing as if  their hearts 
would break1 while the rub-a-dub of     
drums and the discharge  of guns add to 
the uproar4 ,meantime the real corpse is
 being interred as  quietly and         
stealthily as possible near the house4  
,thus the demons are  baffled2 for when 
the dummy corpse has been laid in the   

earth with every  mark of respect1 and  
the noisy crowd has dispersed1 the      
fiends swoop down  on the mock grave    
only to find a bundle of rushes or some 
such trash in  it2 but the true grave   
they do not know and cannot find47#bgj7 
,similarly  among the ,bakundu of the   
,cameroons two graves are always made1  
one in the  hut of the deceased and     
another somewhere else1 and no one knows
 where the  corpse is really buried4    
,the custom is apparently intended to   
guard the  knowledge of the real grave  
from demons1 who might make an ill use  
of the  body1 if not of the soul1 of the
 departed47#bga7 ,in like manner the    
,kamilaroi tribe of ,australia are      
reported to make two graves1 a real one 
and an empty one1 for the purpose of    
cheating a malevolent spirit called     
,krooben47#bgb7 ,so1 too1 some of the   
,nagas of ,assam dig two graves1 a sham 
grave made conspicuous on purpose to    
attract the notice of the evil  spirits1
 and the real grave made inconspicuous  

to escape their attention3  a figure is 
set up over the false grave47#bgc7 ,isis
 is said to have made  many false graves
 of the dead ,osiris in ,egypt in order 
that his foe ,typhon  might not be able 
to find the true one47#bgd7 ,in ,bombay1
 if a person dies  on an unlucky day1 a 
dough figure of a man is carried on the 
bier with him  and burnt with his       
corpse4 ,this is supposed to hinder a   
second death from  occurring in the     
family17#bge7 probably because the      
demons are thought to  take the dough   
figure instead of a real person4        
7,m#hc7 ,again1 effigies are often      
employed as a means of preventing or    
curing sickness2 the demons of disease  
either mistake the effigies for  living 
people or are persuaded or compelled to 
enter them1 leaving the  real men and   
women well and whole47#bgf7 ,thus the   
,alfoors of ,minahassa1 in  ,celebes1   
will sometimes transport a sick man to  
another house1 while they  leave on his 
bed a dummy made up of a pillow and     

clothes4 ,this dummy the  demon is      
supposed to mistake for the sick man1   
who consequently  recovers47#bgg7 ,cure 
or prevention of this sort seems to find
 especial  favour with the ,dyaks of    
,borneo4 ,thus1 when an epidemic is     
raging among  them1 the ,dyaks of the   
,katoengouw river set up wooden images  
at their  doors in the hope that the    
demons of the plague may be deluded into
  carrying off the effigies instead of  
the people47#bgh7 ,among the ,oloh      
,ngadju of ,borneo1 when a sick man is  
supposed to be suffering from the       
assaults of a ghost1 puppets of dough or
 rice-meal are made and thrown  under   
the house as substitutes for the        
patient1 who thus rids himself of  the  
ghost4 ,so if a man has been attacked by
 a crocodile and has contrived  to      
escape1 he makes a puppet of dough or   
meal and casts it into the water  as a  
vicarious offering2 otherwise the       
water-god1 who is conceived in the      
shape of a crocodile1 might be          

angry47#bgi7 ,in certain of the western 
districts of ,borneo if a man is taken  
suddenly and violently sick1 the        
physician1 who in this part of the world
 is generally an old woman1  fashions a 
wooden image and brings it seven times  
into contact with the  sufferer's head1 
while she says3 8,this image serves to  
take the place of  the sick man2        
sickness1 pass over into the image40    
,then1 with some rice1  salt1 and       
tobacco in a little basket1 the         
substitute is carried to the  spot where
 the evil spirit is supposed to have    
entered into the man4 ,there  it is set 
upright on the ground1 after the        
physician has invoked the  spirit as    
follows3 8,o devil1 here is an image    
which stands instead of the  sick man4  
,release the soul of the sick man and   
plague the image1 for it is  indeed     
prettier and better than he40 ,similar  
substitutes are used almost  daily by   
these ,dyaks for the purpose of drawing 
off evil influences from  anybody's     

person4 ,thus1 when an ,ot ,danom baby  
will not stop squalling1 its  maternal  
grandmother takes a large leaf1 fashions
 it into a puppet to  represent the     
child1 and presses it against the       
infant's body4 ,having thus  decanted   
the spirit1 so to speak1 from the baby  
into the puppet1 she  pierces the effigy
 with little arrows from a blow-gun1    
thereby killing the  spirit that had    
vexed her child47#bhj7 ,similarly in the
 island of ,dama1  between ,new ,guinea 
and ,celebes1 where sickness is ascribed
 to the agency  of demons1 the doctor   
makes a doll of palm-leaf and lays it1  
together with  some betel1 rice1 and    
half of an empty eggshell1 on the       
patient's head4  ,lured by this bait the
 demon quits the sufferer's body and    
enters the  palm-leaf doll1 which the   
wily doctor thereupon promptly          
decapitates4 ,this  may reasonably be   
supposed to make an end of the demon and
 of the sickness  together47#bha7 ,a    
,dyak sorcerer1 being called in to      

prescribe for a little  boy who suffered
 from a disorder of the stomach1        
constructed two effigies  of the boy and
 his mother out of bundles of clothes   
and offered them1  together with some of
 the parents' finery1 to the devil who  
was plaguing  the child2 it was hoped   
that the demon would take the effigies  
and leave  the boy47#bhb7 ,batta        
magicians can conjure the demon of      
disease out of the  patient's body into 
an image made out of a banana-tree with 
a human face  and wrapt up in magic     
herbs2 the image is then hurriedly      
removed and  thrown away or buried      
beyond the boundaries of the            
village47#bhc7 ,sometimes  the image1   
dressed as a man or a woman according to
 the sex of the  patient1 is deposited  
at a cross-road or other thoroughfare1  
in the hope  that some passer-by1 seeing
 it1 may start and cry out1 8,ah6       
,so-and-,so is  dead02 for such an      
exclamation is supposed to delude the   
demon of disease  into a belief that he 

has accomplished his fell purpose1 so he
 takes  himself off and leaves the      
sufferer to get well47#bhd7 ,the ,mai   
,darat1 a  ,sakai tribe of the ,malay   
,peninsula1 attribute all kinds of      
diseases to the  agency of spirits which
 they call nyani2 fortunately1 however1 
the  magician can induce these          
maleficent beings to come out of the    
sick person  and take up their abode in 
rude figures of grass1 which are hung up
  outside the houses in little          
bell-shaped shrines decorated with      
peeled  sticks47#bhe7    7,m#hd7 ,in the
 island of ,nias people fear that the   
spirits of murdered  infants may come   
and cause women with child to miscarry4 
,to divert the  unwelcome attention of  
these sprites from a pregnant woman an  
elaborate  mechanism has been contrived4
 ,a potent idol called ,fangola is set  
up  beside her bed to guard her slumbers
 during the hours of darkness from the  
evil things that might harm her2 another
 idol1 connected with the first by  a   

chain of palm-leaves1 is erected in the 
large room of the house2 and  lastly a  
small banana-tree is planted in front of
 the second idol4 ,the  notion is that  
the sprites1 scared away by the watchful
 ,fangola from the  sleeping woman1 will
 scramble along the chain of palm-leaves
 to the other  idol1 and then1 beholding
 the banana-tree1 will mistake it for   
the woman  they were looking for1 and so
 pounce upon it instead of her47#bhf7   
,in  ,bhutan1 when the ,lamas make noisy
 music to drive away the demon who is   
causing disease1 little models of       
animals are fashioned of flour and      
butter and the evil spirit is implored  
to enter these models1 which are  then  
burnt47#bhg7 ,so in ,tibet1 when a man  
is very ill and all other  remedies have
 failed1 his friends will sometimes1 as 
a last resort1 offer  an image of him   
with some of his clothes to the ,lord of
 ,death1 beseeching  that august        
personage to accept the image and spare 
the man47#bhh7 ,a  ,burmese mode of     

curing a sick man is to bury a small    
effigy of him in a  tiny coffin1 after  
which he ought certainly to             
recover47#bhi7 ,in ,siam1 when  a person
 is dangerously ill1 the magician models
 a small image of him in  clay and      
carrying it away to a solitary place    
recites charms over it which  compel the
 malady to pass from the sick man into  
the image4 ,the sorcerer  then buries   
the image1 and the sufferer is made     
whole47#bij7 ,so1 too1 in  ,cambodia the
 doctor fashions a rude effigy of his   
patient in clay and  deposits it in some
 lonely spot1 where the ghost or demon  
takes it instead  of the man47#bia7 ,the
 same ideas and the same practices      
prevail much  further to the north among
 the tribes on the lower course of the  
,river  ,amoor4 ,when a ,goldi or a     
,gilyak shaman has cast out the devil   
that caused  disease1 an abode has to be
 provided for the homeless devil1 and   
this is  done by making a wooden idol in
 human form of which the ejected demon  

takes possession47#bib7    7,m#he7 ,the 
,chinese of ,amoy make great use of     
cheap effigies as means of  diverting   
ghostly and other evil influence from   
people4 ,these effigies are  kept in    
stock and sold in the shops which purvey
 counterfeit paper money  and other     
spurious wares for the use of           
simple-minded ghosts and gods1 who      
accept them in all good faith instead of
 the genuine articles4 ,nothing  could  
well be cruder than the puppets that are
 employed to relieve  sufferers from the
 many ills which flesh is heir to4 ,they
 are composed of  two bamboo splinters  
fastened together crosswise with a piece
 of paper  pasted on one side to        
represent a human body4 ,two other      
shreds of paper1  supposed to stand for 
boots1 distinguish the effigy of a man  
from the  effigy of a woman4 ,armed with
 one of these 8substitutes for a        
person10 as  they are called1 you may   
set fortune at defiance4 ,if a member of
 your  family1 for example1 is ailing1  

or has suffered any evil whatever1 or   
even  is merely threatened by           
misfortune1 all that you have to do is  
to send for  one of these puppets1 pass 
it all over his body while you recite an
  appropriate spell1 and then burn the  
puppet4 ,the maleficent influence is    
thus elicited from the person of the    
sufferer and destroyed once for all4    
,if your child has tumbled into one of  
those open sewers which yawn for the    
unwary in the streets1 you need only    
fish him out1 pass the puppet over  his 
filthy little body1 and say3 8,this     
contact 7of the substitute7 with  the   
front of the body brings purity and     
prosperity1 and the contact with  the   
back gives power to eat till an old1    
old1 old age2 the contact with  the left
 side establishes well-being for years  
and years1 and the contact  with the    
right side bestows longevity2 happy     
fate1 come6 ill fate1 be  transferred to
 the substitute60 ,so saying you burn   
the substitute1 by  choice near the     

unsavoury spot where the accident       
happened2 and if you are  a careful man 
you will fetch a pail of water and wash 
the ashes away4  ,moreover1 the child's 
head should be shaven quite clean2 but  
if the  sufferer was an adult1 it is    
enough to lay bare with the razor a     
small  patch on his scalp to let out the
 evil influence47#bic7 ,in ,corea       
effigies  are employed on much the same 
principle for the purpose of prolonging 
life4 ,on the fourteenth and the        
fifteenth day of the first month all men
  and women born under the ,jen or      
8,man0 star make certain straw images   
dressed in clothes and containing a     
number of the copper cash which form    
the currency of the country4 ,strictly  
speaking1 there should be as many  cash 
in the image as the person whom it      
represents has lived years2 but  the    
rule is not strictly observed4 ,these   
images are placed on the path  outside  
the house1 and the poor people seize    
them and tear them up in  order to get  

the cash which they contain4 ,the       
destruction of the image is  supposed to
 save the person represented from death 
for ten years4  ,accordingly the        
ceremony need only be performed once in 
ten years1 though  some people from     
excess of caution appear to observe it  
annually47#bid7    7,m#hf7 ,the         
,abchases of the ,caucasus believe that 
sickness is sometimes  caused by ,mother
 ,earth4 ,so in order to appease her and
 redeem the life of  the sick man1 an   
innocent maiden will make a puppet in   
human form1 richly  clad1 and bury it in
 the earth1 saying1 8,instead of the    
sick man1 play and  delight yourself    
with this407#bie7 ,the ,ewe negroes of  
,togoland1 in ,west  ,africa1 think that
 the spirits of all living people come  
from heaven1  where they live in the    
intervals between their incarnations4   
,life in  ,amedzowe1 as they call that  
heavenly region1 which lies a little to 
the  east of the town of ,ho1 is very   
like life on earth4 ,there are fields   

there  and wildernesses and forests4    
,also there are all kinds of food1 such 
as  yams and maize and likewise         
stock-yams1 not to speak of cotton2 in  
fact1  all these things came from heaven
 just as men themselves did4 ,moreover1 
everybody has his spiritual mother in   
heaven and his spiritual aunt1 also  his
 spiritual uncle1 his spiritual         
grandfather1 and so on1 just as on      
earth4 ,now the spirits in heaven are   
apt to resent it when one of their      
number quits them to go and be born as a
 child on earth2 and sometimes  they    
will pursue the truant and carry him    
back to the celestial country1  and that
 is what we call death4 ,little children
 are most commonly fetched  away by     
their mother in heaven2 for she wearies 
for them and comes and  lays an         
invisible hand on the child1 and it     
sickens and dies4 ,if you hear  a child 
whimpering of nights1 you may be sure   
that its mother from heaven  has laid   
her hand on it and is drawing it away to

 herself4 ,if the child  grows very sick
 and its earthly mother fears that it   
will die1 she will  mould two figures of
 clay1 a man and a woman1 and offer them
 in exchange  to the heavenly mother1   
saying1 8,o thou bearer and mother of   
children6  instead of the child that has
 gone away from thee we bring thee here 
in  exchange these clay men4 ,take them 
and withdraw thy hand from the child in 
this visible world40 ,grown-up people   
also1 when they fall sick1 will         
sometimes make images of clay and offer 
them as substitutes to the  messengers  
who have come from heaven to fetch them 
away4 ,these images are  deposited with 
other offerings1 such as cowry-shells   
and a musket1 by the  roadside2 and if  
the messengers accept them instead of   
the sick man1 he  recovers47#bif7       
,during an epidemic of small-pox the    
,ewe negroes will  sometimes clear a    
space outside of the town1 where they   
erect a number of  low mounds and cover 
them with as many little clay figures as

 there are  people in the place4 ,pots  
of food and water are also set out for  
the  refreshment of the spirit of       
small-pox who1 it is hoped1 will take   
the  clay figures and spare the living  
folk2 and to make assurance doubly sure 
the road into the town is barricaded    
against him47#big7    7,m#hg7 ,among the
 ,nishga ,indians of ,british ,columbia 
when a medicine-man  dreams a dream     
which portends death to somebody1 he    
informs the person  whose life is       
threatened1 and together they concert   
measures to avert the  evil omen4 ,the  
man whose life is at stake has a small  
wooden figure called  a shigigiadsqu    
made as like himself as the skill of the
 wood-carver will  allow1 and this he   
hangs round his neck by a string so that
 the figure  lies exactly over his      
heart4 ,in this position he wears it    
long enough to  allow the heat of his   
body to be imparted to it1 generally for
 about four  days4 ,on the fourth day   
the medicine-man comes to the house1    

arrayed in  his bearskin and other      
insignia of office and bringing with him
 a wisp of  teased bark and a toy canoe 
made of cedar-bark4 ,thus equipped1 he  
sings a  doleful ditty1 the death-song  
of the tribe4 ,then he washes the man   
over  the region of the heart with the  
wisp of bark dipped in water1 places the
  wisp1 together with the wooden image1 
in the canoe1 and after again  singing  
the death-chant1 commits image1 wisp1   
and canoe to the flames1  where they are
 all consumed4 ,the death-chant is now  
changed to a song of  joy1 and the man  
who was lately in fear of his life joins
 in4 ,he may well  be gay1 for has he   
not given death the slip by devoting to 
destruction1  not merely a wisp         
saturated with the dangerous defilement 
of his body1 but  also a substitute made
 in his own likeness and impregnated    
with his very  heart's warmth87#bih7    
7,m#hh7 ,with these examples before us  
we may fairly conclude that the  woollen
 effigies1 which at the festival of the 

,compitalia might be seen  hanging at   
the doors of all the houses in ancient  
,rome1 were not  substitutes for human  
victims who had formerly been sacrificed
 at this  season1 but rather vicarious  
offerings presented to the ,mother or   
,grandmother of ,ghosts1 in the hope    
that on her rounds through the city she 
would accept or mistake the effigies for
 the inmates of the house and so  spare 
the living for another year4 ,it is     
possible that the puppets made of       
rushes1 which in the month of ,may the  
pontiffs and ,vestal ,virgins annually  
threw into the ,tiber from the old      
,sublician bridge at ,rome17#bii7 had   
originally the same significance2 that  
is1 they may have been designed to      
purge the city from demoniac influence  
by diverting the attention of the       
demons from human beings to the puppets 
and then toppling the whole  uncanny    
crew1 neck and crop1 into the river1    
which would soon sweep them  far out to 
sea4 ,in precisely the same way the     

natives of ,old ,calabar used           
periodically to rid their town of the   
devils which infested it by luring  the 
unwary demons into a number of          
lamentable scarecrows1 which they       
afterwards flung into the river47#cjj7  
,this interpretation of the ,roman      
custom is supported to some extent by   
the evidence of ,plutarch1 who speaks   
of the ceremony as 8the greatest of     
purifications407#cja7 ,however1 other   
explanations of the rite have been      
proposed3 indeed these puppets of       
rushes have been a standing puzzle to   
,roman antiquaries in ancient and       
modern times4            ,,chapter ,,xi4
 ,,the ,,sacrifice ,,of                 
,,first-,,fruits4      7,m#hi7 ,in the  
preceding chapter we saw that primitive 
peoples often partake  of the new corn  
and the new fruits sacramentally1       
because they suppose  them to be        
instinct with a divine spirit or life4  
,at a later age1 when the  fruits of the
 earth are conceived as created rather  

than as animated by a  divinity1 the new
 fruits are no longer partaken of       
sacramentally as the  body and blood of 
a god2 but a portion of them is offered 
to the divine  beings who are believed  
to have produced them4 ,originally1     
perhaps1  offerings of first-fruits were
 supposed to be necessary for the       
subsistence of the divinities1 who      
without them must have died of          
hunger27#cjb7 but in after times they   
seem to be looked on rather in the      
light of a tribute or mark of homage    
rendered by man to the gods for the     
good gifts they have bestowed on him4   
,sometimes the first-fruits are         
presented to the king1 perhaps in his   
character of a god2 very often they  are
 made over to the spirits of the human  
dead1 who are sometimes thought  to have
 it in their power to give or withhold  
the crops4 ,till the  first-fruits have 
been offered to the deity1 the dead1 or 
the king1 people  are not at liberty to 
eat of the new crops4 ,but1 as it is not

 always  possible to draw a sharp line  
between the sacrament and the sacrifice 
of  first-fruits1 it may be well to     
round off this part of the subject by   
giving some examples of the latter4     
7,m#ij7 ,the ,ovambo or ,ovakuanjama of 
,south-,west ,africa stand in great fear
  of the spirits of the dead1 who are   
believed to exercise a powerful         
influence over the living2 in particular
 the spirits of dead chiefs can  give or
 withhold rain1 a matter of vital       
importance in the parched region  of    
,ovamboland4 ,accordingly the people pay
 great respect to the spirits of  the   
departed1 and they hold a thanksgiving  
festival in their honour at the  close  
of the harvest4 ,when the new corn has  
been reaped and ground1 a  portion of it
 is made into porridge and carried to   
the quarters of the  principal wife4    
,here all the inhabitants of the kraal  
assemble2 the head  of the family takes 
some of the porridge1 dips it in melted 
fat1 and  throws it to the east1 saying1

 8,take it1 ye spirits of the ,east60   
,then he  does the same towards the     
west1 saying1 8,take it1 ye spirits of  
the ,west60  ,this is regarded as a     
thank-offering presented to the spirits 
of the dead  for not visiting the people
 with sickness while they were          
cultivating the  fields1 and especially 
for sending the rain47#cjc7    7,m#ia7  
,among the ,basutos1 when the corn has  
been threshed and winnowed1 it  is left 
in a heap on the threshing-floor4       
,before it can be touched a  religious  
ceremony must be performed4 ,the persons
 to whom the corn belongs  bring a new  
vessel to the spot1 in which they boil  
some of the grain4 ,when  it is boiled  
they throw a few handfuls of it on the  
heap of corn1 saying1  8,thank you1     
gods2 give us bread to-morrow also60    
,when this is done the  rest is eaten1  
and the provision for the year is       
considered pure and fit  to eat47#cjd7  
,here the sacrifice of the first-fruits 
to the gods is the  prominent idea1     

which comes out again in the custom of  
leaving in the  threshing-floor a little
 hollow filled with grain1 as a         
thank-offering to  these powerful       
beings47#cje7 ,still the ,basutos retain
 a lively sense of the  sanctity of the 
corn in itself2 for1 so long as it is   
exposed to view1 all  defiled persons   
are carefully kept from it4 ,if it is   
necessary to employ a  defiled person in
 carrying home the harvest1 he remains  
at some distance  while the sacks are   
being filled1 and only approaches to    
place them upon  the draught oxen4 ,as  
soon as the load is deposited at the    
dwelling he  retires1 and under no      
pretext may he help to pour the corn    
into the  baskets in which it is        
kept47#cjf7 ,the ,makalaka worship a god
 called  ,shumpaoli1 whose image is to  
be found in the enclosure outside of    
their  huts4 ,the image consists of the 
head of an axe1 a stone from the river1 
and a twig or long stalk of grass       
planted between them in the ground4     

,about this god they scatter the        
first-fruits of their harvest1 and when 
they brew beer they pour some of it on  
him47#cjg7 ,of the ,bantu tribes of     
,south ,africa in general we are told   
that they might not eat of the new      
crops till the chief gave them leave to 
do so4 ,when the millet was ripe he     
appointed a general assembly of the     
people at his residence1 which was      
known as the ,great ,place2 he then     
performed certain rites1 and in         
particular he offered a small quantity  
of the fresh grain to the spirits  of   
his ancestors1 either by laying it on   
their graves or by casting it  into a   
stream4 ,after that he granted the      
people permission to gather and  eat the
 new corn47#cjh7    7,m#ib7 ,among the  
,maraves or ,zimbas1 a tribe of the     
,upper ,zambesi1 bordering  on the      
,portuguese territory1 it is the custom 
that first-fruits of all  produce must  
be offered to the spirits of the dead   
7muzimos71 to whom  they attribute all  

the good and ill that befall them4      
,every year at  harvest-time the        
offerings are brought to these mighty   
beings4 ,small  portions of all kinds of
 fruits1 together with cooked fowls and 
pombe  7the native intoxicant71 are     
carried in procession1 with songs1      
dances1  and the beating of drums1 to   
the burial-ground1 which is always      
situated  in a grove or a wilderness and
 is esteemed a sacred place2 no tree may
 be  felled and no animal killed on the 
holy ground1 for the natives believe    
that a spirit of the dead is present in 
everything within the  precincts47#cji7 
,among the ,yaos of ,british ,central   
,africa 8offerings are  made to the     
spirit world or to mulungu as the great 
agency in the  affairs of human life4   
,outside the village1 or beside the     
head-man's hut1  may often be seen a    
rough shed4 ,in this are placed the     
first-fruits of the  new crop1 green    
maize1 beans1 pumpkins1 peas1 etc41 as a
 thank offering  from the villagers for 

their harvest4 ,this is described as    
kulomba   mulungu1 to worship           
mulungu407#caj7 ,by mulungu the ,yaos   
mean primarily  and strictly the soul of
 a dead person1 which is believed to    
influence the  lives and fortunes of the
 survivors1 and therefore needs to be   
honoured  and propitiated2 but they     
employ the word in an extended sense to 
signify  the aggregate of the spirits of
 all the dead1 and missionaries have    
adopted it as the nearest equivalent for
 the word ,god47#caa7 ,among the        
,winamwanga1 a tribe of north-eastern   
,rhodesia1 between ,lake ,nyassa and    
,lake ,tanganyika1 it is customary to   
offer the first beer and the first      
flour made from the new harvest of      
millet to the spirits of the dead4 ,the 
head of the family pours out some beer  
and a small quantity of the new  flour  
in a heap on the floor of his own house1
 after which he prays to the  spirits of
 his forefathers1 thanks them for the   
harvest1 and invites them  to come and  

partake of it with the family4 ,the     
priest performs the same  ceremony at   
the shrine for the whole village4 ,the  
householder or the  priest speaks to the
 spirits as if they were sitting around 
him4 ,thus he  may say1 8,o ye great    
spirits1 fathers in the spirit world1   
mothers in the  spirit world1 and all ye
 others1 bless us now4 ,here is the     
food1 and here  is the offering1 call ye
 all of you each other40 ,then after    
summoning the  dead by their names he   
may go on3 8,come all of you and partake
 of this  offering4 ,ye great spirits1  
all things of this earth were known to  
you  while yet ye were here4 ,take care 
of this your family1 and of all these   
your children4 ,may we ever go in our   
ways in prosperity4 ,oh6 ye great       
spirits1 give to us food and all the    
produce of the land4 ,drive ye away  all
 illnesses from your family1 ye great   
spirits2 every evil spirit put  far away
 from us1 and whatever might seek to    
hurt us may it fly away on  the wind4   

,cause ye us to abide in peace407#cab7  
,among the ,yombe of ,northern          
,rhodesia1 to the west of ,lake         
,tanganyika1 no one is allowed to       
partake of  the new fruits until certain
 ceremonies have been performed4        
,escorted by a  band of drummers1 his   
medicine-men1 and the village elders1   
the chief  ascends the ,kalanga         
,mountain until he reaches the hollow   
fastness which in  former days his      
forefathers held against the marauding  
,angoni4 ,here the  grandfather of the  
present chief lies buried4 ,before his  
tomb a bull is  slain1 and pots of      
freshly-brewed beer and porridge made   
from the  first-fruits are deposited    
before the shrine4 ,the ground is then  
carefully  cleaned of weeds1 and the    
blood of the bull is sprinkled on the   
freshly-turned-up soil and on the       
rafters of the little hut4 ,after       
offering the customary prayers in       
thanksgiving for the harvest1 and       
beseeching the spirits to partake with  

them of the first-fruits1 the           
procession retires4 ,on their return to 
the village1 the carcase of the  bull is
 divided1 all partake of the fresh      
porridge and beer awaiting them1  and   
the day closes with beer-drinking and   
dancing47#cac7    7,m#ic7 ,the ,a-,kamba
 of ,british ,east ,africa offer        
first-fruits to the spirits  of their   
dead before anybody may eat of the new  
crop4 ,sometimes these  offerings are   
piled on the graves of chiefs and left  
there along with the  meat of a goat    
which has been sacrificed4 ,sometimes   
the offerings are made  in a cleared    
place under the sacred wild fig tree    
7mumbo7 of the  village2 for the        
,a-,kamba think that the spirits of the 
dead 7aiimu7  dwell in wild fig trees1  
and they build miniature huts at the    
foot of the  trees for the accommodation
 of the ghosts4 ,the clearing under the 
wild fig  tree of the village is called 
the ,place of ,prayer 7ithembo74 ,when  
any  crop is ripe1 all the inhabitants  

of the district assemble1 and a very old
  man and woman1 chosen for the purpose1
 leave the crowd and go to the ,place   
of ,prayer1 where they call aloud to the
 spirits of the dead and ask leave  to  
eat the crop4 ,the people then dance1   
and during the dance one of the  women  
is sure to be seized with a fit of      
shaking and to cry aloud1 which  is     
deemed the answer of the spirits to the 
people's prayer47#cad7 ,amongst  the    
,baganda a man used to offer the        
first-fruits of a new garden to his     
god1 imploring the blessing of the deity
 on the future crops47#cae7 ,among  the 
,dinka of the ,white ,nile no member of 
a family may eat the new fruits  until  
the father or mother has scattered some 
of them over the courtyard  of the house
 in order to ensure the blessing of     
,god47#caf7 ,when the millet  is ripe1  
the ,nubas of ,jebel-,nuba1 a range of  
mountains in the eastern  ,sudan1       
observe the following ceremony4 ,every  
group of villages is presided  over by a

 sacred pontiff called a cogiour or     
codjour1 who is believed  to act under  
the inspiration of a spirit named ,laro4
 ,so when it is known  that the grain is
 ready to be cut1 a drum is beaten1 the 
pontiff mounts  his horse and1 attended 
by all the elderly men and women1       
repairs to his  fields1 while the rest  
of the people betake themselves to their
 own farms4  ,there the people whose    
eldest child is a boy break five ears of
 corn1 and  those whose eldest child is 
a girl break four4 ,but young unmarried 
people  break five or four ears         
according as they desire to have a boy  
or a girl  for their first-born4 ,all   
then return to the village and place the
 ears  they have gathered on the hedge  
which serves as an enclosure4 ,when the 
beat of the drum and multitudinous cries
 of joy announce the return of the      
pontiff1 the people take the gathered   
ears and advance to meet him4 ,he  rides
 at the head of a cavalcade composed of 
all the men who have horses4  ,after    

that1 attended by the elders1 he retires
 to his house1 while the  rest of the   
people deposit the ears of corn in the  
cave of ,laro1 the being  who inspires  
the holy pontiff4 ,feasting1 drinking1  
and horse-races  conclude the ceremony4 
,at the races the young folk amuse      
themselves by  flinging stalks of millet
 before the horses to make them shy and 
throw  their riders47#cag7    7,m#id7   
,the ,igbiras1 a pagan tribe at the     
confluence of the ,niger and the        
,benue1 bury their dead in their houses 
and have great faith in the power  of   
the ghosts1 whose guidance and          
protection they seek to ensure by       
periodical offerings of goats and cocks4
 ,also they offer the first-fruits  of  
their crops to the dead1 hanging bunches
 of the new grain over the              
burial-places in their huts4 ,the       
,igbiras also celebrate the festival of 
the new yams with great pomp4 ,it is    
their ,new ,year's ,day4 ,sacrifices of 
fowls and goats are offered1 and wine   

and oil are freely poured out4 ,the     
king takes a prominent part in the      
feast47#cah7 ,among the ,cross ,river   
natives1 in the lower valley of the     
,niger1 the eating of the new yams is   
an occasion of great rejoicing1 but no  
one may partake of them until a  portion
 has been ceremonially offered to the   
deities4 ,the festival is not  held     
simultaneously but separately for each  
village according to the state  of the  
crops4 ,high and low1 old and young1    
men1 women1 and children dance  to music
 on these joyful occasions47#cai7 ,the  
,matse tribe of ,ewe negroes in         
,togoland worship the ,earth at the     
times when they dig the ripe yams in    
,september1 when they reap the ripe     
maize in ,november1 and when they burn  
the grass in ,february4 ,the place where
 they offer sacrifices to the ,earth    
goddess is called 8the ,wood of our     
,mother40 ,in the month of ,november the
  hunters1 led by the ,chief ,huntsman  
and the ,high ,priest1 repair to the    

maize-fields1 where they gather cobs of 
the ripe grain4 ,some of these they     
deposit1 with prayers1 in the           
sacrificial place in the wood1 but they 
keep  the finest cobs for themselves4   
,after this sacrifice of the new corn to
  the ,earth goddess everybody is free  
to get in his maize47#cbj7 ,amongst the 
,hos1 another ,ewe tribe of ,togoland1  
when a man is about to dig up his yam   
crop1 he first of all digs up two yams  
which he had planted for the  goddess   
,mawu ,sodza4 ,these he holds up to her 
and prays1 saying1 8,o ,mawu  ,sodza1   
thou ship full of yams1 give to me1 and 
,i will give to you2 pass me  over1 and 
,i will pass you over4 ,here are thy    
yams1 which ,i have dug for  thee4 ,when
 ,i dig mine1 grant that ,i may have    
plenty40 ,thereupon he begins  to dig   
the crop47#cba7 ,among the ,bassari1    
another tribe of ,togoland1 no man  may 
eat of the new yams until the people    
have paid a tribute of the  first-fruits
 to the king4 ,at such times long files 

of men1 women1 and  children may be seen
 wending their way to the capital to    
render to the  king his dues4 ,but the  
king himself may not partake of the new 
yams until  he has offered a portion of 
them1 along with ten white fowls1 to the
  fetish47#cbb7 ,before the ,adeli of   
the ,slave ,coast may eat of the new    
yams1  the owner of each farm must bring
 the first yams of his field to the     
fetish priest1 who offers them to the   
fetish1 after which he declares that    
the harvest may take place4 ,the        
festival1 accompanied by shooting and   
dancing1 lasts several days2 it         
generally falls in ,august47#cbc7       
7,m#ie7 ,among the ,betsileo of         
,madagascar the king used to receive    
first-fruits of all the crops1 such as  
rice1 maize1 manioc1 beans1 and  sweet  
potatoes3 indeed this tribute of        
first-fruits formed a large part of  his
 revenue47#cbd7 ,the ,hovas of          
,madagascar present the first sheaves of
 the  new grain to the sovereign4 ,the  

sheaves are carried in procession to the
  palace from time to time as the grain 
ripens47#cbe7 ,so in ,burma1 when the   
pangati fruits ripen1 some of them used 
to be taken to the king's palace  that  
he might eat of them2 no one might      
partake of them before the  king47#cbf7 
,it has been suggested that the modern  
system of taxation may be  directly     
derived from the ancient obligation of  
paying first-fruits to a  sacred pontiff
 or king47#cbg7    7,m#if7 ,every year1 
when they gather their first crops1 the 
,kochs of ,assam  offer some of the     
first-fruits to their ancestors1 calling
 to them by name  and clapping their    
hands47#cbh7 ,before they harvest any of
 their crops1 the  ,garos1 another      
people of ,assam1 deem it necessary to  
sacrifice the  first-fruits of the crops
 to the gods4 ,thus1 for example1 they  
gather some  ears of rice or millet1    
pound them between two stones1 and offer
 them up  on a piece of plantain        
stem47#cbi7 ,in ,august1 when the rice  

ripens1 the ,hos  of ,bengal offer the  
first-fruits of the harvest to ,sing    
,bonga1 who dwells  in the sun4 ,along  
with the new rice a white cock is       
sacrificed2 and till  the sacrifice has 
been offered no one may eat the new     
rice47#ccj7 ,among the  ,oraons of      
,bengal no one will partake of the new  
rice until some of it has  been offered 
to the ancestors4 ,a handful of it is   
cooked and spread on the  ground1 and a 
pot of rice-beer is brewed and some of  
the beer also spilt  on the ground4     
,before drinking every one dips his     
finger in his cup and  lets fall some   
drops in honour of the ancestors4       
,further1 a whity grey  fowl is killed1 
and the eldest of the family1 addressing
 the ancestral  spirits1 says1 8,o old  
mothers and fathers1 you have always    
been so good to  us on these days4 ,here
 we are rejoicing3 we cannot forget you3
 come and  rejoice with us407#cca7 ,in  
,ladakh the peasants offer the first two
 or three  handfuls of the wheat-crop to

 the spirit who presides over           
agriculture4  ,these offerings they     
attach to the tops of the pillars which 
support the  roofs of their houses2 and 
thus the bands of straw and ears of     
wheat form  a primitive sort of capital4
 ,rams' horns are sometimes added to    
this  decoration47#ccb7 ,in the         
,himalayan districts of the             
,north-,western provinces  of ,india the
 fields and boundaries are under the    
protection of a  beneficent local deity 
named ,kshetrpal or ,bhumiya4 ,every    
village possesses  a small temple sacred
 to him4 ,when a crop is sown1 a handful
 of grain is  sprinkled over a stone in 
the corner of the field nearest to the  
temple1  in order that the god may      
protect the growing crop from hail1     
blight1 and  the ravages of wild beasts2
 and at harvest he receives the         
first-fruits in  order that he may save 
the garnered grain from the inroads of  
rats and  insects47#ccc7 ,among the hill
 tribes near ,rajamahall1 in ,india1    

when the  kosarane grain is being reaped
 in ,november or early in ,december1 a  
festival is held as a thanksgiving      
before the new grain is eaten4 ,on a day
  appointed by the chief a goat is      
sacrificed by two men to a god called   
,chitariah ,gossaih1 after which the    
chief himself sacrifices a fowl4 ,then  
the vassals repair to their fields1     
offer thanksgiving1 make an oblation  to
 ,kull ,gossaih 7who is described as the
 ,ceres of these mountaineers71 and     
then return to their houses to eat of   
the new kosarane4 ,as soon as the       
inhabitants have assembled at the       
chief's house--the men sitting on one   
side and the women on the other--a hog1 
a measure of kosarane1 and a pot  of    
spirits are presented to the chief1 who 
in return blesses his vassals1  and     
exhorts them to industry and good       
behaviour2 8after which1 making a       
libation in the names of all their gods1
 and of their dead1 he drinks1 and  also
 throws a little of the kosarane away1  

repeating the same pious  exclamations40
 ,drinking and festivity then begin1 and
 are kept up for  several days4 ,the    
same tribes have another festival at    
reaping the ,indian  corn in ,august or 
,september4 ,every man repairs to his   
fields with a hog1 a  goat1 or a fowl1  
which he sacrifices to ,kull ,gossaih4  
,then1 having  feasted1 he returns home1
 where another repast is prepared4 ,on  
this day it  is customary for every     
family in the village to distribute to  
every house  a little of what they have 
prepared for their feast4 ,should any   
person eat  of the new kosarane or the  
new ,indian corn before the festival and
  public thanksgiving at the reaping of 
these crops1 the chief fines him a      
white cock1 which is sacrificed to      
,chitariah47#ccd7 ,in the ,central      
,provinces of ,india the first grain of 
the season is commonly offered to  the  
god ,bhmsen or ,bhm ,deo47#cce7 ,when   
the new rice crop is ripe1 the  ,gadbas1
 a primitive tribe of the ,central      

,provinces1 cook the first-fruits  and  
serve them to the cattle in new bamboo  
baskets2 after that the men  themselves 
partake of the new rice47#ccf7 ,the     
,nahals1 a forest tribe of the  same    
region1 worship the forest god          
,jharkhandi in the month of ,chait1 and 
until this rite has been performed they 
may not use the leaves or fruits  of the
 ,butea frondosa1 ,phyllanthus emblica1 
and mango trees4 ,when the  god is      
worshipped1 they collect branches and   
leaves of these trees and  offer cooked 
food to them3 after that they begin to  
use the new leaves1  fruit1 and         
timber47#ccg7 ,again1 when the          
,mannewars1 another forest tribe of  the
 ,central ,provinces1 pick the flowers  
of the mahua tree 7,bassia  latifolia71 
they worship the tree and offer it some 
of the liquor  distilled from the new   
flowers1 along with a fowl and a        
goat47#cch7 ,the  principal festivals of
 the ,parjas1 a small tribe of the      
,central ,provinces1  are the feast of  

new vegetation in ,july1 the feast of   
the new rice in  ,august or ,september1 
and the feast of the new mango crop in  
,april or ,may4  ,at these feasts the   
new season's crop is eaten1 and         
offerings of them are  presented to the 
ancestors of the family1 who are        
worshipped on these  occasions47#cci7   
,in the ,punjaub1 when sugar-cane is    
planted1 a woman puts  on a necklace and
 walks round the field1 winding thread  
on a spindle27#cdj7  and when the       
sugar-cane is cut the first-fruits are  
offered on an altar1  which is built    
close to the press and is sacred to the 
sugar-cane god4  ,afterwards the        
first-fruits are given to ,brahmans4    
,also1 when the women  begin to pick the
 cotton1 they go round the field eating 
rice-milk1 the  first mouthful of which 
they spit upon the field toward the     
west2 and the  first cotton picked is   
exchanged at the village shop for its   
weight in  salt1 which is prayed over   
and kept in the house till the picking  

is  finished47#cda7    7,m#ig7 ,among   
the ancient ,hindoos the first-fruits   
were sacrificed to the  gods at the     
beginning of harvest1 generally at the  
new or the full moon4  ,there were two  
harvests in the year2 the barley was    
reaped in spring and  the rice in       
autumn4 ,from the new grain1 whether    
barley or rice1 a  sacrificial cake was 
prepared and set forth on twelve        
potsherds for the  two great gods ,indra
 and ,agni2 a pap or gruel of boiled    
grain1 sodden  either in water or milk1 
was offered to the ,visve ,devah1 that  
is1 to the  common mob of deities2 and a
 cake on one potsherd was presented to  
,heaven  and ,earth4 ,the origin of     
these sacrifices of first-fruits was    
explained by  the following myth4 ,they 
say that the gods and their powerful    
rivals the  ,asuras once strove with    
each other for the mastery4 ,in this    
strife the  ,asuras defiled1 both by    
magic and by poison1 the plants on which
 men and  beasts subsist2 for thus they 

hoped to get the better of the gods4    
,therefore neither man nor beast could  
eat food1 and for lack of it they  well 
nigh perished4 ,when the gods heard of  
it1 they said one to the other1  8,come 
let us rid the plants of the            
defilement10 and they did so by means   
of the sacrifice4 ,but they could not   
agree as to which of them should        
receive the sacrifices1 so to decide    
this delicate question they ran a  race1
 and ,indra and ,agni came in first2    
that is why the cake is offered to  them
 on twelve potsherds1 while the common  
mob of the gods have to put up  with a  
simple pap or gruel4 ,to this day1      
therefore1 he who offers the            
first-fruits to the gods does it either 
because no one will then be able  to    
defile the plants1 neither by magic nor 
yet by poison2 or perhaps he  does it   
because the gods did so before him4 ,be 
that as it may1 certain it  is that he  
thereby renders both kinds of plants    
wholesome and innocuous1  both the      

plants which men eat and the plants on  
which cattle graze2 that  indeed is the 
reason why the sacrificer sacrifices the
 first-fruits4 ,and  the priest's fee   
for the sacrifice is the first-born calf
 of the season1  which is1 as it were1  
the first-fruit of the cattle47#cdb7    
7,m#ih7 ,the ,kachins of ,upper ,burma  
worship the spirit 7nat7 of the earth   
every year before they sow their crops4 
,the worship is performed by the  chief 
on behalf of all the villagers1 who     
contribute their offerings4 ,the  priest
 afterwards determines by exorcism which
 particular household shall  start      
sowing first in order that the crop may 
be a good one4 ,then the  household on  
which the lot has fallen goes out and   
sows its fields4 ,when  the crop is     
ripe1 it may not be reaped until the    
household which was the  first to sow   
its fields has gathered the first-fruits
 and offered them to  its own domestic  
spirits 7nats74 ,this is usually done   
before the crop is  quite ripe1 in order

 that the reaping of the other crops may
 not be  delayed47#cdc7 ,the ,chins1    
another people of ,upper ,burma1 eat the
  first-fruits of their corn as a       
religious rite1 but before doing so they
  offer some of the new corn or         
vegetables to their dead ancestors4     
,they  also offer the first-fruits to   
the goddess ,pok ,klai1 a single glance 
of  whose eyes is enough to give them a 
plentiful harvest of rice47#cdd7 ,among 
the ,thay of ,indo-,china the           
first-fruits of the rice are offered at 
harvest  to the guardian spirit of the  
family before the household may partake 
of  the new crop4 ,the guardian spirit  
of the family is the last ancestor who  
died2 he mounts guard until he is       
relieved by his successor2 his shrine is
  a corner of the house screened off by 
a low trellis of bamboo4 ,but besides   
the first-fruits offered him at harvest 
this guardian spirit receives some  of  
the parched grain in spring1 at the time
 when the first thunder of the  season  

is heard to mutter4 ,the grain which is 
presented to him on this  occasion was  
plucked from the crop before the rice   
was quite ripe1 and it  has been        
carefully kept to be offered to him when
 the first peal of  thunder in spring   
announces the reviving energies of      
nature4 ,when all is  ready1 the rice is
 served up together with fish1 which    
have been caught  for the purpose1 on a 
table set in the corner which is sacred 
to the  guardian spirit4 ,a priest      
drones out a long invitation to the     
spirit to  come and feast with his      
children2 then the family sits down to  
table and  consumes the offerings4 ,at  
the close of the banquet the            
daughter-in-law of  the deceased        
ancestor hangs up a basket containing   
rice and fish for his  use in the       
corner1 after which she closes the      
shrine for another  year47#cde7 ,in     
,corea the first-fruits of all the crops
 used to be offered  to the king with   
religious pomp1 and he received almost  

divine honours  from his subjects47#cdf7
 ,this suggests that1 as ,i have already
 conjectured1  the common practice1 of  
presenting the first-fruits to kings is 
founded on  a belief in their divinity4 
7,m#ii7 ,in the island of ,tjumba1 ,east
 ,indies1 a festival is held after      
harvest4 ,vessels filled with rice are  
presented as a thankoffering to the     
gods4 ,then the sacred stone at the foot
 of a palm-tree is sprinkled with  the  
blood of a sacrificed animal2 and rice1 
with some of the flesh1 is  laid on the 
stone for the gods4 ,the palm-tree is   
hung with lances and  shields47#cdg7    
,the ,dyaks of ,borneo hold a feast of  
first-fruits when the  paddy or unhusked
 rice is ripe4 ,the priestesses1        
accompanied by a gong and  drum1 go in  
procession to the farms and gather      
several bunches of the ripe  paddy4     
,these are brought back to the village1 
washed in coco-nut water1  and laid     
round a bamboo altar1 which at the      
harvest festivals is erected  in the    

common room of the largest house4 ,the  
altar is gaily decorated with  white and
 red streamers1 and is hung with the    
sweet-smelling blossom of  the areca    
palm4 ,the feast lasts two days1 during 
which the village is  tabooed2 no one   
may leave it4 ,only fowls are killed1   
and dancing and  gong-beating go on day 
and night4 ,when the festival is over   
the people are  free to get in their    
crops47#cdh7 ,the pounding of the new   
paddy is the  occasion of a harvest     
festival which is celebrated all over   
,celebes4 ,the  religious ceremonies    
which accompany the feast were witnessed
 by ,dr4 ,b4 ,f4  ,matthes in ,july     
#aheg4 ,two mats were spread on the     
ground1 each with a  pillow on it4 ,on  
one of the pillows were placed a man's  
clothes and a  sword1 on the other a    
woman's clothes4 ,these were seemingly  
intended to  represent the deceased     
ancestors4 ,rice and water were         
deposited before the  two dummy figures1
 which were also sprinkled with the new 

paddy4 ,moreover1  dishes of rice were  
set down for the rest of the family and 
the slaves of  the deceased4 ,this was  
the end of the ceremony47#cdi7 ,in      
,minahassa1 a  district of ,celebes1 the
 people have a festival of 8eating the  
new rice40  ,fowls or pigs are killed2  
some of the flesh1 with rice and        
palm-wine1 is  set apart for the gods1  
and then the eating and drinking        
begin47#cej7 ,the  people of ,kobi and  
,sariputi1 two villages on the          
north-east coast of  ,ceram1 offer the  
first-fruits of the paddy1 in the form  
of cooked rice1  with tobacco and other 
things1 to their ancestors as a token of
 gratitude4  ,the ceremony is called    
8feeding the dead407#cea7 ,in the       
,tenimber and  ,timor-laut ,islands1    
,east ,indies1 the first-fruits of the  
paddy1 along with  live fowls and pigs1 
are offered to the matmate4 ,the matmate
 are the  spirits of their ancestors1   
which are worshipped as guardian-spirits
 or  household gods4 ,they are supposed 

to enter the house through an opening in
  the roof1 and to take up their abode  
temporarily in their skulls1 or in      
images of wood or ivory1 in order to    
partake of the offerings and to help    
the family4 ,they also assume the form  
of birds1 pigs1 crocodiles1 turtles1    
sharks1 and so forth47#ceb7 ,in         
,amboyna1 after the rice or other       
harvest has  been gathered in1 some of  
the new fruits are offered to the gods1 
and till  this is done1 the priests may 
by no means eat of them4 ,a portion of  
the  new rice1 or whatever it may be1 is
 boiled1 and milk of the coco-nut is    
poured on it1 mixed with ,indian        
saffron4 ,it is then taken to the place 
of  sacrifice and offered to the god4   
,some people also pour out oil before   
the  deity2 and if any of the oil is    
left over1 they take it home as a holy  
and  priceless treasure1 wherewith they 
smear the forehead and breast of sick   
people and whole people1 in the firm    
conviction that the oil confers all     

kinds of blessings47#cec7 ,in the ,kei  
,islands1 to the south-west of ,new     
,guinea1 the first-fruits are offered to
 ,lir majoran1 the god of husbandry1    
when the harvest is ripe47#ced7 ,after  
the rice has been reaped1 the people  of
 ,nias deck the images of their         
ancestors with wreaths1 and offer to    
them  the first dishful of boiled rice1 
while they thank them for the blessings 
they have bestowed on the family47#cee7 
,the ,irayas and ,catalangans of        
,luzon1 tribes of the ,malay stock1 but 
of mixed blood1 worship chiefly the     
souls of their ancestors under the name 
of anitos1 to whom they offer  the      
first-fruits of the harvest4 ,the anitos
 are household deities2 some  of them   
reside in pots in the corners of the    
houses2 and miniature houses1  standing 
near the family dwelling1 are especially
 sacred to them47#cef7  ,when the       
,bagobos of the ,philippines have got in
 their harvest of rice or  maize1 they  
will neither eat of it nor sell so much 

as a grain till they  have made a       
pretence of feeding all their           
agricultural implements47#ceg7          
7,m#ajj7 ,the ,bukaua of ,german ,new   
,guinea think that the spirits of their 
dead have power to make the fruits of   
the earth to grow4 ,accordingly when    
they have cleared a patch in the forest 
for cultivation and are planting  their 
crops1 they take particular care to     
plant slips near the tree-stumps  which 
have been left standing in the field1   
because the spirits of their  long dead 
ancestors are supposed to perch on them4
 ,while they plant1 they  call out the  
names of the dead1 praying them to guard
 the field1 so that  their children1 the
 living1 may have food to eat and not   
suffer hunger4  ,and similarly1 when    
they plant stones shaped like taro bulbs
 in the  ground1 which are supposed to  
produce a fine crop of taro1 they pray  
to  their forefathers to grant them an  
abundance of the fruits4 ,when the crops
  are ripe1 the people fetch bundles of 

taro1 clusters of bananas1  sugar-canes1
 and vegetables from the fields and     
bring them back solemnly  to the        
village2 a feast is prepared and a      
portion of the new fruits1 along  with  
tobacco1 betel1 and dog's flesh1 is put 
in a coco-nut shell and set  on a       
scaffold in the house of the owner of   
the field1 while he prays to  the       
spirits of his forefathers1 saying1 8,ye
 who have guarded our field as  we asked
 you to do1 there is something for you2 
now look on us favourably  also for the 
time to come40 ,afterwards1 while the   
people are feasting1 the  owner privily 
stirs the contents of the coco-nut shell
 with his finger1  and then calls the   
attention of the others to it as a proof
 that the  spirits have partaken of the 
offering provided for them4 ,finally the
 food  remaining in the shell is        
consumed by the banqueters47#ceh7       
7,m#aja7 ,in certain tribes of ,fiji    
8the first-fruits of the yam harvest are
  presented to the ancestors in the     

,nanga sacred enclosure with great      
ceremony before the bulk of the crop is 
dug for the people's use1 and no  man   
may taste of the new yams until the     
presentation has been made4 ,the  yams  
thus offered are piled in the ,great    
,nanga1 and are allowed to rot  there4  
,if any one were impiously bold enough  
to appropriate them to his  own use1 he 
would be smitten with madness4 ,the     
mission teacher before  mentioned told  
me that1 when he visited the ,nanga he  
saw among the weeds  with which it was  
overgrown1 numerous yam vines which had 
sprung up out of  the piles of decayed  
offerings4 ,great feasts are made at the
 presentations  of the first-fruits1    
which are times of public rejoicing1 and
 the ,nanga  itself is frequently spoken
 of as the ,mbaki1 or ,harvest407#cei7  
,in other  parts of ,fiji the practice  
with regard to the first-fruits seems to
 have  been different1 for we are told  
by another observer that 8the           
first-fruits  of the yams1 which are    

always presented at the principal temple
 of the  district1 become the property  
of the priests1 and form their revenue1 
although the pretence of their being    
required for the use of the god is      
generally kept up407#cfj7 ,in ,tana1 one
 of the ,new ,hebrides1 the general     
name for gods appeared to be aremha1    
which meant 8a dead man40 ,the  spirits 
of departed ancestors were among the    
gods of the people4 ,chiefs  who reached
 an advanced age were deified after     
their death1 addressed by  name1 and    
prayed to on various occasions4 ,they   
were supposed to preside  especially    
over the growth of the yams and         
fruit-trees4 ,the first-fruits  were    
presented to them4 ,a little of the new 
fruit was laid on a stone1 or  on a     
shelving branch of the tree1 or on a    
rude temporary altar1 made of a  few    
sticks lashed together with strips of   
bark1 in the form of a table1  with its 
four feet stuck in the ground4 ,all     
being quiet1 the chief acted  as high   

priest1 and prayed aloud as follows3    
8,compassionate father6 here  is some   
food for you2 eat it2 be kind to us on  
account of it40 ,then all  the people   
shouted4 ,this took place about noon1   
and afterwards the  assembled people    
feasted and danced till midnight or     
morning47#cfa7    7,m#ajb7 ,in ,florida1
 one of the ,solomon ,islands1 the      
canarium nut is much  used in the native
 cookery1 but formerly none might be    
eaten till the  sacrifice of the        
first-fruits had been offered to the    
ghosts of the dead4  ,this was done on  
behalf of a whole village by a man who  
inherited a  knowledge of the way in    
which the sacrifice should be offered1  
and who  accordingly had authority to   
open the season4 ,when he saw that the  
time  had come1 he raised a shout early 
in the morning1 then climbed a tree1    
cracked the nuts1 ate some himself1 and 
put some on the stones in his  sacred   
place for the particular ghost whom he  
worshipped4 ,then all the  people might 

gather the nuts for themselves4 ,the    
chief offered food1 in  which the new   
nuts were mixed1 on the stones of the   
village sanctuary2 and  every man who   
revered a ghost of his own did the same 
in his private  sanctuary47#cfb7 ,this  
sacrifice of first-fruits was witnessed 
by ,mr4  ,woodford at the village of    
,aola1 in the neighbouring island of    
,guadalcanar4 ,the canarium nuts1 or    
,solomon ,island almonds1 had been ripe 
for a week1 and ,mr4 ,woodford had      
expressed a wish to taste them1 but he  
was told that this was quite impossible 
till the offering to the ghost had  been
 made4 ,as a native put it1 8,devil he  
eat first2 all man he eat  behind40 ,all
 the inhabitants of the village         
adjourned to the sea-shore in  groups of
 ten or twelve to perform the sacrifice4
 ,the party to which ,mr4  ,woodford    
attached himself swept a space clean    
beneath the spreading  branches of a    
,barringtonia1 and there constructed    
half-a-dozen tiny  altars1 each about   

six inches square1 out of dry sticks4   
,on these altars  they laid offerings of
 yams1 taros1 bananas1 and a little     
flesh2 and a few  of the nuts were      
skinned and set up on sticks round about
 the altars4 ,fire  was then made by the
 friction of wood1 for matches might not
 be used for  this purpose1 though      
probably every man had a box of them in 
his bag4 ,with  the sacred flame thus   
produced the altars were kindled and the
 offerings  consumed4 ,when this was    
done1 the women produced large flat     
cakes baked of  a paste of pounded nuts1
 and these were eaten by all47#cfc7 ,in 
,saa1 another  of the ,solomon ,islands1
 when the yams are ripe1 the people     
fetch some from  each garden to offer to
 the ghosts4 ,early in the morning all  
the male  members of a family assemble  
at the sanctuary of the particular      
ancestral  ghosts whom they revere4 ,one
 of them goes with a yam into the holy  
place  and cries with a loud voice to   
the ghosts1 8,this is yours to eat10 and

  with that he sets the yam beside the  
skull which is in the sanctuary4 ,the   
others call quietly upon all the        
ancestors and present their yams1 which 
are many in number1 because one from    
each garden is given to each of the     
ghosts4 ,moreover1 if any man has a     
relic of the dead at home1 such as a    
head1 or bones1 or hair1 he takes back a
 yam to his house and places it  beside 
the head or whatever it may be4 ,in the 
same island1 as in ,florida1  the new   
canarium nuts may not be eaten until the
 first-fruits have been  offered to the 
ghosts4 ,moreover1 the first flying-fish
 of the season must  be sacrificed to   
these spirits of the dead before the    
living are allowed  to partake of the   
fish4 ,the ghosts to whom the           
flying-fish are offered  have the form  
of sharks4 ,some of them have           
sanctuaries ashore1 where  images of    
sharks are set up2 and the flying-fish  
are laid before these  images4 ,other   
shark-ghosts have no place on shore2 so 

the fish offered to  them are taken out 
to sea and shredded into the water1     
while the names of  the ghosts are      
called out47#cfd7    7,m#ajc7 ,in some  
of the ,kingsmill ,islands the god most 
commonly worshipped  was called         
,tuburiki4 ,he was represented by a flat
 coral stone1 of  irregular shape1 about
 three feet long by eighteen inches     
wide1 set up on  end in the open air4   
,leaves of the coco-nut palm were tied  
about it1  considerably increasing its  
size and height4 ,the leaves were       
changed every  month1 that they might be
 always fresh4 ,the worship paid to the 
god  consisted in repeating prayers     
before the stone1 and laying beside it a
  portion of the food prepared by the   
people for their own use4 ,this they    
did at their daily meals1 at festivals1 
and whenever they specially wished  to  
propitiate the deity4 ,the first-fruits 
of the season were always  offered to   
him4 ,every family of distinction had   
one of these stones which  was          

considered rather in the light of a     
family altar than as an idol47#cfe7     
7,m#ajd7 ,in the ,tonga ,islands the    
first-fruits of the year were offered   
with  solemn ceremony to the sacred     
chief ,tooitonga1 who was regarded as   
divine4  ,the ceremony generally took   
place about ,october1 and the people    
believed  that if the rite were         
neglected the vengeance of the gods     
would fall in a  signal manner upon     
them4 ,the following is a description of
 the festival as  it was celebrated in  
the days when a ,european flag rarely   
floated among  the islands of the       
,pacific3 8,inachi4 ,this word means1   
literally1 a share  or portion of       
anything that is to be or has been      
distributed out3 but in  the sense here 
mentioned it means that portion of the  
fruits of the earth1  and other         
eatables1 which is offered to the gods  
in the person of the  divine chief      
,tooitonga1 which allotment is made once
 a year1 just before  the yams in       

general are arrived at a state of       
maturity2 those which are  used in this 
ceremony being of a kind which admit of 
being planted sooner  than others1 and1 
consequently1 they are the first fruits 
of the yam  season4 ,the object of this 
offering is to insure the protection of 
the  gods1 that their favour may be     
extended to the welfare of the nation   
generally1 and in particular to the     
productions of the earth1 of which  yams
 are the most important4    8,the time  
for planting most kinds of yams is about
 the latter end of ,july1  but the      
species called caho-caho1 which is      
always used in this ceremony1  is put in
 the ground about a month before1 when1 
on each plantation1 there  is a small   
piece of land chosen and fenced in1 for 
the purpose of growing  a couple of yams
 of the above description4 ,as soon as  
they have arrived at  a state of        
maturity1 the ,how the ,king sends a    
messenger to ,tooitonga1  stating that  
the yams for the inachi are fit to be   

taken up1 and  requesting that he would 
appoint a day for the ceremony3 he      
generally  fixes on the tenth day       
afterwards1 reckoning the following day 
for the  first4 ,there are no particular
 preparations made till the day before  
the  ceremony3 at night1 however1 the   
sound of the conch is heard occasionally
  in different parts of the islands1 and
 as the day of the ceremony  approaches 
it becomes more frequent1 so that the   
people of almost every  plantation sound
 the conch three or four times1 which1  
breaking in upon  the silence of the    
night1 has a pleasing effect1           
particularly at ,vavaoo1  where the     
number of woods and hills send back     
repeated echoes1 adding  greatly to the 
effect4 ,the day before the ceremony1   
the yams are dug up1  and ornamented    
with a kind of ribbons prepared from the
 inner membrane of  the leaf of a       
species of pandanus1 and dyed red2 when 
thus prepared1 it is  called mellecoola 
and is wrapped round the yam1 beginning 

at one end1  and running round spirally 
to the other1 when it is brought back in
 the  opposite direction1 the turns     
crossing each other in a very neat      
manner4  ,as the ceremony is always     
performed at the island where ,tooitonga
 chooses  to reside1 the distant islands
 must make these preparations two or    
three  days beforehand1 that the yams1  
etc41 may be sent in time to ,vavaoo1   
where  we will suppose the affair is to 
take place4 ,the ninth day then is      
employed in preparing and collecting the
 yams and other provisions1 such  as    
fish1 cava root1 and mahoa1 and getting 
ready mats1 gnatoo1 and  bundles of     
mellecoola3 but the yams only are to be 
carried in the  procession about to be  
described4444    7,m#aje7 8,the sun has 
scarcely set when the sound of the conch
 begins again  to echo through the      
island1 increasing as the night         
advances4 ,at the ,mooa  capital1 and   
all the plantations1 the voices of men  
and women are heard  singing ,nfo ooa   

tegger gnaoe1 ooa gnaoe1 #8,rest thou1  
doing no work2  thou shalt not work4'   
,this increases till midnight1 men      
generally singing  the first part of the
 sentence1 and the women the last1 to   
produce a more  pleasing effect3 it then
 subsides for three or four hours1 and  
again  increases as the sun rises4      
,nobody1 however1 is seen stirring out  
in the  public roads till about eight   
o'clock1 when the people from all       
quarters  of the island are seen        
advancing towards the ,mooa1 and canoes 
from all the  other islands are landing 
their men2 so that all the inhabitants  
of ,tonga  seem approaching by sea and  
land1 singing and sounding the conch4   
,at the  ,mooa itself the universal     
bustle of preparation is seen and heard2
 and the  different processions entering
 from various quarters1 of men and      
women1  all dressed up in new gnatoos1  
ornamented with red ribbons and wreaths 
of flowers1 and the men armed with      
spears and clubs1 betoken the           

importance of the ceremony about to be  
performed4 ,each party brings in its    
yams in a basket1 which is carried in   
the arms with great care1 by the        
principal vassal of the chief to whom   
the plantation may belong4 ,the  baskets
 are deposited in the mali7#cff7 7in the
 ,mooa71 and some of  them begin to     
employ themselves in slinging the yams1 
each upon the centre  of a pole about   
eight or nine feet long1 and four inches
 diameter4 ,the  proceedings are        
regulated by attending matabooles47#cfg7
 ,the yams being all  slung1 each pole  
is carried by two men upon their        
shoulders1 one walking  before the      
other1 and the yam hanging between them1
 ornamented with red  ribbons4 ,the     
procession begins to move towards the   
grave of the last  ,tooitonga 7which is 
generally in the neighbourhood1 or the  
grave of one of  his family will do71   
the men advancing in a single line1     
every two bearing  a yam1 with a slow   
and measured pace1 sinking at every     

step1 as if their  burden were of       
immense weight4 ,in the meantime the    
chiefs and matabooles  are seated in a  
semicircle before the grave1 with their 
heads bowed down1  and their hands      
clasped before them40 ,the procession   
then marched round  the grave twice or  
thrice in a great circle1 the conchs    
blowing and the  men singing4 ,next the 
yams1 still suspended from the poles1   
were deposited  before the grave1 and   
their bearers sat down beside them4 ,one
 of the  matabooles of ,tooitonga1      
seating himself before the grave1 a     
little in  advance of the men1 now      
addressed the gods generally1 and       
afterwards  particularly1 mentioning the
 late ,tooitonga1 and the names of      
several  others4 ,he thanked them for   
their divine bounty in favouring the    
land with  the prospect of so good a    
harvest1 and prayed that their          
beneficence might  be continued in      
future4 ,when he had finished1 the men  
rose and resumed  their loads1 and after

 parading two or three times before the 
grave1  marched back to the mali the    
same way they came1 singing and blowing 
the conchs as before4 ,the chiefs and   
matabooles soon followed to the  same   
place1 where the yams had been again    
deposited and loosened from the  poles1 
though they still retained their        
ornaments4 ,here the company sat  down  
in a great circle1 presided over by     
,tooitonga1 while the king and  other   
great chiefs retired into the background
 among the mass of the  people4 ,then   
the other articles that formed part of  
the inachi were  brought forward1       
consisting of dried fish1 mats1 etc41   
which1 with the  yams1 were divided into
 shares by one of the matabooles of     
,tooitonga4  ,about a fourth was        
allotted to the gods1 and appropriated  
by the priests2  about a half fell to   
the king2 and the remainder belonged to 
,tooitonga4  ,the materials of the      
inachi having been carried away1 the    
company set  themselves to drink cava4  

,some cava root was brought and         
prepared2 a  large quantity of          
provisions1 perhaps a hundred and fifty 
baskets-full1  was set forth1 and a     
small part of it was distributed to be  
eaten with the  cava4 ,while the        
infusion was preparing1 a mataboole made
 a speech to  the people1 saying that1  
as they had performed this important    
ceremony1  the gods would protect them  
and grant them long lives1 if only they 
continued to observe the religious rites
 and to pay due respect to the  chiefs4 
,when the cava was all drunk1 the circle
 separated1 and the  provisions were    
shared out to each chief according to   
his rank4 ,the day  concluded with      
wrestling1 boxing1 and so forth1 and    
then the night dances  began4 ,when     
these were ended1 the people went home  
perfectly assured of  the protection of 
the gods4 ,at this ceremony1 we are     
informed1 the  quantity of provisions   
distributed was incredible1 and the     
people looked  upon it as a very heavy  

tribute47#cfh7    7,m#ajf7 ,in this     
,tongan festival the solemn presentation
 of the first-fruits  to the divine     
chief at the grave of his predecessor is
 highly significant3  it confirms the   
conclusion which we have already        
reached1 that wherever  the first-fruits
 are paid to the chief1 it is rather in 
his religious than  in his civil        
capacity that he receives them4 ,it is  
true that the king of  ,tonga received a
 large share of the first-fruits1 indeed
 a larger share  than was allotted to   
the divine chief2 but it is very        
noticeable that  while the division of  
the first-fruits was taking place under 
the  presidency of the divine chief1 the
 king and the other great chiefs        
retired from the scene and mingled with 
the mass of the people1 as if to        
indicate that as mere laymen they had no
 right to participate in a  religious   
rite of such deep solemnity4    7,m#ajg7
 ,the ,samoans used to present the      
first-fruits to the spirits  7aitus7 and

 chiefs47#cfi7 ,for example1 a family   
whose god was in the form  of an eel    
presented the first-fruits of their taro
 plantations to the  eel47#cgj7 ,in     
,tahiti 8the first fish taken           
periodically on their shores1  together 
with a number of kinds regarded as      
sacred1 were conveyed to the  altar4    
,the first-fruits of their orchards and 
gardens were also taumaha1  or offered1 
with a portion of their live stock1     
which consisted of pigs1  dogs1 and     
fowls1 as it was supposed death would be
 inflicted on the owner  or the occupant
 of the land1 from which the god should 
not receive such  acknowledgment407#cga7
 ,in ,huahine1 one of the ,society      
,islands1 the  first-fruits were        
presented to the god ,tani4 ,a poor     
person was expected to  bring two of the
 earliest fruits gathered1 of whatever  
kind2 a raatira  had to bring ten1 and  
chiefs and princes had to bring more1   
according to  their rank and riches4    
,they carried the fruits to the temple1 

where they  threw them down on the      
ground1 with the words1 8,here1 ,tani1  
,i have brought  you something to       
eat407#cgb7 ,the chief gods of the      
,easter ,islanders were  ,make-,make and
 ,haua4 ,to these they offered the first
 of all the produce of  the             
ground47#cgc7 ,amongst the ,maoris the  
offering of the first-fruits of  the    
sweet potatoes to ,pani1 son of ,rongo1 
the god of sweet potatoes1 was a  solemn
 religious ceremony4 ,the crop of sweet 
potatoes 7kumara7 was  sacred1 and all  
persons engaged in its cultivation were 
also sacred or  tabooed2 they might not 
quit the place nor undertake any other  
work47#cgd7    7,m#ajh7 ,it has been    
affirmed that the old ,prussians offered
 the  first-fruits of their crops and of
 their fishing to the god ,curcho1 but  
doubt rests on the statement47#cge7 ,we 
have seen that the ,athenians and  other
 ,greek peoples offered the first-fruits
 of the wheat and barley  harvests to   
,demeter and ,persephone at             

,eleusis47#cgf7 ,the ,troezenians       
sacrificed the first-fruits to          
,poseidon1 whom they worshipped as the  
guardian deity of their city47#cgg7 ,in 
,attica the first-fruits of the  vintage
 were presented to ,icarius and         
,erigone47#cgh7 ,the ,romans sacrificed 
the first ears of corn to ,ceres1 and   
the first of the new wine to ,liber2    
and until the priests had offered these 
sacrifices1 the people might not  eat   
the new corn nor drink the new          
wine47#cgi7 ,in various parts of ancient
  ,italy the vintage was solemnly       
inaugurated by the priests4 ,at ,rome   
the  duty devolved on the ,flamen       
,dialis1 who sacrificed a lamb to       
,jupiter and  then gathered the first   
grapes over the entrails of the victim4 
,till this  ceremony had been performed1
 the new wine might not be brought into 
the  city47#chj7    7,m#aji7 ,the       
,thompson ,river ,indians of ,british   
,columbia used to offer the  first      
berries of the season to the earth1 or  

more generally to the  mountains4 ,the  
offering was made by an old grey-haired 
person1 who danced  and held out the    
fruit towards the mountain-tops4 ,the   
rest of the people  painted their faces 
red and danced for some time47#cha7 ,the
 ,okanaken  ,indians of ,british        
,columbia 8observed first-fruits        
ceremonies4 ,when the  first berries or 
roots were ripe1 the chief would send   
out his wife or  eldest daughter to     
gather a portion4 ,the whole community  
would then come  together1 and prayers  
would be offered to those spirits of the
 sky who  were supposed to preside over 
the operations of nature1 portions of   
the  fruit or roots would be distributed
 to all present1 after which any one    
was free to gather all he or she        
desired2 but no one would think of      
picking a berry or digging a root until 
after the feast had been  held407#chb7  
,when the ears of maize were formed1 the
 ,quiches of ,central  ,america gathered
 the first-fruits and carried them to   

the priests2  moreover1 they baked      
loaves or cakes1 which they offered to  
the idol who  guarded their fields1 but 
afterwards these cakes were given to the
 poor or  the infirm to eat47#chc7 ,it  
was the custom of the ,arkansas ,indians
 to offer  the first-fruits of the ripe 
maize and melons to the ,master of      
,life2 even  children would die of      
hunger rather than touch the new fruits 
before this  offering had been made4    
,some of the new maize1 melons1 and     
other fruits  were minced up with the   
carcase of a dog in the presence of the 
old men1  who alone were privileged to  
assist at this solemn rite4 ,then1 after
  performing certain ceremonies1 the old
 men began to dance1 and some young     
girls1 wound up to a pitch of frenzy1   
threw themselves on the offering and    
bolted it in an instant4 ,thereupon the 
old men seized the damsels and  ducked  
them in the river ,arkansas1 which had a
 sobering influence on the  minds of the
 devotees47#chd7 ,from this account we  

may perhaps infer that in  eating the   
new fruits the girls were believed to be
 inspired by the ,master  of ,life1 who 
thus consumed the offering by deputy4   
,the chief solemnity of  the ,natchez1  
an ,indian tribe on the ,lower          
,mississippi1 was the ,harvest          
,festival or the ,festival of ,new      
,fire4 ,an early account of this        
ceremony  has been already submitted to 
the reader17#che7 but it may not be     
amiss to  add here for comparison the   
later description by ,chateaubriand1    
which  differs from the other in some   
particulars1 and lays stress on the     
sacrifice rather than on the sacrament  
of first-fruits4 ,according to          
,chateaubriand1 then1 when the time for 
the festival drew near1 a crier  went   
through the villages calling upon the   
people to prepare new vessels  and new  
garments1 to wash their houses1 and to  
burn the old grain1 the old  garments1  
and the old utensils in a common fire4  
,he also proclaimed an  amnesty to      

criminals4 ,next day he appeared again1 
commanding the people to  fast for three
 days1 to abstain from all pleasures1   
and to make use of the  medicine of     
purification4 ,thereupon all the people 
took some drops  extracted from a root  
which they called the 8root of blood40  
,it was a kind  of plantain and         
distilled a red liquor which acted as a 
violent emetic4  ,during their three    
days' fast the people kept silence4 ,at 
the end of it  the crier proclaimed that
 the festival would begin on the        
following day4  ,so next morning1 as    
soon as it began to grow light in the   
sky1 the people  streamed from all      
quarters towards the temple of the ,sun4
 ,the temple was a  large building with 
two doors1 one opening to the east1 the 
other to the  west4 ,on this morning the
 eastern door of the temple stood open4 
,facing  the eastern door was an altar1 
placed so as to catch the first beams of
  the rising sun4 ,an image of a        
chouchouacha 7a small marsupial7 stood  

upon the altar2 on its right was an     
image of a rattlesnake1 on its left an  
image of a marmoset4 ,before these      
images a fire of oak-bark burned        
perpetually4 ,once a year only1 on the  
eve of the ,harvest ,festival1 was the  
sacred flame suffered to die out4 ,to   
the right of the altar1 on the  morning 
of this holy day1 stood the great chief1
 who took his title and  traced his     
descent from the ,sun4 ,to the left of  
the altar stood his wife4  ,round them  
were grouped1 according to their ranks1 
the war chiefs1 the  sachems1 the       
heralds1 and the young braves4 ,in front
 of the altar were  piled bundles of dry
 reeds1 stacked in concentric rings4    
,the high priest1 standing on the       
threshold of the temple1 kept his eyes  
fixed on the eastern horizon4 ,before   
presiding at the festival he had to     
plunge thrice into the ,mississippi4 ,in
 his hands he held two pieces of dry    
wood which he kept rubbing slowly       
against each other1 muttering magic     

words4 ,at his side two acolytes held   
two cups filled with a kind of black    
sherbet4 ,all the women1 their backs    
turned to the east1 each leaning with   
one hand on her rude mattock and        
supporting her infant with the other1   
stood in a great semicircle at the gate 
of the temple4 ,profound silence        
reigned throughout the multitude while  
the priest watched attentively the      
growing light in the east4 ,as soon as  
the diffused light of dawn began to  be 
shot with beams of fire1 he quickened   
the motion of the two pieces of  wood   
which he held in his hands2 and at the  
moment when the upper edge of  the sun's
 disc appeared above the horizon1 fire  
flashed from the wood and  was caught in
 tinder4 ,at the same instant the women 
outside the temple  faced round and held
 up their infants and their mattocks to 
the rising  sun4    ,the great chief and
 his wife now drank the black liquor4   
,the priests  kindled the circle of     
dried reeds2 fire was set to the heap of

 oak-bark on  the altar1 and from this  
sacred flame all the hearths of the     
village were  rekindled4 ,no sooner were
 the circles of reeds consumed than the 
chief's  wife came from the temple and  
placing herself at the head of the women
  marched in procession to the          
harvest-fields1 whither the men were not
  allowed to follow them4 ,they went to 
gather the first sheaves of maize1  and 
returned to the temple bearing them on  
their heads4 ,some of the  sheaves they 
presented to the high priest1 who laid  
them on the altar4  ,others they used to
 bake the unleavened bread which was to 
be eaten in the  evening4 ,the eastern  
door of the sanctuary was now closed1   
and the western  door was opened4       
,when day began to decline1 the         
multitude assembled once more at the    
temple1 this time at its western gate1  
where they formed a great crescent1     
with the horns turned towards the west4 
,the unleavened bread was held up  and  
presented to the setting sun1 and a     

priest struck up a hymn in praise  of   
his descending light4 ,when darkness had
 fallen the whole plain twinkled  with  
fires1 round which the people feasted2  
and the sounds of music and  revelry    
broke the silence of night47#chf7       
,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,homoeopathic ,,magic 
,,of ,a ,,flesh ,,diet4      7,m#aaj7   
,the practice of killing a god has now  
been traced amongst peoples  who have   
reached the agricultural stage of       
society4 ,we have seen that the  spirit 
of the corn1 or of other cultivated     
plants1 is commonly represented  either 
in human or in animal form1 and that in 
some places a custom has  prevailed of  
killing annually either the human or the
 animal  representative of the god4 ,one
 reason for thus killing the corn-spirit
 in  the person of his representative   
has been given implicitly in an earlier 
part of this work3 we may suppose that  
the intention was to guard him or  her  
7for the corn-spirit is often feminine7 
from the enfeeblement of old  age by    

transferring the spirit1 while still    
hale and hearty1 to the person  of a    
youthful and vigorous successor4 ,apart 
from the desirability of  renewing his  
divine energies1 the death of the       
corn-spirit may have been  deemed       
inevitable under the sickles or the     
knives of the reapers1 and his          
worshippers may accordingly have felt   
bound to acquiesce in the sad           
necessity47#chg7 ,but1 further1 we have 
found a widespread custom of eating  the
 god sacramentally1 either in the shape 
of the man or animal who  represents the
 god1 or in the shape of bread made in  
human or animal form4  ,the reasons for 
thus partaking of the body of the god   
are1 from the  primitive standpoint1    
simple enough4 ,the savage commonly     
believes that by  eating the flesh of an
 animal or man he acquires not only the 
physical1  but even the moral and       
intellectual qualities which were       
characteristic of  that animal or man2  
so when the creature is deemed divine1  

our simple  savage naturally expects to 
absorb a portion of its divinity along  
with  its material substance4 ,it may be
 well to illustrate by instances this   
common faith in the acquisition of      
virtues or vices of many kinds through  
the medium of animal food1 even when    
there is no pretence that the viands    
consist of the body or blood of a god4  
,the doctrine forms part of the  widely 
ramified system of sympathetic or       
homoeopathic magic4    7,m#aaa7 ,thus1  
for example1 the ,creeks1 ,cherokee1 and
 kindred tribes of  ,north ,american    
,indians 8believe that nature is possest
 of such a property1  as to transfuse   
into men and animals the qualities1     
either of the food  they use1 or of     
those objects that are presented to     
their senses2 he who  feeds on venison  
is1 according to their physical system1 
swifter and more  sagacious than the man
 who lives on the flesh of the clumsy   
bear1 or  helpless dunghill fowls1 the  
slow-footed tame cattle1 or the heavy   

wallowing swine4 ,this is the reason    
that several of their old men           
recommend1 and say1 that formerly their 
greatest chieftains observed a  constant
 rule in their diet1 and seldom ate of  
any animal of a gross  quality1 or heavy
 motion of body1 fancying it conveyed a 
dullness through  the whole system1 and 
disabled them from exerting themselves  
with proper  vigour in their martial1   
civil1 and religious duties407#chh7 ,the
 ,zaparo  ,indians of ,ecuador 8will1   
unless from necessity1 in most cases not
 eat any  heavy meats1 such as tapir and
 peccary1 but confine themselves to     
birds1  monkeys1 deer1 fish1 etc41      
principally because they argue that the 
heavier  meats make them unwieldy1 like 
the animals who supply the flesh1       
impeding  their agility1 and unfitting  
them for the chase407#chi7 ,similarly   
some of  the ,brazilian ,indians would  
eat no beast1 bird1 or fish that ran1   
flew1 or  swam slowly1 lest by partaking
 of its flesh they should lose their    

agility  and be unable to escape from   
their enemies47#cij7 ,the ,caribs       
abstained from  the flesh of pigs lest  
it should cause them to have small eyes 
like pigs2  and they refused to partake 
of tortoises from a fear that if they   
did so  they would become heavy and     
stupid like the animal47#cia7 ,among the
 ,fans of  ,west ,africa men in the     
prime of life never eat tortoises for a 
similar  reason2 they imagine that if   
they did so1 their vigour and fleetness 
of  foot would be gone4 ,but old men may
 eat tortoises freely1 because having   
already lost the power of running they  
can take no harm from the flesh of  the 
slow-footed creature47#cib7 ,some of the
 ,chiriguanos of eastern ,bolivia  would
 not touch the flesh of the vicua1      
because they imagined that if  they ate 
it they would become woolly like the    
vicua47#cic7 ,on the other  hand the    
,abipones of ,paraguay ate the flesh of 
jaguars in order to acquire  the courage
 of the beast27#cid7 indeed the number  

of jaguars which they  consumed for this
 object is said to have been very great1
 and with a like  intent they eagerly   
devoured the flesh of bulls1 stags1     
boars1 and  ant-bears1 being persuaded  
that by frequently partaking of such    
food they  increased their strength1    
activity1 and courage4 ,on the other    
hand they  all abhorred the thought of  
eating hens1 eggs1 sheep1 fish1 and     
tortoises1  because they believed that  
these tender viands begot sloth and     
listlessness in their bodies and        
cowardice in their minds47#cie7 ,the    
,thompson ,indians of ,british ,columbia
 would not eat the heart of the         
fool-hen1 nor would they allow their    
dogs to devour the bird1 lest they      
should grow foolish like the bird47#cif7
    7,m#aab7 ,while many savages thus   
fear to eat the flesh of slow-footed    
animals lest they should themselves     
become slow-footed1 the ,bushmen of     
,south ,africa purposely ate the flesh  
of such creatures1 and the reason  which

 they gave for doing so exhibits a      
curious refinement of savage            
philosophy4 ,they imagined that the game
 which they pursued would be  influenced
 sympathetically by the food in the body
 of the hunter1 so that  if he had eaten
 of swift-footed animals1 the quarry    
would be swift-footed  also and would   
escape him2 whereas if he had eaten of  
slow-footed animals1  the quarry would  
also be slow-footed1 and he would be    
able to overtake and  kill it4 ,for that
 reason hunters of gemsbok particularly 
avoided eating  the flesh of the swift  
and agile springbok2 indeed they would  
not even  touch it with their hands1    
because they believed the springbok to  
be a  very lively creature which did not
 go to sleep at night1 and they thought 
that if they ate springbok1 the gemsbok 
which they hunted would likewise  not be
 willing to go to sleep1 even at night4 
,how1 then1 could they catch  it87#cig7 
7,m#aac7 ,certain tribes on the ,upper  
,zambesi believe in transmigration1 and 

every man in his lifetime chooses the   
kind of animal whose body he wishes  at 
death to enter4 ,he then performs an    
initiatory rite1 which consists in      
swallowing the maggots bred in the      
putrid carcase of the animal of his     
choice2 thenceforth he partakes of that 
animal's nature4 ,and on the  occasion  
of a calamity1 while the women are      
giving themselves up to  lamentation1   
you will see one man writhing on the    
ground like a boa  constrictor or a     
crocodile1 another howling and leaping  
like a panther1 a  third baying like a  
jackal1 roaring like a lion1 or grunting
 like a  hippopotamus1 all of them      
imitating the characters of the various 
animals  to perfection47#cih7 ,clearly  
these people imagine that the soul or   
vital  essence of the animal is         
manifested in the maggots bred in its   
decaying  carcase2 hence they imagine   
that by swallowing the maggots they     
imbue  themselves with the very life and
 spirit of the creature which they      

desire  to become4 ,the ,namaquas       
abstain from eating the flesh of hares1 
because  they think it would make them  
faint-hearted as a hare4 ,but they eat  
the  flesh of the lion1 or drink the    
blood of the leopard or lion1 to get the
  courage and strength of these         
beasts47#cii7 ,the ,bushmen will not    
give their  children a jackal's heart to
 eat1 lest it should make them timid    
like the  jackal2 but they give them a  
leopard's heart to eat to make them     
brave  like the leopard47#djj7 ,when a  
,wagogo man of ,german ,east ,africa    
kills a  lion1 he eats the heart in     
order to become brave like a lion2 but  
he  thinks that to eat the heart of a   
hen would make him timid47#dja7 ,among  
the  ,ja-luo1 a tribe of ,nilotic       
negroes1 young men eat the flesh of     
leopards in  order to make themselves   
fierce in war47#djb7 ,the flesh of the  
lion and  also that of the spotted      
leopard are sometimes cooked and eaten  
by native  warriors in ,south-,eastern  

,africa1 who hope thereby to become as  
brave as  lions47#djc7 ,when a ,zulu    
army assembles to go forth to battle1   
the warriors  eat slices of meat which  
is smeared with a powder made of the    
dried flesh  of various animals1 such as
 the leopard1 lion1 elephant1 snakes1   
and so  on2 for thus it is thought that 
the soldiers will acquire the bravery   
and  other warlike qualities of these   
animals4 ,sometimes if a ,zulu has      
killed a  wild beast1 for instance a    
leopard1 he will give his children the  
blood to  drink1 and will roast the     
heart for them to eat1 expecting that   
they will  thus grow up brave and daring
 men4 ,but others say that this is      
dangerous1  because it is apt to produce
 courage without prudence1 and to make a
 man  rush heedlessly on his            
death47#djd7 ,among the ,wabondei of    
,eastern ,africa  the heart of a lion or
 leopard is eaten with the intention of 
making the  eater strong and            
brave47#dje7 ,in ,british ,central      

,africa aspirants after  courage consume
 the flesh and especially the hearts of 
lions1 while  lecherous persons eat the 
testicles of goats47#djf7 ,among the    
,suk of  ,british ,east ,africa the fat 
and heart of a lion are sometimes given 
to  children to eat in order that they  
may become strong2 but they are not     
allowed to know what they are           
eating47#djg7 ,arab women in ,north     
,africa give  their male children a     
piece of a lion's heart to eat to make  
them  fearless47#djh7 ,the flesh of an  
elephant is thought by the ,ewe-speaking
  peoples of ,west ,africa to make the  
eater strong47#dji7 ,before they go     
forth  to fight1 ,wajagga warriors drink
 a magical potion1 which often consists 
of  shavings of the horn and hide of a  
rhinoceros mixed with beer2 this is     
supposed to impart to them the strength 
and force of the animal47#daj7 ,when  a 
serious disease has attacked a ,zulu    
kraal1 the medicine-man takes the  bone 
of a very old dog1 or the bone of an old

 cow1 bull1 or other very old  animal1  
and administers it to the healthy as    
well as to the sick people1  in order   
that they may live to be as old as the  
animal of whose bone they  have         
partaken47#daa7 ,so to restore the aged 
,aeson to youth1 the witch ,medea       
infused into his veins a decoction of   
the liver of the long-lived deer and    
the head of a crow that had outlived    
nine generations of men47#dab7 ,in      
antiquity the flesh of deer and crows   
was eaten for other purposes than  that 
of prolonging life4 ,as deer were       
supposed not to suffer from fever1  some
 women used to taste venison every      
morning1 and it is said that in         
consequence they lived to a great age   
without ever being attacked by a  fever2
 only the venison lost all its virtue if
 the animal had been killed  by more    
blows than one47#dac7 ,again1 ancient   
diviners sought to imbue  themselves    
with the spirit of prophecy by          
swallowing vital portions of  birds and 

beasts of omen2 for example1 they       
thought that by eating the  hearts of   
crows or moles or hawks they took into  
their bodies1 along with  the flesh1 the
 prophetic soul of the creature47#dad7  
7,m#aad7 ,among the ,dyaks of           
,north-,west ,borneo young men and      
warriors may not  eat venison1 because  
it would make them as timid as deer2 but
 the women  and very old men are free to
 eat it47#dae7 ,however1 among the      
,kayans of the  same region1 who share  
the same view as to the ill effect of   
eating  venison1 men will partake of the
 dangerous viand provided it is cooked  
in  the open air1 for then the timid    
spirit of the animal is supposed to     
escape at once into the jungle and not  
to enter into the eater47#daf7 ,the     
,aino of ,japan think that the otter is 
a very forgetful animal1 and they  often
 call a person with a bad memory an     
8otter head40 ,therefore it is a  rule  
with them that 8the otter's head must   
not lightly be used as an  article of   

food1 for unless people are very careful
 they will1 if they eat  it1 become as  
forgetful as that creature4 ,and hence  
it happens that when  an otter has been 
killed the people do not usually eat the
 head4 ,but if  they are seized with a  
very strong desire for a feast of       
otter's head1  they may partake thereof1
 providing proper precautions are taken4
 ,when  eating it the people must take  
their swords1 knives1 axes1 bows and    
arrows1 tobacco-boxes and pipes1 trays1 
cups1 garden tools1 and everything  they
 possess1 tie them up in bundles with   
carrying slings1 and sit with  them     
attached to their heads while in the act
 of eating4 ,this feast may be  partaken
 of in this way1 and no other4 ,if this 
method be carefully adhered  to1 there  
will be no danger of forgetting where a 
thing has been placed1  otherwise loss  
of memory will be the result407#dag7 ,on
 the other hand the  ,aino believe that 
the heart of the water-ousel is         
exceedingly wise1 and  that in speech   

the bird is most eloquent4 ,therefore   
whenever he is killed1  he should be at 
once torn open and his heart wrenched   
out and swallowed  before it has time to
 grow cold or suffer damage of any kind4
 ,if a man  swallows it thus1 he will   
become very fluent and wise1 and will be
 able to  argue down all his            
adversaries47#dah7 ,in ,northern ,india 
people fancy that  if you eat the       
eyeballs of an owl you will be able like
 an owl to see in  the dark47#dai7      
7,m#aae7 ,when the ,kansas ,indians were
 going to war1 a feast used to be held  
in the chief's hut1 and the principal   
dish was dog's flesh1 because1 said  the
 ,indians1 the animal who is so brave   
that he will let himself be cut in      
pieces in defence of his master1 must   
needs inspire valour47#dbj7 ,on         
extraordinary occasions the bravest     
warriors of the ,dacotas used to        
perform a dance at which they devoured  
the livers of dogs raw and warm in      
order thereby to acquire the sagacity   

and bravery of the dog4 ,the animals    
were thrown to them alive1 killed1 and  
cut open2 then the livers were          
extracted1 cut into strips1 and hung on 
a pole4 ,each dancer grabbed at a  strip
 of liver with his teeth and chewed and 
swallowed it as he danced3 he  might not
 touch it with his hands1 only the      
medicine-man enjoyed that  privilege4   
,women did not join in the dance47#dba7 
,men of the ,buru and ,aru  ,islands1   
,east ,indies1 eat the flesh of dogs in 
order to be bold and nimble  in         
war47#dbb7 ,amongst the ,papuans of the 
,port ,moresby and ,motumotu  districts1
 ,new ,guinea1 young lads eat strong    
pig1 wallaby1 and large fish1  in order 
to acquire the strength of the animal or
 fish47#dbc7 ,some of the  natives of   
,northern ,australia fancy that by      
eating the flesh of the  kangaroo or emu
 they are enabled to jump or run faster 
than before47#dbd7  ,the ,miris of      
,assam prize tiger's flesh as food for  
men2 it gives them  strength and        

courage4 ,but 8it is not suited for     
women2 it would make them  too          
strong-minded407#dbe7 ,in ,corea the    
bones of tigers fetch a higher price    
than those of leopards as a means of    
inspiring courage4 ,a ,chinaman in      
,seoul bought and ate a whole tiger to  
make himself brave and fierce47#dbf7    
,the special seat of courage1 according 
to the ,chinese1 is the  gall-bladder2  
so they sometimes procure the           
gall-bladders of tigers and  bears1 and 
eat the bile in the belief that it will 
give them courage47#dbg7  ,again1 the   
,similkameen ,indians of ,british       
,columbia imagine that to eat the  heart
 of a bear inspires courage47#dbh7      
7,m#aaf7 ,in ,norse legend1 ,ingiald1   
son of ,king ,aunund1 was timid in his  
youth1 but after eating the heart of a  
wolf he became very bold2 ,hialto       
gained strength and courage by eating   
the heart of a bear and drinking its    
blood27#dbi7 and when ,sigurd killed the
 dragon ,fafnir and tasted his  heart's 

blood1 he acquired thereby a knowledge  
of the language of  birds47#dcj7 ,the   
belief that the language of birds or of 
animals in general  can be learned by   
eating some part of a serpent appears to
 be ancient and  wide-spread4           
,democritus is reported to have said    
that serpents were  generated from the  
mixed blood of certain birds1 and that  
therefore  whoever ate a serpent would  
understand the bird language47#dca7 ,the
 ,arabs  in antiquity were supposed to  
be able to draw omens from birds because
  they had gained a knowledge of the    
bird language by eating either the      
heart or liver of a serpent2 and the    
people of ,paraka in ,india are said to 
have learned the language of animals in 
general by the same means47#dcb7  ,saxo 
,grammaticus relates how ,rollo acquired
 all knowledge1 including an            
understanding of the speech of animals1 
both wild and tame1 by eating of a      
black serpent47#dcc7 ,in ,norway1       
,sweden1 and ,jutland down to the       

nineteenth  century the flesh of a white
 snake was thought to confer            
supernatural  wisdom on the eater27#dcd7
 it is a ,german and ,bohemian          
superstition that  whoever eats         
serpent's flesh understands the language
 of animals47#dce7  ,notions of the same
 sort1 based no doubt on a belief in the
 extraordinary  wisdom or subtlety of   
the serpent1 often meet us in popular   
tales and  traditions47#dcf7    7,m#aag7
 ,in ,morocco lethargic patients are    
given ants to swallow1 and to eat       
lion's flesh will make a coward         
brave27#dcg7 but people abstain from    
eating  the hearts of fowls1 lest       
thereby they should be rendered         
timid47#dch7 ,when  a child is late in  
learning to speak1 the ,turks of        
,central ,asia will give  it the tongues
 of certain birds to eat47#dci7 ,a      
,north ,american ,indian  thought that  
brandy must be a decoction of hearts and
 tongues1 8because10  said he1 8after   
drinking it ,i fear nothing1 and ,i talk

 wonderfully407#ddj7  ,in ,java there is
 a tiny earthworm which now and then    
utters a shrill sound  like that of the 
alarum of a small clock4 ,hence when a  
public dancing girl  has screamed       
herself hoarse in the exercise of her   
calling1 the leader of  the troop makes 
her eat some of these worms1 in the     
belief that thus she  will regain her   
voice and will1 after swallowing them1  
be able to scream  as shrilly as        
ever47#dda7 ,the people of ,darfur1 in  
,central ,africa1 think  that the liver 
is the seat of the soul1 and that a man 
may enlarge his  soul by eating the     
liver of an animal4 8,whenever an animal
 is killed its  liver is taken out and  
eaten1 but the people are most careful  
not to touch  it with their hands1 as it
 is considered sacred2 it is cut up in  
small  pieces and eaten raw1 the bits   
being conveyed to the mouth on the point
 of  a knife1 or the sharp point of a   
stick4 ,any one who may accidentally    
touch  the liver is strictly forbidden  

to partake of it1 which prohibition is  
regarded as a great misfortune for him40
 ,women are not allowed to eat  liver1  
because they have no soul47#ddb7        
7,m#aah7 ,again1 the flesh and blood of 
dead men are commonly eaten and drunk   
to inspire bravery1 wisdom1 or other    
qualities for which the men  themselves 
were remarkable1 or which are supposed  
to have their special  seat in the      
particular part eaten4 ,thus among the  
mountain tribes of  ,south-,eastern     
,africa there are ceremonies by which   
the youths are formed  into guilds or   
lodges1 and among the rites of          
initiation there is one  which is       
intended to infuse courage1             
intelligence1 and other qualities  into 
the novices4 ,whenever an enemy who has 
behaved with conspicuous  bravery is    
killed1 his liver1 which is considered  
the seat of valour2 his  ears1 which are
 supposed to be the seat of             
intelligence2 the skin of his  forehead1
 which is regarded as the seat of       

perseverance2 his testicles1  which are 
held to be the seat of strength2 and    
other members1 which are  viewed as the 
seat of other virtues1 are cut from his 
body and baked to  cinders4 ,the ashes  
are carefully kept in the horn of a     
bull1 and1 during  the ceremonies       
observed at circumcision1 are mixed with
 other ingredients  into a kind of      
paste1 which is administered by the     
tribal priest to the  youths4 ,by this  
means the strength1 valour1             
intelligence1 and other  virtues of the 
slain are believed to be imparted to the
 eaters47#ddc7 ,when  ,basutos of the   
mountains have killed a very brave foe1 
they immediately  cut out his heart and 
eat it1 because this is supposed to give
 them his  courage and strength in      
battle4 ,at the close of the war the man
 who has  slain such a foe is called    
before the chief and gets from the      
doctor a  medicine which he chews with  
his food4 ,the third day after this he  
must  wash his body in running water1   

and at the expiry of ten days he may    
return to his wives and children47#ddd7 
,so an ,ovambo warrior in battle will   
tear out the heart of his slain foe in  
the belief that by eating it he can     
acquire the bravery of the dead         
man47#dde7 ,a similar belief and        
practice  prevail among some of the     
tribes of ,british ,central ,africa1    
notably among  the ,angoni4 ,these      
tribes also mutilate the dead and reduce
 the severed  parts to ashes4           
,afterwards the ashes are stirred into a
 broth or gruel1  8which must be        
#8lapped' up with the hand and thrown   
into the mouth1 but  not eaten as       
ordinary food is taken1 to give the     
soldiers courage1  perseverance1        
fortitude1 strategy1 patience and       
wisdom407#ddf7 ,in former  times        
whenever a ,nandi warrior killed an     
enemy he used to eat a morsel of  the   
dead man's heart to make himself        
brave47#ddg7 ,the ,wagogo of ,german    
,east  ,africa do the same thing for the

 same purpose47#ddh7 ,when ,sir ,charles
  ,m',carthy was killed by the          
,ashantees in #ahbd1 it is said that his
 heart  was devoured by the chiefs of   
the ,ashantee army1 who hoped by this   
means  to imbibe his courage4 ,his flesh
 was dried and parcelled out among the  
lower officers for the same purpose1 and
 his bones were long kept at  ,coomassie
 as national fetishes47#ddi7 ,the       
,amazons of ,dahomey used to eat  the   
hearts of foes remarkable for their     
bravery1 in order that some of the      
intrepidity which animated them might be
 transfused into the eaters4 ,in  former
 days1 if report may be trusted1 the    
hearts of enemies who enjoyed a         
reputation for sagacity were also eaten1
 for the ,ewe-speaking negro of  these  
regions holds that the heart is the seat
 of the intellect as well as  of        
courage47#dej7 ,among the               
,yoruba-speaking negroes of the ,slave  
,coast the  priests of ,ogun1 the       
war-god1 usually take out the hearts of 

human  victims1 which are then dried1   
crumbled to powder1 mixed with rum1 and 
sold to aspirants after courage1 who    
swallow the mixture in the belief  that 
they thereby absorb the manly virtue of 
which the heart is supposed  to be the  
seat47#dea7 ,similarly1 ,indians of the 
,orinoco region used to  toast the      
hearts of their enemies1 grind them to  
powder1 and then drink  the powder in a 
liquid in order to be brave and valiant 
the next time they  went forth to       
fight47#deb7 ,the ,nauras ,indians of   
,new ,granada ate the hearts  of        
,spaniards when they had the            
opportunity1 hoping thereby to make     
themselves as dauntless as the dreaded  
,castilian chivalry47#dec7 ,the ,sioux  
,indians of ,north ,america used to     
reduce to powder the heart of a valiant 
enemy and swallow the powder1 hoping    
thus to appropriate the dead man's      
valour47#ded7 ,the ,muskoghees also     
thought that to eat the heart of a foe  
would 8communicate and give greater     

heart against the enemy4 ,they also     
think that the vigorous faculties of the
 mind are derived from the brain1  on   
which account1 ,i have seen some of     
their heroes drink out of a human       
skull2 they imagine1 they only imbibe   
the good qualities it formerly          
contained407#dee7 ,for a similar reason 
in ,uganda a priest used to drink  beer 
out of the skull of a dead king in order
 that he might be possessed  by the     
king's spirit47#def7 ,among the         
,esquimaux of ,bering ,strait1 when     
young men had slain an enemy for the    
first time in war1 they were wont to    
drink some of the blood and to eat a    
small piece of the heart of their       
victim in order to increase their       
bravery47#deg7 ,in some tribes of       
,north-,western ,australia1 when a man  
dies who had been a great warrior or    
hunter1 his friends cut out the fat     
about his heart and eat it1 because     
they believe that it imparts to them the
 courage and cunning of the             

deceased47#deh7    7,m#aai7 ,but while  
the human heart is thus commonly eaten  
for the sake of  imbuing the eater with 
the qualities of its original owner1 it 
is not1 as  we have already seen1 the   
only part of the body which is consumed 
for this  purpose4 ,thus in ,new        
,caledonia the victors in a fight used  
to eat the  bodies of the slain1 8not1  
as might be supposed1 from a taste for  
human  flesh1 but in order to assimilate
 part of the bravery which the deceased 
was supposed to possess407#dei7 ,among  
the tribes about ,maryborough in        
,queensland1 when a man was killed in a 
ceremonial fight1 it was customary  for 
his friends to skin and eat him1 in     
order that his warlike virtues  might   
pass into the eaters47#dfj7 ,warriors of
 the ,theddora and ,ngarigo  tribes in  
,south-,eastern ,australia used to eat  
the hands and feet of their  slain      
enemies1 believing that in this way they
 acquired some of the  qualities and    
courage of the dead47#dfa7 ,in the      

,dieri tribe of ,central  ,australia1   
when a man had been condemned and killed
 by a properly  constituted party of    
executioners1 the weapons with which the
 deed was  done were washed in a small  
wooden vessel1 and the bloody mixture   
was  administered to all the slayers in 
a prescribed manner1 while they lay     
down on their backs and the elders      
poured it into their mouths4 ,this was  
believed to give them double strength1  
courage1 and great nerve for any  future
 enterprise47#dfb7 ,the ,kamilaroi of   
,new ,south ,wales ate the liver as     
well as the heart of a brave man to get 
his courage47#dfc7 ,in ,tonquin also    
there is a popular superstition that the
 liver of a brave man makes brave  any  
who partake of it4 ,hence when a        
,catholic missionary was beheaded in    
,tonquin in #ahcg1 the executioner cut  
out the liver of his victim and ate     
part of it1 while a soldier attempted to
 devour another part of it  raw47#dfd7  
,with a like intent the ,chinese swallow

 the bile of notorious  bandits who have
 been executed47#dfe7 ,the ,dyaks of    
,sarawak used to eat the  palms of the  
hands and the flesh of the knees of the 
slain in order to  steady their own     
hands and strengthen their own          
knees47#dff7 ,the ,tolalaki1  notorious 
head-hunters of ,central ,celebes1 drink
 the blood and eat the  brains of their 
victims that they may become            
brave47#dfg7 ,the ,italones of  the     
,philippine ,islands drink the blood of 
their slain enemies1 and eat  part of   
the back of their heads and of their    
entrails raw to acquire their  courage4 
,for the same reason the ,efugaos1      
another tribe of the  ,philippines1 suck
 the brains of their foes47#dfh7 ,in    
like manner the ,kai of  ,german ,new   
,guinea eat the brains of the enemies   
they kill in order to  acquire their    
strength47#dfi7 ,among the ,kimbunda of 
,western ,africa1 when a  new king      
succeeds to the throne1 a brave prisoner
 of war is killed in  order that the    

king and nobles may eat his flesh1 and  
so acquire his  strength and            
courage47#dgj7 ,the notorious ,zulu     
chief ,matuana drank the gall  of thirty
 chiefs1 whose people he had destroyed1 
in the belief that it  would make him   
strong47#dga7 ,it is a ,zulu fancy that 
by eating the centre  of the forehead   
and the eyebrow of an enemy they acquire
 the power of  looking steadfastly at a 
foe47#dgb7 ,in ,tud or ,warrior ,island1
 ,torres  ,straits1 men would drink the 
sweat of renowned warriors1 and eat the 
scrapings from their finger-nails which 
had become coated and sodden with  human
 blood4 ,this was done 8to make strong  
and like stone2 no  afraid407#dgc7 ,in  
,nagir1 another island of ,torres       
,straits1 in order to  infuse courage   
into boys a warrior used to take the eye
 and tongue of a  man whom he had       
killed1 and after mincing them and      
mixing them with his  urine he          
administered the compound to the boy1   
who received it with shut  eyes and open

 mouth seated between the warrior's     
legs47#dgd7 ,before every  warlike      
expedition the people of ,minahassa in  
,celebes used to take the  locks of hair
 of a slain foe and dabble them in      
boiling water to extract  the courage2  
this infusion of bravery was then drunk 
by the warriors47#dge7  ,in ,new        
,zealand 8the chief was an atua god1 but
 there were powerful and  powerless     
gods2 each naturally sought to make     
himself one of the former2  the plan    
therefore adopted was to incorporate the
 spirits of others with  their own2     
thus1 when a warrior slew a chief1 he   
immediately gouged out  his eyes and    
swallowed them1 the atua tonga1 or      
divinity1 being supposed  to reside in  
that organ2 thus he not only killed the 
body1 but also  possessed himself of the
 soul of his enemy1 and consequently the
 more  chiefs he slew the greater did   
his divinity become407#dgf7    7,m#abj7 
,even without absorbing any part of a   
man's bodily substance it is  sometimes 

thought possible to acquire his moral   
virtues through simple  contact with his
 bones4 ,thus among the ,toradjas of    
,central ,celebes1 when a  youth is     
being circumcised he is made to sit on  
the skull of a slain foe  in order to   
make him brave in war27#dgg7 and when   
,scanderbeg1 ,prince of  ,epirus1 was   
dead1 the ,turks1 who had often felt the
 force of his arm in  battle1 are said  
to have imagined that by wearing a piece
 of his bones  near their heart they    
should be animated with a strength and  
valour like  his47#dgh7 ,a peculiar form
 of communion with the dead is practised
 by the  ,gallas of ,eastern ,africa4   
,they think that food from the house of 
a dead  man1 especially food that he    
liked1 or that he cooked for himself1   
contains a portion of his life or soul4 
,if at the funeral feast a man eats     
some of that food1 he fancies that he   
has thereby absorbed some of the  life  
or soul of the departed1 a portion of   
his spirit1 intelligence1 or            

courage47#dgi7    7,m#aba7 ,strange as  
it may seem to us1 one motive which     
induces a savage  warrior to eat the    
flesh or drink the blood of the foe whom
 he has slain  appears to be a wish to  
form an indissoluble covenant of        
friendship and  brotherhood with his    
victim4 ,for it is a widespread belief  
among savages  that by transfusing a    
little of their blood into each other's 
bodies two  men become kinsmen and      
allies2 the same blood now circulating  
in the veins  of both1 neither can      
injure the other without at the same    
time injuring  himself2 the two have    
therefore given each other the strongest
 bond1 the  best possible hostages1 for 
their good behaviour47#dhj7 ,acting on  
this  theory1 the primitive warrior     
seeks to convert his slain foe into the 
firmest of friends by imbibing the dead 
man's blood or swallowing his  flesh4   
,that at all events appears to be the   
idea at the root of the  following      
customs4 ,when an ,arawak ,indian of    

,british ,guiana has murdered  another1 
he repairs on the third night to the    
grave of his victim1 and  pressing a    
pointed stick through the corpse he     
licks off and swallows any  blood that  
he finds adhering to the stick4 ,for he 
believes that if he did  not taste his  
victim's blood1 he would go mad and die2
 whereas by  swallowing the blood he    
averts any ill consequences that might  
flow to him  from the murder47#dha7 ,the
 belief and practice of the ,nandi are  
similar3  8,to the present day1 when a  
person of another tribe has been slain  
by a  ,nandi1 the blood must be         
carefully washed off the spear or sword 
into a  cup made of grass1 and drunk by 
the slayer4 ,if this is not done it is  
thought that the man will become        
frenzied407#dhb7 ,so among the tribes of
  the ,lower ,niger 8it is customary and
 necessary for the executioner to lick  
the blood that is on the blade02        
moreover1 8the custom of licking the    
blood off the blade of a sword by which 

a man has been killed in war is  common 
to all these tribes1 and the explanation
 given me by the ,ibo1 which  is        
generally accepted1 is1 that if this was
 not done1 the act of killing  would so 
affect the strikers as to cause them to 
run amok among their own  people2       
because the sight and smell of blood    
render them absolutely  senseless as    
well as regardless of all consequences4 
,and this licking the  blood is the only
 sure remedy1 and the only way in which 
they can recover  themselves407#dhc7    
,among the ,shans executioners believe  
that they would  soon fall ill and die  
if they did not taste the blood of their
  victims47#dhd7    7,m#abb7 ,the most  
probable explanation of these practices 
seems to be that a  manslayer is thought
 to be driven mad by the ghost of his   
victim1 who  takes possession of his    
murderer's body and causes him to demean
 himself  in a frantic manner2 whereas1 
as soon as the slayer has tasted the    
blood  of the slain1 he becomes a       

blood-brother of his victim1 whose ghost
  accordingly will do him no harm47#dhe7
 ,this hypothesis is strongly  confirmed
 by the reason alleged for a similar    
custom formerly observed by  the        
,maoris4 ,when a warrior had slain his  
foe in combat1 he tasted his  blood1    
believing that this preserved him from  
the avenging spirit of his  victim2 for 
they imagined that 8the moment a slayer 
had tasted the blood  of the slain1 the 
dead man became a part of his being and 
placed him under  the protection of the 
atua or guardian-spirit of the          
deceased407#dhf7 ,in  the light of these
 facts we can now explain the opinion1  
still widely held  in ,calabria1 that if
 a murderer is to escape1 he must suck  
his victim's  blood from the reeking    
blade of the dagger with which he did   
the  deed27#dhg7 and1 further1 we can   
see at least a glimmering of reason1    
however misapplied1 in the confidence   
cherished by the ,botocudos of  ,brazil1
 that if only they ate a morsel of the  

flesh of their enemies1 the  arrows of  
the fellow tribesmen of the slain would 
not be able to hit  them47#dhh7 ,indeed 
the evidence which ,i have just adduced 
suggests that the  intention of forming 
a blood-covenant with the dead may have 
been a common  motive for the           
cannibalism which has been so often     
practised by savage  victors on the     
bodies of their victims47#dhi7 ,if that 
was so1 it would to  some extent        
mitigate the horror with which such a   
practice is naturally  viewed by        
civilised observers2 since it would     
reveal the cannibal feast1  no longer in
 the lurid light of a brutal outburst of
 blind rage and hatred  against the     
vanquished1 but in the milder aspect of 
a solemn rite designed  to wipe out the 
memory of past hostilities and to       
establish a permanent  relation of      
friendship and good fellowship with the 
dead4    7,m#abc7 ,another mode of      
entering into communion with the dead by
 means of  their bodily relics is to    

grind their bones to powder or to burn  
them to  ashes1 and then to swallow the 
powder or the ashes mixed with food or  
drink4 ,this method of absorbing the    
virtues or appropriating the souls of   
deceased kinsfolk has been practised by 
a number of ,indian tribes of ,south    
,america4 ,thus the ,tarianas1 ,tucanos1
 and other tribes in the valley of the  
,amazon1 about a month after the        
funeral1 disinter the corpse1 which is  
then much decomposed1 and put it in a   
great pan or oven over the fire till    
all the volatile parts are driven off   
with a most horrible stench1 leaving    
only a black carbonaceous paste4 ,this  
paste is then pounded into a fine       
powder1 and being mixed in several large
 vats of the native beer1 the  liquor is
 drunk by the assembled company until   
all is consumed4 ,they  believe that    
thus the virtues of the deceased are    
transmitted to the  drinkers47#dij7     
,similarly among the ,xomanas and       
,passes of the ,rio ,negro and  ,japura 

,river in ,brazil1 it was customary to  
burn the bones of the dead and  mingle  
the ashes in their drink2 8for they     
fancied1 that by this means  they       
received into their own bodies the      
spirits of their deceased               
friends407#dia7 ,we may suppose that a  
similar motive underlies the custom     
wherever it has been observed by the    
,indians of ,south ,america1 even when  
this particular motive is not expressly 
alleged by our authorities4 ,for        
example1 the ,retoroos1 ,pechuyos1 and  
,guarayos of eastern ,bolivia           
8manifested their feeling for the dead  
by a remarkable custom3 when the  body  
had mouldered they dug up the bones1    
reduced them to powder1 and  mingling it
 with maize1 composed a sort of cake1   
which they considered it  the strongest 
mark of friendship to offer and partake4
 ,some of the first  missionaries were  
regaled with this family bread1 before  
they knew what  they were eating407#dib7
 ,again1 in the province of ,coro1 in   

north-western  ,venezuela1 when a chief 
died1 they lamented him in the night1   
celebrating  his actions2 then they     
parched his body at the fire1 and       
reducing it to  powder drank it up in   
their liquor1 deeming this act the      
highest honour  they could pay          
him47#dic7 ,the ,tauar ,indians of the  
,rio ,enivra burn their  dead1 keep     
their ashes in hollow reeds1 and eat a  
portion of the ashes  with every        
meal47#did7 ,so in antiquity ,artemisia 
expressed her love and  grief for her   
dead husband ,mausolus by powdering his 
ashes and drinking  them in water47#die7
 ,it is said that ,mwamba1 a recent king
 or chief of the  ,wemba in ,northern   
,rhodesia1 having detected one of his   
wives in an  intrigue with another man1 
caused the guilty pair to be burned     
alive1  while he watched their tortures 
from a raised seat4 8,shortly after     
this1  however1 he would seem to have   
been stricken with remorse and the dread
 of  ,nemesis4 ,the presiding           

witch-doctor was therefore ordered to   
collect the  ashes of the twain1 and    
decoct therefrom a potion1 which was    
administered  to the king to avert the  
avenging furies of evil spirits of the  
murdered  pair1 which might otherwise   
have hounded him into a fit of          
madness407#dif7  ,by drinking the ashes 
of his victims the king sought to       
identify himself  with them and so to   
protect himself against their angry     
ghosts1 just as we  have seen that      
manslayers seek to protect themselves   
against the ghosts of  their victims by 
drinking their blood47#dig7    7,m#abd7 
,just as the savage thinks that he can  
swallow the moral and other  virtues in 
the shape of food1 so he fondly imagines
 that he can inoculate  himself with    
them4 ,here in ,europe we as yet        
inoculate only against  disease2 in     
,basutoland they have learned the art of
 inoculating not merely  against disease
 but against moral evil and public      
calamity1 against wild  beasts and      

winter cold4 ,for example1 if an        
epidemic is raging1 if public  affairs  
go ill1 or war threatens to break out1  
the chief1 with paternal  solicitude1   
seeks to guard his people against the   
evils that menace them  by inoculating  
them with his own hand4 ,armed with a   
lancet1 he makes a  slight incision in  
the temples of each one1 and rubs into  
the wound a  pinch of magic powder which
 has been carefully compounded of the   
ashes of  certain plants and animals4   
,the plants and animals whose ashes     
compose  this sovereign medicine are    
always symbolical2 in other words1 they 
are  supposed to be imbued with the     
virtues which the chief desires to      
impart  to his people4 ,they consist1   
for example1 of plants whose foliage    
withstands the rigours of winter2       
mimosas1 whose thorns present an        
impenetrable barrier to all animals of  
the deer kind2 the claws or a few  hairs
 from the mane of a lion1 the bravest of
 beasts2 the tuft of hair  round the    

root of the horns of a bull1 which is   
the emblem of strength and  fecundity2  
the skin of a serpent2 the feathers of a
 kite or a hawk47#dih7  ,so when the    
,barots wish to be swift of foot1 to    
cripple the fleeing game1  and to ensure
 an abundant catch1 they scarify their  
arms and legs and rub  into the wounds a
 powder made of the burnt bones of      
various beasts and  birds47#dii7 ,among 
some tribes of ,south-,eastern ,africa  
the same magic  powder which is made    
from various parts of slain foes1 and is
 eaten by  boys at circumcision17#ejj7  
is used to inoculate the fighting-men in
 time  of war4 ,the medicine-man makes  
an incision in the forehead of each     
warrior1 and puts the powder into the   
cut1 thus infusing strength and  courage
 for the battle47#eja7 ,among some      
,caffre tribes the powdered  charcoal   
with which the warriors are thus        
inoculated in various parts of  their   
bodies is procured by burning the flesh 
of a live ox with a certain  kind of    

wood or roots1 to which magic virtue is 
attributed47#ejb7 ,the  ,basutos think  
that they can render themselves         
invulnerable by  inoculation17#ejc7 and 
the ,zulus imagine that they can protect
 themselves  against snake-bite by      
similar means4 ,but the saving virtue of
 the  inoculation is not permanent2 like
 vaccination1 it has to be periodically 
renewed4 ,hence every year1 about       
,october1 ,zulu men1 women1 and children
  have a small piece of skin cut from   
the back of the left hand1 and the      
poison of a snake1 mixed with spittle1  
is rubbed into the wound4 ,no snake     
will ever approach a man who has thus   
been inoculated2 and what is even  more 
curious1 if the shadow of an inoculated 
man should touch the shadow  of a man   
who has not been inoculated1 the latter 
will fall down as if he  had been shot1 
overcome by the poison transmitted      
through the shadow3 so  exceedingly     
virulent is the virus47#ejd7 ,among the 
,jukos1 a tribe of the  ,benue ,river in

 ,northern ,nigeria1 before a hunter    
goes forth to hunt  elephants1 he makes 
four cuts in his left arm and rubs in   
8medicine02 this  helps him to see the  
beast next day47#eje7    7,m#abe7       
,again1 the ,zulus know how to inoculate
 themselves not merely with  moral      
virtue1 but even with celestial power4  
,for you must know that the  ,zulus have
 heaven-herds or sky-herds1 who drive   
away clouds big with hail  and          
lightning1 just as herdsmen drive cattle
 before them4 ,these  heaven-herds are  
in sympathy with the heaven4 ,for when  
the heaven is about  to be darkened1 and
 before the clouds appear or the thunder
 mutters1 the  heart of the heaven-herd 
feels it coming1 for it is hot within   
him and he  is excited by anger4 ,when  
the sky begins to be overcast1 he too   
grows dark  like it2 when it thunders1  
he frowns1 that his face may be black as
 the  scowl of the angry heaven4 ,now   
the way in which he thus becomes        
sympathetic with all the changing moods 

of the inconstant heaven is this3  he   
eats the heaven and scarifies himself   
with it4 ,and the way in which he  eats 
the heaven and scarifies himself with it
 is as follows4 ,when a  bullock is     
struck by lightning1 the wizard takes   
its flesh and puts it in  a sherd and   
eats it while it is hot1 mixed with     
medicine2 and thus he eats  the heaven  
by eating the flesh1 which came from the
 beast1 which was  struck by the        
lightning1 which came down from the     
heaven4 ,and in like  manner he         
scarifies himself with the heaven1 for  
he makes cuts in his body  and rubs in  
medicine mixed with the flesh of a      
bullock that was struck by              
lightning47#ejf7 ,in some ,caffre       
tribes1 when an animal or a man has been
  struck by lightning1 the priest comes 
straightway and vaccinates every  person
 in the kraal1 apparently as a sort of  
insurance against lightning4  ,he sets  
to work by tying a number of charms     
round the neck of every man  and woman  

in the village1 in order that they may  
have power to dig the  dead man's grave2
 for in these tribes beasts and men     
alike that have been  struck by         
lightning are always buried1 and the    
flesh is never eaten4 ,next  a          
sacrificial beast is killed and a fire  
kindled1 in which certain magic  woods  
or roots are burned to charcoal1 and    
then ground to powder4 ,the  priest     
thereupon makes incisions in various    
parts of the bodies of each  inmate of  
the kraal1 and rubs a portion of the    
powdered charcoal into the  cuts2 the   
rest of the powder he mixes with sour   
milk1 and gives to them  all to drink4  
,from the time the lightning strikes the
 kraal until this  ceremony has been    
performed1 the people are obliged to    
abstain entirely  from the use of milk4 
,their heads are then shaved4 ,should a 
house have  been struck by lightning it 
must be abandoned1 with everything in   
it4  ,until all these rites have been   
performed1 none of the people may leave 

the kraal or have any intercourse       
whatever with others2 but when the      
ceremonies have been duly performed1 the
 people are pronounced clean1 and  may  
again associate with their neighbours4  
,however1 for some months  afterwards   
none of the livestock of the kraal and  
few other things  belonging to it are   
allowed to pass into other hands1       
whether by way of  sale or of           
gift47#ejg7 ,hence it would appear that 
all persons in a village  which has been
 struck by lightning are supposed to be 
infected with a  dangerous virus1 which 
they might communicate to their         
neighbours2 and the  vaccination is     
intended to disinfect them as well as to
 protect them  against the recurrence of
 a like calamity4 ,young ,carib warriors
 used to be  inoculated for the purpose 
of making them brave and hardy4 ,some   
time  before the ceremony the lad who   
was to be operated on caught a bird of  
prey of a particular sort and kept it in
 captivity till the day appointed4      

,when the time was come and friends had 
assembled to witness the ceremony1  the 
father of the boy seized the bird by its
 legs and crushed its head by  beating  
it on the head of his son1 who dared not
 wince under the rain of  blows that    
nearly stunned him4 ,next the father    
bruised and pounded the  bird's flesh1  
and steeped it in water together with a 
certain spice2 after  which he scored   
and slashed his son's body in all       
directions1 washed his  wounds with the 
decoction1 and gave him the bird's heart
 to eat1 in order1  as it was said1 that
 he might be the braver for it47#ejh7   
7,m#abf7 ,it is not always deemed       
necessary either that the mystical      
substance should be swallowed by the    
communicant1 or that he should  receive 
it by the more painful process of       
scarification and inoculation4          
,sometimes it is thought enough merely  
to smear or anoint him with it4  ,among 
some of the ,australian blacks it used  
to be a common practice to  kill a man1 

cut out his caul-fat1 and rub themselves
 with it1 in the  belief that all the   
qualities1 both physical and mental1    
which had  distinguished the original   
owner of the fat1 were thus communicated
 by its  means to the person who greased
 himself with it47#eji7 ,the ,kamilaroi 
tribe  of ,new ,south ,wales sometimes  
deposited their dead on the forks of    
trees1  and lighting fires underneath   
caught the fat as it dropped2 for they  
hoped  with the droppings to acquire the
 strength and courage of the            
deceased47#eaj7 ,the ,wollaroi1 another 
tribe of ,new ,south ,wales1 used to    
place the dead on a stage1 and the      
mourners sat under it and rubbed their  
bodies with the juices of putrefaction  
which exuded from the rotten body1      
believing that this made them strong4   
,others collected these juices in       
vessels1 and the young men rubbed the   
stinking liquid into their persons  in  
order to acquire the good qualities of  
the departed47#eaa7 ,wherever a  like   

custom has been practised1 as it has    
been1 for example1 by some of  the      
natives of ,new ,guinea1 ,timor ,laut1  
and ,madagascar17#eab7 we may           
conjecture that the motive has been     
similar4 ,again1 the negroes of         
,southern ,guinea regard the brain as   
the seat of wisdom1 and think it a  pity
 that1 when a wise man dies1 his brain  
and his wisdom should go to  waste      
together4 ,so they sever his head from  
his body and hang it up over a  mass of 
chalk1 which1 as the head decays1       
receives the drippings of brain  and    
wisdom4 ,any one who applies the        
precious dripping to his forehead is    
supposed to absorb thereby the          
intelligence of the dead47#eac7 ,among  
the  ,beku1 a tribe of dwarfs attached  
to the ,fans in ,west ,africa1 the great
  charm for success in hunting is       
procured by killing a man and           
afterwards1  when the corpse has begun  
to moulder in the grave1 detaching the  
head from  the body4 ,the brain1 heart1 

eyes and hairs of the body are then     
removed  and mixed1 according to a      
secret formula1 with special            
incantations4 ,when  the compound is    
dry1 the hunter rubs himself with it 8in
 order to acquire  a dash of the higher 
power with which people are endowed in  
the other  life1 and in particular their
 invisibility407#ead7 ,among the ,digger
 ,indians  of ,california1 when a man   
died1 it was customary to burn the body 
to  ashes1 mix the ashes with a thick   
resinous gum extracted from a pine-tree1
  and then smear the gum on the head of 
the mourner1 where it was allowed to    
remain till it gradually wore           
away47#eae7 ,the motive for the custom  
is not  mentioned1 but it was probably1 
like the motive for the parallel custom 
of  swallowing the ashes of the dead1 a 
desire to participate in the powers  and
 virtues of the departed4 ,at a certain 
stage of the ceremonies by  which1 in   
the ,andaman ,islands1 a boy is         
initiated into manhood1 the chief  takes

 the carcase of a boar and presses it   
heavily down on the shoulders1  back1   
and limbs of the young man as he sits1  
silent and motionless1 on the  ground4  
,this is done to make him brave and     
strong4 ,afterwards the animal  is cut  
up1 and its melted fat is poured over   
the novice1 and rubbed into  his        
body47#eaf7 ,the ,arabs of ,eastern     
,africa believe that an unguent of      
lion's fat inspires a man with boldness1
 and makes the wild beasts flee in      
terror before him47#eag7 ,in the forests
 of ,north-western ,brazil there lives  
a small falcon with a red beak which is 
so sharp-sighted that it can  detect    
even a worm on the ground from a        
considerable height4 ,when a ,kobeua    
,indian has killed one of these birds1  
he pokes out its eyes and allows the    
fluid to drip into his own1 believing   
that in this way they will be           
sharp-sighted like those of the         
falcon47#eah7 ,most of the ,baperis1 or 
,malekootoos1 a ,bechuana tribe of      

,south ,africa1 revere or1 as they say1 
sing the porcupine1 which seems to be   
their totem1 as the sun is the totem  of
 some members of the tribe1 and a       
species of ape the totem of others4     
,those of them who have the porcupine   
for their totem swear by the animal1    
and lament if any one injures it4 ,when 
a porcupine has been killed1 they       
religiously gather up its bristles1 spit
 on them1 and rub their eyebrows  with  
them1 saying1 8,they have slain our     
brother1 our master1 one of  ourselves1 
him whom we sing40 ,they would fear to  
die if they ate of its  flesh4          
,nevertheless they esteem it wholesome  
for an infant of the clan to  rub into  
his joints certain portions of the      
paunch of the animal mixed  with the sap
 of some plants to which they ascribe an
 occult virtue47#eai7  ,so at the solemn
 ceremony which is observed by the      
,central ,australian  tribes for the    
purpose of multiplying kangaroos1 men of
 the kangaroo totem  not only eat a     

little kangaroo flesh as a sacrament1   
but also have their  bodies anointed    
with kangaroo fat4 ,doubtless the       
intention alike of the  eating and of   
the anointing is to impart to the man   
the qualities of his  totem animal1 and 
thus to enable him to perform the       
ceremonies for the  multiplication of   
the breed47#ebj7    7,m#abg7 ,in ancient
 ,mexico the priests of the god         
,tezcatlipoca1 before they  engaged in  
religious rites which tried the nerve1  
used to smear their  bodies with a magic
 ointment1 which had the effect of      
banishing all fear1  so that they would 
confront wild beasts in their dens or   
slaughter people  in sacrifice with the 
utmost indifference4 ,the ointment which
 had this  marvellous property was      
compounded of the ashes of venomous     
reptiles and  insects1 such as spiders1 
scorpions1 centipedes1 and vipers1 which
 were  brayed up in a mortar along with 
living specimens of the same creatures1 
tobacco1 soot1 and the ashes of black   

caterpillars4 ,this precious  substance 
was then set before the god in little   
pots1 because they said it  was his     
victuals2 therefore they called it a    
divine food4 ,and when the  priests had 
besmeared themselves with it1 they were 
ready to discharge the  duties of their 
holy office by butchering their fellow  
men in the human  shambles without one  
qualm of fear or one visiting of        
compassion4  ,moreover1 an unction of   
this ointment was deemed a sovereign    
remedy for  sickness and disease2 hence 
they named it 8the divine physic02 and  
sick  people came from all quarters to  
the priests1 as to their saviours1 to   
have their ailing parts anointed with   
the divine physic and to be made        
whole47#eba7    7,m#abh7 ,sometimes the 
valuable qualities of an animal or of a 
person may be  imparted to another by   
the more delicate and ethereal process  
of  fumigation4 ,this refined mode of   
cultivating the moral virtues is or used
  to be practised by the ,caffres of    

,south ,africa4 ,thus in former times as
  soon as a baby was born1 some dirt was
 scraped from the forearm and other     
parts of the father's body and mixed    
with special medicines4 ,the mixture    
was then made to smoulder and the baby  
was fumigated or 8washed0 in the  smoke4
 ,this ceremony was deemed of great     
importance1 being the established  way  
of communicating to the child a portion 
of the ancestral spirit  7itongo7       
through the physical medium of the      
father's dirt1 to which the  spirit     
naturally adheres4 ,but while the dirt  
was endowed with this  spiritual        
potency1 the moral character of the     
infant depended in a large  measure on  
the nature of the medicines with which  
the dirt was compounded1  and           
accordingly much thought and skill were 
devoted to their selection and          
preparation4 ,foremost among the        
ingredients was a meteorite1 burnt to a 
cinder and ground to powder4 ,the effect
 of this powder1 well mixed with  the   

dirt1 and introduced into the orifices  
of the child's body by means of  smoke1 
is to close the anterior fontanelle of  
the baby's skull1 to  strengthen the    
bones of that important part of his     
person1 to communicate  vigour to his   
mind and courage to his disposition1 and
 in general to brace  and harden his    
whole system with the strength and      
hardness of the  meteorite4 ,other      
ingredients which have a most beneficial
 effect are the  powdered whiskers of a 
leopard1 the claws of a lion1 and the   
skin of a  salamander4 ,the mode of     
administering the medicine is as        
follows4 ,you set  fire to the compound1
 and while it smoulders1 you hold the   
infant1 wrapt  up in a blanket1 over the
 burning mass so as to compel it to     
inhale the  smoke4 ,to make sure of     
producing the desired effect1 some of   
the powdered  medicine is mixed with the
 baby's food47#ebb7 ,in like manner by  
holding the  smouldering feather of a   
vulture under a baby's nose you render  

the child  valiant and brave like a     
vulture1 and if you do the same with a  
peacock's  feather1 your offspring will 
be1 like a peacock1 impavid and never   
dismayed by thunder or other terrible   
noises47#ebc7    7,m#abi7 ,it is now    
easy to understand why a savage should  
desire to partake  of the flesh of an   
animal or man whom he regards as divine4
 ,by eating the  body of the god he     
shares in the god's attributes and      
powers4 ,and when the  god is a         
corn-god1 the corn is his proper body2  
when he is a vine-god1 the  juice of the
 grape is his blood2 and so by eating   
the bread and drinking  the wine the    
worshipper partakes of the real body and
 blood of his god4  ,thus the drinking  
of wine in the rites of a vine-god like 
,dionysus is not  an act of revelry1 it 
is a solemn sacrament47#ebd7 ,yet a time
 comes when  reasonable men find it hard
 to understand how any one in his senses
 can  suppose that by eating bread or   
drinking wine he consumes the body or   

blood of a deity4 8,when we call corn   
,ceres and wine ,bacchus10 says ,cicero1
  8we use a common figure of speech2 but
 do you imagine that anybody is so      
insane as to believe that the thing he  
feeds upon is a god807#ebe7 ,in  writing
 thus the ,roman philosopher little     
foresaw that in ,rome itself1 and  in   
the countries which have derived their  
creed from her1 the belief which  he    
here stigmatises as insane was destined 
to persist for thousands of  years1 as a
 cardinal doctrine of religion1 among   
peoples who pride  themselves on their  
religious enlightenment by comparison   
with the blind  superstitions of pagan  
antiquity4 ,so little can even the      
greatest minds of  one generation       
foresee the devious track which the     
religious faith of  mankind will pursue 
in after ages4            ,,chapter     
,,xiii4 ,,killing ,,the ,,divine        
,,animal4           #a4 ,killing the    
,sacred ,buzzard4      7,m#acj7 ,in the 
preceding chapters we saw that many     

communities which have  progressed so   
far as to subsist mainly by agriculture 
have been in the  habit of killing and  
eating their farinaceous deities either 
in their  proper form of corn1 rice1 and
 so forth1 or in the borrowed shapes of 
animals and men4 ,it remains to shew    
that hunting and pastoral tribes1 as    
well as agricultural peoples1 have been 
in the habit of killing the beings  whom
 they worship4 ,among the worshipful    
beings or gods1 if indeed they  deserve 
to be dignified by that name1 whom      
hunters and shepherds adore and  kill   
are animals pure and simple1 not animals
 regarded as embodiments of  other      
supernatural beings4 ,our first example 
is drawn from the ,indians of           
,california1 who living in a fertile    
country7#ebf7 under a serene and        
temperate sky1 nevertheless rank near   
the bottom of the savage scale4  ,where 
a stretch of iron-bound coast breaks the
 long line of level sands  that receive 
the rollers of the ,pacific1 there stood

 in former days1 not  far from the brink
 of the great cliffs1 the white         
mission-house of ,san  ,juan            
,capistrano4 ,among the monks who here  
exercised over a handful of  wretched   
,indians the austere discipline of      
,catholic ,spain1 there was a  certain  
,father ,geronimo ,boscana who has      
bequeathed to us a precious record  of  
the customs and superstitions of his    
savage flock4 ,thus he tells us  that   
the ,acagchemem tribe adored the great  
buzzard1 and that once a year  they     
celebrated a great festival called      
,panes or bird-feast in its  honour4    
,the day selected for the festival was  
made known to the public on  the evening
 before its celebration and preparations
 were at once made for  the erection of 
a special temple 7vanquech71 which seems
 to have been a  circular or oval       
enclosure of stakes with the stuffed    
skin of a coyote or  prairie-wolf set up
 on a hurdle to represent the god       
,chinigchinich4 ,when  the temple was   

ready1 the bird was carried into it in  
solemn procession  and laid on an altar 
erected for the purpose4 ,then all the  
young women1  whether married or single1
 began to run to and fro1 as if         
distracted1 some  in one direction and  
some in another1 while the elders of    
both sexes  remained silent spectators  
of the scene1 and the captains1 tricked 
out in  paint and feathers1 danced round
 their adored bird4 ,these ceremonies   
being  concluded1 they seized upon the  
bird and carried it to the principal    
temple1 all the assembly uniting in the 
grand display1 and the captains  dancing
 and singing at the head of the         
procession4 ,arrived at the temple1     
they killed the bird without losing a   
drop of its blood4 ,the skin was        
removed entire and preserved with the   
feathers as a relic or for the  purpose 
of making the festal garment or paelt4  
,the carcase was buried in  a hole in   
the temple1 and the old women gathered  
round the grave weeping  and moaning    

bitterly1 while they threw various kinds
 of seeds or pieces of  food on it1     
crying out1 8,why did you run away8     
,would you not have been  better with   
us8 you would have made pinole 7a kind  
of gruel7 as we do1  and if you had not 
run away1 you would not have become a   
,panes10 and so  on4 ,when this ceremony
 was concluded1 the dancing was resumed 
and kept up  for three days and nights4 
,they said that the ,panes was a woman  
who had  run off to the mountains and   
there been changed into a bird by the   
god  ,chinigchinich4 ,they believed that
 though they sacrificed the bird        
annually1 she came to life again and    
returned to her home in the  mountains4 
,moreover they thought that 8as often as
 the bird was killed1 it  became        
multiplied2 because every year all the  
different ,capitanes  celebrated the    
same feast of ,panes1 and were firm in  
the opinion that  the birds sacrificed  
were but one and the same female407#ebg7
    7,m#aca7 ,the unity in multiplicity 

thus postulated by the ,californians is 
very noticeable and helps to explain    
their motive for killing the divine     
bird4 ,the notion of the life of a      
species as distinct from that of an     
individual1 easy and obvious as it seems
 to us1 appears to be one which  the    
,californian savage cannot grasp4 ,he is
 unable to conceive the life of  the    
species otherwise than as an individual 
life1 and therefore as exposed  to the  
same dangers and calamities which menace
 and finally destroy the  life of the   
individual4 ,apparently he imagines that
 a species left to  itself will grow old
 and die like an individual1 and that   
therefore some  step must be taken to   
save from extinction the particular     
species which he  regards as divine4    
,the only means he can think of to avert
 the catastrophe  is to kill a member of
 the species in whose veins the tide of 
life is  still running strong1 and has  
not yet stagnated among the fens of old 
age4  ,the life thus diverted from one  

channel will flow1 he fancies1 more     
freshly and freely in a new one2 in     
other words1 the slain animal will      
revive and enter on a new term of life  
with all the spring and energy of       
youth4 ,to us this reasoning is         
transparently absurd1 but so too is the 
custom4 ,if a better explanation1 that  
is1 one more consonant with the  facts  
and with the principles of savage       
thought1 can be given of the  custom1 ,i
 will willingly withdraw the one here   
proposed4 ,a similar  confusion1 it may 
be noted1 between the individual life   
and the life of  the species was made by
 the ,samoans4 ,each family had for its 
god a  particular species of animal2 yet
 the death of one of these animals1 for 
example an owl1 was not the death of the
 god1 8he was supposed to be yet  alive1
 and incarnate in all the owls in       
existence407#ebh7           #b4 ,killing
 the ,sacred ,ram4      7,m#acb7 ,the   
rude ,californian rite which we have    
just considered has a close  parallel in

 the religion of ancient ,egypt4 ,the   
,thebans and all other  ,egyptians who  
worshipped the ,theban god ,ammon held  
rams to be sacred1 and  would not       
sacrifice them4 ,but once a year at the 
festival of ,ammon they  killed a ram1  
skinned it1 and clothed the image of the
 god in the skin4  ,then they mourned   
over the ram and buried it in a sacred  
tomb4 ,the custom  was explained by a   
story that ,zeus had once exhibited     
himself to ,hercules  clad in the fleece
 and wearing the head of a ram47#ebi7   
,of course the ram  in this case was    
simply the beast-god of ,thebes1 as the 
wolf was the  beast-god of ,lycopolis1  
and the goat was the beast-god of       
,mendes4 ,in other  words1 the ram was  
,ammon himself4 ,on the monuments1 it is
 true1 ,ammon  appears in semi-human    
form with the body of a man and the head
 of a  ram47#ecj7 ,but this only shews  
that he was in the usual chrysalis state
  through which beast-gods regularly    
pass before they emerge as full-blown   

anthropomorphic gods4 ,the ram1         
therefore1 was killed1 not as a         
sacrifice  to ,ammon1 but as the god    
himself1 whose identity with the beast  
is plainly  shewn by the custom of      
clothing his image in the skin of the   
slain ram4  ,the reason for thus killing
 the ram-god annually may have been that
 which  ,i have assigned for the general
 custom of killing a god and for the    
special ,californian custom of killing  
the divine buzzard4 ,as applied to      
,egypt1 this explanation is supported by
 the analogy of the bull-god ,apis1  who
 was not suffered to outlive a certain  
term of years47#eca7 ,the  intention of 
thus putting a limit to the life of the 
human god was1 as ,i  have argued1 to   
secure him from the weakness and frailty
 of age4 ,the same  reasoning would     
explain the custom--probably an older   
one--of putting the  beast-god to death 
annually1 as was done with the ram of   
,thebes4    7,m#acc7 ,one point in the  
,theban ritual--the application of the  

skin to the  image of the god--deserves 
particular attention4 ,if the god was at
 first  the living ram1 his             
representation by an image must have    
originated later4  ,but how did it      
originate8 ,one answer to this question 
is perhaps furnished  by the practice of
 preserving the skin of the animal which
 is slain as  divine4 ,the              
,californians1 as we have seen1         
preserved the skin of the  buzzard2 and 
the skin of the goat1 which is killed on
 the harvest-field as  a representative 
of the corn-spirit1 is kept for various 
superstitious  purposes47#ecb7 ,the skin
 in fact was kept as a token or memorial
 of the  god1 or rather as containing in
 it a part of the divine life1 and it   
had  only to be stuffed or stretched    
upon a frame to become a regular image  
of  him4 ,at first an image of this kind
 would be renewed annually17#ecc7 the   
new image being provided by the skin of 
the slain animal4 ,but from annual      
images to permanent images the          

transition is easy4 ,we have seen that  
the  older custom of cutting a new      
,may-tree every year was superseded by  
the  practice of maintaining a permanent
 ,may-pole1 which was1 however1 annually
  decked with fresh leaves and flowers1 
and even surmounted each year by a      
fresh young tree47#ecd7 ,similarly when 
the stuffed skin1 as a  representative  
of the god1 was replaced by a permanent 
image of him in  wood1 stone1 or metal1 
the permanent image was annually clad in
 the fresh  skin of the slain animal4   
,when this stage had been reached1 the  
custom of  killing the ram came         
naturally to be interpreted as a        
sacrifice offered to  the image1 and was
 explained by a story like that of      
,ammon and ,hercules4           #c4     
,killing the ,sacred ,serpent4          
7,m#acd7 ,west ,africa appears to       
furnish another example of the annual   
killing of a sacred animal and the      
preservation of its skin4 ,the negroes  
of ,issapoo1 in the island of ,fernando 

,po1 regard the cobra-capella as  their 
guardian deity1 who can do them good or 
ill1 bestow riches or  inflict disease  
and death4 ,the skin of one of these    
reptiles is hung tail  downwards from a 
branch of the highest tree in the public
 square1 and the  placing of it on the  
tree is an annual ceremony4 ,as soon as 
the ceremony  is over1 all children born
 within the past year are carried out   
and their  hands made to touch the tail 
of the serpent's skin47#ece7 ,the latter
 custom  is clearly a way of placing the
 infants under the protection of the    
tribal  god4 ,similarly in ,senegambia a
 python is expected to visit every child
 of  the ,python clan within eight days 
after birth27#ecf7 and the ,psylli1 a   
,snake clan of ancient ,africa1 used to 
expose their infants to snakes in  the  
belief that the snakes would not harm   
true-born children of the  clan47#ecg7  
#d4 ,killing the ,sacred ,turtles4      
7,m#ace7 ,in the ,californian1          
,egyptian1 and ,fernando ,po customs the

 animal  slain may perhaps have been at 
some time or other a totem1 but this is 
very doubtful47#ech7 ,at all events1 in 
all three cases the worship of the      
animal seems to have no relation to     
agriculture1 and may therefore be       
presumed to date from the hunting or    
pastoral stage of society4 ,the same    
may be said of the following custom1    
though the people who practise it--the  
,zuni ,indians of ,new ,mexico--are now 
settled in walled villages or towns of  
a peculiar type1 and practise           
agriculture and the arts of pottery and 
weaving4 ,but the ,zuni custom is marked
 by certain features which appear to    
place it in a somewhat different class  
from the preceding cases4 ,it may be    
well therefore to describe it at full   
length in the words of an  eye-witness4 
8,with midsummer the heat became        
intense4 ,my brother i4e4 adopted       
,indian  brother and ,i sat1 day after  
day1 in the cool under-rooms of our     
house1--the latter sic busy with his    

quaint forge and crude appliances1      
working ,mexican coins over into        
bangles1 girdles1 ear-rings1 buttons1   
and  what not1 for savage ornament4     
,though his tools were wonderfully rude1
 the  work he turned out by dint of     
combined patience and ingenuity was     
remarkably beautiful4 ,one day as ,i sat
 watching him1 a procession of fifty    
men went hastily down the hill1 and off 
westward over the plain4 ,they were     
solemnly led by a painted and           
shell-bedecked priest1 and followed by  
the  torch-bearing ,shu-lu-wit-si1 or   
,god of ,fire4 ,after they had vanished1
 ,i  asked old brother what it all      
meant4    8 #8,they are going1' said he1
 #8to the city of the ,ka-ka and the    
home of our  others4'    7,m#acf7 8,four
 days after1 towards sunset1 costumed   
and masked in the  beautiful            
paraphernalia of the ,ka-k'ok-shi1 or   
#8,good ,dance1' they returned  in file 
up the same pathway1 each bearing in his
 arms a basket filled with  living1     

squirming turtles1 which he regarded and
 carried as tenderly as a  mother would 
her infant4 ,some of the wretched       
reptiles were carefully  wrapped in soft
 blankets1 their heads and fore-feet    
protruding1--and1  mounted on the backs 
of the plume-bedecked pilgrims1 made    
ludicrous but  solemn caricatures of    
little children in the same position4   
,while ,i was at  supper upstairs that  
evening1 the governor's brother-in-law  
came in4 ,he  was welcomed by the family
 as if a messenger from heaven4 ,he bore
 in his  tremulous fingers one of the   
much abused and rebellious turtles4     
,paint  still adhered to his hands and  
bare feet1 which led me to infer that he
  had formed one of the sacred embassy4 
8 #8,so you went to ,ka-thlu-el-lon1 did
 you8' ,i asked4    8 #8,e'e1' replied  
the weary man1 in a voice husky with    
long chanting1 as he  sank1 almost      
exhausted1 on a roll of skins which had 
been placed for him1  and tenderly laid 
the turtle on the floor4 ,no sooner did 

the creature find  itself at liberty    
than it made off as fast as its lame    
legs would take it4  ,of one accord1 the
 family forsook dish1 spoon1 and        
drinking-cup1 and  grabbing from a      
sacred meal-bowl whole handfuls of the  
contents1 hurriedly  followed the turtle
 about the room1 into dark corners1     
around water-jars1  behind the          
grinding-troughs1 and out into the      
middle of the floor again1  praying and 
scattering meal on its back as they     
went4 ,at last1 strange to  say1 it     
approached the foot-sore man who had    
brought it4    8 #8,ha6' he exclaimed   
with emotion2 #8see it comes to me      
again2 ah1 what  great favours the      
fathers of all grant me this day1' and1 
passing his hand  gently over the       
sprawling animal1 he inhaled from his   
palm deeply and  long1 at the same time 
invoking the favour of the gods4 ,then  
he leaned his  chin upon his hand1 and  
with large1 wistful eyes regarded his   
ugly captive  as it sprawled about1     

blinking its meal-bedimmed eyes1 and    
clawing the  smooth floor in memory of  
its native element4 ,at this juncture ,i
 ventured  a question3    8 #8,why do   
you not let him go1 or give him some    
water8'    8,slowly the man turned his  
eyes toward me1 an odd mixture of pain1 
indignation1 and pity on his face1 while
 the worshipful family stared at  me    
with holy horror4    8 #8,poor younger  
brother6' he said at last1 #8know you   
not how precious it  is8 ,it die8 ,it   
will not die2 ,i tell you1 it cannot    
die4'    8 #8,but it will die if you    
don't feed it and give it water4'       
7,m#acg7 8 #8,i tell you it cannot die2 
it will only change houses  to-morrow1  
and go back to the home of its brothers4
 ,ah1 well6 ,how should  you know8' he  
mused4 ,turning to the blinded turtle   
again3 #8,ah6 my poor  dear lost child  
or parent1 my sister or brother to have 
been6 ,who knows  which8 ,maybe my own  
great-grandfather or mother6' ,and with 
this he fell to  weeping most           

pathetically1 and1 tremulous with sobs1 
which were echoed by  the women and     
children1 he buried his face in his     
hands4 ,filled with  sympathy for his   
grief1 however mistaken1 ,i raised the  
turtle to my lips  and kissed its cold  
shell2 then depositing it on the floor1 
hastily left  the grief-stricken family 
to their sorrows4 ,next day1 with       
prayers and  tender beseechings1 plumes1
 and offerings1 the poor turtle was     
killed1 and  its flesh and bones were   
removed and deposited in the little     
river1 that  it might #8return once more
 to eternal life among its comrades in  
the dark  waters of the lake of the     
dead4' ,the shell1 carefully scraped and
 dried1  was made into a dance-rattle1  
and1 covered by a piece of buckskin1 it 
still hangs from the smoke-stained      
rafters of my brother's house4 ,once a  
,navajo tried to buy it for a ladle2    
loaded with indignant reproaches1 he    
was turned out of the house4 ,were any  
one to venture the suggestion that  the 

turtle no longer lived1 his remark would
 cause a flood of tears1 and  he would  
be reminded that it had only #8changed  
houses and gone to live for  ever in the
 home of 8our lost others40 ' 07#eci7   
7,m#ach7 ,in this custom we find        
expressed in the clearest way a belief  
in  the transmigration of human souls   
into the bodies of turtles47#edj7 ,the  
theory of transmigration is held by the 
,moqui ,indians1 who belong to the  same
 race as the ,zunis4 ,the ,moquis are   
divided into totem clans--the ,bear     
clan1 ,deer clan1 ,wolf clan1 ,hare     
clan1 and so on2 they believe that the  
ancestors of the clans were bears1 deer1
 wolves1 hares1 and so forth2 and  that 
at death the members of each clan become
 bears1 deer1 and so on  according to   
the particular clan to which they       
belonged47#eda7 ,the ,zuni are  also    
divided into clans1 the totems of which 
agree closely with those of  the        
,moquis1 and one of their totems is the 
turtle47#edb7 ,thus their belief  in    

transmigration into the turtle is       
probably one of the regular articles  of
 their totem faith47#edc7 ,what then is 
the meaning of killing a turtle in      
which the soul of a kinsman is believed 
to be present8 ,apparently the  object  
is to keep up a communication with the  
other world in which the  souls of the  
departed are believed to be assembled in
 the form of turtles4  ,it is a common  
belief that the spirits of the dead     
return occasionally to  their old homes2
 and accordingly the unseen visitors are
 welcomed and  feasted by the living1   
and then sent upon their way47#edd7 ,in 
the ,zuni  ceremony the dead are fetched
 home in the form of turtles1 and the   
killing  of the turtles is the way of   
sending back the souls to the           
spirit-land4  ,thus the general         
explanation given above of the custom of
 killing a god  seems inapplicable to   
the ,zuni custom1 the true meaning of   
which is  somewhat obscure4 ,nor is the 
obscurity which hangs over the subject  

entirely dissipated by a later and      
fuller account which we possess of the  
ceremony4 ,from it we learn that the    
ceremony forms part of the elaborate    
ritual which these ,indians observe at  
the midsummer solstice for the  purpose 
of ensuring an abundant supply of rain  
for the crops4 ,envoys are  despatched  
to bring 8their otherselves1 the        
tortoises10 from the sacred  lake       
,kothluwalawa1 to which the souls of the
 dead are believed to repair4  ,when the
 creatures have thus been solemnly      
brought to ,zuni1 they are  placed in a 
bowl of water and dances are performed  
beside them by men in  costume1 who     
personate gods and goddesses4 8,after   
the ceremonial the  tortoises are taken 
home by those who caught them and are   
hung by their  necks to the rafters till
 morning1 when they are thrown into pots
 of  boiling water4 ,the eggs are       
considered a great delicacy4 ,the meat  
is  seldom touched except as a medicine1
 which is curative for cutaneous        

diseases4 ,part of the meat is deposited
 in the river with khakwa 7white  shell 
beads7 and turquoise beads as offerings 
to ,council of the  ,gods407#ede7 ,this 
account at all events confirms the      
inference that the  tortoises are       
supposed to be reincarnations of the    
human dead1 for they  are called the    
8otherselves0 of the ,zuni2 indeed1 what
 else should they be  than the souls of 
the dead in the bodies of tortoises     
seeing that they  come from the haunted 
lake8 ,as the principal object of the   
prayers uttered  and of the dances      
performed at these midsummer ceremonies 
appears to be to  procure rain for the  
crops1 it may be that the intention of  
bringing the  tortoises to ,zuni and    
dancing before them is to intercede with
 the  ancestral spirits1 incarnate in   
the animals1 that they may be pleased to
  exert their power over the waters of  
heaven for the benefit of their  living 
descendants4           #e4 ,killing the 
,sacred ,bear4      7,m#aci7 ,doubt also

 hangs at first sight over the meaning  
of the  bear-sacrifice offered by the   
,aino or ,ainu1 a primitive people who  
are  found in the ,japanese island of   
,yezo or ,yesso1 as well as in          
,saghalien and  the southern of the     
,kurile ,islands4 ,it is not quite easy 
to define the  attitude of the ,aino    
towards the bear4 ,on the one hand they 
give it the  name of kamui or 8god02 but
 as they apply the same word to         
strangers17#edf7 it may mean no more    
than a being supposed to be endowed     
with superhuman1 or at all events       
extraordinary1 powers47#edg7 ,again1 it 
is  said that 8the bear is their chief  
divinity027#edh7 8in the religion of the
  ,aino the bear plays a chief          
part027#edi7 8amongst the animals it is 
especially the bear which receives an   
idolatrous veneration027#eej7 8they     
worship it after their fashion02 8there 
is no doubt that this wild beast        
inspires more of the feeling which      
prompts worship than the inanimate      

forces of nature1 and the ,aino may be  
distinguished as                        
bear-worshippers407#eea7 ,yet1 on the   
other hand1 they kill the bear  whenever
 they can27#eeb7 8in bygone years the   
,ainu considered bear-hunting  the most 
manly and useful way in which a person  
could possibly spend his  time027#eec7  
8the men spend the autumn1 winter1 and  
spring in hunting deer  and bears4 ,part
 of their tribute or taxes is paid in   
skins1 and they  subsist on the dried   
meat027#eed7 bear's flesh is indeed one 
of their  staple foods2 they eat it both
 fresh and salted27#eee7 and the skins  
of  bears furnish them with             
clothing47#eef7 ,in fact1 the worship of
 which  writers on this subject speak   
appears to be paid chiefly to the dead  
animal4 ,thus1 although they kill a bear
 whenever they can1 8in the process  of 
dissecting the carcass they endeavour to
 conciliate the deity1 whose            
representative they have slain1 by      
making elaborate obeisances and         

deprecatory salutations027#eeg7 8when a 
bear has been killed the ,ainu sit  down
 and admire it1 make their salaams to   
it1 worship it1 and offer  presents of  
inao027#eeh7 8when a bear is trapped or 
wounded by an arrow1  the hunters go    
through an apologetic or propitiatory   
ceremony407#eei7 ,the  skulls of slain  
bears receive a place of honour in their
 huts1 or are set  up on sacred posts   
outside the huts1 and are treated with  
much respect3  libations of millet beer1
 and of sake1 an intoxicating liquor1   
are  offered to them2 and they are      
addressed as 8divine preservers0        
7akoshiratki kamui71 or 8precious       
divinities407#efj7 ,the skulls of foxes 
are also fastened to the sacred posts   
outside the huts2 they are regarded  as 
charms against evil spirits1 and are    
consulted as oracles47#efa7 ,yet it  is 
expressly said1 8,the live fox is       
revered just as little as the bear2     
rather they avoid it as much as         
possible1 considering it a wily         

animal407#efb7 ,the bear can hardly1    
therefore1 be described as a sacred     
animal of the ,aino1 nor yet as a totem2
 for they do not call themselves  bears1
 and they kill and eat the animal       
freely4 ,however1 they have a  legend of
 a woman who had a son by a bear2 and   
many of them who dwell in  the mountains
 pride themselves on being descended    
from a bear4 ,such people  are called   
8,descendants of the bear0 7,kimun      
,kamui sanikiri71 and in the  pride of  
their heart they will say1 8,as for me1 
,i am a child of the god of  the        
mountains2 ,i am descended from the     
divine one who rules in the  mountains10
 meaning by 8the god of the mountains0  
no other than the  bear47#efc7 ,it is   
therefore possible that1 as our         
principal authority1 the  ,rev4 ,j4     
,batchelor1 believes1 the bear may have 
been the totem of an ,aino  clan2 but   
even if that were so it would not       
explain the respect shewn for  the      
animal by the whole ,aino people4       

7,m#adj7 ,but it is the bear-festival of
 the ,aino which concerns us here4      
,towards the end of winter a bear cub is
 caught and brought into the  village4  
,if it is very small1 it is suckled by  
an ,aino woman1 but should  there be no 
woman able to suckle it1 the little     
animal is fed from the  hand or the     
mouth4 ,if it cries loudly and long for 
its mother1 as it is  apt to do1 its    
owner will take it to his bosom and let 
it sleep with him  for a few nights1    
thus dispelling its fears and sense of  
loneliness4  ,during the day it plays   
about in the hut with the children and  
is treated  with great affection4 ,but  
when the cub grows big enough to pain   
people by  hugging or scratching them1  
he is shut up in a strong wooden cage1  
where  he stays generally for two or    
three years1 fed on fish and millet     
porridge1 till it is time for him to be 
killed and eaten47#efd7 ,but 8it is  a  
peculiarly striking fact that the young 
bear is not kept merely to  furnish a   

good meal2 rather he is regarded and    
honoured as a fetish1 or  even as a sort
 of higher being407#efe7 ,in ,yezo the  
festival is generally  celebrated in    
,september or ,october4 ,before it takes
 place the ,aino  apologise to their    
gods1 alleging that they have treated   
the bear kindly  as long as they could1 
now they can feed him no longer1 and are
 obliged to  kill him4 ,a man who gives 
a bear-feast invites his relations and  
friends2  in a small village nearly the 
whole community takes part in the feast2
  indeed1 guests from distant villages  
are invited and generally come1  allured
 by the prospect of getting drunk for   
nothing4 ,the form of  invitation runs  
somewhat as follows3 8,i1 so and so1 am 
about to sacrifice  the dear little     
divine thing who resides among the      
mountains4 ,my friends  and masters1    
come ye to the feast2 we will then unite
 in the great  pleasure of sending the  
god away4 ,come407#eff7 ,when all the   
people are  assembled in front of the   

cage1 an orator chosen for the purpose  
addresses  the bear and tells it that   
they are about to send it forth to its  
ancestors4 ,he craves pardon for what   
they are about to do to it1 hopes it    
will not be angry1 and comforts it by   
assuring the animal that many of the    
sacred whittled sticks 7inao7 and plenty
 of cakes and wine will be sent  with it
 on the long journey4 ,one speech of    
this sort which ,mr4 ,batchelor  heard  
ran as follows3 8,o thou divine one1    
thou wast sent into the world  for us to
 hunt4 ,o thou precious little divinity1
 we worship thee2 pray  hear our prayer4
 ,we have nourished thee and brought    
thee up with a deal of  pains and       
trouble1 all because we love thee so4   
,now1 as thou hast grown  big1 we are   
about to send thee to thy father and    
mother4 ,when thou comest  to them      
please speak well of us1 and tell them  
how kind we have been2  please come to  
us again and we will sacrifice thee40   
,having been secured  with ropes1 the   

bear is then let out of the cage and    
assailed with a  shower of blunt arrows 
in order to rouse it to fury4 ,when it  
has spent  itself in vain struggles1 it 
is tied up to a stake1 gagged and       
strangled1  its neck being placed       
between two poles1 which are then       
violently  compressed1 all the people   
eagerly helping to squeeze the animal to
 death4  ,an arrow is also discharged   
into the beast's heart by a good        
marksman1 but  so as not to shed blood1 
for they think that it would be very    
unlucky if  any of the blood were to    
drip on the ground4 ,however1 the men   
sometimes  drink the warm blood of the  
bear that the courage and other virtues 
it  possesses may pass into them2 and   
sometimes they besmear themselves and   
their clothes with the blood in order to
 ensure success in hunting4 ,when  the  
animal has been strangled to death1 it  
is skinned and its head is cut  off and 
set in the east window of the house1    
where a piece of its own  flesh is      

placed under its snout1 together with a 
cup of its own meat  boiled1 some millet
 dumplings1 and dried fish4 ,prayers are
 then addressed  to the dead animal2    
amongst other things it is sometimes    
invited1 after  going away to its father
 and mother1 to return into the world in
 order  that it may again be reared for 
sacrifice4 ,when the bear is supposed to
  have finished eating its own flesh1   
the man who presides at the feast  takes
 the cup containing the boiled meat1    
salutes it1 and divides the  contents   
between all the company present3 every  
person1 young and old  alike1 must taste
 a little4 ,the cup is called 8the cup  
of offering0  because it has just been  
offered to the dead bear4 ,when the rest
 of the  flesh has been cooked1 it is   
shared out in like manner among all the 
people1 everybody partaking of at least 
a morsel2 not to partake of the  feast  
would be equivalent to excommunication1 
it would be to place the  recreant      
outside the pale of ,aino fellowship4   

,formerly every particle of  the bear1  
except the bones1 had to be eaten up at 
the banquet1 but this  rule is now      
relaxed4 ,the head1 on being detached   
from the skin1 is set up  on a long pole
 beside the sacred wands 7inao7 outside 
of the house1  where it remains till    
nothing but the bare white skull is     
left4 ,skulls so  set up are worshipped 
not only at the time of the festival1   
but very often  as long as they last4   
,the ,aino assured ,mr4 ,batchelor that 
they really do  believe the spirits of  
the worshipful animals to reside in the 
skulls2  that is why they address them  
as 8divine preservers0 and 8precious    
divinities407#efg7    7,m#ada7 ,the     
ceremony of killing the bear was        
witnessed by ,dr4 ,b4 ,scheube on  the  
tenth of ,august at ,kunnui1 which is a 
village on ,volcano ,bay in the  island 
of ,yezo or ,yesso4 ,as his description 
of the rite contains some  interesting  
particulars not mentioned in the        
foregoing account1 it may be  worth     

while to summarise it47#efh7    ,on     
entering the hut he found about thirty  
,aino present1 men1 women1 and          
children1 all dressed in their best4    
,the master of the house first offered  
a libation on the fireplace to the god  
of the fire1 and the guests  followed   
his example4 ,then a libation was       
offered to the house-god in his  sacred 
corner of the hut4 ,meanwhile the       
housewife1 who had nursed the  bear1 sat
 by herself1 silent and sad1 bursting   
now and then into tears4  ,her grief was
 obviously unaffected1 and it deepened  
as the festival went  on4 ,next1 the    
master of the house and some of the     
guests went out of the  hut and offered 
libations before the bear's cage4 ,a few
 drops were  presented to the bear in a 
saucer1 which he at once upset4 ,then   
the women  and girls danced round the   
cage1 their faces turned towards it1    
their  knees slightly bent1 rising and  
hopping on their toes4 ,as they danced  
they  clapped their hands and sang a    

monotonous song4 ,the housewife and a   
few  old women1 who might have nursed   
many bears1 danced tearfully1 stretching
  out their arms to the bear1 and       
addressing it in terms of endearment4   
,the  young folks were less affected2   
they laughed as well as sang4 ,disturbed
 by  the noise1 the bear began to rush  
about his cage and howl lamentably4     
,next  libations were offered at the    
inao 7inabos7 or sacred wands which     
stand  outside of an ,aino hut4 ,these  
wands are about a couple of feet high1  
and  are whittled at the top into spiral
 shavings47#efi7 ,five new wands with   
bamboo leaves attached to them had been 
set up for the festival4 ,this is       
regularly done when a bear is killed2   
the leaves mean that the animal may     
come to life again4 ,then the bear was  
let out of his cage1 a rope was  thrown 
round his neck1 and he was led about in 
the neighbourhood of the  hut4 ,while   
this was being done the men1 headed by a
 chief1 shot at the  beast with arrows  

tipped with wooden buttons4 ,dr4        
,scheube had to do so  also4 ,then the  
bear was taken before the sacred wands1 
a stick was put in  his mouth1 nine men 
knelt on him and pressed his neck       
against a beam4 ,in  five minutes the   
animal had expired without uttering a   
sound4 ,meantime the  women and girls   
had taken post behind the men1 where    
they danced1  lamenting1 and beating the
 men who were killing the bear4 ,the    
bear's  carcase was next placed on the  
mat before the sacred wands2 and a sword
  and quiver1 taken from the wands1 were
 hung round the beast's neck4 ,being  a 
she-bear1 it was also adorned with a    
necklace and ear-rings4 ,then food  and 
drink were offered to it1 in the shape  
of millet-broth1 millet-cakes1  and a   
pot of sake4 ,the men now sat down on   
mats before the dead bear1  offered     
libations to it1 and drank deep4        
,meanwhile the women and girls had  laid
 aside all marks of sorrow1 and danced  
merrily1 none more merrily than  the old

 women4 ,when the mirth was at its      
height two young ,aino1 who had  let the
 bear out of his cage1 mounted the roof 
of the hut and threw cakes  of millet   
among the company1 who all scrambled for
 them without  distinction of age or    
sex4 ,the bear was next skinned and     
disembowelled1  and the trunk severed   
from the head1 to which the skin was    
left hanging4  ,the blood1 caught in    
cups1 was eagerly swallowed by the men4 
,none of the  women or children appeared
 to drink the blood1 though custom did  
not  forbid them to do so4 ,the liver   
was cut in small pieces and eaten raw1  
with salt1 the women and children       
getting their share4 ,the flesh and the 
rest of the vitals were taken into the  
house to be kept till the next day  but 
one1 and then to be divided among the   
persons who had been present at  the    
feast4 ,blood and liver were offered to 
,dr4 ,scheube4 ,while the bear was      
being disembowelled1 the women and girls
 danced the same dance which they  had  

danced at the beginning--not1 however1  
round the cage1 but in front of  the    
sacred wands4 ,at this dance the old    
women1 who had been merry a moment      
before1 again shed tears freely4 ,after 
the brain had been extracted from  the  
bear's head and swallowed with salt1 the
 skull1 detached from the  skin1 was    
hung on a pole beside the sacred wands4 
,the stick with which the  bear had been
 gagged was also fastened to the pole1  
and so were the sword  and quiver which 
had been hung on the carcase4 ,the      
latter were removed in  about an hour1  
but the rest remained standing4 ,the    
whole company1 men and  women1 danced   
noisily before the pole2 and another    
drinking-bout1 in which  the women      
joined1 closed the festival4    7,m#adb7
 ,perhaps the first published account of
 the bear-feast of the ,aino  is one    
which was given to the world by a       
,japanese writer in #afeb4 ,it has  been
 translated into ,french and runs thus3 
8,when they find a young bear1  they    

bring it home1 and the wife suckles it4 
,when it is grown they feed it  with    
fish and fowl and kill it in winter for 
the sake of the liver1 which  they      
esteem an antidote to poison1 the worms1
 colic1 and disorders of the  stomach4  
,it is of a very bitter taste1 and is   
good for nothing if the bear  has been  
killed in summer4 ,this butchery begins 
in the first ,japanese  month4 ,for this
 purpose they put the animal's head     
between two long poles1  which are      
squeezed together by fifty or sixty     
people1 both men and women4  ,when the  
bear is dead they eat his flesh1 keep   
the liver as a medicine1  and sell the  
skin1 which is black and commonly six   
feet long1 but the  longest measure     
twelve feet4 ,as soon as he is skinned1 
the persons who  nourished the beast    
begin to bewail him2 afterwards they    
make little cakes  to regale those who  
helped them407#egj7    7,m#adc7 ,the    
,aino of ,saghalien rear bear cubs and  
kill them with similar  ceremonies4 ,we 

are told that they do not look upon the 
bear as a god but  only as a messenger  
whom they despatch with various         
commissions to the god  of the forest4  
,the animal is kept for about two years 
in a cage1 and then  killed at a        
festival1 which always takes place in   
winter and at night4 ,the  day before   
the sacrifice is devoted to lamentation1
 old women relieving  each other in the 
duty of weeping and groaning in front of
 the bear's  cage4 ,then about the      
middle of the night or very early in the
 morning an  orator makes a long speech 
to the beast1 reminding him how they    
have taken  care of him1 and fed him    
well1 and bathed him in the river1 and  
made him  warm and comfortable4 8,now10 
he proceeds1 8we are holding a great    
festival  in your honour4 ,be not       
afraid4 ,we will not hurt you4 ,we will 
only kill you  and send you to the god  
of the forest who loves you4 ,we are    
about to offer  you a good dinner1 the  
best you have ever eaten among us1 and  

we will all  weep for you together4 ,the
 ,aino who will kill you is the best    
shot among  us4 ,there he is1 he weeps  
and asks your forgiveness2 you will feel
 almost  nothing1 it will be done so    
quickly4 ,we cannot feed you always1 as 
you  will understand4 ,we have done     
enough for you2 it is now your turn to  
sacrifice yourself for us4 ,you will ask
 ,god to send us1 for the winter1       
plenty of otters and sables1 and for the
 summer1 seals and fish in  abundance4  
,do not forget our messages1 we love you
 much1 and our children  will never     
forget you40 ,when the bear has partaken
 of his last meal amid  the general     
emotion of the spectators1 the old women
 weeping afresh and  the men uttering   
stifled cries1 he is strapped1 not      
without difficulty and  danger1 and     
being let out of the cage is led on     
leash or dragged1  according to the     
state of his temper1 thrice round his   
cage1 then round  his master's house1   
and lastly round the house of the       

orator4 ,thereupon he  is tied up to a  
tree1 which is decked with sacred       
whittled sticks 7inao7  of the usual    
sort2 and the orator again addresses him
 in a long harangue1  which sometimes   
lasts till the day is beginning to      
break4 8,remember10 he  cries1          
8remember6 ,i remind you of your whole  
life and of the services we  have       
rendered you4 ,it is now for you to do  
your duty4 ,do not forget what ,i  have 
asked of you4 ,you will tell the gods to
 give us riches1 that our  hunters may  
return from the forest laden with rare  
furs and animals good  to eat2 that our 
fishers may find troops of seals on the 
shore and in the  sea1 and that their   
nets may crack under the weight of the  
fish4 ,we have  no hope but in you4 ,the
 evil spirits laugh at us1 and too often
 they are  unfavourable and malignant to
 us1 but they will bow before you4 ,we  
have  given you food and joy and health2
 now we kill you in order that you may  
in return send riches to us and to our  

children40 ,to this discourse the  bear1
 more and more surly and agitated1      
listens without conviction2 round  and  
round the tree he paces and howls       
lamentably1 till1 just as the first     
beams of the rising sun light up the    
scene1 an archer speeds an arrow to  his
 heart4 ,no sooner has he done so1 than 
the marksman throws away his bow  and   
flings himself on the ground1 and the   
old men and women do the same1  weeping 
and sobbing4 ,then they offer the dead  
beast a repast of rice and  wild        
potatoes1 and having spoken to him in   
terms of pity and thanked him  for what 
he has done and suffered1 they cut off  
his head and paws and keep  them as     
sacred things4 ,a banquet on the flesh  
and blood of the bear  follows4 ,women  
were formerly excluded from it1 but now 
they share with the  men4 ,the blood is 
drunk warm by all present2 the flesh is 
boiled1 custom  forbids it to be        
roasted4 ,and as the relics of the bear 
may not enter the  house by the door1   

and ,aino houses in ,saghalien have no  
windows1 a man  gets up on the roof and 
lets the flesh1 the head1 and the skin  
down  through the smoke-hole4 ,rice and 
wild potatoes are then offered to the   
head1 and a pipe1 tobacco1 and matches  
are considerately placed beside it4     
,custom requires that the guests should 
eat up the whole animal before they     
depart3 the use of salt and pepper at   
the meal is forbidden2 and no morsel  of
 the flesh may be given to the dogs4    
,when the banquet is over1 the head  is 
carried away into the depth of the      
forest and deposited on a heap of       
bears' skulls1 the bleached and         
mouldering relics of similar festivals  
in  the past47#ega7    7,m#add7 ,the    
,gilyaks1 a ,tunguzian people of        
,eastern ,siberia17#egb7 hold a         
bear-festival of the same sort once a   
year in ,january4 8,the bear is the     
object of the most refined solicitude of
 an entire village and plays the  chief 
part in their religious                 

ceremonies407#egc7 ,an old she-bear is  
shot  and her cub is reared1 but not    
suckled1 in the village4 ,when the bear 
is  big enough he is taken from his cage
 and dragged through the village4 ,but  
first they lead him to the bank of the  
river1 for this is believed to  ensure  
abundance of fish to each family4 ,he is
 then taken into every house  in the    
village1 where fish1 brandy1 and so     
forth are offered to him4 ,some  people 
prostrate themselves before the beast4  
,his entrance into a house is  supposed 
to bring a blessing2 and if he snuffs at
 the food offered to him1  this also is 
a blessing4 ,nevertheless they tease and
 worry1 poke and  tickle the animal     
continually1 so that he is surly and    
snappish47#egd7  ,after being thus taken
 to every house1 he is tied to a peg and
 shot dead  with arrows4 ,his head is   
then cut off1 decked with shavings1 and 
placed on  the table where the feast is 
set out4 ,here they beg pardon of the   
beast  and worship him4 ,then his flesh 

is roasted and eaten in special vessels 
of  wood finely carved4 ,they do not eat
 the flesh raw nor drink the blood1 as  
the ,aino do4 ,the brain and entrails   
are eaten last2 and the skull1 still    
decked with shavings1 is placed on a    
tree near the house4 ,then the people   
sing and both sexes dance in ranks1 as  
bears47#ege7    7,m#ade7 ,one of these  
bear-festivals was witnessed by the     
,russian traveller  ,l4 von ,schrenck   
and his companions at the ,gilyak       
village of ,tebach in  ,january #ahef4  
,from his detailed report of the        
ceremony we may gather some  particulars
 which are not noticed in the briefer   
accounts which ,i have  just summarised4
 ,the bear1 he tells us1 plays a great  
part in the life of  all the peoples    
inhabiting the region of the ,amoor and 
,siberia as far as  ,kamtchatka1 but    
among none of them is his importance    
greater than among  the ,gilyaks4 ,the  
immense size which the animal attains in
 the valley of  the ,amoor1 his ferocity

 whetted by hunger1 and the frequency of
 his  appearance1 all combine to make   
him the most dreaded beast of prey in   
the  country4 ,no wonder1 therefore1    
that the fancy of the ,gilyaks is busied
  with him and surrounds him1 both in   
life and in death1 with a sort of halo  
of superstitious fear4 ,thus1 for       
example1 it is thought that if a ,gilyak
  falls in combat with a bear1 his soul 
transmigrates into the body of the      
beast4 ,nevertheless his flesh has an   
irresistible attraction for the  ,gilyak
 palate1 especially when the animal has 
been kept in captivity for  some time   
and fattened on fish1 which gives the   
flesh1 in the opinion of  the ,gilyaks1 
a peculiarly delicious flavour4 ,but in 
order to enjoy this  dainty with        
impunity they deem it needful to perform
 a long series of  ceremonies1 of which 
the intention is to delude the living   
bear by a show  of respect1 and to      
appease the anger of the dead animal by 
the homage paid  to his departed spirit4

 ,the marks of respect begin as soon as 
the beast is  captured4 ,he is brought  
home in triumph and kept in a cage1     
where all the  villagers take it in     
turns to feed him4 ,for although he may 
have been  captured or purchased by one 
man1 he belongs in a manner to the whole
  village4 ,his flesh will furnish a    
common feast1 and hence all must        
contribute to support him in his life4  
,his diet consists exclusively of  raw  
or dried fish1 water1 and a sort of     
porridge compounded of powdered         
fish-skins1 train-oil1 and              
whortle-berries4 ,the length of time he 
is kept  in captivity depends on his    
age4 ,old bears are kept only a few     
months2  cubs are kept till they are    
full-grown4 ,a thick layer of fat on the
  captive bear gives the signal for the 
festival1 which is always held in       
winter1 generally in ,december but      
sometimes in ,january or ,february4 ,at 
the  festival witnessed by the ,russian 
travellers1 which lasted a good many    

days1 three bears were killed and eaten4
 ,more than once the animals were  led  
about in procession and compelled to    
enter every house in the village1  where
 they were fed as a mark of honour1 and 
to shew that they were  welcome guests4 
,but before the beasts set out on this  
round of visits1 the  ,gilyaks played at
 skipping-rope in presence1 and perhaps1
 as ,l4 von  ,schrenck inclined to      
believe1 in honour of the animals4 ,the 
night before  they were killed1 the     
three bears were led by moonlight a long
 way on the  ice of the frozen river4   
,that night no one in the village might 
sleep4  ,next day1 after the animals had
 been again led down the steep bank to  
the  river1 and conducted thrice round  
the hole in the ice from which the women
  of the village drew their water1 they 
were taken to an appointed place not    
far from the village1 and shot to death 
with arrows4 ,the place of  sacrifice or
 execution was marked as holy by being  
surrounded with  whittled sticks1 from  

the tops of which shavings hung in      
curls4 ,such  sticks are with the       
,gilyaks1 as with the ,aino1 the regular
 symbols that  accompany all religious  
ceremonies4 ,before the bears received  
the fatal  shafts from two young men    
chosen for the purpose1 the boys were   
allowed to  discharge their small but   
not always harmless arrows at the       
beasts4 ,as  soon as the carcases had   
been cut up1 the skins with the heads   
attached to  them were set up in a      
wooden cage in such a way as to make it 
appear that  the animals had entered the
 cage and were looking out of it4 ,the  
blood  which flowed from the bears on   
the spot where they were killed was     
immediately covered up with snow1 to    
prevent any one from accidentally       
treading on it1 a thing which was       
strictly tabooed4    7,m#adf7 ,when the 
house has been arranged and decorated   
for their reception1  the skins of the  
bears1 with their heads attached to     
them1 are brought  into it1 not however 

by the door1 but through a window1 and  
then hung on a  sort of scaffold        
opposite the hearth on which the flesh  
is to be cooked4  ,this ceremony of     
bringing the bears' skins into the house
 by the window  was not witnessed by the
 ,russian travellers1 who only learned  
of it at  second hand4 ,they were told  
that when the thin disc of fish-skin1   
which is  the substitute for a pane of  
glass in the window1 has been replaced  
after  the passage of the bear-skins1 a 
figure of a toad made of birch bark is  
affixed to it on the outside1 while     
inside the house a figure of a bear     
dressed in ,gilyak costume is set on the
 bench of honour4 ,the meaning of  this 
part of the ceremony1 as it is          
conjecturally interpreted by ,von       
,schrenck1 may be as follows4 ,the toad 
is a creature that has a very evil      
reputation with the ,gilyaks1 and       
accordingly they attempt to lay upon it1
  as on a scapegoat1 the guilt of the   
slaughter of the worshipful bear4       

,hence its effigy is excluded from the  
house and has to remain outside at  the 
window1 a witness of its own misdeeds2  
whereas the bear is brought  into the   
house and treated as an honoured guest1 
for fish and flesh are  laid before it1 
and its effigy1 dressed in ,gilyak      
costume1 is seated on  the bench of     
honour4    7,m#adg7 ,the boiling of the 
bears' flesh among the ,gilyaks is done 
only by  the oldest men1 whose high     
privilege it is2 women and children1    
young men  and boys have no part in it4 
,the task is performed slowly and       
deliberately1 with a certain solemnity4 
,on the occasion described by the       
,russian travellers the kettle was first
 of all surrounded with a thick  wreath 
of shavings1 and then filled with snow1 
for the use of water to  cook bear's    
flesh is forbidden4 ,meanwhile a large  
wooden trough1 richly  adorned with     
arabesques and carvings of all sorts1   
was hung immediately  under the snouts  
of the bears2 on one side of the trough 

was carved in  relief a bear1 on the    
other side a toad4 ,when the carcases   
were being cut  up1 each leg was laid on
 the ground in front of the bears1 as if
 to ask  their leave1 before being      
placed in the kettle2 and the boiled    
flesh was  fished out of the kettle with
 an iron hook1 and set in the trough    
before  the bears1 in order that they   
might be the first to taste of their own
  flesh4 ,as fast1 too1 as the fat was  
cut in strips it was hung up in front   
of the bears1 and afterwards laid in a  
small wooden trough on the ground       
before them4 ,last of all the inner     
organs of the beasts were cut up and    
placed in small vessels4 ,at the same   
time the women made bandages out of     
parti-coloured rags1 and after sunset   
these bandages were tied round the      
bears' snouts just below the eyes 8in   
order to dry the tears that flowed  from
 them40 ,to each bandage1 just below the
 eyes1 was attached a figure of  a toad 
cut out of birch bark4 ,the meaning of  

this appears to be1 as ,von  ,schrenck  
conjectured1 as follows4 ,with the      
carving of his inner organs1  the heart1
 liver1 and so forth1 the bear sees that
 his fate is sealed1 and  sheds some    
natural tears at his hard lot4 ,these   
tears trickle down his  snout over the  
figure of the toad1 which the poor      
deluded bear accordingly  regards as the
 author of all the mischief4 ,for he    
cannot blame the  ,gilyaks1 who have    
treated him so kindly4 ,have they not   
received him as a  guest in their house1
 set him on the seat of honour1 given   
him of their  best1 and done nothing but
 with his knowledge and permission8     
,finally1  have not their women shewn   
him the last delicate mark of attention 
by  drying the tears that flow from his 
eyes and trickle down his nose8 ,surely 
then he cannot think that these kindly  
folk have done him any harm2 it was  all
 the fault of the unprincipled toad4    
7,m#adh7 ,whatever may be thought of    
this explanation1 as soon as the        

ceremony of wiping away poor bruin's    
tears had been performed1 the  assembled
 ,gilyaks set to work in earnest to     
devour his flesh4 ,the broth  obtained  
by boiling the meat had already been    
partaken of4 ,the wooden  bowls1        
platters1 and spoons out of which the   
,gilyaks eat the broth and  flesh of the
 bears on these occasions are always    
made specially for the  purpose at the  
festival and only then2 they are        
elaborately ornamented  with carved     
figures of bears and other devices that 
refer to the animal or  the festival1   
and the people have a strong            
superstitious scruple against  parting  
with them4 ,while the festival lasts1 no
 salt may be used in  cooking the bear's
 flesh or indeed any other food2 and no 
flesh of any  kind may be roasted1 for  
the bear would hear the hissing and     
sputtering of  the roasting flesh1 and  
would be very angry4 ,after the bones   
had been  picked clean they were put    
back in the kettle in which the flesh   

had been  boiled4 ,and when the festal  
meal was over1 an old man took his stand
 at  the door of the house with a branch
 of fir in his hand1 with which1 as the 
people passed out1 he gave a light blow 
to every one who had eaten of the       
bear's flesh or fat1 perhaps as a       
punishment for their treatment of the   
worshipful animal4 ,in the afternoon of 
the same day the women performed a      
strange dance4 ,only one woman danced at
 a time1 throwing the upper part of  her
 body into the oddest postures1 while   
she held in her hands a branch of  fir  
or a kind of wooden castanets4 ,the     
other women meanwhile played an         
accompaniment in a peculiar rhythm by   
drumming on the beams of the house  with
 clubs4 ,the dance reminded one of the  
,russian travellers of the  bear-dance  
which he had seen danced by the women of
 ,kamtchatka4 ,von  ,schrenck believes1 
though he has not positive evidence1    
that after the fat  and flesh of the    
bear have been consumed1 his skull is   

cleft with an axe1  and the brain taken 
out and eaten4 ,then the bones and the  
skull are  solemnly carried out by the  
oldest people to a place in the forest  
not far  from the village4 ,there all   
the bones except the skull are buried4  
,after  that a young tree is felled a   
few inches above the ground1 its stump  
cleft1 and the skull wedged into the    
cleft4 ,when the grass grows over the   
spot1 the skull disappears from view1   
and that is the end of the  bear47#egf7 
7,m#adi7 ,another description of the    
bear-festivals of the ,gilyaks has been 
given us by ,mr4 ,leo ,sternberg47#egg7 
,it agrees substantially with the       
foregoing accounts1 but a few           
particulars in it may be noted4         
,according to  ,mr4 ,sternberg1 the     
festival is usually held in honour of a 
deceased  relation3 the next of kin     
either buys or catches a bear cub and   
nurtures  it for two or three years till
 it is ready for the sacrifice4 ,only   
certain  distinguished guests           

7,narch-en7 are privileged to partake of
 the bear's  flesh1 but the host and    
members of his clan eat a broth made    
from the  flesh2 great quantities of    
this broth are prepared and consumed on 
the  occasion4 ,the guests of honour    
7,narch-en7 must belong to the clan into
  which the host's daughters and the    
other women of his clan are married3    
one of these guests1 usually the host's 
son-in-law1 is entrusted with the  duty 
of shooting the bear dead with an arrow4
 ,the skin1 head1 and flesh of  the     
slain bear are brought into the house   
not through the door but through  the   
smoke-hole2 a quiver full of arrows is  
laid under the head and beside  it are  
deposited tobacco1 sugar1 and other     
food4 ,the soul of the bear is  supposed
 to carry off the souls of these things 
with it on the far  journey4 ,a special 
vessel is used for cooking the bear's   
flesh1 and the  fire must be kindled by 
a sacred apparatus of flint and steel1  
which  belongs to the clan and is handed

 down from generation to generation1 but
  which is never used to light fires    
except on these solemn occasions4 ,of   
all the many viands cooked for the      
consumption of the assembled people a   
portion is placed in a special vessel   
and set before the bear's head3 this  is
 called 8feeding the head40 ,after the  
bear has been killed1 dogs are          
sacrificed in couples of male and       
female4 ,before being throttled1 they   
are  fed and invited to go to their lord
 on the highest mountain1 to change     
their skins1 and to return next year in 
the form of bears4 ,the soul of the     
dead bear departs to the same lord1 who 
is also lord of the primaeval  forest2  
it goes away laden with the offerings   
that have been made to it1  and attended
 by the souls of the dogs and also by   
the souls of the sacred  whittled       
sticks1 which figure prominently at the 
festival4    7,m#aej7 ,the ,goldi1      
neighbours of the ,gilyaks1 treat the   
bear in much the  same way4 ,they hunt  

and kill it2 but sometimes they capture 
a live bear  and keep him in a cage1    
feeding him well and calling him their  
son and  brother4 ,then at a great      
festival he is taken from his cage1     
paraded about  with marked              
consideration1 and afterwards killed and
 eaten4 8,the skull1  jaw-bones1 and    
ears are then suspended on a tree1 as an
 antidote against  evil spirits2 but the
 flesh is eaten and much relished1 for  
they believe  that all who partake of it
 acquire a zest for the chase1 and      
become  courageous407#egh7    7,m#aea7  
,the ,orotchis1 another ,tunguzian      
people of the region of the ,amoor1     
hold bear-festivals of the same general 
character4 ,any one who catches a  bear 
cub considers it his bounden duty to    
rear it in a cage for about  three      
years1 in order at the end of that time 
to kill it publicly and eat  the flesh  
with his friends4 ,the feasts being     
public1 though organised by             
individuals1 the people try to have one 

in each ,orotchi village every year  in 
turn4 ,when the bear is taken out of his
 cage1 he is led about by means  of     
ropes to all the huts1 accompanied by   
people armed with lances1 bows1  and    
arrows4 ,at each hut the bear and       
bear-leaders are treated to something   
good to eat and drink4 ,this goes on for
 several days until all the huts1  not  
only in that village but also in the    
next1 have been visited4 ,the days  are 
given up to sport and noisy jollity4    
,then the bear is tied to a tree  or    
wooden pillar and shot to death by the  
arrows of the crowd1 after which  its   
flesh is roasted and eaten4 ,among the  
,orotchis of the ,tundja ,river  women  
take part in the bear-feasts1 while     
among the ,orotchis of the ,river  ,vi  
the women will not even touch bear's    
flesh47#egi7    7,m#aeb7 ,in the        
treatment of the captive bear by these  
tribes there are  features which can    
hardly be distinguished from worship4   
,such1 for  example1 are the prayers    

offered to it both alive and dead2 the  
offerings  of food1 including portions  
of its own flesh1 laid before the       
animal's  skull2 and the ,gilyak custom 
of leading the living beast on to the   
ice of  the river in order to ensure a  
supply of fish1 and of conducting him   
from  house to house in order that every
 family may receive his blessing1 just  
as in ,europe a ,may-tree or a personal 
representative of the tree-spirit  used 
to be taken from door to door in spring 
for the sake of diffusing  among all and
 sundry the fresh energies of reviving  
nature47#ehj7 ,again1  the solemn       
participation in his flesh and blood1   
and particularly the ,aino  custom of   
sharing the contents of the cup which   
had been consecrated by  being set      
before the dead beast1 are strongly     
suggestive of a sacrament1  and the     
suggestion is confirmed by the ,gilyak  
practice of reserving  special vessels  
to hold the flesh and cooking it on a   
fire kindled by a  sacred apparatus     

which is never employed except on these 
religious  occasions4 ,indeed our       
principal authority on ,aino religion1  
the ,rev4 ,john  ,batchelor1 frankly    
describes as worship the ceremonious    
respect which the  ,aino pay to the     
bear17#eha7 and he affirms that the     
animal is undoubtedly  one of their     
gods47#ehb7 ,certainly the ,aino appear 
to apply their name for  god 7kamui7    
freely to the bear2 but1 as ,mr4        
,batchelor himself points  out17#ehc7   
that word is used with many different   
shades of meaning and is  applied to a  
great variety of objects1 so that from  
its application to the  bear we cannot  
safely argue that the animal is actually
 regarded as a  deity4 ,indeed we are   
expressly told that the ,aino of        
,saghalien do not  consider the bear to 
be a god but only a messenger to the    
gods1 and the  message with which they  
charge the animal at its death bears out
 the  statement47#ehd7 ,apparently the  
,gilyaks also look on the bear in the   

light  of an envoy despatched with      
presents to the ,lord of the ,mountain1 
on whom  the welfare of the people      
depends4 ,at the same time they treat   
the animal  as a being of a higher order
 than man1 in fact as a minor deity1    
whose  presence in the village1 so long 
as he is kept and fed1 diffuses         
blessings1 especially by keeping at bay 
the swarms of evil spirits who are      
constantly lying in wait for people1    
stealing their goods and destroying     
their bodies by sickness and disease4   
,moreover1 by partaking of the flesh1   
blood1 or broth of the bear1 the        
,gilyaks1 the ,aino1 and the ,goldi are 
all  of opinion that they acquire some  
portion of the animal's mighty powers1  
particularly his courage and strength4  
,no wonder1 therefore1 that they  should
 treat so great a benefactor with marks 
of the highest respect and              
affection47#ehe7    7,m#aec7 ,some light
 may be thrown on the ambiguous attitude
 of the ,aino to  bears by comparing the

 similar treatment which they accord to 
other  creatures4 ,for example1 they    
regard the eagle-owl as a good deity who
 by  his hooting warns men of threatened
 evil and defends them against it2      
hence he is loved1 trusted1 and devoutly
 worshipped as a divine mediator        
between men and the ,creator4 ,the      
various names applied to him are        
significant both of his divinity and of 
his mediatorship4 ,whenever an          
opportunity offers1 one of these divine 
birds is captured and kept in a  cage1  
where he is greeted with the endearing  
titles of 8,beloved god0 and  8,dear    
little divinity40 ,nevertheless the time
 comes when the dear little  divinity is
 throttled and sent away in his capacity
 of mediator to take a  message to the  
superior gods or to the ,creator        
himself4 ,the following is  the form of 
prayer addressed to the eagle-owl when  
it is about to be  sacrificed3 8,beloved
 deity1 we have brought you up because  
we loved you1  and now we are about to  

send you to your father4 ,we herewith   
offer you  food1 inao1 wine1 and cakes2 
take them to your parent1 and he will be
  very pleased4 ,when you come to him   
say1 #8,i have lived a long time among  
the ,ainu1 where an ,ainu father and an 
,ainu mother reared me4 ,i now come to  
thee4 ,i have brought a variety of good 
things4 ,i saw while living in          
,ainu-land a great deal of distress4 ,i 
observed that some of the people  were  
possessed by demons1 some were wounded  
by wild animals1 some were  hurt by     
landslides1 others suffered shipwreck1  
and many were attacked by  disease4 ,the
 people are in great straits4 ,my       
father1 hear me1 and hasten  to look    
upon the ,ainu and help them4' ,if you  
do this1 your father will  help         
us407#ehf7    7,m#aed7 ,again1 the ,aino
 keep eagles in cages1 worship them as  
divinities1  and ask them to defend the 
people from evil4 ,yet they offer the   
bird in  sacrifice1 and when they are   
about to do so they pray to him1 saying3

 8,o  precious divinity1 ,o thou divine 
bird1 pray listen to my words4 ,thou    
dost  not belong to this world1 for thy 
home is with the ,creator and his golden
  eagles4 ,this being so1 ,i present    
thee with these inao and cakes and      
other precious things4 ,do thou ride    
upon the inao and ascend to thy home  in
 the glorious heavens4 ,when thou       
arrivest1 assemble the deities of thy   
own kind together and thank them for us 
for having governed the world4 ,do  thou
 come again1 ,i beseech thee1 and rule  
over us4 ,o my precious one1 go  thou   
quietly407#ehg7 ,once more1 the ,aino   
revere hawks1 keep them in cages1  and  
offer them in sacrifice4 ,at the time of
 killing one of them the  following     
prayer should be addressed to the bird3 
8,o divine hawk1 thou art  an expert    
hunter1 please cause thy cleverness to  
descend on me40 ,if a hawk  is well     
treated in captivity and prayed to after
 this fashion when he is  about to be   
killed1 he will surely send help to the 

hunter47#ehh7    7,m#aee7 ,thus the     
,aino hopes to profit in various ways by
 slaughtering the  creatures1 which1    
nevertheless1 he treats as divine4 ,he  
expects them to  carry messages for him 
to their kindred or to the gods in the  
upper world2  he hopes to partake of    
their virtues by imbibing parts of their
 bodies or  in other ways2 and          
apparently he looks forward to their    
bodily  resurrection in this world1     
which will enable him again to catch and
 kill  them1 and again to reap all the  
benefits which he has already derived   
from  their slaughter4 ,for in the      
prayers addressed to the worshipful bear
 and  the worshipful eagle before they  
are knocked on the head the creatures   
are  invited to come again17#ehi7 which 
seems clearly to point to a faith in    
their future resurrection4 ,if any doubt
 could exist on this head1 it would  be 
dispelled by the evidence of ,mr4       
,batchelor1 who tells us that the ,aino 
8are firmly convinced that the spirits  

of birds and animals killed in  hunting 
or offered in sacrifice come and live   
again upon the earth clothed  with a    
body2 and they believe1 further1 that   
they appear here for the  special       
benefit of men1 particularly ,ainu      
hunters407#eij7 ,the ,aino1 ,mr4        
,batchelor tells us1 8confessedly slays 
and eats the beast that another may     
come in its place and be treated in like
 manner02 and at the time of            
sacrificing the creatures 8prayers are  
said to them which form a request  that 
they will come again and furnish viands 
for another feast1 as if it  were an    
honour to them to be thus killed and    
eaten1 and a pleasure as  well4 ,indeed 
such is the people's idea407#eia7 ,these
 last observations1 as  the context     
shews1 refer especially to the sacrifice
 of bears4    7,m#aef7 ,thus among the  
benefits which the ,aino anticipates    
from the  slaughter of the worshipful   
animals not the least substantial is    
that of  gorging himself on their flesh 

and blood1 both on the present and on   
many  a similar occasion hereafter2 and 
that pleasing prospect again is derived 
from his firm faith in the spiritual    
immortality and bodily resurrection  of 
the dead animals4 ,a like faith is      
shared by many savage hunters in many   
parts of the world and has given rise to
 a variety of quaint customs1 some  of  
which will be described presently4      
,meantime it is not unimportant to      
observe that the solemn festivals at    
which the ,aino1 the ,gilyaks1 and      
other tribes slaughter the tame caged   
bears with demonstrations of respect    
and sorrow1 are probably nothing but an 
extension or glorification of  similar  
rites which the hunter performs over any
 wild bear which he  chances to kill in 
the forest4 ,indeed with regard to the  
,gilyaks we are  expressly informed that
 this is the case4 ,if we would         
understand the  meaning of the ,gilyak  
ritual1 says ,mr4 ,sternberg1 8we must  
above all  remember that the            

bear-festivals are not1 as is usually   
but falsely  assumed1 celebrated only at
 the killing of a house-bear but are    
held on  every occasion when a ,gilyak  
succeeds in slaughtering a bear in the  
chase4  ,it is true that in such cases  
the festival assumes less imposing      
dimensions1 but in its essence it       
remains the same4 ,when the head and    
skin  of a bear killed in the forest are
 brought into the village1 they are     
accorded a triumphal reception with     
music and solemn ceremonial4 ,the head  
is laid on a consecrated scaffold1 fed1 
and treated with offerings1 just  as at 
the killing of a house-bear2 and the    
guests of honour 7,narch-en7  are also  
assembled4 ,so1 too1 dogs are           
sacrificed1 and the bones of the  bear  
are preserved in the same place and with
 the same marks of respect as  the bones
 of a house-bear4 ,hence the great      
winter festival is only an  extension of
 the rite which is observed at the      
slaughter of every  bear407#eib7        

7,m#aeg7 ,thus the apparent             
contradiction in the practice of these  
tribes1  who venerate and almost deify  
the animals which they habitually hunt1 
kill1 and eat1 is not so flagrant as at 
first sight it appears to us3 the       
people have reasons1 and some very      
practical reasons1 for acting as they   
do4 ,for the savage is by no means so   
illogical and unpractical as to         
superficial observers he is apt to seem2
 he has thought deeply on the  questions
 which immediately concern him1 he      
reasons about them1 and though  his     
conclusions often diverge very widely   
from ours1 we ought not to deny  him the
 credit of patient and prolonged        
meditation on some fundamental  problems
 of human existence4 ,in the present    
case1 if he treats bears in  general as 
creatures wholly subservient to human   
needs and yet singles out  certain      
individuals of the species for homage   
which almost amounts to  deification1 we
 must not hastily set him down as       

irrational and  inconsistent1 but must  
endeavour to place ourselves at his     
point of view1  to see things as he sees
 them1 and to divest ourselves of the   
prepossessions which tinge so deeply our
 own views of the world4 ,if we do  so1 
we shall probably discover that1 however
 absurd his conduct may appear  to us1  
the savage nevertheless generally acts  
on a train of reasoning  which seems to 
him in harmony with the facts of his    
limited experience4  ,this ,i propose to
 illustrate in the following chapter1   
where ,i shall  attempt to shew that the
 solemn ceremonial of the bear-festival 
among the  ,ainos and other tribes of   
north-eastern ,asia is only a           
particularly  striking example of the   
respect which on the principles of his  
rude  philosophy the savage habitually  
pays to the animals which he kills and  
eats4            ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the 
,,propitiation ,,of ,,wild ,,animals    
,,by ,,hunters4      7,m#aeh7 ,the      
explanation of life by the theory of an 

indwelling and  practically immortal    
soul is one which the savage does not   
confine to  human beings but extends to 
the animate creation in general4 ,in so 
doing  he is more liberal and perhaps   
more logical than the civilised man1 who
  commonly denies to animals that       
privilege of immortality which he claims
  for himself4 ,the savage is not so    
proud2 he commonly believes that animals
  are endowed with feelings and         
intelligence like those of men1 and     
that1  like men1 they possess souls     
which survive the death of their bodies 
either to wander about as disembodied   
spirits or to be born again in  animal  
form4 ,thus1 for example1 we are told   
that the ,indian of ,guiana does  not   
see 8any sharp line of distinction1 such
 as we see1 between man and  other      
animals1 between one kind of animal and 
another1 or between  animals--man       
included--and inanimate objects4 ,on the
 contrary1 to the  ,indian1 all objects1
 animate and inanimate1 seem exactly of 

the same  nature except that they differ
 in the accident of bodily form4 ,every 
object in the whole world is a being1   
consisting of a body and spirit1 and    
differs from every other object in no   
respect except that of bodily form1  and
 in the greater or less degree of brute 
power and brute cunning  consequent on  
the difference of bodily form and bodily
 habits407#eic7  ,similarly we read that
 8in ,cherokee mythology1 as in that of 
,indian tribes  generally1 there is no  
essential difference between men and    
animals4 ,in  the primal genesis period 
they seem to be completely              
undifferentiated1 and  we find all      
creatures alike living and working      
together in harmony and  mutual         
helpfulness until man1 by his           
aggressiveness and disregard for the    
rights of the others1 provokes their    
hostility1 when insects1 birds1  fishes1
 reptiles1 and fourfooted beasts join   
forces against him4  ,henceforth their  
lives are apart1 but the difference is  

always one of  degree only4 ,the        
animals1 like the people1 are organized 
into tribes and  have like them their   
chiefs and townhouses1 their councils   
and ballplays1  and the same hereafter  
in the ,darkening land of ,usunhiyi4    
,man is still the  paramount power1 and 
hunts and slaughters the others as his  
own  necessities compel1 but is obliged 
to satisfy the animal tribes in every   
instance1 very much as a murder is      
compounded for1 according to the ,indian
  system1 by #8covering the bones of the
 dead' with presents for the bereaved   
relatives407#eid7 ,to the same effect   
another observer of the ,north ,american
  ,indians writes3 8,i have often       
reflected on the curious connexion which
  appears to subsist in the mind of an  
,indian between man and the brute       
creation1 and found much matter in it   
for curious observation4 ,although  they
 consider themselves superior to all    
other animals and are very proud  of    
that superiority2 although they believe 

that the beasts of the forest1  the     
birds of the air1 and the fishes of the 
waters1 were created by the  ,almighty  
,being for the use of man2 yet it seems 
as if they ascribe the  difference      
between themselves and the brute kind1  
and the dominion which  they have over  
them1 more to their superior bodily     
strength and dexterity  than to their   
immortal souls4 ,all beings endowed by  
the ,creator with the  power of volition
 and self-motion1 they view in a manner 
as a great  society of which they are   
the head1 whom they are appointed1      
indeed1 to  govern1 but between whom and
 themselves intimate ties of connexion  
and  relationship may exist1 or at least
 did exist in the beginning of time4    
,they are1 in fact1 according to their  
opinions1 only the first among  equals1 
the legitimate hereditary sovereigns of 
the whole animated race1  of which they 
are themselves a constituent part4      
,hence1 in their  languages1 those      
inflections of their nouns which we call

 genders1 are  not1 as with us1         
descriptive of the masculine and        
feminine species1  but of the animate   
and inanimate kinds4 ,indeed1 they go so
 far as to  include trees and plants    
within the first of these descriptions4 
,all  animated nature1 in whatever      
degree1 is in their eyes a great whole1 
from  which they have not yet ventured  
to separate themselves4 ,they do not    
exclude other animals from their world  
of spirits1 the place to which they     
expect to go after death407#eie7 ,even  
,chinese authors 8have roundly avowed   
themselves altogether unable to discover
 any real difference between men  and   
animals10 and they have drawn out the   
parallelism between the two in  some    
detail47#eif7    7,m#aei7 ,but it is not
 merely between the mental and spiritual
 nature of man  and the animals that the
 savage traces a close resemblance2 even
 the  distinction of their bodily form  
appears sometimes to elude his dull     
apprehension4 ,an unusually intelligent 

,bushman questioned by a missionary     
8could not state any difference between 
a man and a brute--he did not know  but 
a buffalo might shoot with bows and     
arrows as well as a man1 if it had      
them407#eig7 ,in the opinion of the     
,gilyak1 8the form and size of an animal
  are merely a sort of appearance4      
,every animal is in point of fact a real
  being like man1 nay a ,gilyak such as 
himself1 but endowed with reason and    
strength which often surpass those of   
mere men407#eih7 ,nor is it merely  that
 in the mental fog the savage takes     
beasts for men2 he seems to be  nearly  
as ready to take himself and his fellows
 for beasts4 ,when the  ,russians first 
landed on one of the ,alaskan islands   
the people took them  for cuttle-fish1  
8on account of the buttons on their     
clothes407#eii7 ,we  have seen how some 
savages identify themselves with animals
 of various  sorts by eating the maggots
 bred in the rotting carcases of the    
beasts1  and how thereafter1 when       

occasion serves1 they behave in their   
adopted  characters by wriggling1       
roaring1 barking1 or grunting1 according
 as they  happen to be boa-constrictors1
 lions1 jackals1 or                     
hippopotamuses47#fjj7 ,in  the island of
 ,mabuiag men of the ,sam1 that is1 the 
,cassowary1 totem think  that           
cassowaries are men or nearly so4 8,sam 
he all same as relation1 he  belong same
 family10 is the account they give of   
their kinship with the  creature4       
,conversely they hold that they         
themselves are cassowaries1 or at  all  
events that they possess some of the    
qualities of the long-legged  bird4     
,when a ,cassowary man went forth to    
reap laurels on the field of  battle1 he
 used to reflect with satisfaction on   
the length of his lower  limbs3 8,my leg
 is long and thin1 ,i can run and not   
feel tired2 my legs  will go quickly and
 the grass will not entangle            
them407#fja7 ,omaha ,indians  believe   
that between a man and the creature     

which is his guardian spirit  there     
subsists so close a bond that the man   
acquires the powers and  qualities1 the 
virtues and defects of the animal4 ,thus
 if a man has seen a  bear in that      
vision at puberty which determines an   
,indian's guardian  spirit1 he will be  
apt to be wounded in battle1 because the
 bear is a slow  and clumsy animal and  
easily trapped4 ,if he has dreamed of an
 eagle1 he  will be able to see into the
 future and foretell coming events1     
because  the eagle's vision is keen and 
piercing47#fjb7 ,similarly1 the         
,thompson  ,indians of ,british         
,columbia imagined that every man       
partook of the nature  of the animal    
which was his guardian spirit2 for      
example1 a man who had  the grisly bear 
for his protector would prove a much    
fiercer warrior than  one who had only a
 crow1 a coyote1 or a fox for his       
guardian spirit4 ,and  before they set  
out on the war-path these ,indians used 
to perform a mimic  battle1 in which    

each man1 tricked out with paint and    
feathers1 imitated  the sounds of the   
animal that was his guardian spirit1    
grunting and  whooping in               
character47#fjc7 ,the ,bororos1 a tribe 
of ,indians in the heart  of ,brazil1   
will have it that they are parrots of a 
gorgeous red plumage  which live in the 
,brazilian forest4 ,it is not merely    
that their souls will  pass into these  
birds at death1 but they themselves are 
actually identical  with them in their  
life1 and accordingly they treat the    
parrots as they  might treat their      
fellow-tribesmen1 keeping them in       
captivity1 refusing to  eat their flesh1
 and mourning for them when they die4   
,however1 they kill  the wild birds for 
their feathers1 and1 though they will   
not kill1 they  pluck the tame ones to  
deck their own naked brown bodies with  
the gaudy  plumage of their feathered   
brethren47#fjd7    7,m#afj7 ,thus to the
 savage1 who regards all living         
creatures as practically  on a footing  

of equality with man1 the act of killing
 and eating an animal  must wear a very 
different aspect from that which the    
same act presents to  us1 who regard the
 intelligence of animals as far inferior
 to our own and  deny them the          
possession of immortal souls4 ,hence on 
the principles of his  rude philosophy  
the primitive hunter who slays an animal
 believes himself  exposed to the       
vengeance either of its disembodied     
spirit or of all the  other animals of  
the same species1 whom he considers as  
knit together1  like men1 by the ties of
 kin and the obligations of the blood   
feud1 and  therefore as bound to resent 
the injury done to one of their number4 
,accordingly the savage makes it a rule 
to spare the life of those animals      
which he has no pressing motive for     
killing1 at least such fierce and       
dangerous animals as are likely to exact
 a bloody vengeance for the  slaughter  
of one of their kind4 ,crocodiles are   
animals of this sort4 ,they  are only   

found in hot countries1 where1 as a     
rule1 food is abundant and  primitive   
man has therefore little reason to kill 
them for the sake of  their tough and   
unpalatable flesh47#fje7 ,hence it is a 
custom with some  savages to spare      
crocodiles1 or rather only to kill them 
in obedience to  the law of blood feud1 
that is1 as a retaliation for the       
slaughter of men  by crocodiles4 ,for   
example1 the ,dyaks of ,borneo will not 
kill a crocodile  unless a crocodile has
 first killed a man4 8,for why1 say     
they1 should they  commit an act of     
aggression1 when he and his kindred can 
so easily repay  them8 ,but should the  
alligator take a human life1 revenge    
becomes a sacred  duty of the living    
relatives1 who will trap the man-eater  
in the spirit of  an officer of justice 
pursuing a criminal4 ,others1 even then1
 hang back1  reluctant to embroil       
themselves in a quarrel which does not  
concern them4  ,the man-eating alligator
 is supposed to be pursued by a         

righteous ,nemesis2  and whenever one is
 caught they have a profound conviction 
that it must be  the guilty one1 or his 
accomplice407#fjf7    7,m#afa7 ,when a  
,dyak has made up his mind to take      
vengeance on the  crocodiles for the    
death of a kinsman1 he calls in the help
 of a  ,pangareran1 a man whose business
 it is to charm and catch crocodiles and
  to make them do his will4 ,while he is
 engaged in the discharge of his        
professional duties the                 
crocodile-catcher has to observe a      
number of odd  rules4 ,he may not go to 
anybody and may not even pass in front  
of a  window1 because he is unclean4 ,he
 may not himself cook anything nor come 
near a fire4 ,if he would eat fruit1 he 
may not peel or husk it himself1  but   
must get others to do it for him4 ,he   
may not even chew his food1 but  is     
obliged to swallow it unchewed4 ,a      
little hut is made for him on the  bank 
of the river1 where he uses divination  
by means of the figure of a  crocodile  

drawn on a piece of bamboo for the      
purpose of determining  whether his     
undertaking will prosper4 ,the boat in  
which he embarks to  catch the wicked   
man-eating crocodile must be painted    
yellow and red1 and  in the middle of it
 lances are erected with the points     
upward4 ,then the  man of skill casts   
lots to discover whether the hook is to 
be baited with  pork1 or venison1 or the
 flesh of a dog or an ass4 ,in throwing 
the baited  hook into the water he calls
 out3 8,ye crocodiles who are up stream1
 come  down2 and ye crocodiles who are  
down stream1 come up2 for ,i will give  
you  all good food1 as sweet as sugar   
and as fat as coco-nut4 ,i will give you
 a  pretty and beautiful necklace4 ,when
 you have got it1 keep it in your neck  
and body1 for this food is very pahuni10
 which means that it would be  sinful   
not to eat it4 ,if a crocodile bites at 
the hook1 the  crocodile-catcher bawls  
out1 8,choose a place for yourself where
 you will  lie2 for many men are come to

 see you4 ,they are come joyfully and   
exultingly1 and they give you a knife1 a
 lance1 and a shroud40 ,if the          
crocodile is a female1 he addresses her 
as 8,princess02 if it is a male1 he     
calls it 8,prince40 ,the enchanter1 who 
is generally a cunning ,malay1 must     
continue his operations till he catches 
a crocodile in which traces are to  be  
found shewing that the animal has indeed
 devoured a human being4 ,then  the     
death of the man is atoned for1 and in  
order not to offend the  water-spirits a
 cat is sacrificed to the crocodiles4   
,the heads of the dead  crocodiles are  
fastened on stakes beside the river1    
where in time they  bleach white and    
stand out sharply against the green     
background of the  forest47#fjg7 ,while 
the captured crocodile is being hauled  
in to the bank1  the subtle ,dyaks speak
 softly to him and beguile him into     
offering no  resistance2 but once they  
have him fast1 with arms and legs       
securely  pinioned1 they howl at him and

 deride him for his credulity1 while    
they  rip up the belly of the infuriated
 and struggling brute to find the       
evidence of his guilt in the shape of   
human remains4 ,on one occasion ,rajah  
,brooke of ,sarawak was present at a    
discussion among a party of ,dyaks as to
  how they ought to treat a captured    
crocodile4 ,one side maintained that it 
was proper to bestow all praise and     
honour on the kingly beast1 since he    
was himself a rajah among animals and   
was now brought there to meet the       
rajah2 in short1 they held that praise  
and flattery were agreeable to him  and 
would put him on his best behaviour4    
,the other side fully admitted  that on 
this occasion rajah met rajah2 yet with 
prudent foresight they  pointed to the  
dangerous consequences which might flow 
from establishing a  precedent such as  
their adversaries contended for4 ,if    
once a captured  crocodile1 said they1  
were praised and honoured1 the other    
crocodiles1 on  hearing of it1 would be 

puffed up with pride and ambition1 and  
being  seized with a desire to emulate  
the glory of their fellow would enter on
 a  career of man-eating as the road    
likely to lead them by the shortest cut 
to the temple of fame47#fjh7    7,m#afb7
 ,the ,minangkabauers of ,sumatra have  
also a great respect for  crocodiles4   
,their celebrated law-giver             
,katoemanggoengan was indeed born  again
 in the form of a crocodile2 and thus   
his descendants1 including the  rajah of
 ,indrapoera and his family1 are more or
 less distant cousins of  the           
crocodiles1 and enjoy the help and      
protection of the creatures in many     
ways1 for example when they go on a     
journey4 ,the respect entertained for   
the animals is also attested by the     
ceremonies observed in some places  when
 a crocodile has been caught4 ,a crowd  
of women then performs certain  dances  
which closely resemble the dances       
performed when somebody has died4       
,moreover1 it is a rule with the        

,minangkabauers that no cooking-pot may 
be  washed in a river2 to do so would be
 like offering the crocodiles the       
leavings of your food1 and they would   
very naturally resent it4 ,for the  same
 reason in washing up the dinner or     
supper plates you must be careful  not  
to make a splashing1 or the crocodiles  
would hear it and take  umbrage47#fji7  
7,m#afc7 ,among the ,malays of ,patani  
,bay1 in ,siam1 there is a family whose 
members may not kill a crocodile nor    
even be present when one of these       
ferocious reptiles is captured4 ,the    
reason alleged for this forbearance is  
that the family claim kindred with a    
woman named ,betimor1 who was drowned   
in the river and afterwards turned into 
a crocodile4 ,after her  transformation 
she appeared to her father in a dream   
and told him what had  become of her2 so
 he went down to the river and made     
offerings to her of  rice and wax       
tapers4 ,there is a shrine on the spot  
where the woman was  transformed into a 

crocodile1 and any one may dedicate     
offerings there and  pray to ,toh ,sri  
,lam2 for so she has been called ever   
since her  metamorphosis4 ,members of   
the crocodile family call on her for    
help in  sickness and other misfortunes1
 and they will do so on behalf of other 
people for a proper consideration4 ,rice
 and wax tapers are the usual           
offerings47#faj7 ,in many islands of the
 ,indian ,archipelago1 including ,java1 
,sumatra1 ,celebes1 ,timor1 and ,ceram1 
this belief in a kinship of men with    
crocodiles assumes a peculiar form4 ,the
 people imagine that women are  often   
delivered of a child and a crocodile at 
the same birth1 and that  when this     
happens1 the midwife carries the        
crocodile twin carefully down  to the   
river and places it in the water4 ,the  
family in which such a birth  is thought
 to have happened1 constantly put       
victuals into the river for  their      
amphibious relation2 and in particular  
the human twin1 so long as he  lives1   

goes down to the river at stated seasons
 to do his duty by his  crocodile       
brother or sister2 and if he were to    
fail to do so1 it is the  universal     
opinion that he would be visited with   
sickness or death for his  unnatural    
conduct4 ,large parties of these        
crocodile people periodically go  out in
 a boat furnished with great plenty of  
provisions and all kinds of  music1 and 
they row backwards and forwards1 with   
the music playing1 in  places where     
crocodiles do most abound4 ,as they do  
so they sing and weep  by turns1 each of
 them invoking his animal kinsfolk1 till
 the snout of one  of the brutes bobbs  
up from the water1 whereupon the music  
stops1 and  food1 betel1 and tobacco are
 thrown into the river4 ,by these       
delicate  attentions they hope to       
recommend themselves to the formidable  
creatures47#faa7    7,m#afd7 ,the       
crocodiles about the island of ,damba in
 the ,victoria ,nyanza  were sacred and 
might not be molested in any way4 ,hence

 they multiplied  and became dangerous2 
people made offerings to them in the    
hope of being  spared by the monsters   
when they crossed in the ferries4 ,from 
time to time  batches of men were       
brought down to the beach and sacrificed
 to the  crocodiles4 ,their arms and    
legs were broken so that they could not 
stir  from the spot2 then they were laid
 out in a row on the shore1 and the     
crocodiles came and dragged them into   
the water4 ,on the island there was a   
temple dedicated to the crocodiles1 and 
here an inspired medium resided  who    
gave oracular responses4 ,under the     
influence of the spirit he wagged  his  
head from side to side1 opening his jaws
 and snapping them together1  just as a 
crocodile does47#fab7 ,no doubt the     
spirit which possessed him in  these    
moments of fine frenzy was supposed to  
be that of a crocodile4  ,similarly in  
other parts of ,uganda men were inspired
 by the ghosts or  spirits of lions1    
leopards1 and serpents1 and in that     

state of exaltation  they uttered       
oracles1 roaring like a lion1 growling  
like a leopard1 or  grovelling and      
wriggling like a serpent1 according to  
the nature of the  spirit by which they 
were possessed47#fac7 ,crocodiles abound
 in the ,albert  ,nyanza ,lake and its  
tributaries4 ,in many places they are   
extremely  dangerous1 but the ,alur     
tribe of that region only hunt them when
 they have  dragged away a man2 and they
 think that any one who has taken away a
  crocodile's eggs must be on his guard 
when he walks near the bank of the      
river1 for the crocodiles will try to   
avenge the injury by seizing  him47#fad7
 ,in general the ,foulahs of ,senegambia
 dare not kill a crocodile  from fear of
 provoking the vengeance of the         
relations and friends of the  murdered  
reptile2 but if the sorcerer gives his  
consent and passes his  word that he    
will guarantee them against the         
vengeance of the family of  the         
deceased1 they will pluck up courage to 

attack one of the brutes47#fae7         
7,m#afe7 ,like the ,dyaks1 the natives  
of ,madagascar never kill a crocodile   
8except in retaliation for one of their 
friends who has been destroyed by  a    
crocodile4 ,they believe that the wanton
 destruction of one of these  reptiles  
will be followed by the loss of human   
life1 in accordance with  the principle 
of lex talionis40 ,the people who live  
near the lake ,itasy  in ,madagascar    
make a yearly proclamation to the       
crocodiles1 announcing  that they will  
revenge the death of some of their      
friends by killing as  many crocodiles  
in return1 and warning all well-disposed
 crocodiles to  keep out of the way1 as 
they have no quarrel with them1 but only
 with  their evil-minded relations who  
have taken human life47#faf7 ,various   
tribes  of ,madagascar believe          
themselves to be descended from         
crocodiles1 and  accordingly they view  
the scaly reptile as1 to all intents and
 purposes1 a  man and a brother4 ,if one

 of the animals should so far forget    
himself as  to devour one of his human  
kinsfolk1 the chief of the tribe1 or in 
his  absence an old man familiar with   
the tribal customs1 repairs at the head 
of the people to the edge of the water1 
and summons the family of the  culprit  
to deliver him up to the arm of justice4
 ,a hook is then baited and  cast into  
the river or lake4 ,next day the guilty 
brother1 or one of his  family1 is      
dragged ashore1 and after his crime has 
been clearly brought  home to him by a  
strict interrogation1 he is sentenced to
 death and  executed4 ,the claims of    
justice being thus satisfied and the    
majesty of  the law fully vindicated1   
the deceased crocodile is lamented and  
buried  like a kinsman2 a mound is      
raised over his relics and a stone marks
 the  place of his head47#fag7 ,the     
,malagasy1 indeed1 regard the crocodile 
with  superstitious veneration as the   
king of the waters and supreme in his   
own  element4 ,when they are about to   

cross a river they pronounce a solemn   
oath1 or enter into an engagement to    
acknowledge his sovereignty over the    
waters4 ,an aged native has been known  
to covenant with the crocodiles for     
nearly half an hour before plunging into
 the stream4 ,after that he lifted  up  
his voice and addressed the animal1     
urging him to do him no harm1 since  he 
had never hurt the crocodile2 assuring  
him that he had never made war  on any  
of his fellows1 but on the contrary had 
always entertained the  highest         
veneration for him2 and adding that if  
he wantonly attacked him1  vengeance    
would follow sooner or later2 while if  
the crocodile devoured  him1 his        
relations and all his race would declare
 war against the beast4  ,this harangue 
occupied another quarter of an hour1    
after which the orator  dashed          
fearlessly into the stream47#fah7       
7,m#aff7 ,again1 the tiger is another of
 those dangerous beasts whom the  savage
 prefers to leave alone1 lest by killing

 one of the species he  should excite   
the hostility of the rest4 ,no          
consideration will induce a  ,sumatran  
to catch or wound a tiger except in     
self-defence or immediately  after a    
tiger has destroyed a friend or         
relation4 ,when a ,european has set     
traps for tigers1 the people of the     
neighbourhood have been known to go by  
night to the place and explain to the   
animals that the traps are not set  by  
them nor with their consent47#fai7 ,if  
it is necessary to kill a tiger  which  
has wrought much harm in the village1   
the ,minangkabauers of ,sumatra  try to 
catch him alive in order to beg for his 
forgiveness before  despatching him1 and
 in ordinary life they will not speak   
evil of him or  do anything that might  
displease him4 ,for example1 they will  
not use a  path that has been untrodden 
for more than a year1 because the tiger 
has  chosen that path for himself1 and  
would deem it a mark of disrespect were 
any one else to use it4 ,again1 persons 

journeying by night will not walk  one  
behind the other1 nor keep looking about
 them1 for the tiger would  think that  
this betrayed fear of him1 and his      
feelings would be hurt by  the          
suspicion4 ,neither will they travel    
bareheaded1 for that also would be      
disrespectful to the tiger2 nor will    
they knock off the glowing end of a     
firebrand1 for the flying sparks are    
like the tiger's glistering eyes1 and   
he would treat this as an attempt to    
mimic him47#fbj7 ,the population of     
,mandeling1 a district on the west coast
 of ,sumatra1 is divided into clans1    
one of which claims to be descended from
 a tiger4 ,it is believed that the      
animal will not attack or rend the      
members of this clan1 because they are  
his kinsmen4 ,when members of the clan  
come upon the tracks of a tiger1  they  
enclose them with three little sticks as
 a mark of homage2 and when a  tiger has
 been shot1 the women of the clan are   
bound to offer betel to the  dead       

beast47#fba7 ,the ,battas of ,sumatra   
seldom kill a tiger except from  motives
 of revenge1 observing the rule an eye  
for an eye and a tooth for a  tooth1 or1
 as they express it1 8,he who owes gold 
must pay in gold2 he who  owes breath   
7that is1 life7 must pay with breath40  
,nor can the beast be  attacked without 
some ceremony2 only weapons that have   
proved themselves  able to kill may be  
used for the purpose4 ,when the tiger   
has been killed1  they bring the carcase
 to the village1 set offerings before   
it1 and burn  incense over it1 praying  
the spirit of the tiger to quit its     
material  envelope and enter the incense
 pot4 ,as soon as the soul may be       
supposed to  have complied with this    
request1 a speaker explains to the      
spirits in  general the reasons for     
killing the tiger1 and begs them to set 
forth  these reasons to the departed    
soul of the beast1 lest the latter      
should be  angry and the people should  
suffer in consequence4 ,then they dance 

round  the dead body of the tiger till  
they can dance no longer1 after which   
they  skin the carcase and bury         
it47#fbb7 ,the inhabitants of the hills 
near  ,rajamahall1 in ,bengal1 believe  
that if any man kills a tiger without   
divine orders1 either he or one of his  
relations will be devoured by a  tiger4 
,hence they are very averse to killing a
 tiger1 unless one of their  kinsfolk   
has been carried off by one of the      
beasts4 ,in that case they go  out for  
the purpose of hunting and slaying a    
tiger2 and when they have  succeeded    
they lay their bows and arrows on the   
carcase and invoke ,god1  declaring that
 they slew the animal in retaliation for
 the loss of a  kinsman4 ,vengeance     
having been thus taken1 they swear not  
to attack  another tiger except under   
similar provocation47#fbc7 ,the natives 
of ,cochin  ,china have a great respect 
for the tiger1 whom they regard as a    
terrible  divinity4 ,yet they set traps 
for him and leave no stone unturned to  

catch  him4 ,once he is ensnared1 they  
offer him their excuses and condolences 
for  the painful position in which he   
finds himself47#fbd7    7,m#afg7 ,the   
,indians of ,carolina would not molest  
snakes when they came upon  them1 but   
would pass by on the other side of the  
path1 believing that if  they were to   
kill a serpent1 the reptile's kindred   
would destroy some of  their brethren1  
friends1 or relations in return47#fbe7  
,so the ,seminole  ,indians spared the  
rattlesnake1 because they feared that   
the soul of the  dead rattlesnake would 
incite its kinsfolk to take vengeance4  
,once when a  rattlesnake appeared in   
their camp they entreated an ,english   
traveller to  rid them of the creature4 
,when he had killed it1 they were glad  
but tried  to scratch him as a means of 
appeasing the spirit of the dead        
snake47#fbf7  ,soon after the ,iowas    
began to build their village near the   
mouth of ,wolf  ,river1 a lad came into 
the village and reported that he had    

seen a  rattlesnake on a hill not far   
off4 ,a medicine-man immediately        
repaired to  the spot1 and finding the  
snake made it presents of tobacco and   
other  things which he had brought with 
him for the purpose4 ,he also had a long
  talk with the animal1 and on returning
 to his people told them that now  they 
might travel about in safety1 for peace 
had been made with the  snakes47#fbg7   
,the ,delaware ,indians also paid great 
respect to the  rattlesnake1 whom they  
called their grandfather1 and they would
 on no  account destroy one of the      
reptiles4 ,they said that the           
rattlesnake  guarded them and gave them 
notice of impending danger by his       
rattle1 and  that if they were to kill a
 rattlesnake1 the rest of the species   
would  soon hear of it and bite the     
,indians in revenge47#fbh7 ,the         
,potawatomi  ,indians highly venerated  
the rattlesnake for a similar reason1   
being  grateful to it for the timely    
warning which it often gave of the      

approach  of an enemy4 ,yet a young man 
who desired to obtain a rattle would    
have no  hesitation in killing one of   
the snakes for the purpose2 but he      
apologised  profusely to the creature   
for the liberty he took with it1        
explaining that  he required the rattle 
for the adornment of his person1 and    
that no  disrespect was intended to the 
snake2 and in proof of his good will he 
would leave a piece of tobacco beside   
the carcase47#fbi7 ,the ,cherokee       
regard the rattlesnake as the chief of  
the snake tribe and fear and  respect   
him accordingly4 ,few ,cherokee will    
venture to kill a rattlesnake1  unless  
they cannot help it1 and even then they 
must atone for the crime by  craving    
pardon of the snake's ghost either in   
their own person or through  the        
mediation of a priest1 according to a   
set formula4 ,if these  precautions are 
neglected1 the kinsfolk of the dead     
snake will send one of  their number as 
an avenger of blood1 who will track down

 the murderer and  sting him to death4  
,it is absolutely necessary to cut off  
the snake's head  and bury it deep in   
the earth and to hide the body in a     
hollow log2 for if  the remains were    
exposed to the weather1 the other snakes
 would be so  angry that they would send
 torrents of rain and all the streams   
would  overflow their banks4 ,if a      
,cherokee dreams of being bitten by a   
snake1 he  must be treated in exactly   
the same way as if he had been really   
bitten2  for they think that he has     
actually been bitten by the ghost of a  
snake1  and that if the proper remedies 
were not applied to the hurt1 the place 
would swell and ulcerate1 though        
possibly not for years afterwards47#fcj7
  ,once when an ,englishman attempted to
 kill a rattlesnake1 a party of         
,ojibway ,indians1 with whom he was     
travelling1 begged him to desist1 and   
endeavoured to appease the snake1       
addressing it in turns as grandfather1  
smoking over it1 and beseeching it to   

take care of their families in their    
absence1 and to open the heart of the   
,british ,agent so that he should fill  
their canoe with rum4 ,a storm which    
overtook them next day on ,lake ,huron  
was attributed by them to the wrath of  
the insulted rattlesnake1 and they      
sought to mollify him by throwing dogs  
as sacrifices to him into the           
waves47#fca7 ,the ,kekchi ,indians of   
,guatemala will not throw serpents or   
scorpions into the fire1 lest the other 
creatures of the same species  should   
punish them for the outrage47#fcb7      
7,m#afh7 ,in ,kiziba1 a district of     
,central ,africa1 to the west of ,lake  
,victoria ,nyanza1 if a woman           
accidentally kills a snake with her hoe 
while  she is working in the field1 she 
hastens in great agitation to the       
snake-priest and hands him over the hoe1
 together with two strings of  cowries  
and an ox-hide1 begging him to appease  
the angry spirit of the  slain serpent4 
,in this application she is accompanied 

and supported by all  the villagers1 who
 share her fears and anxiety4           
,accordingly the priest  beats his drum 
as a sign that no woman of the village  
is to work in the  fields till further  
notice4 ,next he wraps the dead serpent 
in a piece of  the ox-hide and buries it
 solemnly4 ,on the following day he     
performs a  ceremony of purification for
 the slaughter of the reptile4 ,he      
compounds a  medicine out of the guts of
 a leopard or hyaena and earth or mud   
dissolved  in water1 and with this      
mixture he disinfects all the houses in 
the  village1 beginning with the house  
of the woman who killed the serpent4    
,next he proceeds to the fields1 where  
all the women of the village have       
collected their hoes4 ,these he purifies
 by dipping them in the fluid and  then 
twirling them about so as to make the   
drops of water fly off4 ,from  that     
moment the danger incurred by the       
slaughter of the reptile is  averted4   
,the spirit of the serpent is appeased1 

and the women may resume  their usual   
labours in the fields47#fcc7    7,m#afi7
 ,when the ,kwakiutl ,indians of        
,british ,columbia have slain a wolf    
they lay the carcase on a blanket and   
take out the heart1 of which every      
person who helped to kill the beast must
 eat four morsels4 ,then they wail  over
 the body1 saying1 8,woe6 our great     
friend60 ,after that they cover the     
carcase with a blanket and bury it4 ,a  
bow or gun that killed a wolf is        
regarded as unlucky1 and the owner gives
 it away4 ,these ,indians believe  that 
the slaying of a wolf produces a        
scarcity of game47#fcd7 ,when the       
,tinneh ,indians of ,central ,alaska    
have killed a wolf or a wolverine1 the  
carcase is brought into the camp or     
village with great pomp4 ,the people go 
forth to meet it1 saying1 8,the chief is
 coming40 ,then the body is carried     
into a hut and propped up in a sitting  
posture2 and the medicine-man  spreads  
before it a copious banquet1 to which   

every family in the village  has        
contributed of its best4 ,when the dead 
animal is supposed to have  satisfied   
his hunger1 the men consume the remains 
of the feast1 but no  woman is allowed  
to participate in what has been thus    
offered to the wolf  or the             
wolverine47#fce7 ,no ordinary ,cherokee 
dares to kill a wolf1 if he  can        
possibly help it2 for he believes that  
the kindred of the slain beast  would   
surely avenge its death1 and that the   
weapon with which the deed had  been    
done would be quite useless for the     
future1 unless it were cleaned  and     
exorcised by a medicine-man4 ,however1  
certain persons who know the  proper    
rites of atonement for such a crime can 
kill wolves with impunity1  and they are
 sometimes hired to do so by people who 
have suffered from the  raids of the    
wolves on their cattle or fish-traps4   
,the professional  wolf-killer prays to 
the animal whom he has bereaved of life1
 and seeks to  avert the vengeance of   

the other wolves by laying the blame of 
the  slaughter on the people of another 
settlement4 ,to purify the gun which has
  perpetrated the murder1 he unscrews   
the barrel1 inserts into it seven  small
 sour-wood rods which have been heated  
in the fire1 and then allows  the barrel
 and its contents to lie in a running   
stream till morning47#fcf7  ,when the   
,chuckchees of north-eastern ,siberia   
have killed a wolf1 they hold  a        
festival1 at which they cry1 8,wolf1 be 
not angry with us4 ,it was not we  who  
killed you1 it was the ,russians who    
destroyed you407#fcg7 ,in ancient       
,athens any man who killed a wolf had to
 bury it by subscription47#fch7         
7,m#agj7 ,in ,jebel-,nuba1 a district of
 the eastern ,sudan1 it is forbidden to 
touch the nests or remove the young of a
 species of black birds1  resembling our
 blackbirds1 because the people believe 
that the parent  birds would avenge the 
wrong by causing a stormy wind to blow1 
which would  destroy the harvest47#fci7 

,some of the ,sudanese negroes of ,upper
 ,egypt  regard the great black raven   
7,corvus umbrinus7 as their uncle and   
exact  pecuniary compensation or        
blood-money from any one who has been so
 rash as  to slay their sable relative4 
,having satisfied their scruples on that
  head1 they give the bird a solemn     
burial1 carrying the corpse to the      
graveyard on a bier with flags and      
shouts of la ill ,allah1 just as if     
they were interring one of their        
kinsfolk47#fdj7 ,the ,palenques of      
,south  ,america are very careful to    
spare harmless animals which are not    
good for  food2 because they believe    
that any injury inflicted on such       
creatures  would entail the sickness or 
death of their own children47#fda7      
7,m#aga7 ,but the savage clearly cannot 
afford to spare all animals4 ,he must   
either eat some of them or starve1 and  
when the question thus comes to be      
whether he or the animal must perish1 he
 is forced to overcome his              

superstitious scruples and take the life
 of the beast4 ,at the same time he     
does all he can to appease his victims  
and their kinsfolk4 ,even in the act  of
 killing them he testifies his respect  
for them1 endeavours to excuse or  even 
conceal his share in procuring their    
death1 and promises that their  remains 
will be honourably treated4 ,by thus    
robbing death of its terrors  he hopes  
to reconcile his victims to their fate  
and to induce their  fellows to come and
 be killed also4 ,for example1 it was a 
principle with  the ,kamtchatkans never 
to kill a land or sea animal without    
first making  excuses to it and begging 
that the animal would not take it ill4  
,also they  offered it cedar-nuts and so
 forth1 to make it think that it was not
 a  victim but a guest at a feast4 ,they
 believed that this hindered other      
animals of the same species from growing
 shy4 ,for instance1 after they had     
killed a bear and feasted on its flesh1 
the host would bring the bear's  head   

before the company1 wrap it in grass1   
and present it with a variety  of       
trifles4 ,then he would lay the blame of
 the bear's death on the  ,russians1 and
 bid the beast wreak his wrath upon     
them4 ,also he would ask  the bear to   
inform the other bears how well he had  
been treated1 that they  too might come 
without fear4 ,seals1 sea-lions1 and    
other animals were  treated by the      
,kamtchatkans with the same ceremonious 
respect4 ,moreover1  they used to insert
 sprigs of a plant resembling bear's    
wort in the mouths  of the animals they 
killed2 after which they would exhort   
the grinning  skulls to have no fear but
 to go and tell it to their fellows1    
that they  also might come and be caught
 and so partake of this splendid        
hospitality47#fdb7 ,when the ,ostiaks   
have hunted and killed a bear1 they cut 
off its head and hang it on a tree4     
,then they gather round in a circle and 
pay it divine honours4 ,next they run   
towards the carcase uttering            

lamentations and saying1 8,who killed   
you8 ,it was the ,russians4 ,who cut off
  your head8 ,it was a ,russian axe4    
,who skinned you8 ,it was a knife made  
by a  ,russian40 ,they explain1 too1    
that the feathers which sped the arrow  
on its  flight came from the wing of a  
strange bird1 and that they did nothing 
but  let the arrow go4 ,they do all this
 because they believe that the wandering
  ghost of the slain bear would attack  
them on the first opportunity1 if  they 
did not thus appease it47#fdc7 ,or they 
stuff the skin of the slain  bear with  
hay2 and after celebrating their victory
 with songs of mockery  and insult1     
after spitting on and kicking it1 they  
set it up on its hind  legs1 8and then1 
for a considerable time1 they bestow on 
it all the  veneration due to a guardian
 god407#fdd7 ,when a party of ,koryak   
have killed  a bear or a wolf1 they skin
 the beast and dress one of themselves  
in the  skin4 ,then they dance round the
 skin-clad man1 saying that it was not  

they  who killed the animal1 but some   
one else1 generally a ,russian4 ,when   
they  kill a fox they skin it1 wrap the 
body in grass1 and bid him go tell his  
companions how hospitably he has been   
received1 and how he has received a  new
 cloak instead of his old one47#fde7 ,a 
fuller account of the ,koryak           
ceremonies is given by a more recent    
writer4 ,he tells us that when a dead   
bear is brought to the house1 the women 
come out to meet it dancing with        
firebrands4 ,the bear-skin is taken off 
along with the head2 and one of the     
women puts on the skin1 dances in it1   
and entreats the bear not to be  angry1 
but to be kind to the people4 ,at the   
same time they offer meat on a  wooden  
platter to the dead beast1 saying1      
8,eat1 friend40 ,afterwards a  ceremony 
is performed for the purpose of sending 
the dead bear1 or rather  his spirit1   
away back to his home4 ,he is provided  
with provisions for the  journey in the 
shape of puddings or reindeer-flesh     

packed in a grass bag4  ,his skin is    
stuffed with grass and carried round the
 house1 after which he  is supposed to  
depart towards the rising sun4 ,the     
intention of the  ceremonies is to      
protect the people from the wrath of the
 slain bear and  his kinsfolk1 and so to
 ensure success in future               
bear-hunts47#fdf7 ,the  ,finns used to  
try to persuade a slain bear that he had
 not been killed by  them1 but had      
fallen from a tree1 or met his death in 
some other way27#fdg7  moreover1 they   
held a funeral festival in his honour1  
at the close of  which bards expatiated 
on the homage that had been paid to him1
 urging him  to report to the other     
bears the high consideration with which 
he had been  treated1 in order that they
 also1 following his example1 might come
 and be  slain47#fdh7 ,when the ,lapps  
had succeeded in killing a bear with    
impunity1  they thanked him for not     
hurting them and for not breaking the   
clubs and  spears which had given him   

his death wounds2 and they prayed that  
he would  not visit his death upon them 
by sending storms or in any other way4  
,his  flesh then furnished a            
feast47#fdi7    7,m#agb7 ,the reverence 
of hunters for the bear whom they       
regularly kill and  eat may thus be     
traced all along the northern region of 
the ,old ,world1  from ,bering's        
,straits to ,lappland4 ,it reappears in 
similar forms in ,north  ,america4 ,with
 the ,american ,indians a bear hunt was 
an important event for  which they      
prepared by long fasts and purgations4  
,before setting out they  offered       
expiatory sacrifices to the souls of    
bears slain in previous  hunts1 and     
besought them to be favourable to the   
hunters4 ,when a bear was  killed the   
hunter lit his pipe1 and putting the    
mouth of it between the  bear's lips1   
blew into the bowl1 filling the beast's 
mouth with smoke4  ,then he begged the  
bear not to be angry at having been     
killed1 and not to  thwart him          

afterwards in the chase4 ,the carcase   
was roasted whole and  eaten2 not a     
morsel of the flesh might be left over4 
,the head1 painted red  and blue1 was   
hung on a post and addressed by orators1
 who heaped praise  on the dead         
beast47#fej7 ,when men of the ,bear clan
 in the ,otawa tribe  killed a bear1    
they made him a feast of his own flesh1 
and addressed him  thus3 8,cherish us no
 grudge because we have killed you4 ,you
 have sense2  you see that our children 
are hungry4 ,they love you and wish to  
take you  into their bodies4 ,is it not 
glorious to be eaten by the children of 
a  chief807#fea7 ,amongst the ,nootka   
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 when a  
bear  had been killed1 it was brought in
 and seated before the head chief in an 
upright posture1 with a chief's bonnet1 
wrought in figures1 on its head1  and   
its fur powdered over with white down4  
,a tray of provisions was then  set     
before it1 and it was invited by words  
and gestures to eat4 ,after that  the   

animal was skinned1 boiled1 and         
eaten47#feb7 ,the ,assiniboins pray to  
the bear and offer sacrifices to it of  
tobacco1 belts1 and other valuable      
objects4 ,moreover1 they hold feasts in 
its honour1 that they may win the       
beast's favour and live safe and sound4 
,the bear's head is often kept in  camp 
for several days mounted in some        
suitable position and decked with       
scraps of scarlet cloth1 necklaces1     
collars1 and coloured feathers4 ,they   
offer the pipe to it1 and pray that they
 may be able to kill all the bears  they
 meet1 without harm to themselves1 for  
the purpose of anointing  themselves    
with his fine grease and banqueting on  
his tender flesh47#fec7  ,the ,ojibways 
will not suffer dogs to eat the flesh or
 gnaw the bones of a  bear1 and they    
throw all the waste portions into the   
fire4 ,they think that  if the flesh    
were desecrated1 they would have no luck
 in hunting bears  thereafter47#fed7 ,a 
trader of the eighteenth century has    

described the  endearments which a party
 of ,ojibways lavished on a she-bear    
which he had  just killed4 ,they took   
her head in their hands1 stroked it and 
kissed it1  and begged a thousand       
pardons for her violent death2 they     
called her their  relation and          
grandmother1 and begged her not to lay  
the fault at their  door1 for indeed it 
was an ,englishman who had killed her4  
,having severed  the head from the body1
 they adorned it with all the trinkets  
they could  muster and set it up on a   
scaffold in the lodge4 ,next day pipes  
were lit  and tobacco smoke blown into  
the nostrils of the dead bear1 and the  
trader  was invited to pay this mark of 
respect to the animal as an atonement   
for  having taken her life4 ,before they
 feasted on the bear's flesh1 an orator 
made a speech in which he deplored the  
sad necessity under which they  laboured
 of destroying their friends the bears2 
for how otherwise could  they           
subsist87#fee7 ,some of the ,indians of 

the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 off  the
 north-western coast of ,america1 used  
to mark the skins of bears1  otters1 and
 other animals with four red crosses in 
a line1 by way of  propitiating the     
spirit of the beast they had            
killed47#fef7 ,when the  ,thompson      
,indians of ,british ,columbia were     
about to hunt bears1 they would         
sometimes address the animal and ask it 
to come and be shot4 ,they prayed  the  
grisly bear not to be angry with the    
hunter1 nor to fight him1 but  rather to
 have pity on him and to deliver himself
 up to his mercies4 ,the  man who       
intended to hunt the grisly bear had to 
be chaste for some time  before he set  
out on his dangerous adventure4 ,when he
 had killed a bear1  he and his         
companions painted their faces in       
alternate perpendicular  stripes of     
black and red1 and sang the bear song4  
,sometimes the hunter  also prayed1     
thanking the beast for letting itself be
 killed so easily1  and begging that its

 mate might share the same fate4 ,after 
they had eaten  the flesh of the bear's 
head1 they tied the skull to the top of 
a small  tree1 as high as they could    
reach1 and left it there4 ,having done  
so1 they  painted their faces with      
alternate stripes of red and black as   
before2 for  if they failed to observe  
this ceremony1 the bears would be       
offended1 and  the hunters would not be 
able to kill any more4 ,to place the    
heads of  bears or any large beasts on  
trees or stones was a mark of respect to
 the  animals47#feg7 ,the ,lillooet and 
,shuswap ,indians of the same region    
used to  observe similar ceremonies at  
the killing of a bear47#feh7    7,m#agc7
 ,a like respect is testified for other 
dangerous creatures by the  hunters who 
regularly trap and kill them4 ,when     
,caffre hunters are in the  act of      
showering spears on an elephant1 they   
call out1 8,don't kill us1  great       
captain2 don't strike or tread upon us1 
mighty chief407#fei7 ,when he  is dead  

they make their excuses to him1         
pretending that his death was a  pure   
accident4 ,as a mark of respect they    
bury his trunk with much solemn         
ceremony2 for they say that 8the        
elephant is a great lord2 his trunk is  
his hand407#ffj7 ,before the ,amaxosa   
,caffres attack an elephant they shout  
to the animal and beg him to pardon them
 for the slaughter they are about  to   
perpetrate1 professing great submission 
to his person and explaining  clearly   
the need they have of his tusks to      
enable them to procure beads  and supply
 their wants4 ,when they have killed him
 they bury in the ground1  along with   
the end of his trunk1 a few of the      
articles they have obtained  for the    
ivory1 thus hoping to avert some mishap 
that would otherwise  befall them47#ffa7
 ,among the ,wanyamwezi of ,central     
,africa1 when hunters  have killed an   
elephant1 they bury his legs on the spot
 where he fell and  then cover the place
 with stones4 ,the burial is supposed to

 appease the  spirit of the dead        
elephant and to ensure the success of   
the hunters in  future                  
undertakings47#ffb7 ,when the ,baganda  
have killed an elephant1 they  extract  
the nerve from the tusk and bury it1    
taking care to mark the place  of the   
burial4 ,for they think that the ghost  
of the dead elephant attaches  itself to
 the nerve1 and that if a hunter were to
 step over the nerve1 the  elephant's   
ghost would cause him to be killed by an
 elephant the next time  he went forth  
to hunt the beasts47#ffc7    7,m#agd7   
,in ,latuka1 a district of the ,upper   
,nile1 lions are much respected1  and   
are only killed when they prove very    
troublesome and dangerous4 ,there  used 
to be in this region a ,lion-chief1 as  
he was called1 who professed to  have   
all lions under his control1 and who    
actually kept several tame lions  about 
his house4 ,whenever a lion was         
accidentally caught in a trap near  the 
station of the ,egyptian ,government1   

this man would regularly present        
himself and demand the release of the   
noble animal4 ,the favour was always    
granted1 and planks were let down into  
the pit to enable the imprisoned  lion  
to clamber up and escape47#ffd7 ,amongst
 some tribes of ,eastern ,africa1  when 
a lion is killed1 the carcase is brought
 before the king1 who does  homage to it
 by prostrating himself on the ground   
and rubbing his face on  the muzzle of  
the beast47#ffe7    7,m#age7 ,in some   
parts of ,western ,africa if a negro    
kills a leopard he is  bound fast and   
brought before the chiefs for having    
killed one of their  peers4 ,the man    
defends himself on the plea that the    
leopard is chief of  the forest and     
therefore a stranger4 ,he is then set at
 liberty and  rewarded4 ,but the dead   
leopard1 adorned with a chief's bonnet1 
is set up  in the village1 where nightly
 dances are held in its honour47#fff7   
,the  leopard is held in great          
veneration by the ,igaras of the ,niger4

 ,they call  it 8father0 7atta71 though 
they do not object to kill the animal in
 the  chase4 ,when a dead leopard is    
brought into ,idah1 the capital1 it is  
dressed up in white and borne on the    
heads of four men from house to  house1 
amidst singing and beating of drums4    
,each householder gives a  present of   
cowries or cloth to the owner of the    
leopard1 and at last the  carcase is    
buried with great ceremony and firing of
 guns4 ,should these  rites be          
neglected1 the people imagine that the  
spirit of the dead leopard  will punish 
them47#ffg7 ,among the ,ewe negroes of  
,togoland 8hunters who had  killed      
buffaloes1 leopards1 or wild black swine
 observed in ,agome for nine  days the  
same1 or very similar1 ceremonies as are
 customary at the death  of a woman1 in 
order to prevent the soul of the slain  
beasts from avenging  itself on them1 a 
custom which is the less surprising     
because the mourning  customs themselves
 are based on the fear of spirits1      

namely the spirits of  the dead4 ,the   
natives ascribe to the souls of these   
dangerous animals the  power of killing 
the man who shot them1 or of so blinding
 and enchanting  him that in the chase  
he confuses animals and men and so      
incurs serious  mishaps407#ffh7 ,the    
quaint ceremonies which these negroes   
observe for the  purpose of avoiding the
 imaginary perils have been described by
 a ,german  missionary4 ,the leopard and
 the wild buffalo1 he tells us1 are     
believed to  be animated by malignant   
souls which not only do the hunter a    
mischief  while they still occupy the   
bodies of the living creatures1 but even
 after  death1 in their disembodied     
state1 continue to haunt and plague     
their  slayer1 sometimes egging on a    
serpent or a leopard to sting or bite   
him1  sometimes blinding him so that he 
shoots a man for an animal1 or cannot   
find his way home and goes groping about
 in the wilderness till he  perishes    
miserably4 ,if a man thus blinded and   

crazed should make his way  back to the 
town1 he is banished for life and sold  
into slavery2 his house  and plantation 
are razed to the ground2 and his nearest
 relations are  often given as bail into
 the hands of strangers4 ,it is         
therefore a very  serious matter indeed 
for a hunter to incur the wrath of a    
leopard's  ghost1 and it is quite       
natural that he should take all         
reasonable measures  to guard himself   
against so threatening a calamity4      
,hence as soon as he  has killed a      
leopard1 he hurries back to the town and
 brings word of it to  the other men who
 have slain leopards on former          
occasions1 and who now  assist him with 
their advice and experience4 ,the first 
thing they do is to  put a stalk of     
grass in his mouth as a sign that he may
 not speak4 ,then  they repair to the   
place where the leopard lies dead in the
 forest1 and  inform the animal of the  
reasons why he has been shot1 namely1   
because he  has stolen sheep1 fowls1 and

 pigs1 and has killed men4 ,next the    
drums are  beaten and the people        
assemble in the open square of the town4
 ,the dead  leopard meanwhile has been  
fastened to a pole1 and with his eyes   
bandaged  and his face upturned to      
heaven1 is solemnly carried about the   
town and  set down before the houses of 
the principal folk1 who reward the hero 
and  his comrades with presents4 ,after 
the procession has gone the round1 the  
leopard is tied to a tree1 and the      
hunters paint the slayer with red and   
white so as to make him look like a     
leopard1 except that the leopard's      
spots are only painted on the left side 
of his body2 a basket painted in  the   
same colours is clapped on his head1 and
 magical strings of cowries  are tied   
round his hands and feet4 ,thus attired1
 he and the other heroes  who have      
killed leopards crawl about on all fours
 and roar like leopards  when anybody   
comes near them4 ,in his left hand every
 man grasps a bow for  the slaughter of 

innocent cocks and hens1 and with his   
right he grabbles  about in the earth   
like an animal seeking what it may      
devour4 ,none of them  may speak1 they  
may only roar1 but they do that in a    
masterly manner4 ,at  the head of this  
imposing procession go two men armed    
with a thick cudgel  and a spear        
respectively2 and the rear is brought up
 by a third man1 who  is privileged to  
walk upright on his hind legs4 ,this    
favoured person is  the cook1 whose     
office it is to dress the fowls which   
the human leopards2  purloin in the     
course of their pilgrimage2 indeed for  
nineteen days they  are privileged1 no  
doubt in their character of leopards1 to
 rob the  hen-roosts with impunity4 ,in 
the afternoon the carcase of the leopard
 is  taken down1 skinned1 and cut up4   
,the titbits are sent to the chief and  
the  other dignitaries1 who eat them2   
and the remainder of the flesh is       
consumed by the common folk4 ,the skin1 
the teeth1 the head1 and the claws      

belong to the hunter who killed the     
beast4 ,but for nineteen days           
thereafter the slayer of the leopard    
must retain his peculiar costume3 he    
may eat only warm-blooded animals and   
food seasoned with salt3 he may not  eat
 anything seasoned with pepper2 and on  
no account may he taste fish1  because  
they are cold-blooded creatures4 ,a     
general feast1 of which all the  male   
inhabitants of the town partake1 winds  
up the proceedings at the  close of the 
nineteen days4 ,a feature of the        
festivities is a dramatic               
representation of a leopard-hunt1 which 
is carried out in every detail  amid    
great excitement4 ,if only all these    
ceremonies are strictly observed1  the  
hunter need have no fear at all of being
 plagued by the leopard's  ghost47#ffi7 
7,m#agf7 ,the ,baganda greatly fear the 
ghosts of buffaloes which they have     
killed1 and they always appease these   
dangerous spirits4 ,on no account  will 
they bring the head of a slain buffalo  

into a village or into a  garden of     
plantains3 they always eat the flesh of 
the head in the open  country4          
,afterwards they place the skull in a   
small hut built for the  purpose1 where 
they pour out beer as an offering and   
pray to the ghost to  stay where he is  
and not to harm them47#fgj7 ,oddly      
enough the ,baganda also  dread the     
ghosts of sheep1 which they believe     
would haunt and kill the  butcher if    
they saw him give the fatal stroke4     
,hence when a man is about  to slaughter
 a sheep1 he gets another man to divert 
its attention1 and  coming up behind the
 unsuspecting animal he stuns it with   
the blow of an  axe-handle2 then1 before
 it can recover consciousness1 he       
adroitly cuts  its throat4 ,in this way 
the ghost of the sheep is bamboozled and
 will not  haunt the butcher4 ,moreover1
 when a sheep dies in a house1 the      
housewife  may not say bluntly to her   
husband1 8,the sheep is dead10 or its   
ghost1  touched to the quick1 would     

certainly make her fall ill and might   
even  kill her4 ,she must put a finer   
point on the painful truth by saying1   
8,i am  unable to untie such and such a 
sheep40 ,her husband understands her1   
but  the ghost of the animal does not1  
or at all events he does not resent so  
delicate an allusion to its melancholy  
decease47#fga7 ,even the ghost of a     
fowl may haunt a ,muganda woman and make
 her ill1 if she has accidentally       
killed it with her hoe and flung away   
the body in the long grass instead  of  
carrying it to her husband and          
confessing her fault47#fgb7    7,m#agg7 
,another formidable beast whose life the
 savage hunter takes with  joy1 yet with
 fear and trembling1 is the whale4      
,after the slaughter of a  whale the    
maritime ,koryak of north-eastern       
,siberia hold a communal  festival1 the 
essential part of which 8is based on the
 conception that the  whale killed has  
come on a visit to the village2 that it 
is staying for  some time1 during which 

it is treated with great respect2 that  
it then  returns to the sea to repeat   
its visit the following year2 that it   
will  induce its relatives to come      
along1 telling them of the hospitable   
reception that has been accorded to it4 
,according to the ,koryak ideas1 the    
whales1 like all other animals1         
constitute one tribe1 or rather family1 
of  related individuals1 who live in    
villages like the ,koryak4 ,they avenge 
the  murder of one of their number1 and 
are grateful for kindnesses that they   
may have received407#fgc7 ,as large     
whales are now rarely seen in the bays  
of the ,okhotsk ,sea1 the ,koryak at the
 present time generally celebrate the   
festival for a white whale4 ,one such   
festival was witnessed by ,mr4 ,w4      
,jochelson1 at the village of ,kuel1 in 
,october #aijj4 ,a white whale had been 
caught in the nets1 and as the sea was  
partially frozen1 the carcase had  to be
 brought ashore in a sledge4 ,when it   
was seen nearing the beach1 a  number of

 women1 arrayed in their long           
embroidered dancing-coats1 went  forth  
to meet and welcome it1 carrying lighted
 fire-brands in their hands4  ,to carry 
burning fire-brands from the hearth is  
the ancient ,koryak fashion  of greeting
 an honoured guest4 ,strictly speaking1 
the women who go forth  to welcome a    
whale to the house should wear masks of 
sedge-grass on their  faces as well as  
dancing-coats on their bodies1 and      
should carry  sacrificial alder branches
 as well as firebrands in their hands1  
but on  the present occasion the women  
dispensed with the use of masks4 ,they  
danced1 shaking their heads1 moving     
their shoulders1 and swinging their     
whole bodies with arms outstretched1 now
 squatting1 now rising and  singing1    
8,ah6 a guest has come40 ,in spite of   
the cold and the wind the  sweat dripped
 from them1 so violently did they dance1
 and they sang and  screamed till they  
were hoarse4 ,when the sledge with its  
burden had  reached the shore1 one of   

the women pronounced an incantation over
 the  whale's head1 and then thrust     
alder branches and sacrificial grass    
into  its mouth4 ,next they muffled its 
head in a hood1 apparently to prevent   
the  creature from witnessing the       
painful spectacle of its own dissection4
  ,after that the men cut up the        
carcase1 and the women collected the    
blood  in pails4 ,two seals1 which had  
also been killed1 were included in the  
festivities which followed4 ,the heads  
of all three animals were cut off  and  
placed on the roof of the house4 ,next  
day the festival began4 ,in the  morning
 the women plaited travelling bags of   
grass for the use of the  whale1 and    
made grass masks4 ,in the evening1 the  
people having assembled  in a large     
underground house1 some boiled pieces of
 the white whale were  placed in a grass
 bag and set before a wooden image of a 
white whale1 so  that the animal1 or its
 departed spirit1 was thus apparently   
supposed to  be regaled with portions of

 its own body2 for the white whale and  
the  seals were treated as honoured     
guests at the banquet4 ,to keep up the  
pretence1 the people were silent or     
spoke only in whispers for fear of      
wakening the guests before the time4 ,at
 last the preparations were  complete3  
fresh faggots piled on the hearth sent  
up a blaze1 illumining  with an unsteady
 light the smoke-blackened walls of the 
vast underground  dwelling1 which a     
moment before had been shrouded in      
darkness2 and the  long silence was     
broken by the joyful cries of the women1
 8,here dear  guests have come60 8,visit
 us often60 8,when you go back to the   
sea1 tell  your friends to call on us   
also1 we will prepare just as nice food 
for  them as for you40 ,with these words
 they pointed to puddings set out       
temptingly on the boards4 ,next the host
 took a piece of the fat of the  white  
whale and threw it into the fire1       
saying1 8,we are burning it in the  fire
 for thee60 ,then he went to the        

domestic shrine1 placed lumps of fat    
before the rude effigies of the guardian
 spirits1 and smeared fat on their      
mouths4 ,the appetites of the higher    
powers having thus been satisfied1 the  
people set to and partook of the good   
things provided for them1 including  the
 flesh of the white whale and the seals4
 ,lastly1 two old men practised         
divination by means of the              
shoulder-blade of a seal to discover    
whether  the white whale would go back  
to the sea and call his fellows to come 
and  be caught like himself4 ,in order  
to extract this information from the    
bone  burning coals were piled on it1   
and the resulting cracks were carefully 
scrutinised4 ,to the delight of all     
present the omens proved favourable3 a  
long transverse crack indicated the sea 
to which the spirit of the white  whale 
would soon depart4 ,four days later the 
departure actually took  place4 ,it was 
a bright sunshiny wintry morning3 the   
frost was keen2 and  for more than a    

mile seaward the beach was covered with 
blocks of ice4 ,in  the great           
underground dwelling1 where the feast   
had been held1 the hearth  had been     
turned into something like an altar4 ,on
 it lay the heads of the  white whale   
and the seals1 and beside them          
travelling-bags of grass filled  with   
puddings1 which the souls of the animals
 were to take with them on  their long  
journey4 ,beside the hearth knelt two   
women1 their faces covered  with grass  
masks and their heads bent over the     
bags1 mumbling an  incantation4 ,the    
sunlight streamed down on them through  
the smoke-hole  overhead1 but spread    
only a dim twilight through the remoter 
recesses of  the vast subterranean      
chamber4 ,the masks worn by the women   
were intended  to guard them against the
 spirit of the white whale1 which was   
supposed to  be hovering invisible in   
the air4 ,the incantation over1 the     
women rose  from their knees and doffed 
their masks4 ,a careful examination of a

  pudding1 which had been offered in    
sacrifice to the white whale1 now       
revealed the joyful intelligence that   
the spirit of the whale had accepted    
the sacrifice and was about to return to
 the sea4 ,all that remained1           
therefore1 to do was to speed him on his
 way4 ,for that purpose two men         
ascended the roof1 let down thongs      
through the smoke-hole1 and hauled up   
the heads of the white whale and of the 
seals together with the  travelling-bags
 of provisions4 ,that concluded the     
despatch of the souls of  the dead      
animals to their home in the great      
waters47#fgd7    7,m#agh7 ,when the     
inhabitants of the ,isle of ,st4 ,mary1 
to the north of  ,madagascar1 go        
a-whaling1 they single out the young    
whales for attack and  8humbly beg the  
mother's pardon1 stating the necessity  
that drives them to  kill her progeny1  
and requesting that she will be pleased 
to go below  while the deed is doing1   
that her maternal feelings may not be   

outraged by  witnessing what must cause 
her so much uneasiness407#fge7 ,an      
,ajumba hunter  having killed a female  
hippopotamus on ,lake ,azyingo in ,west 
,africa1 the  animal was decapitated and
 its quarters and bowels removed4 ,then 
the  hunter1 naked1 stepped into the    
hollow of the ribs1 and kneeling down in
  the bloody pool washed his whole body 
with the blood and excretions of the    
animal1 while he prayed to the soul of  
the hippopotamus not to bear him a      
grudge for having killed her and so     
blighted her hopes of future  maternity2
 and he further entreated the ghost not 
to stir up other  hippopotamuses to     
avenge her death by butting at and      
capsizing his  canoe47#fgf7 ,the ounce1 
a leopard-like creature1 is dreaded for 
its  depredations by the ,indians of    
,brazil4 ,when they have caught one of  
these  animals in a snare1 they kill it 
and carry the body home to the village4 
,there the women deck the carcase with  
feathers of many colours1 put  bracelets

 on its legs1 and weep over it1 saying1 
8,i pray thee not to take  vengeance on 
our little ones for having been caught  
and killed through  thine own ignorance4
 ,for it was not we who deceived thee1  
it was thyself4  ,our husbands only set 
the trap to catch animals that are good 
to eat3 they  never thought to take thee
 in it4 ,therefore1 let not thy soul    
counsel thy  fellows to avenge thy death
 on our little ones607#fgg7 ,when the   
,yuracares  ,indians of ,bolivia have   
killed great apes in their tropical     
forests1 they  bring the bodies home1   
set them out in a row on palm leaves    
with their  heads all looking one way1  
sprinkle them with chicha1 and say1 8,we
 love  you1 since we have brought you   
home40 ,they imagine that the           
performance of  this ceremony is very   
gratifying to the other apes in the     
woods47#fgh7  ,before they leave a      
temporary camp in the forest1 where they
 have killed a  tapir and dried the meat
 on a babracot1 the ,indians of ,guiana 

invariably  destroy this babracot1      
saying that should a tapir passing that 
way find  traces of the slaughter of one
 of his kind1 he would come by night on 
the  next occasion when ,indians slept  
at that place1 and1 taking a man1 would 
babracot him in revenge47#fgi7          
7,m#agi7 ,when a ,blackfoot ,indian has 
caught eagles in a trap and killed      
them1 he takes them home to a special   
lodge1 called the eagles' lodge1  which 
has been prepared for their reception   
outside of the camp4 ,here he  sets the 
birds in a row on the ground1 and       
propping up their heads on a  stick1    
puts a piece of dried meat in each of   
their mouths in order that  the spirits 
of the dead eagles may go and tell the  
other eagles how well  they are being   
treated by the ,indians47#fhj7 ,so when 
,indian hunters of the  ,orinoco region 
have killed an animal1 they open its    
mouth and pour into it  a few drops of  
the liquor they generally carry with    
them1 in order that  the soul of the    

dead beast may inform its fellows of the
 welcome it has  met with1 and that they
 too1 cheered by the prospect of the    
same kind  reception1 may come with     
alacrity to be killed47#fha7 ,a         
,cherokee hunter who  has killed an     
eagle stands over the dead bird and     
prays it not to avenge  itself on his   
tribe1 because it is not he but a       
,spaniard who has done the  cruel       
deed47#fhb7 ,when a ,teton ,indian is on
 a journey and he meets a grey  spider  
or a spider with yellow legs1 he kills  
it1 because some evil would  befall him 
if he did not4 ,but he is very careful  
not to let the spider  know that he     
kills it1 for if the spider knew1 his   
soul would go and tell  the other       
spiders1 and one of them would be sure  
to avenge the death of  his relation4   
,so in crushing the insect1 the ,indian 
says1 8,o ,grandfather  ,spider1 the    
,thunder-beings kill you40 ,and the     
spider is crushed at once  and believes 
what is told him4 ,his soul probably    

runs and tells the other  spiders that  
the ,thunder-beings have killed him2 but
 no harm comes of  that4 ,for what can  
grey or yellow-legged spiders do to the 
,thunder-beings87#fhc7    7,m#ahj7 ,but 
it is not merely dangerous creatures    
with whom the savage  desires to keep on
 good terms4 ,it is true that the       
respect which he pays  to wild beasts is
 in some measure proportioned to their  
strength and  ferocity4 ,thus the savage
 ,stiens of ,cambodia1 believing that   
all animals  have souls which roam about
 after their death1 beg an animal's     
pardon when  they kill it1 lest its soul
 should come and torment them4 ,also    
they offer  it sacrifices1 but these    
sacrifices are proportioned to the size 
and  strength of the animal4 ,the       
ceremonies observed at the death of an  
elephant are conducted with much pomp   
and last seven days47#fhd7 ,similar     
distinctions are drawn by ,north        
,american ,indians4 8,the bear1 the     
buffalo1  and the beaver are manidos    

divinities which furnish food4 ,the bear
 is  formidable1 and good to eat4 ,they 
render ceremonies to him1 begging him to
  allow himself to be eaten1 although   
they know he has no fancy for it4 ,we   
kill you1 but you are not annihilated4  
,his head and paws are objects of       
homage4444 ,other animals are treated   
similarly from similar reasons4444      
,many of the animal manidos1 not being  
dangerous1 are often treated with       
contempt--the terrapin1 the weasel1     
polecat1 etc407#fhe7 ,the distinction is
  instructive4 ,animals which are       
feared1 or are good to eat1 or both1 are
  treated with ceremonious respect2     
those which are neither formidable nor  
good to eat are despised4 ,we have had  
examples of reverence paid to  animals  
which are both feared and eaten4 ,it    
remains to prove that similar  respect  
is shewn to animals which1 without being
 feared1 are either eaten  or valued for
 their skins4    7,m#aha7 ,when         
,siberian sable-hunters have caught a   

sable1 no one is allowed  to see it1 and
 they think that if good or evil be     
spoken of the captured  sable no more   
sables will be caught4 ,a hunter has    
been known to express  his belief that  
the sables could hear what was said of  
them as far off as  ,moscow4 ,he said   
that the chief reason why the sable hunt
 was now so  unproductive was that some 
live sables had been sent to ,moscow4   
,there they  had been viewed with       
astonishment as strange animals1 and the
 sables  cannot abide that4 ,another1   
though minor1 cause of the diminished   
take of  sables was1 he alleged1 that   
the world is now much worse than it used
 to  be1 so that nowadays a hunter will 
sometimes hide the sable which he has   
got instead of putting it into the      
common stock4 ,this also1 said he1 the  
sables cannot abide47#fhf7 ,a ,russian  
traveller happening once to enter a     
,gilyak hut in the absence of the owner1
 observed a freshly killed sable        
hanging on the wall4 ,seeing him look at

 it1 the housewife in consternation     
hastened to muffle the animal in a fur  
cap1 after which it was taken down1     
wrapt in birch bark1 and put away out of
 sight4 ,despite the high price he      
offered for it1 the traveller's efforts 
to buy the animal were unavailing4  ,it 
was bad enough1 they told him1 that he1 
a stranger1 had seen the dead  sable in 
its skin1 but far worse consequences for
 the future catch of  sables would      
follow if they were to sell him the     
animal entire47#fhg7  ,alaskan hunters  
preserve the bones of sables and beavers
 out of reach of  the dogs for a year   
and then bury them carefully1 8lest the 
spirits who  look after the beavers and 
sables should consider that they are    
regarded  with contempt1 and hence no   
more should be killed or trapped407#fhh7
 ,the  ,shuswap ,indians of ,british    
,columbia think that if they did not    
throw  beaver-bones into the river1 the 
beavers would not go into the traps any 
more1 and that the same thing would     

happen were a dog to eat the flesh or   
gnaw the bone of a beaver47#fhi7        
,carrier ,indians who have trapped      
martens  or beavers take care to keep   
them from the dogs2 for if a dog were to
  touch these animals the ,indians      
believe that the other martens or       
beavers  would not suffer themselves to 
be caught47#fij7 ,a missionary who fell 
in  with an old ,carrier ,indian asked  
him what luck he had in the chase4 8,oh1
  don't speak to me about it10 replied  
the ,indian2 8there are beavers in      
plenty4 ,i caught one myself immediately
 after my arrival here1 but  unluckily a
 dog got hold of it4 ,you know that     
after that it has been  impossible for  
me to catch another40 8,nonsense10 said 
the missionary2 8set  your traps as if  
nothing had happened1 and you will see40
 8,that would be  useless10 answered the
 ,indian in a tone of despair1 8quite   
useless4 ,you  don't know the ways of   
the beaver4 ,if a dog merely touches a  
beaver1 all  the other beavers are angry

 at the owner of the dog and always keep
 away  from his traps40 ,it was in vain 
that the missionary tried to laugh or   
argue him out of his persuasion2 the man
 persisted in abandoning his  snares and
 giving up the hunt1 because1 as he     
asserted1 the beavers were  angry with  
him47#fia7 ,a ,french traveller1        
observing that the ,indians of          
,louisiana did not give the bones of    
beavers and otters to their dogs1       
enquired the reason4 ,they told him     
there was a spirit in the woods who     
would tell the other beavers and otters1
 and that after that they would  catch  
no more animals of these species47#fib7 
,the ,canadian ,indians were  equally   
particular not to let their dogs gnaw   
the bones1 or at least  certain of the  
bones1 of beavers4 ,they took the       
greatest pains to collect  and preserve 
these bones1 and1 when the beaver had   
been caught in a net1  they threw them  
into the river4 ,to a ,jesuit who argued
 that the beavers  could not possibly   

know what became of their bones1 the    
,indians replied1  8,you know nothing   
about catching beavers and yet you will 
be prating about  it4 ,before the beaver
 is stone dead1 his soul takes a turn in
 the hut of  the man who is killing him 
and makes a careful note of what is done
 with  his bones4 ,if the bones are     
given to the dogs1 the other beavers    
would get  word of it and would not let 
themselves be caught4 ,whereas1 if their
 bones  are thrown into the fire or a   
river1 they are quite satisfied2 and it 
is  particularly gratifying to the net  
which caught them407#fic7 ,before       
hunting  the beaver they offered a      
solemn prayer to the ,great ,beaver1 and
 presented  him with tobacco2 and when  
the chase was over1 an orator pronounced
 a  funeral oration over the dead       
beavers4 ,he praised their spirit and   
wisdom4  8,you will hear no more10 said 
he1 8the voice of the chieftains who    
commanded you and whom you chose from   
among all the warrior beavers to  give  

you laws4 ,your language1 which the     
medicine-men understand perfectly1  will
 be heard no more at the bottom of the  
lake4 ,you will fight no more  battles  
with the otters1 your cruel foes4 ,no1  
beavers6 ,but your skins  shall serve to
 buy arms2 we will carry your smoked    
hams to our children2  we will keep the 
dogs from eating your bones1 which are  
so hard407#fid7    7,m#ahb7 ,the elan1  
deer1 and elk were treated by the       
,american ,indians with  the same       
punctilious respect1 and for the same   
reason4 ,their bones might  not be given
 to the dogs nor thrown into the fire1  
nor might their fat be  dropped upon the
 fire1 because the souls of the dead    
animals were believed  to see what was  
done to their bodies and to tell it to  
the other beasts1  living and dead4     
,hence1 if their bodies were ill-used1  
the animals of that  species would not  
allow themselves to be taken1 neither in
 this world nor  in the world to        
come47#fie7 ,the houses of the ,indians 

of ,honduras were  encumbered with the  
bones of deer1 the ,indians believing   
that if they  threw the bones away1 the 
other deer could not be taken47#fif7    
,among the  ,chiquites of ,paraguay a   
sick man would be asked by the          
medicine-man  whether he had not thrown 
away some of the flesh of the deer or   
turtle1  and if he answered yes1 the    
medicine-man would say1 8,that is what  
is  killing you4 ,the soul of the deer  
or turtle has entered into your body to 
avenge the wrong you did it407#fig7     
,before the ,tzentales of ,southern     
,mexico  and the ,kekchis of ,guatemala 
venture to skin a deer which they have  
killed1 they lift up its head and burn  
copal before it as an offering2         
otherwise a certain being named         
,tzultacca would be angry and send them 
no  more game47#fih7 ,cherokee hunters  
ask pardon of the deer they kill4 ,if   
they  failed to do so1 they think that  
the ,little ,deer1 the chief of the deer
  tribe1 who can never die or be        

wounded1 would track the hunter to his  
home  by the blood-drops on the ground  
and would put the spirit of rheumatism  
into him4 ,sometimes the hunter1 on     
starting for home1 lights a fire in the 
trail behind him to prevent the ,little 
,deer from pursuing him47#fii7 ,before  
they went out to hunt for deer1         
antelope1 or elk the ,apaches used to   
resort to sacred caves1 where the       
medicine-men propitiated with prayer and
  sacrifice the animal gods whose       
progeny they intended to destroy47#gjj7 
,the  ,indians of ,louisiana bewailed   
bitterly the death of the buffaloes     
which  they were about to kill4 ,more   
than two hundred of them at a time have 
been  seen shedding crocodile tears over
 the approaching slaughter of the       
animals1 while they marched in solemn   
procession1 headed by an old man who    
waved a pocket-handkerchief at the end  
of a stick as an oriflamme1 and by  a   
woman who strutted proudly along1       
bearing on her back a large kettle      

which had been recently abstracted from 
the baggage of some ,french             
explorers47#gja7 ,the ,thompson ,indians
 of ,british ,columbia cherished many   
superstitious beliefs and observed many 
superstitious practices in regard  to   
deer4 ,when a deer was killed1 they said
 that the rest of the deer would  be    
well pleased if the hunters butchered   
the animal nicely and cleanly4 ,to      
waste venison displeased the animals1   
who after that would not allow          
themselves to be shot by the hunter4 ,if
 a hunter was overburdened and had  to  
leave some of the venison behind1 the   
other deer were better pleased if  he   
hung it up on a tree than if he let it  
lie on the ground4 ,the guts were       
gathered and put where the blood had    
been spilt in butchering the beast1  and
 the whole was covered up with a few    
fir-boughs4 ,in laying the boughs  on   
the blood and guts the man told the deer
 not to grieve for the death of  their  
friend and not to take it ill that he   

had left some of the body  behind1 for  
he had done his best to cover it4 ,if he
 did not cover it1 they  thought the    
deer would be sorry or angry and would  
spoil his luck in the  chase4 ,when the 
head of a deer had to be left behind1   
they commonly placed  it on the branch  
of a tree1 that it might not be         
contaminated by dogs and  women4 ,for   
the same reason they burned the bones of
 the slain deer1 lest  they should be   
touched by women or gnawed by dogs4 ,and
 venison was never  brought into a hut  
by the common door1 because that door   
was used by  women2 it was taken in     
through a hole made in the back of the  
hut4 ,no  hunter would give a deer's    
head to a man who was the first or      
second of a  family1 for that would make
 the rest of the deer very shy and hard 
to  shoot4 ,and in telling his friends  
of his bag he would generally call a    
buck a doe1 and a doe he would call a   
fawn1 and a fawn he would call a  hare4 
,this he did that he might not seem to  

the deer to brag47#gjb7 ,the  ,lillooet 
,indians of ,british ,columbia threw the
 bones of animals1  particularly those  
of the deer and the beaver1 into the    
water1 in order  that the dogs should   
not defile or eat them and thereby      
offend the  animals4 ,when the hunter   
committed the bones to the water he     
generally  prayed to the dead animal1   
saying1 8,see6 ,i treat you             
respectfully4 ,nothing  shall defile    
you4 ,have pity on me1 so ,i may kill   
more of you6 ,may ,i be  successful in  
hunting and trapping607#gjc7 ,the       
,canadian ,indians would not  eat the   
embryos of the elk1 unless at the close 
of the hunting season2  otherwise the   
mother-elks would be shy and refuse to  
be caught47#gjd7    7,m#ahc7 ,indians of
 the ,lower ,fraser ,river regard the   
porcupine as their  elder brother4      
,hence when a hunter kills one of these 
creatures he asks  his elder brother's  
pardon and does not eat of the flesh    
till the next  day47#gje7 ,the ,sioux   

will not stick an awl or needle into a  
turtle1 for  they are sure that1 if they
 were to do so1 the turtle would punish 
them at  some future time47#gjf7 ,some  
of the ,north ,american ,indians        
believed that  each sort of animal had  
its patron or genius who watched over   
and  preserved it4 ,an ,indian girl     
having once picked up a dead mouse1 her 
father snatched the little creature from
 her and tenderly caressed and  fondled 
it4 ,being asked why he did so1 he said 
that it was to appease the  genius of   
mice1 in order that he might not torment
 his daughter for eating  the mouse4    
,with that he handed the mouse to the   
girl and she ate it47#gjg7    7,m#ahd7  
,when the ,koryak have killed a fox1    
they take the body home and lay  it down
 near the fire1 saying1 8,let the guest 
warm himself4 ,when he feels  warm1 we  
will free him from his overcoat40 ,so   
when the frozen carcase is  thawed1 they
 skin it and wrap long strips of grass  
round about it4 ,then  the animal's     

mouth is filled with fish-roe1 and the  
mistress of the house  gashes the flesh 
and puts more roe or dried meat into the
 gashes1 making  believe that the gashes
 are the fox's pockets1 which she thus  
fills with  provisions4 ,then the       
carcase is carried out of the house1 and
 the people  say1 8,go and tell your    
friends that it is good to visit yonder 
house4  #8,instead of my old coat1 they 
gave me a new one still warmer and with 
longer hair4 ,i have eaten my fill1 and 
had my pockets well stored4 ,you1  too1 
go and visit them4' 0 ,the natives think
 that if they neglected to  observe this
 ceremonial they would have no luck in  
hunting foxes47#gjh7  ,when a ,ewe      
hunter of ,togoland has killed an       
antelope of a particular kind           
7,antilope leucoryx71 he erects an      
enclosure of branches1 within which he  
places the lower jawbones of all the    
animals he has shot4 ,then he pours     
palm-wine and sprinkles meal on the     
bones1 saying1 8,ye lower jawbones of   

beasts1 ye are now come home4 ,here is  
food1 here is drink4 ,therefore lead    
your comrades 7that is1 the living      
beasts of the forest7 hither            
also407#gji7 ,in the ,timor-laut islands
 of the ,indian ,archipelago the skulls 
of all the turtles which a fisherman has
 caught are hung up under his  house4   
,before he goes out to catch another1 he
 addresses himself to the  skull of the 
last turtle that he killed1 and having  
inserted betel between  its jaws1 he    
prays the spirit of the dead animal to  
entice its kinsfolk in  the sea to come 
and be caught47#gaj7 ,in the ,poso      
district of central  ,celebes hunters   
keep the jawbones of deer and wild pigs 
which they have  killed and hang them up
 in their houses near the fire4 ,then   
they say to  the jawbones1 8,ye cry     
after your comrades1 that your          
grandfathers1 or  nephews1 or children  
may not go away40 ,their notion is that 
the souls of  the dead deer and pigs    
tarry near their jawbones and attract   

the souls of  living deer and pigs1     
which are thus drawn into the toils of  
the  hunter47#gaa7 ,thus in all these   
cases the wily savage employs dead      
animals  as decoys to lure living       
animals to their doom4    7,m#ahe7 ,the 
,lengua ,indians of the ,gran ,chaco    
love to hunt the ostrich1 but  when they
 have killed one of these birds and are 
bringing home the carcase  to the       
village1 they take steps to outwit the  
resentful ghost of their  victim4 ,they 
think that when the first natural shock 
of death is passed1  the ghost of the   
ostrich pulls himself together and makes
 after his body4  ,acting on this sage  
calculation1 the ,indians pluck feathers
 from the  breast of the bird and strew 
them at intervals along the track4 ,at  
every  bunch of feathers the ghost stops
 to consider1 8,is this the whole of my 
body or only a part of it80 ,the doubt  
gives him pause1 and when at last he    
has made up his mind fully at all the   
bunches1 and has further wasted         

valuable time by the zigzag course which
 he invariably pursues in going  from   
one to another1 the hunters are safe at 
home1 and the bilked ghost  may stalk in
 vain round about the village1 which he 
is too timid to  enter47#gab7           
7,m#ahf7 ,the ,esquimaux of the ,hudson 
,bay region believe that the reindeer   
are controlled by a great spirit who    
resides in a large cave near the end  of
 ,cape ,chidley4 ,the outward form of   
the spirit is that of a huge white      
bear4 ,he obtains and controls the      
spirit of every reindeer that is slain  
or dies1 and it depends on his good will
 whether the people shall have a  supply
 of reindeer or not4 ,the sorcerer      
intercedes with this great spirit  and  
prevails on him to send the deer to the 
hungry ,esquimaux4 ,he informs  the     
spirit that the people have in no way   
offended him1 since he1 the  sorcerer1  
has taken great care that the whole of  
the meat was eaten up1  and that last   
spring1 when the does were returning to 

him to drop their  young1 none of the   
little or embryo fawns were devoured by 
the dogs4 ,after  long incantations the 
magician announces that the patron of   
the deer  condescends to supply the     
,esquimaux with the spirits of the      
animals in a  material form1 and that   
soon there will be plenty in the land4  
,he charges  the people to fall on and  
slay and thereby win the approval of the
 spirit1  who loves to see good folk    
enjoying themselves1 knowing that so    
long as  the ,esquimaux refrain from    
feeding their dogs with the unborn      
young1 the  spirits of the dead reindeer
 will return again to his watchful care4
 ,the  dogs are not allowed to taste the
 flesh1 and until the supply is         
plentiful  they may not gnaw the        
leg-bones1 lest the guardian of the deer
 should take  offence and send no more  
of the animals4 ,if1 unfortunately1 a   
dog should  get at the meat1 a piece of 
his tail is cut off or his ear is       
cropped to  let the blood flow47#gac7   

,again1 the ,central ,esquimaux hold    
that  sea-mammals1 particularly whales1 
ground-seals1 and common seals1 sprang  
from the severed fingers of the goddess 
,sedna1 and that therefore an  ,esquimau
 must make atonement for every such     
animal that he kills4 ,when a  seal is  
brought into the hut1 the woman must    
stop working till it has been  cut up4  
,after the capture of a ground seal1    
walrus1 or whale they must  rest for    
three days4 ,not all sorts of work1     
however1 are forbidden1 for  they may   
mend articles made of sealskin1 but they
 may not make anything  new4 ,for       
example1 an old tent cover may be       
enlarged in order to build a  larger    
hut1 but it is not allowed to make a new
 one4 ,working on new  deerskins is     
strictly forbidden4 ,no skins of this   
kind obtained in summer  may be prepared
 before the ice has formed and the first
 seal has been  caught with the harpoon4
 ,later on1 as soon as the first walrus 
has been  taken1 the work must again    

stop until autumn comes round4 ,hence   
all  families are eager to finish the   
work on deerskins as fast as possible1  
for until that is done the walrus season
 may not begin47#gad7 ,the              
,greenlanders are careful not to        
fracture the heads of seals or throw    
them  into the sea1 but pile them in a  
heap before the door1 that the souls of 
the seals may not be enraged and scare  
their brethren from the coast47#gae7    
7,m#ahg7 ,the ,esquimaux about ,bering  
,strait believe that the souls of dead  
sea-beasts1 such as seals1 walrus1 and  
whales1 remain attached to their        
bladders1 and that by returning the     
bladders to the sea they can cause the  
souls to be reincarnated in fresh bodies
 and so multiply the game which  the    
hunters pursue and kill4 ,acting on this
 belief every hunter carefully  removes 
and preserves the bladders of all the   
sea-beasts that he kills2  and at a     
solemn festival held once a year in     
winter these bladders1  containing the  

souls of all the sea-beasts that have   
been killed  throughout the year1 are   
honoured with dances and offerings of   
food in the  public assembly-room1 after
 which they are taken out on the ice and
 thrust  through holes into the water2  
for the simple ,esquimaux imagine that  
the  souls of the animals1 in high good 
humour at the kind treatment they have  
experienced1 will thereafter be born    
again as seals1 walrus1 and whales1  and
 in that form will flock willingly to be
 again speared1 harpooned1 or  otherwise
 done to death by the hunters4 ,the     
ceremonies observed at these  annual    
festivals of reincarnation are          
elaborate4 ,the assembly-room or        
dancing-house 7kashim1 kassigim1 or     
kassigit71 in which the festival  is    
held1 consists of a spacious            
semi-subterranean chamber entered by a  
tunnel1 which leads down to a large     
round cellar under the floor of the     
house4 ,from the cellar you ascend into 
the assembly-room through a hole in  the

 floor4 ,wooden benches run round the   
apartment1 which is lit by lamps4  ,an  
opening in the roof serves at once as a 
window and a chimney4 ,unmarried  men   
sleep in the assembly-room at all times2
 they have no other home4 ,the  festival
 is commonly held in ,december1 but it  
may fall as late as ,january4  ,it lasts
 several days4 ,when the time is come to
 celebrate it1 each hunter  brings into 
the assembly-room the inflated bladders 
of all the seals1  walrus1 and whales   
that he has killed during the year4     
,these are tied by  the necks in bunches
 and hung up on seal spears1 which are  
stuck in a row  in the wall some six or 
eight feet above the floor4 ,here food  
and water  are offered to them1 or      
rather to the spirits of the animals    
which are  supposed to be present in the
 bladders2 and the spirits signify their
  acceptance of the offering by causing 
the bladders to swing to and fro1 a     
movement which is really produced by a  
man sitting in a dark corner1 who  pulls

 a string attached to the bladders4     
,further1 the bladders are  fumigated   
with torches of wild parsnip stalks1 the
 aromatic smoke and red  flames of which
 are believed to be well-pleasing to the
 souls of the  animals dangling in the  
bladders4 ,moreover to amuse the souls  
men execute  curious dances before them 
to the music of drums4 ,first the       
dancers move  slowly with a jerky action
 from side to side2 then they gallop    
obliquely  with arms tossed up and down2
 and lastly they hop and jump1 always   
keeping  perfect time to the beat of the
 drums4 ,the dance is supposed to       
imitate  the movements of seals and     
walrus2 and again the spirits signify   
their  pleasure by making the bladders  
swing backwards and forwards4 ,during   
the  continuance of the festival no loud
 noises may be made in the              
assembly-room for fear of alarming the  
souls of the animals in the  bladders2  
if any person makes a noise by accident1
 all the men present  raise a chorus of 

cries in imitation of the notes of the  
eider duck to let  the souls of the     
animals think that the unseemly         
disturbance proceeds from  the birds and
 not from the people4 ,further1 so long 
as the festival lasts1  no wood may be  
cut with an iron axe in the village1 the
 men must keep  rigidly apart from the  
women1 and no female above the age of   
puberty may  come near the bladders     
suspended in the assembly-room1 the     
reason assigned  being that such women  
are unclean and might offend the        
sensitive souls of  the sea-beasts in   
the bladders4 ,but immature girls1 being
 untainted by the  pollution which      
attaches to adult women1 may go about   
the bladders freely4  ,the last and     
crowning scene of the festival takes    
place at night or just  at sunrise4 ,the
 spears with the bladders attached to   
them are passed out  by the shaman into 
the open air through the smoke-hole in  
the roof4 ,when  all are outside1 a huge
 torch of wild parsnip stalks is        

lighted2 the chief  shaman takes it on  
his shoulder1 and runs with it as fast  
as he can across  the snow and out on   
the ice4 ,behind him troop all the men  
carrying each  his spear with the       
bladders of the sea-beasts dangling and 
flapping from  it2 and in the rear race 
the women1 children1 and old men1       
howling1  screaming and making a great  
uproar4 ,in the darkness the lurid flame
 of  the torch shoots high into the air1
 casting a red glare over the snowy     
landscape and lighting up the swarm of  
fantastic1 fur-clad figures that  stream
 along in wild excitement4 ,arrived at a
 hole1 which had been cut on  purpose in
 the sea-ice1 the shaman plants his     
burning torch beside it in  the snow1   
and every man as he comes up rips open  
his bladders and thrusts  them1 one     
after the other1 into the water under   
the ice4 ,this ends the  ceremony4 ,the 
souls of the dead seals1 walrus1 and    
whales1 are now ready  to be born again 
in the depths of the sea4 ,so all the   

people return  contented to the village4
 ,at ,st4 ,michael the men who have     
thrust the  bladders under the ice are  
obliged on their return to leap through 
a fire  of wild parsnip stalks1 probably
 as a mode of ceremonial purification2  
for  after the dance and the offering of
 food at the festival the chief shaman  
passes a lighted torch of parsnip stalks
 round the assembly-room and the        
dancers1 for the express purpose of     
purifying them and averting any evil    
influence that might bring sickness or  
ill luck on the hunters47#gaf7          
7,m#ahh7 ,for like reasons1 a tribe     
which depends for its subsistence1      
chiefly or in part1 upon fishing is     
careful to treat the fish with every    
mark of honour and respect4 ,the        
,indians of ,peru 8worshipped the whale 
for  its monstrous greatness4 ,besides  
this ordinary system of worship1 which  
prevailed throughout the coast1 the     
people of different provinces adored    
the fish that they caught in greatest   

abundance2 for they said that the  first
 fish that was made in the world above  
7for so they named ,heaven7  gave birth 
to all other fish of that species1 and  
took care to send them  plenty of its   
children to sustain their tribe4 ,for   
this reason they  worshipped sardines in
 one region1 where they killed more of  
them than of  any other fish2 in others1
 the skate2 in others1 the dogfish2 in  
others1  the golden fish for its beauty2
 in others1 the crawfish2 in others1 for
  want of larger gods1 the crabs1 where 
they had no other fish1 or where  they  
knew not how to catch and kill them4 ,in
 short1 they had whatever fish  was most
 serviceable to them as their           
gods407#gag7 ,the ,kwakiutl ,indians of 
,british ,columbia think that when a    
salmon is killed its soul returns to    
the salmon country4 ,hence they take    
care to throw the bones and offal into  
the sea1 in order that the soul may     
reanimate them at the resurrection of   
the salmon4 ,whereas if they burned the 

bones the soul would be lost1 and  so it
 would be quite impossible for that     
salmon to rise from the  dead47#gah7 ,in
 like manner the ,otawa ,indians of     
,canada1 believing that the  souls of   
dead fish passed into other bodies of   
fish1 never burned fish  bones1 for fear
 of displeasing the souls of the fish1  
who would come no  more to the          
nets47#gai7 ,the ,hurons also refrained 
from throwing fish bones  into the fire1
 lest the souls of the fish should go   
and warn the other  fish not to let     
themselves be caught1 since the ,hurons 
would burn their  bones4 ,moreover1 they
 had men who preached to the fish and   
persuaded them  to come and be caught4  
,a good preacher was much sought after1 
for they  thought that the exhortations 
of a clever man had a great effect in   
drawing the fish to the nets4 ,in the   
,huron fishing village where the        
,french missionary ,sagard stayed1 the  
preacher to the fish prided himself     
very much on his eloquence1 which was of

 a florid order4 ,every evening  after  
supper1 having seen that all the people 
were in their places and  that a strict 
silence was observed1 he preached to the
 fish4 ,his text was  that the ,hurons  
did not burn fish bones4 8,then         
enlarging on this theme  with           
extraordinary unction1 he exhorted and  
conjured and invited and  implored the  
fish to come and be caught and to be of 
good courage and to  fear nothing1 for  
it was all to serve their friends who   
honoured them and  did not burn their   
bones407#gbj7 ,at ,bogadjim in ,german  
,new ,guinea an  enchanter is employed  
to lure the fish to their doom4 ,he     
stands in a canoe  on the beach with a  
decorated fish-basket beside him1 and   
commands the  fish to come from all     
quarters to ,bogadjim47#gba7 ,when the  
,aino have killed  a sword-fish1 they   
thank the fish for allowing himself to  
be caught and  invite him to come       
again47#gbb7 ,among the ,nootka ,indians
 of ,british  ,columbia it was formerly 

a rule that any person who had partaken 
of bear's  flesh must rigidly abstain   
from eating any kind of fish for a term 
of two  months4 ,the motive for the     
abstinence was not any consideration for
 the  health of the eater1 but 8a       
superstitious belief1 that should any of
 their  people after tasting bear's     
flesh1 eat of fresh salmon1 cod1 etc41  
the  fish1 though at ever so great a    
distance off1 would come to the         
knowledge  of it1 and be so much        
offended thereat1 as not to allow       
themselves to be  taken by any of the   
inhabitants407#gbc7 ,the disappearance  
of herring from  the sea about          
,heligoland in #aecj was attributed by  
the fishermen to the  misconduct of two 
lads who had whipped a freshly-caught   
herring and then  flung it back into the
 sea47#gbd7 ,a similar disappearance of 
the herrings  from the ,moray ,firth1 in
 the reign of ,queen ,anne1 was set down
 by some  people to a breach of the     
,sabbath which had been committed by the

  fishermen1 while others opined that it
 was due to a quarrel in which blood    
had been spilt in the sea47#gbe7 ,for   
,scotch fishermen are persuaded that if 
blood be drawn in a quarrel on the coast
 where herring are being caught1  the   
shoal will at once take its departure   
and not return for that season  at      
least4 ,west ,highland fishermen believe
 that every shoal of herring has  its   
leader which it follows wherever he     
goes4 ,this leader is twice as big  as  
an ordinary herring1 and the fishermen  
call it the king of herring4  ,when they
 chance to catch it in their nets they  
put it back carefully into  the sea2 for
 they would esteem it petty treason to  
destroy the royal  fish47#gbf7 ,the     
natives of the ,duke of ,york ,island   
annually decorate a  canoe with flowers 
and ferns1 lade it1 or are supposed to  
lade it1 with  shell-money1 and set it  
adrift to compensate the fish for their 
fellows  who have been caught and       
eaten47#gbg7 ,when the ,tarahumares of  

,mexico are  preparing to poison the    
waters of a river for the purpose of    
stupefying  and catching the fish1 they 
take the precaution of first making     
offerings  to the ,master of the ,fish  
by way of payment for the fish of which 
they are  about to bereave him4 ,the    
offerings consist of axes1 hats1        
blankets1  girdles1 pouches1 and        
especially knives and strings of beads1 
which are  hung to a cross or a         
horizontal bar set up in the middle of  
the river4  ,however1 the ,master of the
 ,fish1 who is thought to be the oldest 
fish1  does not long enjoy these good   
things2 for next morning the owners of  
the  various articles remove them from  
the river and appropriate them to their 
usual secular purposes47#gbh7 ,it is    
especially necessary to treat the first 
fish caught with consideration in order 
to conciliate the rest of the  fish1    
whose conduct may be supposed to be     
influenced by the reception  given to   
those of their kind which were the first

 to be taken4 ,accordingly  the ,maoris 
always put back into the sea the first  
fish caught1 8with a  prayer that it may
 tempt other fish to come and be        
caught407#gbi7 ,among the  ,baganda 8the
 first fish taken were treated          
ceremonially3 some the  fisherman took  
to the god ,mukasa2 the remainder his   
wife cooked1 and he  and she both       
partook of them1 and he afterwards      
jumped over her407#gcj7    7,m#ahi7     
,still more stringent are the           
precautions taken when the fish are  the
 first of the season4 ,on salmon rivers1
 when the fish begin to run up  the     
stream in spring1 they are received with
 much deference by tribes who1  like the
 ,indians of the ,pacific ,coast of     
,north ,america1 subsist largely  upon a
 fish diet4 ,to some of these tribes the
 salmon is what corn is to  the         
,european1 rice to the ,chinese1 and    
seals to the ,esquimaux4 ,plenty of     
salmon means abundance in the camp and  
joy at the domestic hearth2 failure  of 

the salmon for a single season means    
famine and desolation1 silence in  the  
village1 and sad hearts about the       
fire47#gca7 ,accordingly in ,british    
,columbia the ,indians used to go out to
 meet the first fish as they came up    
the river3 8,they paid court to them1   
and would address them thus3 #8,you     
fish1 you fish2 you are all chiefs1 you 
are2 you are all chiefs4' 07#gcb7       
,amongst the ,thlinkeet or ,tlingit of  
,alaska the first halibut of the season 
is carefully handled and addressed as a 
chief1 and a festival is given in  his  
honour1 after which the fishing goes    
on47#gcc7 ,among the tribes of the      
,lower ,fraser ,river when the first    
sockeye-salmon of the season has been   
caught1 the fisherman carries it to the 
chief of his tribe1 who delivers  it to 
his wife4 ,she prays1 saying to the     
salmon1 8,who has brought you here  to  
make us happy8 ,we are thankful to your 
chief for sending you40 ,when she  has  
cut and roasted the salmon according to 

certain prescribed rules1 the  whole    
tribe is invited and partakes of the    
fish1 after they have purified          
themselves by drinking a decoction of   
certain plants which is regarded as  a  
medicine for cleansing the people4 ,but 
widowers1 widows1 menstruous  women1 and
 youths may not eat of this particular  
salmon4 ,even later1 when  the fish have
 become plentiful and these ceremonies  
are dispensed with1  the same classes of
 persons are not allowed to eat fresh   
salmon1 though  they may partake of the 
dried fish4 ,the sockeye-salmon must    
always be  looked after carefully4 ,its 
bones have to be thrown into the river1 
after  which the fish will revive and   
return to its chief in the west4        
,whereas if  the fish are not treated   
with consideration1 they will take their
 revenge1  and the careless fisherman   
will be unlucky47#gcd7 ,among the       
,songish or  ,lkungen tribe of          
,vancouver ,island it is a rule that on 
the day when the  first salmon have been

 caught1 the children must stand on the 
beach  waiting for the boats to return4 
,they stretch out their little arms and 
the salmon are heaped on them1 the heads
 of the fish being always kept in  the  
direction in which the salmon are       
swimming1 else they would cease to  run 
up the river4 ,so the children carry    
them and lay them on a grassy  place1   
carefully keeping the heads of the      
salmon turned in the same  direction4   
,round the fish are placed four flat    
stones1 on which the plant  hog's wort  
7,peucedanum leiocarpum1 ,nutt471 red   
paint1 and bulrushes are  burnt as an   
offering to the salmon4 ,when the salmon
 have been roasted each  of the children
 receives one1 which he or she is       
obliged to eat1 leaving  nothing over4  
,but grown people are not allowed to eat
 the fish for several  days4 ,the bones 
of the salmon that the children have    
eaten may not touch  the ground4 ,they  
are kept in dishes1 and on the fourth   
day an old woman1  who pretends to be   

lame1 gathers them in a huge basket and 
throws them  into the sea47#gce7 ,the   
,tsimshian ,indians of ,british         
,columbia observe  certain ceremonies   
when the first olachen fish of the      
season are caught4  ,the fish are       
roasted on an instrument of elder-berry 
wood1 and the man who  roasts them must 
wear his travelling dress1 mittens1     
cape1 and so forth4  ,while this is     
being done the ,indians pray that plenty
 of olachen may come  to their          
fishing-ground4 ,the fire may not be    
blown up1 and in eating the  fish they  
may not cool it by blowing nor break a  
single bone4 ,everything  must be neat  
and clean1 and the rakes used for       
catching the fish must be  kept hidden  
in the house47#gcf7 ,in spring1 when the
 winds blow soft from  the south and the
 salmon begin to run up the ,klamath    
river1 the ,karoks of  ,california dance
 for salmon1 to ensure a good catch4    
,one of the ,indians1  called the       
,kareya or ,god-man1 retires to the     

mountains and fasts for ten  days4 ,on  
his return the people flee1 while he    
goes to the river1 takes the  first     
salmon of the catch1 eats some of it1   
and with the rest kindles the  sacred   
fire in the sweating-house4 8,no ,indian
 may take a salmon before  this dance is
 held1 nor for ten days after it1 even  
if his family are  starving40 ,the      
,karoks also believe that a fisherman   
will take no salmon if  the poles of    
which his spearing-booth is made were   
gathered on the  river-side1 where the  
salmon might have seen them4 ,the poles 
must be  brought from the top of the    
highest mountain4 ,the fisherman will   
also  labour in vain if he uses the same
 poles a second year in booths or weirs1
  8because the old salmon will have told
 the young ones about them407#gcg7      
,among the ,indians of the ,columbia    
,river1 8when the salmon make their     
first  appearance in the river1 they are
 never allowed to be cut crosswise1 nor 
boiled1 but roasted2 nor are they       

allowed to be sold without the heart    
being first taken out1 nor to be kept   
over night1 but must be all consumed  or
 eaten the day they are taken out of the
 water4 ,all these rules are  observed  
for about ten days407#gch7 ,they think  
that if the heart of a fish  were eaten 
by a stranger at the beginning of the   
season1 they would catch  no more fish4 
,hence1 they roast and eat the hearts   
themselves47#gci7 ,there  is a favourite
 fish of the ,aino which appears in     
their rivers about ,may  and ,june4     
,they prepare for the fishing by        
observing rules of ceremonial  purity1  
and when they have gone out to fish1 the
 women at home must keep  strict silence
 or the fish would hear them and        
disappear4 ,when the first  fish is     
caught he is brought home and passed    
through a small opening at  the end of  
the hut1 but not through the door2 for  
if he were passed  through the door1    
8the other fish would certainly see him 
and  disappear407#gdj7 ,this may partly 

explain the custom observed by other    
savages of bringing game in certain     
cases into their huts1 not by the  door1
 but by the window1 the smoke-hole1 or  
by a special opening at the  back of the
 hut47#gda7    7,m#aij7 ,with some      
savages a special reason for respecting 
the bones of  game1 and generally of the
 animals which they eat1 is a belief    
that1 if  the bones are preserved1 they 
will in course of time be reclothed with
  flesh1 and thus the animal will come  
to life again4 ,it is1 therefore1       
clearly for the interest of the hunter  
to leave the bones intact1 since to     
destroy them would be to diminish the   
future supply of game4 ,many of the     
,minnetaree ,indians 8believe that the  
bones of those bisons which they have   
slain and divested of flesh rise again  
clothed with renewed flesh1 and         
quickened with life1 and become fat1 and
 fit for slaughter the succeeding       
,june407#gdb7 ,hence on the western     
prairies of ,america1 the skulls of     

buffaloes may be seen arranged in       
circles and symmetrical piles1 awaiting 
the resurrection47#gdc7 ,after feasting 
on a dog1 the ,dacotas carefully        
collect the bones1 scrape1 wash1 and    
bury them1 8partly1 as it is said1 to   
testify to the dog-species1 that in     
feasting upon one of their number no    
disrespect was meant to the species     
itself1 and partly also from a belief   
that the bones of the animal will rise  
and reproduce another407#gdd7 ,among    
the ,esquimaux of ,baffin ,land and     
,hudson ,bay1 when a boy has killed his 
first seal1 his mother gathers all the  
bones and throws them into a  seal-hole4
 ,they think that these bones will      
become seals which the boy  will catch  
in later life47#gde7 ,the ,yuracares    
,indians of ,bolivia are at  great pains
 to collect all the bones of the beasts1
 birds1 and fishes  which they eat1 and 
to throw them into a stream1 bury them  
in the depths  of the forest1 or burn   
them in the fire1 8in order that the    

animals of the  sort killed may not be  
angry and may allow themselves to be    
killed  again407#gdf7 ,in sacrificing an
 animal the ,lapps regularly put aside  
the  bones1 eyes1 ears1 heart1 lungs1   
sexual parts 7if the animal was a male71
  and a morsel of flesh from each limb4 
,then1 after eating the remainder of    
the flesh1 they laid the bones and the  
rest in anatomical order in a  coffin   
and buried them with the usual rites1   
believing that the god to  whom the     
animal was sacrificed would reclothe the
 bones with flesh and  restore the      
animal to life in ,jabme-,aimo1 the     
subterranean world of the  dead4        
,sometimes1 as after feasting on a bear1
 they seem to have contented  themselves
 with thus burying the bones47#gdg7     
,thus the ,lapps expected the           
resurrection of the slain animal to take
 place in another world1  resembling in 
this respect the ,kamtchatkans1 who     
believed that every  creature1 down to  
the smallest fly1 would rise from the   

dead and live  underground47#gdh7 ,on   
the other hand1 the ,north ,american    
,indians looked for  the resurrection of
 the animals in the present world4 ,the 
habit1 observed  especially by          
,mongolian peoples1 of stuffing the skin
 of a sacrificed  animal1 or stretching 
it on a framework17#gdi7 points rather  
to a belief in  a resurrection of the   
latter sort4 ,the objection commonly    
entertained by  primitive peoples to    
break the bones of the animals which    
they have eaten  or sacrificed7#gej7 may
 be based either on a belief in the     
resurrection of  the animals1 or on a   
fear of intimidating other creatures of 
the same  species and offending the     
ghosts of the slain animals4 ,the       
reluctance of  ,north ,american ,indians
 and ,esquimaux to let dogs gnaw the    
bones of  animals7#gea7 is perhaps only 
a precaution to prevent the bones from  
being  broken4    7,m#aia7 ,we have     
already seen that some rude races       
believe in a resurrection  of men7#geb7 

as well as of beasts1 and it is quite   
natural that people who  entertain such 
a belief should take care of the bones  
of their dead in  order that the        
original owners of the bones may have   
them to hand at the  critical moment4   
,hence in the ,mexican territories of   
,guazacualco and  ,yluta1 where the     
,indians thought that the dead would    
rise again1 the bones  of the departed  
were deposited in baskets and hung up on
 trees1 that their  spirits might not be
 obliged to grub in the earth for them  
at the  resurrection47#gec7 ,on the     
other hand1 the ,luritcha tribe of      
,central  ,australia1 who eat their     
enemies1 take steps to prevent their    
coming to  life again1 which might prove
 very inconvenient1 by destroying the   
bones  and especially the skulls of the 
bodies on which they have               
banqueted47#ged7                        
7,m#aib7 ,the preceding review of       
customs observed by savages for the     
conciliation and multiplication of      

animals which they hunt and kill1 is    
fitted to impress us with a lively sense
 of the unquestioning faith which       
primitive man reposes in the immortality
 of the lower creatures4 ,he  appears to
 assume as an axiom too obvious to be   
disputed that beasts1  birds1 and fishes
 have souls like his own1 which survive 
the death of  their bodies and can be   
reborn in other bodies to be again      
killed and  eaten by the hunter4 ,the   
whole series of customs described in the
  foregoing pages--customs which are apt
 to strike the civilised reader as      
quaint and absurd--rests on this        
fundamental assumption4 ,a consideration
 of  them suggests a doubt whether the  
current explanation of the savage belief
  in human immortality is adequate to   
account for all the facts4 ,that belief 
is commonly deduced from a primitive    
theory of dreams4 ,the savage1 it is    
said1 fails to distinguish the visions  
of sleep from the realities of  waking  
life1 and accordingly when he has       

dreamed of his dead friends he          
necessarily concludes that they have not
 wholly perished1 but that their        
spirits continue to exist in some place 
and some form1 though in the  ordinary  
course of events they elude the         
perceptions of his senses4 ,on  this    
theory the conceptions1 whether gross or
 refined1 whether repulsive  or         
beautiful1 which savages and perhaps    
civilised men have formed of the  state 
of the departed1 would seem to be no    
more than elaborate hypotheses          
constructed to account for appearances  
in dreams2 these towering  structures1  
for all their radiant or gloomy         
grandeur1 for all the massy  strength   
and solidity with which they present    
themselves to the  imagination of many1 
may turn out on inspection to be mere   
visionary  castles built of clouds and  
vapour1 which a breath of reason        
suffices to  melt into air4    7,m#aic7 
,but even if we grant for the sake of   
argument that this theory  offers a     

ready explanation of the widespread     
belief in human immortality1  it is less
 easy to see how the theory accounts for
 the corresponding  belief of so many   
races in the immortality of the lower   
animals4 ,in his  dreams the savage     
recognises the images of his departed   
friends by those  familiar traits of    
feature1 voice1 and gesture which       
characterised them in  life4 ,but can we
 suppose that he recognises dead beasts1
 birds1 and fishes  in like manner8     
,that their images come before him in   
sleep with all the  particular features1
 the minute individual differences1     
which  distinguished them in life from  
their fellows1 so that when he sees them
  he can say to himself1 for example1   
8,this is the very tiger that ,i speared
  yesterday2 his carcase is dead1 but   
his spirit must be still alive02 or1    
8,that is the very salmon ,i caught and 
ate this morning2 ,i certainly killed   
his body but clearly ,i have not        
succeeded in destroying his soul08 ,no  

doubt it is possible that the savage has
 arrived at his theory of animal        
immortality by some such process of     
reasoning1 but the supposition seems  at
 least more far-fetched and improbable  
than in the case of human  immortality4 
,and if we admit the insufficiency of   
the explanation in the  one case1 we    
seem bound to admit it1 though perhaps  
in a less degree1 in  the other case    
also4 ,in short1 we conclude that the   
theory of dreams  appears to be hardly  
enough by itself to account for the     
widespread belief  in the immortality of
 men and animals2 dreams have probably  
done much to  confirm that belief1 but  
would they suffice to originate it8 ,we 
may  reasonably doubt it4    7,m#aid7   
,accordingly we are driven to cast about
 for some more adequate  explanation of 
this prevalent and deeply rooted        
persuasion4 ,in search of  such an      
explanation perhaps we need go no       
further than the sense of life  which   
every man feels in his own breast47#gee7

 ,we have seen that to the  savage death
 presents itself not as a natural       
necessity but as a  lamentable accident 
or crime that cuts short an existence   
which1 but for  it1 might have lasted   
for ever47#gef7 ,thus arguing apparently
 from his own  sensations he conceives  
of life as an indestructible kind of    
energy1 which  when it disappears in one
 form must necessarily reappear in      
another1  though in the new form it need
 not be immediately perceptible by us2  
in  other words1 he infers that death   
does not destroy the vital principle nor
  even the conscious personality1 but   
that it merely transforms both of them  
into other shapes1 which are not the    
less real because they commonly elude   
the evidence of our senses4 ,if ,i am   
right in thus interpreting the thought  
of primitive man1 the savage view of the
 nature of life singularly  resembles   
the modern scientific doctrine of the   
conservation of energy4  ,according to  
that doctrine1 no material energy ever  

perishes or is even  diminished2 when it
 seems to suffer diminution or          
extinction1 all that  happens is that a 
portion or the whole of it has been     
transmuted into  other shapes which1    
though qualitatively different from1 are
  quantitatively equivalent to1 the     
energy in its original form4 ,in short1 
if we listen to science1 nothing in the 
physical world is ever lost1 but  all   
things are perpetually changing3 the sum
 of energy in the universe is  constant 
and invariable1 though it undergoes     
ceaseless  transformations47#geg7 ,a    
similar theory of the indestructibility 
of energy  is implicitly applied by the 
savage to explain the phenomena of life 
and  death1 and logically enough he does
 not limit the application to human     
beings but extends it to the lower      
animals4 ,therein he shews himself a    
better reasoner than his civilised      
brother1 who commonly embraces with     
avidity the doctrine of human           
immortality but rejects with scorn1 as  

derogatory to human dignity1 the idea   
that animals have immortal souls4  ,and 
when he attempts to confirm his own     
cherished belief in a life after  death 
by appealing to similar beliefs among   
savages and inferring from  them a      
natural instinct of immortality1 it is  
well to remind him that1 if  he stands  
by that appeal1 he must1 like the       
savage1 consistently extend  the        
privilege of immortality to the despised
 lower animals2 for surely it  is       
improper for him to pick and choose his 
evidence so as to suit his              
prepossessions1 accepting those parts of
 the savage creed which tally with  his 
own and rejecting those which do not4   
,on logical and scientific  grounds he  
seems bound to believe either more or   
less3 he must hold that  men and animals
 are alike immortal or that neither of  
them is so4                             
7,m#aie7 ,we have seen that many savages
 look forward to a joyful  resurrection 
of men and beasts1 if only a proper care

 is taken of their  skeletons2 the same 
old bones1 they imagine1 will do duty   
over again in  the next life1 when they 
have been decently clad in a new garment
 of  flesh4 ,this quaint fancy is       
reflected in many popular tales2 not    
uncommonly the animal or man in the     
story comes to life lame of a limb1     
because one of his bones has been eaten1
 broken1 or lost47#geh7 ,in a ,magyar   
tale1 the hero is cut in pieces1 but the
 serpent-king lays the bones  together  
in their proper order1 and washes them  
with water1 whereupon the  hero revives4
 ,his shoulder-blade1 however1 has been 
lost1 so the  serpent-king supplies its 
place with one of gold and ivory47#gei7 
,such  stories1 as ,mannhardt has seen1 
explain why ,pythagoras1 who claimed to 
have lived many lives1 one after the    
other1 was said to have exhibited his   
golden leg as a proof of his            
supernatural pretensions47#gfj7         
,doubtless he  explained that at one of 
his resurrections a leg had been broken 

or  mislaid1 and that he had replaced   
it1 like ,miss ,kilmansegg1 with one of 
gold4 ,similarly1 when the murdered     
,pelops was restored to life1 the       
shoulder which ,demeter had eaten was   
made good with one of ivory17#gfa7      
which was publicly exhibited at ,elis   
down to historical times47#gfb7 ,the    
story that one of the members of the    
mangled ,osiris was eaten by fish1 and  
that1 when ,isis collected his scattered
 limbs1 she replaced the missing  member
 with one of wood17#gfc7 may perhaps    
belong to the same circle of  beliefs4  
7,m#aif7 ,there is a certain rule       
observed by savage hunters and fishers  
which1 enigmatical at first sight1 may  
possibly be explained by this  savage   
belief in resurrection4 ,a traveller in 
,america in the early part of  the      
nineteenth century was told by a        
half-breed ,choctaw that the ,indians   
8had an obscure story1 somewhat         
resembling that of ,jacob wrestling with
 an  angel2 and that the full-blooded   

,indians always separate the sinew which
  shrank1 and that it is never seen in  
the venison exposed for sale2 he did    
not know what they did with it4 ,his    
elder brother1 whom ,i afterwards met1  
told me that they eat it as a rarity2   
but ,i have also heard1 though on  less 
respectable authority1 that they refrain
 from it1 like the ancient  ,jews4 ,a   
gentleman1 who had lived on the ,indian 
frontier1 or in the nation1  for ten or 
fifteen years1 told me that he had often
 been surprised that  the ,indians      
always detached this sinew2 but it had  
never occurred to him  to inquire the   
reason407#gfd7 ,james ,adair1 who knew  
the ,indians of the  ,south-,eastern    
,states intimately1 and whose absurd    
theories appear not to  have distorted  
his view of the facts1 observes that    
8when in the woods1  the ,indians cut a 
small piece out of the lower part of the
 thighs of the  deer they kill1         
lengthways and pretty deep4 ,among the  
great number of  venison-hams they bring

 to our trading-houses1 ,i do not       
remember to have  observed one without  
it4444 ,and ,i have been assured by a   
gentleman of  character1 who is now an  
inhabitant of ,south ,carolina1 and well
 acquainted  with the customs of the    
northern ,indians1 that they also cut a 
piece out  of the thigh of every deer   
they kill1 and throw it away2 and reckon
 it  such a dangerous pollution to eat  
it as to occasion sickness and other    
misfortunes of sundry kinds1 especially 
by spoiling their guns from  shooting   
with proper force and direction407#gfe7 
7,m#aig7 ,in more recent times the      
statement of ,adair's informant has been
  confirmed by a ,french missionary1 who
 has also published the 8obscure  story0
 to which the ,english traveller        
,hodgson refers4 ,the ,loucheux and     
,hare-skin ,indians who roam the bleak  
steppes and forests that stretch from   
,hudson's ,bay to the ,rocky ,mountains1
 and northward to the frozen sea1 are   
forbidden by custom to eat the sinew of 

the legs of animals4 ,to explain  this  
custom they tell the following 8sacred  
story40 ,once upon a time a man  found a
 burrow of porcupines1 and going down   
into it after the porcupines  he lost   
his way in the darkness1 till a kind    
giant called 8,he who sees  before and  
behind0 released him by cleaving open   
the earth4 ,so the man1  whose name was 
8,fireless and ,homeless10 lived with   
the kind giant1 and the  giant hunted   
elans and beavers for him1 and carried  
him about in the  sheath of his flint   
knife4 8,but know1 my son10 said the    
giant1 8that he  who uses the sky as his
 head is angry with me1 and has sworn my
  destruction4 ,if he slays me the      
clouds will be tinged with my blood2    
they  will be red with it1 probably40   
,then he gave the man an axe made of the
  tooth of a gigantic beaver1 and went  
forth to meet his foe4 ,but from under  
the ice the man heard a dull muffled    
sound4 ,it was a whale which was  making
 this noise because it was naked and    

cold4 ,warned by the man1 the  giant    
went toward the whale1 which took human 
shape1 and rushed upon the  giant4 ,it  
was the wicked giant1 the kind giant's  
enemy4 ,the two struggled  together for 
a long time1 till the kind giant cried1 
8,oh1 my son6 cut1 cut  the sinew of the
 leg40 ,the man cut the sinew1 and the  
wicked giant fell  down and was slain4  
,that is why the ,indians do not eat the
 sinew of the  leg4 ,afterwards1 one day
 the sky suddenly flushed a fiery red1  
so ,fireless  and ,homeless knew that   
the kind giant was no more1 and he      
wept47#gff7    7,m#aih7 ,this myth1 it  
is almost needless to observe1 does not 
really  explain the custom4 ,people do  
not usually observe a custom because on 
a  particular occasion a mythical being 
is said to have acted in a certain  way4
 ,but1 on the contrary1 they very often 
invent myths to explain why  they       
practise certain customs4 ,dismissing1  
therefore1 the story of  ,fireless and  
,homeless as a myth invented to explain 

why the ,indians  abstain from eating a 
particular sinew1 it may be             
suggested7#gfg7 that the  original      
reason for observing the custom was a   
belief that the sinew in  question was  
necessary to reproduction1 and that     
deprived of it the slain  animals could 
not come to life again and stock the    
steppes and prairies  either of the     
present world or of the spirit land4 ,we
 have seen that the  resurrection of    
animals is a common article of savage   
faith1 and that when  the ,lapps bury   
the skeleton of the male bear in the    
hope of its  resurrection they are      
careful to bury the genital parts along 
with it4  ,however1 subsequent enquiries
 make it probable that the ,indian      
practice of  cutting out the hamstring  
of deer has no other object than that of
  preventing eaters of venison from     
going lame4 ,among the ,cherokee1 we are
  told1 8on killing a deer the hunter   
always makes an incision in the hind    
quarter and removes the hamstring1      

because this tendon1 when severed1      
draws up into the flesh2 ergo1 any one  
who should unfortunately partake of  the
 hamstring would find his limbs drawn up
 in the same manner407#gfh7 ,thus  the  
superstition seems to rest on the common
 principle of homoeopathic or  imitative
 magic1 that an eater infects himself   
with the qualities of the  animal of    
whose flesh he partakes4 ,many instances
 of the application of  that principle  
have met us already47#gfi7    7,m#aii7  
,but some hunters hamstring the game for
 a different purpose2 they  hope thereby
 to prevent the dead beast or its ghost 
from getting up and  running away4 ,this
 is the motive alleged for the practice 
by ,koui hunters  in ,laos2 they think  
that the spells which they utter in the 
chase may lose  their magical virtue1   
and that the slaughtered animal may     
consequently  come to life again and    
escape4 ,to prevent that catastrophe    
they therefore  hamstring the beast as  
soon as they have butchered it47#ggj7   

,when an  ,esquimau of ,alaska has      
killed a fox1 he carefully cuts the     
tendons of all  the animal's legs in    
order to prevent the ghost from         
reanimating the body  and walking       
about47#gga7 ,but hamstringing the      
carcase is not the only  measure which  
the prudent savage adopts for the sake  
of disabling the  ghost of his victim4  
,in old days1 when the ,aino went out   
hunting and  killed a fox first1 they   
took care to tie its mouth up tightly in
 order to  prevent the ghost of the     
animal from sallying forth and warning  
its  fellows against the approach of the
 hunter47#ggb7 ,the ,gilyaks of the     
,amoor  ,river put out the eyes of the  
seals they have killed1 lest the ghosts 
of  the slain animals should know their 
slayers and avenge their death by       
spoiling the seal-hunt47#ggc7 ,the      
custom of putting out the eyes of       
slaughtered animals appears to be not   
uncommon among primitive peoples1  and  
we may suspect that even where a        

different reason is alleged for it1  the
 true original motive was to blind the  
dangerous ghost of the injured          
creature1 and so to incapacitate it for 
retaliating on the slayer4 ,thus1  when 
a ,samoyed has killed a wild reindeer1  
one of the first things he does  is to  
cut out the eyes and throw them away 8in
 order to ensure a good bag  in future02
 and he buries the eyes in some place   
where no woman or adult  girl is likely 
to step over them1 since that also would
 spoil his luck in  the chase47#ggd7    
,among the tribes of ,south-east ,africa
 hunters pluck out  the right eye of any
 animal they have killed and pour a     
charmed medicine  into the empty        
socket47#gge7 ,among the ,thompson      
,indians of ,british ,columbia  a man   
whose daughter has just arrived at      
puberty may not hunt or trap for  a     
month1 or he will have no luck4         
,moreover1 he should cut off the head of
  the first grouse he snares1 pluck out 
the eyes1 and insert two small roots  of

 the ,zygadenus elegans ,pursch4 in the 
orbits and another in its mouth1  and   
having done so he ought to hang up the  
bird's head above his pillow4  ,if he   
neglects these precautions1 he will not 
be able to snare any more  grouse or    
other small game47#ggf7 ,no doubt the   
ceremonial pollution  contracted by his 
daughter at this critical period of her 
life is supposed  to infect the hunter  
and render him unacceptable to the      
game27#ggg7 hence  it seems a mere      
elementary dictate of prudence to       
hoodwink the grouse  effectually by     
putting out their eyes4 ,sometimes1     
perhaps1 the cutting out  of the eyes of
 fierce and powerful animals may be a   
rational1 not a  superstitious1         
precaution4 ,thus the ,kamtchatkans1 who
 stab with knives the  eyes of slain    
bears before they cut the carcases up1  
allege as their  reason for doing so    
that bears which seem to be dead of     
their wounds will  sometimes revive and 
kill their would-be killers47#ggh7      

7,m#bjj7 ,it appears to be a common     
custom with savage hunters to cut out   
the  tongues of the animals which they  
kill4 ,on the analogy of the foregoing  
customs we may conjecture that the      
removal of the tongues is sometimes a   
precaution to prevent the ghosts of the 
creatures from telling their sad  fate  
to their sympathising comrades1 the     
living animals of the same sort1  who   
would naturally be frightened1 and so   
keep out of the hunter's way4  ,thus1   
for example1 ,omaha hunters remove the  
tongue of a slain buffalo  through an   
opening made in the animal's throat4    
,the tongues thus removed  are sacred   
and may not touch any tool or metal     
except when they are  boiling in the    
kettles at the sacred tent4 ,they are   
eaten as sacred  food47#ggi7 ,indian    
bear-hunters cut out what they call the 
bear's little  tongue 7a fleshy mass    
under the real tongue7 and keep it for  
good luck in  hunting or burn it to     
determine1 from its crackling and so on1

 whether the  soul of the slain bear is 
angry with them or not47#ghj7 ,in       
folk-tales the  hero commonly cuts out  
the tongue of the wild beast which he   
has slain and  preserves it as a token4 
,the incident serves to shew that the   
custom was a  common one1 since         
folk-tales reflect with accuracy the    
customs and beliefs  of a primitive     
age47#gha7 ,on the other hand1 the      
tongues of certain  animals1 as the     
otter and the eagle1 are torn out and   
sometimes worn round  their necks by    
,thlinkeet and ,haida shamans as a means
 of conferring  superhuman knowledge and
 power on their possessors47#ghb7 ,in   
particular1 an  otter's tongue is       
supposed to convey a knowledge of 8the  
language of all  inanimate objects1 of  
birds1 animals1 and other living        
creatures0 to the  shaman1 who wears it 
in a little bag hung round his          
neck47#ghc7 ,when a  ,galla priest      
sacrifices an animal and decides that   
the omens are  favourable1 he cuts out  

the tongue1 sticks his thumb through it1
 and so  flays the animal47#ghd7 ,in    
certain cases ,gallas cut out the       
tongues of oxen  and wear them on their 
heads as tokens47#ghe7 ,in ,bohemia a   
fox's tongue is  worn as an amulet to   
make a timid person bold27#ghf7 in      
,oldenburg and  ,belgium it is a remedy 
for erysipelas47#ghg7 ,in ,bohemia the  
tongue of a  male snake1 if cut from the
 living animal on ,st4 ,george's ,eve   
and placed  under a person's tongue1    
will confer the gift of eloquence47#ghh7
 ,the  ,homeric ,greeks cut out the     
tongues of sacrificial victims and      
burned  them47#ghi7 ,according to some  
accounts1 the tongues of the victims    
were  assigned by the ,greeks to        
,hermes1 as the god of speech1 or to his
 human  representatives the             
heralds47#gij7 ,on the principles of    
sympathetic magic  we might expect that 
heralds should taste the tongues of     
sacrificial  victims to strengthen their
 voices1 or to acquire the gift of      

tongues47#gia7    7,m#bja7 ,the         
conjecture that the practice of cutting 
out the tongues of dead  animals may    
sometimes be a precaution to prevent    
their ghosts from telling  tales1 is to 
some extent confirmed by a ceremony     
which the ,bechuanas used  to observe   
after a battle4 ,it was customary with  
them on these occasions  to sacrifice a 
fine black ox1 called the expiatory     
victim 7pekou71 cut  off the tip of its 
tongue1 and extract one of its eyes     
together with a  piece of the hamstring 
and a piece of the principal tendon of  
the  shoulder2 and the severed parts    
were afterwards carefully fried1 along  
with some medicinal herbs1 in a horn by 
a medicine-man4 ,the reasons for  thus  
mutilating the animal were explained by 
a native to two ,french  missionaries4  
8,if we cut out and purify the victim's 
tongue10 said he1  8the motive is to    
induce the guardian deities to prevent  
the enemy from  speaking ill of us4 ,we 
ask also that the sinews of their feet  

and hands  may fail them in the battle2 
and that their eyes may not cast a      
covetous  look on our herds407#gib7 ,in 
this custom the sacrificial ox appears  
to be  treated as the ceremonial        
equivalent of the enemy2 accordingly by 
cutting  out its tongue you obviously   
prevent your enemy from cursing you1 for
 how  can he curse you if he has no     
tongue8 ,similarly1 by hamstringing the 
beast  you ensure that the legs and arms
 of your adversary will fail him in the 
battle1 and by gouging out the ox's eye 
you make perfectly certain that  the foe
 will never be able to cast a longing   
eye on your fat beeves4 ,thus  for all  
practical purposes the mutilation of the
 ox is quite as effective  as the       
mutilation of the enemy's dead1 which is
 sometimes practised by  savages from   
similar superstitious motives4 ,thus on 
the return from a  field of battle the  
,baganda used to cut up one or two of   
the enemy's dead1  scoop out the eyes1  
cut off the ears1 and lay the limbs on  

the road taken  by the returning army   
8to prevent evil following them407#gic7 
,the nature of  the evil which the      
,baganda warriors feared to incur if    
they did not  mutilate the dead in this 
fashion1 is not mentioned1 but we may   
conjecture  that by gouging out the eyes
 and ears of their slain foes they hoped
 to  make their angry ghosts blind and  
deaf2 or perhaps1 upon the principles of
  homoeopathic magic1 they counted on   
maiming their living foes in like       
manner4 ,some of the aborigines of      
,australia cut off the thumbs of their  
dead enemies in order that their ghosts 
may not be able to throw  spears47#gid7 
,other ,australian tribes burn off the  
thumb nails of their own  dead to       
prevent the poor ghost from scratching a
 way for himself out of  the            
grave47#gie7 ,when the ,tupi ,indians of
 ,brazil killed and ate a prisoner1     
8the thumb was cut off because of its   
use in archery1 an art concerning  which
 they were singularly superstitious2    

what was done with it does not  appear1 
except that it was not eaten like the   
rest407#gif7 ,perhaps these  ,indians1  
like the ,australians1 thought by this  
mutilation to disarm the  dangerous     
ghost of their victim4 ,when any bad man
 died1 the ,esquimaux of  ,bering       
,strait used to cut the sinews of his   
arms and legs1 8in order to  prevent the
 shade from returning to the body and   
causing it to walk at  night as a       
ghoul407#gig7 ,in ,travancore the ghosts
 of men who have been  hanged for murder
 are particularly dreaded2 so in order  
to incapacitate  them from roaming about
 and attacking people1 it used to be    
customary to  slice off a criminal's    
heels with a sword or hamstring him at  
the moment  when he swung free from the 
ladder47#gih7 ,the ,omaha ,indians used 
to slit  the soles of a man who had been
 killed by lightning in order to prevent
  his ghost from walking47#gii7 ,among  
the ,awemba of ,northern ,rhodesia      
murderers often inflicted shocking      

mutilations on the bodies of their      
victims4 8,this was done1 it is said1 to
 prevent the spirit of the murdered     
person from exacting vengeance1 and even
 if only the joint of the first or  the 
little finger were cut off1 such        
mutilation would suffice for this       
purpose407#hjj7 ,these examples suggest 
that many other mutilations which       
savages practise on their dead enemies  
may spring1 not from the blind fury  of 
hatred1 but from a cool calculation of  
the best mode of protecting  themselves 
against the very natural resentment of  
the ghosts2 by  mutilating the corpse   
they apparently hope to maim the ghost  
and so to  render him incapable of      
harming them4 ,at all events it appears 
that in  certain circumstances some     
savages treat the dead bodies of men and
 beasts  much alike1 by hamstringing    
them in order to prevent their ghosts   
from  getting up and walking4 ,so       
consistent and impartial is the         
primitive  philosopher in his attitude  

to the spirit world4                    
,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,propitiation    
,,of ,,vermin ,,by ,,farmers4           
#a4 ,the ,enemies of the ,crops4        
7,m#bjb7 ,besides the animals which     
primitive man dreads for their strength 
and ferocity1 and those which he reveres
 on account of the benefits which  he   
expects from them1 there is another     
class of creatures which he  sometimes  
deems it necessary to conciliate by     
worship and sacrifice4 ,these  are the  
vermin that infest his crops and his    
cattle4 ,to rid himself of  these deadly
 foes the farmer has recourse to many   
superstitious devices1  of which1 though
 some are meant to destroy or intimidate
 the vermin1  others aim at propitiating
 them and persuading them by fair means 
to spare  the fruits of the earth and   
the herds4 ,thus ,esthonian peasants1 in
 the  island of ,oesel1 stand in great  
awe of the weevil1 an insect which is   
exceedingly destructive to the grain4   
,they give it a fine name1 and if a     

child is about to kill a weevil they    
say1 8,don't do it2 the more we hurt    
him1 the more he hurts us40 ,if they    
find a weevil they bury it in the  earth
 instead of killing it4 ,some even put  
the weevil under a stone in the  field  
and offer corn to it4 ,they think that  
thus it is appeased and does  less      
harm47#hja7 ,amongst the ,saxons of     
,transylvania1 in order to keep         
sparrows from the corn1 the sower begins
 by throwing the first handful of  seed 
backwards over his head1 saying1 8,that 
is for you1 sparrows40 ,to  guard the   
corn against the attacks of leaf-flies  
7,erdflhe7 he shuts his  eyes and       
scatters three handfuls of oats in      
different directions4 ,having  made this
 offering to the leaf-flies he feels    
sure that they will spare  the corn4 ,a 
,transylvanian way of securing the crops
 against all birds1  beasts1 and        
insects1 is this3 after he has finished 
sowing1 the sower goes  once more from  
end to end of the field imitating the   

gesture of sowing1  but with an empty   
hand4 ,as he does so he says1 8,i sow   
this for the  animals2 ,i sow it for    
everything that flies and creeps1 that  
walks and  stands1 that sings and       
springs1 in the name of ,god the        
,father1 etc407#hjb7  ,the ,huzuls of   
the ,carpathians believe that the bite  
of the weasel is  poisonous and that the
 animal commits ravages on the cattle4  
,yet they take  care never to kill a    
weasel1 lest the surviving kinsfolk of  
the deceased  should avenge his death on
 the herds of his murderer4 ,they even  
celebrate  a festival of weasels either 
on ,st4 ,matthew's day 7#ith ,august1   
old style1  #bast ,august1 new style71  
or on ,st4 ,catherine's day 7#bdth      
,november1 old  style1 #fth ,december1  
new style74 ,on that day no work may be 
done1 lest the  weasels should harm the 
herds47#hjc7 ,the following is a ,german
 way of  freeing a garden from          
caterpillars4 ,after sunset or at       
midnight the  mistress of the house1 or 

another female member of the family1    
walks all  round the garden dragging a  
broom after her4 ,she must not look     
behind her1  and must keep murmuring1   
8,good evening1 ,mother ,caterpillar1   
you shall come  with your husband to    
church40 ,the garden gate is left open  
till the  following morning47#hjd7      
7,m#bjc7 ,the attempts thus made by     
,european peasants to mollify the rage  
and  avert the ravages of vermin have   
their counterpart in the similar        
observances of savages4 ,when the       
,matabele find caterpillars in their    
fields they put an ear of corn in a     
calabash1 fill the vessel up with       
caterpillars1 and set it down on a path 
leading to another village1 hoping  thus
 to induce the insects to migrate       
thither47#hje7 ,the ,yabim of ,german   
,new ,guinea imagine that the           
caterpillars and worms which infest     
their  fields of taro are animated by   
the souls of the human dead2 hence in   
order  to rid the crops of these vermin 

they politely request the insects to    
leave the fields and repair to the      
village4 8,ye locusts1 worms1 and       
caterpillars10 they say1 8who have died 
or hanged yourselves1 or have been      
killed by a falling log or devoured by a
 shark1 go into the village407#hjf7     
,there is a certain ant whose           
destructive ravages are dreaded by the  
people  of ,nias4 ,generally they wage  
war on it by means of traps and other   
devices2 but at the time of the         
rice-harvest they cease to call the     
insect  by its common name1 and refer to
 it under the title of ,sibaia1 a good  
spirit who is supposed to protect the   
crop from harm47#hjg7 ,in ,south        
,mirzapur1 when locusts threaten to eat 
up the fruits of the earth1 the  people 
catch one1 decorate his head with a spot
 of red lead1 salaam to  him1 and let   
him go4 ,after these civilities he      
immediately departs along  with his     
fellows47#hjh7 ,among the ,wajagga of   
,german ,east ,africa sorcerers  attempt

 to rid the fields of locusts by        
catching one of the insects1 tying  its 
legs together1 and letting it fly away1 
after charging the creature to  lead the
 swarm to the lands of a neighbouring   
and hostile chief47#hji7 ,the  ,wagogo1 
another tribe of ,german ,east ,africa1 
catch one of the birds which  infest    
their gardens1 and1 having drenched it  
with a charmed stuff1 they  release the 
bird in the hope that it may entice all 
its companions away  into the           
forest47#haj7    7,m#bjd7 ,sometimes in 
dealing with vermin the farmer aims at  
hitting a happy  mean between excessive 
rigour on the one hand and weak         
indulgence on the  other2 kind but firm1
 he tempers severity with mercy4 ,an    
ancient ,greek  treatise on farming     
advises the husbandman who would rid his
 lands of mice  to act thus3 8,take a   
sheet of paper and write on it as       
follows3 #8,i adjure  you1 ye mice here 
present1 that ye neither injure me nor  
suffer another  mouse to do so4 ,i give 

you yonder field' 7here you specify the 
field72  #8but if ever ,i catch you here
 again1 by the ,mother of the ,gods ,i  
will rend  you in seven pieces4' ,write 
this1 and stick the paper on an unhewn  
stone  in the field before sunrise1     
taking care to keep the written side    
up407#haa7 ,in the ,ardennes they say   
that to get rid of rats you should      
repeat the following words3 8,erat      
verbum1 apud ,deum vestrum4 ,male rats  
and female rats1 ,i conjure you1 by the 
great ,god1 to go out of my house1  out 
of all my habitations1 and to betake    
yourselves to such and such a  place1   
there to end your days4 ,decretis1      
reversis et desembarassis virgo  potens1
 clemens1 justitiae40 ,then write the   
same words on pieces of  paper1 fold    
them up1 and place one of them under the
 door by which the  rats are to go      
forth1 and the other on the road which  
they are to take4  ,this exorcism should
 be performed at sunrise47#hab7 ,some   
years ago an  ,american farmer was      

reported to have written a civil letter 
to the rats1  telling them that his     
crops were short1 that he could not     
afford to keep  them through the winter1
 that he had been very kind to them1 and
 that for  their own good he thought    
they had better leave him and go to some
 of his  neighbours who had more grain4 
,this document he pinned to a post in   
his  barn for the rats to read47#hac7   
,the mouse is one of the most dreaded   
enemies of the rice-crop in ,celebes4   
,many therefore are the prayers and     
incantations which prudent farmers      
resort to for the purpose of keeping    
the vermin from their fields4 ,thus1 for
 example1 a man will run round his      
field1 saying1 8,pruner is your name4   
,creep not through my rice4 ,be blind   
and deaf4 ,creep not through my rice4   
,if you must creep through rice1 go  and
 creep through other rice40 ,the        
following formula is equally effective3 
8,pruner is your real name4 ,mouse is   
your by-name4 ,down in the evening land 

is the stone on which you ought to sit2 
in the west1 in ,java1 is your  abode40 
,or again3 8,o ,longtail1 ,longtail1 eat
 not my rice4 ,it is the rice  of a     
prince4 ,it is the field of one who is  
revered407#had7 ,the ,aino of  ,japan   
believe that ,god first created rats and
 mice at ,erum kotan1 which  means 8rat 
place40 ,indeed1 there are a great many 
rats and mice there even  now1 and the  
people of the village worship mice and  
offer them libations  and sacred sticks 
whittled at the top into shavings4      
,grateful for these  attentions1 the    
mice spare the gardens and will not     
nibble at the roots  and the fruits4    
,but if the people omit to worship the  
mice1 or if they are  rash enough to    
speak evil of them1 the creatures are   
angry and eat up the  garden produce4   
,the havoc which rats and mice now work 
in the gardens of  the ,aino every year 
is attributed to the modern neglect of  
the people to  worship the vermin47#hae7
    7,m#bje7 ,sometimes the desired     

object is supposed to be attained by    
treating  with high distinction one or  
two chosen individuals of the obnoxious 
species1 while the rest are pursued with
 relentless rigour4 ,in the ,east       
,indian island of ,bali1 the mice which 
ravage the rice-fields are caught in    
great numbers1 and burned in the same   
way that corpses are burned4 ,but two   
of the captured mice are allowed to     
live1 and receive a little packet of    
white linen4 ,then the people bow down  
before them1 as before gods1 and let    
them go47#haf7 ,in the ,kangean         
archipelago1 ,east ,indies1 when the    
mice prove  very destructful to the     
rice-crop1 the people rid themselves of 
the pest  in the following manner4 ,on a
 ,friday1 when the usual service in the 
mosque  is over1 four pairs of mice are 
solemnly united in marriage by the      
priest4  ,each pair is then shut up in a
 miniature canoe about a foot long4     
,these  canoes are filled with rice and 
other fruits of the earth1 and the four 

pairs of mice are then escorted to the  
sea-shore just as if it were a real     
wedding4 ,wherever the procession passes
 the people beat with all their  might  
on their rice-blocks4 ,on reaching the  
shore1 the canoes1 with their  little   
inmates1 are launched and left to the   
mercy of the winds and  waves47#hag7    
,when the farms of the ,sea ,dyaks or   
,ibans of ,sarawak are much  pestered by
 birds and insects1 they catch a        
specimen of each kind of  vermin 7one   
sparrow1 one grasshopper and so on71 put
 them in a tiny boat  of bark           
well-stocked with provisions1 and then  
allow the little vessel  with its       
obnoxious passengers to float down the  
river4 ,if that does not  drive the     
pests away1 the ,dyaks resort to what   
they deem a more effectual  mode of     
accomplishing the same purpose4 ,they   
make a clay crocodile as  large as life 
and set it up in the fields1 where they 
offer it food1  rice-spirit1 and cloth1 
and sacrifice a fowl and a pig before   

it4  ,mollified by these attentions1 the
 ferocious animal very soon gobbles up  
all the creatures that devour the       
crops47#hah7 ,in some parts of ,bohemia 
the  peasant1 though he kills field mice
 and grey mice without scruple1 always  
spares white mice4 ,if he finds a white 
mouse he takes it up carefully1 and     
makes a comfortable bed for it in the   
window2 for if it died the luck of  the 
house would be gone1 and the grey mice  
would multiply fearfully in the         
dwelling47#hai7 ,in ,albania1 if the    
fields or vineyards are ravaged by      
locusts or beetles1 some of the women   
will assemble with dishevelled hair1    
catch a few of the insects1 and march   
with them in a funeral procession to  a 
spring or stream1 in which they drown   
the creatures4 ,then one of the  women  
sings1 8,o locusts and beetles who have 
left us bereaved10 and the  dirge is    
taken up and repeated by all the women  
in chorus4 ,thus by  celebrating the    
obsequies of a few locusts and beetles1 

they hope to bring  about the death of  
them all47#hbj7 ,when caterpillars      
invaded a vineyard or  field in ,syria1 
the virgins were gathered1 and one of   
the caterpillars was  taken and a girl  
made its mother4 ,then they bewailed and
 buried it4  ,thereafter they conducted 
the 8mother0 to the place where the     
caterpillars  were1 consoling her1 in   
order that all the caterpillars might   
leave the  garden47#hba7 ,on the first  
of ,september1 ,russian girls 8make     
small coffins  of turnips and other     
vegetables1 enclose flies and other     
insects in them1  and then bury them    
with a great show of mourning407#hbb7   
,in ,south ,africa a  plague of         
caterpillars is removed by a number of  
small ,caffre girls1 who  go singing    
through the fields4 ,they wail as they  
pass through the  languishing crops1 and
 thus invoke the aid and pity of some   
ancestral  spirits4 ,the mournful rite  
ends with a dance on a plot of ground   
overlooking the fields47#hbc7           

7,m#bjf7 ,on the shore of ,delagoa ,bay 
there thrives a small brown beetle      
which is very destructive to the beans  
and maize4 ,the ,baronga call it        
noonoo4 ,in ,december or ,january1 when 
the insects begin to swarm1 women  are  
sent to collect them from the           
bean-stalks in shells4 ,when they have  
done so1 a twin girl is charged with the
 duty of throwing the insects into  a   
neighbouring lake4 ,accompanied by a    
woman of mature years and carrying  the 
beetles in a calabash1 the girl goes on 
her mission without saying a  word to   
any one4 ,at her back marches the whole 
troop of women1 their arms1  waists1 and
 heads covered with grass and holding in
 their hands branches  of manioc with   
large leaves which they wave to and fro1
 while they chant  the words1 8,noonoo1 
go away6 ,leave our fields6 ,noonoo1 go 
away6 leave  our fields60 ,the little   
girl throws her calabash with the       
beetles into the  water without looking 
behind her1 and thereupon the women     

bellow out  obscene songs1 which they   
never dare to utter except on this      
occasion and  at the ceremony for making
 rain47#hbd7    7,m#bjg7 ,another mode  
of getting rid of vermin and other      
noxious creatures  without hurting their
 feelings or shewing them disrespect is 
to make  images of them4 ,apollonius of 
,tyana is said to have cleared ,antioch 
of  scorpions by making a bronze image  
of a scorpion and burying it under a    
small pillar in the middle of the       
city47#hbe7 ,further1 it is reported    
that  he freed ,constantinople from     
flies by means of a bronze fly1 and from
  gnats by means of a bronze gnat47#hbf7
 ,in the ,middle ,ages ,virgil passed   
for  an enchanter and is said to have   
rid ,naples of flies and grasshoppers by
  bronze or copper images of these      
insects2 and when the waters of the city
  were infested by leeches1 he made a   
golden leech1 which put a stop to the   
plague47#hbg7 ,it is reported that a    
mosque at ,fez used to be protected     

against scorpions by an image of a bird 
holding a scorpion in its  beak47#hbh7  
,an ,arab writer tells of a golden      
locust which guarded a certain  town    
from a plague of locusts2 and he also   
mentions two brazen oxen which  checked 
a murrain among cattle47#hbi7 ,gregory  
of ,tours tells us that the  city of    
,paris used to be free of dormice and   
serpents1 but that in his  lifetime1    
while they were cleaning a sewer1 they  
found a bronze serpent  and a bronze    
dormouse and removed them4 8,since      
then10 adds the good  bishop1 8dormice  
and serpents without number have been   
seen in  ,paris407#hcj7 ,when their land
 was overrun with mice1 the ,philistines
 made  golden images of the vermin and  
sent them out of the country in a new   
cart  drawn by two cows1 hoping that the
 real mice would simultaneously         
depart47#hca7 ,so when a swarm of       
serpents afflicted the ,israelites in   
the  desert1 they made a serpent of     
brass and set it on a pole as a mode of 

staying the plague47#hcb7           #b4 
,mouse ,apollo and ,wolf ,apollo4       
7,m#bjh7 ,some of the ,greek gods were  
worshipped under titles derived from    
the vermin or other pests which they    
were supposed to avert or  exterminate4 
,thus we hear of ,mouse ,apollo17#hcc7  
,locust ,apollo17#hcd7 and  ,mildew     
,apollo27#hce7 of ,locust ,hercules and 
,worm-killing ,hercules27#hcf7 of  ,foxy
 ,dionysus27#hcg7 and of ,zeus the      
,fly-catcher or ,averter of             
,flies47#hch7  ,if we could trace all   
these and similar worships to their     
origin1 we  should probably find that   
they were at first addressed1 not to the
 high  gods as the protectors of        
mankind1 but to the baleful things      
themselves1  the mice1 locusts1 mildew1 
and so forth1 with the intention of     
flattering  and soothing them1 of       
disarming their malignity1 and of       
persuading them to  spare their         
worshippers4 ,we know that the ,romans  
worshipped the mildew1  the farmer's    

plague1 under its own proper name47#hci7
 ,the ravages committed  by mice among  
the crops both in ancient and modern    
times are  notorious17#hdj7 and         
according to a tradition which may be   
substantially  correct the worship of   
the ,mouse 7,smintheus7 ,apollo was     
instituted to  avert them47#hda7 ,the   
image of a mouse which stood beside     
,apollo's tripod  in the god's temple in
 the ,troad17#hdb7 may be compared with 
the golden  mice which the ,philistines 
made for the purpose of ridding         
themselves of  the vermin2 and the tame 
mice kept in his sanctuary1 together    
with the  white mice which lived under  
the altar17#hdc7 would on this          
hypothesis be  parallel to the white    
mice which the ,bohemian peasant still  
cherishes as  the best way of keeping   
down the numbers of their grey-coated   
brethren47#hdd7 ,an ,oriental           
counterpart of the ,mouse ,apollo is the
 ancient  pillar or rude idol which the 
,chams of ,indo-,china call yang-tikuh  

or  8god rat10 and to which they offer  
sacrifices whenever rats infest their   
fields in excessive numbers47#hde7      
7,m#bji7 ,another epithet applied to    
,apollo which probably admits of a      
similar explanation is ,wolfish47#hdf7  
,various legends set forth how the god  
received the title of ,wolfish because  
he exterminated wolves27#hdg7 indeed    
this function was definitely attributed 
to him by the epithet                   
,wolf-slayer47#hdh7 ,arguing from the   
analogy of the preceding cases1 we may  
suppose that at first the wolves        
themselves were propitiated by fair     
words  and sacrifices to induce them to 
spare man and beast2 and that at a later
  time1 when the ,greeks1 or rather the 
enlightened portion of them1 had        
outgrown this rude form of worship1 they
 transferred the duty of keeping  off   
the wolves to a beneficent deity who    
discharged the same useful office  for  
other pests1 such as mice1 locusts1 and 
mildew4 ,a reminiscence of the  direct  

propitiation of the fierce and dangerous
 beasts themselves is  preserved in the 
legends told to explain the origin of   
the ,lyceum or ,place  of ,wolves at    
,athens and of the sanctuary of ,wolfish
 ,apollo at ,sicyon4 ,it  is said that  
once1 when ,athens was infested by      
wolves1 ,apollo commanded  sacrifices to
 be offered on the ,place of ,wolves and
 the smell proved fatal  to the         
animals47#hdi7 ,similarly at ,sicyon1   
when the flocks suffered heavily  from  
the ravages of wolves1 the same god     
directed the shepherds to set  forth    
meat mixed with a certain bark1 and the 
wolves devoured the tainted  meat and   
perished47#hej7 ,these legends probably 
reflect in a distorted form  an old     
custom of sacrificing to the wolves1 in 
other words of feeding them  to mollify 
their ferocity and win their favour4 ,we
 know that such a custom  prevailed     
among the ,letts down to comparatively  
recent times4 ,in the month  of         
,december1 about ,christmas time1 they  

sacrificed a goat to the wolves1  with  
strange idolatrous rites1 at a          
cross-road1 for the purpose of  inducing
 the wolves to spare the flocks and     
herds4 ,after offering the  sacrifice   
they used to brag that no beast of      
theirs would fall a victim to  the      
ravening maw of a wolf for all the rest 
of that year1 no1 not though  the pack  
were to run right through the herd4     
,sacrifices of this sort are  reported  
to have been secretly offered by the    
,letts as late as the  seventeenth      
century27#hea7 and if we knew more of   
peasant life in ancient  ,greece we     
might find that on winter days1 while   
,aristotle was expounding  his          
philosophy in the ,lyceum or ,place of  
,wolves at ,athens1 the ,attic  peasant 
was still carrying forth1 in the crisp  
frosty air1 his offering to  the wolves1
 which all night long had been howling  
round his sheepfold in a  snowy glen of 
,parnes or ,pentelicus4                 
,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,transmigration 

,,of ,,human ,,souls ,,into ,,animals4  
7,m#baj7 ,with many savages a reason for
 respecting and sparing certain  species
 of animals is a belief that the souls  
of their dead kinsfolk are  lodged in   
these creatures4 ,thus the ,indians of  
,cayenne refuse to eat  certain large   
fish1 because they say that the soul of 
some one of their  relations might be in
 the fish1 and that hence in eating the 
fish they  might swallow the soul47#heb7
 ,the ,piaroas ,indians of the ,orinoco 
believe  that the tapir is their        
ancestor and that the souls of the dying
  transmigrate into animals of that     
species4 ,hence they will never hunt the
  tapir nor eat its flesh4 ,it may even 
ravage their crops with impunity2  they 
will not attempt to ward it off or scare
 it away47#hec7 ,the ,canelos  ,indians 
of ,ecuador also believe in the         
transmigration of souls2 it is          
especially under the form of jaguars    
that they expect to be born again2      
hence they refuse to attack a jaguar    

except by way of righteous  retribution 
for some wrong he has done them47#hed7  
,the doctrine of  transmigration finds  
favour also with the ,quixos ,indians2  
an old man told  the ,italian traveller 
,osculati that the soul is a breath     
which passes from  the human body into  
an animal1 and on the death of the      
animal shifts its  quarters to another  
body47#hee7 ,the ,caingua ,indians of   
,paraguay think that  the souls of the  
dead which are unable to depart this    
earth are born again  in the shape of   
animals2 for that reason many of them   
refuse to eat the  flesh of the domestic
 pig1 because they say1 8,he was a      
man407#hef7 ,once  when a ,spaniard was 
out hunting with two ,piros ,indians of 
,peru1 they  passed a deserted house in 
which they saw a fine jaguar4 ,the      
,indians drew  the ,spaniard away1 and  
when he asked why they did not attack   
the animal1  they said3 8,it was our    
sister4 ,she died at the last rains4 ,we
 abandoned  the hut and on the second   

night she came back4 ,it was the        
beautiful  jaguar407#heg7 ,similarly a  
missionary remarked of the ,chiriguanos 
,indians  of ,bolivia that they must    
have some idea of the transmigration of 
souls2  for one day1 while he was       
talking with a woman of the tribe who   
had left  her daughter in a neighbouring
 village1 she started at sight of a fox 
passing near and exclaimed1 8,may it not
 be the soul of my daughter who has     
died807#heh7 ,the ,colombian ,indians in
 the district of ,popayan will not kill 
the deer of their forests1 and entertain
 such a respect for these animals  that 
they view with horror and indignation   
any one who dares to eat  venison in    
their presence4 ,they say that the souls
 of persons who have led  a good life   
are in the deer47#hei7 ,in like manner  
the ,indians of ,california  formerly   
refused to eat the flesh of large game1 
because they held that  the bodies of   
all large animals contained the souls of
 past generations of  men and women4    

,however1 the ,indians who were         
maintained at the ,spanish  missions and
 received their rations in the form of  
beef1 had to overcome  their            
conscientious scruples in regard to     
cattle4 ,once a half-caste1  wishing to 
amuse himself at the expense of the     
devout1 cooked a dish of  bear's flesh  
for them and told them it was beef4     
,they ate heartily of it1  but when they
 learned the trick that had been played 
on them1 they were  seized with         
retchings1 which only ended with the    
reappearance of the  obnoxious meat4 ,a 
reproach hurled by the wild tribes at   
their brethren who  had fallen under    
,european influence was 8,they eat      
venison607#hfj7  ,californian ,indians  
have been known to plead for the life of
 an old  grizzly she-bear1 because they 
thought it housed the soul of a dead    
grandam1 whose withered features had    
borne some likeness to the wrinkled     
face of the bear47#hfa7    7,m#baa7 ,the
 doctrine of the transmigration of human

 souls into animal  bodies is viewed    
with great favour by the negroes of     
northern ,guinea4 ,in  different parts  
of the coast different species of       
animals are accounted  sacred1 because  
they are supposed to be animated by the 
spirits of the  dead4 ,hence monkeys    
near ,fishtown1 snakes at ,whydah1 and  
crocodiles near  ,dix ,cove live in the 
odour of sanctity47#hfb7 ,in the lagoon 
of ,tendo1 on  the ,ivory ,coast of     
,west ,africa1 there is a certain sacred
 islet covered  with impenetrable scrub1
 on which no native dare set foot4 ,it  
is peopled  only by countless huge bats1
 which at evening quit the island by    
hundreds  of thousands to fly towards   
the ,river ,tanoe1 which flows into the 
lagoon4  ,the natives say that these    
bats are the souls of the dead1 who     
retire  during the day to the holy isle 
and are bound to present themselves     
every  night at the abode of ,tano1 the 
great and good fetish who dwells by the 
river of his name4 ,paddling past the   

island the negroes will not look at  it1
 but turn away their heads4 ,a ,european
 in crossing the lagoon wished to  shoot
 one of the bats1 but his boatmen       
implored him to refrain1 lest he  should
 kill the soul of one of their          
kinsfolk47#hfc7 ,in the ,mopane country 
of ,south ,africa there is1 or used to  
be1 no check on the increase of  lions1 
because the natives1 believing that the 
souls of their chiefs  entered into the 
animals1 never attempted to kill them2  
on the contrary1  whenever they met a   
lion they saluted him in the usual      
fashion by clapping  their hands4 ,hence
 the country was so infested by lions   
that people1  benighted in fields1 often
 slept for safety in trees47#hfd7       
,similarly1 the  ,makanga1 who occupy   
the angle between the ,zambesi and      
,shire rivers1  refrain from killing    
lions because they believe that the     
spirits of dead  chiefs enter into      
them47#hfe7 ,the ,amambwe universally   
suppose that their  reigning chief turns

 at death into a lion47#hff7 ,the       
,bahima of ,ankole1 in  ,central        
,africa1 also imagine that their dead   
kings are changed into lions4  ,their   
corpses are carried to a forest called  
,ensanzi1 where they lie in  state for  
several days4 ,at the end of that time  
the body is supposed to  burst and give 
forth a lion cub1 which contains the    
spirit of the deceased  king4 ,the      
animal is nurtured by priests till it is
 grown up1 when it is  released and     
allowed to roam the forest with the     
other lions4 ,it is the  duty of the    
priests to feed and care for the lions  
and to hold  communications with the    
dead kings when occasion arises4 ,for   
that purpose  the priests always live in
 a temple in the forest1 where they     
receive  frequent offerings of cattle   
for the lions4 ,in this forest the lions
 are  sacred and may not be killed1 but 
in other parts of the country they may  
be slaughtered with impunity4           
,similarly1 the ,bahima think that at   

death  the king's wives are changed into
 leopards2 the transformation takes     
place  in like manner through the       
bursting of the dead bodies in a belt of
 the  same sacred forest4 ,there the    
leopards are daily fed with offerings of
  meat by priests1 whose office is      
hereditary4 ,further1 the ,bahima are of
  opinion that the spirits of dead      
princes and princesses come to life     
again  in the form of snakes1 which     
burst from their dead bodies in another 
belt  of the same forest3 there is a    
temple in the forest where priests feed 
and  guard the holy serpents4 ,when the 
little snakes have issued from the      
corpses of the princes1 they are fed    
with milk till they are big enough to   
go alone47#hfg7 ,the ,el ,kiboron clan  
of the ,masai1 in ,east ,africa1 imagine
  that when married men of the clan are 
buried1 their bones turn into  serpents4
 ,hence the ,el ,kiboron do not1 like   
the other ,masai1 kill snakes3  on the  
contrary they are glad to see the       

reptiles in the kraal and set out       
saucers of milk and honey for them on   
the ground4 ,it is said that snakes     
never bite members of the clan47#hfh7   
,the ,ababu and other tribes of the     
,congo region believe that at death     
their souls transmigrate into the       
bodies of various animals1 such as the  
hippopotamus1 the leopard1 the  gorilla1
 and the gazelle2 and on no account     
would a man eat the flesh of  an animal 
of the particular kind which he expects 
to inhabit in the next  life47#hfi7     
,some of the ,caffres of the ,zambesi   
region1 in ,portuguese  territory1 who  
believe in the transmigration of human  
souls into the  bodies of animals1 judge
 of the species of animals into which a 
dead  person has transmigrated by the   
resemblance which he bore to it in his  
life4 ,thus1 the soul of a big burly man
 with prominent teeth will pass  into an
 elephant2 a strong man with a long     
beard will become a lion2 an  ugly man  
with a large mouth and thick lips will  

be a hyaena2 and so on4  ,animals       
supposed to be tenanted by the spirits  
of the dead are treated as  sacred and  
invulnerable4 ,when a ,portuguese lady1 
named ,dona ,maria1 to whom  the blacks 
were much attached1 had departed this   
life1 it chanced that a  hyaena came    
repeatedly by night to the village and  
carried off pigs and  kids4 ,the lady's 
old slaves would not do the creature the
 smallest hurt1  saying1 8,it is ,dona  
,maria1 our good mistress4 ,she is      
hungry and comes to  her house seeking  
what she may devour407#hgj7    7,m#bab7 
,the belief that the souls of the dead  
transmigrate into the bodies  of animals
 appears to be widely diffused among the
 tribes of ,madagascar4  ,thus1 for     
example1 the souls of the ,betsileo are 
thought after death to be  reborn in    
boa-constrictors1 crocodiles1 and eels  
of a particular sort  according to their
 rank in life4 ,it is the nobles1 or at 
all events the  most illustrious of     
them1 who have the privilege of turning 

into  boa-constrictors at death4 ,to    
facilitate the transformation the corpse
 of  a dead noble is strapped to the    
central pillar of his house1 and the    
products of decomposition are collected 
in a silver bowl4 ,the largest of  the  
worms which are bred in the putrid      
liquid is believed to contain the  soul 
of the dead nobleman and to develop in  
due time into a  boa-constrictor4       
,accordingly these huge serpents are    
regarded as sacred by  the ,betsileo2   
nobody would dare to kill one of them4  
,the people go down on  their knees to  
them and salute them1 just as they would
 do to a real live  nobleman4 ,it is a  
happy day when a boa-constrictor deigns 
to visit the  village which he formerly 
inhabited in human form4 ,he receives an
 ovation  from his family4 ,they go     
forth to meet him1 spread silk for him  
to crawl  upon1 and carry him off to the
 public square1 where he is allowed to  
gorge  himself with the blood of a      
sacrificed ox4 ,the souls of commoners  

of good  standing transmigrate into the 
bodies of crocodiles1 and in their new  
form  still serve their old masters1    
particularly by announcing to them the  
approach of the hour when they must     
shuffle out of the human frame into  the
 frame of boa-constrictors4 ,lastly1 the
 scum of the population turn at  death  
into eels1 and to render the change as  
easy for them as possible it  is        
customary to remove the bowels from the 
corpse and throw them into a  sacred    
lake4 ,the eel that swallows the first  
mouthful becomes the domicile  of the   
soul of the deceased4 ,no ,betsileo     
would eat such eels47#hga7 ,again1  the 
,antankarana1 a tribe in the extreme    
north of ,madagascar1 believe that  the 
spirits of their dead chiefs pass into  
crocodiles1 while those of  common folk 
are reborn in other animals47#hgb7 ,once
 more1 the ,tanala1 a  tribe of         
south-eastern ,madagascar1 suppose that 
the souls of their dead  transmigrate   
into certain animals1 such as scorpions 

and insects1 which  accordingly they    
will not kill or eat1 believing that the
 creatures will  in like manner abstain 
from injuring them47#hgc7    7,m#bac7   
,some of the ,nagas of ,assam hold that 
the spirits of the departed1  after     
undergoing a cycle of changes in a      
subterranean world1 are reborn on  earth
 in the form of butterflies or small    
house flies1 only however in  that shape
 to perish for ever4 ,hence1 when these 
small flies light on the  wine-cups of  
the living1 the wassailers will not kill
 them for fear of  destroying some one  
of their ancestors47#hgd7 ,for a like   
reason the  ,angamis1 one of the ,naga  
tribes1 carefully abstain from injuring 
certain  species of butterfly47#hge7 ,at
 ,ang ,teng1 a large village of ,upper  
,burma1  the river at a point above a   
dilapidated bridge swarms with fish1    
which  the people hold sacred1 because  
they imagine them to be their dead come 
to  life again in a fishy form4 ,in     
former days no one might kill one of    

these  fish under pain of death4 ,once a
 ,shan1 caught fishing with some dead   
fish  in his possession1 was instantly  
hauled away and killed47#hgf7 ,the      
people  of ,kon-,meney in eastern       
,cochin ,china will not eat toads1      
because long ago  the soul of one of    
their chiefs passed at death into a     
toad4 ,in his new  shape he appeared to 
his son in a dream1 informed him of the 
transformation1 and commanded him to    
sacrifice a pig1 a fowl1 and millet     
wine to his deceased parent1 assuring   
him that if he complied with the        
injunction the rice would grow well4    
,the dutiful son obeyed the author of   
his being2 the toad appeared in the     
rice-fields watching over the growth  of
 the rice1 and the crop was magnificent4
 ,for two generations the  sacrifices   
were duly offered1 the toad appeared at 
the time of sowing1 and  the granaries  
were full4 ,afterwards1 however1 the    
people neglected to  sacrifice to the   
toad and were punished accordingly by   

failure of the  crops and consequent    
famine47#hgg7 ,some of the ,chams of    
,indo-,china believe  that the souls of 
the dead inhabit the bodies of certain  
animals1 such as  serpents1 crocodiles1 
and so forth1 the kind of animal varying
 with the  family4 ,the species of      
animals most commonly regarded as       
tenanted by the  spirits of the departed
 are the rodents and active climbing    
creatures  which abound in the country1 
such as squirrels4 ,according to some   
people1  these small animals are        
especially the abode of still-born      
infants or of  children who died young4 
,the souls of these little ones appear  
in dreams  to their mourning parents and
 say3 8,i inhabit the body of a         
squirrel4  ,honour me as such4 ,make me 
a present of a flower1 a coco-nut1 a cup
 of  roasted rice10 and so on4 ,the     
parents discharge this pious duty1      
respect  these familiar spirits1 ascribe
 illnesses to their displeasure1 pray to
  them for healing1 and on their        

deathbed commend to their descendants   
the  care of such and such a spirit1 as 
a member of the family47#hgh7           
7,m#bad7 ,the ,igorrots of ,cabugatan1  
in the ,philippines1 regard the eels in 
their stream as the souls of their      
forefathers4 ,hence instead of catching 
and eating them they feed them1 till the
 eels become as tame as carp in a       
pond47#hgi7 ,in the ,sandwich ,islands  
various people worshipped diverse kinds 
of animals1 such as fowls1 lizards1     
owls1 rats1 and so forth4 ,if a man who 
adored sharks happened to have a child  
still-born1 he would endeavour to  lodge
 the soul of the dead infant in the body
 of a shark4 ,for this purpose  he laid 
the tiny body1 together with a couple of
 roots of taro1 some kava1  and a piece 
of sugar-cane1 on a mat1 recited prayers
 over it1 and then  flung the whole into
 the sea1 believing that by virtue of   
this offering  the transmigration of the
 child's soul into the shark's body     
would be  effected1 and that henceforth 

the voracious monsters would spare all  
members of the family who might         
otherwise be exposed to their attacks4  
,in  the temples dedicated to sharks    
there were priests who1 morning and     
evening1 addressed prayers to the       
shark-idol1 and rubbed their bodies with
  water and salt1 which1 drying on their
 skin1 imparted to it an appearance  of 
being covered with scales4 ,they also   
wore red stuffs1 uttered shrill  cries1 
leaped over the sacred enclosure1 and   
persuaded the credulous  islanders that 
they knew the exact moment when the     
children thrown into  the sea were      
turned into sharks4 ,for this revelation
 they were rewarded by  the happy       
parents with a plentiful supply of      
little pigs1 coco-nuts1 kava1  and so   
on47#hhj7 ,the ,pelew ,islanders        
believed that the souls of their        
forefathers lived in certain species of 
animals1 which accordingly they  held   
sacred and would not injure4 ,for this  
reason one man would not kill  snakes1  

another would not harm pigeons1 and so  
on2 but every one was quite  ready to   
kill and eat the sacred animals of his  
neighbours47#hha7    7,m#bae7 ,we have  
seen that the ,battas of ,sumatra seldom
 kill a tiger and  never without        
performing an elaborate ceremony to     
appease the animal's  ghost4 ,the reason
 alleged for treating tigers with this  
respect is that  the souls of the dead  
often transmigrate into these animals1  
and therefore  in killing a tiger a man 
never knows whether he is not killing a 
relative  of his own4 ,if members of the
 totemic clan of the ,tiger should      
happen to  be in a village when the     
carcase of a slain tiger is brought into
 it1 they  are bound to pay special     
marks of honour to its remains by       
putting betel  in its mouth4 ,a priest  
offers food and drink to the dead tiger1
 addresses  him as ,grandfather1 prays  
him not to be angry or frightened1 and  
explains  to the gods the reasons for   
putting the animal to death47#hhb7      

7,m#baf7 ,the ,kayans of ,borneo think  
that when the human soul departs from   
the body at death it may take the form  
of an animal or bird4 ,for example1  if 
a deer were seen browsing near a man's  
grave1 his relations would  probably    
conclude that his soul had assumed the  
shape of a deer1 and the  whole family  
would abstain from eating venison lest  
they should annoy the  deceased47#hhc7  
,most of the ,kalamantans1 another tribe
 of ,borneo1 will kill  and eat deer    
freely1 but there are exceptions to the 
rule4 8,thus ,damong1  the chief of a   
,malanau household1 together with all   
his people1 will not  kill or eat the   
deer ,cervulus muntjac1 alleging that an
 ancestor had  become a deer of this    
kind1 and that1 since they cannot       
distinguish this  incarnation of his    
ancestor from other deer1 they must     
abstain from  killing all deer of this  
species4 ,we know of one instance in    
which one of  these people refused to   
use again his cooking-pot which a ,malay

 had  borrowed and used for cooking the 
flesh of this deer4 ,this superstition  
is  still rigidly adhered to1 although  
these people have been converted to     
,islam of recent years4444 ,the people  
of ,miri1 who also are ,mohammedan      
,malanaus1 claim to be related to the   
large deer 7,cervus equinus7 and  some  
of them to the muntjac deer also4 ,now  
these people live in a country  in which
 deer of all kinds abound1 and they     
always make a clearing in the  jungle   
around a tomb4 ,on such a clearing grass
 grows up rapidly1 and so  the spot     
becomes attractive to deer as a grazing 
ground2 and it seems not  improbable    
that it is through frequently seeing    
deer about the tombs that  the people   
have come to entertain the belief that  
their dead relatives  become deer or    
that they are in some other way closely 
related to the  deer4 ,the ,bakongs1    
another group of ,malanaus1 hold a      
similar belief with  regard to the      
bear-cat 7,artictis7 and the various    

species of  ,paradoxurus1 and in this   
case the origin of the belief is        
admitted by  them to be the fact that on
 going to their graveyards they often   
see one  of these beasts coming out of a
 tomb4 ,these tombs are roughly         
constructed  wooden coffins raised a few
 feet only from the ground1 and it is   
probable  that these carnivores make    
their way into them in the first place  
to  devour the corpse1 and that they    
then make use of them as lairs407#hhd7  
,among the ,sea ,dyaks1 also of ,borneo1
 the idea of metempsychosis is not      
unknown4 ,one of them used to treat a   
snake with the greatest kindness1       
because he said it had been revealed to 
him in a dream that the spirit of  his  
grandfather dwelt in that snake47#hhe7  
7,m#bag7 ,some of the ,papuans on the   
northern coast of ,new ,guinea also     
believe in the transmigration of souls4 
,they hold that at death the souls  of  
human beings sometimes pass into        
animals1 such as cassowaries1 fish1 or  

pigs1 and they abstain from eating the  
animals of the sort in which the        
spirits of the dead are supposed to have
 taken up their abode47#hhf7 ,for       
example1 at ,masur in ,dutch ,new       
,guinea there are people who imagine    
that  the spirits of their ancestors    
transmigrated into cassowaries1 and     
accordingly they will not partake of the
 flesh of the long-legged  bird47#hhg7  
,in ,simbang1 a village at the mouth of 
the ,bubui river in ,german  ,new       
,guinea1 there is a family who will not 
harm crocodiles1 not merely  because    
they fear the vengeance of the          
creatures1 but also because they  reckon
 crocodiles their kinsfolk and expect   
that they themselves will turn  into    
crocodiles at death4 ,as head of the    
family they recognise a certain  aged   
crocodile1 everywhere known as 8old     
,butong10 who is said to have been  born
 of a woman at ,simbang47#hhh7 ,they    
think that while they are at work in    
the fields1 and the houses stand empty1 

their ancestors come forth from  the    
river and repair to the place in the    
roof where the mysterious  bull-roarers 
are kept1 which make a humming sound at 
the initiatory rites  of young men4 ,but
 when the people return from the fields 
they find the  houses as empty and      
silent as when they left them3 the      
spirits of their  forefathers have      
plunged into the river again4 ,if a     
crocodile carries off  anybody1 the     
natives are sure that the brute must be 
a stranger1 not one  of their own       
crocodile kinsfolk1 who never would do  
such a thing2 and if  their neighbours  
at ,yabim are so unfeeling as to kill a 
crocodile1 the  ,bubui people protest   
against the outrage and demand          
satisfaction4 ,some  ,yabim people give 
out that after death their souls will be
 turned into  certain fabulous          
cave-haunting swine1 and accordingly    
their relatives  refuse to spear or to  
eat the real wild swine4 ,if these      
animals break into  and ravage the      

fields1 their human kinsfolk attempt to 
appease them with  offerings of         
coco-nuts and other valuable            
articles47#hhi7 ,similarly in  ,tamara1 
an island off the coast of ,german ,new 
,guinea1 the people will not  eat pork1 
because it is their conviction that the 
souls of the dead  transmigrate into the
 bodies of pigs47#hij7 ,the ,kai people1
 who inhabit the  rugged and densely    
wooded mountains inland from ,finsch    
,harbour in ,german  ,new ,guinea1      
imagine that the gloomy depths of some  
wild ravines are  haunted by the souls  
of the dead in the form of cuscuses and 
other  animals4 ,none but the owner has 
the right to kill game in these dark and
  awful gullies1 and even he must       
propitiate the soul of every animal that
  he slays in such a spot4 ,for this    
purpose he spreads out offerings on the 
carcase and presents them to the injured
 spirit1 saying1 8,take the gifts  and  
leave us the animal1 that we may eat    
it40 ,after leaving the articles  long  

enough to allow the soul of the beast to
 abstract and convey away the  souls of 
the things1 the hunter is free to cut up
 and consume the carcase4  ,some years  
ago1 when heavy rains caused a land-slip
 in these wild  mountains1 and a house  
with its inmates was buried in the      
ruins1 public  opinion in the           
neighbourhood attributed the disaster to
 the misconduct of  the deceased1 who   
had failed to appease the soul of a     
boa-constrictor  slain by them on       
haunted ground47#hia7    7,m#bah7 ,in   
the ,solomon ,islands a man at the point
 of death would gather the  members of  
his family about him and inform them of 
the particular sort of  creature1 say a 
bird or a butterfly1 into which he      
proposed to  transmigrate4 ,henceforth  
the family would regard that species of 
animal as  sacred and would neither kill
 nor injure it4 ,if they fell in with a 
creature of the kind1 it might be a bird
 or a butterfly1 they would say1  8,that
 is papa10 and offer him a              

coco-nut47#hib7 ,in these islands sharks
 are  very often supposed to be ghosts1 
for dying people frequently announce    
their intention of being sharks when    
they have put off their human shape4    
,after that1 if any shark remarkable for
 its size or colour is seen to  haunt a 
certain shore or rock1 it is taken to be
 somebody's ghost1 and the  name of the 
deceased is given to it4 ,for example1  
at ,ulawa a dreaded  man-eating shark   
received the name of a dead man and was 
propitiated with  offerings of porpoise 
teeth4 ,at ,saa1 certain food1 for      
example coco-nuts  from particular      
trees1 is reserved to feed such a       
ghost-shark1 but men of  whom it is     
positively known that after death they  
will be in sharks are  allowed by       
anticipation to partake of the          
shark-food in the sacred place4  ,other 
men will sometimes join themselves to   
their company1 and speaking  with the   
voice of a shark-ghost will say1 8,give 
me to eat of that food40  ,if such a man

 happens to be really possessed of      
supernatural power1 he  will in due time
 become a shark-ghost himself2 but it is
 perfectly  possible that he may fail4  
,in ,savo not very long ago a certain   
man had a  shark that he used to feed   
and to which he offered sacrifice4 ,he  
swam out  to it with food1 called it by 
name1 and it came to him4 ,of course it 
was  not a common shark1 but a ghost1   
the knowledge of which had been handed  
down to him from his ancestors4         
,alligators also may lodge the souls of 
dead ,solomon ,islanders4 ,in the island
 of ,florida a story was told of an     
alligator that used to come up out of   
the sea and make itself quite at  home  
in the village in which the man whose   
ghost it was had lived4 ,it went  by the
 name of the deceased1 and though there 
was one man in particular  who had      
special connexion with it and was said  
to own it1 the animal was  on friendly  
terms with everybody in the place and   
would even let children  ride on its    

back4 ,but the village where this       
happened has not yet been               
identified47#hic7 ,in the same island   
the appearance of anything wonderful  is
 taken as proof of a ghostly presence   
and stamps the place as sacred4  ,for   
example1 a man planted some coco-nut    
palms and almond trees in the  bush and 
died not long afterwards4 ,after his    
death there appeared among  the trees a 
great rarity in the shape of a white    
cuscus4 ,the animal was  accordingly    
assumed to be the ghost of the departed 
planter and went by  his name4 ,the     
place became sacred1 and no one would   
gather the fruits of  the trees there1  
until two young men1 who had been       
trained in the  principles of           
,christianity1 boldly invaded the       
sanctuary and appropriated  the almonds 
and coco-nuts47#hid7 ,it must not be    
supposed1 however1 that the  choice of  
transmigration open to a ,solomon       
,islander is restricted to the  animal  
kingdom2 he is free after death to      

become a vegetable1 if he feels  so     
disposed4 ,when a mission-school was    
established in the island of ,ulawa  it 
was observed with surprise that the     
natives would not eat bananas and  had  
ceased to plant the tree4 ,enquiry      
elicited the origin of the  restriction1
 which was recent and well remembered4  
,a man of great  influence1 dying not   
long before1 had forbidden the eating of
 bananas  after his death1 saying that  
he would be in the banana4 ,the older   
natives  would still mention his name   
and say1 8,we cannot eat                
,so-and-so407#hie7    7,m#bai7 ,the     
doctrine of the reincarnation of human  
souls in the bodies  either of men or of
 animals1 which meets us as an article  
of faith in so  many savage tribes1 has 
a special interest for the historian of 
thought1  because it has been adopted   
more or less explicitly and employed1   
not  merely as a philosophical theory1  
but as a means of enforcing moral       
lessons1 by thinkers1 teachers1 and     

lawgivers among various civilised       
peoples1 notably in ancient ,india and  
,greece4 ,thus in the most famous of    
old ,indian law-books1 ,the ,laws of    
,manu1 the penalties to be endured by   
evil-doers in future births are         
described with a precision which leaves 
nothing to be desired3 the degradation  
of the birth is exactly  proportioned to
 the degree of moral guilt of the       
transgressor4 ,for  example1 if a man   
has the temerity to censure his teacher1
 even though the  censure is richly     
deserved1 that rash man in his next     
birth will be an  ass2 but if he defames
 his teacher falsely1 he will be a dog2 
and if he is  so lost to all sense of   
propriety as to live at the expense of  
his  teacher1 he will be a worm47#hif7  
,a faithless wife in her next           
transmigration will be born a           
jackal47#hig7 ,a ,brahman who           
misappropriates  money which he has     
received for a sacrifice will hereafter 
be either a  vulture or a crow for the  

period of one hundred years47#hih7 ,men 
who  delight in doing hurt will be born 
as carnivorous animals1 and those who   
eat forbidden food will be degraded into
 worms4 ,as for thieves1 their lot  is a
 hard one1 and it is harder in          
proportion to the value of the article  
stolen4 ,a man who steals gems will be  
born a goldsmith2 a man who steals      
grain will be born a rat2 a man who     
steals honey will be born a stinging    
insect2 and a man who steals clarified  
butter will be born an ichneumon4  ,the 
penalty for stealing silk is to become a
 partridge1 for stealing linen  a frog1 
for stealing vegetables a peacock1 for  
stealing cooked food a  porcupine1 for  
stealing uncooked food a hedgehog1 and  
for stealing  molasses a flying-fox4    
,and so on for the various degrees of   
moral  turpitude throughout the entire  
range of the animal kingdom47#hii7      
,buddha  himself1 who gave an immense   
extension to the doctrine of            
transmigration  by incorporating it in  

his religious or rather philosophical   
system1 is  traditionally said to have  
undergone many animal births of various 
sorts  before he attained to his supreme
 dignity4 ,thus it is reported that he  
was  once a hare1 once a dog1 twice a   
pig1 twice a frog1 four times a serpent1
  six times a snipe1 ten times a lion1  
eleven times a deer1 and eighteen  times
 a monkey2 to say nothing of having been
 once a devil-dancer1 twice a  thief1   
eighty-three times an ascetic1 and so   
on47#ijj7    7,m#bbj7 ,in ancient       
,greece also the theory of the          
transmigration of souls  found favour   
with the early philosophers ,pythagoras 
and ,empedocles1 both  of whom1 if we   
may trust tradition1 appealed to their  
own personal  experience in support of  
the doctrine4 ,according to ancient     
writers1  ,pythagoras affirmed that he  
had been ,euphorbus the ,trojan in one  
of his  former lives1 and in proof of   
the assertion he identified the shield  
of  ,euphorbus among the ,trojan spoils 

at ,mycenae47#ija7 ,he would seem to    
have  held that human souls can         
transmigrate into animals or even into  
plants27#ijb7 and we may suppose that   
the possibility of such  transmigrations
 was at least one of the reasons he     
alleged for enjoining  the strictest of 
his disciples neither to kill nor to eat
 animals and to  abstain from certain   
vegetables1 such as beans and           
mallows47#ijc7 ,certainly  at a later   
time these principles were maintained   
and these precepts  inculcated by       
,empedocles1 who outdid the             
reminiscences of his predecessor  by    
asserting that he himself in former     
lives had been a boy1 a girl1 a  bush1 a
 bird1 and a fish47#ijd7 ,hence he      
denounced as a crime the practice  of   
killing and eating animals1 since       
according to him a man could never  know
 but that in slaughtering and eating an 
animal he might be murdering  and       
devouring one of his dead kinsfolk1 it  
might be his father or mother1  his son 

or daughter47#ije7 ,thus from the       
doctrine of transmigration  ,empedocles 
logically drew the same practical       
conclusion as the savage1 who  abstains1
 for example1 from killing and eating   
crocodiles or pigs because  he believes 
the souls of his departed relations to  
be embodied in  crocodiles or pigs3 the 
only important difference between the   
savage and  the philosopher in this     
respect is that1 whereas the savage     
venerates and  spares only animals of   
one particular species on the ground of 
their  possible affinity to himself1 the
 philosopher on his own shewing was     
bound  to abstain from all animals      
whatever1 since according to him the    
spirits  of his deceased relatives might
 be lurking in creatures of any species4
  ,hence while a faith in transmigration
 imposes but few restrictions on the    
diet of a savage1 since it leaves him   
free to partake of the flesh of  every  
sort of animals but one1 the creed of   
,empedocles logically cut him  off from 

a flesh diet altogether and compelled   
him to live on vegetables  alone2       
indeed1 if he had been rigidly logical1 
he must have denied himself  the use of 
vegetables also and perished of hunger1 
since on his theory  vegetables as well 
as animals may house the souls of the   
dead47#ijf7  ,however1 like a wise man  
he sacrificed logic to life1 and        
contented  himself with forbidding his  
disciples the use of a few vegetables1  
such as  beans and laurels17#ijg7 while 
he suffered them to browse freely on all
 the  rest4    7,m#bba7 ,so far as we   
can gather the real opinions of         
,pythagoras and  ,empedocles from the   
traditional history of the one and the  
miserably  mutilated writings of the    
other1 they seem both1 like ,buddha1    
with whom  they had much in common1 to  
have used the old savage doctrine of the
  transmigration of souls mainly as a   
handle by which to impress on the  minds
 of their followers the necessity of    
leading an innocent1 pure1 and  even    

ascetic life in this world as the only  
means of ensuring a blissful  or at all 
events an untroubled eternity in a world
 to come47#ijh7 ,at least  this is      
fairly certain for ,empedocles1 whose   
views are comparatively well  known to  
us through the fragments of his         
philosophical writings4 ,from  these    
utterances of his1 the genuineness of   
which seems to be beyond  suspicion1 we 
gather that the psychology of           
,empedocles was a curious blend  of     
savagery and mysticism4 ,he regarded the
 incarnation of the human soul  in a    
body of any sort as a punishment for    
sin1 a degradation1 a fall from  heaven1
 an exile from ,god1 a banishment from a
 world of bliss to a world  of          
woe47#iji7 ,he describes the earth as a 
cavern17#iaj7 a joyless land1  where men
 wander in darkness1 a prey to murder   
and revenge1 to swarms of  foul fiends1 
to wasting sickness and decay47#iaa7 ,he
 speaks with pity and  contempt of the  
life of mortals as a wretched and       

miserable existence1  begotten of strife
 and sighs and prolonged as a punishment
 for their sins  through a series of    
transmigrations1 until1 by the exercise 
of virtue1  they have been born again as
 prophets1 poets1 physicians1 and       
princes1 and  so return at last to      
communion with the gods to live         
thenceforth free from  pain and sorrow1 
immortal1 incorruptible1 divine47#iab7  
,this view of human  destiny1 this      
passionate scorn poured on the present  
world1 this ecstatic  aspiration after a
 blissful eternity1 the reward of virtue
 in a world to  come1 are very alien    
from the cheerful serenity1 the calm    
rationalism of  the ordinary ,greek     
attitude towards existence on           
earth47#iac7 ,in his  profound          
conviction of the manifold sufferings   
inseparable from mortality1  in his     
longing to put off the burden of the    
body or what he calls 8the  garment of  
flesh107#iad7 in his tenderness for the 
lower animals and his  strong sense of  

kinship with them1 ,empedocles resembled
 ,buddha1 whose  whole cast of thought1 
however1 was tinged with a still deeper 
shade of  melancholy1 a more hopeless   
outlook on the future4 ,yet so close in 
some  respects is the similarity between
 the two that we might incline to       
suppose a direct influence of ,buddhism 
on ,empedocles1 were it not that the    
dates of the two great thinkers1 so far 
as they can be ascertained1 appear  to  
exclude the supposition47#iae7          
7,m#bbb7 ,but if on its ethical side the
 teaching of ,empedocles may almost be  
described as ,buddhism relieved of its  
deepest shadows1 on its scientific  side
 it curiously anticipated some          
speculations which have deeply stirred  
the ,european mind in our own and our   
fathers' days4 ,for to his savage       
psychology and religious mysticism      
,empedocles superadded a comprehensive  
and grandiose theory of the material    
universe1 which presents a close        
analogy to that of ,herbert ,spencer4   

,the scientific doctrine of the         
conservation of energy or1 as he        
preferred to call it1 the persistence of
  force1 which ,spencer made the        
corner-stone of his system1 has its     
counterpart in the ,empedoclean doctrine
 of the conservation or                 
indestructibility of matter1 the sum of 
which1 according to him1 remains  always
 constant1 never undergoing either      
increase or diminution47#iaf7  ,hence   
all the changes that take place in the  
physical world1 according to            
,empedocles1 resolve themselves into the
 integration and disintegration of      
matter1 the composition and             
decomposition of bodies1 brought about  
by the  two antagonistic forces of      
attraction and repulsion1 which in      
mythical  language he called love and   
hate4 ,and just as all particular things
 are  evolved by the force of attraction
 and dissolved by the force of          
repulsion1 a state of concentration or  
aggregation in the individual           

perpetually alternating with a state of 
diffusion or segregation1 so it is  also
 with the material universe as a whole4 
,it1 too1 alternately contracts  and    
expands according as the forces of      
attraction and repulsion  alternately   
prevail4 ,for it was the opinion of     
,empedocles that a long1  perhaps       
immeasurable1 period of time1 during    
which the force of attraction  prevails 
over the force of repulsion1 is         
succeeded by an equally long  period in 
which the force of repulsion prevails   
over the force of  attraction1 each     
period lasting till1 the predominant    
force being spent1  its action is first 
arrested and then reversed by the       
opposite force2 so  that the material   
universe performs a periodic and        
rhythmic movement of  alternate         
contraction and expansion1 which never  
ceases except at the  moments when1 the 
two opposite forces exactly balancing   
each other1 all  things come to rest and
 equilibrium for a time1 only however to

 return1  with the backward sweep of the
 cosmic pendulum1 to their former state 
either of consolidation or of           
dispersion4 ,thus under the influence of
  attraction and repulsion matter is    
constantly oscillating to and fro3 at   
the end of a period of contraction it is
 gathered up in a solid globe3 at  the  
end of a period of expansion it is      
diffused throughout space in a  state of
 tenuity which nowadays we might        
describe as gaseous4 ,and this  gigantic
 see-saw motion of the universe as a    
whole has gone on and will go  on for   
ever and ever47#iag7    7,m#bbc7 ,the   
imposing generalisation thus formulated 
by ,empedocles in the  fifth century    
before our era was enunciated           
independently in the  nineteenth century
 of our era by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,like 
his ,greek  predecessor1 the modern     
,english philosopher held that the      
material  universe passes through       
alternate periods of concentration and  
dissipation1 of evolution and           

dissolution1 according as the forces of 
attraction and repulsion alternately    
prevail4 ,the terms in which he sums  up
 his general conclusions might be used  
with hardly any change to  describe the 
conclusions of ,empedocles4 ,for the    
sake of comparison it may  be well to   
subjoin the passage4 ,it runs as        
follows3--    8,thus we are led to the  
conclusion that the entire process of   
things1 as  displayed in the aggregate  
of the visible ,universe1 is analogous  
to the  entire process of things as     
displayed in the smallest aggregates4   
8,motion as well as matter being fixed  
in quantity1 it would seem that the     
change in the distribution of ,matter   
which ,motion effects1 coming to a      
limit in whichever direction it is      
carried1 the indestructible ,motion     
thereupon necessitates a reverse        
distribution4 ,apparently1 the          
universally  coexistent forces of       
attraction and repulsion1 which1 as we  
have seen1  necessitate rhythm in all   

minor changes throughout the ,universe1 
also  necessitate rhythm in the totality
 of its changes--produce now an         
immeasurable period during which the    
attractive forces predominating1  cause 
universal concentration1 and then an    
immeasurable period during  which the   
repulsive forces predominating1 cause   
universal  diffusion--alternate eras of 
,evolution and ,dissolution4 ,and thus  
there is  suggested the conception of a 
past during which there have been       
successive  ,evolutions analogous to    
that which is now going on2 and a future
 during  which successive other such    
,evolutions may go on--ever the same in 
principle but never the same in concrete
 result407#iah7    7,m#bbd7 ,the most   
recent researches in physical science   
tend apparently  rather to confirm than 
to invalidate these general views of the
 nature of  the universe2 for if modern 
physicists are right in regarding the   
constitution of matter as essentially   
electrical1 the antagonistic forces  of 

attraction and repulsion postulated by  
,empedocles and ,spencer would  resolve 
themselves into positive and negative   
electricity4 ,on the other  hand the    
atomic disintegration which is now known
 to be proceeding in  certain of the    
chemical elements1 particularly in      
uranium and radium1 and  which is       
probably proceeding in all1 suggests a  
doubt whether the universe  is really1  
as ,spencer supposed1 in process of     
integration and evolution  and not      
rather in process of disintegration and 
dissolution2 or whether  perhaps the    
apparent evolution of the organic world 
is not attended by a  simultaneous      
dissolution of the inorganic1 so that   
the fabric of the  universe would be a  
sort of ,penelope's web1 which the great
 artificer  weaves and unweaves at the  
same time47#iai7 ,with such a grave     
doubt to  trouble the outlook on the    
future1 we may perhaps say that         
,empedocles was  wiser than ,herbert    
,spencer in leaving1 as he apparently   

did1 the question  undecided1 whether   
during the epoch open to human          
observation the force of  attraction or 
that of repulsion has been and is       
predominant1 and  consequently whether  
matter as a whole is integrating or     
disintegrating1  whether all things are 
gradually evolving into more complex and
  concentrated forms1 or are gradually  
dissolving and wasting away1 through    
simpler and simpler forms1 into the     
diffused tenuity of their primordial    
constituents4    7,m#bbe7 ,just as in   
his view of the constitution and history
 of the physical  universe ,empedocles  
anticipated to some extent the theories 
of ,spencer1 so  in his view of the     
development of living beings he         
anticipated to some  extent the theories
 of ,darwin2 for he held that the       
existing species of  animals have been  
evolved out of inorganic matter through 
intermediate  sorts of monstrous        
creatures1 which1 being ill fitted to   
survive1  gradually succumbed and were  

exterminated in the struggle for        
existence47#ibj7 ,whether ,empedocles   
himself clearly enunciated the          
principle of the survival of the fittest
 as well as the doctrine of  evolution1 
we cannot say with certainty2 but at all
 events it is  significant that         
,aristotle1 after stating for the first 
time the principle  of the survival of  
the fittest1 illustrates it by a        
reference to  ,empedocles's theory of   
the extinction of monstrous forms in the
 past1 as  if he understood the theory  
to imply the principle47#iba7           
7,m#bbf7 ,it is a remarkable instance of
 the strange complexities and seeming   
inconsistencies of human nature1 that a 
man whose capacious mind revolved  ideas
 so far-reaching and fruitful1 should   
have posed among his  contemporaries as 
a prophet or even as a god1 parading the
 streets of his  native city bedecked   
with garlands and ribbons and followed  
by obsequious  crowds of men and women1 
who worshipped him and prayed to him    

that he  would reveal to them the better
 way1 that he would give them oracles   
and  heal their infirmities47#ibb7 ,in  
the character of ,empedocles1 as in that
 of  another forerunner of science1     
,paracelsus1 the sterling qualities of  
the  genuine student would seem to have 
been alloyed with a vein of ostentation 
and braggadocio2 but the dash of the    
mountebank which we may detect in his   
composition probably helped rather than 
hindered him to win for a time the      
favour and catch the ear of the         
multitude1 ever ready as they are to    
troop  at the heels of any quack who    
advertises his wares by a loud blast on 
a  brazen trumpet4 ,with so many claims 
on the admiration of the wise and the   
adulation of the foolish1 we may almost 
wonder that ,empedocles did not  become 
the founder1 if not the god1 of a new   
religion4 ,certainly other  human       
deities have set up in business and     
prospered with an intellectual          
stock-in-trade much inferior to that of 

the ,sicilian philosopher4 ,perhaps     
,empedocles lacked that perfect         
sincerity of belief in his own          
pretensions  without which it seems     
difficult or impossible permanently to  
impose on  the credulity of mankind4 ,to
 delude others successfully it is       
desirable1  if not absolutely necessary1
 to begin by being one's self deluded1  
and the  ,sicilian sage was probably too
 shrewd a man to feel perfectly at ease 
in  the character of a god4    7,m#bbg7 
,the old savage doctrine of the         
transmigration of souls1 which          
,empedocles furbished up and passed off 
on his disciples as a philosophical     
tenet1 was afterwards countenanced1 if  
not expressly affirmed1 by another      
,greek philosopher of a very different  
stamp1 who united1 as no one else  has  
ever done in the same degree1 the       
highest capacity for abstract  thought  
with the most exquisite literary genius4
 ,but if he borrowed the  doctrine from 
savagery1 ,plato1 like his two          

predecessors1 detached it from  its rude
 original setting and fitted it into an 
edifying moral scheme of  retributive   
justice4 ,for he held that the          
transmigration of human souls  after    
death into the bodies of animals is a   
punishment or degradation  entailed on  
the souls by the weaknesses to which    
they had been subject or  the vices to  
which they had been addicted in life1   
and that the kind of  animal into which 
a peccant soul transmigrates is         
appropriate to the  degree and nature of
 its weakness or guilt4 ,thus1 for      
example1 the souls  of gluttons1 sots1  
and rakes pass into the bodies of asses2
 the souls of  robbers and tyrants are  
born again in wolves and hawks2 the     
souls of sober  quiet people1           
untinctured by philosophy1 come to life 
as bees and ants2 a  bad poet may turn  
at death into a swan or a nightingale2  
and a bad jester  into an ape4 ,nothing 
but a rigid practice of the highest     
virtue and a  single-minded devotion to 

abstract truth will avail to restore    
such  degraded souls to their human     
dignity and finally raise them to       
communion  with the gods47#ibc7 ,though 
the passages in which these views are   
set forth  have a mythical colouring and
 are1 like all ,plato's writings1       
couched in  dramatic form and put into  
the mouths of others1 we need not       
seriously  doubt that they represent the
 real opinion of the philosopher        
himself47#ibd7 ,it is interesting and   
instructive to meet with the old  savage
 theory of the transmigration of souls  
thus masquerading under a  flowing      
drapery of morality and sparkling with  
the gems of ,attic eloquence  in the    
philosophic system of a great ,greek    
thinker4 ,so curiously alike may  be the
 solutions which the highest and the    
lowest intellects offer of  those       
profound problems which in all ages have
 engaged the curiosity and  baffled the 
ingenuity of mankind47#ibe7             
,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,types ,,of ,,animal 

,,sacrament4           #a4 ,the         
,egyptian and the ,aino ,types of       
,sacrament4      7,m#bbh7 ,we are now   
perhaps in a position to understand the 
ambiguous  behaviour of the ,aino and   
,gilyaks towards the bear4 ,it has been 
shewn that  the sharp line of           
demarcation which we draw between       
mankind and the lower  animals does not 
exist for the savage4 ,to him many of   
the other animals  appear as his equals 
or even his superiors1 not merely in    
brute force but  in intelligence2 and if
 choice or necessity leads him to take  
their lives1  he feels bound1 out of    
regard to his own safety1 to do it in a 
way which  will be as inoffensive as    
possible not merely to the living       
animal1 but to  its departed spirit and 
to all the other animals of the same    
species1  which would resent an affront 
put upon one of their kind much as a    
tribe  of savages would revenge an      
injury or insult offered to a tribesman4
 ,we  have seen that among the many     

devices by which the savage seeks to    
atone  for the wrong done by him to his 
animal victims one is to shew marked    
deference to a few chosen individuals of
 the species1 for such behaviour  is    
apparently regarded as entitling him to 
exterminate with impunity all  the rest 
of the species upon which he can lay    
hands4 ,this principle  perhaps explains
 the attitude1 at first sight puzzling  
and contradictory1  of the ,aino towards
 the bear4 ,the flesh and skin of the   
bear regularly  afford them food and    
clothing2 but since the bear is an      
intelligent and  powerful animal1 it is 
necessary to offer some satisfaction or 
atonement  to the bear species for the  
loss which it sustains in the death of  
so many  of its members4 ,this          
satisfaction or atonement is made by    
rearing young  bears1 treating them1 so 
long as they live1 with respect1 and    
killing them  with extraordinary marks  
of sorrow and devotion4 ,so the other   
bears are  appeased1 and do not resent  

the slaughter of their kind by attacking
 the  slayers or deserting the country1 
which would deprive the ,aino of one of 
their means of subsistence4    7,m#bbi7 
,thus the primitive worship of animals  
assumes two forms1 which are  in some   
respects the converse of each other4 ,on
 the one hand1 animals are  worshipped1 
and are therefore neither killed nor    
eaten4 ,on the other hand1  animals are 
worshipped because they are habitually  
killed and eaten4 ,in  both forms of    
worship the animal is revered on account
 of some benefit1  positive or negative1
 which the savage hopes to receive from 
it4 ,in the  former worship the benefit 
comes either in the positive form of    
protection1 advice1 and help which the  
animal affords the man1 or in the       
negative one of abstinence from injuries
 which it is in the power of the  animal
 to inflict4 ,in the latter worship the 
benefit takes the material  form of the 
animal's flesh and skin4 ,the two forms 
of worship are in some  measure         

antithetical3 in the one1 the animal is 
not eaten because it is  revered2 in the
 other1 it is revered because it is     
eaten4 ,but both may be  practised by   
the same people1 as we see in the case  
of the ,north ,american  ,indians1 who1 
while they apparently revere and spare  
their totem  animals17#ibf7 also revere 
the animals and fish upon which they    
subsist4  ,the aborigines of ,australia 
have totemism in the most primitive form
 known  to us2 but1 so far as ,i am     
aware1 there is no clear evidence that  
they  attempt1 like the ,north ,american
 ,indians1 to conciliate the animals    
which  they kill and eat4 ,the means    
which the ,australians adopt to secure a
  plentiful supply of game appear to be 
primarily based1 not on  conciliation1  
but on sympathetic magic17#ibg7 a       
principle to which the  ,north ,american
 ,indians also resort for the same      
purpose47#ibh7 ,hence1 as  the          
,australians undoubtedly represent a    
ruder and earlier stage of human        

progress than the ,american ,indians1 it
 would seem that before hunters  think  
of worshipping the game as a means of   
ensuring an abundant supply of  it1 they
 seek to attain the same end by         
sympathetic magic4 ,this1 again1  would 
shew--what there is good reason for     
believing--that sympathetic magic  is   
one of the earliest means by which man  
endeavours to adapt the agencies  of    
nature to his needs4    7,m#bcj7        
,corresponding to the two distinct types
 of animal worship1 there  are two      
distinct types of the custom of killing 
the animal god4 ,on the one  hand1 when 
the revered animal is habitually spared1
 it is nevertheless  killed--and        
sometimes eaten--on rare and solemn     
occasions4 ,examples of this  custom    
have been already given and an          
explanation of them offered4 ,on the    
other hand1 when the revered animal is  
habitually killed1 the slaughter of  any
 one of the species involves the killing
 of the god1 and is atoned for  on the  

spot by apologies and sacrifices1       
especially when the animal is a         
powerful and dangerous one2 and1 in     
addition to this ordinary and everyday  
atonement1 there is a special annual    
atonement1 at which a select  individual
 of the species is slain with           
extraordinary marks of respect and      
devotion4 ,clearly the two types of     
sacramental killing--the ,egyptian and  
the ,aino types1 as we may call them for
 distinction--are liable to be          
confounded by an observer2 and1 before  
we can say to which type any  particular
 example belongs1 it is necessary to    
ascertain whether the  animal           
sacramentally slain belongs to a species
 which is habitually  spared1 or to one 
which is habitually killed by the tribe4
 ,in the former  case the example       
belongs to the ,egyptian type of        
sacrament1 in the latter  to the ,aino  
type4    7,m#bca7 ,the practice of      
pastoral tribes appears to furnish      
examples of both  types of sacrament4   

8,pastoral tribes10 says a learned      
ethnologist1 8being  sometimes obliged  
to sell their herds to strangers who may
 handle the  bones disrespectfully1 seek
 to avert the danger which such a       
sacrilege  would entail by consecrating 
one of the herd as an object of worship1
  eating it sacramentally in the family 
circle with closed doors1 and           
afterwards treating the bones with all  
the ceremonious respect which1  strictly
 speaking1 should be accorded to every  
head of cattle1 but which1  being       
punctually paid to the representative   
animal1 is deemed to be paid  to all4   
,such family meals are found among      
various peoples1 especially  those of   
the ,caucasus4 ,when amongst the        
,abchases the shepherds in spring  eat  
their common meal with their loins girt 
and their staves in their  hands1 this  
may be looked upon both as a sacrament  
and as an oath of  mutual help and      
support4 ,for the strongest of all oaths
 is that which is  accompanied with the 

eating of a sacred substance1 since the 
perjured  person cannot possibly escape 
the avenging god whom he has taken into 
his  body and assimilated407#ibi7 ,this 
kind of sacrament is of the ,aino or    
expiatory type1 since it is meant to    
atone to the species for the possible   
ill-usage of individuals4 ,an expiation1
 similar in principle but different  in 
details1 is offered by the ,kalmucks to 
the sheep1 whose flesh is one of  their 
staple foods4 ,rich ,kalmucks are in the
 habit of consecrating a white  ram     
under the title of 8the ram of heaven0  
or 8the ram of the spirit40 ,the  animal
 is never shorn and never sold2 but when
 it grows old and its owner  wishes to  
consecrate a new one1 the old ram must  
be killed and eaten at a  feast to which
 the neighbours are invited4 ,on a lucky
 day1 generally in  autumn when the     
sheep are fat1 a sorcerer kills the old 
ram1 after  sprinkling it with milk4    
,its flesh is eaten2 the skeleton1 with 
a portion  of the fat1 is burned on a   

turf altar2 and the skin1 with the head 
and  feet1 is hung up47#icj7    7,m#bcb7
 ,an example of a sacrament of the      
,egyptian type is furnished by the      
,todas1 a pastoral people of ,southern  
,india1 who subsist largely upon the    
milk of their buffaloes4 ,amongst them  
8the buffalo is to a certain degree     
held sacred0 and 8is treated with great 
kindness1 even with a degree of         
adoration1 by the people407#ica7 ,they  
never eat the flesh of the cow  buffalo1
 and as a rule abstain from the flesh of
 the male4 ,but to the  latter rule     
there is a single exception4 ,once a    
year all the adult males  of the village
 join in the ceremony of killing and    
eating a very young  male               
calf1--seemingly under a month old4     
,they take the animal into the dark     
recesses of the village wood1 where it  
is killed with a club made from the     
sacred tree of the ,todas 7the tde or   
,millingtonia74 ,a sacred fire  having  
been made by the rubbing of sticks1 the 

flesh of the calf is  roasted on the    
embers of certain trees1 and is eaten by
 the men alone1  women being excluded   
from the assembly4 ,this is the only    
occasion on which  the ,todas eat       
buffalo flesh47#icb7 ,the ,madi or ,moru
 tribe of ,central  ,africa1 whose chief
 wealth is their cattle1 though they    
also practise  agriculture1 appear to   
kill a lamb sacramentally on certain    
solemn  occasions4 ,the custom is thus  
described by ,dr4 ,felkin3 8,a          
remarkable  custom is observed at stated
 times--once a year1 ,i am led to       
believe4 ,i  have not been able to      
ascertain what exact meaning is attached
 to it4 ,it  appears1 however1 to       
relieve the people's minds1 for         
beforehand they  evince much sadness1   
and seem very joyful when the ceremony  
is duly  accomplished4 ,the following is
 what takes place3 ,a large concourse of
  people of all ages assemble1 and sit  
down round a circle of stones1 which  is
 erected by the side of a road 7really a

 narrow path74 ,a very choice  lamb is  
then fetched by a boy1 who leads it four
 times round the assembled  people4 ,as 
it passes they pluck off little bits of 
its fleece and place  them in their     
hair1 or on to some other part of their 
body4 ,the lamb is  then led up to the  
stones1 and there killed by a man       
belonging to a kind  of priestly order1 
who takes some of the blood and         
sprinkles it four times  over the       
people4 ,he then applies it             
individually4 ,on the children he makes 
a small ring of blood over the lower end
 of the breast bone1 on women and  girls
 he makes a mark above the breasts1 and 
the men he touches on each  shoulder4   
,he then proceeds to explain the        
ceremony1 and to exhort the  people to  
show kindness4444 ,when this discourse1 
which is at times of  great length1 is  
over1 the people rise1 each places a    
leaf on or by the  circle of stones1 and
 then they depart with signs of great   
joy4 ,the lamb's  skull is hung on a    

tree near the stones1 and its flesh is  
eaten by the  poor4 ,this ceremony is   
observed on a small scale at other      
times4 ,if a  family is in any great    
trouble1 through illness or bereavement1
 their  friends and neighbours come     
together and a lamb is killed2 this is  
thought  to avert further evil4 ,the    
same custom prevails at the grave of    
departed  friends1 and also on joyful   
occasions1 such as the return of a son  
home  after a very prolonged            
absence407#icc7 ,the sorrow thus        
manifested by the  people at the annual 
slaughter of the lamb clearly indicates 
that the lamb  slain is a sacred or     
divine animal1 whose death is mourned by
 his  worshippers17#icd7 just as the    
death of the sacred buzzard was mourned 
by  the ,californians and the death of  
the ,theban ram by the ,egyptians4 ,the 
smearing each of the worshippers with   
the blood of the lamb is a form of      
communion with the divinity27#ice7 the  
vehicle of the divine life is  applied  

externally instead of being taken       
internally1 as when the blood is  drunk 
or the flesh eaten4           #b4       
,processions with ,sacred ,animals4     
7,m#bcc7 ,the form of communion in which
 the sacred animal is taken from  house 
to house1 that all may enjoy a share of 
its divine influence1 has  been         
exemplified by the ,gilyak custom of    
promenading the bear through the        
village before it is slain47#icf7 ,a    
similar form of communion with the      
sacred snake is observed by a ,snake    
tribe in the ,punjaub4 ,once a year in  
the month of ,september the snake is    
worshipped by all castes and religions  
for nine days only4 ,at the end of      
,august the ,mirasans1 especially those 
of  the ,snake tribe1 make a snake of   
dough which they paint black and red1   
and  place on a winnowing basket4 ,this 
basket they carry round the village1 and
  on entering any house they say3--     
8,god be with you all6      ,may every  
ill be far6      ,may our patron's      

7,gugga's7 word thrive60      ,then they
 present the basket with the snake1     
saying3--          8,a small cake of    
flour3      ,a little bit of butter3    
,if you obey the snake1      ,you and   
yours shall thrive60      ,strictly     
speaking1 a cake and butter should be   
given1 but it is seldom  done4 ,every   
one1 however1 gives something1 generally
 a handful of dough or  some corn4 ,in  
houses where there is a new bride or    
whence a bride has  gone1 or where a son
 has been born1 it is usual to give a   
rupee and a  quarter1 or some cloth4    
,sometimes the bearers of the snake also
 sing3--          8,give the snake a    
piece of cloth1      ,and he will send a
 lively bride60      ,when every house  
has been thus visited1 the dough snake  
is buried and a  small grave is erected 
over it4 ,thither during the nine days  
of ,september  the women come to        
worship4 ,they bring a basin of curds1 a
 small portion of  which they offer at  
the snake's grave1 kneeling on the      

ground and touching  the earth with     
their foreheads4 ,then they go home and 
divide the rest of  the curds among the 
children4 ,here the dough snake is      
clearly a substitute  for a real snake4 
,indeed1 in districts where snakes      
abound the worship is  offered1 not at  
the grave of the dough snake1 but in the
 jungles where  snakes are known to be4 
,besides this yearly worship1 performed 
by all the  people1 the members of the  
,snake tribe worship in the same way    
every  morning after a new moon4 ,the   
,snake tribe is not uncommon in the     
,punjaub4  ,members of it will not kill 
a snake1 and they say that its bite does
 not  hurt them4 ,if they find a dead   
snake1 they put clothes on it and give  
it a  regular funeral47#icg7    7,m#bcd7
 ,ceremonies closely analogous to this  
,indian worship of the snake  have      
survived in ,europe into recent times1  
and doubtless date from a very          
primitive paganism4 ,the best-known     
example is the 8hunting of the wren40   

,by many ,european peoples--the ancient 
,greeks and ,romans1 the modern         
,italians1 ,spaniards1 ,french1         
,germans1 ,dutch1 ,danes1 ,swedes1      
,english1 and  ,welsh--the wren has been
 designated the king1 the little king1  
the king of  birds1 the hedge king1 and 
so forth17#ich7 and has been reckoned   
amongst  those birds which it is        
extremely unlucky to kill4 ,in ,england 
it is  supposed that if any one kills a 
wren or harries its nest1 he will       
infallibly break a bone or meet with    
some dreadful misfortune within the     
year27#ici7 sometimes it is thought that
 the cows will give bloody  milk47#idj7 
,in ,scotland the wren is called 8the   
,lady of ,heaven's hen10 and  boys      
say3--          8,malisons1 malisons1   
mair than ten1      ,that harry the     
,ladye of ,heaven's hen607#ida7      ,at
 ,saint ,donan1 in ,brittany1 people    
believe that if children touch the      
young wrens in the nest1 they will      
suffer from the fire of ,st4 ,lawrence1 

that is1 from pimples on the face1 legs1
 and so on47#idb7 ,in other parts of    
,france it is thought that if a person  
kills a wren or harries its nest1  his  
house will be struck by lightning1 or   
that the fingers with which he  did the 
deed will shrivel up and drop off1 or at
 least be maimed1 or that  his cattle   
will suffer in their feet47#idc7        
7,m#bce7 ,notwithstanding such beliefs1 
the custom of annually killing the  wren
 has prevailed widely both in this      
country and in ,france4 ,in the ,isle   
of ,man down to the eighteenth century  
the custom was observed on ,christmas   
,eve or rather ,christmas morning4 ,on  
the twenty-fourth of ,december1 towards 
evening1 all the servants got a holiday2
 they did not go to bed all night1  but 
rambled about till the bells rang in all
 the churches at midnight4  ,when       
prayers were over1 they went to hunt the
 wren1 and having found one  of these   
birds they killed it and fastened it to 
the top of a long pole  with its wings  

extended4 ,thus they carried it in      
procession to every house  chanting the 
following rhyme3--          8,we hunted 
the wren for ,robin the ,bobbin1        
,we hunted the wren for ,jack of the    
,can1      ,we hunted the wren for      
,robin the ,bobbin1      ,we hunted the 
wren for every one40      ,when they had
 gone from house to house and collected 
all the money they  could1 they laid the
 wren on a bier and carried it in       
procession to the  parish churchyard1   
where they made a grave and buried it   
8with the utmost  solemnity1 singing    
dirges over her in the ,manks language1 
which they call  her knell2 after which 
,christmas begins40 ,the burial over1   
the company  outside the churchyard     
formed a circle and danced to music4    
,about the  middle of the nineteenth    
century the burial of the wren took     
place in the  ,isle of ,man on ,st4     
,stephen's ,day 7the twenty-sixth of    
,december74 ,boys went  from door to    
door with a wren suspended by the legs  

in the centre of two  hoops1 which      
crossed each other at right angles and  
were decorated with  evergreens and     
ribbons4 ,the bearers sang certain lines
 in which reference  was made to boiling
 and eating the bird4 ,if at the close  
of the song they  received a small coin1
 they gave in return a feather of the   
wren2 so that  before the end of the day
 the bird often hung almost featherless4
 ,the wren  was then buried1 no longer  
in the churchyard1 but on the sea-shore 
or in  some waste place4 ,the feathers  
distributed were preserved with         
religious  care1 it being believed that 
every feather was an effectual          
preservative  from shipwreck for a year1
 and a fisherman would have been thought
 very  foolhardy who had not one of     
them47#idd7 ,even to the present time1  
in the  twentieth century1 the custom is
 generally observed1 at least in name1  
on  ,st4 ,stephen's ,day1 throughout the
 ,isle of ,man47#ide7    7,m#bcf7 ,a    
writer of the eighteenth century says   

that in ,ireland the wren  8is still    
hunted and killed by the peasants on    
,christmas ,day1 and on the  following  
7,st4 ,stephen's ,day7 he is carried    
about1 hung by the leg1 in the  centre  
of two hoops1 crossing each other at    
right angles1 and a procession  made in 
every village1 of men1 women1 and       
children1 singing an ,irish  catch1     
importing him to be the king of all     
birds407#idf7 ,down to the  present time
 the 8hunting of the wren0 still takes  
place in parts of  ,leinster and        
,connaught4 ,on ,christmas ,day or ,st4 
,stephen's ,day the boys  hunt and kill 
the wren1 fasten it in the middle of a  
mass of holly and ivy  on the top of a  
broomstick1 and on ,st4 ,stephen's ,day 
go about with it from  house to house1  
singing3--          8,the wren1 the     
wren1 the king of all birds1      ,st4  
,stephen's ,day was caught in the furze2
      ,although he is little1 his       
family's great1      ,i pray you1 good  
landlady1 give us a treat40      ,money 

or food 7bread1 butter1 eggs1 etc47 were
 given them1 upon which they  feasted in
 the evening47#idg7 ,in ,essex a similar
 custom used to be observed  at         
,christmas1 and the verses sung by the  
boys were almost identical with  those  
sung in ,ireland47#idh7 ,in             
,pembrokeshire a wren1 called the ,king1
 used  to be carried about on ,twelfth  
,day in a box with glass windows        
surmounted  by a wheel1 from which hung 
various coloured ribbons4 ,the men and  
boys who  carried it from house to house
 sang songs1 in one of which they wished
  joy1 health1 love1 and peace to the   
inmates of the house47#idi7    7,m#bcg7 
,in the first half of the nineteenth    
century similar customs were  still     
observed in various parts of the south  
of ,france4 ,thus at  ,carcassone1 every
 year on the first ,sunday of ,december 
the young people of  the street ,saint  
,jean used to go out of the town armed  
with sticks1 with  which they beat the  
bushes1 looking for wrens4 ,the first to

 strike down  one of these birds was    
proclaimed ,king4 ,then they returned to
 the town in  procession1 headed by the 
,king1 who carried the wren on a pole4  
,on the  evening of the last day of the 
year the ,king and all who had hunted   
the  wren marched through the streets of
 the town to the light of torches1 with 
drums beating and fifes playing in front
 of them4 ,at the door of every  house  
they stopped1 and one of them wrote with
 chalk on the door vive le  roi6 with   
the number of the year which was about  
to begin4 ,on the morning  of ,twelfth  
,day the ,king again marched in         
procession with great pomp1  wearing a  
crown and a blue mantle and carrying a  
sceptre4 ,in front of him  was borne the
 wren fastened to the top of a pole1    
which was adorned with a  verdant wreath
 of olive1 of oak1 and sometimes of     
mistletoe grown on an  oak4 ,after      
hearing high mass in the parish church  
of ,st4 ,vincent1  surrounded by his    
officers and guards1 the ,king visited  

the bishop1 the  mayor1 the magistrates1
 and the chief inhabitants1 collecting  
money to  defray the expenses of the    
royal banquet which took place in the   
evening  and wound up with a            
dance47#iej7 ,at ,entraigues men and    
boys used to hunt  the wren on          
,christmas ,eve4 ,when they caught one  
alive they presented it to  the priest1 
who1 after the midnight mass1 set the   
bird free in the church4  ,at ,mirabeau 
the priest blessed the bird4 ,if the men
 failed to catch a wren  and the women  
succeeded in doing so1 the women had the
 right to mock and  insult the men1 and 
to blacken their faces with mud and     
soot1 when they  caught them47#iea7 ,at 
,la ,ciotat1 near ,marseilles1 a large  
body of men armed  with swords and      
pistols used to hunt the wren every year
 about the end of  ,december4 ,when a   
wren was caught it was hung on the      
middle of a pole1  which two men        
carried1 as if it were a heavy burden4  
,thus they paraded  round the town2 the 

bird was weighed in a great pair of     
scales2 and then  the company sat down  
to table and made merry47#ieb7          
7,m#bch7 ,the parallelism between this  
custom of 8hunting the wren0 and some   
of those which we have considered1      
especially the ,gilyak procession with  
the bear1 and the ,indian one with the  
snake1 seems too close to allow us  to  
doubt that they all belong to the same  
circle of ideas4 ,the worshipful  animal
 is killed with special solemnity once a
 year2 and before or  immediately after 
death he is promenaded from door to     
door1 that each of  his worshippers may 
receive a portion of the divine virtues 
that are  supposed to emanate from the  
dead or dying god4 ,religious           
processions of  this sort must have had 
a great place in the ritual of ,european
 peoples in  prehistoric times1 if we   
may judge from the numerous traces of   
them which  have survived in            
folk-custom4 ,a well-preserved specimen 
is the following1  which lasted in the  

,highlands of ,scotland and in ,st4     
,kilda down at least  to the latter half
 of the eighteenth century4 ,it was     
described to ,dr4  ,samuel ,johnson in  
the island of ,coll47#iec7 ,another     
description of it runs  as follows3 8,on
 the evening before ,new ,year's ,day it
 is usual for the  cowherd and the young
 people to meet together1 and one of    
them is covered  with a cow's hide4 ,the
 rest of the company are provided with  
staves1 to  the end of which bits of raw
 hide are tied4 ,the person covered with
 the  hide runs thrice round the        
dwelling-house1 deiseil--i4e4 according 
to  the course of the sun2 the rest     
pursue1 beating the hide with their     
staves1 and crying here follows the     
,gaelic1 #8,let us raise the noise      
louder and louder2 let us beat the      
hide4' ,they then come to the door of   
each dwelling-house1 and one of them    
repeats some verses composed for the    
purpose4 ,when admission is granted1 one
 of them pronounces within the          

threshold the beannachadthurlair1 or    
verses by which he pretends to draw     
down a blessing upon the whole family   
here follows the ,gaelic1 #8,may ,god   
bless the house and all that belongs to 
it1 cattle1 stones1 and timber6 ,in     
plenty of meat1 of bed and body-clothes1
 and health of men1 may it ever         
abound6' ,then each burns in the fire a 
little of the bit of hide which is  tied
 to the end of the staff4 ,it is applied
 to the nose of every person  and       
domestic animal that belongs to the     
house4 ,this1 they imagine1 will  tend  
much to secure them from diseases and   
other misfortunes during the  ensuing   
year4 ,the whole of the ceremony is     
called colluinn1 from the  great noise  
which the hide makes4 ,it is the        
principal remnant of  superstition among
 the inhabitants of ,st4 ,kilda407#ied7 
7,m#bci7 ,a more recent writer has      
described the old ,highland custom as   
follows4 ,towards evening on the last   
day of the year1 or ,hogmanay1 as the   

day is called in ,scotland1 8men began  
to gather and boys ran about  shouting  
and laughing1 playing shinty1 and       
rolling #8pigs of snow' 7mucan          
sneachda71 i4e4 large snowballs4 ,the   
hide of the mart or winter cow  7seiche 
a mhairt gheamhraidh7 was wrapped round 
the head of one of the  men1 and he made
 off1 followed by the rest1 belabouring 
the hide1 which  made a noise like a    
drum1 with switches4 ,the disorderly    
procession went  three times deiseal1   
according to the course of the sun 7i4e4
 keeping  the house on the right hand7  
round each house in the village1        
striking the  walls and shouting on     
coming to a door3          #8,the       
calluinn of the yellow bag of hide1     
,strike the skin 7upon the wall7        
,an old wife in the graveyard1      ,an 
old wife in the corner1      ,another   
old wife beside the fire1      ,a       
pointed stick in her two eyes1      ,a  
pointed stick in her stomach1           
,let me in1 open this4'      8,before   

this request was complied with1 each of 
the revellers had to  repeat a rhyme1   
called ,rann ,calluinn 7i4e4 a          
,christmas rhyme71 though1  as might be 
expected when the door opened for one1  
several pushed their  way in1 till it   
was ultimately left open for all4 ,on   
entering each of the  party was offered 
refreshments1 oatmeal bread1 cheese1    
flesh1 and a dram  of whisky4 ,their    
leader gave to the goodman of the house 
that  indispensable adjunct of the      
evening's mummeries1 the ,caisein-uchd1 
the  breast-stripe of a sheep wrapped   
round the point of a shinty stick4 ,this
  was then singed in the fire           
7teallach71 put three times with the    
right-hand turn 7deiseal7 round the     
family1 and held to the noses of  all4  
,not a drop of drink was given till this
 ceremony was performed4 ,the           
,caisein-uchd was also made of the      
breast-stripe or tail of a deer1  sheep1
 or goat1 and as many as chose had one  
with them407#iee7 ,another  writer who  

gives a similar account of the ceremony 
and of the verses sung  by the          
performers1 tells us that the intention 
of putting the burnt  sheep-skin to the 
noses of the people was to protect them 
against  witchcraft and every           
infection47#ief7 ,the explanation1 which
 is doubtless  correct1 reminds us of   
the extraordinarily persistent hold     
which the  belief in sorcery and        
witchcraft has retained on the minds of 
the ,european  peasantry4 ,formerly1    
perhaps1 pieces of the cow-hide in which
 the man was  clad were singed and put  
to the noses of the people1 just as in  
the ,isle  of ,man a feather of the wren
 used to be given to each household4    
,similarly1 as we have seen1 the human  
victim whom the ,khonds slew as a       
divinity was taken from house to house1 
and every one strove to obtain a  relic 
of his sacred person47#ieg7 ,such       
customs are only another form of  that  
communion with the deity which is       
attained most completely by eating  the 

body and drinking the blood of the god4 
#c4 ,the ,rites of ,plough ,monday4     
7,m#bdj7 ,in the 8hunting of the wren10 
and the procession with the man clad  in
 a cow-skin1 there is nothing to shew   
that the customs in question have  any  
relation to agriculture4 ,so far as     
appears1 they may date from a time      
before the invention of husbandry when  
animals were revered as divine in       
themselves1 not merely as divine because
 they embodied the corn-spirit2  and the
 analogy of the ,gilyak procession of   
the bear and the ,indian  procession of 
the snake is in favour of assigning the 
corresponding  ,european customs to this
 very early date4 ,on the other hand1   
there are  certain ,european processions
 of animals1 or of men disguised as     
animals1  which may perhaps be purely   
agricultural in their origin2 in other  
words1  the animals which figure in them
 may have been from the first nothing   
but  representatives of the corn-spirit 
conceived in animal shape4 ,examples of 

such dramatic and at the same time      
religious rites have been collected by  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 who says of them in     
general3 8,not only on the harvest field
  and on the threshing-floor but also   
quite apart from them people loved to   
represent the corn-spirit dramatically1 
especially in solemn processions  in    
spring and about the winter solstice1   
whereby they meant to depict the  return
 of the beneficent powers of summer to  
the desolate realm of  nature407#ieh7   
,thus1 for example1 in country districts
 of ,bohemia it is1 or  used to be1     
customary during the last days of the   
,carnival for young men  to go about in 
procession from house to house          
collecting gratuities4  ,usually a man  
or boy is swathed from head to foot in  
pease-straw and wrapt  round in         
straw-ropes3 thus attired he goes by the
 name of the ,shrovetide  or ,carnival  
,bear 7,fastnachtsbr7 and is led from   
house to house to the  accompaniment of 
music and singing4 ,in every house he   

dances with the  girls1 the maids1 and  
the housewife herself1 and drinks to the
 health of  the good man1 the good wife1
 and the girls4 ,for this performance   
the  mummer is regaled with food by the 
good wife1 while the good man puts      
money in his box4 ,when the mummers have
 gone the round of the village1  they   
betake themselves to the ale-house1     
whither also all the peasants  repair   
with their wives2 8for at ,shrovetide1  
but especially on ,shrove  ,tuesday1    
every one must dance1 if the flax1 the  
vegetables1 and the corn  are to thrive2
 and the more and the higher they dance1
 the greater the  blessing which the    
people expect to crown their exertions40
 ,in the  ,leitmeritz district the      
,shrovetide ,bear1 besides being wrapt  
in straw1  sometimes wears a bear's mask
 to emphasise his resemblance to the    
animal4  ,in the ,czech villages the    
housewives pluck the pease-straw and    
other straw  from the ,shrovetide ,bear 
and put it in the nests of their geese1 

believing  that the geese will lay more 
eggs and hatch their broods better for  
the  addition of this straw to their    
nests4 ,for a similar purpose in the    
,saaz  district the women put the straw 
of the ,shrovetide ,bear in the nests of
  their hens47#iei7 ,in these customs   
the dancing for the express purpose of  
making the crops grow high17#ifj7 and   
the use of the straw to make the  geese 
and hens lay more eggs1 sufficiently    
prove that the ,shrovetide ,bear  is    
conceived to represent the spirit of    
fertility both animal and  vegetable2   
and we may reasonably conjecture that   
the dances of the mummer  with the women
 and girls are especially intended to   
convey to them the  fertilising powers  
of the spirit whom the mummer           
personates47#ifa7    7,m#bda7 ,in some  
parts of ,bohemia the straw-clad man in 
these ,shrovetide  processions is       
called1 not the ,bear1 but the          
,oats-goat1 and he wears horns  on his  
head to give point to the name47#ifb7   

,these different names and  disguises   
indicate that in some places the        
corn-spirit is conceived as a  bear and 
in others as a goat4 ,many examples of  
the conception of the  corn-spirit as a 
goat have already been cited27#ifc7 the 
conception of him  as a bear seems to be
 less common4 ,in the neighbourhood of  
,gniewkowo1 in  ,prussian ,lithuania1   
the two ideas are combined1 for on      
,twelfth ,day a man  wrapt in           
pease-straw to represent a ,bear and    
another wrapt in oats-straw  to         
represent a ,goat go together about the 
village2 they imitate the  actions of   
the two animals and perform dances1 for 
which they receive a  present in every  
house47#ifd7 ,at ,marburg in ,steiermark
 the corn-spirit  figures now as a wolf 
and now as a bear4 ,the man who gave the
 last stroke  at threshing is called the
 ,wolf4 ,all the other men flee from the
 barn1 and  wait till the ,wolf comes   
forth2 whereupon they pounce on him1    
wrap him in  straw to resemble a wolf1  

and so lead him about the village4 ,he  
keeps the  name of ,wolf till           
,christmas1 when he is wrapt in a goat's
 skin and led  from house to house as a 
,pease-bear at the end of a rope47#ife7 
,in this  custom the dressing of the    
mummer in a goat's skin seems to mark   
him out  as the representative of a     
goat2 so that here the mythical fancy of
 the  people apparently hesitates       
between a goat1 a bear1 and a wolf as   
the  proper embodiment of the           
corn-spirit4 ,in ,scandinavia the       
conception of the  spirit as a goat who 
appears at ,christmas 7,julbuck7 appears
 to be  common4 ,thus1 for example1 in  
,bergslagshrad 7,sweden7 it used to be  
customary at ,christmas to lead about a 
man completely wrapt in corn-straw  and 
wearing a goat's horns on his head3 he  
personated the ,yule-goat47#iff7  ,in   
some parts of ,sweden a regular feature 
of the little ,christmas drama is  a    
pretence of slaughtering the ,yule-goat1
 who1 however1 comes to life  again4    

,the actor1 hidden by a coverlet made of
 skins and wearing a pair of  formidable
 horns1 is led into the room by two men1
 who make believe to  slaughter him1    
while they sing verses referring to the 
mantles of various  colours1 red1 blue1 
white1 and yellow1 which they laid on   
him1 one after  the other4 ,at the      
conclusion of the song1 the ,yule-goat1 
after feigning  death1 jumps up and     
skips about to the amusement of the     
spectators47#ifg7  ,in ,willstad after  
supper on ,christmas evening1 while the 
people are  dancing 8the angel dance0   
for the sake of ensuring a good crop of 
flax1  some long stalks of the ,yule    
straw1 either of wheat or rye1 are made 
up  into the likeness of a goat1 which  
is thrown among the dancers with the    
cry1 8,catch the ,yule-goat60 ,the      
custom in ,dalarne is similar1 except   
that  there the straw-animal goes by the
 name of the ,yule-ram47#ifh7 ,in these 
customs the identification of the       
,yule-goat or the ,yule-ram with the    

corn-spirit seems unmistakable4 ,as if  
to clinch the argument it is  customary 
in ,denmark and ,sweden to bake cakes of
 fine meal at ,christmas in  the form of
 goats1 rams1 or boars4 ,these are      
called ,yule-goats1 ,yule-rams1  or     
,yule-boars2 they are often made out of 
the last sheaf of corn at  harvest and  
kept till sowing-time1 when they are    
partly mixed with the  seed-corn and    
partly eaten by the people and the      
plough-oxen in the hope  thereby of     
securing a good harvest47#ifi7 ,it would
 seem scarcely possible  to represent   
the identification of the corn-spirit   
with an animal1 whether  goat1 ram1 or  
boar1 more graphically2 for the last    
corn cut at harvest is  regularly       
supposed to house the corn-spirit1 who  
is accordingly caught1  kept through the
 winter in the shape of an animal1 and  
then mixed with the  seed in spring to  
quicken the grain before it is committed
 to the ground4  ,examples of the       
corn-spirit conceived as a wether and a 

boar have met us  in a preceding part of
 this work47#igj7 ,the pretence of      
killing the  ,yule-goat and bringing him
 to life again was probably in origin a 
magical  rite to ensure the rebirth of  
the corn-spirit in spring4    7,m#bdb7  
,in ,england a custom like some of the  
preceding still prevails at  ,whittlesey
 in ,cambridgeshire on the ,tuesday     
after ,plough ,monday1 as ,i  learn from
 an obliging communication of ,professor
 ,g4 ,c4 ,moore ,smith of  ,sheffield   
,university4 ,he writes3 8,when ,i was  
at ,whittlesey yesterday ,i had  the    
pleasure of meeting a #8,straw-bear1' if
 not two1 in the street4 ,i had  not    
been at ,whittlesey on the day for      
nearly forty years1 and feared the      
custom had died out4 ,in my boyhood the 
,straw-bear was a man completely        
swathed in straw1 led by a string by    
another and made to dance in front of   
people's houses1 in return for which    
money was expected4 ,this always took   
place on the ,tuesday following         

,plough-,monday4 ,yesterday the         
,straw-bear was  a boy1 and ,i saw no   
dancing4 ,otherwise there was no        
change407#iga7    7,m#bdc7 ,a comparison
 of this ,english custom with the       
similar ,continental  customs which have
 been described above1 raises a         
presumption that the  ,straw-bear1 who  
is thus led about from house to house1  
represents the  corn-spirit bestowing   
his blessing on every homestead in the  
village4 ,this  interpretation is       
strongly confirmed by the date at which 
the ceremony  takes place4 ,for the date
 is the day after ,plough ,monday1 and  
it can  hardly be doubted that the old  
popular celebration of ,plough ,monday  
has a  direct reference to agriculture4 
,plough ,monday is the first ,monday of 
,january after ,twelfth ,day4 ,on that  
day it used to be the custom in various 
parts of ,england for a band of sturdy  
swains to drag a gaily decorated  plough
 from house to house and village to     
village1 collecting  contributions which

 were afterwards spent in rustic revelry
 at a tavern4  ,the men who drew the    
plough were called ,plough ,bullocks2   
they wore their  shirts over their      
coats1 and bunches of ribbons flaunted  
from their hats  and persons4 ,among    
them there was always one who personated
 a much  bedizened old woman called     
,bessy2 under his gown he formerly had a
  bullock's tail fastened to him behind1
 but this appendage was afterwards      
discarded4 ,he skipped1 danced and cut  
capers1 and carried a money-box         
soliciting contributions from the       
onlookers4 ,some of the band1 in        
addition  to their ribbons1 8also wore  
small bunches of corn in their hats1    
from  which the wheat was soon shaken   
out by the ungainly jumping which they  
called dancing4 ,occasionally1 if the   
winter was severe1 the procession was   
joined by threshers carrying their      
flails1 reapers bearing their sickles1  
and carters with their long whips1 which
 they were ever cracking to add to  the 

noise1 while even the smith and the     
miller were among the number1 for  the  
one sharpened the plough-shares and the 
other ground the corn2 and  ,bessy      
rattled his box and danced so high that 
he shewed his worsted  stockings and    
corduroy breeches2 and very often1 if   
there was a thaw1  tucked up his gown   
skirts under his waistcoat1 and shook   
the bonnet off  his head1 and           
disarranged the long ringlets that ought
 to have concealed  his whiskers40      
,sometimes among the mummers there was a
 ,fool1 who wore the  skin of a calf    
with the tail hanging down behind1 and  
wielded a stick with  an inflated       
bladder tied to it1 which he applied    
with rude vigour to the  heads and      
shoulders of the human team4 ,another   
mummer generally wore a  fox's skin in  
the form of a hood with the tail        
dangling on his back4 ,if  any churl    
refused to contribute to the money-box1 
the plough-bullocks put  their shoulders
 to the plough and ploughed up the      

ground in front of his  door47#igb7     
7,m#bdd7 ,the clue to the meaning of    
these curious rites is probably         
furnished by the dances or rather jumps 
of the men who wore bunches of  corn in 
their hats4 ,when we remember how often 
on the ,continent about the  same time  
of year the peasants dance and jump for 
the express purpose of  making the crops
 grow tall1 we may conjecture with some 
probability that  the intention of the  
dancers on ,plough ,monday was similar2 
the original  notion1 we may suppose1   
was that the corn would grow that year  
just as  high as the dancers leaped4 ,if
 that was so1 we need not wonder at the 
agility displayed on these occasions by 
the yokels in general and by ,bessy  in 
particular4 ,what stronger incentive    
could they have to exert themselves     
than the belief that the higher they    
leaped into the air the higher would    
sprout the corn-stalks8 ,in short1 the  
whole ceremony was probably a  magical  
rite intended to procure a good crop4   

,the principle on which it  rested was  
the familiar one of homoeopathic or     
imitative magic3 by  mimicking the act  
of ploughing and the growth of the corn 
the mummers  hoped to ensure the success
 of the real ploughing1 which was soon  
to take  place4    7,m#bde7 ,if such was
 the real meaning of the ritual of      
,plough ,monday1 we may  the more       
confidently assume that the ,straw-bear 
who makes his appearance  at ,whittlesey
 in ,cambridgeshire on the day after    
,plough ,monday represents  indeed the  
corn-spirit4 ,what could be more        
appropriate than for that  beneficent   
being to manifest himself from house to 
house the very day  after a magical     
ceremony had been performed to quicken  
the growth of the  corn8    7,m#bdf7    
,the foregoing interpretation of the    
rites observed in ,england on  ,plough  
,monday tallies well with the           
explanation which ,i have given of the  
very similar rites annually performed at
 the end of the ,carnival in            

,thrace47#igc7 ,the mock ploughing is   
probably practised for the same purpose 
in both cases1 and what that purpose is 
may be safely inferred from the  act of 
sowing and the offering of prayers for  
abundant crops which  accompany and     
explain the ,thracian ceremony4 ,it     
deserves to be noted that  ceremonies of
 the same sort and closely resembling   
those of ,plough ,monday  are not       
confined to the ,greek villages of      
,thrace but are observed also by  the   
,bulgarians of that province at the same
 time1 namely1 on the ,monday of  the   
last week in ,carnival4 ,thus at        
,malko-,tirnovsko1 in the district of   
,adrianople1 a procession of mummers    
goes through the streets on that day4   
,the principal personages in it bear the
 names of the ,kuker and  ,kukerica4    
,the ,kuker is a man clad in a goatskin4
 ,his face is blackened  with soot and  
he wears on his head a high shaggy hat  
made of an entire  skin4 ,bells jingle  
at his girdle1 and in his hand he       

carries a club4 ,the  ,kukerica1 who    
sometimes goes by the name of ,baba1    
that is1 8,old  ,woman10 is a man       
disguised in petticoats with his face   
blackened4 ,other  figures in the       
procession are young men dressed as     
girls1 and girls  dressed as men and    
wearing masks4 ,bears are represented by
 dogs wrapt in  bearskins4 ,a king1 a   
judge1 and other officials are          
personated by other  mummers2 they hold 
a mock court and those whom they condemn
 receive a  bastinado4 ,some of the     
maskers carry clubs2 it is their duty to
 beat all  who fall into their hands and
 to levy contributions from them4 ,the  
play  and gestures of the ,kuker and    
,kukerica are wanton and lascivious3 the
  songs and cries addressed to the      
,kuker are also very cynical4 ,towards  
evening two of the company are yoked to 
a plough1 and the ,kuker ploughs  a few 
furrows1 which he thereupon sows with   
corn4 ,after sunset he puts off  his    
disguise1 is paid for his trouble1 and  

carouses with his fellows4 ,the  people 
believe that the man who plays the part 
of ,kuker commits a deadly  sin1 and the
 priests make vain efforts to abolish   
the custom4 ,at the  village of ,kuria1 
in the district of ,losengrad1 the      
custom is in general  the same1 but     
there are some significant variations4  
,the money collected  by the mummers is 
used to buy wine1 which is distributed  
among all the  villagers at a banquet in
 the evening4 ,on this occasion a cake  
in which an  old coin has been baked is 
produced by the ,kuker1 broken into     
bits1 and  so divided among all present4
 ,if the bit with the coin in it falls  
to a  farmer1 then the crops will be    
good that year2 but if it falls to a    
herdsman1 then the cattle will thrive4  
,finally1 the ,kuker ploughs a  small   
patch of ground1 8bending his body to   
right and left in order to  indicate    
symbolically the ears of corn bending   
under the weight of the  grain40 ,the   
others lay hold of the man with whom the

 coin was found1 bind  him by the feet1 
and drag him over the land that has just
 been  ploughed47#igd7 ,in these        
observances the intention of promoting  
the  fertility of the ground is         
unmistakable2 the ploughman's imitation 
of the  cornstalks bending under their  
own weight is a simple case of          
homoeopathic  or imitative magic1 while 
the omens drawn from the occupation of  
the  person who obtains the piece of    
cake with the coin in it indicate that  
the  ceremony is designed to quicken the
 herds as well as the crops4 ,we can    
hardly doubt that the same serious      
motive underlies the seemingly wanton   
gestures of the principal actors and    
explains the loose character of the     
songs and words which accompany the     
ceremony4 ,nor is it hard to divine the 
reason for dragging over the fresh      
furrows the man who is lucky enough to  
get the coin in the cake4 ,he is        
probably looked on as an embodiment of  
the  corn-spirit1 and in that character 

is compelled to fertilise the ground by 
bodily contact with the newly-ploughed  
earth4    7,m#bdg7 ,similar customs are 
observed at the ,carnival not only by   
,bulgarian  peasants in ,thrace but also
 here and there in ,bulgaria itself4 ,in
 that  country the leading personage of 
the masquerade is the ,baba1 that is1   
the ,old ,woman or ,mother4 ,the part is
 played by a man in woman's clothes2    
she1 or rather he1 wears no mask1 but in
 many villages she carries a  spindle   
with which she spins4 ,the ,kuker and   
the ,kukerica also figure  in the       
performance1 but they are subordinate to
 the ,old ,woman or ,mother4  ,their    
costume varies in different villages4   
,usually they are clad in skins  with a 
girdle of lime-tree bark and five or six
 bells fastened to it2 on  their back   
they wear a hump made up of rags4 ,but  
the principal feature in  their attire  
consists of their masks1 which represent
 the heads of animals  and men in       
fantastic combinations1 such as the     

horned head of a man or a  bird1 the    
head of a ram1 a bull1 and so on4 ,much 
labour is spent on the  manufacture of  
these masks4 ,early in the morning of   
,cheese ,monday 7the  ,monday of the    
last week in ,carnival7 the mummers go  
about the village  levying              
contributions4 ,towards noon they form a
 procession and go from  house to house4
 ,in every house they dance a round     
dance1 while the ,old  ,woman spins4 ,it
 is believed that if any house-holder   
contrives to carry  off the ,old ,woman 
and secrete her1 a blessing and         
prosperity will enter  into his         
dwelling2 but the maskers defend the    
,old ,woman stoutly against  all such   
attempts of individuals to appropriate  
her beneficent presence4  ,after the    
dance the mummers receive gifts of      
money1 eggs1 meal1 and so on4  ,towards 
evening a round dance is danced in the  
village square1 and there  the ,old     
,woman yokes the ,kuker and ,kukerica to
 a plough1 ploughs with  it a small     

piece of ground1 and sows the ground    
with corn4 ,next day the  performers    
reassemble1 sell the presents they had  
collected1 and with the  produce hold a 
feast in the house of the ,old ,woman4  
,it is supposed that if  strange maskers
 make their way into a village1         
fertility will be drawn  away to the    
village from which they have come2 hence
 the villagers resist  an inroad of     
strange maskers at any price4 ,in       
general the people believe  that the    
masquerade is performed for the purpose 
of increasing the luck  and fertility of
 the village47#ige7    7,m#bdh7 ,in     
these ,bulgarian rites1 accordingly1 we 
are not left to form  conjectures as to 
the intention with which they are       
practised2 that  intention is plainly   
avowed1 and it is no other than the one 
which we have  inferred for the similar 
rites observed in ,thrace at the same   
season and  in ,england on ,plough      
,monday4 ,in all these cases it is      
reasonable to  suppose that the real aim

 of the ceremonial ploughing and sowing 
of the  ground is thereby1 on the       
principles of homoeopathic or imitative 
magic1  to ensure the growth of the corn
 on all the fields of the community4    
,perhaps we may go a step further and   
suggest that in the ,bulgarian ,old     
,woman or ,mother1 who guides the plough
 and sows the seed1 and whose  presence 
is believed to bring a blessing to any  
household that can  contrive to         
appropriate her1 we have the rustic     
prototype of ,demeter1 the              
,corn-,mother1 who in the likeness of an
 ,old ,woman brought a blessing to the  
house of ,celeus1 king of ,eleusis1 and 
restored their lost fertility to the    
fallow ,eleusinian fields4 ,and in the  
pair of mummers1 man and woman1 who     
draw the plough1 may we not discern the 
rude originals of ,pluto and            
,persephone8 ,if that is so1 the gods of
 ,greece are not wholly dead2 they      
still hide their diminished heads in the
 cottages of the peasantry1 to  come    

forth on sunshine holidays and parade1  
with a simple but expressive  pageantry1
 among a gazing crowd of rustics1 at the
 very moment of the year  when their    
help is most wanted by the husbandman4  
7,m#bdi7 ,be that as it may1 these rites
 still practised by the peasantry at    
opposite ends of ,europe1 no doubt date 
from an extremely early age in the      
history of agriculture4 ,they are       
probably far older than ,christianity1  
older even than those highly developed  
forms of ,greek religion with which     
ancient writers and artists have made us
 familiar1 but which have been for  so  
many centuries a thing of the past4     
,thus it happens that1 while the  fine  
flower of the religious consciousness in
 myth1 ritual1 and art is  fleeting and 
evanescent1 its simpler forms are       
comparatively stable and  permanent1    
being rooted deep in those principles of
 common minds which bid  fair to outlive
 all the splendid but transient         
creations of genius4 ,it may  be that   

the elaborate theologies1 the solemn    
rites1 the stately temples1  which now  
attract the reverence or the wonder of  
mankind1 are destined  themselves to    
pass away like 8all ,olympus' faded     
hierarchy10 and that  simple folk will  
still cherish the simple faiths of their
 nameless and  dateless forefathers1    
will still believe in witches and       
fairies1 in ghosts  and hobgoblins1 will
 still mumble the old spells and make   
the old magic  passes1 when the muezzin 
shall have ceased to call the faithful  
to prayer  from the minarets of ,st4    
,sophia1 and when the worshippers shall 
gather no  more in the long-drawn aisles
 of ,ntre ,dame and under the dome of   
,st4  ,peter's4            ,,note3 ,,the
 ,,ceremony ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,at     
,,rice-,,harvest ,,among ,,the ,,garos4 
7,m#bej7 ,among the ,garos1 an          
agricultural tribe of ,assam1 the close 
of the  rice-harvest is celebrated by a 
festival in which the effigy of a horse 
figures prominently4 ,the intention of  

the ceremony is not stated1 but         
possibly it may be to ensure a good rice
 crop in the following year4 ,if  so1   
the artificial horse of the ,garos would
 be analogous to the ,october  horse of 
the ,romans1 as that animal has been    
explained by ,w4 ,mannhardt4  ,for the  
sake of comparison it may be well to    
subjoin ,major ,a4 ,playfair's  account 
of the ,garo ceremony3--7#igf7          
7,m#bea7 8,when the rice harvest has    
been fully gathered in1 the great       
sacrifice and festival of the year1 the 
,wangala or ,gurwata1 takes  place4     
,this is the most festive observance of 
the year1 and combines  religious       
sacrifice with much conviviality4 ,it is
 celebrated by all  sections of the     
tribe except the ,duals and some ,plains
 ,garos4 ,the cost of  the entertainment
 falls principally on the nokma headman 
of the  village1 who provides a pig to  
be eaten by his guests1 and plenty of   
liquor4 ,among the ,akaws and ,chisaks  
of the north and north-eastern hills  a 

curious feature of the ceremony is the  
manufacture of gur or #8horses'  out of 
pieces of plantain-stem for the body1   
and of bamboo for the head  and legs4   
,the image of the #8horse' is laid on   
the floor of the nokma's  house1 and the
 assembled guests dance and sing around 
it the whole night  long1 with the usual
 intervals for refreshments4 ,early the 
next morning1  the #8horse' is taken to 
the nearest river and launched on the   
water to  find its way down stream on   
the current4 ,for those who possess the 
necessary paraphernalia1 the gur takes  
the shape of a horse's head of  large   
size1 made of straw1 and covered with   
cloth4 ,i once saw one in the  village  
of ,rongrong1 which1 when in use1 was   
ornamented with discs of  brass on both 
sides of the face4 ,its eyes and ears   
were made of the same  metal1 and       
between the ears were fixed a pair of   
wild goat's horns4 ,to the  head were   
attached a number of bronze bells       
similar to those hawked about  by       

,bhutia pedlars4 ,the owner1 a laskar1  
was unable to tell me whence  they came1
 but said that they were inherited from 
his wife's mother1 and  were many       
generations old4    7,m#beb7 8,the      
manner in which this form of gur is used
 is the following4  ,the head is mounted
 on a stick1 which a man holds before   
him in such a way  that the head comes  
up to the level of his chest4 ,two      
straps pass over his  shoulders to      
relieve his hands of the weight4 ,the   
body of the #8horse' is  then built     
round his own body with cane and cloth4 
,for a tail1 yak's tails  are fastened  
in with his own hair1 which1 for the    
occasion1 is allowed to  hang down      
instead of being tied up4 ,the performer
 thus apparelled1  commences to dance a 
shuffling step to the usual music4 ,in  
front of him  dances the priest1 who    
goes through the pantomime of beckoning 
the animal  to come to him4 ,the        
remaining guests of the nokma headman   
form a  queue behind the 'horse1' and   

dance after it4 ,when the first man gets
  tired1 another takes his place1 and   
the dancing goes on right through the   
night4 ,a pleasant part of the          
performance is the pelting of the gur   
with eggs4 ,a piece of egg-shell was    
still sticking to the horn of the  gur  
which was shown to me4    8,strictly    
speaking1 this festival should last for 
three days and two  nights4 ,when it is 
over1 the gur is taken to a stream and  
the body  thrown into the water1 the    
head being preserved for another year4  
,the  people who come to see it off1    
bring rice with them1 and a meal by the 
water's edge closes the proceedings4    
8,at the ,wangala1 it is the custom to  
mix flour with water1 and for the       
assembled people to dip their hands into
 the mixture and make white  hand-marks 
on the posts and walls of the house and 
on the backs of the  guests40           
7,m#bec7 ,can it be that the horse whose
 effigy is thus made at rice-harvest    
and thrown into the water1 while the    

head is kept for another year1          
represents the spirit of the rice8 ,if  
that were so1 the pelting of the  head  
with eggs would be a charm to ensure    
fertility and the throwing of it  into  
water would be a rain-charm4 ,and on the
 same theory the horse's head  would be 
comparable to the horse-headed ,demeter 
of ,phigalia7#igg7 as well  as to the   
head of the ,october horse at ,rome1    
which was nailed to a wall1  probably to
 be kept there till next ,october4 ,if  
we knew more about the  rites of the    
horse-headed ,demeter at ,phigalia1 we  
might find that amongst  them was a     
dance of a man or woman who wore the    
mask of a horse's head and  personated  
the goddess herself1 just as1 if ,i am  
right1 the man who dances  disguised as 
a horse at the harvest festival of the  
,garos1 represents the  spirit of the   
rice dancing among the garnered sheaves4
 ,the conjecture is  to some extent     
supported by the remains of the         
magnificent marble drapery1  which once 

adorned the colossal statue of ,demeter 
or ,persephone in the  sanctuary of the 
two goddesses at ,lycosura1 in ,arcadia2
 for on that  drapery are carved rows of
 semi-human1 semi-bestial figures       
dancing and  playing musical            
instruments2 the bodies of the figures  
are those of women1  but their heads1   
paws1 and feet are those of animals4    
,among the heads set  on the figures are
 those of a horse1 a pig1 a cat or a    
hare1 and  apparently an ass47#igh7 ,it 
is reasonable to suppose that these     
dancing  figures represent a ritual     
dance which was actually performed in   
the rites  of ,demeter and ,persephone  
by masked men or women1 who personated  
the  goddesses in their character of    
beasts4            ,,index4      ,ab1 a 
,jewish month1 i4 #bei n4 #a    ,ababu1 
a tribe of the ,congo1 ii4 #bhh         
,abchases of the ,caucasus1 ii4 #aje1   
#cac    ,abdication1 temporary1 of      
chief1 ii4 #ff1 #fh    ,aberdeenshire1  
harvest customs in1 i4 #aeh sqq4        

,abipones1 the1 of ,paraguay1 i4 #cjh1  
ii4 #adj    ,acagchemem tribe of        
,california1 ii4 #agj    ,achinese1 the1
 i4 #cae    ,acosta1 ,j4 de1 quoted1 i4 
#aga sq41 ii4 #hf sqq4    ,acropolis of 
,athens1 ii4 #dj sq4    ,actium1 games  
celebrated at1 i4 #hj1 #he    ,adair1   
,james1 ii4 #bfd    ,adeli1 the1 of the 
,slave ,coast1 ii4 #aaf    ,adonis1 i4  
#bad1 #baf1 #beh1 #bfc2    and the boar1
 ii4 #bb sq4    ,aegis1 ii4 #dj         
,aesculapius at ,pergamus1 ii4 #he      
,aeson and ,medea1 ii4 #adc    ,agbasia1
 a ,ewe god1 ii4 #ei1 #fj    ,agni1     
,indian god1 ii4 #abj    ,agnus castus1 
i4 #aaf n4 #b    ,agricultural year     
determined by observation of the        
,pleiades1 i4 #cac sqq4    ,agriculture1
 magical significance of games in       
primitive1 i4 #ib sqq42    origin of1   
#abh sq42    woman's part in primitive1 
#aac sqq4    ,aino1 the1 ii4 #add1 #bea1
 their ceremony at eating new millet1   
#eb2    their worship of eagle-owls1    
eagles1 and hawks1 #aii sq42    their   

propitiation of mice1 #bgh2    their    
ambiguous attitude towards the bear1    
#caj sq42    type of animal sacrament1  
#cab sq4    ---- of ,japan1 their custom
 of killing bears ceremonially1 ii4 #ahj
 sqq4    ---- of ,saghalien1 their      
bear-festivals1 ii4 #ahh sqq4    ,asawa 
or ,isowa1 order of saints in ,morocco1 
i4 #ba    ,ajumba hunter1 ii4 #bce      
,a-,kamba1 the1 ii4 #aac    ,alaskan    
hunters1 ii4 #bch    ,albania1 custom as
 to locusts and beetles in1 ii4 #bgi    
,alcyonian ,lake1 the1 i4 #ae    ,alder 
branches1 sacrificial1 ii4 #bcb         
,alectrona1 daughter of the ,sun1 ii4   
#de    ,alfoors of ,minahassa1 ii4 #ajj 
,alligators1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #big 
,all ,souls1 ,feast of1 i4 #cj    ,alur 
tribe1 ii4 #bad    ,alus1 custom at1 i4 
#be    ,amambwe1 the1 ii4 #bhg          
,amaxosa ,caffres1 ii4 #bbg    ,amazons 
of ,dahomey1 ii4 #adi    ,amazulu1 the1 
i4 #caf    ,amboyna1 ii4 #abc           
,amedzowe1 the spirit land1 ii4 #aje    
,amei ,awi1 i4 #ic    ,american         

,indians1 women's agricultural work     
among the1 i4 #abj sqq42    their       
ceremonies at hunting bears1 ii4 #bbd   
sqq42    personification of maize1 i4   
#aga sqq4    ,ammon1 ram sacrificed to1 
ii4 #da2    the ,theban1 #agb sq4       
,ancestors1 prayers to1 i4 #aje2        
images of1 ii4 #ec2    offerings to     
spirits of1 #aaa1 #aag1 #aai1 #aba1     
#abc1 #abd1 #abe    ,ancestral ,contest 
at the ,haloa1 i4 #fa2    at the        
,eleusinian ,games1 #ga1 #gd1 #gg2    at
 the ,festival of the ,threshing-floor1 
#ge    ,ancient deities of vegetation as
 animals1 ii4 #a sqq4    ,andaman       
,islanders1 ii4 #afd    ,andree1 ,dr4   
,richard1 i4 #cjg    ,angamis 7,angami71
 a ,naga tribe of ,assam1 i4 #bdd1 ii4  
#bia    ,angel dance1 the1 ii4 #cbh     
,angoni1 the1 ii4 #adi2    burial custom
 among the1 #ii    ,anhalt1 harvest     
customs in1 i4 #bbf1 #bcc1 #bgi         
,animal1 corn-spirit as an1 i4 #bgj     
sqq42    killing the divine1 ii4 #afi   
sqq42    worshipful1 killed once a year 

and promenaded from door to door1 #cbb  
,animal embodiments of the corn-spirit1 
on the1 i4 #cjc sqq4    ---- form1 god  
killed in1 i4 #bb sq4    ---- god1 two  
types of the custom of killing the1 ii4 
#cab sq4    ---- masks worn by ,egyptian
 kings1 i4 #bfj sq4    ---- sacrament1  
types of1 ii4 #caj sqq4    ,animals torn
 to pieces and devoured raw in religious
 rites1 i4 #bj sqq42    language of1    
acquired by eating serpent's flesh1 ii4 
#adf2    resurrection of1 #bjj sq41 #bef
 sqq42    and men1 savages fail to      
distinguish accurately between1 #bjd    
sqq42    wild1 propitiation of1 by      
hunters1 #bjd sqq42    bones of1 not to 
be broken1 #beh sq42    bones of1 not   
allowed to be gnawed by dogs1 #bei2     
savage faith in the immortality of1 #bfj
 sqq42    transmigration of human souls 
into1 #bhe sqq42    two forms of the    
worship of1 #caa2    processions with   
sacred1 #caf sqq4    ,anitos1 souls of  
ancestors1 ii4 #abd    ,anna ,kuari1 i4 
#bdd    ,anointing the body as a means  

of acquiring certain qualities1 ii4 #afb
              sqq4    ,antankarana tribe
 of ,madagascar1 ii4 #bij               
,anthesteria1 the1 i4 #cj sqq4          
,anthropomorphism1 i4 #bab    ,antinous1
 games in honour of1 i4 #hj1 #he        
,antiquity of the cultivation of the    
cereals in ,europe1 i4 #gi    ,antrim1  
harvest customs in1 i4 #add1 #aed sq4   
,ants1 superstitious precaution against 
the ravages of1 ii4 #bgf    ,apaches1   
the1 ii4 #bdb    ,apes1 ceremony after  
killing1 ii4 #bce sq4    ,apis1 sacred  
bull1 ii4 #cd sqq4    ,apollo surnamed  
,locust and ,mildew1 ii4 #bhb2    the   
,mouse1 #bhb sq42    ,wolfish1 #bhc sq4 
,apollonius of ,tyana1 ii4 #bhj         
,apologies offered by savages to the    
animals they kill1 ii4 #bae1 #bag1 #bah1
              #bba1 #bbb sqq41 #bce     
sqq41 #bdc    ,apple-tree1 straw-man    
placed on oldest1 ii4 #f    ,arabs1 ii4 
#adf1 #afd2    of ,moab1 harvest custom 
of the1 i4 #ach    ,arawak ,indians1 ii4
 #aed    ,arcturus1 i4 #dg n4 #b1 #ea1  

#eb    ,ardennes1 precautions against   
rats in the1 ii4 #bgg    ,argyleshire1  
harvest customs in1 i4 #aee sq4         
,ariadne1 ,cyprian worship of1 i4 #bji  
n4 #b    ,aricia1 many ,manii at1 ii4   
#id sqq42    sacred grove at1 #ie       
,arician grove1 horses excluded from1   
ii4 #dj sqq4    ,aristides1 the         
rhetorician1 on first-fruit offerings1  
i4 #ef2    on ,eleusinian ,games1 #ga   
,aristotle1 ,constitution of ,athens1 i4
 #gi2    on men of genius1 ii4 #cjb n4  
#e    ,arkansas ,indians1 ii4 #acd      
,arriaga1 ,j4 de1 i4 #agc n4    ,art1   
,demeter and ,persephone in1 i4 #dc sq4 
,artemis1 ,brauronian1 ii4 #da n4 #c    
,artemisia and ,mausolus1 ii4 #aeh      
,artemision1 a ,greek month1 ii4 #h     
,artificers1 worship of the1 ii4 #fj sq4
    ,aru ,islands1 ii4 #ade    ,aryans  
of ,europe1 agriculture among the early1
 i4 #abi sq42    totemism not proved for
 the1 ii4 #d    ,ash ,wednesday1 i4 #cjj
    ,ashantees1 the1 ii4 #adi2    their 
festivals of new yams1 #fb sq4    ,ashes

 as manure1 i4 #aag    ---- of dead     
swallowed1 ii4 #aef sqq42    smeared on 
mourner1 #afd2    of human victim       
scattered on earth to fertilise it1 i4  
#bdj2    scattered on fields1 #bdi1     
#bej1 #bea2    scattered with           
winnowing-fans1 #bfj1 #bfb    ,assam1   
ii4 #aaf2    agriculture in1 i4 #abc2   
genna in1 #aji n4 #b2    head-hunting   
in1 #bef    ,asses1 transmigration of   
sinners into1 ii4 #bii1 #cjh            
,assimilation of victims to gods1 i4    
#bfa sq42    of men to their totems or  
guardian animals1 ii4 #bjg sq4          
,assiniboins1 the1 ii4 #bbe    ,assinie1
 ,w4 ,african kingdom1 ii4 #fc          
,astronomy1 origin of1 i4 #cjg          
,asuras1 the1 ii4 #abj    ,athamanes1   
the1 of ,epirus1 i4 #abi    ,athamas1   
,king1 i4 #bd1 #be    ,athena1          
sacrifices to1 i4 #ef2    and the goat1 
ii4 #dj sq4    ,athens1 ,queen of1      
married to ,dionysus1 i4 #cj sq42       
called 8the ,metropolis of the ,corn10  
#eh2    ceremony at killing a wolf at1  

ii4 #bba2    the ,lyceum at1 #bhc1 #bhd 
,athletic competitions among harvesters1
 i4 #gf sq4    ,atonement to animals for
 wrong done to them1 ii4 #caj sq4       
,attic months lunar1 i4 #eb    ,attica1 
vintage custom in1 ii4 #acc    ,attis1  
i4 #b1 #ad1 #bad2    his relation to    
,lityerses1 #bee sq42    and the pig1   
ii4 #bb    ,attraction and repulsion1   
forces of1 ii4 #cjc sqq4    ,augustine1 
i4 #hh    ,augustus celebrates games at 
,actium1 i4 #hj    ,australia1 totemism 
in1 ii4 #caa    ---- ,northern1 ii4 #ade
    ,australian aborigines1 i4 #abf1    
#cjg sq42    their mutilations of the   
dead1 ii4 #bgb    ,australians1 the     
,central1 ii4 #afe    ,austria1 harvest 
customs in1 i4 #bgf1 #bib    ,awe1      
,loch1 i4 #adb    ,awemba1 the1 i4 #aae2
    of ,northern ,rhodesia1 ii4 #bgb sq4
    ,ayrshire1 harvest customs in1 i4   
#bgi    ,aztecs1 their festival at end  
of fifty-two years1 i4 #caj sq42        
eating the god among the1 ii4 #hf sqq4  
,baba or ,boba1 name given to last      

sheaf1 i4 #add sq42    8the ,old        
,woman10 at the ,carnival1 ii4 #ccb1    
#ccc    ,bacchanals of ,thrace1 i4 #ag  
,badagas1 the1 ii4 #ee    ,baden1       
harvest customs in1 i4 #bhc1 #bhf1 #bib1
 #bih    ,baganda1 the1 i4 #aah1 ii4    
#fd1 #gj n4 #a1 #bbg1 #bec1 #bga sq42   
their offerings of first-fruits1 #aac2  
their fear of the ghosts of animals1    
#bca sq4    ,bagobos1 the1 ii4 #abd2    
of ,mindanao1 i4 #bdj    ,bahaus or     
,kayans of central ,borneo1 i4 #ib sqq4 
,see ,kayans    ,bahima1 their belief in
 transmigration1 ii4 #bhh    ,bakongs1 a
 tribe of ,borneo1 ii4 #bid    ,bakundu 
of the ,cameroons1 burial custom of the1
 ii4 #ii    ,bali1 i4 #cad1 ii4 #bgh2   
rice spirit in1 i4 #bja sqq4    ,ball1  
game of1 played as a rite1 ii4 #gf1 #gi 
,balquhidder1 cutting the ,maiden at1 i4
 #aeg    ,balum1 spirits of the dead1 i4
 #ajd    ,ba-,mbala1 the1 i4 #aai       
,bananas1 cultivated by women1 i4 #aae1 
#aah2    cultivated in ,south ,america1 
#abj1 #aba2    cultivated in ,new       

,britain1 #abc2    cultivated in ,new   
,guinea1 #abc2    soul of dead man in1  
ii4 #bih    ,banars1 the1 of ,cambodia1 
ii4 #cc    ,bangala1 the1 i4 #aai       
,banks' islanders1 i4 #cac    ----      
,islands1 burial custom in the1 ii4 #ig 
,barley awarded as a prize in the       
,eleusinian games1 i4 #gc1 #gd1 #ge2    
oldest cereal cultivated by the ,aryans1
 #acb    ---- ,bride among the ,berbers1
 i4 #agh sq4    ---- -cow1 i4 #bhi1 #bij
    ---- -mother1 the1 i4 #aca1 #ace    
---- -sow1 i4 #bih    ---- -wolf1 i4    
#bga1 #bgc    ,baronga1 the1 ii4 #bhj2  
women's part in agriculture among the1  
i4 #aad sq4    ,barots1 the1 i4 #aae1   
ii4 #aei    ,bassari1 the1 ii4 #aaf     
,bassia latifolia1 ii4 #aai    ,bastian1
 ,adolph1 quoted1 ii4 #cac              
,basutoland1 i4 #aaf2    inoculation in1
 ii4 #aeh1 #afj    ,basutos1 the1 ii4   
#adh2    their customs as to the new    
corn1 #aaj    ,batari ,sri1 a goddess1  
i4 #bjb    ,batchelor1 ,rev4 ,j41 ii4   
#ahj n4 #b1 #ahb n4 #b1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahf

 n41 #aih1              #bja    ,bathing
 forbidden1 i4 #id    ,bats1 souls of   
dead in1 ii4 #bhg    ,battas or ,bataks 
of ,sumatra1 i4 #aif1 #cae1 ii4 #bic2   
their ceremonies at catching tigers1    
#baf sq4    ,battle1 mock1 ii4 #ge      
,bavaria1 harvest customs in1 i4 #adg1  
#bba sq41 #bcb1 #bhb1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhi1 
#bif1 #bih1 #bii    ,bean-cock1 i4 #bgf 
---- -goat1 i4 #bhb    ,beans1 ,spirit  
of1 i4 #agg2    cultivated in ,burma1   
#bdb2    forbidden as food by           
,empedocles1 ii4 #cja    ,bear1         
importance of the1 for people of        
,siberia1 ii4 #aia2    ambiguous        
attitude of the ,aino towards the1 #caj 
sq42    the corn-spirit as a1 #cbe sqq4 
---- -cats1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bid  
---- -dances1 ii4 #aia1 #aie    ----    
-festivals of the ,aino1 ii4 #ahb sqq42 
of the ,gilyaks1 #aij sqq42    of the   
,goldi1 #aig2    of the ,orotchis1 #aig 
---- -skin worn by woman dancer1 ii4    
#bbc    ---- the ,great1 constellation1 
i4 #cae    ,bear's liver1 i4 #ahg sq42  

heart eaten1 ii4 #adf    8,beard of     
,volos10 i4 #bcc    ,bears killed       
ceremonially by the ,aino1 ii4 #ahj     
sqq42    souls of dead in1 #bhf sq42    
processions with1 in ,europe1 #cbf n4 #c
    ---- slain1 propitiated by          
,kamtchatkans1 ,ostiaks1 ,koryak1       
,finns1 and ,lapps1              ii4    
#bbb sqq42    by ,american ,indians1    
#bbd sqq4    ,beating a man clad in a   
cow's hide1 ii4 #cbb sqq4    ---- boys  
with leg-bone of eagle-hawk1 ii4 #afe n4
 #b    ---- effigy of ox with rods in   
,china1 ii4 #aa sq4    ---- people for  
good luck1 i4 #cji    ,beavers1 their   
bones not allowed to be gnawed by dogs1 
ii4 #bch sqq4    ,bechuanas1 the1 i4    
#caf1 ii4 #bh1 #afd2    their ceremonies
 before eating the new fruits1 #fi sq42 
ceremony observed after a battle by the1
 #bga    ,beer in relation to ,dionysus1
 i4 #b n4 #a    ,bees1 transmigration of
 quiet people into1 ii4 #cjh            
,beetles1 superstitious precautions     
against1 ii4 #bgi1 #bhj    ,beggar1 name

 given to last sheaf1 i4 #bca sq4       
,beku1 the1 of ,west ,africa1 ii4 #afc  
,bells worn by mummers1 i4 #bf1 #bh1 ii4
 #ccb1 #ccc2    attached to hobby-horse1
 #ccg sq4    ,benin1 ii4 #fd2    human  
sacrifice at1 i4 #bdj    ,bera ,pennu1  
the ,earth ,goddess1 i4 #bde            
,berbers1 the ,barley ,bride among the1 
i4 #agh sq4    ,berosus1 ,babylonian    
historian1 i4 #beh sq4    ,berry1       
harvest customs in1 i4 #bib1 #bid       
,berwickshire1 harvest customs in1 i4   
#aec sq4    ,bessy1 one of the mummers  
on ,plough ,monday1 ii4 #cbi1 #cca      
,betsileo1 the1 of ,madagascar1 ii4     
#aaf2    their belief in the            
transmigration of souls1 #bhi sq4       
,bhils1 the1 of ,central ,india1 ii4 #bi
    ,bhmsen1 an ,indian deity1 ii4 #aah 
,bhumiya1 a ,himalayan deity1 ii4 #aag  
,bhutan1 ii4 #ajc    ,biennial cycle1 i4
 #hg    ---- festivals1 i4 #ad1 i4 #hf  
,binder of last sheaf represents the    
,corn-mother1 i4 #aej1 #bec    ,binders 
of corn1 contests between1 i4 #acf1     

#acg1 #ach1 #bah sq41 #bbj1 #bba1       
#bbb1 #bec    ,binding the corn1        
contests in1 i4 #bah sq4                
,binsenschneider1 i4 #bcj n4 #e         
,bird1 soul as a1 i4 #aha1 #ahb n4 #a2  
corn-spirit as a1 #bie sq4    ---- of   
prey1 inoculation with a1 ii4 #afb      
,birds1 migratory1 as representatives of
 a divinity1 i4 #bjd sq42    language   
of1 ii4 #adf2    tongues of1 eaten1 #adg
    ,birth of child on harvest-field1   
pretended1 i4 #aej sq4    ,bisaltae1 a  
,thracian tribe1 i4 #e    ,bizya in     
,thrace1 i4 #bf1 #cj    ,black ,drink1  
an emetic1 ii4 #gf    ---- ,goat-skin1  
in relation to ,dionysus1 i4 #ag        
,blackened faces1 i4 #bia1 #bii2    of  
actors1 #bg    ,blackfeet ,indians1 i4  
#caa1 ii4 #bcf    ,bladders of          
sea-beasts returned by the ,esquimaux to
 the sea1 ii4 #bdg              sqq4    
,blindfolded1 reapers1 i4 #add1 #aec sq4
    ,blood drawn from men as a religious
 rite1 ii4 #ge1 #ia sq42    as a means  
of communion with a deity1 #caf    ---- 

of bear drunk1 ii4 #adf    ---- of      
beavers not allowed to fall on ground1  
ii4 #bdj n4 #b    ---- of dragon1 ii4   
#adf    ---- of human victim sprinkled  
on seed1 i4 #bci1 #bea2    scattered on 
field1 #bdd1 #bea    ---- of lamb       
sprinkled on people1 ii4 #cae    ---- of
 slain men tasted by their slayers1 ii4 
#aed sqq4    ,blood-covenant1 ii4 #aed  
sqq4    ,boa-constrictor1 soul of a1 ii4
 #bif    ,boa-constrictors1 souls of    
dead in1 ii4 #bhi sq4    ,boar1         
corn-spirit as1 i4 #bih sqq42    the    
,yule1 #cjj sqq41 #cjb sq42    and      
,adonis1 ii4 #bb sq4    ,boars1 wild1   
their ravages in the corn1 ii4 #ca sqq4 
,boba or ,baba1 name given to the last  
sheaf1 i4 #add sq4    ,bock1 ,c41       
quoted1 i4 #h    ,boedromion1 an ,attic 
month1 i4 #eb1 #gg    ,bogadjim in      
,german ,new ,guinea1 ii4 #bea          
,bohemia1 harvest customs in1 i4 #ach1  
#ade1 #adi1 #aej1 #bbe sq41 #bcb1 #bhf1 
#bhi2    ,carnival custom in1 ii4 #cbe2 
custom as to mice in1 #bgi1 #bhc        

,bhmer ,wald ,mountains1 i4 #bhd        
,bolivia1 ii4 #bce1 #bhf    ,bombay1    
burial custom in1 ii4 #ajj    ,bone of  
old animal eaten to make the eater old1 
ii4 #adc    ,bones and skulls of enemies
 destroyed1 ii4 #bfj    ---- of animals 
preserved in order that the animals may 
come to life again1              ii4    
#bef sqq42    burned or thrown into     
water1 #beg2    not to be broken1 #beh  
sq42    not allowed to be gnawed by     
dogs1 #bbe1 #bch sqq41 #bdc1 #bei       
---- of the dead1 virtues acquired by   
contact with the1 ii4 #aec sq42         
preserved for the resurrection1 #bei    
---- of deer not given to the dogs1 ii4 
#bda1 #bdb1 #bdc    ---- of fish not    
burned1 ii4 #bej1 #bea2    thrown into  
the sea or a river1 #bej1 #bed2    not  
to be broken1 #bee    ,bontoc1 province 
of ,luzon1 i4 #bdj    ,bordeaux1 harvest
 custom at1 i4 #bia    ,bormus or       
,borimus1 i4 #baf1 #beg1 #bfd           
,borneo1 ii4 #abb2    agricultural      
communities of central1 i4 #ib          

,bororos1 the1 of ,brazil1 ii4 #ga sq41 
#bjh    ,boscana1 ,father ,g41 ii4 #afi2
    quoted1 i4 #abe    ,botocudos1 the1 
of ,brazil1 ii4 #aef    ,bougainville   
,straits1 i4 #cac    ,bouphonia1 ii4 #d 
sqq4    ,bouphonion1 a ,greek month1 ii4
 #f n4    ,bourbourg1 ,brasseur de1 i4  
#bcg    ,bourke1 ,captain ,j4 ,g41 ii4  
#agh n4 #d    ,bouzygai1 the1 at        
,eleusis1 i4 #ajh    ,boxing1 i4 #ga n4 
#e1 ii4 #aca    ,brahman boys           
sacrificed1 i4 #bdd    ,brahmans1 the1  
on transubstantiation1 ii4 #hi          
,brain1 drippings of1 used to acquire   
wisdom of dead1 ii4 #afc sq4    ,brains 
of enemies eaten1 ii4 #aeb    ,brand1   
,john1 quoted1 i4 #adf    ,brazen       
serpent1 the1 ii4 #bha    ,brazil1      
,indians of1 i4 #aaa1 ii4 #bce2    their
 flesh diet1 ii4 #aci    ,bridal pair at
 rice-harvest in ,java1 i4 #bjj sq4     
,bride1 name given to last sheaf1 i4    
#afb1 #afc    ,british ,columbia1       
,indians of1 ii4 #bec    ,brittany1     
harvest customs in1 i4 #ace    ,bromios1

 epithet of ,dionysus1 i4 #b n4 #a      
,brooke1 ,rajah1 ii4 #baa    ,brown1    
,dr4 ,burton1 ii4 #ajj n4 #b    ,bubui  
river1 in ,new ,guinea1 ii4 #bie        
,buckwheat cultivated in ,burma1 i4 #bdb
    ,bucolium at ,athens1 i4 #cj        
,buddha1 transmigrations of1 ii4 #bii1  
#cja    ,budge1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis1 i4
 #bei n4 #c1 #bfj n4 #b    ,buffalo     
sacrificed for human victim1 i4 #bdi    
,buffaloes1 propitiation of dead1 ii4   
#bbi1 #bca2    their death bewailed1    
#bdb2    revered by the ,todas1 #cad    
,bukaua1 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1  
i4 #ajc1 #aje1 #cac1 ii4 #abd           
,bulawayo1 ii4 #gj    ,bulgarians1 the  
,carnival among the1 ii4 #cca sqq4      
,bull1 corn-spirit as1 i4 #bhh sqq41 ii4
 #h2    in relation to ,dionysus1 i4 #af
 sq41 #ca    ----1 live1 torn to pieces 
in rites of ,dionysus1 i4 #ae1 #ag1 ii4 
#af    ----1 sacrifice of1 ii4 #fh n4   
#c2    at ,magnesia1 #g sq42    in      
,mithraic religion1 #aj2    at tomb of  
dead chief1 #aac    ---- -fights1 ii4   

#ff    ---- -roarers1 i4 #ai n4 #a1 ii4 
#bie2    as magical instruments1 i4     
#ajd1 #ajf sq41 #aaj    ---- -shaped    
deities1 i4 #c sqq4    ,bulls1 sacred1  
of ancient ,egypt1 ii4 #cd sqq4         
,burghers or ,badagas1 the1 ii4 #ee     
,burial rites intended to deceive ghosts
 or demons1 ii4 #ig sqq4    ,burials1   
fictitious1 to divert the attention of  
demons from the real                    
burials1 ii4 #ih sqq4    ,buring ,une1 a
 goddess1 i4 #ic    ,burma1 ii4 #aaf2   
securing the rice-soul in1 i4 #aij sq42 
custom at threshing rice in1 #bjc sq42  
head-hunting in1 i4 #bef    ,burmese    
cure1 ii4 #ajc    ,burne1 ,miss ,c4 ,s41
 i4 #bff    ,burning last sheaf of corn1
 i4 #adf    ---- the ,old ,witch1 i4    
#bbd    ,buru1 island1 ii4 #ed1 #ade    
,bush negroes of ,surinam1 ii4 #bf      
,bushmen1 ii4 #bi1 #bjf1 #bff n4 #a2    
their customs as to diet1 #adj sq4      
,busiris1 i4 #bei sq4    ,busk1 festival
 of first-fruits1 ii4 #gb    ,butea     
frondosa1 ii4 #aai    ,butterflies1     

souls of dead in1 ii4 #bij1 #bia1 #bif  
sq4    ,butterfly of the rice1 i4 #aij  
,button snake root1 emetic made from1   
ii4 #gc1 #ge    ,buzzard1 killing the   
sacred1 ii4 #afi sqq4    ,caffre        
elephant-hunters1 ii4 #bbg    ,caffres1 
their festival of new fruits1 ii4 #fd   
sqq42    their custom of fumigating     
infants1 #aff sq42    of ,south ,africa1
 their observation of the ,pleiades1 i4 
#cae2    of the ,zambesi region1 ii4    
#bhi    ,cailleach 7,old ,wife71 name   
given to last corn cut1 i4 #adj sqq41   
#afd              sqq4    ,caingua      
,indians of ,paraguay1 ii4 #bhe         
,cakes in obscene shapes1 i4 #fb        
,calabash1 ceremony of breaking the1 ii4
 #fh n4 #c    ,calabria1 custom observed
 by murderers in1 ii4 #aef    ,calendar1
 regulation of1 an affair of religion1  
i4 #hc2    the ,roman1 #hc sq42         
primitive1 #abe sq4    ,calendars1 the  
,pleiades in primitive1 i4 #cjg sqq4    
,calf sacrificed to ,dionysus1 i4 #cc2  
killed at harvest1 #bij2    sacrifice of

 buffalo1 ii4 #cad    ,california1      
,indians of1 i4 #abe1 ii4 #afi1 #bhf    
,californian missions1 the ,spanish1 ii4
 #aga n4 #a    ,callaway1 ,rev4 ,h41 i4 
#caf    ,callias1 the ,eleusinian       
,torch-bearer1 i4 #ed1 #gc n4 #c        
,cambodia1 ii4 #ajc    ,cameron1 ,hugh  
,e41 i4 #afb n4 #c    ,campbell1 ,major 
,j41 i4 #bdh1 #bej    ,campbell1 ,rev4  
,j4 ,g41 i4 #adj    ,cancer1 ,tropic of1
 i4 #abe    ,candlemas1 i4 #cjj         
,canelos ,indians of ,ecuador1 ii4 #bhe 
,cannibal orgies1 i4 #ah sqq4    ----   
,spirit1 i4 #ba    ,cannibals1 a secret 
society of the ,kwakiutl ,indians1 i4   
#bj    ,canopus1 i4 #cjh    ,capricorn1 
,tropic of1 i4 #abe    ,carcassone1     
hunting the wren at1 ii4 #cbj sq4       
,carian ,chersonese1 ii4 #he    ,carib  
warriors1 ii4 #afb    ,caribs1 the1 i4  
#abj1 ii4 #aci    ,carinthia1 harvest   
custom in1 i4 #bbd sq4    ,carley1 the1 
i4 #add    ,carlin or ,carline1 the1 i4 
#adj    ,carnival1 modern ,thracian     
drama at the1 i4 #bf sqq41 ii4 #cca     

---- ,bear1 ii4 #cbe    ---- custom in  
,bohemia1 ii4 #cbe    ,carolina1        
,indians of1 ii4 #bag    ,carrier       
,indians1 ii4 #bch sq4    ,cassava      
7manioc7 bread1 i4 #abj sq4             
,cassowaries1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bie
    ,cassowary totem1 ii4 #bjg          
,castabus1 ii4 #he    ,cat1 corn-spirit 
as1 i4 #bhj sq42    killed at harvest1  
i4 #bha    ,cat's cradle1 i4 #aja1 #ajc 
---- tail1 name given to last standing  
corn1 i4 #bfh    ,catalangans1 the1 ii4 
#abd    ,caterpillars1 superstitious    
precautions against1 ii4 #bge sq41 #bgi1
 #bhj    ,catholic custom of eating     
effigies of the ,madonna1 ii4 #id       
,cattle1 last sheaf given to1 i4 #acd1  
#aee1 #aeh1 #afa1 #agj2    7plough oxen7
 ,yule or ,christmas ,boar given to1    
the1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cjc2    worship of1   
ii4 #ce1 #cg sqq42    first-fruits      
offered to1 #aah    ,caul-fat1 human1   
rubbed on body1 ii4 #afb    ,cayenne1   
,indians of1 #bhe sqq4    ,celebes1 i4  
#cac1 ii4 #ed1 #abb1 #abc2              

precautions against mice in1 #bgg       
,celeus1 king of ,eleusis1 i4 #cg       
,censorinus1 i4 #hf1 #hg    ,central    
,provinces of ,india1 ii4 #aah sq4      
,ceram1 ii4 #ed1 #abc    ,cereal deity1 
ii4 #eb1 #hc    ,cereals in ,europe1    
antiquity of the cultivation of1 i4 #gi2
    cultivated by the early ,aryans1    
#acb    ,ceremony of the ,horse at      
rice-harvest among the ,garos1 ii4 #ccg 
sqq4    ,ceres1 i4 #db2    festival of1 
#big n4 #e2    the1 in ,france1 #ace2   
,roman sacrifices to1 ii4 #acc          
,chadwars1 the1 ii4 #bh    ,chaka1 ,zulu
 despot1 ii4 #fg    ,chambry1 harvest   
customs at1 i4 #bge1 #bhh1 #bia sq4     
,chams1 the1 of ,indo-,china1 ii4 #bhc2 
their agricultural ceremonies1 #ef sqq42
    their belief in transmigration1 #bia
 sq4    ,changes of shape1 magical1 i4  
#cje    ,chasas1 the1 of ,orissa1 ii4   
#bf    8,chasms of ,demeter and         
,persephone10 ii4 #ag    ,chastity      
required in sower of seed1 i4 #aae sq42 
of hunter before hunting bears1 ii4 #bbf

    ,chateaubriand1 his description of  
the ,natchez festival1 ii4 #ace sqq4    
,cheese ,monday1 i4 #bf1 ii4 #ccc       
,cheremiss1 the1 ii4 #ea    ,cherokee   
hunters1 ii4 #bcf1 #bda    ----         
mythology1 ii4 #bjd sq4    ,cherokees1  
the1 ii4 #gb n4 #b1 #aci1 #bbj2    their
 respect for rattlesnakes1 #bah sq42    
their custom of removing the hamstring  
of deer1 #bff    ,chicome couatl1       
,mexican ,maize-goddess i4 #agf         
,chief1 sacred1 ii4 #bh2    acting as   
priest1 #abf2    sacrifices to dead1    
#aac    ,chiefs1 spirits of dead1 give  
rain1 ii4 #aji2    deified after death1 
#abe2    souls of dead1 in lions1 #bhg  
sq4    ,child born on harvest-field1    
pretence of1 i4 #aej sq4    ,childbed1  
deceiving the ghosts of women who have  
died in1 ii4 #ig sq4    ,children at    
birth placed in winnowing-fans1 i4 #f   
sqq42    guarded against evil spirits1  
#f sqq42    employed to sow seed1 #aae  
sq42    sacrificed at harvest1 #bcf     
,china1 ceremony at beginning of spring 

in1 ii4 #aj sqq4    ,chinese1 their     
theory as to courage1 ii4 #ade sq4      
---- of ,amoy1 their use of effigies1   
ii4 #ajd    ---- ceremony of ploughing1 
ii4 #ad sq4    ---- use of sieve or     
winnowing-fan1 i4 #f1 #i sq4            
,chinigchinich1 a ,californian god1 ii4 
#agj    ,chinna ,kimedy1 i4 #bdg1 #bdi  
,chins1 the1 of ,upper ,burma1 ii4 #aba 
,chiquites of ,paraguay1 ii4 #bda       
,chiriguanos1 the1 ,indians of ,bolivia1
 ii4 #adj1 #bhf    ,chota ,nagpur1 i4   
#bdd    ,christmas1 i4 #acd2    boar    
sacrificed at1 #cjb4 ,see also ,yule    
---- ,day1 ii4 #cai1 #cbj    ---- drama1
 ii4 #cbg sq4    ---- ,eve1 i4 #cjb1 ii4
 #cah1 #cba    ,chuckchees1 the1 ii4    
#bba    ,churn1 last corn cut1 i4 #aea1 
#aec1 #aed sq4    ,cicero1 on the gift  
of the corn1 i4 #eh2    on              
transubstantiation1 ii4 #afg            
,cinteotl1 ,mexican ,maize-god1 i4 #agf 
,circumcision1 i4 #caf1 ii4 #aec        
,clarke1 ,e4 ,d41 at ,eleusis1 i4 #fd2  
quoted1 #adf    ,clement of ,alexandria 

on the ,eleusinian mysteries1 i4 #ci    
,cleostratus of ,tenedos1 i4 #ha        
,clyack-kebback1 i4 #afj    ,clyack     
sheaf1 i4 #aeh sqq41 ii4 #dc            
,cnossus1 i4 #hb1 #he    ,cobra-capella1
 guardian-deity of ,issapoo1 ii4 #agd   
,cochin ,china1 tigers respected in1 ii4
 #bag    ,cock1 corn-spirit as1 i4 #bgf 
sqq42    killed on harvest field1 #bgg  
sq42    white1 sacrificed1 ii4 #aag1    
#aah    ---- -sheaf1 i4 #bgf            
,cogiour1 a sacred pontiff1 ii4 #aad    
,cohabitation of husband and wife       
enjoined as a matter of ritual1 ii4 #fi1
              #gj n4 #a    ,colluinn1   
custom of beating a cow's hide1 ii4     
#cbc1 #cbd    ,colombian ,indians1 ii4  
#bhf    ,communal taboos1 i4 #aji n4 #b 
,communion with deity1 ii4 #hc1 #cbe    
,compitalia1 a ,roman festival1 ii4 #id1
 #if1 #ajg    ,complexity of religious  
phenomena1 ii4 #cf    ,confession of    
sin1 ii4 #fi    ,congo1 the ,lower1 i4  
#aae2    the ,upper1 #aai               
,conjunction of sun and moon1 ii4 #ae n4

 #a    ,conservation of energy1 ii4 #bfb
    ,constantinople protected against   
flies and gnats1 ii4 #bha    ,contact   
with sacred things is deemed dangerous1 
ii4 #bg sqq4    ---- between certain    
foods in stomach of eater forbidden1 ii4
 #hc sqq41 #ij    ,contest1 ,ancestral1 
at the ,eleusinian ,games1 i4 #ga1 #gd1 
#gg    ,contests for possession of the  
corn-spirit1 i4 #gd sq41 #ahj2          
between binders of corn1 #acf1 #acg1    
#ach1 #bah sq41 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bec2 
between reapers1 #gd sq41 #acf1 #adj1   
#ada1 #adb1 #add1 #aeb1 #aec sq41 #afd  
sq41 #bai1 #bec2    between threshers1  
#adg sqq41 #bah1 #bai sq41 #bba sq41    
#bbc sq41 #bec    ,continence1          
ceremonial1 ii4 #ge1 #ha1 #ic2          
prescribed at festival1 #bdh    ---- and
 fasting1 ii4 #ad    ,coomassie1 ii4    
#fb1 #fc    ,coorgs1 the1 ii4 #ee       
,corea1 ii4 #abb2    use of effigies in1
 #aje    ,corn1 ear of1 revealed to     
initiates at the rites of ,eleusis1 i4  
#ch2    personified as ,demeter1 #db2   

first-fruits of1 offered to ,demeter and
 ,persephone at ,eleusis1 #ec           
sqq42    first bestowed on the          
,athenians by ,demeter1 #ed2            
personified as female1 #acj2    wreath  
of1 #acd2    double personification of1 
as mother and daughter1 #bjg sqq42      
the first corn cut1 customs connected   
with1 #bad sq42    the new1 eaten       
sacramentally1 ii4 #dh sqq42    sanctity
 of the1 #aaj    ---- and poppies as    
symbols of ,demeter1 i4 #dc sq4    ---- 
,baby1 i4 #aeb1 #bib    ---- -bull1 i4  
#bia    ---- -cow1 i4 #bhi    ----      
-ears1 ,queen of the1 i4 #adf2    crown 
of1 #afc1 #bba1 #bhc    ---- -fool1 i4  
#adh    ---- -goat1 i4 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhf1
 #bhg    ---- -maiden1 i4 #aej2    in   
,northern ,europe1 #abi sqq4    ----    
-mallet at threshing1 i4 #adh    ----   
-man1 i4 #bbc2    the goal of a women's 
race at harvest1 #gf sq4                
,corn-mother1 i4 #aej2    in ,northern  
,europe1 #aca sqq42    in last sheaf1   
#acc sqq42    in ,america1 #aga sqq42   

in many lands1 #aga sqq4    ---- -pug1  
i4 #bgc    ---- -reapers1 songs of the1 
i4 #bad sqq4    ---- -sow1 i4 #bih      
,corn-spirit1 contests for possession of
 the1 i4 #gd sq41 #ahj2    conceived as 
old1 #acf sqq42    in last sheaf        
threshed1 i4 #aci1 #adg1 #afh1 ii4 #dh2 
represented in duplicate1 i4 #aci2      
conceived as young1 #aej sqq42    as    
,bride and ,bridegroom1 #afb sqq42    as
 male and female1 #afd1 ii4 #i2    as   
female1 both old and young1 i4 #afd     
sqq42    represented by person who cuts1
 binds1 or threshes the last corn1 #afg 
sq41 #bbj sqq41 #bcf1 #bec sq42         
fertilising influence of1 #afh2    its  
influence on women1 #afh2    represented
 by human beings1 #afh1 #bjd sqq41 ii4  
#ccc2    in form of an old man1 i4 #bjf 
sq42    in first corn cut1 #bae2        
personal representative of1 killed in   
mimicry1 #baf2    killing the1 #baf     
sqq41 #bbc sqq42    represented by a    
puppet1 #bbd2    represented by a       
stranger1 #bbe sqq42    conceived as    

poor and robbed by the reapers1 #bca    
sqq42    slain in his human             
representatives1 #bea sqq42    the neck 
of the1 #bfh2    as animal1 #bgj sqq42  
on the animal embodiments of the1 #cjc  
sqq42    as wolf or dog1 #bga1 sqq41 ii4
 #cbg2    the tail of the1 i4 #bfh1     
#bgb1 #cjj1 ii4 #aj1 #dc2    as cock1 i4
 #bgf sqq41 #bgg sq42    as hare1 #bgi  
sq42    as cat1 #bhj sq42    as goat1   
#bha sqq41 ii4 #cbg2    lame1 i4 #bhd2  
slain in the form of a goat1 #bhd sq41  
#bhg2    as bull1 cow1 or ox1 #bhh sqq41
 ii4 #h2    killed in form of bull1 i4  
#bij1 #bia sq42    killed at threshing1 
#bia sq42    as horse or mare1 #bib     
sqq42    in form of calf1 #bib2    as a 
bird1 #bie2    as fox1 #bif sq42    as  
pig 7boar1 sow71 #bih sqq42             
represented by an ox1 ii4 #i sqq42      
killed in animal form and eaten         
sacramentally1 #bj2    as a bear1 #cbe  
sqq42    represented dramatically1 #cbe2
    as a boar1 #cbh2    represented by a
 man called the ,straw-bear1 #cbi       

---- -stalks1 harvesters wrapt up in1 i4
 #bbj sqq4    ---- -wolf1 i4 #bgb1 #bgc1
 #bge    ---- -woman1 i4 #bcj1 #bcc2    
at threshing1 #adi    ,corners of fields
 not to be reaped1 i4 #bcd sq4          
,corpus ,christi ,day1 i4 #caj    ,cos1 
harvest-home in1 i4 #dg    ,cotton1     
treatment of first cotton picked1 ii4   
#aai    ,courage seated in gall-bladder1
 ii4 #ade sq4    ,cow1 corn-spirit as1  
i4 #bhh sqq4    ,cow's hide1 thresher of
 last corn wrapt in1 i4 #bia2    custom 
of beating the1 ii4 #cbb sqq4    ,cows  
milked by women1 i4 #aah2    and their  
milk1 superstitions as to1 ii4 #hd n4 #a
 and #b    ,cranes1 trumpeting of the1  
signal for ploughing1 i4 #de    ,creek  
,indians1 ii4 #gb1 #aci    ,cretan      
festival of ,dionysus1 i4 #ad sq4       
---- myth of ,dionysus1 i4 #ac          
,crete1 ancient seat of worship of      
,demeter1 i4 #aca2    pig not eaten in1 
ii4 #ba n4 #a    ,cries of reapers1 i4  
#bfc sqq4    ,cripple ,goat1 the1 i4    
#bhd    ,crocodile1 clay image of1 ii4  

#bgi    ---- -catchers1 rules observed  
by1 ii4 #bji sq4    ,crocodiles hunted  
by savages for their flesh1 ii4 #bjh n4 
#b2    often spared by savages out of   
respect1 #bjh sqq42    ceremonies       
observed at catching1 #bji sqq42        
kinship of men with1 #bab sq41 #bad sq42
    respected in ,africa and            
,madagascar1 #bac sqq42    sacred at    
,dix ,cove1 #bhg2    souls of dead in1  
#bhi1 #bij1 #bia1 #bie    ,cronion1 a   
,greek month1 ii4 #g1 #h n4 #a          
,crooke1 ,w41 i4 #aah n41 #bcd n4 #b1   
ii4 #ef n4 #c    ,crops1 charms and     
spells for growth of1 i4 #ajj2          
rotation of1 #aag2    human sacrifices  
for the1 #bcf sqq4    ,cross ,river     
natives1 ii4 #aae    ,crow1 head of1    
eaten to prolong life1 ii4 #adc2        
transmigration of sinner into1 #bii     
---- ,song1 the ,greek1 ii4 #cbb n4     
,crown of corn-ears1 i4 #afc1 #bba1     
#bhc2    worn by ,demeter and           
,persephone1 #dc    8,crying the ,mare0 
in ,hertfordshire1 i4 #bib sq42    in   

,shropshire1 #bic    8,crying the neck10
 i4 #bfd sqq4    ,cultivation1 shifting1
 i4 #ii2    see ,agriculture    8,cup of
 offering10 ii4 #ahd    ,curcho1 old    
,prussian god1 ii4 #acc    ,curetes1    
their war-dance1 i4 #ac    ,curses      
uttered by ,bouzygai1 i4 #ajh           
,cuscuses1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bif1  
#bih    ,cushing1 ,frank ,h41 quoted1   
ii4 #age sqq4    ,cuzco1 i4 #caj        
,cycle1 the octennial in ,greece1 i4 #hj
 sqq4    ,cynaetha1 i4 #af    ,cyzicus1 
i4 #af    ,dacotas1 the1 ii4 #bef       
,dama1 island of1 ii4 #aja              
,damatrius1 a ,boeotian month1 i4 #df   
,dance at harvest supper1 i4 #acd1 #ace1
 #ade2    of harvesters with or round   
the last sheaf1 #ace1 #ada1 #ade1 #afj1 
#bai1 #bbj                sq42    of    
masked men before sowing1 #ahf2    of   
,dyaks to secure soul of rice1 #ahh sq42
    of old women as representatives of  
the corn-goddess1 #bje2    ,pawnee1     
before human sacrifice1 #bch2    before 
the king at ceremony of first-fruits1   

ii4 #gj sq42    of ,zulu king1 #ff1 #fh 
n4 #c2    of medicine-man1 #gb2    the  
,green ,corn ,dance1 #gf2    war1 #gi2  
by torchlight1 #gi2    of ,kansas       
,indians1 #ade    8the angel dance10    
#cbh2    of mummers at ,carnival1 #ccc1 
#ccd2    of mummer wearing a            
horse-headed mask1 #cch    ,dances1 i4  
#bdf1 #bdg2    at sowing festival1 #ie2 
masked1 #ie sq41 #aaa1 #ahf1 ii4 #bjh n4
 #a2    at the reappearance of the      
,pleiades1 i4 #cjg1 #cji1 #caa1 #cab1   
#cag2    in imitation of totemic        
animals1 ii4 #gf2    ,mexican1 #hh2     
in connexion with offerings of          
first-fruits1 #aac1 #aaf1 #abf1 #aca1   
#acd2    of men personifying deities1   
#agi2    of women at bear-festival1     
#ahe1 #ahf sq41 #aia1 #aie2    of women 
at catching a crocodile1 #baa2    round 
dead tigers1 #baf2    of the ,koryak at 
the slaughter of bears or wolves1 #bbc2 
in honour of slain leopards1 #bbh2    of
 ,koryak women at slaughter of whales1  
#bcb sq42    to amuse the souls of dead 

sea-beasts1 #bdh2    of ,shrovetide     
,bear1 #cbe sq42    to make the crops   
thrive1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #ccj sq42    of     
masked men and women in ritual1 #cci    
,dancing for salmon1 ii4 #bee    ,danger
 ,island1 i4 #cab    ,danzig1 harvest   
customs at1 i4 #acc1 #bah sq4           
,darfur1 ii4 #adg    ,darwin and        
,empedocles1 ii4 #cjf                   
,daughter-in-law in ritual1 ii4 #aba sq4
    ,dawkins1 ,r4 ,m41 i4 #be n4 #d1 #bi
 n4 #b    ,dead1 rebirth of the1 i4 #hd2
    fear of the1 ii4 #cf sq42    souls  
of the1 #fd2    festival in honour of1  
at end of harvest1 #aaj2    buried in   
the houses1 #aae2    bones of the1 #aec 
sq42    mourners rub themselves with the
 fat or putrefying juices of the1 #afb  
sq42    souls of the human1 supposed to 
be in caterpillars1 #bge sq42 and in    
other animals1 #bhe sqq4    ---- men    
mutilated in order to disable their     
ghosts1 ii4 #bga sqq4    ---- spirits of
 the1 supposed to influence the crops1  
i4 #ajd2    give rain1 ii4 #aji sq42    

first-fruits offered to1 #aji sq41 #aaa 
sqq41 #aae1 #aaf1 #aai1 #aba1 #abc1     
#abd sqq42    prayers to1 #aab1 #aac1   
#abd sq42    in trees1 #aac    ,deane1  
,mrs4 ,j4 ,h41 ii4 #cai n4 #b    ,death 
and resurrection of the gods1 i4 #a1 #ab
 sqq41 #ae    ---- pollution of1 ii4 #he
 n4 #c    ,deer1 flesh of1 eaten to     
prolong life or to avoid fever1 ii4     
#adc2    not eaten by warriors1 #add2   
treated with respect by ,american       
,indians1 #bdj sqq42    their bones not 
given to dogs1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc2        
,indian custom of cutting out the sinew 
of the thighs of1 #bfd sqq42    souls of
 dead in1 #bhf1 #bic sq4    ,deiseil or 
deiseal1 according to the course of the 
sun1 ii4 #cbc1 #cbd    ,deities of      
vegetation as animals1 ii4 #a sqq4      
,deity1 communion with1 ii4 #cbe        
,delagoa ,bay1 i4 #aad1 ii4 #bhj        
,delaware ,indians1 ii4 #bah    ,delphi1
 grave of ,dionysus at1 i4 #ad          
,delphic oracle1 i4 #ee1 #eh            
,demeter1 mother of ,dionysus by ,zeus1 

i4 #ad1 #ff2    ,homeric ,hymn to1 #ce  
sqq41 #gj2    a personification of the  
corn1 #ci1 #dj sq42    distinguished    
from the ,earth-goddess1 #da1 #dc2    at
 the threshing-floor1 #da sq41 #dg2     
in art1 #dc sq41 #hh sq42    offering of
 first-fruits to1 #df sqq42    surnamed 
,proerosia1 #ea2    bestows corn on the 
,athenians1 #ed2    worshipped in       
,sicily1 #ef sqq42    bestows corn on   
the ,sicilians1 #ef sq42    sacrifices  
to her at sowing1 #eg2    associated    
with seed-corn1 #eh2    her epithets1   
#fc sq42    her image at ,eleusis1 #fd2 
her intrigue with ,zeus1 #ff2           
etymology of name1 #aca2    in relation 
to the pig1 ii4 #af sqq42               
horse-headed1 of ,phigalia1 #ba1 #cch2  
rustic prototype of1 #ccd    ---- and   
,iasion1 i4 #bjh    ---- and ,pelops1   
ii4 #bfc    ---- and ,persephone1 i4 #ce
 sqq42    resemblance of their artistic 
types1 #fg sq42    their essential      
identity1 #ij2    associated with death 
and immortality1 #ij sq42    double     

personification of the corn as1 #bjh    
sqq4    ---- and ,zeus1 ii4 #i2         
marriage of1 i4 #fe sqq4    ---- ,black1
 i4 #bfc2    of ,phigalia1 ii4 #ba      
---- ,green1 i4 #db1 #bfc    ----       
,yellow1 i4 #da sq4    ,demeter's corn1 
i4 #db    ,democritus1 ii4 #adf         
,demons or ghosts deceived by dummies1  
ii4 #if sqq42    repelled by gun-shots1 
#ii    ,dendereh1 sculptures at1 i4 #bfj
    ,dengdit1 high god of the ,dinka1   
ii4 #dj n41 #aad n4 #b    ,denmark1     
harvest customs in1 i4 #aci sq41 #bca2  
the ,yule ,boar in1 i4 #cjj sq4    ,de  
,smet1 ,j41 i4 #bci n4 #a    ,descent of
 ,persephone1 i4 #df1 ii4 #ag           
,devonshire reapers1 cries of1 i4 #bfd  
sqq4    ,diasia1 an ,athenian sacrifice1
 ii4 #ie n4 #b    ,dieri1 the1 of       
,central ,australia1 i4 #ajf1 ii4 #aea  
,digger ,indians1 the1 ii4 #afd         
,digging-sticks used by women1 i4 #aah1 
#abj1 #abb1 #abd1 #abf1 #abh    ,dijon1 
harvest custom near1 i4 #bij    ,dinka1 
the1 ii4 #cg sqq41 #aad    ,diocles1 i4 

#cg    ,diodorus ,siculus1 on worship of
 ,demeter and ,persephone1 i4 #ef sqq4  
,dionysus1 i4 #a sqq42    god of the    
vine1 #b sq42    god of trees1 #c sq42  
a god of agriculture and corn1 #e2      
and the winnowing-fan1 #e sqq42    as   
,zagreus1 #ab2    horned1 #ab2    son of
 ,zeus by ,persephone1 ,demeter1 or     
,semele1 #ab1 #ad2    death and         
resurrection of1 #ab sqq41 #cb2         
ritual of1 #ad sq42    grave of1 #ad2   
as a bull1 #af sq41 #ca2    as a goat1  
#ag sq42    torn to pieces at ,thebes1  
#be2    his marriage to the ,queen of   
,athens1 #cj sq42    son of ,zeus and   
,demeter1 #ff2    and the bull-roarer1  
#aaj n4 #d2    his relation to ,pan1    
,satyrs1 and ,silenuses1 ii4 #a sqq42   
as a bull1 #c sq42    live animals rent 
in rites of1 #af2    the ,foxy1 #bhb    
,dittenberger1 ,w41 i4 #gg n4 #d        
,dius1 a ,macedonian month1 i4 #df n4 #b
    ,divination1 ii4 #baj2    magic     
dwindles into1 i4 #aaj n42    by        
shoulder-blade1 ii4 #bcd    ,diviners1  

ancient1 their rules of diet1 ii4 #adc  
,dodwell1 ,e41 at ,eleusis1 i4 #fd      
,dog1 corn-spirit as1 i4 #bga sqq42     
of the harvest1 #bgc2    feast on flesh 
of1 ii4 #bef2    sacrifice of the       
,white1 #beh n4 #b2    transmigration of
 sinner into1 #bii    ---- -eating      
,spirit1 i4 #ba    ---- -star1 i4 #bfa  
,dog's flesh or liver eaten to acquire  
bravery1 ii4 #ade    ,dogs devoured in  
religious rites1 i4 #bj1 #ba1 #bb2      
sacrificed1 ii4 #aif1 #bjb2    not      
allowed to gnaw bones of slain animals1 
#bbe1 #bch sqq41 #bdc1 #bei2    bones of
 deer not given to1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc    
,doll made of last corn at harvest1 i4  
#adj1 #aea1 #aec1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afb      
,d',orbigny1 ,a41 quoted1 i4 #abj       
,dormice1 charm against1 ii4 #bha       
,door of house protected against fiends1
 ii4 #if    ,dough image of god eaten   
sacramentally1 ii4 #hf sqq41 #ij sq4    
---- images of animals sacrificed       
instead of the animals1 ii4 #ie n4 #b   
---- puppets as substitutes for live    

human beings1 ii4 #aja sq4    ,dragon's 
blood1 ii4 #adf    ,drama1 modern       
,thracian1 at the ,carnival1 i4 #be     
sqq42    magical1 #ahg sq4    ,dramatic 
representations of the corn-spirit1 ii4 
#cbe    ---- rites practised with       
magical intention1 i4 #a    ,dreams as a
 source of belief in immortality1 ii4   
#bfj sq4    ,drinking juices of dead    
kinsfolk1 ii4 #afc n4 #c    ,dryas1 son 
of ,lycurgus1 i4 #bd1 #be    ,du ,pratz1
 ,le ,page1 ii4 #gg sqq4    ,duke of    
,york ,islands1 ii4 #beb                
,dumbartonshire1 harvest customs in1 i4 
#aeg sq4    ,dummies to avert attention 
of ghosts or demons1 ii4 #if sqq4       
8,dumping0 people on harvest field1 i4  
#bbf sq4    ,dumplings in human form at 
threshing1 i4 #adh2    in form of pigs1 
#bii    ,duplication of deities1 i4 #bab
 sq4    ,durham1 harvest customs in1 i4 
#aea    ,dyaks1 the1 i4 #cac1 #cad1 ii4 
#ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #aeb2    their        
ceremonies to secure the rice-soul1 i4  
#ahh sq42    of ,borneo1 ii4 #abb1 #add1

 #bji1 #baa2    of ,sarawak1 #bgi       
,dying and ,reviving ,god1 i4 #a1 #cc   
,eagle-owl worshipped by the ,aino1 ii4 
#aii    ,eagles worshipped by the ,aino1
 ii4 #bjj2    propitiation of dead1 #bcf
    ,ears regarded as the seat of       
intelligence1 ii4 #adh2    of dead      
enemies cut out1 #bga sq4    ,earth1    
,mother1 ii4 #aje    ---- the spirit of 
the1 ii4 #abj    ---- -,god1 i4 #fi     
---- -goddess1 ii4 #aae2                
distinguished from ,demeter1 i4 #da1    
#dc1 #hi2    in ,greek art1 #hi2        
human sacrifices offered to1 #bde1 #bdf1
 #bdi1 #bej    ---- -gods1 slaves of    
the1 ii4 #fa1 #fb n4 #a    ----         
-mothers1 i4 #agc n4    ,easing nature1 
a charm used by robbers1 i4 #bce        
,east ,indies1 the ,rice-mother in the1 
i4 #ahj sqq4    ,easter1 i4 #cjj    ----
 ,eve1 i4 #acd    ---- ,islanders1 ii4  
#acc    ---- ,sunday1 i4 #cc    ,eater  
of animals1 as epithet of a god1 i4 #bc 
,eating the god1 ii4 #dh sqq41 #afg2    
among the ,aztecs1 #hf sqq4    ---- the 

soul of the rice1 ii4 #ed    ,eckstein1 
,miss ,l41 ii4 #cag n4 #b    ,ecstasy   
induced by smoking1 ii4 #gb             
,edonians1 the1 i4 #bd    ,eels1 souls  
of dead in1 ii4 #bhi1 #bij1 #bib        
,effigies of men and women hung at doors
 of houses1 ii4 #id2    buried with the 
dead to deceive their ghosts1 #ig sq42  
used to cure or prevent sickness1 #ajj  
sqq4    ,see also ,doll1 ,images1       
,puppet    ,effigy of an ox broken as a 
spring ceremony in ,china1 ii4 #aj sqq4 
,eggs not eaten1 ii4 #adj2    charm to  
make hens lay1 #cbf    ,egypt1 ancient1 
stratification of religion in1 ii4 #ce  
,egyptian kings1 their animal masks1 i4 
#bfj    ---- reapers1 their cries1 i4   
#bfc    ---- type of animal sacrament1  
ii4 #cab sq41 #cad    ,egyptians1 human 
sacrifices offered by the ancient1 i4   
#bei sq42    the ancient1 their         
religious attitude to pigs1 ii4 #bd sqq4
    ,el ,kiboron clan of the ,masai1 ii4
 #bhh    ,elans treated with respect by 
,american ,indians1 ii4 #bdj            

,elephant's flesh thought to make eater 
strong1 ii4 #adc    ,elephants1         
ceremonies observed at the slaughter of1
 ii4 #bbg sq41 #bcg2    souls of dead   
in1 #bhi    ,eleusine grain1 i4 #aag    
,eleusinian ,games1 i4 #gj sqq41 #aaj1  
#ahj2    less ancient than the          
,eleusinian mysteries1 #hg sq4    ----  
inscription dealing with first-fruits1  
i4 #ee sq4    ---- mysteries1 i4 #ce1   
#cg sqq41 #fe sqq4 #fi sq41 #gh sq41    
#afa sq41              #ahh2            
instituted by ,demeter1 #gj    ,eleusis1
 ,demeter at1 i4 #cf sq42    offerings  
of first-fruits at1 #ec sqq42    image  
of ,demeter at1 #fd2    prayer for rain 
at1 #fi2    the ,rarian plain at1 #cf1  
#gj1 #gd1 #bcd1 ii4 #ae    ,eleutherian 
games at ,plataea1 i4 #hj    ,elijah1   
the prophet1 i4 #bcc    ,elis1 ,dionysus
 at1 i4 #ag    ,elk treated with        
respect1 ii4 #bdj2    embryos of1 not   
eaten1 #bdc    ,ellis1 ,william1 quoted1
 i4 #cab    ,elopango1 i4 #bcg          
,embodiment1 human1 of the corn-spirit1 

ii4 #ccc    ,emboq ,sri1 rice-bride1 i4 
#bjj sq4    ,embryos of elk not eaten1  
ii4 #bdc    ,emetics used before eating 
new corn1 ii4 #gc1 #ge sq41 #gf2        
sacred1 #gd    ,empedocles1 his doctrine
 of transmigration1 ii4 #cjj sqq42      
his resemblance to ,buddha1 #cjb2    his
 theory of the material universe like   
that of ,herbert ,spencer1 #cjc         
sqq42    as a forerunner of ,darwin1    
#cjf2    his posing as a god1 #cjg      
,enchanters of crops1 foods forbidden   
to1 i4 #ajj    ,encounter ,bay tribe1 i4
 #abf    ,enemies1 mutilation of dead1  
ii4 #bga sq4    ,energy1 the            
conservation of1 ii4 #bbf    ,en-jemusi1
 the1 of ,east ,africa1 i4 #aah         
,epiphany1 i4 #cjb    ,epithets applied 
to ,demeter1 i4 #fc sq4    ,equinox1    
human sacrifice offered soon after the  
spring equinox1 i4 #bci    ,erigone and 
,icarius1 ii4 #acc    ,esquimaux1 the   
,central1 ii4 #bdf2    dietary rules of1
 #hd    ---- of ,baffin ,land1 ii4 #beg 
---- of ,bering ,strait1 i4 #aej1 ii4   

#bdg1 #bgb    ---- of ,hudson ,bay1 ii4 
#bde sq4    ,essex1 hunting the wren in1
 ii4 #cbj    ,esthonia1 i4 #cjb         
,esthonian reapers1 i4 #bhe2            
peasants1 their treatment of weevils1   
ii4 #bgd    ,esthonians1 the1 i4 #bih1  
#cjj1 ii4 #ea    ,etna1 ,mount1 i4 #eg  
,etymology1 its uncertainty as a base   
for mythological theories1 i4 #da n4    
,eubuleus1 ii4 #ai    ,eubulus1 i4 #ef  
,eudoxus of ,cnidus1 i4 #ha1 ii4 #cj    
,eumolpids1 i4 #ef    ,eumolpus1 i4 #cg1
 #gj1 #gc    ,euphorbus the ,trojan1 ii4
 #cjj    ,europe1 ,corn-mother and      
,corn-maiden in ,northern1 i4 #aca sqq4 
,evolution and dissolution1 ii4 #cje sq4
    ,ewe hunters1 ii4 #bdd    ----      
negroes1 ii4 #de1 #aae1 #adc1 #adi2     
their festival of new yams1 #eh sqq42   
their belief as to the spirit-land1 #aje
 sq42    their ceremonies after killing 
leopards1 #bbh sqq4    ,exclusion of    
strangers1 i4 #id1 #aaa    ,eyes shut at
 prayer1 ii4 #ha2    of men eaten1 #aec2
    of slaughtered animals cut out1 #bfg

 sqq41 #bga2    of dead enemies gouged  
out1 #bga sq4    ,faces of bear-hunters 
painted red and black1 ii4 #bbf2        
blackened1 i4 #bia1 #bii    ,fady1      
taboo1 ii4 #df    ,fafnir1 the dragon1  
ii4 #adf    ,falcon's eye used as charm1
 ii4 #afd    ,faleshas1 a ,jewish sect1 
ii4 #bff n4 #a    ,fallow1              
thrice-ploughed1 i4 #ff1 #fi2    lands  
allowed to lie1 #aag1 #abc    ,fanning  
away ill luck1 i4 #aj    ,fans1 the1 of 
,west ,africa1 ii4 #adj    ,farmer's    
wife1 pretence of threshing1 i4 #adi sq4
    ,farmers1 propitiation of vermin by1
 ii4 #bgd sqq4    ,farnell1 ,dr4 ,l4    
,r41 i4 #c n4 #a1 #ae n41 #fh n4 #a1 ii4
 #b n4 #i    ,fast before eating new    
fruits1 ii4 #gc sq41 #gf sq4    ,fasting
 and continence1 ii4 #ad                
,fastnachtsbr1 ii4 #cbe    ,fat1        
anointing the body with1 from           
superstitious motives1 ii4 #afb sq41    
#afd1 #afe    ,fatigue of the ,horse1 i4
 #bid    ,fauns1 ii4 #a sqq4            
,feathers of cock mixed with seed-corn1 

i4 #bgh2    of wren1 virtue attributed  
to1 ii4 #cai    ,feet of enemies eaten1 
ii4 #aea    ,felkin1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,w41 ii4  
#cad sq4    ,fernando ,po1 ii4 #agd     
,fertilising influence of the           
corn-spirit1 i4 #afh    ,festival before
 ,ploughing 7,proerosia71 i4 #ea sqq41  
#fj2    of the ,cornstalks at ,eleusis1 
#fc2    of the ,threshing-floor 7,haloa7
 at ,eleusis1 #fj sqq41 #ge2    of      
winter solstice1 ii4 #ij2    of ,new    
,fire1 #ace2    of bladders among the   
,esquimaux1 #bdg sqq4    ,festivals of  
new yams1 ii4 #eh sqq4    ,fewkes1 ,j4  
,walter1 quoted1 i4 #cab    ,fez1       
orgiastic rites at1 i4 #ba              
,fictitious burials to divert the       
attention of demons from the real       
burials1 ii4 #ih sqq4    8,field of     
,god10 ii4 #ad1 #ae    8,field of secret
 tillage10 ii4 #eg    ,fields1          
miniature1 dedicated to spirits1 i4 #bcc
 sq4    ,fife1 harvest custom in1 i4    
#bbg    ,fifty-two years1 ,aztec cycle  
of1 i4 #caj sq4    ,fig ,dionysus1 i4 #d

    ---- trees1 sacred wild1 ii4 #aac   
,fiji1 sacrifice of first-fruits in1 ii4
 #abe    ,finns1 their propitiation of  
slain bears1 ii4 #bbc sq4    ,fire not  
given out1 i4 #bdi2    god of1 ii4 #ic2 
made by friction of wood1 #abg1 #acf1   
#cad2    purification by1 #bdi2    not  
to be blown upon1 #bed2    new1 ii4 #fe1
 #gd1 #ge1 #gh2    sacred1 i4 #caa1 ii4 
#bee1 #cad2    festival of1 ii4 #ace    
8,fireless and ,homeless10 a mythical   
giant1 ii4 #bfe1 #bff    ,fire-sticks   
called 8husband and wife10 ii4 #fe      
,fires extinguished1 ii4 #gc    ,firing 
guns to repel demons1 ii4 #ii           
,firmicus ,maternus1 i4 #ac             
,first-fruits offered to ,demeter1 i4   
#df sqq42    offered to ,demeter and    
,persephone at ,eleusis1 #ec sqq42      
offered to the sun1 #bcg2    primitive  
reluctance to taste1 ii4 #f2            
sacrament of1 #dh sqq42    offered to   
goddess of agriculture1 #ef2    why     
savages scruple to eat the1 #hb sq42    
sacrifice of1 #aji sqq42    presented to

 the king1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abb2    offered 
to the spirits of the dead1 #aji sq41   
#aaa sqq41 #aae1 #aaf1                  
#aai1 #aba1 #abc1 #abd sqq4    ,fish1   
sacred1 ii4 #bf2    the first caught1   
sacrificed1 #acb2    not eaten1 #adj2   
treated with respect by fishing tribes1 
#bdi sqq42    compensated by fishermen1 
#beb2    first of the season1 treated   
ceremoniously1 #bec sqq42    souls of   
dead in1 #bhe1 #bia1 #bie    ---- bones 
of1 not burned1 ii4 #bej1 #bea2    not  
to be broken1 #bee    ,fison1 ,rev4     
,lorimer1 quoted1 ii4 #abe    ,flail1   
pretence of throttling persons with     
flail at threshing1 i4 #adi1 #aej       
,flamen ,dialis1 inaugurates the        
vintage1 ii4 #acc    ,flax-mother1 i4   
#acc    ,flesh of human victim eaten1 i4
 #bdj1 #bdd1 #bea2    buried in field1  
#bdh1 #bej    ---- diet1 homoeopathic   
magic of a1 ii4 #ach sqq4    ,flies1    
charms against1 ii4 #bha2    souls of   
dead in1 #bij sq4    ,florida1 one of   
the ,solomon ,islands1 ii4 #he1 #abf    

,flowery ,dionysus1 i4 #d               
,fly-catcher ,zeus1 ii4 #bhb            
,flying-fish1 the first of the season1  
ii4 #abg    ---- fox1 transmigration of 
sinner into1 ii4 #bii    ,folk-tales1   
tongues of wild beasts cut out in1 ii4  
#bfi    ,foods forbidden to enchanters  
of crops1 i4 #ajj2    certain1 forbidden
 to meet in stomach of eater1 ii4 #hc   
sqq4    ,fool1 one of the mummers on    
,plough ,monday1 ii4 #ccj    ---- -hen1 
heart of1 not eaten1 ii4 #adj    ,foot1 
limping on one1 i4 #bcb1 #bhd           
,foucart1 ,p41 i4 #cb n4 #f    ,foulahs 
of ,senegambia1 ii4 #bad    ,fox1       
stuffed1 i4 #bhg1 #big2    corn-spirit  
as1 #bif sq42    carried from house to  
house in spring1 #big2    ,koryak       
ceremony at killing a1 ii4 #bbc2        
,esquimau and ,aino treatment of dead1  
#bdd1 #bfg2    soul of dead in a1 #bhf  
,fox's tail1 name given to last standing
 corn1 i4 #bfh    ---- tongue as amulet1
 ii4 #bgj    ,foxy ,dionysus1 ii4 #bhb  
,france1 harvest customs in1 i4 #ace1   

#bga1 #bge1 #bhj1 #bie1 #bif2    hunting
 the wren in1 ii4 #cbj sq4              
,franche-,comt1 harvest customs in1 i4  
#bha1 #bhf sq4    ,franken 7,franconia71
 harvest customs in1 i4 #adh            
,friction of wood1 fire made by1 ii4    
#abg1 #acf2    new fire made by1 i4     
#caa1 ii4 #gd1 #gh2    sacred fire made 
by1 #cad    ,frog1 transmigration of    
sinner into1 ii4 #bii    ,fruit-trees   
bound with ,yule straw1 i4 #cja2        
,dionysus a god of1 i4 #c sq42          
presided over by dead chiefs1 ii4 #abe  
,fruits and roots1 wild1 ceremonies at  
gathering the first of the season1      
ii4 #hj sqq4    ,fumigation as mode of  
cultivating moral virtues1 ii4 #aff sq4 
,funeral of caterpillars1 ii4 #bgi2     
of dead snake1 #cag    ,furnivall1 ,j4  
,s41 i4 #aij sq4    ,gadbas1 the1 ii4   
#aah    ,galelareese1 their burial      
custom1 ii4 #ig    ,galicia1 harvest    
customs in1 i4 #ace1 #bgg               
,gall-bladders1 the seat of courage1 ii4
 #ade sq4    ,gallas1 the1 ii4 #aed1    

#bff n4 #b1 #bgj    ,galloway1 harvest  
customs in1 i4 #bgi    ,game of ball    
played as a rite1 ii4 #gf1 #gi    ,games
 held by harvesters1 i4 #ge sqq42       
quadriennial period of ,greek1 #gg sqq42
    octennial period of ,greek1 #hj2    
in primitive agriculture1 magical       
significance of1 #ib sqq42    played at 
the sowing festival among the ,kayans1  
#id sqq41 #ig sq42    played for the    
good of the crops1 #aja2    magical1    
#ajb2    athletic1 ii4 #ff    ---- the  
,eleusinian1 i4 #gj sqq41 #aaj1 #ahj    
,gander's neck1 name given to last      
standing corn1 i4 #bfh    ,gaea1 ii4 #ef
    ,gaolis1 the1 i4 #g    ,gardner1    
,percy1 quoted1 i4 #dd    ,gareloch1    
harvest customs on the1 i4 #aeg sq41    
#bah n4 #b1 #bfh    ,garos1 the1 of     
,assam1 ii4 #dc n4 #a1 #aaf2    ceremony
 of the ,horse at rice-harvest among    
the1 #ccg sqq4    ,gayo-land1 ii4 #cc   
,gazelle ,peninsula1 i4 #abc            
,gazelles1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bhi   
,geminus1 on the supposed influence of  

the stars1 i4 #cah sq4                  
,generalisations of science inadequate  
to cover all particular facts1 ii4      
#cg    ,generation1 male organ of1 as   
emblem of ,dionysus1 i4 #ab2    effigy  
of male organ of1 in ,thracian ceremony1
 #bf1 #bi    ,genius1 ,aristotle on men 
of1 ii4 #cjb n4 #e    ---- or patron of 
animals1 ii4 #bdc    ,genna1 taboo1 in  
,assam1 i4 #aji n4 #b    ,germans1 the  
ancient1 i4 #abi    ,germany1 the       
,corn-mother in1 i4 #acb sqq42    cries 
of reapers in1 #bfi2    the corn-spirit 
as an animal in1 #bga1 #bgg1 #bgi1 #bif1
 #cjj    ,ghosts or demons deceived by  
dummies1 ii4 #if sqq42    offerings to  
ancestral1 #abg2    of animals feared1  
#baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbc1     
#bbd1 #bbg sq41 #bbi1                   
#bca sq41 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bda1 #bde1 
#bfg sq41 #bfi1 #bga2    disabled by the
 mutilation of their bodies1 #bga sqq4  
,gilgit1 ii4 #ef    ,gill1 ,w4 ,w41     
quoted1 i4 #cab    ,gilyak procession   
with bear1 ii4 #cbb1 #cbe    ----       

shaman1 ii4 #ajc    ,gilyaks1 the1 of   
,siberia1 ii4 #bjf1 #bch1 #bfg2    their
 bear-festivals1 #aij sqq4    ,ginger   
cultivated1 i4 #abc    ,girls sacrificed
 for the crops1 i4 #bcg1 #bci    ,gnats1
 charm against1 ii4 #bha    ,goat in    
relation to ,dionysus1 i4 #ag sq42      
sacrificed for human victim1 #bdi2      
corn-spirit as1 #bha sqq41 ii4 #cbg2    
the ,cripple or ,lame1 i4 #bhd2         
killed on harvest-field1 #bhe2          
stuffed1 #bhg2    killed at sowing1 #bhh
    ---- and ,athena1 ii4 #dj sq4       
---- -formed deities1 ii4 #a sqq4       
---- live1 torn to pieces in rites of   
,dionysus1 i4 #ah1 ii4 #af    ---- skin1
 mask of1 i4 #bf2    worn by farmer at  
harvest1 #bhe    ---- skins1 mummers    
clad in1 i4 #bf sqq4    ,goat's neck1   
name given to last standing corn1 i4    
#bfh    ,goats torn to pieces by        
fanatics in ,morocco1 i4 #ba sq42       
sacrificed to wolves1 ii4 #bhd    ,god1 
the ,dying and ,reviving1 i4 #a1 #cc2   
killed in animal form1 #bb sq42         

eating the1 ii4 #dh sqq4    ,gods1 death
 and resurrection of1 i4 #a1 #ab sqq42  
distinguished from spirits1 #afi2    in 
the likeness of foreigners1 #bcf        
,goldi1 bear-festivals of the1 ii4 #aig 
---- shaman1 ii4 #ajc    ,goldsmith1    
transmigration of thief into1 ii4 #bii  
,gonds1 human sacrifices among the1 i4  
#bdd    ,good ,friday1 i4 #cc    ----   
,spirit1 the1 i4 #bjf    ,goose1 to lose
 the1 i4 #bgg n4 #c    ,gorillas1 souls 
of dead in1 ii4 #bhi    ,grandmother1   
name given to last sheaf1 i4 #acf       
,grapes1 the last1 not to be stript1 i4 
#bcd sq4    ,grasshoppers1 charm        
against1 ii4 #bha    ,grave of          
,dionysus1 i4 #ad    ,graves1 sacrifices
 at1 ii4 #aac2    false1 to deceive     
demons1 ii4 #ii sq4    ,great ,bassam1  
in ,guinea1 ii4 #i    ---- ,eleusinian  
,games1 i4 #ga1 #gi    ---- ,mother1    
the1 name given to the last sheaf1 i4   
#ace sq4    ---- ,mysteries of ,eleusis1
 their date1 i4 #ea    ,great ,sun1     
title of head chief of the ,natchez1 ii4

 #gg sqq4    ---- ,vigil1 i4 #agf       
,greece1 theory of the transmigration of
 souls in ancient1 ii4 #cjj    ,greek   
divinities who died and rose again1 i4  
#b2    farmers1 their seasons for sowing
 and reaping1 i4 #cah    ---- months    
lunar1 i4 #eb    ---- summer rainless1  
i4 #fi    ,green ,corn ,dance1 ii4 #gf  
---- ,festival at ,eleusis1 i4 #fc      
,greenlanders1 the1 ii4 #bdf    ,gregor1
 ,rev4 ,walter1 i4 #aeh sqq4    ,gregory
 of ,tours1 ii4 #bha    ,grey1 ,sir     
,george1 quoted1 i4 #abg    ,ground1    
last sheaf not allowed to touch the1 i4 
#aeh1 #aei1 #afa    ,guadacanal1 island 
of1 ii4 #abg    ,guaranis1 the1 of      
,paraguay1 i4 #cji    8,guardian gods0  
of the ,hos1 i4 #bcd                    
,guardian-spirit1 ii4 #fj2    of family1
 i4 #aba    ---- spirits of ,american   
,indians1 ii4 #bjg    ,guayaquil1 in    
,ecuador1 i4 #bcf    ,guaycurus of the  
,gran ,chaco1 i4 #cji    ,guazacualco1  
ii4 #bei    ,guiana1 ,indians of        
,british1 i4 #abj1 ii4 #bcf2    their   

animism1 #bjd    ,guinea-fowl gives     
signal for planting1 i4 #aag    ,guns   
fired to repel demons1 ii4 #ii    ,gur1 
a hobby-horse1 ii4 #ccg sq4    ,haddon1 
,dr4 ,a4 ,c41 i4 #ajf n4 #a    ,hadrian 
institutes games at ,mantinea1 i4 #hj   
,hag 7wrach71 name given to last corn   
cut in ,wales1 i4 #adb sqq4    ,hahn1   
,theophilus1 i4 #cag    ,haida ,indians1
 i4 #bj    ,hair of slain foes1 use made
 of1 ii4 #aec    ,halibut1 the first of 
the season1 treatment of1 ii4 #bec      
,hallowmas1 i4 #adj    ,halmahera1 i4   
#ahc    ,haloa1 ,attic festival1 i4 #fj 
sqq4    ,hamstring of deer1 custom of   
removing1 ii4 #bff    ,hamstringing dead
 animals1 ii4 #bfg1 #bga1 #bgc    ----  
men to disable their ghosts1 ii4 #bgb1  
#bgc    ,hand-marks1 white1 ii4 #cch    
,hands of enemies eaten1 ii4 #aea1 #aeb 
,hanover1 harvest customs in1 i4 #acc1  
#ace1 #bhc    ,hare1 corn-spirit as1 i4 
#bgi sq4    ,hare-skin ,indians1 ii4    
#bfe    ,hare's tail1 name given to last
 standing corn1 i4 #bfh    ,hares not   

eaten1 ii4 #ada    ,harran1 sacrifices  
offered by the heathen of1 i4 #bfa sq4  
---- legend of ,tammuz1 i4 #beh         
,harrison1 ,miss ,j4 ,e41 i4 #e n4 #d1  
#fj n4 #a1 #fb n4 #f    ,harte1 ,bret1  
ii4 #aga n4 #a    ,hartland1 ,e4 ,s41 i4
 #adc n4 #a1 #bbd n4 #d    ,harvest1    
festival of the dead at the close of1   
ii4 #aaj2    in ,greece1 date of1 i4 #dh
    ---- -child1 i4 #aea    ---- -cock1 
i4 #bgf1 #bgg    ---- -crown1 i4 #bba1  
#bgg    ---- -customs and spring customs
 compared1 i4 #afg sqq4    ---- -goat1  
i4 #bhb1 #bhc    ---- -man1 i4 #bba     
---- -mother1 i4 #ace    ---- -,queen1  
i4 #adf sq4    ---- -supper1 i4 #acd1   
#ach1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei sq41 #afa sq41   
#big2    sacramental character of1 #cjc 
---- -woman1 i4 #ade    ---- -wreath1 i4
 #bhc    ,harvesters1 athletic          
competitions among1 i4 #gf sq42    wrapt
 up in corn-stalks1 #bbj sqq4           
,hawkie1 i4 #adf1 #adg n4 #a    ,hawks1 
revered by the ,aino1 ii4 #bjj    ,hay1 
,sir ,john ,drummond1 i4 #agi    ,head  

of horse1 ii4 #db1 #dc n4 #a1 #ccg      
---- -hunting1 human1 i4 #bdj sqq42     
practice of1 #bef    ,headlam1 ,walter1 
i4 #b n4 #a    ,heads shaved1 ii4 #afa  
,heart of ,dionysus1 the sacred1 i4 #ac1
 #ad1 #ae2    of human victim torn out1 
ii4 #ib2    of lion or leopard eaten to 
make the eater brave1 #adb sq42    of   
water-ousel eaten in order to acquire   
wisdom and eloquence1 #add2    of bear  
eaten to acquire courage1 #adf2    of   
serpent eaten to acquire language of    
animals1 #adf2    of wolf eaten to      
acquire courage1 #adf2    regarded as   
the seat of intellect1 #adi    ,hearts  
of men sacrificed1 i4 #bcf2    of crows1
 moles1 or hawks eaten1 ii4 #adc2    of 
men eaten to acquire their qualities1   
#adh sqq4    ,heaven-herds among the    
,zulus1 ii4 #afj    ,hebrews forbidden  
to reap corners of fields and glean1    
last grapes1 i4 #bcd              sq4   
,heckewelder1 ,rev4 ,j41 quoted1 ii4    
#bje sq4    ,hedgehog1 transmigration of
 sinner into1 ii4 #bii    ,hemithea1    

sanctuary of1 ii4 #he    ,hen1 heart of1
 not eaten1 ii4 #adb1 #adg2    hens not 
eaten1 ii4 #adj    ,henna1 image of     
,demeter at1 i4 #fe    ,hephaestius1 a  
,greek month1 i4 #df n4 #b    ,heraeon1 
a ,greek month1 ii4 #g    ,heralds and  
tongues1 ii4 #bga    ,hercules and      
,busiris1 i4 #bei    ,hercules and      
,lityerses1 i4 #bag    ---- and ,syleus1
 i4 #beh    ---- and ,zeus1 ii4 #agb    
---- surnamed ,locust1 ii4 #bhb         
,hermes1 tongues of victims assigned to1
 ii4 #bgj    ,herrick1 i4 #adg n4 #a    
,herring1 superstitions as to1 ii4 #bea 
sq4    ,hertfordshire1 8crying the      
,mare10 in1 i4 #bib sq4    ,hervey      
,islands1 i4 #cab    ,hesiod on time for
 ploughing1 i4 #de2    on time of       
vintage1 #dg n4 #b2    on the farmer's  
calendar1 #ec    ,hierapolis on the     
,euphrates1 ii4 #bc    ,hierophant at   
,eleusis1 i4 #ee1 #fe    ,highlands of  
,scotland1 beating the cow's hide in    
the1 ii4 #cbb sqq4    ,hill-,tout1 ,c41 
ii4 #hj sq41 #acd    ,himerius1 on the  

gift of the corn1 i4 #eh    ,hindoos1   
sacrifice of first-fruits among the     
ancient1 ii4 #aai sq4    ,hippolytus and
 ,virbius1 ii4 #dj    ---- on mysteries 
of ,eleusis1 i4 #ch    ,hippopotamus1   
ceremony after killing a1 ii4 #bce      
,hippopotamuses1 souls of dead in1 ii4  
#bhi    ,hockey cart1 i4 #adg n4 #a     
,hodson1 ,t4 ,c41 i4 #aji n4 #b         
,hoeing1 rites at1 i4 #if2    done by   
women1 #aac sq4    ,hoensbroech1 ,count 
von1 ii4 #id    ,hoes used by women in  
agriculture1 i4 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 
#aai    ,hoggan1 ,frances1 i4 #bfg      
,hogmanay1 the last day of the year1 ii4
 #cbc    ,holiness conceived as a       
dangerous virus1 ii4 #bi    ,hollis1 ,a4
 ,c41 ii4 #aee    ,homer on ,demeter1 i4
 #da sq42    on loves of ,zeus and      
,demeter1 #ff2    on gods in likeness of
 foreigners1 #bcf    ,homeric ,greeks1  
ii4 #bgj    ---- ,hymn to ,demeter1 i4  
#ce sqq4    ,homoeopathic or imitative  
magic1 i4 #fb1 #bfb1 ii4 #bfg1 #cca1    
#ccc1 #ccd2    of a flesh diet1 ii4 #ach

 sqq4    ,honduras1 ,indians of1 ii4    
#bda    ,hone1 ,w41 quoted1 i4 #bfd sq4 
,hop-picking1 custom at1 i4 #bbf        
,horned ,dionysus1 i4 #ab1 #af          
,horse1 8seeing the ,horse10 i4 #bid2   
8,cross of the ,horse10 #bid2           
8fatigue of the ,horse10 #bid2          
sacrificed to ,mars at ,rome1 ii4 #db   
sqq42    ceremony of the1 at            
rice-harvest among the ,garos1 #ccg sqq4
    ---- and ,virbius1 ii4 #dj sqq4     
---- -headed ,demeter of ,phigalia1 ii4 
#ba1 #cch    ---- or mare1 corn-spirit  
as1 i4 #bib sqq4    ,horse-races1 i4    
#ga1 ii4 #aad2    at harvest1 i4 #gf    
,horse's head1 ii4 #db1 #dc n4 #a1 #ccg 
sq4    ,horses1 ,lycurgus torn to pieces
 by1 i4 #bd2    excluded from ,arician  
grove1 ii4 #dj sqq42    excluded from   
sanctuaries1 #de sq4    ,horus1 eye of1 
ii4 #cj    ,hos of ,togoland1 the1 i4   
#acj1 #bcd1 ii4 #ei2    a tribe of ,ewe 
negroes1 i4 #aae1 #aaf2    of ,bengal1  
ii4 #aag    ,hottentots1 the1 i4 #caf   
sq4    ,huahine1 island of1 ii4 #acb    

,huichol ,indians1 the1 ii4 #ic         
,huitzilopochtli1 a ,mexican god1 ii4   
#hf1 #ij1 #ie    ,human beings torn to  
pieces in rites of ,dionysus1 i4 #bd    
,human sacrifices for crops1 i4 #bcf    
sqq42    offered by ancient ,egyptians1 
#bei sq42    in ,mexico1 ii4 #hh    ----
 victims1 substitutes for1 i4 #bdi2     
treated as divine1 #bej    ,hunters1    
propitiation of wild animals by1 ii4    
#bjd sqq42    of grisly bears1 chastity 
observed by1 #bbf    ,hunting the wren1 
ii4 #cag sqq4    ,hurons1 the1 ii4 #bej 
sq4    ,huts1 miniature1 for ghosts1 ii4
 #aac    ,huzuls1 the1 of the           
,carpathians1 ii4 #dc n4 #a1 #bge       
,hyaenas1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bhi    
,hyes ,attes1 ii4 #bb    ,hymn to       
,demeter1 ,homeric1 i4 #ce sqq41 #gj    
,ialysus in ,rhodes1 ii4 #de    ,iasion 
and ,demeter1 i4 #bjh    ,ibans 7,sea   
,dyaks7 of ,sarawak1 ii4 #bgi           
,iberians1 the1 i4 #abi    ,icarius and 
,erigone1 ii4 #acc    ,ichneumon1       
transmigration of sinner into1 ii4 #bii 

,ida ,batara1 i4 #bjb    ,idah1 ii4 #bbh
    ,ideler1 ,l41 i4 #hf    ,igaras of  
the ,niger1 ii4 #bbh    ,igbiras1 the1  
ii4 #aae    ,igorrots of the            
,philippines1 ii4 #bib    ,image of god 
made of dough and eaten sacramentally1  
ii4 #hf sqq41 #ij              sq42     
of snake carried about1 #caf sq4        
,images of ancestors1 ii4 #ec2    of    
animals sacrificed instead of the       
animals1 #ie n4 #b2    vicarious use of1
 #if sqq42    of gods1 suggested origin 
of1 #agc sq42    of vermin made as a    
protection against them1 #bhj sq4       
,see also ,effigies1 ,puppets           
,imitation of spirits1 i4 #ahf          
,immortality1 hope of1 associated with  
,eleusinian mysteries1 i4 #ij sq4       
---- of animals1 savage faith in the1   
ii4 #bfj sqq4    ,immortality of soul   
revealed in mysteries of ,dionysus1 i4  
#ae    ,inachi1 an offering of          
first-fruits1 ii4 #abh1 #aca    ,inao1  
sacred wands of the ,aino1 ii4 #ahe1    
#ahf n41 #ahi    ,inari1 ,japanese      

rice-god1 i4 #big    ,incantations for  
growth of crops1 i4 #ajj    ,incas1 the1
 i4 #caj    ,india1 the last sheaf of   
corn in1 #bbb sq42    doctrine of the   
transmigration of souls in ancient1 ii4 
#bih sq4    ,indian ,archipelago1 the1  
i4 #abd    ,indians of ,british         
,columbia1 their cannibal orgies1 i4 #ah
 sq42    of ,south ,america1 women's    
agricultural work among the1 #aai sqq4  
,indonesian ideas of rice-soul1 i4 #aha 
sq4    ,indra1 ,indian god1 ii4 #abj    
,ingiald1 son of ,king ,aunund1 ii4 #adf
    ,inoculation with moral and other   
virtues1 ii4 #aeh sqq4    ,inscription1 
,eleusinian1 dealing with first-fruits1 
i4 #ee sq4    ,intercalation in ,greek  
calendar1 i4 #ha    ,invulnerability1   
ii4 #afj    ,iowa ,indians1 ii4 #bag    
,irayas1 the1 of ,luzon1 ii4 #abd       
,ireland1 hunting the wren in1 ii4 #cai 
sq4    ,iron axe1 use of1 forbidden1 ii4
 #bdh    ,iroquois1 their sacrifice of a
 white dog1 ii4 #beh n4 #a              
,isilimela1 the ,pleiades1 i4 #caf      

,isis1 i4 #bfb2    dirge of1 #bae2    at
 ,tithorea1 festivals of1 ii4 #ah n4 #a2
    in relation to cows1 #ce    ,islay1 
harvest customs in1 i4 #ada sq4    ,isle
 de ,france1 harvest customs in1 i4     
#bba1 #bbf    ,isle of ,man1 hunting the
 wren in the1 ii4 #cah sq4              
,isocrates1 on ,demeter's gift of the   
corn1 i4 #ed sq4    ,isowa or ,asawa1   
order of saints in ,morocco1 i4 #ba     
,israelites1 their brazen serpent1 ii4  
#bha    ,isthmian games1 i4 #hf         
,italy1 vintage custom in1 ii4 #acc     
,ivy ,girl1 i4 #aec    ,jabme-,aimo1 the
 abode of the dead1 ii4 #beg    ,jackal1
 transmigration of sinner into1 ii4 #bii
    ,jackal's heart not eaten1 ii4 #ada 
,jacob1 the wrestling of1 ii4 #bfd      
---- of ,edessa1 #bhj n4    ,jaguars    
eaten to inspire courage1 ii4 #adj2     
souls of dead in1 #bhe1 #bhf    ,ja-luo1
 the1 ,nilotic negroes1 ii4 #adb        
,jankari1 a god1 i4 #bdd    ,japan1     
rice-god in1 i4 #big    ,japanese       
deities of the ,sun1 i4 #bab            

,jatakas1 ii4 #bii n4 #e    ,java1 use  
of winnowing-basket in1 i4 #f2          
ceremony at rice-harvest in1 #aii sqq4  
,jawbones of slain beasts propitiated by
 hunters1 ii4 #bdd sq4    ,jebel-,nuba1 
ii4 #bba    ,jewish high priest1 ii4 #bg
    ,jews1 their attitude to the pig1   
ii4 #bc sq42    their ablutions1 #bg    
,jochelson1 ,w41 ii4 #bcb    ,johnson1  
,dr4 ,samuel1 ii4 #cbb    ,jukos1 the1  
of ,nigeria1 ii4 #afj    ,julbuck in    
,scandinavia1 ii4 #cbg    ,jumping over 
a woman1 ceremony of1 ii4 #fd1 #gj n4   
#a1 #bec    ,jupiter1 lamb sacrificed   
to1 at vintage1 ii4 #acc    ,kachins1   
the1 of ,upper ,burma1 ii4 #abj    ,kai1
 the1 of ,german ,new ,guinea1 i4 #ii   
sqq41 #cac1 ii4 #cc2    their belief in 
transmigration1 #bif    ,kaimani ,bay1  
i4 #abc    ,kalamantans of ,borneo1 ii4 
#bic sq4    ,kalmucks1 their            
consecration of a white ram1 ii4 #cac   
sq4    ,kamilaroi1 the1 of ,new ,south  
,wales1 ii4 #aea1 #afb2    burial custom
 of the1 #ii sq4    ,kamtchatka1 ii4    

#aie    ,kamtchatkans1 the1 i4 #cae1 ii4
 #beg1 #bfh2    their propitiation of   
slain animals1 #bbb    ,kamui1 ii4 #ahj1
 #aih    ,kandhs or ,khonds4 ,see       
,khonds    ,kangean archipelago1 ii4    
#bgh    ,kansas ,indians1 ii4 #adi      
,karels of ,finland1 the1 ii4 #beh n4 #b
    ,karens of ,burma1 i4 #aj2    their 
ceremonies to secure the rice-soul1 #ahi
 sq4    ,karo-,bataks of ,sumatra1 i4   
#aif    ,karoks of ,california1 ii4 #bee
    ,kashim1 ii4 #bdg    ,kaua ,indians1
 i4 #aaa    ,kavirondo1 ii4 #bf         
,kayans or ,bahaus1 the1 of central     
,borneo1 i4 #ib sqq41 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaa1 
#bcd1 #cad1 ii4 #ed2    their ceremonies
 in connexion with rice1 #ahd sqq42     
their custom as to eating deer1 ii4     
#add2    their belief in transmigration1
 #bic    ---- of the ,mahakam river1 i4 
#ahf    ---- of the ,mendalam river1 i4 
#ig1 #ih    ,kei ,islands1 ii4 #abc     
,kekchis of ,guatemala1 ii4 #bda        
,kelah1 soul1 i4 #ahi    ,kemping1 i4   
#aeb    ,kent1 harvest custom in1 i4    

#aec    ,kenyahs1 the1 of ,borneo1 i4   
#cad    ,key of the field1 i4 #bbf      
,khn-ma1 a ,tibetan goddess1 ii4 #if    
,khonds or ,kandhs1 human sacrifices for
 crops among the1 i4 #bde sqq4    ,kid1 
surname of ,dionysus1 i4 #ag    ,kikuyu1
 i4 #cag    ,killing a god in the form  
of an animal1 i4 #bb sq42    two types  
of the custom of1 ii4 #cab sq4    ----  
the corn-spirit1 i4 #baf sqq4    ----   
the divine animal1 ii4 #afi sqq4        
,kimbunda1 the1 of ,west ,africa1 ii4   
#aeb    ,king1 title of ,carnival       
mummer1 i4 #bh sq42    eats of new      
fruits before his people1 ii4 #fc1 #gj2 
first-fruits presented to the1 #aji1    
#aaf1 #abb2    so called1 at            
,carcassone1 #cbj sq4    ---- of the    
,calf1 i4 #bij    ---- of the           
harvesters1 i4 #bid    ---- of the      
,rice1 i4 #aig    ,king's son sacrificed
 for his father1 i4 #ac1 #bd sq4        
,kings1 trace of custom of slaying them 
annually1 i4 #bed sq42    turned at     
death into lions1 ii4 #bhh    ,kings'   

wives turned at death into leopards1 ii4
 #bhh    ,kingsmill ,islands1 ii4 #abg  
,kinross1 harvest custom in1 i4 #bbg    
,kinship of men with crocodiles1 ii4    
#bab sq41 #bad sq42    of men with      
tigers1 #baf    ,kirn or kern1 last corn
 cut1 i4 #aea1 #aeb sqq42    name of the
 harvest-supper1 #aeh    ---- -baby1 i4 
#aea1 #aec    ---- -doll1 i4 #aea1 #aec1
 #aed    ---- -supper1 i4 #aed          
,kiwaii1 i4 #ajf    ,kiziba1 district of
 ,central ,africa1 i4 #aah1 ii4 #bai    
,klppel 7mallet71 at threshing1 i4 #adh 
,kobeua ,indians1 the1 i4 #aaa1 ii4 #afd
    ,kochs of ,assam1 ii4 #aaf          
,kon-,meney1 a tribe of ,cochin ,china1 
ii4 #bia    ,koragia at ,mantinea1 i4   
#df n4 #b    ,kore1 title of            
,persephone1 i4 #bjh    ,koryak1 their  
ceremonies at killing bears and wolves1 
ii4 #bbc2    their ceremonies at the    
slaughter of whales1 #bcb sqq42    their
 treatment of a slain fox1 #bdd         
,kothluwalawa1 a sacred lake1 ii4 #agi  
,krooben1 a malevolent spirit1 ii4 #ajj 

,kruyt1 ,a4 ,c41 i4 #ahb sq4            
,kshetrpal1 a ,himalayan deity1 ii4 #aag
    ,kudulu1 a hill tribe of ,india1 i4 
#bdd    ,kuker and ,kukerica1 ii4 #ccb1 
#ccc1 #ccd    1 i4 #afa n4 #d    ,kukis1
 the1 ii4 #aee n4 #d    ,kull ,gossaih1 
an ,indian goddess1 ii4 #aah            
,kwakiutl ,indians1 i4 #bj1 ii4 #bbj1   
#bej    ,la ,ciotat1 near ,marseilles1  
hunting the wren at1 ii4 #cba           
,ladakh1 ii4 #aag    ,lagos1 human      
sacrifice at1 i4 #bci    ,lake-dwellers 
of ,europe1 i4 #acb    ,lamb killed     
sacramentally1 ii4 #cad sq4    ,lame1   
woman who pretends to be1 ii4 #bed      
---- ,goat1 the1 i4 #bhd                
,lamentations1 pretended1 for insects   
which destroy the crops1 ii4 #bgi       
sq4    ,lampsacus1 coin of1 i4 #dd      
,land cleared for cultivation by men1 i4
 #aac sq41 #aag sqq4    ,landowners1    
sacrifices offered to spirits of former1
 i4 #bbh    ,lang1 ,andrew1 ii4 #d      
,language of animals acquired by eating 
serpent's flesh1 ii4 #adf2    of birds1 

how learned1 #adf    ,lanuvium1 sacred  
serpent at1 ii4 #ah    ,laos1 province  
of ,siam1 i4 #h    ,laphystian ,zeus1 i4
 #be    ,lapps1 the1 ii4 #beg2    their 
treatment of slain bears1 #bbd          
,latuka1 ii4 #bbh    ,laws of ,manu1 ii4
 #bih    ,leaf-clad dancers1 i4 #ie     
,leaps1 high and long1 i4 #ih2    to    
make the crops grow tall1 ii4 #ccj sq4  
,learchus1 son of ,athamas1 i4 #bd      
,leeches1 charm against1 ii4 #bha       
,legends told as charms1 i4 #ajb sq4    
,lenaeon1 a ,greek month1 i4 #ff        
,lengua ,indians of ,paraguay1 i4 #cji2 
of the ,gran ,chaco1 ii4 #bde           
,lenormant1 ,franois1 i4 #dj n4 #c      
,leonard1 ,major ,a4 ,g41 ii4 #aee      
,leopard's blood drunk1 or its flesh or 
heart eaten to make the eater           
brave1 ii4 #ada sq4    ,leopards1 men   
inspired by1 ii4 #bac2    revered1 #bbh2
    ceremonies observed after the       
slaughter of1 #bbh sqq42    souls of    
dead in1 #bhh1 #bhi    ,lepers          
sacrificed1 i4 #bfa    ,leprosy caused  

by eating a sacred animal1 ii4 #be sqq4 
,lesbos1 harvest custom in1 i4 #bhj     
,letts1 swinging among the1 i4 #ajg2    
their sacrifices to wolves1 ii4 #bhd    
,lhoosai1 the1 i4 #abb    ,lhota ,naga1 
the1 i4 #bdc    ,libanius1 on human life
 before ,demeter1 i4 #dc    ,libations  
of beer1 ii4 #aha1 #ahe1 #ahf    ,liber1
 ,father1 i4 #ab2    ,roman sacrifice of
 new wine to1 ii4 #acc    ,license1     
periods of1 ii4 #fb1 #fc1 #ff sqq4      
,lightning1 eating flesh of bullock that
 has been struck by1 ii4 #afa2          
treatment of men1 animals1 and houses   
that have been struck by1 #afa          
,liknites1 epithet of ,dionysus1 i4 #e1 
#bg    ,lillooet ,indians1 ii4 #bbf1    
#bdc    ,limping on one foot1 i4 #bcb1  
#bhd    ,lindus in ,rhodes1 ii4 #he     
,linus or ,ailinus1 i4 #baf1 #beg sq41  
#bfc1 #bfd    ,lion-chief1 ii4 #bbh     
,lion's fat1 unguent of1 ii4 #afd       
---- flesh or heart eaten to make eater 
brave1 ii4 #ada1 #adb sq41 #adg         
,lions1 men inspired by1 ii4 #bac2      

respected1 #bbh2    souls of dead chiefs
 in1 #bhg sq4    ,lir majoran1 god of   
husbandry1 ii4 #abc    ,lithuania1 ii4  
#cbg2    harvest customs in1 i4 #acc1   
#ade1 #adh2    custom at threshing in1  
#bbc sq42    old ,lithuanian ceremonies 
at eating the new corn1 ii4 #di sq4     
,little ,deer1 chief of the deer tribe1 
ii4 #bda    ---- ,wood-woman1 i4 #bcb   
,lityerses1 i4 #baf sqq42    his        
relation to ,attis1 #bee sq4    ,liver  
of deer eaten1 ii4 #adc2    of dog eaten
 to acquire bravery1 #ade2    of serpent
 eaten to acquire language of animals1  
#adf2    regarded as the seat of the    
soul1 #adg sq42    regarded as the seat 
of valour1 #adh2    of brave men eaten1 
#aea sq42    of bear1 used as medicine1 
#ahg sq4    ,ljeschie1 ,russian         
wood-spirits1 ii4 #b    ,loaf made of   
corn of last sheaf1 i4 #adh sq4         
,loaves in shape of a boar1 i4 #cjj2    
in human shape1 ii4 #dh sq41 #id1 #ie   
,lobeck1 ,chr4 ,a41 ii4 #ag n4 #e1 #ah  
n4 #a1 #bj1 #ba    ,lochaber1 harvest   

customs in1 i4 #aeg    ,locust ,apollo1 
ii4 #bhb    ---- ,hercules1 ii4 #bhb    
,locusts1 superstitious precautions     
against1 ii4 #bgf1 #bgi1 #bha           
,lombok1 rice-spirit in1 i4 #bja        
,lothringen 7,lorraine71 harvest customs
 in1 i4 #bbc1 #bgc1 #bhh                
,loucheux-,indians1 ii4 #bfe            
,louisiana1 festival of new corn in1 ii4
 #gg sqq42    ,indians of1 #bci1 #bdb   
,lous1 a ,macedonian month1 i4 #beh1    
#bei    ,lucian1 old scholium on1 ii4   
#ag    ,lumi lali1 consecrated          
rice-field1 i4 #ic1 #ajh    ,lunar      
calendar corrected by observation of the
 ,pleiades1 i4 #cad sq41 #cae           
sq4    ---- months observed by savages1 
i4 #aag1 #abe    ---- months of ,greek  
calendar1 i4 #eb sq41 #hb    ---- and   
solar time1 attempts to harmonise1 i4   
#hj sq4    ,luritcha tribe of           
,australia1 ii4 #bfj    ,luzon1 ii4 #abd
    ,lyceum or ,place of ,wolves at     
,athens1 ii4 #bhc1 #bhd    ,lycosura1 in
 ,arcadia1 ii4 #df2    sanctuary of the 

two goddesses at1 #cci    ,lycurgus1 a  
,thracian king1 his death1 i4 #bd1 #be  
,mabuaig1 i4 #ajf1 ii4 #bjg             
,m',carthy1 ,sir ,charles1 ii4 #adi     
,macdonald1 ,rev4 ,james1 ii4 #ff sq4   
,maclagan1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,c41 i4 #afe1 #aff  
,mc,clintock1 ,walter1 i4 #caa          
,macpherson1 ,major ,s4 ,c41 i4 #bej    
,mc,taggart1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,mc,t4 ,ellis1 ii4
 #cji n4 #a    ,madagascar1 ii4 #aaf2   
crocodiles respected in1 #bad sq42      
belief in transmigration among the      
tribes of1 #bhi sq4    ,madder-harvest1 
,dutch custom at1 i4 #bca1 #bce sq4     
,madi or ,moru tribe of ,central        
,africa1 ii4 #cad    ,madonna1 effigies 
of1 sold and eaten1 ii4 #id    ,maggots 
eaten as an initiatory rite1 ii4 #ada   
,magic dwindles into divination1 i4 #aaj
 n42    sympathetic1 #a1 #aa1 #ajb1 ii4 
#bga2    homoeopathic or imitative1 i4  
#aj1 #fb1 #bfb1 #bfg1 #cca1 #ccc1 #ccd2 
of a flesh diet1 #ach sqq4    ,magical  
changes of shape1 i4 #cje    ----       
significance of games in primitive      

agriculture1 i4 #ib sqq4    ,magnesia on
 the ,maeander1 i4 #c2    sacrifice of  
bull at1 ii4 #g sq4    ,magpies' nests1 
custom of robbing the1 ii4 #cba n4 #c   
,magyar tale1 ii4 #bfc    ,mahakam      
,river1 i4 #ih1 #ii n4 #a1 #ahf1 #ahg1  
#cad    ,mai ,darat1 the1 ii4 #ajb      
,maiden1 name given to last corn cut1 i4
 #aej1 #aec1 #aee sqq41 #afd sqq4       
---- ,feast at end of harvest1 i4 #aef  
,maidenhead1 name of last standing corn1
 i4 #aeh    ,maidhdean-buain1 i4 #aee   
,maize cultivated in ,africa1 i4 #aad1  
#aae1 #aai1 #acj2    cultivated in      
,south ,america1 #abb1 #abd2            
cultivated in ,assam1 #abc2    ,american
 personification of1 #aga sqq42         
cultivated in ,burma1 #bdb2    thought  
to be dependent on the ,pleiades1 #caj  
---- -goddess1 ,mexican1 i4 #agf    ----
 -mother1 i4 #agb sqq4    ,makalaka1    
the1 ii4 #aaj    ,makanga1 the1 ii4 #bhg
    ,malagasy1 the1 venerate crocodiles1
 ii4 #bae    ,malas1 the1 a caste of    
pariahs1 ii4 #ic    ,malay ,peninsula1  

the ,rice-mother in the1 i4 #aig sqq4   
,malays of ,patani ,bay1 ii4 #bab       
,male organ1 effigy of1 in rites of     
,dionysus1 i4 #ab2    effigy of1 in     
,thracian ceremony1 #bf1 #bi            
,malko-,tirnovsko1 ii4 #cca    ,mamilian
 tower1 ii4 #db1 #dd    ,mandans1 the1  
i4 #bjd    ,mandeling1 a district of    
,sumatra1 i4 #aig1 ii4 #baf    ,maneros1
 i4 #bae1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfd  
,mang-,shen1 god of agriculture1 ii4    
#aa1 #ab    ,mango tree1 ii4 #aai       
,mania1 the ,mother or ,grandmother of  
,ghosts1 ii4 #id1 #if    ,maniae1 a kind
 of loaf1 ii4 #id    ,manii at ,aricia1 
many1 ii4 #id sqq4    ,manioc cultivated
 in ,africa1 i4 #aai2    cultivated in  
,south ,america1 #abj sqq4              
,mannewars1 the1 ii4 #aai    ,mannhardt1
 ,w41 i4 #aa1 #aca1 #acb1 #ace1 #ach1   
#bjd1 #bag n4 #a1 #bah n4 #a1           
#bbb1 #beh1 #bib1 #bid1 ii4 #b1 #db n4  
#a1 #bfc1 #cbe1 #ccg    ,manslayers     
taste the blood of their victims1 ii4   
#aed sq4    ,mantinea1 sanctuary of     

,demeter at1 i4 #df n4 #b2    games in  
honour of ,antinous at1 #hj1 #he        
,manu1 ,laws of1 ii4 #bih    ,manure1   
ashes used as1 i4 #aag    ,many ,manii  
at ,aricia1 ii4 #id sqq4    ,maoris1    
the1 i4 #cac1 ii4 #acc1 #aef1 #beb      
,maraves1 the1 ii4 #aaa    ,march1 the  
first of1 ii4 #cbb n4    ,mare in foal1 
last sheaf of corn given to1 i4 #afj1   
#afb1 #afh    ---- or horse1 corn-spirit
 as1 i4 #bib sqq4    ,marimos1 human    
sacrifices among the1 i4 #bdj1 #bea     
,mariner1 ,w41 quoted1 ii4 #abh sqq4    
,marno1 ,e41 ii4 #ci    ,marriage1 mock1
 at ,carnival masquerade1 i4 #bg2    of 
,queen of ,athens to ,dionysus1 #cj sq42
    sacred1 of ,zeus and ,demeter in    
,eleusinian mysteries1 #fe sqq42    of  
mice1 ii4 #bgh    ,mars1 red-haired men 
sacrificed to the planet1 i4 #bfa sq42  
horse sacrificed to1 at ,rome1 ii4 #db  
,masai1 the1 i4 #cag1 ii4 #hc1 #bhh     
,masked dances1 i4 #ie sq41 #aaa1 #ahf1 
ii4 #bjh n4 #a2    in ritual1 #cci      
,masks worn by ,egyptian kings1 i4 #bfj 

sq42    worn by women1 ii4 #bcb sq41    
#bcd2    worn by mummers at ,carnival1  
#ccc    ,maskers in ,thrace at          
,carnival1 i4 #bf sqq4    ,maspero1 ,sir
 ,g41 i4 #bfj n4 #b    ,masquerade at   
sowing festival1 i4 #ie sq41 #ih1 #ahf  
sq4    ,master of the ,fish1 ii4 #beb   
---- of ,life1 ii4 #acd1 #ace           
,matabel1 the1 i4 #aae1 ii4 #bge2       
their festival of new fruits1 #gj sq4   
,matse tribe of ,ewe negroes1 ii4 #aae  
,matthes1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,f41 ii4 #abb        
,mausolus1 ii4 #aeh    ,mawu ,sodza1 a  
,ewe goddess1 ii4 #aae    ,may1 ,j4 ,d41
 ii4 #bha n4 #b    ,may1 the first of1  
ii4 #cba n4 #c    ,maypole1 ii4 #dd     
8,meal and ale10 i4 #afj    ,meat and   
milk1 dietary rules as to1 ii4 #hc sq4  
,mecklenburg1 harvest customs in1 i4    
#bgc1 #bgd1 #bhc    ,medea and ,aeson1  
ii4 #adc    ,medicine-man1 ii4 #bag1    
#bbj2    dance of1 #gb    ,medium       
inspired by crocodile spirit1 ii4 #bac2 
mediums inspired by spirits of lions1   
leopards1 and serpents1 #bac            

,medontids1 the1 i4 #hf    ,megara1 ii4 
#ag n4 #f    ,meilichios1 epithet of    
,dionysus1 i4 #d    ,melancholy1        
characteristic of men of genius1 ii4    
#cjb n4 #e    ,melanesians1 their       
observation of the ,pleiades1 i4 #cac   
,mell1 last corn cut1 i4 #aea sq4       
---- -doll1 i4 #aea    ---- -sheaf1 i4  
#aea sq4    ---- -supper1 i4 #aea       
,men1 parts of1 eaten to acquire their  
qualities1 ii4 #adh sqq42    disguised  
as animals1 processions of1 #cbe sqq4   
,mendalam ,river1 i4 #ig1 #ih1 #ahg     
,menstruous women1 disability of1 ii4   
#bec sq4    ,meriah1 the human victim   
among the ,khonds1 i4 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdi1 
#bej    ,metageitnion1 an ,attic month1 
i4 #gg    8,metropolis of the ,corn10 i4
 #eh    ,mexican custom of eating a man 
as an embodiment of a god1 ii4 #ib sq4  
---- customs at maize-harvest1 i4 #agd  
sqq4    ---- human sacrifices1 i4 #bcf  
sqq4    ---- sacraments1 ii4 #hf sqq4   
,meyer1 ,prof4 ,e41 i4 #bfj n4 #b       
,mhaighdean-,bhuana 7or                 

,maighdean-,buana71 i4 #aef1 #afd sq4   
,miamis1 the1 i4 #bjf    ,mice1 the     
genius of1 ii4 #bdc2    superstitious   
precautions taken by farmers against1   
#bgf sqq41 #bha2    superstition as to  
white1 #bgi1 #bhc2    their ravages on  
the crops1 #bhb    ,midas1 ,king of     
,phrygia1 i4 #bag    ,middleton1 ,j4    
,h41 i4 #ad n4 #c1 #bff    ,midsummer   
solstice1 rainmaking ceremony performed 
at the1 ii4 #agi    ,mildew worshipped  
by the ,romans1 ii4 #bhb    ----        
,apollo1 ii4 #bhb    ,milk1 taboos      
referring to1 ii4 #hc sq42    temporary 
abstinence from1 #afa2    offered to    
snakes1 #bhh    ,milk and meat 7flesh71 
dietary rules as to1 ii4 #hc sq4    ----
 of pig1 ii4 #bd1 #be    ,mill1 ,tammuz1
 ground in a1 i4 #beh    ,millet        
cultivated in ,africa1 i4 #aae1 #aag2   
cultivated in ,assam1 #abc2             
cultivated in ,new ,guinea1 #abc        
,milton1 quoted1 i4 #adg    ,minahassa1 
ii4 #ed1 #abc    ,minangkabauers of     
,sumatra1 i4 #aia1 ii4 #baa             

,miniature fields dedicated to spirits1 
i4 #bcc sq4    ,minnetaree ,indians1 i4 
#bjd1 ii4 #bef    ,minotaur1 the1 i4 #ca
    ,miris of ,assam1 the1 i4 #abc1 ii4 
#ade    ,mirzapur1 remedy for locusts   
in1 ii4 #bgf    ,mistress1 sanctuary of 
the1 at ,lycosura1 ii4 #df    ,mithraic 
sacrifice of bull1 ii4 #aj    ,mnevis1  
sacred bull1 ii4 #cd sq4    ,moab1      
,arabs of1 i4 #ach    ,mock battle1 ii4 
#ge4    ,see ,sham ,fight    ,mocobis1  
the1 i4 #cji    ,moffat1 ,r41 i4 #caf   
,monbuttoo1 the1 of ,central ,africa1 i4
 #aai    ,mondard1 the great1 ii4 #f    
,mongolian peoples1 ii4 #beg    ,monkeys
 sacred at ,fishtown1 ii4 #bhg          
,months1 lunar1 observed by savages1 i4 
#aag1 #abe2    of ,greek calendar1 #eb  
sq41 #hb    ,moon1 reckoning by the1 i4 
#aag2    human victims sacrificed to1   
#bfa2    pigs sacrificed to the1 ii4 #be
    ,mooney1 ,j41 quoted1 ii4 #bjd sq4  
,mopane country1 ,south ,africa1 ii4    
#bhg    ,moravia1 harvest custom in1 i4 
#afb    ,morgan1 ,l4 ,h41 ii4 #bbe n4 #a

    ,morning ,star1 the1 i4 #bch1 #cae  
,morocco1 order of saints in1 i4 #ba2   
the ,barley ,bride in1 #agh sq4         
,mosquito ,indians1 ii4 #beh n4 #b      
,mother1 the ,great1 name given to the  
last sheaf1 i4 #ace sq42    of the      
,maize1 #agb sqq42    of the ,rice1 #aia
 sqq4    ---- -corn1 name given to last 
sheaf threshed1 i4 #adg    ---- -cotton1
 i4 #agh    ---- ,earth1 ii4 #aje       
---- -sheaf1 i4 #ace    ,moulton1       
,professor ,j4 ,h41 i4 #da n41 #aca n4  
#d    ,mountains1 offerings to the1 ii4 
#acd    ,mourning1 pretended1 for       
insects that destroy the crops1 ii4 #bgi
 sq4    ,mouse ,apollo1 ii4 #bhb sq4    
,see ,mice    ,mouth of dead fox tied   
up1 ii4 #bfg    ,mpongwe1 the1 i4 #aai  
,muganda 7singular of ,baganda1 plural71
 ii4 #bca    ,mukasa1 god of the        
,baganda1 ii4 #bec    ,mull1 harvest    
custom in1 i4 #aee    ,mulungu1 spirits 
of the dead1 ii4 #aaa sq4    ,murray1   
,miss ,margaret ,a41 i4 #bfj sq4        
,murray1 ,sir ,james1 i4 #aea n4 #c     

,muskoghees1 the1 ii4 #aej              
,mutilation of dead men intended to     
disable their ghosts1 ii4 #bga sqq42    
of ox1 magical equivalent to mutilation 
of enemy1 #bga    ,muzimos1 spirits of  
the dead1 ii4 #aaa    ,myconus1 i4 #ff  
,myres1 ,professor ,j4 ,l41 i4 #fb n4 #e
    ,mysteries at ,mantinea1 i4 #df n4  
#b    ---- ,eleusinian1 i4 #ce1 #cg     
sqq41 #fe sqq41 #fi sq41 #gh sq41 #aaa1 
#afa              sq41 #ahh2    the     
,great1 their date1 #ea2    instituted  
by ,eumolpus1 #gj2    associated with   
belief in immortality1 #ij sq42    of   
,dionysus1 #ae2    ,greek1 i4 #aaj      
,nagas of ,assam1 their burial custom1  
ii4 #ajj2    their belief in            
transmigration1 #bij sq4    ,nahals1    
the1 ii4 #aai    ,namaquas1 the1 ii4    
#ada    ,nandi1 the1 i4 #aag1 #cag1 ii4 
#fd1 #adi1 #aee    ,nanga1 sacred       
enclosure in ,fiji1 ii4 #abe    ,naples 
protected against flies and             
grasshoppers1 ii4 #bha    ,narrative    
spells1 i4 #ajd sqq4    ,natchez        

,indians1 ii4 #ace2    their festival of
 new corn1 #gg sqq4    ,natural         
timekeepers1 i4 #ec    ,nauras ,indians1
 ii4 #aej    ,navel-string1 term applied
 to last handful of corn1 i4 #aej       
,neck1 crying the1 i4 #bfd sqq4    ---- 
of the corn-spirit1 i4 #bfh    ,neil1   
,r4 ,a41 ii4 #bb n4 #d    ,nemean games1
 i4 #hf    ,nets treated as living      
beings1 ii4 #bdj n4 #a    ,new corn1    
eaten sacramentally1 ii4 #dh sqq4       
---- fire1 ii4 #fe1 #gd1 #ge1 #gh2      
festival of1 #ace    ---- fruits1       
ceremonies at eating1 ii4 #eb sqq4      
---- potatoes1 how eaten1 ii4 #ea       
---- rice1 ceremonies at eating the1 ii4
 #ed sqq4    ---- vessels used for new  
fruits1 ii4 #ha1 #hc    ---- yams1      
ceremonies at eating1 ii4 #ec1 #eh sqq42
    festival of the1 #aae2    in ,tonga1
 festival of the1 #abh sqq4    ----     
,britain1 i4 #abc    ---- ,caledonia1   
ii4 #aea2    ceremony at eating first   
yams in1 #ec    ---- ,guinea1 i4 #cac1  
ii4 #abd2    ,german1 i4 #ii1 #ajc1     

#ajd2    ,dutch1 #abc    ---- ,hebrides1
 i4 #cac1 ii4 #abe    ---- ,zealand1 ii4
 #bh    ,new ,year festival of the      
,kayans1 i4 #if sq41 #ih1 #ii2    dated 
by the ,pleiades1 #aaf1 #caj1 #cab1 #cae
    ---- ,year's ,day1 i4 #cjb2    eve  
of1 ii4 #cbb    ,niam-,niam1 the1 i4    
#aai    ,nias1 i4 #cae1 ii4 #cb1 #ajb1  
#abd1 #bgf2    harvest custom in1 i4    
#bcc sq4    ,nicaragua1 festivals in1   
ii4 #ia    ,nicolson1 ,a41 i4 #afd sq4  
,nieuwenhuis1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,w41 i4 #ic1 #id 
n4 #b1 #ie1 #if1 #ig sq41 #ih1 #ajg     
,niger ,delta1 burial custom in the1 ii4
 #ih    ,nilsson1 ,professor ,m4 ,p41 i4
 #eh n4 #a1 #fb n4 #f1 ii4 #h n4 #b     
,nine1 the number1 in ritual1 i4 #aie   
,nisan1 a ,jewish month1 i4 #bei n4 #a  
,nishga ,indians1 the1 ii4 #ajf         
,nonnus1 on death of ,dionysus1 i4 #ab  
sq4    ,nootka ,indians1 ii4 #bbe1 #bea 
,normandy1 harvest customs in1 i4 #bbf1 
#bie    ,north ,american ,indians1 ii4  
#bcg2    their theory of the lower      
animals1 #bje sq4    ,northumberland1   

harvest customs in1 i4 #aea    ,norway1 
harvest customs in1 i4 #acb1 #bbc1 #bbe1
 #bhj1 #bhb    ,nubas1 the1 of          
,jebel-,nuba1 ii4 #aad    ,nuehr1 the1  
ii4 #ci    ,nyanja-speaking tribes1 ii4 
#bf    ,nyanza1 ,lake ,victoria1 i4 #aah
    ,nyikpl1 a negro rain-god1 ii4 #de  
,oath of women by the ,pleiades1 i4 #caa
    ,oaths accompanied by eating a      
sacred substance1 ii4 #cac              
,oats-bride1 i4 #afb1 #afc1 #afd    ----
 -cow1 i4 #bhi1 #bij    ---- -fool1 i4  
#adh    ---- -goat1 i4 #bgj1 #bhb1 #bhc1
 #bhf1 #bhg2    mummer called the1 ii4  
#cbg    ---- -king1 i4 #afd    ----     
-man1 i4 #afc1 #bbc    ---- -mother1 i4 
#ace    ---- -queen1 i4 #afd    ----    
-sow1 i4 #bih    ---- -stallion1 i4 #bib
    ---- -wolf1 i4 #bgc1 #bgd    ----   
-woman1 i4 #afc    ,obscene songs sung  
by women on special occasions1 ii4 #bhj 
,octennial cycle in ,greek calendar1 i4 
#hj sqq4    ---- period of ,greek games1
 i4 #hj    ---- tenure of kingship1 i4  
#hb1 #he    ,october horse1 at ,rome1   

ii4 #db sqq4    ,oesel1 island of1 i4   
#bih1 #cjb1 ii4 #ea    ,ogun1 a war-god1
 ii4 #aej    ,oil1 human victim anointed
 with1 i4 #bdf1 #bdg2    holy1 ii4 #abc 
,ointment1 magical1 ii4 #afe sq4        
,ojibway ,indians1 ii4 #bai2    their   
treatment of slain bears1 ii4 #bbe sq4  
,okanaken ,indians1 ii4 #acd    ,olachen
 fish1 ceremonies at catching the first 
of the season1 ii4 #bed              sq4
    ,old animal1 bone of1 eaten to make 
eater old1 ii4 #adc    ----             
,barley-woman1 i4 #aci    ---- ,calabar1
 ii4 #ajh    ---- ,corn-woman at        
threshing1 i4 #adg    ---- ,man1 name   
given to the last sheaf1 i4 #acf sqq41  
#bah sqq42    at threshing1 #adh sq4    
---- ,potato ,woman1 i4 #ade    ----    
,rye-woman1 i4 #aci1 #adj1 #ade1 #bbc1  
#bbd1 #bcb    ---- ,wheat-woman1 i4 #aci
    ---- ,wife 7,cailleach71 name given 
to last corn cut1 i4 #adj sqq41 #afd    
sqq4    ---- ,witch1 burning the1 i4    
#bbd    ---- ,woman1 name given to last 
sheaf1 i4 #acf sq41 #adg1 #bbc2         

,cherokee personification of corn1 #agg 
---- ,woman who ,never ,dies1 i4 #bjd   
sq4    ---- ,women as representatives of
 the ,corn-goddess1 i4 #abe    ,oloh    
,ngadju1 the1 ii4 #ajj    ,olympia1     
,pelops at1 ii4 #he    ,olympiads1      
beginning of reckoning by1 i4 #hb       
,olympic games1 i4 #hj1 #hf    ,omagua  
,indians of ,brazil1 i4 #cji    ,omaha  
,indians1 ii4 #be1 #bi1 #bjg1 #bfi1 #bgb
    ,omambos1 the1 ii4 #adi    ,omen1   
beasts and birds of1 ii4 #adc           
,omuongo tree1 ii4 #ga    ,onitsha1 on  
the ,niger1 ii4 #eh2    funeral custom  
at1 #ih sq4    ,opium1 i4 #bdb          
,oraons1 human sacrifices among the1 i4 
#bdd sq42    of ,bengal1 ii4 #aag       
,organs of generation1 male and female1 
cakes in shape of1 i4 #fb2    effigies  
of male1 #ab1 #bf1 #bi    ,origin of    
agriculture1 i4 #abh sq42    of         
astronomy1 #cjg    ,orinoco1 ,indians of
 the1 i4 #abd1 #caj1 ii4 #aej1 #bcf     
,orion1 the constellation1 i4 #cae      
,orion's belt1 i4 #cac1 #cae1 #cag      

---- sword1 i4 #cag    ,orotchis1       
bear-festivals of the1 ii4 #aig         
,osculati1 ,g41 ii4 #bhe    ,osiris1 i4 
#bad1 #bae1 #bei sqq42    his relation  
to ,dionysus1 #c1 #cb2    human         
sacrifices at grave of1 #bfj2    black  
and green1 #bfc2    key to mysteries of1
 #bfc2    and the pig1 ii4 #bd sqq42    
in relation to sacred bulls1 #cd sqq42  
false graves of1 #ajj2    his missing   
member1 #bfd    ,ostiaks1 their         
ceremonies at killing bears1 ii4 #bbb   
sq4    ,ostrich1 ghost of1 deceived1 ii4
 #bde    ,otawa ,indians1 ii4 #bbd1 #bej
    ,otawa totem clans1 ii4 #bbe n4 #a  
,otter's head1 ,aino custom as to       
eating1 ii4 #add    ,otters1 their bones
 not allowed to be gnawed by dogs1 ii4  
#bci    ,ounce1 ceremony at killing an1 
ii4 #bce    ,ovambo1 the1 ii4 #ga2      
their worship of the dead1 #aji sq4     
,ox1 corn-spirit as1 i4 #bhh sqq42      
killed on harvest field1 #bij2          
slaughtered at threshing1 #bia sq42     
sacrificed at the ,bouphonia1 ii4 #e2   

as representative of the corn-spirit1 #i
 sqq42    effigy of1 broken as a spring 
ceremony in ,china1 #aj sqq42           
,bechuana sacrifice of a black1 #bga2   
sacrificed to boa-constrictor1 #bij     
---- -stall 7,bucolium7 at ,athens1 i4  
#cj sq4    ---- -yoked ,ploughing at    
,athens1 i4 #ca    ,oxen used in        
ploughing1 i4 #abi n4 #a    ,pains in   
back at reaping1 i4 #bhe    ,palenques1 
the1 of ,south ,america1 ii4 #bba       
,palestine1 wild boars in1 ii4 #ca sq4  
,panathenaic games at ,athens1 i4 #hj   
,panes1 a bird-feast1 ii4 #agj          
,panopeus1 i4 #dh    ,pans in relation  
to goats1 ii4 #a sqq4    ,papuans1 the1 
i4 #abc1 ii4 #ade2    their belief in   
the transmigration of souls1 #bie       
,paradoxurus1 souls of dead in various  
species of1 ii4 #bid    ,pardon of      
animal asked before killing it1 ii4 #ahc
    ,parian chronicler1 i4 #gj    ,paris
 protected against dormice and serpents1
 ii4 #bha    ,parjas1 the1 ii4 #bg1 #aai
    ,parrots1 assimilation of men to1   

ii4 #bjh    ,partridge1 transmigration  
of sinner into1 ii4 #bii    ,pasiphae   
and the ,minotaur1 i4 #ca    ,pastoral  
stage of society1 ii4 #ce1 #cg    ----  
tribes1 animal sacraments among1 ii4    
#cac    ,patani ,bay1 ii4 #bab          
,pawnees1 human sacrifices among the1 i4
 #bch sq4    ,peacock as a totem1 ii4   
#bi2    transmigration of sinner into1  
#bii    ,pea-mother1 i4 #acb1 #ace      
,peas-cow1 i4 #bij    ---- -pug1 i4 #bgb
    ,pelew ,islanders1 ii4 #bic    ---- 
,islands1 burial custom in the1 ii4 #ih 
,pelops at ,olympia1 ii4 #he2    his    
restoration to life1 #bfc               
,pembrokeshire1 harvest customs in1 i4  
#adb sqq42    cutting 8the neck0 in1    
#bfg2    hunting the wren in1 ii4 #cbj  
,pentheus1 death of1 i4 #bd1 #be        
,pergamus1 ii4 #he    ,permanence of    
simpler forms of religion1 ii4 #cce     
,persephone1 mother of ,zagreus by      
,zeus1 i4 #ab2    rape of1 #cf2    a    
personification of the corn1 #ci sq42   
in art1 #dc sq42    the descent of1 #df1

 ii4 #ag2    associated with the ripe   
ears of corn1 #eh2    in ,greek art1 #hh
 sq4    ---- and ,demeter1 i4 #ce sqq4  
---- and ,pluto1 ii4 #i                 
,personification of corn as mother and  
daughter1 i4 #acj1 #bjg sqq4            
,perthshire1 harvest customs in1 i4 #aef
 sq4    ,peru1 ,indians of1 i4 #abj1    
#abb1 ii4 #bdi2    their worship of the 
,pleiades1 i4 #caj    ,peruvians1 their 
customs as to ,mother of ,maize1 etc41  
i4 #aga sqq4    ,pessinus1 i4 #bee      
,phigalia1 horse-headed ,demeter of1 ii4
 #ba1 #cch    ,philippine ,islands1 i4  
#bdj    ,philistines1 their charm       
against mice1 ii4 #bha1 #bhc            
,philochorus1 on date of ,haloa1 i4 #fb 
,phlius1 i4 #ag    ,phoenicia1 song of  
,linus in1 i4 #baf    ,phrygia1         
,lityerses in1 i4 #baf sq4              
,phyllanthus emblica1 ii4 #aai          
,piaroas ,indians of the ,orinoco1 ii4  
#bhe    ,pig1 corn-spirit as1 i4 #bih   
sqq42    in relation to ,demeter1 ii4   
#af sqq42    not eaten in ,crete1 #ba n4

 #a2    in ancient ,egypt1 #bd sqq4     
---- and ,attis1 ii4 #bb    ---- -meat  
forbidden to women at sowing seed1 i4   
#aae    ,pig's flesh not eaten by field 
labourers1 ii4 #cc1 #aci    ,pigeons1   
souls of dead in1 ii4 #bic    ,pigs1    
sacrifice of1 i4 #gd1 #ig2    not to be 
eaten by enchanters of crops1 #ajj sq42 
sacrificed to the moon1 ii4 #be2        
souls of dead in1 #bhf1 #bie1 #bif      
,pilae1 human effigies1 ii4 #ie n4 #a   
,pindar1 old scholiast on1 i4 #ga1 #gd1 
#gg1 #gh2    on rebirth1 #hd            
,pine-tree1 sacred to ,dionysus1 i4 #d  
,piros ,indians of ,peru1 ii4 #bhf      
,pirua1 granary of maize1 i4 #aga sqq4  
,plaiting the last standing corn before 
cutting it1 i4 #adb1 #add1 #aec1 #aed1  
#aeg1 #aeh    ,plane-tree1 ,dionysus in1
 i4 #c    ,planets1 human victims       
sacrificed to1 i4 #bfa sq4    ,plants   
thought to be animated by spirits1 ii4  
#hb sq4    ,plataea1 ,eleutherian games 
at1 i4 #hj1 #he    ,plato and the       
doctrine of transmigration1 ii4 #cjh    

,playfair1 ,major ,a41 ii4 #ccg         
,pleiades1 autumnal setting of1 i4 #de2 
morning rising of1 the signal for       
reaping in ,greece1 #dh sq42    in      
primitive calendars1 #aaf1 #cjg sqq42   
associated with the rainy season1 #cah  
,pliny1 on the setting of the ,pleiades1
 i4 #cah    ,plough in relation to      
,dionysus1 i4 #e2    in primitive       
agriculture1 #aac    ---- ,monday1 i4   
#cc2    rites of1 ii4 #cbe sqq42        
,english celebration of1 #cbi sqq4      
,ploughing at ,carnival1 ceremony of1 i4
 #bh1 #bi1 #cca1 #ccb1 #ccd2    at      
,athens1 sacred ceremony of1 #ca2    in 
,greece1 season of1 #de2    with oxen1  
#abi n4 #a2    ,chinese ceremony of1 ii4
 #ad sq42    ceremonies at1 #eg         
,ploughings1 three a year1 i4 #ec n4 #a2
    ,sacred1 in ,attica1 #ajh           
,ploughmen and plough-horses1 the ,yule 
,boar given to1 i4 #cja1 #cjc           
,plutarch1 on a ,roman rite1 ii4 #ajh2  
on immortality1 i4 #ae2    on mourning  
festival of ,demeter1 #df2    on        

sacrifices1 ii4 #ca2    on ,apis1 #cf   
,pluto called ,subterranean ,zeus1 i4   
#ff    ---- and ,persephone1 ii4 #i2    
rude originals of1 #ccd    ,plutus1 i4  
#bjh    ,poland1 harvest customs in1 i4 
#add1 #ade1 #adh1 #aej1 #bgg            
,pollution of death1 ii4 #he n4 #c2     
ceremonial1 of girl at puberty1 #bfh    
,polynesia1 observation of the ,pleiades
 in1 i4 #cac    ,polynesians1 ii4 #bh   
,pomegranates sprung from blood of      
,dionysus1 i4 #ad    ,po-nagar1 goddess 
of agriculture1 ii4 #ef1 #eg1 #eh       
,pondos1 the1 ii4 #ff    ,pongal feast1 
i4 #bdd    ,pongol1 a ,hindoo festival1 
ii4 #ef    ,pontiffs regulate ,roman    
calendar1 i4 #hc    ,poor ,old ,woman1  
corn left on field for1 i4 #bca sq4     
,poppies as symbols of ,demeter1 i4 #dc 
sq4    ,poppy1 the1 cultivated for      
opium1 i4 #bdb    ,porcupine1 a         
,bechuana totem1 ii4 #afd sq42          
respected by some ,indians1 #bdc2       
transmigration of sinner into1 #bii     
,pork forbidden to enchanters of crops1 

i4 #ajj sq42    not eaten by field      
labourers1 ii4 #cc2    reason for not   
eating1 #bif    ,porphyry1 on the       
,bouphonia1 ii4 #e n4 #a    ,poseidon1  
first-fruits sacrificed to1 ii4 #acc    
,poso1 in ,celebes1 i4 #bcf1 ii4 #bdd   
,potato-dog1 i4 #bgb sq4    ----        
-mother1 i4 #agb    ---- -wolf1 i4 #bgd 
,potawatomi ,indians1 ii4 #bah          
,prayer1 the ,place of1 ii4 #aac        
,prayer and spell1 i4 #aje    ,prayers  
to the spirits of the dead1 ii4 #aab1   
#aac1 #abd sq42    addressed to dead    
animals1 #ahd1 #aig1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbf1  
#bce1 #bcf1 #bdc1 #bec1                 
#bic2    to shark-idol1 #bib            
,preachers to fish1 ii4 #bej sq4        
,pretence made by reapers of mowing down
 visitors to the harvest-field1 i4      
#bbi sq4    ,priest1 chief acting as1   
ii4 #abf    ,priests1 first-fruits      
belong to1 ii4 #abe2    of              
,tetzcatlipoca1 ii4 #afe2    of         
shark-idols1 #bib    ,primitive ritual1 
marks of1 i4 #afi    ,proarcturia1 a    

,greek festival1 i4 #ea    ,processions 
with sacred animals1 ii4 #caf sqq42     
of men disguised as animals1 #cbe sqq4  
,proclus on ,dionysus1 i4 #ac           
,proerosia1 a ,greek festival of        
,demeter1 i4 #ej sqq41 #fj1 #ajh        
,prophecy1 spirit of1 acquired by eating
 certain food1 ii4 #adc    ,propitiation
 of wild animals by hunters1 ii4 #bjd   
sqq42    of vermin by farmers1 #bgd sqq4
    ,prussia1 harvest customs in1 i4    
#acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #aej sq41 #bji1 #bai1 
#bhj1              #bha sq41 #bhh1 #bib 
,prussians1 the old1 ii4 #acc2    their 
custom at sowing1 i4 #bhh               
,pruyssenaere1 ,e4 de1 ii4 #ch sq4      
,psylli1 a ,snake clan1 ii4 #agd        
,puberty1 ceremonial pollution of girl  
at1 ii4 #bfh    ,pueblo ,indians1 i4    
#cab    ,pul1 an astrologer1 i4 #abe sq4
    ,pulse cultivated in ,bengal1 i4    
#abc    ,puplem1 general council1 i4    
#abe    ,puppet made out of last sheaf1 
i4 #acg1 #ach1 #bca2    at threshing1   
#adh1 #adi2    at harvest1 #aej2        

representing the corn-spirit1 #bbd      
,puppets of rushes thrown into the      
,tiber1 ii4 #ajg    ,purest person cuts 
the last corn1 i4 #aeh    ,purification1
 ceremonies of1 i4 #i2    before        
partaking of new fruits1 ii4 #ei1 #fj1  
#fc1 #fi sq41 #ga1 #gc1 #ge             
sq41 #hb1 #hc2    for slaughter of a    
serpent1 #bai sq42    by fire1 #bdi2    
before eating the first salmon1 #bec    
,pyanepsia1 an ,attic festival1 i4 #eb  
,pyanepsion1 an ,attic month1 i4 #df1   
#eb1 #aaf    ,pythagoras1 his           
reincarnations1 ii4 #bfc2    his        
doctrine of transmigration1 #cjj1 #cja  
,pythian games1 i4 #hj    ,python clan1 
ii4 #agd    ,quadriennial period of     
,greek games1 i4 #gg sqq4    ,quail1 cry
 of1 i4 #bie2    corn-spirit as1 #bie   
sq4    ,queen of ,athens married to     
,dionysus1 i4 #cj sq42    of the        
,corn-ears1 #adf2    name given to last 
sheaf1 #adf    ---- ,charlotte ,islands1
 ii4 #bbf    ,quetzalcoatl1 a ,mexican  
god1 ii4 #ij    ,quiches1 the1 of       

,central ,america1 ii4 #acd             
,quinoa-mother1 i4 #agb    ,quixos      
,indians1 ii4 #bhe    ,race of reapers  
to last sheaf1 i4 #bia2    on           
harvest-field1 #acg    ,races at        
harvest1 i4 #gf sq42    in connexion    
with agriculture1 #ih4    ,see          
,horse-races    ,rain1 prayer for1 at   
,eleusis1 i4 #fi2    supposed to be     
given by the spirits of dead chiefs1 ii4
 #aji    ---- -charm1 i4 #acd1 #agj1    
#bej1 #beb1 #bfh    ,rainless ,greek    
summer1 i4 #fi    ,rains1 autumnal1 in  
,greece1 i4 #eb    ,rajamahall1 in      
,bengal1 ii4 #aah1 #bag                 
,rakelimalaza1 a ,malagasy god1 ii4 #df 
,ram sacrificed to ,ammon1 ii4 #da2     
killing the sacred1 #agb sqq42          
consecration of a white1 #cac    ,ram's 
skull1 ii4 #if    ,rams' horns1 ii4 #aag
    ,rape of ,persephone1 i4 #ff        
,rarian ,plain at ,eleusis1 i4 #cf1 #gj1
 #gd1 #ajh1 #bcd1 ii4 #ae               
,raspberries1 wild1 ceremony at         
gathering the first1 ii4 #hj sq4        

,rat1 transmigration of sinner into1 ii4
 #bii    ,rats1 superstitious           
precautions of farmers against1 ii4     
#bgg1 #bgh1 #bhc    ,rattles in myth and
 ritual of ,dionysus1 i4 #ac1 #ae       
,rattlesnakes respected by the ,north   
,american ,indians1 ii4 #bag sqq4       
,ravens respected by ,sudanese negroes1 
ii4 #bba    ,reapers1 contests between1 
i4 #acf1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #add1 #aeb1  
#aec sqq41              #afd sq41 #bai1 
#bec2    blindfolded1 #add1 #aec sq42   
special words used by1 #aic2    pretend 
to mow down visitors to harvest-field1  
#bbi sq42    cries of1 #bfc sqq42       
race of1 to last corn1 #bia    ,reaping1
 ,indonesian mode of1 i4 #aha sq41 #ahd2
    contests in1 #bah sqq42    pains in 
back at1 #bhe    ,rebirth of the dead1  
i4 #hd    ,red and black1 faces of      
bear-hunters painted1 ii4 #bbf    ----  
and white1 leopard-hunters painted1 ii4 
#bcj    ---- and yellow1 faces of human 
victims painted1 i4 #bfa    ,red-haired 
men sacrificed1 i4 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfc1 ii4

 #cd    ---- puppies sacrificed1 i4     
#bfa1 ii4 #cd    ,reef ,islands1 ii4 #eb
    ,reincarnation of animals1 ii4 #bdg1
 #bdi1 #bej    ,reindeer1 dogs not      
allowed to gnaw the leg-bones of1 ii4   
#bdf    ,repulsion and attraction1      
forces of1 ii4 #cjc sqq4    ,rest for   
three days1 compulsory1 ii4 #bdf        
,resurrection of the gods1 i4 #a1 #ab1  
#ad1 #ae2    of animals1 ii4 #bjj sq41  
#bef sqq42    of fish1 #bej1 #bed2      
bones of men preserved for the1 #bei2   
in popular tales1 #bfc sqq4             
,revolving image1 ii4 #cbb n4    ,ribald
 jests at mysteries1 i4 #ch    ,rice    
cultivated in ,assam1 i4 #abc2          
cultivated in ,new ,guinea1 #abc2       
soul of1 #ahj sqq42    treated as a     
woman1 #ahc sq42    ,king of the1 #aig2 
7paddy71 ,father and ,mother of the1    
#bjc sq42    spirituous liquor distilled
 from1 #bdb2    the new1 ceremonies at  
eating the1 ii4 #ed sqq4    ---- -bride1
 i4 #aii sq4    ---- -bridegroom1 i4    
#aii sq4    ---- -child1 i4 #aig sqq4   

---- -fields1 sacred1 among the ,kayans1
 i4 #ic1 #ajh    ---- -goddess1 i4 #bjb 
---- -harvest1 ceremony of the ,horse   
at1 ii4 #ccg sqq4    ---- -mother1 i4   
#ahc n4 #a1 #aia sqq41 #aig sqq42    in 
the ,east ,indies1 #ahj sqq4    ----    
-soul as bird1 i4 #ahb n4 #a2    caught 
or detained1 #ahd sqq4    ,riddles asked
 at harvest1 i4 #aid    ,ridgeway1      
,professor ,w41 i4 #bi n4 #b1 #fe1 ii4  
#bhb n4 #e    ,ring1 competition for1 i4
 #afj    ,rites of ,plough ,monday1 ii4 
#cbe sqq4    ,ritual1 primitive1 marks  
of1 i4 #afi2    magical or propitiatory1
 #afi1 #agj    ---- of ,dionysus1 i4 #ad
 sq4    ,robbers1 charm used by1 i4 #bce
    ,rodents1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bia
    ,rohde1 ,e41 i4 #ia n4 #b    ,rollo1
 ii4 #adf    ,roman calendar1 i4 #hc sq4
    ---- deities of the corn1 i4 #baj n4
 #c    ---- sacrifices to ,ceres and    
,liber1 ii4 #acc    ,romans worship     
mildew1 ii4 #bhb    ,roof1 spirits enter
 through the1 ii4 #abc2    remains of   
slain bear let down through the1 #ahi   

sq41 #aif    ,roots and seeds1 wild1    
collected by women1 i4 #abd sqq4        
,roscher1 ,w4 ,h41 ii4 #b n4 #i         
,roscoe1 ,rev4 ,john1 i4 #bdj n4 #d     
,rotation of crops1 i4 #aag    ,rouse1  
,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,d41 i4 #bjh n4 #a         
,rgen1 harvest customs in1 i4 #bgd      
,running1 contests in1 i4 #ih           
,rush-cutter1 i4 #bcj n4 #e    ,russia1 
harvest customs in1 i4 #adf1 #bcc       
,russian wood-spirits1 ii4 #b           
,rye-beggar1 i4 #bca    ---- -boar1 i4  
#bih1 #cjj    ---- -bride1 i4 #afc      
---- -goat1 i4 #bhb1 #bhc    ----       
-mother1 i4 #acb1 #ace    ---- -pug1 i4 
#bgc    ---- -sow1 i4 #bgj1 #bih    ----
 -wolf1 i4 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bgd 
---- -woman1 i4 #bbc2    the ,old1 #acc 
,saa1 island of1 ii4 #abg    ,sabarios1 
a ,lithuanian festival1 ii4 #di         
,sabazius1 i4 #b n4 #a    ,sabbaths1    
agricultural1 i4 #aji    ,sable-hunters1
 rules observed by1 ii4 #bch    ,sacaea1
 a ,babylonian festival1 i4 #beh sq4    
,sacrament of eating a god1 ii4 #afg    

---- of swine's flesh1 ii4 #bj1 #bd2    
totemic1 #afe2    types of animal1 #caj 
sqq42    of first-fruits1 #dh sqq42     
combined with a sacrifice of them1 #hf  
,sacramental bread1 ii4 #ie    ----     
character of harvest supper1 i4 #cjc    
---- eating of corn-spirit in animal    
form1 ii4 #bj    ,sacraments among      
pastoral tribes1 ii4 #cac    ,sacred    
,marriage at ,eleusis1 i4 #fe sqq4      
---- ploughings in ,attica1 i4 #ajh     
---- things deemed dangerous1 ii4 #bg   
sqq4    ---- ,women1 i4 #cb             
,sacrifice not to be touched1 ii4 #bg2  
of first-fruits1 #aji sqq4              
,sacrifices1 human1 for the crops1 i4   
#bcf sqq42    human1 in ,mexico1 ii4    
#hh2    offered to nets1 #bdj n4 #a2    
offered to wolves1 #bhd2    to a toad1  
#bia    ,sadana1 rice-bridegroom1 i4    
#bjj sq4    ,sahagun1 ,b4 de1 i4 #age   
,st4 ,catherine's ,day1 ii4 #bge    ,st4
 ,george's ,eve1 ii4 #bgj    ,st4       
,kilda1 ii4 #cbb    ,st4 ,mary1 ,isle   
of1 ii4 #bce    ,st4 ,matthew's ,day1   

ii4 #bge    ,st4 ,nicholas1 i4 #bcc     
,st4 ,paul on immortality1 i4 #ia       
,st4 ,peter's ,day1 i4 #cjj    ,st4     
,stephen's ,day1 ii4 #cai1 #cbj         
,sakalava1 the1 of ,madagascar1 ii4 #dj 
n4    ,sale1 nominal1 of children1 i4 #h
    ,salish ,indians1 ii4 #hj           
,salmon1 resurrection of1 ii4 #bej2     
ceremonies at catching the first salmon 
of the season1 #bec sq41 #bee    ,salt1 
abstinence from1 ii4 #ge1 #ic2    use   
of1 forbidden1 #aij1 #aie    ,salzburg1 
harvest custom in1 i4 #adf    ,samoa1   
ii4 #bi    ,samoans1 their sacrifices of
 first-fruits1 ii4 #acb    ,samoyed1    
custom after killing a reindeer1 ii4    
#bfh    ,san ,juan ,capistrano1 ii4     
#afi2    ,indians of1 i4 #abe           
,sanctity of the corn1 ii4 #aaj         
,sandwich ,islands1 belief in           
transmigration among natives of the1 ii4
 #bib              sq4    ,saning ,sari1
 rice-goddess1 i4 #aia1 #aib    ,sappho1
 i4 #baf    ,saturnalia1 ii4 #fb1 #ff   
,satyrs in relation to goats1 ii4 #a    

sqq4    ,savage1 the1 not illogical1 ii4
 #bjb    ---- faith in the immortality  
of animals1 ii4 #bfj sqq4    ,saxo      
,grammaticus1 ii4 #adf    ,saxons of    
,transylvania1 harvest custom of the1 i4
 #bie2    their customs at sowing1 ii4  
#bgd sq4    ,saxony1 harvest customs in1
 i4 #acd1 #acg1 #adi1 #afc1 #afd        
,scanderbeg1 ,prince of ,epirus1 ii4    
#aed    ,scandinavian custom of the     
,yule ,boar1 i4 #cjj sqq4               
,scarification as a religious rite1 ii4 
#ge2    from superstitious motives1     
#aei1 #afj sq4    ,scheube1 ,dr4 ,b41   
ii4 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahg    ,schleswig1     
harvest customs in1 i4 #bcj1 #bhg       
,schrenck1 ,l4 von1 ii4 #aia1 #aib1     
#aic1 #aid1 #aie    ,schweinfurth1 ,g41 
ii4 #cg sq4    ,science1 generalisations
 of1 inadequate to cover all            
particulars1 ii4 #cg    ,scirophorion1 a
 ,greek month1 ii4 #h n4 #a             
,scorpions1 charm against1 ii4 #bha2    
souls of dead in1 #bij    ,scotland1    
harvest customs in1 i4 #adj sqq4        

,scratching as a religious rite1 ii4 #ge
    ,scurrilities exchanged between     
vine-dressers and passers-by1 i4 #beh n4
 #a    ,scurrilous language at          
mysteries1 i4 #ch    ,scythians1 set    
store on heads of enemies1 i4 #bef n4 #a
    ,sea beasts1 ,esquimau rules as to  
eating1 ii4 #hd2    their bladders      
restored to the sea by the ,esquimaux1  
#bdg sqq4    ---- -mammals1 their       
mythical origin1 ii4 #bdf    ,seals1    
care taken of the bladders and bones of1
 ii4 #bdg sqq41 #beg1 #beh              
n4 #b    ,sedna1 an ,esquimau goddess1  
ii4 #hd1 #bdf    ,seed sown by women1 i4
 #aac sqq42    sown by children1 i4 #aae
 sq4    ,seed-corn1 i4 #ace1 #bje1 #bgh1
 #cja1 #cjd1 ii4 #bj    ,seed-rice1 i4  
#ahi    ,seeds and roots1 wild1         
collected by women1 i4 #abd sqq4        
,seler1 ,professor ,e41 i4 #age         
,seligmann1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,g41 ii4 #dj n4    
,smangat1 i4 #aha1 #ahc    ,semele1     
mother of ,dionysus1 i4 #ad1 #ae        
,seminole ,indians1 ii4 #gf1 #bag       

,senegambia1 ,python clan in1 ii4 #agd  
,serpent1 killing the sacred1 ii4 #agd  
sq42    ceremonies performed after      
killing a1 #bai sq4    ,serpent's flesh 
eaten to learn the language of animals1 
ii4 #adf    ,serpents1 offerings to1 ii4
 #ag sq42    men inspired by1 #bac2     
charms against1 #bha2    souls of the   
dead in1 #bia4    ,see also ,snake1     
,snakes    ,set or ,typhon1 ii4 #cj4    
,see ,typhon    ,seven1 the number1 in  
ritual1 i4 #aij1 #aih    ---- months'   
child1 i4 #bf1 #bi    ,sham fight1 ii4  
#ge    ---- fights in connexion with    
agriculture1 i4 #ih2    7mimic battles7 
before going forth to war1 ii4 #bjg     
---- graves and corpses to deceive      
demons1 ii4 #ih sqq4    ,shans of       
,indo-,china1 i4 #bdc    ,shape1 magical
 changes of shape1 i4 #cje    ,sharks1  
ghosts in1 ii4 #abg2    souls of dead   
in1 #bib sq41 #big    ,sheaf1 the last1 
the ,corn-mother in1 i4 #acc sqq42      
thresher tied up in1 #acd1 #adg1 #adh2  
drenched with water1 #acd1 #acg1 #ade2  

given to cattle1 #acd1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afa1
 #agj2    stones fastened to1 #ace sq41 
#ach1 #aci2    called the ,old ,woman or
 ,old ,man1 #acf sqq42    corn-spirit   
caught in1 #aci2    harvester tied up   
in1 #aci1 #ade1 #bba1 #bbb2    called   
the ,cailleach 7,old ,wife71 #adj sqq42 
representative of the corn-spirit1 #afh1
 ii4 #dh2    in ,lower ,burma1 i4 #aij  
sq42    person identified with1 #ach    
sq42    in ,india1 #bbb sq41 #bcd n4 #b2
    race of reapers to1 #bia4    ,see   
also ,clyack1 ,kirn1 ,mell1 ,maiden     
,sheep not eaten1 ii4 #adj2    ghosts   
of1 dreaded1 #bca    ,sheep-skin1       
fumigation with1 ii4 #cbd               
,sheep-skins1 candidates at initiation  
seated on1 i4 #ch    ,shells of eggs    
preserved1 ii4 #beh n4 #b    ,shifting  
cultivation1 i4 #ii    ,shoulder-blade1 
divination by1 ii4 #bcd    ,shropshire1 
8the neck0 in1 i4 #bfh2    8crying the  
,mare0 in1 #bic sq4    ,shrove ,tuesday1
 i4 #cjj1 ii4 #cbf    ,shrovetide ,bear1
 ii4 #cbe sq4    ,shumpaoli1 an ,african

 god1 ii4 #aaj    ,shuswap ,indians1 ii4
 #bbf1 #bch    ,siam1 ii4 #ajc          
,sicilians1 ,demeter's gift of corn to  
the1 i4 #ef sq4    ,sicily1 worship of  
,demeter and ,persephone in1 i4 #ef     
,sickles thrown at last standing corn1  
i4 #acf1 #adb1 #add1 #aec1 #aed1 #afe   
,sickness cured or prevented by         
effigies1 ii4 #ahj sqq4    ,sicyon1     
wolves at1 ii4 #bhc1 #bhd    ,sierra    
,leone1 i4 #cag    ,sieves1 children at 
birth placed in1 i4 #f sqq4    ,sigurd  
and the dragon1 ii4 #adf    ,silence    
enforced during absence of fisher1 ii4  
#bef    ,silenuses1 ii4 #a sq4          
,silesia1 harvest customs in1 i4 #acf1  
#ach1 #aci1 #adh sq41 #afc sq41 #bca1   
#bcc1 #bgc1 #bgg1 #bha1 #bhi            
,silvanus1 ii4 #b    ,simbang1 village  
in ,german ,new ,guinea1 ii4 #bie       
,similkameen ,indians1 the1 ii4 #adf    
,sinew of the thigh1 customs and myths  
as to1 ii4 #bfd sqq4    ,sinews of dead 
men cut to disable their ghosts1 ii4    
#bgb    ,sing ,bonga1 a sun god1 ii4    

#aag    ,singleton1 ,miss ,a4 ,h41 ii4  
#cbj n4 #a    ,sioux girl1 sacrifice of1
 i4 #bch sq4    ---- ,indians1 ii4 #aej1
 #bdc    ,skeat1 ,w4 ,w41 i4 #aig sq4   
,skin of sacrificed animal1 uses of1 ii4
 #agc sq4    ---- -disease caused by    
eating a sacred animal1 ii4 #be sqq4    
,skins of sacrificed animals stuffed1   
#beg sq4    ,skipping-rope1 ii4 #aib    
,skull1 drinking out of a human1 ii4    
#aej    ,skulls1 human1 as protection   
against powers of evil1 i4 #bda2    the 
,place of1 #bdc2    spirits of ancestors
 in their1 ii4 #abc2    of ancestors1   
offerings set beside1 #abg2    of bears 
worshipped1 #ahd2    of enemies         
destroyed1 #bfj    ,sky ,god1 the1 i4   
#fi    ---- -god ,zeus1 i4 #fe    ,skye1
 harvest custom in1 i4 #bhd    ,slaves  
of the ,earth ,gods1 ii4 #fa1 #fb n4 #a 
,slavonic peoples1 harvest customs      
among1 i4 #add sqq4    ,slayers of      
leopards1 rules of diet observed by1 ii4
 #bcj sq4    ,slow-footed animals not   
eaten by some savage tribes1 ii4 #aci   

sq42    eaten by preference by the      
,bushmen1 #adj sq4    ,small-pox1 cure  
for1 i4 #i sq4    ,smearing the body as 
a means of imparting certain qualities1 
ii4 #afb              sqq4    ---- of   
blood on worshippers a mode of communion
 with the deity1 ii4 #caf    ,smintheus 
,apollo1 ii4 #bhc    ,smith1 ,professor1
 ,g4 ,c41 ii4 #cbi    ,smith1 ,w4       
,robertson1 i4 #bei n4 #a1 ii4 #e n4 #b1
 #bg n4 #e1 #ca n4 #a1 #ce              
n4 #b1 #bea n4 #e1 #bff n4 #a1 #bhj n4  
,smoking as a means of inducing state of
 ecstasy1 ii4 #gb2    in honour of slain
 bears1 #bbd1 #bbf    ---- first tobacco
 of season1 ceremony at1 ii4 #hb        
,snake worshipped1 ii4 #caf sq42        
white1 eaten to acquire supernatural    
knowledge1 #adf4    ,see ,serpent       
---- -bite1 inoculation against1 ii4    
#afj    ---- -priest1 ii4 #bai    ----  
tribe1 ii4 #caf1 #cag    ,snake's tongue
 as amulet1 ii4 #bgj    ,snakes         
respected by the ,north ,american       
,indians1 ii4 #bag sqq42    sacred at   

,whydah1 #bhg2    souls of dead in1     
#bic1 #bid sq42    souls of dead princes
 in1 #bhh    ,society1 stratification of
 religion according to types of1 ii4 #ce
 sqq4    ---- ,islanders1 i4 #cab       
,solar and lunar time1 attempts to      
harmonise1 i4 #hj sq4    ,solomon       
,islands1 ii4 #he1 #abf1 #abg2    belief
 in the transmigration of souls in the1 
#bif sqq4    ,solstice1 the midsummer1  
rain-making ceremony at the1 ii4 #agi   
---- the summer1 i4 #aag    ---- the    
winter1 ii4 #cbe2    festival of1 #ij   
,solstices observed1 i4 #abe            
,somerville1 ,professor ,w41 i4 #aic n4 
,songish or ,lkungen tribe of ,vancouver
 ,island1 ii4 #bed    ,songs of the     
corn-reapers1 i4 #bad sqq4              
,sophocles1 his play ,triptolemus1 i4   
#ed    ,soul thought to be seated in the
 liver1 ii4 #adg sq4    ---- of rice1 i4
 #ahj sqq42    eating the1 ii4 #ed      
---- -stuff in the ,east ,indies1 i4    
#ahb sq4    ,souls1 immortal1 attributed
 by savages1 to animals1 ii4 #bjd2    of

 the human dead in caterpillars1 #bge   
sq42    transmigration of human1 into   
animals1 #bhe sqq4    ,south ,american  
,indians1 women's agricultural work     
among the1 i4 #abj sqq4    ,southey1    
,r41 quoted1 i4 #abb1 ii4 #aeg          
,sowing1 festival of ,demeter at1 i4 #df
 n4 #b2    sacrifice to ,demeter at1    
#eg2    ,festival of the1 #aaa2    time 
of1 determined by observation of the    
sun1 #ahg2    goat killed at1 #bhh2     
ceremonies at1 ii4 #eg2    customs      
observed by ,saxons of ,transylvania at1
 #bgd sq4    ---- and planting1 time of1
 determined by the appearance of the    
,pleiades1 i4              #cac sqq4    
,sowing in ,greece1 time for1 i4 #de    
---- festival of the ,kayans1 i4 #ic    
sqq4    ---- seed to make children grow1
 i4 #aa    ,sowing the seed done by     
women1 i4 #aac sqq42    done by         
children1 #aae sq4    ,spades and hoes1 
human victim killed with1 i4 #bci1 #bea 
,sparrows1 charm to keep them from the  
corn1 ii4 #bgd    ,spearing taro stalks1

 as a charm1 i4 #ajb1 #ajc    ,spell and
 prayer1 i4 #aje    ,spells for growth  
of crops1 i4 #ajj2    narrative1 #ajd   
sqq42    imperative1 #aje    ,spencer1  
,herbert1 his theory of the material    
universe compared to that of            
,empedocles1 ii4 #cjc sqq4    ,spiders1 
ceremony at killing1 ii4 #bcf sq4       
,spieth1 ,j41 ii4 #ei sqq4    ,spindle  
used in ritual1 ii4 #aai    ,spinning   
acorns or figs1 i4 #ajb    ---- tops1 i4
 #ie1 #ig1 #ahg    ,spirit of ,beans1   
,iroquois1 i4 #agg    ---- of the ,corn1
 ,iroquois1 i4 #agg4 ,see ,corn-spirit  
---- of ,squashes1 ,iroquois1 i4 #agg   
,spirits1 evil1 averted from children1  
i4 #f sqq42    of the dead supposed to  
influence the crops1 #ajd2              
distinguished from gods1 #afi2          
imitation of1 #ahf    ,spittle1 virtue  
of1 i4 #bdg1 #bej    ,sports1 athletic1 
at harvest1 i4 #gf sq4 ,see also        
,contests1 ,games    ,spring1 ceremony  
at beginning of1 in ,china1 ii4 #aj sqq4
    ---- customs and harvest customs    

compared1 i4 #afg sqq4    ---- festival 
of ,dionysus1 i4 #ae    ,springbok not  
eaten1 ii4 #ada    ,squirrels1 souls of 
dead in1 ii4 #bia sq4    ,sri1 ,hindoo  
goddess of crops1 i4 #ahb    ,star1 the 
,morning1 i4 #bch    ,stars1 their      
supposed influence on the weather1 i4   
#cah    ,stepping or jumping over a     
woman1 ii4 #gj n4 #a    ,sternberg1     
,leo1 ii4 #aif1 #aii n4 #a1 #bja        
,stettin1 harvest customs near1 i4 #bbj 
,stevenson1 ,mrs4 ,matilda ,coxe1       
quoted1 ii4 #agi    ,stewart1 ,balfour1 
ii4 #bfb n4 #a    ,sticks4 ,see         
,digging-sticks    ,stiens of ,cambodia1
 ii4 #bcg    ,stomach of eater1 certain 
foods forbidden to meet in1 ii4 #hc sqq4
    ,stone1 magic of heavy1 i4 #ajj     
---- ,age1 agriculture in the1 i4 #gi1  
#acb    ,stones fastened to last sheaf1 
i4 #ace sq41 #ach1 #aci2    the meeting 
of the1 #bcg2    worshipped1 ii4 #abg   
sq4    ,stories told as charms1 i4 #ajb 
sqq4    ,stout1 ,professor ,g4 ,f41 #bfa
 n4 #a    ,stranger regarded as         

representative of the corn-spirit1 i4   
#bbe sqq4    ,strangers excluded1 i4    
#id1 #aaa1 #bdi2    preferred as human  
victims1 #bdb2    as representatives of 
the corn-spirit1 #bec    ,strata of     
religion and society1 ii4 #cf sq4       
,stratification of religion according to
 types of society1 ii4 #ce sqq4         
,straw1 the ,yule1 i4 #cja sq42    of   
,shrovetide ,bear used to make geese and
 hens lay eggs1 ii4 #cbf    ---- -bear  
at ,whittlesey1 ii4 #cbi    ---- -bull1 
i4 #bhi sq4    ---- -man placed on      
apple-tree1 ii4 #f    ,stubble-cock1 i4 
#bgg    ,styria1 harvest customs in1 i4 
#acc1 #acd1 #bhc    ,sublician bridge at
 ,rome1 ii4 #ajg    ,substitutes for    
animal sacrifices1 ii4 #id n4 #b        
8,substitutes for a person0 in ,china1  
ii4 #ajd    ,subterranean ,zeus1 i4 #ff 
,sudanese negroes respect ravens1 ii4   
#bba    ,sufferings and death of        
,dionysus1 i4 #ag    ,sugar-cane        
cultivated1 i4 #aba1 #abc    ,suk1 the1 
of ,british ,east ,africa1 i4 #aah1 ii4 

#hd1 #adb    ,sumatra1 i4 #cae2         
tigers respected in1 ii4 #bae sqq4      
,summer in ,greece rainless1 i4 #fi     
,sun1 time of sowing determined by      
observation of the1 i4 #ahg2            
,japanese deities of the1 #bab2         
first-fruits offered to the1 #bcg2      
savage observation of the1 #cad2        
rites instituted by the1 ii4 #ge2       
temple of the1 #ace    ---- and moon    
conjunction of1 ii4 #ae n4 #a    ----   
father of ,alectrona1 ii4 #de    ----   
-god1 the1 i4 #hf    ----1 moon1 and    
planets1 human victims sacrificed to1 i4
 #bfa sq4    ----1 the ,great1 title of 
head chief of the ,natchez1 ii4 #gg sqq4
    ,sunflower root1 ceremony at eating 
the1 ii4 #ha    ,sunkalamma1 a goddess1 
ii4 #ic    ,superstitious practices to  
procure good crops1 i4 #ajj    ,supper1 
the harvest1 i4 #acd1 #ach4 ,see        
,harvest-supper    ,survival of the     
fittest1 doctrine of the1 ii4 #cjf      
,sutherlandshire1 ii4 #ea    ,swabia1   
harvest customs in1 i4 #acf1 #bhb1 #bhi1

 #bij1 #bih sq4    ,swallow ,song1 the  
,greek1 ii4 #cbb n4    ,swans1          
transmigration of bad poets into1 ii4   
#cjh    ,sweat of famous warriors drunk1
 ii4 #aeb    ,sweden1 harvest customs   
in1 i4 #adi1 #bcj1 #bhj    ,sweet       
potatoes cultivated in ,africa1 i4 #aag2
    cultivated in ,assam1 #abc2         
cultivated in ,new ,britain1 #abc2      
cultivated in ,south ,america1 #aba2    
sacred1 ii4 #acc    ,swine1 wild1 their 
ravages in the corn1 ii4 #ca sqq4       
,swine's flesh sacramentally eaten1 ii4 
#bj1 #bd4 ,see also ,pork    ,swinging  
for good crops1 i4 #aja1 #ajc1 #ajg     
,switzerland1 harvest customs in1 i4    
#bhc1 #bhi1 #bia1 #bie    ,syleus1 i4   
#beg sq4    ,sympathetic magic1 i4 #ajb1
 ii4 #bga1 #caa sq4    ,syria1          
precaution against caterpillars in1 ii4 
#bgi    ,syrians1 their religious       
attitude to pigs1 ii4 #bc2    esteemed  
fish sacred1 #bf    ,szis1 the1 of      
,burma1 i4 #bjc    ,tabooed village1 ii4
 #abb    ,taboos observed at the sowing 

festival among the ,kayans1 i4 #id2     
observed by enchanters1 #ajj2           
communal1 #aji n4 #b2    agricultural1  
#ahg2    relating to milk1 ii4 #hc sq42 
observed after the capture of a ground  
seal1 walrus1 or whale1 #bdf    ,tahiti1
 ii4 #acb2 funeral rites in1 #ig        
,tail of corn-spirit1 #bfh1 #bgb1 #cjj1 
ii4 #aj1 #dc    ,talaings1 the1 i4 #aij 
,tales told as charms1 i4 #ajb sqq42    
the resurrection of the body in popular1
 ii4 #bfc sqq4    ,tamara1 island of1   
ii4 #bif    ,tammuz1 his death in a     
mill1 i4 #beh2    a ,babylonian month1  
#bei    ,tana1 one of the ,new          
,hebrides1 ii4 #abe    ,tanala1 the1 of 
,madagascar1 i4 #i1 ii4 #bij            
,tanganyika plateau1 the1 i4 #aae       
,tani1 a god1 ii4 #acb    ,tano1 a      
fetish1 ii4 #bhg    ,tapir1 custom of   
,indians after killing a1 ii4 #bcf      
,tapirs1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bhe     
,tapuiyas1 the1 of ,brazil1 i4 #cji     
,tarahumare ,indians of ,mexico1 i4 #bbg
 sq41 ii4 #beb    ,tarianos ,indians1   

ii4 #aeg    ,taro1 charms for growth of1
 i4 #ajj1 #ajb    ,tarri ,pennu1 a      
,khond goddess1 i4 #bde    ,tauar       
,indians1 ii4 #aeg    ,taungthu1 the1 i4
 #aij    ,tears of human victim signs of
 rain1 i4 #bdh1 #bej2    of oxen as     
rain-charm1 ii4 #aj    ,teasing animals 
before killing them1 ii4 #aij           
,telephus at ,pergamus1 ii4 #he         
,temples dedicated to sharks1 ii4 #bib  
,tenimber1 island1 ii4 #abc    ,teton   
,indians1 ii4 #bcf    ,tetzcatlipoca1 a 
,mexican god1 ii4 #ib1 #ic1 #afe        
,thargelion1 an ,attic month1 ii4 #h    
,thay1 the1 of ,indo-,china1 ii4 #aba   
,thebes1 grave of ,dionysus at1 i4 #ad2 
,dionysus torn to pieces at1 #be        
,theocritus on the harvest-home1 i4 #df 
sq4    ,thesmophoria1 the1 i4 #ad1 ii4  
#ag sqq42    chastity of women at the1  
i4 #aaf    ,thigh1 sinew of the1 customs
 and myths as to1 ii4 #bfd sqq4         
,thlinkeet or ,tlingit1 the1 ii4 #bec   
,thompson ,indians1 ii4 #ha1 #hb1 #acc1 
#adj1 #bjg1 #bbf1 #bfh    ,thrace1      

worship of ,dionysus in1 i4 #c2    the  
,bacchanals of1 #ag2    modern ,carnival
 customs in1 #be sqq41 ii4 #cca sqq4    
,thresher tied up in last sheaf1 i4     
#acd1 #adg1 #adh    ,threshers1 contests
 between1 i4 #adg sqq41 #bah1 #bai sq41 
#bba sq41 #bbc              sq41 #bec2  
pretend to throttle or thresh people on 
threshing-floor1 #adi sq41 #bcj2    tied
 in straw and thrown into water1 #bbd   
sq4    ,threshing1 customs at1 i4 #acd1 
#adg sqq41 #bjc2    contests in1 #bah   
sqq42    corn-spirit killed at1 #bia sq4
    ---- -cow1 i4 #bia    ---- -dog1 i4 
#bga    ---- -floor1 ,demeter at the1 i4
 #da sq41 #dg2    of ,triptolemus at    
,eleusis1 #fa1 #gb1 #ge2    sanctity of 
the1 ii4 #aaj n4 #d    ---- in ,greece1 
date of1 i4 #fb    ,throttling farmer's 
wife at threshing1 pretence of1 i4 #aej 
,thumbs of dead enemies cut off1 ii4    
#bgb    ,thringen1 harvest customs in1  
i4 #adg1 #bbb1 #bcb1 #bgf1 #bij1 #bia1  
#bih    ,thurn1 ,e4 ,f4 im4 quoted1 ii4 
#bjd    ,tibetans1 the1 ii4 #if         

,tiger1 ghost of1 ii4 #aee n4 #d        
,tiger's flesh eaten to make men brave1 
ii4 #ade    ,tigers1 ceremonies at      
killing1 ii4 #bae1 #baf sq42            
respected in ,sumatra1 #bae sq42        
kinship of men with1 #baf2    souls of  
dead in1 #bic    ,tilling of the earth  
treated as a crime1 ii4 #eg             
,timekeepers1 natural1 i4 #ec    ,timor1
 island of1 ii4 #ih    ,timor-laut1 ii4 
#abc1 #bdd    ,tinneh ,indians1 ii4 #hj1
 #bbj    ,titans attack and kill        
,dionysus1 i4 #ab sq41 #ag    ,tjumba1  
island of1 ii4 #abb    ,tlaloc1 ,mexican
 god of thunder1 i4 #bcg    ,toad1      
figure of1 ii4 #aic1 #aid2    soul of   
dead man in a1 #bia    ,tobacco used as 
an emetic1 ii4 #gc2    first of season1 
ceremony at smoking1 #hb    ,todas1     
their sacrament of buffalo's flesh1 ii4 
#cad    ,toepffer1 ,j41 quoted1 i4 #gc  
,toerateyas1 the1 i4 #aif n4    ,tofoke1
 the1 i4 #aai    ,togoland1 i4 #acj1 ii4
 #ei1 #aje1 #aje    ,tolalaki1 the1 ii4 
#aeb    ,tomb1 sacrifices at1 ii4 #aac  

,tomori1 the1 of ,central ,celebes1 i4  
#aic sq41 #bhh    ,tondi1 soul-stuff1 i4
 #ahb    ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bh2      
offerings of first-fruits in the1 #abh  
sqq4    ,tongues of birds eaten1 ii4    
#adg2    of slain men eaten1 #aec2    of
 dead animals cut out1 #bfi sqq42    of 
animals worn as amulets1 #bgj           
,tonsure1 the clerical1 ii4 #aje n4 #a  
,tooitonga1 the sacred chief of ,tonga1 
ii4 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca    ,tops1    
spinning1 i4 #ie1 #ig1 #ahg             
,toradjas1 the1 of ,central ,celebes1 i4
 #ahc1 #aic1 #aid1 #bbh1 ii4 #aec       
,torch-bearer1 the ,eleusinian1 i4 #ed1 
#ei    ,torches in relation to ,demeter 
and ,persephone1 i4 #eg    ,torchlight  
dance1 ii4 #gi2    procession at        
,eleusis1 i4 #ch    ,torres ,straits    
islands1 i4 #cac1 ii4 #aeb1 #aec        
,tortoises not eaten1 ii4 #adj          
,tossing successful reaper1 i4 #aed     
,totem1 skin-disease supposed to be     
caused by eating1 ii4 #be sq4    ----   
sacrament1 ii4 #afe    ,totemic animals1

 dances in imitation of1 ii4 #gf        
,totemism1 ii4 #ce1 #cg2    not proved  
for the ,aryans1 #d2    in ,australia   
and ,america1 #caa    ,transformation of
 woman into crocodile1 ii4 #bab         
,transmigration of human souls into     
animals1 ii4 #ada1 #bhe sqq42    into   
turtles1 #agh sq42    into bears1 #aia  
---- of souls1 doctrine of1 in ancient  
,india1 ii4 #bih sq42    in ancient     
,greece1 #cjj sqq41 #cjg sq4            
,transmigrations of ,buddha1 ii4 #bii   
,transubstantiation1 ii4 #hi sq4        
,transylvania1 harvest customs in1 i4   
#bba1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #bhe1 #bie2     
customs at sowing in1 ii4 #bgd sq4      
,travancore1 i4 #h2    custom at        
executions in1 ii4 #bgb    ,treasury    
,islanders1 i4 #cac    ,trees in        
relation to ,dionysus1 i4 #c sq42       
spirits of the dead in1 ii4 #abd        
,triptolemus1 i4 #cg1 #ch1 ii4 #ai2     
agent of ,demeter1 i4 #ed1 #gb sq42     
sacrifices to1 #ef2    his              
,threshing-floor at ,eleusis1 #fa1 #gb1 

#ge2    in ,greek art1 #fh n4 #a2       
sows seed in ,rarian plain1 #gj2    the 
corn-hero1 #gb sq4    ,tristram1 ,h4    
,b41 ii4 #ca sq4    ,troezenians1 the1  
ii4 #acc    ,trumpets in rites of       
,dionysus1 i4 #ae    ,tschwi1 the1 of   
,west ,africa1 ii4 #ih    ,tsimshian    
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 ii4 #bed
    ,tucanos ,indians1 ii4 #aeg    ,tug 
of ,war1 i4 #ajc n4 #a1 #aaj n4    ,tupi
 ,indians of ,brazil1 ii4 #bgb          
,tupinambas1 the1 i4 #abb    ,turmeric  
cultivated1 i4 #bde1 #bej    ,turtles1  
killing the sacred1 ii4 #age sqq42      
transmigration of human souls into1 #agh
 sq4    ,tusayan1 an ancient province of
 ,arizona1 i4 #cab    ,twelfth ,day1 ii4
 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cbi    ,twelve      
,gods1 the1 ii4 #h    ,twin1 ghost of a1
 ii4 #ih    ---- girl charged with      
special duty1 ii4 #bhj    ,two          
,goddesses1 the1 i4 #ef1 #ei1 #gc1 #ij  
,types of animal sacrament1 ii4 #caj    
sqq4    ,typhon1 i4 #bfb1 #bfc1 ii4 #cj1
 #ca1 #cc1 #cd1 #ajj    ,tyrol1 harvest 

customs in the1 i4 #afc1 #bbd1 #bgc1    
#bhf    ,tzentales of ,mexico1 ii4 #bda 
,uaupes ,river1 tribes of the1 i4 #aba  
,uganda1 ii4 #bac    ,underground ,zeus1
 i4 #de1 #ej    ,unleavened bread1 ii4  
#acg    ,usagara hills1 ,german ,east   
,africa1 i4 #bdj    ,varro1 on the rites
 of ,eleusis1 i4 #hh2    on killing oxen
 in ,attica1 ii4 #f2    on sacrifice of 
goat1 ii4 #da    ,vedijovis1 i4 #cc     
,venison1 ,esquimau rules as to eating1 
ii4 #hd2    not eaten1 #add2    not     
brought into hut by door1 #bdb sq42     
reason for not eating1 #bhf1 #bic       
,vera ,cruz1 the tribes of1 i4 #caj     
,vermin propitiated by farmers1 ii4 #bgd
 sqq42    images of1 made as a          
protection against them1 #bhj sq4       
,verres1 ,c41 i4 #fe    ,vessels1 new or
 specially reserved1 to hold new fruits1
 ii4 #ej1 #ec1 #fe1              #ff1   
#gb1 #ha1 #hc2    special1 reserved for 
eating bear's flesh1 #aif1 #aih         
,vestal virgins1 ii4 #db    ,vicarious  
use of images1 ii4 #if sqq4    ,victim1 

human1 taken in procession from door to 
door1 i4 #bdg    ,victims1 human1       
treated as divine1 i4 #bej2             
assimilated to gods1 #bfa sq4           
,victoria1 aborigines of1 i4 #abg       
,vicua not eaten1 ii4 #adj    ,village  
tabooed1 ii4 #abb    ,vine in relation  
to ,dionysus1 i4 #b    ,vintage1        
first-fruits of1 ii4 #acc2              
inaugurated by priests1 #acc    ---- in 
,greece1 time of1 i4 #dg    ,vintagers  
and vine-diggers1 i4 #beg sq4           
,virbius and the horse1 ii4 #dj sqq4    
,virgil as an enchanter1 ii4 #bha       
,virgins sacrificed1 i4 #bcg            
,vitzilipuztli1 a ,mexican god1 ii4 #hf1
 #hg1 #hh    ,viza in ,thrace1 i4 #bf   
,vizyenos1 ,g4 ,m41 i4 #be n4 #d1 #bf   
,volos1 the beard of1 i4 #bcc           
,vomiting as a religious rite1 ii4 #gc1 
#ge    ,vosges ,mountains1 harvest      
customs in the1 i4 #bgb1 #bgi1 #bha     
,vulture1 transmigration of sinner into1
 ii4 #bii    ,wa1 the ,wild1 i4 #bda    
sqq4    ,wabondei1 the1 ii4 #adb        

,wadowe1 the1 i4 #aah    ,wagogo1 the1  
ii4 #bf1 #adb1 #adi1 #bgf    ,wahehe1   
the1 ii4 #bf    ,waheia1 the1 ii4 #bf   
,wajagga1 the1 of ,east ,africa1 ii4    
#bgf    ---- warriors1 ii4 #adc         
,wakan1 ii4 #ahj n4 #b    ,wales1       
harvest customs in1 i4 #adb sqq4        
,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 quoted1 i4 #aba sq4  
,wamegi1 the1 of ,german ,east ,africa1 
i4 #bdj    ,wanyamwezi1 the1 i4 #aah1   
ii4 #bbg    ,war dance1 ii4 #gi         
,washing as a ceremonial purification1  
ii4 #bg sq41 #ga1 #hd1 #he    ,wataturu1
 the1 ii4 #hd    ,weasels1 superstition 
of farmers as to1 ii4 #bge    ,weevils1 
spared by ,esthonian peasants1 ii4 #bgd 
,weihaiwei1 ii4 #aa    ,welsh1 ,miss1 i4
 #aee n4 #a    ,wemba1 the1 ii4 #aeh    
,wends1 harvest customs among the1 i4   
#ach1 #adi1 #bgf    ,wermland1 harvest  
customs in1 i4 #bcj1 ii4 #dh            
,westphalia1 harvest customs in1 i4 #ace
 sq41 #ach1 #bgg sq41 #bif1 #big        
,wetar1 island1 ii4 #be    ,whales1     
ceremonies observed after the slaughter 

of1 ii4 #bcb sqq4    ,wheat-bride1 i4   
#afb1 #afc    ---- -cock1 i4 #bgf       
,wheat-cow1 i4 #bhi    ---- -dog1 i4    
#bgb    ---- -mallet at threshing1 i4   
#adh    ---- -man1 i4 #bbc    ----      
-mother1 i4 #ace    ---- -sow1 i4 #bih  
---- -wolf1 i4 #bgc1 #bgd    ,whetham1  
,w4 ,c4 ,d41 ii4 #cje n4 #b    ,white   
,maize1 ,goddess of the1 i4 #bfa    ----
 ram1 ii4 #cac    ,whittlesey in        
,cambridgeshire1 the ,straw-bear at1 ii4
 #cbh sq4    ,whydah1 snakes sacred at1 
ii4 #bhg    ,widows and widowers1       
disability of1 ii4 #bec sq4             
,wiedemann1 ,prof4 ,a41 ii4 #ce n4 #d   
,wild animals propitiated by hunters1   
ii4 #bjd sqq4    ---- fig trees1 sacred1
 ii4 #aac    ---- fruits and roots1     
ceremonies at gathering the first of the
 season1 ii4              #hj sqq4      
---- seeds and roots collected by women1
 i4 #abd sqq4    ---- ,wa1 the1 i4 #bda 
sqq4    ,wilkinson1 ,r4 ,j41 i4 #aha sq4
    ,winamwanga1 the1 ii4 #aab    ,wine1
 new1 offered to ,liber1 ii4 #acc       

,winnowing done by women1 i4 #aag1 #abh 
---- -basket1 image of snake in1 ii4    
#caf    ---- -fan1 an emblem of         
,dionysus1 i4 #e sqq42    as cradle1 #f 
sqq42    used to scatter ashes of human 
victims1 #bfj1 #bfb    ,winter1 name    
given to man who cuts the last sheaf1 i4
 #adb2    name of harvest-supper1 #afj  
---- festival of ,dionysus1 i4 #af sq4  
---- solstice1 ii4 #cbe2    festival of1
 #ij    ,witch1 burning the ,old1 i4    
#bbd    ,witchcraft1 protection against1
 i4 #aef1 ii4 #cbd    ,wolf1 corn-spirit
 as1 i4 #bga sqq41 ii4 #cbg2    stuffed1
 carried about1 i4 #bge2    ceremonies  
at killing a1 ii4 #bbj sq41 #bbc4       
,see also ,wolves    ,wolf's heart      
eaten1 ii4 #adf    ---- skin1 man clad  
in1 i4 #bge    ,wolfish ,apollo1 ii4    
#bhc sq4    ,wollaroi1 the1 of ,new     
,south ,wales1 ii4 #afc    ,wolves1     
sacrifices offered to1 ii4 #bhd2        
transmigration of sinners into1 #cjh    
,woman's part in primitive agriculture1 
i4 #aac sqq4    ,women1 influence of    

corn-spirit on1 i4 #afh2    who have    
died in childbed1 attempts to deceive   
their ghosts1 ii4 #ig                   
sq42    thought to have no soul1 ii4    
#adh    ---- milk cows1 i4 #aah    ---- 
swear by the ,pleiades1 i4 #caa         
,women's race at harvest1 i4 #gf sq4    
,wood-spirits in goat form1 ii4 #b sq4  
---- woman1 i4 #bcb    ,woodford1 ,c4   
,m41 ii4 #abf    ,words1 special1 used  
by reapers1 i4 #aic    ,worm1           
transmigration of sinner into1 ii4 #bii 
,worms1 souls of dead in1 ii4 #bhi      
,worship of cattle1 ii4 #ce sqq42    of 
animals1 two forms of the1 #caa2    of  
snake1 #caf sq4    ,worshipful animal   
killed once a year1 ii4 #cbb    ,wrach  
7,hag71 name given to last corn cut in  
,wales1 i4 #adb sqq4    ,wreath of corn1
 i4 #acd    ,wren1 hunting the1 ii4 #cag
 sqq42    called the king of birds1     
#cag2    superstitions as to the1 #cag  
sq41 #cai    ,wrestling1 i4 #ih1 ii4    
#aca    ,wrtemburg1 harvest customs in1 
i4 #bhf1 #bhg    ,xanthicus1 a          

,macedonian month1 i4 #bei n4 #a        
,xenophon1 on ,triptolemus1 i4 #ed      
,xochiquetzal1 a ,mexican goddess1 i4   
#bcg    ,yabim1 the1 of ,german ,new    
,guinea1 i4 #ajd sqq41 #bbh1 ii4 #bge1  
#bie    ,yams1 charm for growth of1 i4  
#ajj1 #aja2    cultivated in ,africa1   
#aai2    cultivated in ,new ,britain1   
#abc2    cultivated in ,south ,america1 
#abj1 #aba2    dug by ,australian       
aborigines1 #abf sq42    ceremonies at  
eating the new1 ii4 #ec1 #eh sqq4       
---- festival of the new1 ii4 #aae2     
in ,tonga1 #abh sqq4    ,yang-,seri1    
prayers to1 ii4 #cc    ,yaos1 the1 ii4  
#aaa sq4    ,year1 beginning of1 marked 
by appearance of ,pleiades1 i4 #cji1    
#caj1 #cab1              #cac1 #cad1    
#cae2    divided into thirteen moons1   
ii4 #gg    ,yellow ,demeter1 i4 #da sq4 
,yezo or ,yesso1 ii4 #ahj1 #ahe         
,yombe1 the1 ii4 #aab    ,yorkshire1    
harvest customs in1 i4 #aea sq41 #bbd   
,yoruba negroes1 ii4 #adi    ,youngest  
person cuts the last corn1 i4 #aeh1 #afa

    ,yuchi ,indians1 ii4 #ge1 #caa n4 #a
    ,yule ,boar1 i4 #cjj sqq41 ii4 #dc1 
#cbh    ---- ,goat1 the1 ii4 #cbg sq4   
---- ram1 the1 ii4 #cbh    ---- straw1  
i4 #cja sq4    ,yuracares ,indians of   
,bolivia1 ii4 #bce1 #beg    ,zabern in  
,alsace1 harvest custom at1 i4 #big     
,zagreus1 i4 #ab    ,zambesi1 tribes of 
the ,upper1 ii4 #ada    ---- region1    
,caffres of the1 ii4 #bhi    ,zanzibar1 
custom at sowing in1 i4 #bcc    ,zaparo 
,indians1 the1 ii4 #aci    ,zapotecs of 
,mexico1 their harvest customs1 i4 #agd 
sq4    ,zeus1 his intrigue with         
,persephone1 i4 #ab2    father of       
,dionysus by ,demeter1 #ab1 #ad1 #ff2   
his intrigue with ,demeter1 #ff2        
surnamed ,underground1 #de1 #ej    ---- 
and ,demeter1 ii4 #i2 marriage of1 i4   
#fe sqq4    ---- and ,hercules1 ii4 #agb
    ----1 ,laphystian1 i4 #be    ----   
,polieus1 ii4 #e1 #g    ---- ,sosipolis1
 ii4 #g    ----1 ,subterranean1 i4 #ff1 
ii4 #i    ---- the ,fly-catcher1 ii4    
#bhb    ,zulu king1 dance of the1 ii4   

#ff    ,zulus1 the1 ii4 #cb1 #adb1 #adc2
    women's part in agriculture among   
the1 i4 #aac sq42    their festival of  
first-fruits1 ii4 #fg2    their         
inoculation1 #afj sq4    ,zuni ,indians1
 their custom of killing sacred turtles1
 ii4 #age sqq4    ,zurich1 harvest      
customs in the canton of1 i4 #bia1 #big 
,,footnotes         ,m#a ,ancient       
deities of vegetation as animals4       
,m#b ,dionysus as a goat3 his           
association with the ,pans1 ,satyrs1 and
        ,silenuses1 who have been       
interpreted as semi-goat-shaped deities 
of        the woods4        #a ,see     
above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #af sqq4        #b   
,herodotus1 ii4 #df2 ,l4 ,preller1      
,griechische ,mythologie1#d i4          
7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #gde sq42 ,k4     
,wernicke1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's        
,lexikon der griech4 und rm4            
,mythologie1 iii4 #adjg sqq4        #c  
,l4 ,preller1 ,griechische              
,mythologie1#c i4 #fjj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 
,antike        ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4

 #ach4        #d ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4    
cit4 p4 #aci4        #e ,julius ,pollux1
 iv4 #aah4        #f ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4
 cit4 pp4 #adb sq4        #g ,ovid1     
,fasti1 ii4 #cfa1 iii4 #cab1 v4 #aja2   
id41 ,heroides1 iv4 #di4        #h      
,macrobius1 ,sat4 i4 #bb4 #c4        #i 
,homer1 ,hymn to ,aphrodite1 #bfb sqq4  
#aj ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c2 ,ovid1
 ,metam4 vi4 #cib2 id41 ,fasti1         
iii4 #cjc1 #cji2 ,gloss4 ,isid4 ,mart4  
,cap4 ii4 #afg1 cited by ,w4            
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 p4 #aac4       #aa ,pliny1  
,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #c2 ,martianus        
,capella1 ii4 #afg2 ,augustine1         
,de civitate ,dei1 xv4 #bc2 ,aurelius   
,victor1 ,origo gentis ,romanae1        
iv4 #f4       #ab ,servius on ,virgil1  
,ecl4 vi4 #ad2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 vi4 #cib  
sq42        ,martianus ,capella1 ii4    
#afg4       #ac ,w4 ,mannhardt1         
,baumkultus1 pp4 #ach sq42 id41 ,antike 
,wald- und        ,feldkulte1 p4 #ade4  
#ad ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #aj4

       #ae ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bha sqq4
       #af ,antike ,wald- und           
,feldkulte1 ch4 iii4 pp4 #aac-baa4 ,in  
the text ,i        have allowed my      
former exposition of ,mannhardt's theory
 as to        ancient semi-goat-shaped  
spirits of vegetation to stand as       
before1        but ,i have done so with 
hesitation1 because the evidence adduced
 in        its favour appears to me     
insufficient to permit us to speak with 
any        confidence on the subject4   
,pan may have been1 as ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher 
and        ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell think1      
nothing more than a herdsman's god1 the 
semi-human1 semi-bestial representative 
of goats in particular4 ,see        ,w4 
,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der griech4 und 
rm4 ,mythologie1 iii4 #adje        sq42 
,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the    
,greek ,states1 v4 7,oxford1            
#aiji7 pp4 #dca sqq4 ,and the ,satyrs   
and ,silenuses seem to have more        
affinity with horses than with goats4   
,see ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon        

der griech4 und rm4 ,mythologie1 iv4    
#ddd sqq4       #ag ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 
#bca sqq4       ,m#c ,wood-spirits in   
the form of goats4       #ah ,above1    
vol4 i4 pp4 #ag sq4       ,m#d ,the bull
 as an embodiment of ,dionysus seems to 
be another expression        of his     
character as a god of vegetation4       
#ai ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #af sq4         
#bj ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhh sqq4       
#ba ,a4 ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and      
,religion1#b ii4 #beb4       #bb        
,compare ,totemism and ,exogamy1 iv4 #ab
 sqq4       ,m#e ,the bouphonia1 an     
,athenian sacrifice of an ox to ,zeus   
,polieus4       #bc ,pausanias1 i4 #bd4 
#d2 id41 i4 #bh4 #aj2 ,porphyry1 ,de    
abstinentia1        ii4 #bi sq42        
,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 viii4 #c2 ,scholia
 on ,aristophanes1        ,peace1 #dai1 
and ,clouds1 #ihe2 ,hesychius1 ,suidas1 
and        ,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 2
 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 ,im4        ,bekker's  
,anecdota ,graeca 7,berlin1 #ahad-ahba71
 p4 #bch1 s4v4        4 ,the date of the

 sacrifice 7#adth ,skirophorion7 is     
given by        the ,scholiast on       
,aristophanes and the ,etymologicum     
,magnum2 and        this date           
corresponds1 according to ,w4 ,mannhardt
 7,mythologische        ,forschungen1 p4
 #fh71 with the close of the threshing  
in ,attica4 ,no        writer mentions  
the trial of both the axe and the knife4
 ,pausanias        speaks of the trial  
of the axe1 ,porphyry and ,aelian of the
 trial of        the knife4 ,but from   
,porphyry's description it is clear that
 the        slaughter was carried out by
 two men1 one wielding an axe and the   
other a knife1 and that the former laid 
the blame on the latter4        ,perhaps
 the knife alone was condemned4 ,that   
the ,king 7as to whom see        ,the   
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #dd sq47 presided at         
the trial of all lifeless objects1 is   
mentioned by ,aristotle                 
7,constitution of ,athens1 #eg7 and     
,julius ,pollux 7viii4 #ij1 compare     

viii4 #abj74       ,m#f ,the ox         
sacrificed at the bouphonia appears to  
have embodied the        corn-spirit4   
#bd ,the real import of the name        
bouphonia was first perceived by ,w4    
,robertson ,smith4 ,see his ,religion of
 the ,semites1#b pp4 #cjd sqq4          
,in ,cos also an ox specially chosen was
 sacrificed to ,zeus ,polieus4          
,see ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #faf2 
,ch4        ,michel1 ,recueil           
d',inscriptions ,grecques1 ,no4 #gaf2   
,h4 ,collitz und        ,f4 ,bechtel1   
,sammlung der griechischen              
,dialekt-,inschriften1 iii4        pp4  
#ceg sqq41 ,no4 #cfcf2 ,j4 de ,prott et 
,l4 ,ziehen1 ,leges ,graecorum          
,sacrae e ,titulis collectae1           
,fasciculus i4 7,leipsic1 #ahif7 pp4 #ai
        sqq41 ,no4 #e2 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1
 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 
pp4 #ag-ba4 ,a month ,bouphonion1       
corresponding to the ,attic ,boedromion 
7,september71 occurred in the calendars 

of ,delos and ,tenos4 ,see ,e4          
,bischoff1 8,de fastis ,graecorum       
antiquioribus10 in ,leipziger ,studien  
fr classische ,philologie1 vii4         
7,leipsic1 #ahhd7 p4 #dad4       #be    
,varro1 ,de re rustica1 ii4 #e4 #d4     
,compare ,columella1 ,de re             
rustica1 vi4 praef4  #g4 ,perhaps1      
however1 ,varro's statement may be      
merely an inference drawn from the      
ritual of the bouphonia and the         
legend told to explain it4       #bf ,w4
 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4 #dji4      
#bg ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #bjh4     
,m#g ,sacrifice of an ox to ,zeus       
,sosipolis at ,magnesia on the          
,maeander4        ,the bull so          
sacrificed seems to have been regarded  
as an embodiment        of the          
corn-spirit4       #bh ,dittenberger1   
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum#b    
7,leipsic1        #ahih-aija71 vol4 ii4 
pp4 #bdf-bdh1 ,no4 #eec4 ,as to the     
identification        of the ,magnesian 
month ,artemision with the ,attic month 

,thargelion        7,may71 see          
,dittenberger1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bdb1    
,no4 #eeb note #d4 ,it        is        
interesting to observe that at ,magnesia
 the sowing took place in               
,cronion1 the month of ,cronus1 a god   
whom the ancients regularly             
identified with ,saturn1 the ,italian   
god of sowing4 ,in ,samos1              
,perinthus1 and ,patmos1 however1 the   
month ,cronion seems to have been       
equivalent to the ,attic ,scirophorion1 
a month corresponding to ,june        or
 ,july1 which could never have been a   
season of sowing in the hot             
rainless summers of ,greece4 ,see ,e4   
,bischoff1 8,de fastis ,graecarum       
antiquioribus10 in ,leipziger ,studien  
fr classische ,philologie1        vii4  
7#ahhd7 p4 #djj2 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge
 ,inscriptionum        ,graecarum1#b    
,no4 #fde note #ad1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddi4   
#bi ,in thus interpreting the sacrifice 
of the bull at ,magnesia ,i follow      
the excellent exposition of ,professor  

,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1 ,griechische          
,feste 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #bc-bg4   
,m#h ,the ,greek conception of the      
corn-spirit as both male and female4    
#cj ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cf sq41 #fe
 sqq4       ,m#i ,the ox as a           
representative of the corn-spirit at    
,great ,bassam in        ,guinea4       
#ca ,h4 ,hecquard1 ,reise an die ,kste  
und in das ,innere von ,west-,afrika    
7,leipsic1 #ahed71 pp4 #da-dc4       #cb
 ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdh4       #cc 
,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bfh1 #bgb4         
#cd ,franz ,cumont1 ,textes et          
,monuments figurs relatifs aux ,mystres 
de        ,mithra 7,brussels1           
#ahif-ahii71 ii4 figures #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 
#ei 7p4 #bbh1        corn-stalks issuing
 from wound71 #fg1 #gj1 #gh1 #hg1 #aje1 
#adc1 #afh1 #bae1        also plates v4 
and vi4      ,m#aj ,the ox as a         
personification of the corn-spirit in   
,china4       #ce ,china ,review1 i4    
7,july #ahgb to ,june #ahgc1 ,hongkong71
 pp4 #fb1 #aed1        #afb1 #bjc sq42  

,rev4 ,j4 ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of  
the ,chinese1 ed4        ,paxton ,hood  
7,london1 #ahfh71 pp4 #cge sq42 ,rev4   
,j4 ,h4 ,gray1 ,china        7,london1  
#ahgh71 ii4 #aae sq4       #cf          
,ostasiatischer ,lloyd1 ,march #ad1     
#ahij1 quoted by ,j4 ,d4 ,e4 ,schmeltz1 
8,das ,pflugfest in ,china10            
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1        xi4 7#ahih7 p4    
#gi4 ,with this account the one given by
 ,s4 ,w4 ,williams        7,the ,middle 
,kingdom1 ,new ,york and ,london1 #ahdh1
 ii4 #aji7        substantially agrees4 
,in many districts1 according to the    
,ostasiatischer ,lloyd1 the ,genius of  
,spring is represented at this          
festival by a boy of blameless          
character1 clad in green4 ,as to the    
custom of going with one foot bare and  
the other shod1 see ,taboo        and   
the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #caa-cac4 
#cg ,r4 ,f4 ,johnston1 ,lion and ,dragon
 in ,northern ,china 7,london1 #aiaj71  
pp4 #ahj-ahb4       #ch ,ed4 ,chavannes1

 ,le ,t'ai ,chan1 ,essai de ,monographie
 d'un ,culte        ,chinois 7,paris1   
#aiaj71 p4 #ejj 7,annales du ,muse      
,guimet1        ,bibliothque d'tudes1   
vol4 xxi474       #ci ,see ,the ,dying  
,god1 pp4 #bdj sq41 #bej4      ,m#aa    
,the ox as a personification of the     
corn-spirit in ,kashgar and ,annam4     
#dj ,j4 ,l4 ,dutreuil de ,rhins1        
,mission ,scientifique dans la ,haute   
,asie1        #ahij-ahie1 i4 7,paris1   
#ahig7 pp4 #ie sq4 ,after describing the
        ceremony as he witnessed it at  
,kashgar1 the writer adds3 8,probably   
the ox was at first a living animal     
which they sacrificed and               
distributed the flesh to the bystanders4
 ,at the present day the        official
 who acts as pontiff has a number of    
small pasteboard oxen        made1 which
 he sends to the notables in order that 
they may        participate intimately  
in the sacrifice1 which is more than    
symbolical4 ,the reason for carrying the
 ox a long distance is that        as   

much as possible of the territory may be
 sanctified by the        passage of the
 sacred animal1 and that as many people 
as possible        may share in the     
sacrifice1 at least with their eyes and 
good        wishes4 ,the procession1    
which begins very early in the morning1 
moves eastward1 that is1 toward the     
quarter where1 the winter being         
now over1 the first sun of spring may be
 expected to appear1 whose              
divinity the ceremony is intended to    
render propitious4 ,it is               
needless to insist on the analogy       
between this ,chinese festival and      
our ,carnival1 at which1 about the same 
season1 a fat ox is led        about4   
,both festivals have their origin in the
 same conceptions of        ancient     
natural religion40       #da ,colonel   
,e4 ,diguet1 ,les ,annamites1 ,socit1   
,coutumes1 ,religions        7,paris1   
#aijf71 pp4 #bej-bec4       #db ,see    
above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #da sq41 and below1  
pp4 #ba sq4      ,m#ab ,annual          

inauguration of ploughing by the        
,chinese emperor4       #dc ,du ,halde1 
,the ,general ,history of ,china1 ,third
 ,edition 7,london1        #agda71 ii4  
#abj-abb2 ,huc1 ,l',empire ,chinois#e   
7,paris1 #ahgi71 ii4        #cch-cdc2   
,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,gray1 ,china 7,london1   
#ahgh71 ii4 #aaf-aah4        ,compare   
,the ,sacred ,books of ,china1          
translated by ,james ,legge1 ,part      
iii41 ,the ,l ,k 7,sacred ,books of the 
,east1 vol4 xxvii41 ,oxford1            
#ahhe71 pp4 #bed sq43 8,in this month   
the first month of spring the        son
 of ,heaven on the first day prays to   
,god for a good year2 and               
afterwards1 the day of the first        
conjunction of the sun and moon         
having been chosen1 with the handle and 
share of the plough in the              
carriage1 placed between the man-at-arms
 who is its third occupant        and   
the driver1 he conducts his three ducal 
ministers1 his nine high                
ministers1 the feudal princes and his   

,great officers1 all with their         
own hands to plough the field of ,god4  
,the son of ,heaven turns up            
three furrows1 each of the ducal        
ministers five1 and the other           
ministers and feudal princes nine4 ,when
 they return1 he takes in his           
hand a cup in the great chamber1 all the
 others being in attendance        on   
him and the ,great officers1 and says1  
#8,drink this cup of comfort            
after your toil4' ,in this month the    
vapours of heaven descend and           
those of the earth ascend4 ,heaven and  
earth are in harmonious                 
co-operation4 ,all plants bud and grow40
 ,here the selection of a day        in 
spring when sun and moon are in         
conjunction is significant4 ,such       
conjunctions are regarded as marriages  
of the great luminaries and             
therefore as the proper seasons for the 
celebration of rites        designed to 
promote fertility4 ,see ,the ,dying     
,god1 p4 #gc4      ,m#ac ,analogy of the

 ,chinese custom to the agricultural    
rites at ,eleusis        and elsewhere4 
#dd ,see above1 pp4 #gd1 #ajh4       #de
 ,see above1 p4 #ic4       #df ,see     
above1 pp4 #id1 #aji2 ,the ,magic ,art  
and the ,evolution of ,kings1        ii4
 #aje sqq4      ,m#ad ,the rending of   
live animals in the rites of ,dionysus4 
#dg ,as to the ,european customs1 see   
above1 p4 #ab4      ,m#ae ,association  
of the pig with ,demeter4 ,pigs in the  
ritual of the        ,thesmophoria4 ,the
 sacred serpent at ,lanuvium4       #dh 
,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bih sqq4       
#di ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1        
,acharn4 #gdg4       #ej ,j4 ,overbeck1 
,griechische ,kunstmythologie1          
,besonderer ,theil1 ii4                 
7,leipsic1 #ahgc-ahgh71 p4 #dic2        
,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten   
,kunst1 ii4 pl4 viii4 #id4       #ea    
,hyginus1 ,fab4 #bgg2 ,cornutus1        
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bh2  
,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #ab4 #bc2       
,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,acharn4   

#gdg2 id41 on ,frogs1 #cch2 id41 on     
,peace1 #cgd2 ,servius on               
,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #chj2 ,aelian1     
,nat4 ,anim4 x4 #af4       #eb ,see     
above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bb sq4       #ec ,as
 to the ,thesmophoria see my article    
8,thesmophoria0 in the                  
,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth      
,edition1 vol4 xxiii1 #bie sqq42        
,august ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt     
,athen im ,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71  
pp4 #cjh sqq42 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harisson1 
,prolegomena to the ,study of           
,greek ,religion#b 7,cambridge1 #aijh71 
pp4 #abj sqq42 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1        
,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1 #aijf71  
pp4 #cac sqq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1        
,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 iii4 
7,oxford1 #aijg7 pp4 #ge sqq4        ,at
 ,thebes and in ,delos the ,thesmophoria
 was held in summer1 in the        month
 of ,metageitnion 7,august74 ,see       
,xenophon1 ,hellenica1 v4 #b4 #bi2      
,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson ,griechische ,feste1   
pp4 #caf sq4       #ed ,photius1        

,lexicon1 s4v4 1 speaks of the ascent of
 ,demeter        from the lower world2  
and ,clement of ,alexandria speaks of   
both        ,demeter and ,persephone as 
having been engulfed in the chasm       
7,protrept4 ii4 #ag74 ,the original     
equivalence of ,demeter and             
,persephone must be borne steadily in   
mind4       #ee ,plutarch1 ,isis et     
,osiris1 #fi2 ,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 4
       #ef ,e4 ,rohde1 8,unedirte       
,lucians-scholien1 die attischen        
,thesmophorien        und ,haloen       
betreffend10 ,rheinisches ,museum1      
,n4,f41 xxv4 7#ahgj7 p4        #edh2    
,scholia in ,lucianum1 ed4 ,h4 ,rabe    
7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #bge        sq4  
,two passages of classical writers      
7,clement of ,alexandria1               
,protrept4 ii4 #ag1 and ,pausanias1 ix4 
#h4 #a7 refer to the rites              
described by the scholiast on ,lucian1  
and had been rightly        interpreted 
by ,chr4 ,a4 ,lobeck 7,aglaophamus1 pp4 
#hbg sqq47 before        the discovery  

of the scholia4       #eg ,the scholiast
 speaks of them as megara and adyta4    
,the name        megara is thought to be
 derived from a ,phoenician word meaning
        8cavern10 8subterranean chasm10 
the ,hebrew 4 ,see ,f4 ,c4 ,moyers1     
,die ,phoenizier 7,bonn1 #ahda71 i4     
#bbj4 ,in ,greek usage the megara       
were properly subterranean vaults or    
chasms sacred to the gods4 ,see         
,hesychius1 quoted by ,movers1 l4c4 7the
 passage does not appear in        ,m4  
,schmidt's minor edition of ,hesychius72
 ,porphyry1 ,de antro        nympharum1 
#f2 and my note on ,pausanias1 ii4 #b4  
#a4       #eh ,we infer this from       
,pausanias1 ix4 #h4 #a1 though the      
passage is        incomplete and        
apparently corrupt4 ,for   ,lobeck      
7,aglaophamus1 pp4 #hbi sq47 proposed to
 read  or        4 ,at the spring and   
autumn festivals of ,isis at ,tithorea  
geese and goats were thrown into the    
adyton and left there till        the   
following festival1 when the remains    

were removed and buried at        a     
certain spot a little way from the      
temple4 ,see ,pausanias1 x4 #cb4        
#ad4 ,this analogy supports the view    
that the pigs thrown into the           
caverns at the ,thesmophoria were left  
there till the next festival4       #ei 
,aelian1 ,de natura animalium1 xi4 #af2 
,propertius1 v4 #h4 #c-ad4 ,the         
feeding of the serpent is represented on
 a ,roman coin of about #fd             
,b4,c42 on the obverse of the coin      
appears the head of ,juno ,caprotina4   
,see ,e4 ,babelon1 ,monnaies de la      
,rpublique ,romaine 7,paris1 #ahhf71    
ii4 #djb4 ,a common type of ,greek art  
represents a woman feeding a            
serpent out of a saucer4 ,see ,adonis1  
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second                
,edition1 p4 #ge4      ,m#af ,legend    
told to explain the ritual of the       
,thesmophoria4       #fj ,scholia in    
,lucianum1 ed4 ,h4 ,rabe1 pp4 #bge sq4  
#fa ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #dfa-dff1 upon   
which ,gierig remarks1 8,sues melius    

poeta omisisset in hac narratione40     
,such is the wisdom of the              
commentator4       #fb ,pausanias1 i4   
#ad4 #c4       #fc ,scholiast on        
,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #cch4      ,m#ag 
,analogy of the ,thesmophoria to the    
folk-customs of ,northern ,europe4      
#fd ,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhe4       #fe  
,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij4       #ff      
,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgh4       #fg      
,above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4       #fh      
,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cjj sq4       #fi  
,in ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 
ii4 #ag1 for           ,lobeck          
7,aglaophamus1 p4 #hca7 would read      
4 ,for his emendation of ,pausanias1    
see above1 p4 #ah note #a4       #gj ,it
 is worth nothing that in ,crete1 which 
was an ancient seat of        ,demeter  
worship 7see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #aca71   
the pig was esteemed        very sacred 
and was not eaten 7,athenaeus1 ix4 #ah1 
pp4 #cge ,f-#cgf ,a74        ,this would
 not exclude the possibility of its     
being eaten        sacramentally1 as at 

the ,thesmophoria4      ,m#ah ,the      
horse-headed ,demeter of ,phigalia4     
#ga ,pausanias1 viii4 #db4       #gb    
,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bib sqq4       #gc 
,pausanias1 viii4 #be and #db4 ,at the  
sanctuary of the ,mistress 7that        
is1 of ,persephone7 in ,arcadia many    
terracotta statuettes have been         
found which represent draped women with 
the heads of cows or sheep4        ,they
 are probably votive images of ,demeter 
or ,persephone1 for the        ritual of
 the sanctuary prescribed the offering  
of images        7,dittenberger1        
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #ici1 vol4 ii4        pp4 #hjc     
sq474 ,see ,p4 ,perdrizet1              
8,terres-cuites de ,lycosoura1 et       
mythologie arcadienne10 ,bulletin de    
,correspondance ,hellnique1             
xxiii4 7#ahii7 p4 #fce2 ,m4 ,p4         
,nilsson1 ,griechische ,feste 7,leipsic1
        #aijf71 pp4 #cdg sq4 ,on the    
,phigalian ,demeter1 see ,w4 ,mannhardt1
        ,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4

 #bdd sqq4 ,i well remember how on a    
summer afternoon ,i sat at the mouth of 
the shallow cave1 watching        the   
play of sunshine on the lofty wooded    
sides of the ravine and        listening
 to the murmur of the stream4      ,m#ai
 ,attis and the pig4       #gd ,see     
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 p4 #bba4 ,on the position     
of the pig in ancient ,oriental and     
particularly ,semitic religion1         
see ,f4 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phoenizier1  
i4 7,bonn1 #ahda71 pp4 #bah sqq4        
#ge ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second   
,edition1 p4 #bbj4       #gf            
,demosthenes1 ,de corona1 p4 #cac4      
#gg ,the suggestion was made to me in   
conversation by my lamented friend1     
the late ,r4 ,a4 ,neil of ,pembroke     
,college1 ,cambridge4      ,m#bj ,adonis
 and the boar4 ,ambiguous position of   
pigs at ,hierapolis4       #gh ,see     
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 p4 #h2 and to the             
authorities there cited add ,athenaeus1 

ii4 #hj1 p4 #fi ,b2 ,cornutus1          
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bh2  
,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iv4        
#e4 #c1  #h2 ,aristides1 ,apologia1     
,,ii1 p4 #ajg1 ed4 ,j4 ,rendel ,harris  
7,cambridge1 #ahia72 ,joannes ,lydus1   
,de mensibus1 iv4 #dd2 ,propertius1     
iii4 #d 7#e74 #ec sq41 ed4 ,f4 ,a4      
,paley2 ,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,instit4   
i4 #ag2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1  
vi4 #g2 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de        
errore profanarum religionum1 #i2       
,macrobius1 ,saturnal4 i4 #ba4 #d4      
,see further ,w4 ,w4 ,graf ,baudissin1  
,adonis und ,esmun 7,leipsic1           
#aiaa71 pp4 #adb sqq4       #gi ,see    
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 p4 #ahf4       #hj ,w4        
,cureton1 ,spicilegium ,syriacum        
7,london1 #ahee71 p4 #dd4       #ha     
,lucian1 ,de dea ,syria1 #ed4       #hb 
,the heathen ,harranians sacrificed     
swine once a year and ate the           
flesh 7,en-,nedm1 in ,d4 ,chwolsohn's   
,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1       

,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef1 ii4 #db74 ,my  
friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith            
conjectured that the wild boars annually
 sacrificed in ,cyprus on #bnd          
,april 7,joannes ,lydus1 ,de mensibus1  
iv4 #de7 represented ,adonis            
himself4 ,see his ,religion of the      
,semites1#b pp4 #bij sq41 #daa4         
,m#ba ,attitude of the ,jews to the pig4
       #hc ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 
iv4 #e4       #hd ,isaiah lxv4 #c1 lxvi4
 #c1 #ag4 ,compare ,r4 ,h4 ,kennett1    
,the ,composition        of the ,book of
 ,isaiah in the ,light of ,history and  
,archaeology        7,london1 #aiaj7 p4 
#fa1 who suggests that the eating of the
 mouse as a        sacrament may have   
been derived from the ,greek worship of 
the ,mouse        ,apollo 7,apollo      
,smintheus74 ,as to the ,mouse ,apollo  
see below1 pp4 #bhb        sq4          
,m#bb ,attitude of the ancient          
,egyptians to the pig4 ,annual sacrifice
 of        pigs to ,osiris and the moon4
       #he ,herodotus1 ii4 #dg2         

,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #h2        
,aelian1 ,nat4        ,anim4 x4 #af4    
,josephus merely says that the ,egyptian
 priests        abstained from the flesh
 of swine 7,contra ,apionem1 ii4 #ac74  
#hf ,herodotus1 l4c4       #hg ,plutarch
 and ,aelian1 ll4cc4       #hh          
,herodotus1 l4c4 ,at ,castabus in       
,chersonese there was a sacred          
precinct of ,hemithea1 which no one     
might approach who had touched or       
eaten of a pig 7,diodorus ,siculus1 v4  
#fb4 #e74       #hi ,herodotus1 ii4 #dg 
sq42 ,aelian and ,plutarch1 ll4cc4      
,herodotus        distinguishes the     
sacrifice to the moon from that to      
,osiris4        ,according to him1 at   
the sacrifice to the moon1 the extremity
 of the        pig's tail1 together with
 the spleen and the caul1 was covered   
with        fat and burned2 the rest of 
the flesh was eaten4 ,on the evening    
7not        the eve1 see ,h4 ,stein's   
note on the passage7 of the festival the
        sacrifice to ,osiris took place4

 ,each man slew a pig before his door1  
then gave it to the swineherd1 from whom
 he had bought it1 to take        away4 
,m#bc ,belief that the eating of a      
sacred animal causes skin-disease1      
especially leprosy4       #ij ,j4 ,g4   
,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige  
rassen tusschen ,selebes        en      
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 pp4 #dcb1  
#deb4       #ia ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1
 8,omaha ,sociology10 ,third ,annual    
,report of the        ,bureau of        
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 p4     
#bbe2 ,miss ,a4 ,c4 ,fletcher        and
 ,f4 la ,flesche1 8,the ,omaha ,tribe10 
,twenty-seventh ,annual ,report         
of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology  
7,washington1 #aiaa71 p4 #add4          
,according to the latter writers1 any   
breach of a clan taboo among        the 
,omahas was supposed to be punished     
either by the breaking out of           
sores or white spots on the body of the 
offender or by his hair        turning  
white4       #ib ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen        

,dorsey1 op4 cit4 p4 #bca4       #ic ,j4
 ,crevaux1 ,voyages dans l',amrique du  
,sud 7,paris1 #ahhc71 p4 #ei4       #id 
,plutarch1 ,de superstitione1 #aj2      
,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 iv4         
#ae4 ,as to the sanctity of fish among  
the ,syrians1 see also ,ovid1           
,fasti1 ii4 #dgc sq42 ,diodorus         
,siculus1 ii4 #d4       #ie ,r4         
,sutherland ,rattray1 ,some ,folklore   
,stories and ,songs in        ,chinyanja
 7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #agd sq4         
#if ,rev4 ,h4 ,cole1 8,notes on the     
,wagogo of ,german ,east ,africa10      
,journal        of the ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #cjg1     
compare p4        #cag4       #ig ,e4   
,nigmann1 ,die ,wahehe 7,berlin1 #aijh71
 p4 #db4       #ih ,j4 ,kohler1 8,das   
,banturecht in ,ostafrika10 ,zeitschrift
 fr        vergleichende                
,rechtswissenschaft1 xv4 7#aijb7 pp4 #b1
 #c4       #ii ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1         
8,anthropological ,studies in ,kavirondo
 and ,nandi10        ,journal of the    

,anthropological ,institute1 xxxiii4    
7#aijc7 p4 #cdg4      #ajj ,central     
,provinces1 ,ethnographic ,survey1 ,,ii4
 ,draft ,articles on        ,uriya      
,castes 7,allahabad1 #aijg71 p4 #af4    
#aja ,c4 ,creighton1 s4v4 8,leprosy10   
,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iii4 col4      
#bgff4      #ajb #b ,kings v4 #bg2 #b   
,chronicles xxvi4 #af-ba4      ,m#bd    
,mere contact with a sacred object is   
deemed dangerous and calls for          
purification as a sort of disinfectant4 
#ajc ,leviticus xvi4 #bc sq4      #ajd  
,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 ii4 #dd4    
,for this and the ,jewish examples      
,i am indebted to my friend ,w4         
,robertson ,smith4 ,compare his         
,religion        of the ,semites1#b pp4 
#cea1 #dbf1 #dej sq4      #aje ,central 
,provinces1 ,ethnographic ,survey1      
,,vii4 ,draft ,articles on              
,forest ,tribes 7,allahabad1 #aiaa71 p4 
#ig4      #ajf ,central ,provinces1     
,ethnographic ,survey1 ,i4 ,draft       
,articles on        ,hindustani ,castes 

7,allahabad1 #aijg71 p4 #cb4      #ajg  
,see ,taboo and the ,perils of the      
,soul1 pp4 #acc sq4      #ajh ,op4 cit4 
pp4 #acd-acf4      #aji ,e4 ,casalis1   
,the ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #baa2
 ,d4 ,livingstone1        ,missionary   
,travels and ,researches in ,south      
,africa 7,london1 #aheg71        p4     
#bee2 ,john ,mackenzie1 ,ten ,years     
north of the ,orange ,river             
7,edinburgh1 #ahga71 p4 #ace note4 ,see 
further ,totemism and ,exogamy1         
ii4 #cgb4      #aaj ,j4 ,mackenzie1 l4c4
      #aaa ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1     
8,omaha ,sociology10 ,third ,annual     
,report of the        ,bureau of        
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 p4     
#bbe4      #aab ,ibid4 p4 #bge4         
#aac ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa 7,london1      
#ahhd71 p4 #gf4      #aad ,ibid4 p4 #gj4
      #aae ,captain ,c4 ,eckford ,luard1
 in ,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 xix4 
,central ,india1 ,part i4 7,lucknow1    
#aijb7 pp4 #bii sq42 also ,census       
of ,india1 #aija1 vol4 i4 ,ethnographic 

,appendices 7,calcutta1 #aijc71         
p4 #afc4      ,m#be ,thus the pig was   
probably at first a sacred animal with  
the        ,egyptians1 and may have been
 regarded as an embodiment of the       
corn-god ,osiris1 though at a later time
 he was looked on as an                 
embodiment of ,typhon1 the enemy of     
,osiris4 ,the havoc wrought by wild     
boars in the corn is a reason for       
regarding them as foes of the           
corn-god4      #aaf ,diogenes ,laertius1
 ,vitae ,philosophorum1 viii4 #h4       
#aag ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 x4 #af4 ,the 
story is repeated by ,pliny1 ,nat4      
,hist4 xviii4 #afh4      #aah ,e4       
,lefbure1 ,le ,mythe ,osirien1 ,premire 
,partie1 ,les yeux d',horus             
7,paris1 #ahgd71 p4 #dd2 ,the ,book of  
the ,dead1 ,english translation by      
,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge 7,london1 #aija71
 ii4 #ccf sq41 chapter cxii42 ,e4       
,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,the ,gods of the   
,egyptians 7,london1 #aijd71 i4 #dif    
sq42 id41 ,osiris and the ,egyptian     

,resurrection 7,london and ,new         
,york1 #aiaa71 i4 #fb sq4      #aai     
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #h4 ,e4    
,lefbure 7op4 cit4 p4 #df7              
recognises that in this story the boar  
is ,typhon himself4      #abj ,this     
important principle was first recognised
 by ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4        ,see  
his article1 8,sacrifice10              
,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth      
,edition1 xxi4 #acg sq4 ,compare his    
,religion of the ,semites1#b pp4        
#cgc1 #daj sq4      #aba ,plutarch1     
,isis et ,osiris1 #ca4      ,m#bf       
,evidence of the depredations committed 
by wild boars on the crops4      #abb   
,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,the ,natural        
,history of the ,bible1 ,ninth ,edition 
7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #ed sq4      #abc 
,rev4 ,j4 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of     
,natal and the ,zulu ,country 7,london1 
#aheg71 pp4 #ah-bj4      #abd ,miss ,a4 
,werner1 ,the ,natives of ,british      
,central ,africa 7,london1              
#aijf71 pp4 #ahb sq4      #abe ,e4      

,modigliano1 ,un ,viaggio a ,nas        
7,milan1 #ahij71 pp4 #ebd sq41          
#fja4      #abf ,a4 ,e4 ,jenks1 ,the    
,bontoc ,igorot1 7,manilla1 #aije71 pp4 
#ajj1 #ajb4      #abg ,a4 ,bastian1     
8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der            
,gebirgs-stmme in ,kambodia10           
,zeitschrift der ,gesellschaft fr       
,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 i4 7#ahff7 p4     
#dd4      #abh ,g4 ,snouck ,hurgronje1  
,het ,gajland en zijne ,bewoners        
7,batavia1        #aijc71 p4 #cdh4      
#abi ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem ,leben der
 ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1 ,deutsch 
,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 p4 #abe4 
,m#bg ,the ravages of wild boars among  
the crops help us to understand the     
ambiguous attitude of the ancient       
,egyptians to swine4      #acj ,e4      
,lefbure1 ,le ,mythe ,osirien1 ,premire 
,partie1 ,les yeux d',horus             
7,paris1 #ahgd71 pp4 #dh sq4      ,m#bh 
,egyptian sacrifices of red oxen and    
red-haired men4      #aca ,see above1   
pp4 #bfj sq42 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 

,second ,edition1        pp4 #cca1 #cch4
      #acb ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 
#cc1 #gc2 ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #hh4   
#acc ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ca2  
,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #hh4 ,compare    
,herodotus1 ii4 #ch4      ,m#bi ,osiris 
identified with the sacred bulls ,apis  
and ,mnevis4        ,stratification of  
three great types of religion or        
superstition in        ancient ,egypt4  
#acd ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #bj1  
#bi1 #cc1 #dc2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #a4 #ca2  
,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ba1 #he2        
,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1#e
        i4 #ee sqq4 ,on ,apis and       
,mnevis1 see also ,herodotus1 ii4 #aec1 
with        ,a4 ,wiedemann's comment1   
iii4 #bg sq42 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1   
xxii4        #ad4 #g2 ,pliny1 ,nat4     
,hist4 viii4 #ahd sqq42 ,solinus1 xxxii4
 #ag-ba2        ,cicero1 ,de natura     
deorum1 i4 #bi2 ,augustine1 ,de civitate
 ,dei1        xviii4 #e2 ,aelian1 ,nat4 
,anim4 xi4 #aj sq42 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 
,conviv4 viii4 #a4 #c2 id41 ,isis et    

,osiris1 #e1 #ce2 ,eusebius1            
,praeparatio ,evangelii1 iii4 #ac4 #a   
sq42 ,pausanias1 i4 #ah4 #d1 vii4       
#bb4 #c sq42 ,w4 ,dittenberger1         
,orientis ,graeci ,inscriptiones        
,selectae 7,leipsic1 #aijc-aije71 ,nos4 
#ef1 #ij 7vol4 i4 pp4 #ih1 #ajf1        
#aei74 ,both ,apis and ,mnevis were     
black bulls1 but ,apis had certain      
white spots4 ,see ,a4 ,wiedemann1 ,die  
,religion der alten ,aegypter           
7,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahij71 pp4 #ie1       
#ii-aja4 ,when ,apis died1 pious people 
used to put on mourning and to fast1    
drinking only water and eating          
only vegetables1 for seventy days till  
the burial4 ,see ,a4 ,erman1        ,die
 gyptische ,religion 7,berlin1 #aije71  
pp4 #agj sq4      #ace ,diodorus        
,siculus1 i4 #ba4      #acf ,on the     
religious reverence of pastoral peoples 
for their cattle1 and        the        
possible derivation of the ,apis and    
,isis-,hathor worship from the          
pastoral stage of society1 see ,w4      

,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the     
,semites1#b pp4 #bif sqq4      #acg     
,herodotus1 ii4 #da4      #ach          
,herodotus1 ii4 #da1 with ,a4           
,wiedemann's commentary2 ,plutarch1     
,isis        et ,osiris1 #ai2 ,e4 ,a4   
,wallis ,budge1 ,osiris and the         
,egyptian        ,resurrection 7,london 
and ,new ,york1 #aiaa71 i4 #h4 ,in his  
commentary        on the passage of     
,herodotus ,prof4 ,wiedemann observes   
7p4 #ahh7 that        8the ,egyptian    
name of the ,isis-cow is es-t and is one
 of the few        cases in which the   
name of the sacred animal coincides with
 that of        the deity40      #aci   
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ahd2        
,solinus1 xxxii4 #ah2 ,ammianus         
,marcellinus1 xxii4 #ad4 #g4 ,the spring
 or well in which he was drowned        
was perhaps the one from which his      
drinking-water was procured2 he         
might not drink the water of the ,nile  
7,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1           
#e74      #adj ,plutarch1 ,isis et      

,osiris1 #ef4      #ada ,g4 ,maspero1   
,histoire ancienne#d 7,paris1 #ahhf71 p4
 #ca4 ,compare        ,duncker1         
,geschichte des ,alterthums1#e i4 #ef4  
,it has been        conjectured that the
 period of twenty-five years was        
determined by        astronomical       
considerations1 that being a period     
which harmonises        the phases of   
the moon with the days of the ,egyptian 
year4 ,see ,l4        ,ideler1 ,handbuch
 der mathematischen und technischen     
,chronologie        7,berlin1           
#ahbe-ahbf71 i4 #ahb sq42 ,f4 ,k4       
,ginzel1 ,handbuch der                  
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 
#ahj sq4      ,m#cj ,on the             
stratification of religions             
corresponding to certain social         
types4    ,m#ca ,reverence of the ,dinka
 for their cattle4      #adb ,g4        
,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of ,africa1  
,third ,edition 7,london1        #ahgh71
 i4 #ei sq4      #adc ,e4 de            

,pruyssenaere1 ,reisen und ,forschungen 
im ,gebiete des ,weissen        und     
,blauen ,nil 7,gotha1 #ahgg71 pp4 #bb   
sq4 7,petermann's        ,mittheilungen1
 ,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #ej74      ,m#cb  
,reverence of the ,nuehr for their      
cattle4      #add ,ernst ,marno1 ,reisen
 im ,gebiete des ,blauen und ,weissen   
,nil 7,vienna1        #ahgd71 p4 #cdc4  
,the name ,nyeledit is explained by the 
writer to        mean 8very great and   
mighty40 ,it is probably equivalent to  
,nyalich1 which ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann 
gives as a synonym for ,dengdit1        
the high god of the ,dinka4 ,according  
to ,dr4 ,seligmann1 ,nyalich is         
the locative of a word meaning 8above0  
and1 literally translated1              
signifies1 8in the above40 ,see ,c4 ,g4 
,seligmann1 s4v4 8,dinka10 in           
,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1
 edited by ,j4 ,hastings1 ,d4,d41       
vol4 iv4 7,edinburgh1 #aiaa71 p4 #gjg4  
,the ,sakalava of ,ampasimene1 in       
,madagascar1 are said to worship a black

 bull which is kept in a        sacred  
enclosure in the island of ,nosy ,be4   
,on the death of the        sacred bull 
another is substituted for it4 ,see ,a4 
van ,gennep1 ,tabou        et ,totmisme 
,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #bdg   
sq41 quoting ,j4        ,carol1 ,chez   
les ,hova 7,paris1 #ahih71 pp4 #dah sq4 
,but as the        ,sakalava are not1 so
 far as ,i know1 mainly or exclusively a
 pastoral        people1 this example of
 bull-worship does not strictly belong  
to the        class illustrated in the  
text4      ,m#cc ,the tradition that    
,virbius had been killed in the         
character of        ,hippolytus by      
horses1 and the custom of excluding     
horses from the        sacred ,arician  
grove1 may point to the conclusion that 
the horse was        regarded as an     
embodiment of ,virbius and was annually 
sacrificed in        the grove4         
,similarly at ,athens the goat was      
usually excluded from        the        
,acropolis but was admitted once a year 

for a necessary        sacrifice4       
#ade ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ai sqq4       
#adf ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp #bib-bid4   
#adg ,athenaeus1 xiii4 #ea1 p4 #ehg ,a2 
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #bjd4        
,compare ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 in      
,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth      
,edition1 article 8,sacrifice10 vol4    
xxi4 p4 #ace4      #adh ,varro1 ,de agri
 cultura1 i4 #b4 #ai sq43 8hoc nomine   
etiam ,athenis        in arcem non      
inigi1 praeterquam semel ad necessarium 
sacrificium40        ,by semel ,varro   
probably means once a year4      #adi   
,the force of this inference is greatly 
weakened1 if not destroyed1        by a 
fact which ,i had overlooked when ,i    
wrote this book originally4        ,a   
goat was sacrificed to ,brauronian      
,artemis at her festival called         
the ,brauronia 7,hesychius1 s4v4 2      
compare ,im4 ,bekker's        ,anecdota 
,graeca1 p4 #dde1 lines #f sqq474 ,as   
the ,brauronian        ,artemis had a   

sanctuary on the ,acropolis of ,athens  
7,pausanias1 i4        #bc4 #g71 it     
seems probable that the goat sacrificed 
once a year on        the ,acropolis was
 sacrificed to her and not to ,athena4  
7,note to        ,second ,edition of    
,the ,golden ,bough47      #aej         
,herodotus1 ii4 #db4      #aea ,it is   
worth noting that ,hippolytus1 with whom
 ,virbius was        identified1 is said
 to have dedicated horses to            
,aesculapius1 who had        raised him 
from the dead 7,pausanias1 ii4 #bg4 #d74
      ,m#cd ,annual sacrifice of a horse
 at ,rome in ,october4      #aeb        
,festus1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 pp4 #agh1  
#agi1 #bbj2 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones     
,romanae1 #ig2 ,polybius1 xii4 #d ,b4   
,the sacrifice is referred to by        
,julian1 ,orat4 v4 p4 #agf ,d 7p4 #bbh  
ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein74 ,it is the      
subject of a valuable essay by ,w4      
,mannhardt1 whose conclusions ,i        
summarise in the text4 ,see ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen 

7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4 #aef-bja4      
#aec ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #gca sqq41      
compare #fbi sqq42 ,propertius1 v4 #a4  
#ai sq4      ,m#ce ,the horse so        
sacrificed seems to have embodied the   
corn-spirit4      #aed ,the ,huzuls of  
the ,carpathians attribute a special    
virtue to a        horse's head4 ,they  
think that fastened on a pole and set up
 in a        garden it protects the     
cabbages from caterpillars4 ,see ,r4 ,f4
 ,kaindl1        ,die ,huzulen 7,wienna1
 #ahid71 p4 #ajb4 ,at the close of the  
rice-harvest the ,garos of ,assam       
celebrate a festival in which the       
effigy of a horse plays an important    
part4 ,when the festival is        over1
 the body of the horse is thrown into a 
stream1 but the head is        preserved
 for another year4 ,see ,note at the end
 of the volume4      #aee ,above1 pp4 #i
 sq4      #aef ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bfh1
 #bgb4      #aeg ,above1 vol4 i4 pp4    
#ada1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj sq41 #cja4 
,m#cf ,archaic character of the         

sacrifice and its analogies in the      
harvest        customs of ,northern     
,europe4      #aeh ,livy1 ii4 #e4       
#aei ,festus1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 pp4   
#acj1 #aca4      ,m#cg ,other examples  
of the exclusion of horses from         
sanctuaries4        ,uncertainty as to  
the reason for excluding horses from the
 ,arician        grove4      #afj       
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #efj 7vol4 ii4       
pp4 #bei-bfa72 ,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil   
d',inscriptions ,grecques               
7,brussels1 #aijj71 ,no4 #dcd1 pp4 #cbc 
sq42 ,p4 ,cauer1 ,delectus              
,inscriptionum ,graecarum propter       
dialectum memorabilium#b 7,leipsic1     
#ahhc71 ,no4 #agg1 pp4 #aag sq4 ,as to  
,alectrona or ,alectryona1              
daughter of the ,sun1 see ,diodorus     
,siculus1 v4 #fe4 #e4      #afa ,festus1
 s4v4 8,october equus10 p4 #aha ed4 ,c4 
,o4 ,mller4 ,see ,the        ,magic ,art
 and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cae4 
#afb ,g4 ,zndel1 8,land und ,volk der   

,eweer auf der ,sclavenkste in          
,west-afrika10 ,zeitschrift fr ,erdkunde
 zu ,berlin1 xii4 7#ahgg7 pp4           
#dae sq4      #afc ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1    
,history of ,madagascar 7,london1       
preface dated #ahch71        i4 #djb sq4
      #afd ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge      
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ici  
7vol4 ii4        p4 #hjc74      #afe    
,pausanias1 viii4 #cg4 #g4      ,m#ch   
,custom of eating the new corn          
sacramentally as the body of the        
corn-spirit4 ,loaves baked of the new   
corn in human shape and eaten4      #aff
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische         
,forschungen 7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 p4    
#agi4      #afg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,der    
,baumkultus der ,germanen und ihrer     
,nachbarstmme        7,berlin1 #ahge71  
p4 #bje4 ,it is not said that the       
dough-man is made of        the new     
corn2 but probably this is1 or once was1
 the case4      ,m#ci ,old ,lithuanian  
ritual at eating the new corn4      #afh
 ,m4 ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae  

oder ,preussische ,schaubuhne1 im       
wrtlichen ,auszge aus dem ,manuscript   
herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,william         
,pierson 7,berlin1 #ahga71 pp4 #fj-fd2  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und      
,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 pp4 #bdi   
sqq4 ,mathaeus ,praetorius1 the         
author to whom we owe the account in the
 text1 compiled a detailed              
description of old ,lithuanian manners  
and customs in the latter part        of
 the seventeenth century at the village 
of ,niebudzen1 of which he        was   
,protestant pastor4 ,the work1 which    
seems to have occupied him        for   
many years and to have been finished    
about #afih1 exists in        manuscript
 but has never been published in full4  
,only excerpts from        it have been 
printed by ,dr4 ,w4 ,pierson4           
,praetorius was born at ,memel          
about #afce and died in #agjg4 ,in the  
later years of his life he              
incurred a good deal of odium by joining
 the ,catholic ,church4      ,m#dj      

,modern ,european ceremonies at eating  
the new corn or new potatoes4      #afi 
,a4 ,bezzenberger1 ,litauische          
,forschungen 7,gttingen1 #ahhb71 p4 #hi4
      #agj ,simon ,grunau1 ,preussischer
 ,chronik1 herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,m4   
,perlbach1 i4 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7 p4 #ia4 
#aga ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10   
,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen
        ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4  
,heft #b 7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 p4 #ajh4     
#agb ,on iron as a charm against        
spirits1 see ,taboo and the ,perils of  
the        ,soul1 pp4 #bcb sqq4         
#agc ,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7  
p4 #ed4      #agd ,communicated by the  
,rev4 ,j4 ,j4 ,c4 ,yarborough1 of       
,chislehurst1 ,kent4        ,see        
,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7 p4    
#ej4      ,m#da ,ceremony of the heathen
 ,cheremiss at eating the new corn4     
#age ,von ,haxthausen1 ,studien ber die 
innern ,zustnde1 das ,volksleben        
und insbesondere die lndliche           
,einrichtungen ,russlands1 i4 #ddh      

sq4      #agf ,j4 ,g4 ,georgi1          
,beschreibung aller ,nationen des       
,russischen ,reichs        7,st4        
,petersburg1 #aggf71 p4 #cg4      ,m#db 
,ceremony of the ,aino at eating the new
 millet4      #agg ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1
 ,the ,ainu and their ,folk-lore        
7,london1 #aija71        pp4 #bjd1 #bjf4
      ,m#dc ,ceremonies of the          
,melanesians of ,reef ,island at eating 
the new        bread-fruits and yams4   
#agh 8,native ,stories from ,santa ,cruz
 and ,reef ,islands10 translated by the 
,rev4 ,w4 ,o',ferrall1 ,journal of the  
,anthropological ,institute1            
xxxiv4 7#aijd7 p4 #bcj4      ,m#dd      
,ceremony of the ,new ,caledonians at   
eating the first yams4      #agi        
,glaumont1 8,la culture de l'igname et  
du taro en ,nouvelle-,caldonie10        
,l',anthropologie1 viii4 7#ahig7 pp4    
#dc-de4      ,m#de ,ceremonies observed 
at eating the new rice in ,buru and     
,celebes4      #ahj ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1    
8,bijdragen tot de kennis der ,alfoeren 

van het eiland        ,boeroe10 p4 #bf  
7,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch   
,genootschap van        ,kunsten en     
,wetenschappen vol4 xxxviii41 ,batavia1 
#ahge74      #aha ,p4 ,n4 ,wilken1      
8,bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden  
en gewoonten der        ,alfoeren in de 
,minahassa10 ,mededeelingen van wege het
 ,nederlandsche                         
,zendelinggenootschap1 vii4 7#ahfc7 p4  
#abg4      #ahb ,n4 ,p4 ,wilken en ,j4  
,a4 ,schwarz1 8,allerlei over het land  
en volk van        ,bolaang ,mongondou10
 ,mededeelingen van wege het            
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xi4 7#ahfg7 pp4  
#cfi sq4      ,m#df ,ceremonies observed
 at eating the new rice in ,ceram and   
,borneo4      #ahc ,j4 ,boot1 8,korte   
schets der noordkust van ,ceram10       
,tiidschrift van        het             
,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig          
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4        
7#ahic7 pp4 #fga sq4      #ahd ,see     
above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahd sqq4      #ahe  

,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,in ,centraal     
,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4 #aef2      
id41 ,quer durch ,borneo 7,leyden1      
#aijd-aijg71 i4 #aag sq4 ,in the        
latter passage 8ist jeder0 is a misprint
 for 8isst jeder02 the        ,dutch    
original is 8eet ieder40      ,m#dg     
,ceremonies observed at eating the new  
rice in ,india4      #ahf ,h4 ,harkness1
 ,description of a ,singular ,aboriginal
 ,race inhabiting        the ,summit of 
the ,neilgherry ,hills 7,london1 #ahcb71
 pp4 #ef sq4      #ahg ,ch4 ,e4 ,gover1 
,the ,folk-songs of ,southern ,india    
7,london1 #ahgb71 pp4        #aje sqq42 
8,coorg ,folklore10 ,folk-lore ,journal1
 vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4        #cjb sqq4      
#ahh ,gover1 8,the ,pongol ,festival in 
,southern ,india10 ,journal of the      
,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s41 v4    
7#ahga7 pp4 #ia sqq4      #ahi ,from    
notes sent to me by my friend ,mr4 ,w4  
,crooke4      #aij ,major ,j4 ,biddulph1
 ,tribes of the ,hindoo ,koosh          
7,calcutta1 #ahhj71 p4        #ajc4     

,m#dh ,ceremonies observed by the ,chams
 at ploughing1 sowing1 reaping1 and     
eating the new rice4      #aia ,e4      
,aymonier1 8,les ,tchames et leurs      
religions10 ,revue de l'histoire        
des ,religions1 xxiv4 7#ahia7 pp4       
#bgb-bgd4      ,m#di ,ceremony at eating
 the new yams at ,onitsha on the ,niger4
      #aib ,s4 ,crowther and ,j4 ,c4    
,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks of  
the ,niger        7,london1 #ahei71 pp4 
#bhg sq4 ,mr4 ,taylor's information is  
repeated        in ,west ,african       
,countries and ,peoples1 by ,j4         
,africanus ,b4 ,horton        7,london1 
#ahfh71 pp4 #ahj sq4      ,m#ej         
,ceremonies at eating the new yams among
 the ,ewe negroes of ,togoland4         
#aic ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme      
7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #cjd-caj1 #cdj2   
compare id4 pp4 #dce1 #dhj1 #gfh4 ,the  
8slaves of the ,earth-gods0 are         
children whom women have obtained       
through prayers offered to              
,agbasia1 the greatest of the           

,earth-gods4 ,when such a child is born1
        it is regarded as the slave of  
,agbasia2 and the mother dedicates it   
to the service of the god1 as in similar
 circumstances ,hannah        dedicated 
,samuel to the ,lord 7#a ,samuel i474   
,if the child is a girl1        she is  
married to the priest's son2 if it is a 
boy1 he serves the        priest until  
his mother has given birth to a girl    
whom she exchanges        for the boy4  
,see ,j4 ,spieth1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ddh-dej4
 ,in all such        cases the original 
idea probably was that the child has    
been        begotten in the woman by the
 god and therefore belongs to him as to 
his father1 in the literal sense of the 
word4      ,m#ea ,festival of the new   
yams among the ,ashantees in ,september4
      #aid ,t4 ,e4 ,bowdich1 ,mission   
from ,cape ,coast ,castle to ,ashantee1 
,new        ,edition 7,london1 #ahgc71  
pp4 #bbf-bbi4      #aie ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 
,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the     
,gold ,coast 7,london1        #ahhg71   

pp4 #bbi sq4      #aif ,j4 ,c4          
,reichenbach1 8,etude sur le royaume    
d',assinie10 ,bulletin de la            
,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 vii4me   
,srie1 xi4 7#ahij7 p4 #cdi4      ,m#eb  
,festival of the new yams at ,coomassie 
and ,benin4      #aig ,ramseyer and     
,khne1 ,four ,years in ,ashantee        
7,london1 #ahge71 pp4        #adg-aea2  
,e4 ,perregaux1 ,chez les ,achanti      
7,neuchatel1 #aijf71 pp4                
#aeh-afj4      #aih ,h4 ,ling ,roth1    
,great ,benin 7,halifax1 ,england1      
#aijc71 pp4 #gf sq4      ,m#ec          
,ceremonies observed by the ,nandi at   
eating the new eleusine grain4      #aii
 ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1 
#aiji71 pp4 #df sq4      #bjj ,rev4 ,j4 
,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71
 p4 #dbh4      ,m#ed ,festival of the   
new fruits among the ,caffres of ,natal 
and ,zululand4      #bja ,f4 ,speckmann1
 ,die ,hermannsburger ,mission in       
,afrika 7,hermannsburg1        #ahgf71  
pp4 #aej sq4      #bjb ,l4 ,grout1      

,zulu-land 7,philadelphia1 ,n4,d471 p4  
#afa4      #bjc 7,south ,african7       
,folk-lore ,journal1 i4 7#ahgi7 p4 #ace2
 ,rev4 ,h4        ,callaway1 ,religious 
,system of the ,amazulu1 ,part iii4 p4  
#chi note4      #bjd ,rev4 ,j4          
,macdonald1 ,light in ,africa1 ,second  
,edition 7,london1 #ahij71        pp4   
#baf sq4 ,on the conception of the two  
fire-sticks as husband        and wife1 
see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution 
of ,kings1 ii4 #bjh        sqq4         
,m#ee ,dance of the ,zulu king at the   
festival4 ,licentious character of the  
festival4 ,the festival as celebrated by
 the ,pondos4 ,bull-fights and          
games4 ,license accorded to chiefs and  
others at this festival among        the
 ,zulus4 ,traces of an annual abdication
 of ,zulu kings1 perhaps of        a    
custom of burning them and scattering   
their ashes4      #bje ,j4 ,shooter1    
,the ,kafirs of ,natal 7,london1 #aheg71
 p4 #bg2 ,n4 ,isaacs1        ,travels   
and ,adventures in ,eastern ,africa     

7,london1 #ahcf71 ii4 #bic2             
,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential ,kafir   
7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bgj1 #bga4       
#bjf ,j4 ,macdonald1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahi4  
#bjg ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,religion and
 ,myth 7,london1 #ahic71 pp4 #acf-ach1  
from manuscript notes furnished by ,j4  
,sutton4 ,mr4 ,macdonald has            
described the custom more briefly in his
 ,light in ,africa1 ,second             
,edition 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #ahi4     
#bjh ,n4 ,isaacs1 ,travels and          
,adventures in ,eastern ,africa         
7,london1        #ahcf71 ii4 #bib4      
#bji ,a4 ,delegorgue1 ,voyage dans      
l',afrique ,australe 7,paris1 #ahdg71   
ii4        #bcg4      #baj ,above1 vol4 
i4 p4 #bdj4      #baa ,see ,the ,dying  
,god1 pp4 #cf sq4 ,on the ,zulu festival
 of        first-fruits see also ,t4    
,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,voyage      
d',exploration au ,nord-,est de la      
,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne ,esprance    
7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #cjh sq42 ,g4      
,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen            

,sd-,afrikas 7,breslau1 #ahgb71 p4 #adc4
 ,fritsch mentions that after           
executing a grotesque dance in the      
presence of the assembled               
multitude the king gives formal         
permission to eat of the new fruits     
by dashing a gourd or calabash to the   
ground4 ,this ceremony of               
breaking the calabash is mentioned also 
by ,j4 ,shooter 7,kafirs of             
,natal1 p4 #bg71 ,l4 ,grout 7,zulu-land1
 p4 #afb71 and ,mr4 ,dudley ,kidd       
7,the ,essential ,kafir1 p4 #bga74      
,according to this last writer the      
calabash is filled with boiled specimens
 of the new fruits1 and the        king 
sprinkles the people with the cooked    
food1 frequently spitting        it out 
on them4 ,mr4 ,grout tells us 7l4c47    
that at the ceremony a        bull is   
killed and its gall drunk by the king   
and the people4 ,in        killing it   
the warriors must use nothing but their 
naked hands4 ,the        flesh of the   
bull is given to the boys to eat what   

they like and        burn the rest2 the 
men may not taste it4 ,see ,l4 ,grout1  
op4 cit4 p4        #afa4 ,according to  
,shooter1 two bulls are killed2 the     
first is black1        the second of    
another colour4 ,the boys who eat the   
beef of the black        bull may not   
drink till the next morning1 else the   
king would be        defeated in war or 
visited with some personal misfortune4  
,see        ,shooter1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bf  
sq4 ,according to another account the   
sacrifice of the bull1 performed by the 
warriors of a particular        regiment
 with their bare hands1 takes place     
several weeks before the        festival
 of first-fruits1 and 8the strength of  
the bull is supposed        to enter    
into the king1 thereby prolonging his   
health and strength40        ,see ,d4   
,leslie1 ,among the ,zulus and          
,amatongas#b 7,edinburgh1 #ahge71       
p4 #ia4 ,for a general account of the   
,caffre festival of first-fruits1       
see ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the ,essential      

,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bgj-bgb4  
,m#ef ,ceremonies observed by the       
,bechuanas before eating the new fruits4
      #bab ,rev4 ,w4 ,c4 ,willoughby1   
8,notes on the ,totemism of the         
,becwana10        ,journal of the       
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxv4      
7#aije7 pp4        #caa-cac4 ,it is very
 remarkable that among several ,bantu   
tribes the        cohabitation of       
husband and wife is enjoined as a       
religious or        magical rite on a   
variety of solemn occasions1 such as    
after the        death of a son or      
daughter1 the circumcision of a child1  
the first        menstruation of a      
daughter1 the occupation of a new house 
or of a        new village1 etc4 ,for   
examples see ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 ,ethnology
 of        ,a-,kamba and other ,east    
,african ,tribes 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71   
pp4 #eh1        #ei1 #fj1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1
 #gd2 ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 8,les ,conceptions
 physiologiques        des ,bantou      
,sud-,africains et leurs tabous10 ,revue

 d',ethnographie et        de           
,sociologie1 i4 7#aiaj7 p4 #adh2 ,rev4  
,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda              
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #dh1 #add1 #ceg1  
#cfc1 #cgh1 #dbh1 etc42 id41            
8,further ,notes on the ,manners and    
,customs of the ,baganda10 ,journal     
of the ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #ei1 #fa4 ,among     
the ,baganda the act of stepping or     
leaping over a woman is regarded        
as equivalent to cohabitation with her1 
and is accepted as a ritual             
substitute for it 7,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the    
,baganda1 p4 #ceg note74 ,the ideas     
on which this custom of ceremonial      
cohabitation is based are by no         
means clear4      ,m#eg ,ceremonies     
observed by the ,matabele at eating the 
new fruits4      #bac ,ch4              
,croonenberghs1 ,s4,j41 8,la fte de la  
,grande ,danse dans le haut             
,zambeze10 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 
xiv4 7#ahhb7 pp4 #bcj-bcd2 ,l4          
,decle1 ,three ,years in ,savage ,africa

 7,london1 #ahih71 pp4 #aeg sq4         
,the two accounts supplement each other4
 ,i have combined features        from  
both in the text4      ,m#eh ,ceremony  
observed by the ,ovambo at eating the   
new fruits4      #bad ,h4 ,tnjes1       
,ovamboland1 ,land1 ,leute1 ,mission    
7,berlin1 #aiaa71 pp4        #bjj sq4   
,m#ei ,ceremony observed by the ,bororo 
,indians before eating the new maize4   
#bae ,v4 ,fri and ,p4 ,radin1           
8,contributions to the ,study of the    
,bororo        ,indians10 ,journal of   
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4 
7#aijf7        p4 #cib4      ,m#fj ,the 
busk or festival of first-fruits among  
the ,creek ,indians of        ,north    
,america4 ,fast and purgation4 ,new fire
 made by friction4      #baf ,the       
ceremony is described independently by  
,james ,adair1 ,history of        the   
,american ,indians 7,london1 #agge71 pp4
 #if-aaa2 ,w4 ,bartram1        ,travels 
through ,north and ,south ,carolina1    
,georgia1 ,east and ,west               

,florida 7,london1 #agib71 pp4 #ejg sq42
 ,a4 ,hodgson1 ,letters from            
,north ,america 7,london1 #ahbd71 i4    
#aca sq42 ,b4 ,hawkins1 8,sketch of     
the ,creek ,country10 in ,collections of
 the ,georgia ,historical               
,society1 iii4 7,savannah1 #ahdh7 pp4   
#ge-gh2 ,a4 ,a4 ,m',gillivray1 in ,h4   
,r4 ,schoolcraft's ,indian ,tribes of   
the ,united ,states 7,philadelphia1     
#ahec-ahef71 v4 #bfg sq42 ,f4 ,g4       
,speck1 ,ethnology of the ,yuchi        
,indians 7,philadelphia1 #aiji71 pp4    
#aab-aca4 ,the fullest descriptions     
are those of ,adair and ,speck4 ,in the 
text ,i have chiefly followed           
,adair1 our oldest authority4 ,a similar
 ceremony was observed by the           
,cherokees4 ,see the description 7from  
an unpublished ,,ms4 of ,j4 ,h4         
,payne1 author of ,home1 ,sweet ,home7  
in 8,observations on the ,creek         
and ,cherokee ,indians1 by ,william     
,bartram1 #aghi1 with prefatory and     
supplementary notes by ,e4 ,g4 ,squier10

 ,transactions of the ,american         
,ethnological ,society1 vol4 iii4 ,part 
i4 7#ahec7 p4 #ge4 ,the ,indians        
of ,alabama also held a great festival  
at their harvest in ,july4 ,they        
passed the day fasting1 lit a new fire1 
purged themselves1 and        offered   
the first-fruits to their ,manitoo3 the 
ceremony ended with        a religious  
dance4 ,see ,bossu1 ,nouveaux ,voyages  
aux ,indes        occidentales 7,paris1 
#agfh71 ii4 #ed4 ,these ,indians of     
,alabama were        probably either the
 ,creeks or the ,cherokees4      #bag   
,w4 ,bartram1 ,travels1 p4 #ejg4        
#bah ,so amongst the ,cherokees1        
according to ,j4 ,h4 ,payne1 an arbour  
of        green boughs was made in the  
sacred square2 then 8a beautiful        
bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down    
close to the roots1 and planted         
in the very centre of the sacred square4
 ,every man then provided        himself
 with a green bough40      #bai ,so     
,adair4 ,bartram1 on the other hand1 as 

we have seen1 says that the             
people provided themselves with new     
household utensils4      #bbj ,b4       
,hawkins1 8,sketch10 etc41 p4 #gf4      
,m#fa ,festival of the new fruits among 
the ,yuchi ,indians4 ,game of ball4     
#bba ,f4 ,g4 ,speck1 ,ethnology of the  
,yuchi ,indians 7,philadelphia1 #aiji71 
pp4 #hf-hi1 #aje-ajg1 #aab-aca4         
,m#fb ,green ,corn ,dance among the     
,seminole ,indians4 ,festival of the new
        corn among the ,natchez         
,indians4      #bbb ,th4 ,waitz1        
,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 iii4    
7,leipsic1 #ahfb7 p4        #db2 ,a4 ,s4
 ,gatschet1 ,a ,migration ,legend of the
 ,creek ,indians1 i4                    
7,philadelphia1 #ahhd7 pp4 #ff sqq42    
,totemism and ,exogamy1 iii4            
#afg4      #bbc ,c4 ,mac,cauley1        
8,seminole ,indians of ,florida10 ,fifth
 ,annual ,report of        the ,bureau  
of ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhg71 pp4 
#ebb sq4      #bbd ,that is1 the grand  
chief of the nation4 ,all the chiefs of 

the        ,natchez were called ,suns   
and were connected with the head chief  
or        ,great ,sun1 who bore on his  
breast an image of the sun and claimed  
to        be descended from the         
luminary4 ,see ,bossu1 ,nouveaux        
,voyages aux        ,indes occidentales 
7,paris1 #agfh71 i4 #db4      ,m#fc ,new
 fire made by friction4    ,m#fd        
,torchlight dance4    ,m#fe ,game of    
ball4      #bbe ,le ,page ,du ,pratz1   
,history of ,louisiana1 or of the       
western parts of        ,virginia and   
,carolina1 translated from the ,french1 
,new ,edition        7,london1 #aggd71  
pp4 #cch-cda4 ,see also ,j4 ,r4         
,swanton1 ,indian ,tribes        of the 
,lower ,mississippi ,valley             
7,washington1 #aiaa71 pp4 #aaj sqq41    
where the passage of ,du ,pratz is      
translated in full from the             
original ,french4 ,from ,mr4 ,swanton's 
translation it appears that the         
,english version of ,du ,pratz1 which ,i
 have quoted in the text1 is a          

good deal abridged4 ,on the festival of 
first-fruits among the        ,natchez  
see also ,lettres difiantes et          
curieuses1 ,nouvelle        dition1 vii4
 7,paris1 #agha7 p4 #ai2 ,charlevoix1   
,histoire de la        ,nouvelle ,france
 7,paris1 #agdd71 vi4 #ahc2 ,de ,tonti1 
8,relation de la        ,louisiane et du
 ,mississippi10 ,recueil de ,voyages au 
,nord1 v4        7,amsterdam1 #agcd7 p4 
#abb2 ,le ,petit1 8,relation des        
,natchez10 ibid4        ix4 #ac sq4     
7reprint of the account in the ,lettres 
difiantes        cited above72 ,bossu1  
,nouveaux ,voyages aux ,indes           
occidentales        7,paris1 #agfh71 i4 
#dc4 ,according to ,charlevoix1 ,le     
,petit1 and ,bossu        the festival  
fell in ,july4 ,for ,chateaubriand's    
description of the        custom1 see   
below1 pp4 #ace sqq4      ,m#ff         
,ceremonies observed by the ,salish and 
,tinneh ,indians before they eat        
the first wild berries or roots of the  
season4      #bbf ,c4 ,hill-,tout1 ,the 

,far ,west1 the ,home of the ,salish and
 ,dn        7,london1 #aijg71 pp4       
#afh-agj4      ,m#fg ,ceremonies        
observed by the ,thompson ,indians      
before they eat the        first wild   
berries or roots of the season4         
#bbg ,j4 ,teit1 ,the ,thompson ,indians 
of ,british ,columbia1 p4 #cdi 7,the    
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1     
,memoir of the ,american ,museum of     
,natural ,history1 ,april1 #aijj74      
,m#fh ,the ceremonies observed by       
savages at eating the first fruits of   
any        crop seem to be based on the 
idea that the plant or tree is animated 
by a spirit1 who must be propitiated    
before it is safe to partake of         
the fruit4      #bbh ,see above1 p4 #eb4
      ,m#fi ,the sanctity of the new    
fruits indicated in various ways4 ,care 
taken        to prevent the contact of  
sacred and profane food in the stomach  
of        the eater4 ,contact between   
certain foods in the stomach of the     
eater        forbidden4      #bbi ,see  

above1 pp4 #ej1 #ec1 #fe1 #ff1 #gb1 #ha4
      #bcj ,see above1 pp4 #ei1 #fj1    
#fc1 #fi sq41 #ga1 #gc1 #ge sq41 #hb4   
#bca ,joseph ,thomson1 ,through ,masai  
,land 7,london1 #ahhe71 p4 #dcj2 ,p4    
,reichard1 ,deutsch-,ostafrika          
7,leipsic1 #ahib71 p4 #bhh2 ,o4         
,baumann1        ,durch ,massailand zur 
,nilquelle 7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #afb2   
,m4 ,merker1        ,die ,masai         
7,berlin1 #aijd71 p4 #cc2 ,m4 ,weiss1   
,die ,vlkerstmme im        ,norden      
,deutsch-,ostafrikas 7,berlin1 #aiaj71  
p4 #chj4 ,however1 the        motive    
which underlies the taboo appears to be 
a fear of injuring by        sympathetic
 magic the cows from which the milk is  
drawn4 ,see my        essay 8,folk-lore 
in the ,old ,testament10 in             
,anthropological ,essays                
presented to ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor 7,oxford1   
#aijg71 pp4 #afd sq4 ,according to      
,reichard the warriors may partake of   
honey both with meat and with           
milk4 ,thomson does not mention honey   

and speaks of a purgative only4         
,the periods during which meat and milk 
are alternately consumed        vary1   
according to ,reichard1 from twelve to  
fifteen days4 ,we may        conjecture1
 therefore1 that two of them1 making up 
a complete cycle1        correspond to a
 lunar month1 with reference to which   
the diet is        perhaps determined4  
#bcb ,m4 ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 ,the ,suk1     
their ,language and ,folklore 7,oxford1 
#aiaa71 p4 #i4 ,in both cases the       
motive1 as with the ,masai1 is          
probably a fear of injuring the cattle1 
and especially of causing        the    
cows to loose their milk4 ,this is      
confirmed by other taboos of        the 
same sort observed by the ,suk4 ,thus   
they think that to eat the        flesh 
of a certain forest pig would cause the 
cattle of the eater to        run dry1  
and that if a rich man ate fish his cows
 would give no        milk4 ,see ,m4 ,w4
 ,h4 ,beech1 op4 cit4 p4 #aj4      #bcc 
,o4 ,baumann1 ,durch ,massailand zur    

,nilquelle 7,berlin1 #ahid71 p4 #aga4   
#bcd ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the ,central         
,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual ,report of the 
,bureau        of ,ethnology            
7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4 #eie2 id41     
8,the ,eskimo of        ,baffin ,land   
and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of the     
,american ,museum of        ,natural    
,history1 vol4 xv4 part i4 7,new ,york1 
#aija7 pp4 #abb-abd4 ,for        more   
details see ,taboo and the ,perils of   
the ,soul1 pp4 #bjh sqq4      #bce ,rev4
 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 
7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #acd4      #bcf    
,pausanias1 v4 #ac4 #c4 ,we may assume1 
though ,pausanias does not              
expressly say so1 that persons who      
sacrificed to ,telephus partook of      
the sacrifice4      #bcg ,dittenberger1 
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #egf 7vol4 ii4        p4 #bfg72    
,ch4 ,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions  
,grecques1 ,no4 #gbc1 p4        #fbb4   
,further1 no one who had suffered a     
domestic bereavement might        enter 

the sanctuary for forty days4 ,hence the
 pollution of death was        clearly  
deemed more virulent1 or at all events  
more lasting1 than        the pollution 
of food4      #bch ,diodorus ,siculus1  
v4 #fb4 #e4      ,m#gj ,the sacrament of
 first-fruits sometimes combined with a 
sacrifice of        them to gods or     
spirits4      #bci ,see above1 pp4 #ea  
sq41 #ed1 #eh1 #fj sq41 #fd1 #gd4       
#bdj ,see below1 pp4 #aji sqq4          
,m#ga ,aztec custom of eating           
sacramentally a dough image of the god  
,huitzilopochtli or ,vitzilipuztli as a 
mode of communion with the        deity4
    ,m#gb ,eating the flesh and bones of
 the god ,vitzilipuztli sacramentally4  
#bda ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural and ,moral
 ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 v4 ch4    
#bd1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cef-cfj 7,hakluyt    
,society1 ,london1 #ahhj74 ,i have      
modernised the old translator's         
spelling4 ,acosta's authority1 which    
he followed without acknowledgment1 was 
an anonymous writer of about        the 

middle of the sixteenth century1 whose  
manuscript1 written in        ,spanish1 
was found in the library of the         
,franciscan monastery at        ,mexico 
in #ahef4 ,a ,french translation of it  
has been published4 ,see                
,manuscrit ,ramirez1 ,histoire de       
l',origine des ,indiens qui habitent    
la ,nouvelle-,espagne selon leurs       
traditions1 publi par ,d4 ,charnay      
7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #adi-aed4 ,acosta's
 description is followed by ,a4         
de ,herrera 7,general ,history of the   
vast ,continent and ,islands of         
,america1 translated by ,capt4 ,john    
,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 iii4    
#bac-bae74      ,m#gc ,the doctrine of  
transubstantiation or the magical       
conversion of        bread into flesh   
recognised by the ancient ,aztecs and   
,brahmans4      #bdb ,the               
,satapatha-,brhmana1 translated by ,j4  
,eggeling1 ,part i4        7,oxford1    
#ahhb7 p4 #ea 7,sacred ,books of the    
,east1 vol4 xii474      #bdc ,op4 cit4  

pp4 #ea sq41 with the translator's note4
      ,m#gd ,the sacred food not to be  
defiled by contact with common food4    
#bdd ,see above1 pp4 #gc sqq4      #bde 
,above1 p4 #fh1 note #c4      ,m#ge     
,aztec custom of killing the god        
,huitzilopochtli in effigy and eating   
him afterwards4      #bdf ,h4 ,h4       
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states 7,london1              
#ahge-ahgf71 iii4 #big-cjj 7after       
,torquemada72 ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1       
,history of ,mexico1 translated by ,ch4 
,cullen 7,london1 #ahjg71 i4 #cji       
sqq42 ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale 
des choses de la                        
,nouvelle-,espagne1 traduite et annote  
par ,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4 ,simon        
7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #bjc sq42 ,j4 ,g4  
,mller1 ,geschichte der                 
amerikanischen ,urreligionen 7,ble1     
#ahfg71 p4 #fje2 ,brasseur de           
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique et de             
l',amrique ,centrale 7,paris1           

#aheg-ahei71 iii4 #eca-ecd4      ,m#gf  
,mexican custom of eating images of     
dough4      #bdg ,f4 ,s4 ,clavigero1 op4
 cit4 i4 #caa2 ,b4 de ,sahagun1 op4 cit4
 pp4        #gd1 #aef sq42 ,j4 ,g4      
,mller1 op4 cit4 p4 #fjf2 ,h4 ,h4       
,bancroft1 op4        cit4 iii4 #caf2   
,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 op4 cit4 iii4  
#ece4 ,this        festival took place  
on the last day of #afth month 7which   
extended        from #bcrd ,december to 
#aath ,january74 ,at another festival   
the        ,mexicans made the semblance 
of a bone out of paste and ate it       
sacramentally as the bone of the god4   
,see ,sahagun1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc4         
#bdh ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 op4 cit4  
iii4 #eci4      #bdi ,g4 ,f4 de ,oviedo1
 ,histoire du ,nicaragua 7,paris1       
#ahdj71 p4 #bai4        ,oviedo's       
account is borrowed by ,a4 de ,herrera  
7,general ,history of        the vast   
,continent and ,islands of ,america1    
translated by ,capt4 ,john              
,stevens1 iii4 #cja74      ,m#gg        

,mexican custom of eating a man as a    
human embodiment of the god             
,tetzcatlipoca4      #bej ,j4 de        
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4  
x4 cap4 #ad1 vol4 ii4 pp4        #bei   
sqq4 7,madrid1 #agbc72 ,brasseur de     
,bourbourg1 op4 cit4 iii4               
#eaj-eab4      ,m#gh ,communion with a  
god by eating of his effigy among the   
,huichol        ,indians of ,mexico and 
the ,malas of ,southern ,india4         
,catholic custom        of eating       
effigies of the ,madonna4      #bea ,c4 
,lumholtz1 ,unknown ,mexico 7,london1   
#aijc71 ii4 #aff-aga4 ,when ,mr4        
,lumholtz revisited the temple in #ahih1
 the idol had disappeared4 ,it          
has probably been since replaced by     
another4 ,the custom of                 
abstaining both from salt and from women
 as a mode of ceremonial                
purification is common among savage and 
barbarous peoples4 ,see        above1 p4
 #ge 7as to the ,yuchi ,indians71 and   
,totemism and ,exogamy1        iv4 #bbd 

sqq4      #beb ,e4 ,thurston1 ,castes   
and ,tribes of ,southern ,india         
7,madras1 #aiji71        iv4 #ceg sq4   
#bec ,graf ,paul von ,hoensbroech1 #ad  
,jahre ,jesuit 7,leipsic1 #aiji-aiaj71  
i4 #be sq4 ,the practice was officially 
sanctioned by a decree of        the    
,inquisition1 #bith ,july #aijc4        
,m#gi ,loaves called ,maniae baked at   
,aricia4 ,woollen effigies dedicated    
at ,rome to ,mania1 the ,mother or      
,grandmother of ,ghosts1 at the         
,compitalia4 ,the loaves at ,aricia     
perhaps sacramental bread made in       
the likeness of the ,king of the ,wood4 
,practice of putting up dummies         
to divert the attention of ghosts or    
demons from living people4      #bed    
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 i4 #bb4      #bee ,festus1  
ed4 ,c4 ,o4 ,mller1 pp4 #abh1 #abi1     
#ade4 ,the reading of the last          
passage is1 however1 uncertain 78et     
,ariciae genus panni fieri2 quod        
manici  appelletur074      #bef ,varro1 

,de lingua latina1 ix4 #fa2 ,arnobius1  
,adversus nationes1        iii4 #da2    
,macrobius1 ,saturn4 i4 #g4 #ce2        
,festus1 p4 #abh1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4           
,mller4 ,festus speaks of the mother or 
grandmother of the larvae2        the   
other writers speak of the mother of the
 lares4      #beg ,macrobius1 l4c42     
,festus1 pp4 #aba1 #bci1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4    
,mller4 ,the        effigies hung up for
 the slaves were called pilae1 not      
maniae4        ,pilae was also the name 
given to the straw-men which were thrown
        to the bulls to gore in the     
arena4 ,see ,martial1 ,epigr4 ii4 #dc4  
#e        sq42 ,asconius1 ,in ,cornel4  
p4 #ee1 ed4 ,kiessling and ,schoell4    
#beh ,the ancients were at least        
familiar with the practice of           
sacrificing        images made of dough 
or other materials as substitutes for   
the        animals themselves4 ,it was a
 recognised principle that when an      
animal could not be easily obtained for 
sacrifice1 it was lawful to        offer

 an image of it made of bread or wax4   
,see ,servius on ,virgil1        ,aen4  
ii4 #aaf2 compare ,pausanias1 x4 #ah4   
#e4 ,poor people who could        not   
afford to sacrifice real animals offered
 dough images of them        7,suidas1  
s4v4  2 compare ,hesychius1 s4vv4 1     
74 ,hence bakers made a regular business
 of baking cakes        in the likeness 
of all the animals which were sacrificed
 to the gods        7,proculus1 quoted  
and emended by ,chr4 ,a4 ,lobeck1       
,aglaophamus1 p4        #ajgi74 ,when   
,cyzicus was besieged by ,mithridates   
and the people could        not procure 
a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of
 ,persephone1        they made a cow of 
dough and placed it at the altar        
7,plutarch1        ,lucullus1 #aj74 ,in 
a ,boeotian sacrifice to ,hercules1 in  
place of        the ram which was the   
proper victim1 an apple was regularly   
substituted1 four chips being stuck in  
it to represent legs and two        to  
represent horns 7,julius ,pollux1 i4 #cj

 sq474 ,the ,athenians are        said  
to have once offered to ,hercules a     
similar substitute for an ox            
7,zenobius1 ,cent4 v4 #bb74 ,and the    
,locrians1 being at a loss for an       
ox to sacrifice1 made one out of figs   
and sticks1 and offered it              
instead of the animal 7,zenobius1 ,cent4
 v4 #e74 ,at the ,athenian              
festival of the ,diasia cakes shaped    
like animals were sacrificed            
7,schol4 on ,thucydides1 i4 #abf1 p4    
#cf1 ed4 ,didot74 ,we have seen above   
7p4 #be7 that the poorer ,egyptians     
offered cakes of dough instead of       
pigs4 ,the ,cheremiss of ,russia        
sometimes offer cakes in the shape of   
horses instead of the real animals4 ,see
 ,p4 v4 ,stenin1 8,ein neuer            
,beitrag zur ,ethnographie der          
,tscheremissen10 ,globus1 lviii4 7#ahij7
        pp4 #bjc sq4 ,similarly a       
,north-,american ,indian dreamed that a 
sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary 
for the recovery of a sick        girl2 

but the elans could not be procured1 and
 the girl's parents        were allowed 
to sacrifice twenty loaves instead4 ,see
 ,relations des        ,jsuites1 #afcf1 
p4 #aa 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1     
#aheh74      #bei ,see ,the ,magic ,art 
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #ee    
sqq4      ,m#hj ,tibetan custom of      
putting effigies at the doors of houses 
to deceive        demons4      #bfj ,l4 
,a4 ,waddell1 ,the ,buddhism of ,tibet  
7,london1 #ahie71 pp4 #dhd-dhf4         
,m#ha ,effigies buried with the dead in 
order to deceive their ghosts4      #bfa
 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1   
,second ,edition 7,london1              
#ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #djb4      #bfb ,m4 ,j4 
van ,baarda1 8,fabelen1 ,verhalen en    
,overleveringen der                     
,galelareezen10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-
 ,land- en ,volkenkunde van             
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlv4 7#ahie7 p4    
#eci4      #bfc ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4           
,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1
 #ahia71 p4 #bge4      #bfd ,j4 ,kubary1

 8,die ,religion der ,pelauer10 in ,a4  
,bastian's ,allerlei aus        ,volks- 
und ,menschenkunde 7,berlin1 #ahhh71 i4 
#i4      #bfe ,w4 ,m4 ,donselaar1       
8,aanteekeningen over het eiland        
,saleijer10        ,mededeelingen van   
wege het ,nederlandsche                 
,zendelinggenootschap1 i4        7#aheg7
 p4 #bij4      #bff ,le ,comte ,c4 ,n4  
de ,cardi1 8,ju-ju laws and customs in  
the ,niger        ,delta10 ,journal of  
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxix4  
7#ahii7 p4        #eh4      #bfg ,a4 ,b4
 ,ellis1 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples 
of the ,slave ,coast        7,london1   
#ahid71 p4 #hj4      #bfh ,miss ,mary   
,h4 ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa
 7,london1 #ahig71 p4        #dgc4      
,m#hb ,fictitious burials to divert the 
attention of demons from the real       
burials4      #bfi ,s4 ,crowther and ,j4
 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,the ,gospel on the ,banks
 of the ,niger        7,london1 #ahei71 
pp4 #bej sq4      #bgj ,j4 ,macdonald1  
8,east ,central ,african ,customs10     

,journal of the        ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxii4 7#ahic7 pp4 #aad sq42 
id41 ,myth        and ,religion         
7,london1 #ahic71 pp4 #aee sq4 7from    
,,ms4 notes of ,dr4        ,elmslie74   
#bga ,b4 ,schwarz1 ,kamerun 7,leipsic1  
#ahhf71 pp4 #bef sq42 ,e4 ,reclus1      
,nouvelle ,gographie ,universelle1 xiii4
 #fh sq4      #bgb ,j4 ,fraser1 8,the   
,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales10     
,journal and        ,proceedings of the 
,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1  
xvi4 7#ahhb7 p4        #bbi2 ,a4 ,w4    
,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east
 ,australia 7,london1        #aijd71 p4 
#dfg4      #bgc ,this ,i learned from   
,dr4 ,burton ,brown 7formerly of #c ,via
 ,venti        ,setembri1 ,rome71 who   
lived for some time among the ,nagas4   
#bgd ,strabo1 xvii4 #a4 #bc1 p4 #hjc2   
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ah4       
#bge ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 p4
 #ci1  #bdj 7,december #ahhd74          
,m#hc ,effigies used to cure or prevent 
sickness by deluding the demons of      

disease or inducing them to accept the  
effigies instead of the        persons4 
#bgf ,some examples of this vicarious   
use of images as substitutes for the    
sick have been given in an earlier part 
of this work4 ,see ,taboo and        the
 ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #fb sq4      
#bgg ,n4 ,graafland1 ,de ,minahassa1    
7,rotterdam1 #ahfi71 i4 #cbf4      #bgh 
,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 ,borneo's                
,wester-,afdeeling 7,zaltbommel1        
#ahed-ef71 ii4        #cji4      #bgi   
,f4 ,grabowsky1 8,ueber verschiedene    
weniger bekannte ,opfer bei den         
,oloh ,ngadju in ,borneo10              
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1        i4 7#ahhh7 pp4    
#acb sq4      #bhj ,e4 ,l4 ,m4 ,khr1    
8,schetsen uit ,borneo's                
,westerafdeeling10 ,bijdragen        tot
 de ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van   
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlvii4             
7#ahig7 pp4 #fj sq4 ,for another mode in
 which these same ,dyaks seek        to 
heal sickness by means of an image1 see 

,taboo and the ,perils of        the    
,soul1 pp4 #ee sq4      #bha ,j4 ,g4 ,f4
 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en kroesharige     
rassen tusschen ,selebes        en      
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4 #dfe4   
#bhb ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 8,low's ,natives  
of ,borneo10 ,journal of the            
,anthropological ,institute1 xxi4       
7#ahib7 p4 #aag4      #bhc ,b4 ,hagen1  
8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der            
,battareligion10 ,tijdschrift           
voor ,indische ,taal- ,land- en         
,volkenkunde1 xxviii4 7#ahhc7 p4 #eca4  
#bhd ,m4 ,joustra1 8,het leven1 de zeden
 en gewoonten der ,bataks10             
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xlvi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #dac sq4      #bhe ,n4
 ,annandale and ,h4 ,c4 ,robinson1      
8,some ,preliminary ,results of an      
,expedition to the ,malay ,peninsula10  
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #daf4     
,m#hd ,effigies used to divert the      
attention of demons in ,nias and various

        parts of ,asia4      #bhf ,fr4  
,kramer1 8,der ,gtzendienst der         
,niasser10 ,tijdschrift voor            
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 p4 #dhi4      #bhg ,a4 
,bastian1 ,die ,vlkerstmme am           
,brahmaputra 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 p4 #gc4  
#bhh ,sarat ,chandra ,das1 ,journey to  
,lhasa and ,central ,tibet 7,london1    
#aijb71 p4 #acd4      #bhi ,shway ,yoe1 
,the ,burman 7,london1 #ahhb71 ii4 #ach4
      #bij ,pallegoix1 ,description du  
,royaume ,thai ou ,siam 7,paris1 #ahed71
 ii4        #dh sq4 ,compare ,a4        
,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen      
,asien        7,leipsic and ,jena1      
#ahff-ahga71 iii4 #bic1 #dhf2 ,e4       
,young1 ,the ,kingdom        of the     
,yellow ,robe 7,westminster1 #ahih71 p4 
#aba4      #bia ,j4 ,moura1 ,le ,royaume
 du ,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71 i4 #agf4 
#bib ,a4 ,woldt1 8,die                  
,kultus-,gegenstnde der ,golden und     
,giljaken10        ,internationales     
,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 i4 7#ahhh7 pp4

 #ajb sq4      ,m#he ,effigies used to  
divert ghostly and other evil influence 
from people        in ,china4      #bic 
,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious  
,system of ,china1 vi4 7,leyden1        
#aiaj7 pp4 #aajc sq42 for a description 
of the effigies or        8substitutes  
for a person0 see id41 vol4 v4 7,leyden1
 #aijg7 p4 #ibj4        ,can the monkish
 and clerical tonsure have been         
originally designed        in like      
manner to let out the evil influence    
through the top of the        head8     
#bid ,t4 ,watters1 8,some ,corean       
,customs and ,notions10 ,folk-lore1 vi4 
7#ahie7 pp4 #hb sq4      ,m#hf ,effigies
 used as substitutes to save the lives  
of people among the        ,abchases of 
the ,caucasus and the ,ewe negroes of   
,west ,africa4      #bie ,n4 v4         
,seidlitz1 8,die ,abchasen10 ,globus1   
lxvi4 7#ahid7 p4 #ed4      #bif ,j4     
,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1     
#aijf71 pp4 #ejb-ejf1 #eab1 #eac1       
#hch1 #hdh1 #iaj4 ,it is a disputed     

point in ,ewe theology whether there    
are many spiritual mothers in heaven or 
only one4 ,some say that        there   
are as many spiritual mothers as there  
are individual men and        women2    
others doubt this and say that there is 
only one spiritual        mother1 and   
that she is the wife of ,god 7,mawu7 and
 gave birth to        all spirits that  
live in heaven1 both men and women4     
#big ,g4 ,binetsch1 8,beantwortung      
mehrerer ,fragen ber unser ,ewe-,volk   
und        seine ,anschauungen10        
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxviii4   
7#aijf7        p4 #cg4      ,m#hg       
,effigies used as substitutes to save   
the lives of people among the           
,nishga ,indians4      #bih ,the        
,illustrated ,missionary ,news1 ,april  
#ast1 #ahia1 pp4 #ei sq4      ,m#hh     
,hence the woollen effigies hung out at 
the ,compitalia in ,rome were           
probably offered as substitutes for     
living persons to the ,mother or        
,grandmother of ,ghosts4      #bii ,as  

to the custom see ,varro1 ,de lingua    
latina1 v4 #de2 ,ovid1        ,fasti1 v4
 #fba sqq42 ,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1
 ,antiquit4        ,roman4 i4 #ch2      
,plutarch1 ,quaestiones ,romanae1 #cb   
and #hf4 ,for        various            
explanations which have been proposed1  
see ,l4 ,preller1        ,rmische       
,mythologie1#c ii4 #acd sqq42 ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald-        und   
,feldkulte1 pp4 #bfe sqq42 ,journal of  
,philology1 xiv4 7#ahhe7        p4 #aef 
note2 ,r4 von ,ihering1 ,vorgeschichte  
der ,indoeuroper1 pp4        #dcj-dcd2  
,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,the ,roman         
,festivals of the ,period of the        
,republic 7,london1 #ahii71 pp4 #aaa    
sqq42 id41 ,the ,religious              
,experience of the ,roman ,people       
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ed sq41 #cba     
sqq42 ,g4 ,wissowa1 ,gesammelte         
,abhandlungen zur rmischen              
,religions- und ,stadtgeschichte        
7,munich1 #aijd71 pp4 #baa-bbi4 ,the    
ceremony was observed on the fifteenth  

of ,may4      #cjj ,see ,the ,golden    
,bough1 ,second ,edition1 iii4 #ajg4    
#cja ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,roman4 #hf4   
,m#hi ,the sacrifice of first-fruits to 
gods is probably later than the         
custom of partaking of them             
sacramentally4 ,first-fruits sometimes  
presented to the king and often to the  
dead4      #cjb ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 
#bca sqq4      ,m#ij ,sacrifice of      
first-fruits among the ,ovambo of       
,south-,west ,africa4      #cjc ,h4     
,tnjes1 ,ovamboland1 ,land1 ,leute1     
,mission 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 p4           
#aie4      ,m#ia ,sacrifices of         
first-fruits in ,south ,africa4         
#cjd ,rev ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos   
7,london1 #ahfa71 pp4 #bea sq4      #cje
 ,ibid4 p4 #beb4      #cjf ,ibid4 pp4   
#beb sq4 ,in the southern province of   
,ceylon 8the        threshers behave as 
if they were in a temple of the gods    
when they        put the corn into the  
bags40 ,see ,c4 ,j4 ,r4 ,le ,mesurier1  
8,customs and        ,superstitions     

connected with the ,cultivation of ,rice
 in the ,southern        ,province of   
,ceylon10 ,journal of the ,royal        
,asiatic ,society1 ,n4,s4        xvii4  
7#ahhe71 p4 #cga4      #cjg ,l4 ,decle1 
,three ,years in ,savage ,africa        
7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #agc4      #cjh ,g4
 ,mc,call ,theal1 ,records of           
,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7 p4
        #cig4      ,m#ib ,sacrifices of 
first-fruits in ,central ,africa4       
#cji 8,der ,muata ,cazembe und die      
,vlkerstmme der ,maravis1 ,chevas1      
,muembas1 ,lundas und andere von        
,sd-,afrika10 ,zeitschrift fr           
allgemeine ,erdknde 7,berlin71 vi4      
7#ahef7 pp4 #bgb1 #bgc4      #caj ,rev4 
,a4 ,hetherwick1 8,some ,animistic      
,beliefs among the ,yaos of             
,british ,central ,africa10 ,journal of 
the ,anthropological ,institute1        
xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #id sq4      #caa    
,rev4 ,a4 ,hetherwick1 op4 cit4 pp4     
#ia-id4      #cab ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4          
,chisholm1 8,notes on the ,manners and  

,customs of the        ,winamwanga and  
,wiwa10 ,journal of the ,african        
,society1 vol4 ix4 ,no4        #cf      
7,july #aiaj71 pp4 #cff sq4 ,among the  
,winamwanga1 as among the        ,yaos1 
the human soul or spirit is called      
muzimu 7op4 cit4 p4        #cfc74       
#cac ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1   
,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern       
,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bid sq4
      ,m#ic ,sacrifices of first-fruits 
in ,east ,africa4      #cad ,c4 ,w4     
,hobley1 ,ethnology of ,a-,kamba and    
other ,east ,african ,tribes            
7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ff1 #he sq4   
#cae ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda   
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #dbh4      #caf    
,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 
lx4 7#ahhh7 p4 #eg4 ,the account        
is extracted from the letter of a       
,catholic priest1 himself a ,dinka4     
,the name of ,god1 according to him1 is 
,den-dit1 meaning 8,great        ,rain40
 ,the form of the name agrees closely1  
and the interpretation        of it     

agrees exactly1 with the results of ,dr4
 ,c4 ,g4 ,seligmann's        independent
 enquiries1 according to which the name 
of the ,dinka ,god        is ,dengdit1  
8,great ,rain10 the word for rain being 
deng4 ,see ,dr4        ,c4 ,g4          
,seligmann1 in ,dr4 ,j4 ,hastings'      
,encyclopaedia of ,religion and         
,ethics1 s4v4 8,dinka10 vol4 iv4        
7,edinburgh1 #aiaa7 p4 #gjg4      #cag  
8,coutumes tranges des indignes du      
,djebel-,nouba 7,afrique centrale71     
notes communiques par les missionnaires 
de ,vrone10 ,les ,missions              
,catholiques1 xiv4 7#ahhb7 p4 #dei4 ,as 
to the ,nubas and their pontiff         
see further ,stanislas ,carceri1        
8,djebel-,nouba10 ,les ,missions        
,catholiques1 xv4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #ddh-deb4 
,m#id ,sacrifices of first-fruits in    
,west ,africa4      #cah ,a4 ,f4        
,mockler-,ferryman1 ,up the ,niger      
7,london1 #ahib71 pp4 #ada sq4      #cai
 ,ch4 ,partridge1 ,cross ,river ,natives
 7,london1 #aije71 pp4 #bff sq4         

#cbj ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme      
7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #gie sq4      #cba
 ,j4 ,spieth1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 ,as to  
the goddess ,mawu ,sodza1 see           
ibid4 pp4 #dbd sq4      #cbb ,h4 ,klose1
 ,togo unter deutscher ,flagge 7,berlin1
 #ahii71 p4 #ejd4      #cbc ,l4         
,conradt1 8,das ,hinterland der         
deutschen ,kolonie ,togo10 ,petermanns  
,mittheilungen1 xlii4 7#ahif7 p4 #ah4   
,m#ie ,first-fruits offered to kings in 
,madagascar and ,burma4      #cbd ,g4   
,a4 ,shaw1 8,the ,betsileo10            
,antananarivo ,annual and ,madagascar   
,magazine1 ,reprint of the ,first ,four 
,numbers 7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71        
p4 #cdf4      #cbe ,j4 ,cameron1 8,on   
the ,early ,inhabitants of ,madagascar10
 ,antananarivo        ,annual and       
,madagascar ,magazine1 ,reprint of the  
,first ,four ,numbers                   
7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71 p4 #bfc4        
#cbf ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des      
stlichen ,asien1 ii4 7,leipsic1 #ahff71 
p4 #aje4      #cbg ,a4 van ,gennep1     

,tabou et ,totmisme  ,madagascar        
7,paris1 #aijd71 p4        #ig4         
,m#if ,sacrifices of first-fruits in    
,assam and other parts of ,india4       
,sacrifices of first-fruits among hill  
tribes of ,india4 ,sacrifices of        
first-fruits in the ,central ,provinces 
of ,india4 ,sacrifices of               
first-fruits in the ,punjaub4      #cbh 
,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology
 of ,bengal 7,calcutta1 #ahgb71 p4      
#ia4      #cbi ,major ,a4 ,playfair1    
,the ,garos 7,london1 #aiji71 p4 #id4   
#ccj ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 op4 cit4 p4 #aih2 
7,sir7 ,h4 ,h4 ,risley1 ,tribes and     
,castes of ,bengal1 ,ethnographic       
,glossary 7,calcutta1 #ahia-ahib71 ii4  
#ajd4      #cca ,rev4 ,p4 ,dehon1       
,s4,j41 ,religion and ,customs of the   
,uraons 7,calcutta1        #aijf71 p4   
#acg 7,memoirs of the ,asiatic ,society 
of ,bengal1 vol4 i4        ,no4 #i74    
#ccb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1
 i4 #eg1 ,no4 #dbh1 quoting ,moorcroft  
and ,trebeck1 ,travels in the ,himalayan

 ,provinces1 i4 #cag sq4      #ccc ,e4  
,t4 ,atkinson1 ,the ,himalayan          
,districts of the ,north-,western       
,provinces of ,india1 ii4 7,allahabad1  
#ahhd7 p4 #hbe4 ,as to ,bhumiya see     
further ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion 
and ,folk-lore of ,northern             
,india 7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4        
#aje-ajg1 who observes 7pp4 #ajf        
sq473 8,to illustrate the close         
connection between this worship of      
,bhmiya as the soil godling with that of
 the sainted dead1 it may be            
noted that in some places the shrine of 
,bhmiya is identified with        the   
,jathera1 which is the ancestral mound1 
sacred to the common        ancestor of 
the village or tribe40      #ccd ,thomas
 ,shaw1 8,the ,inhabitants of the ,hills
 near ,rajamahall10        ,asiatic     
,researches1 iv4 7,london1 #ahjg7 pp4   
#ef sq4      #cce ,panjab ,notes and    
,queries1 i4 p4 #fj1  #ejb 7,february   
#ahhd74      #ccf ,central ,provinces1  
,ethnographic ,survey1 iii4 ,draft      

,articles on        ,forest ,tribes     
7,allahabad1 #aijg7 p4 #de4      #ccg   
,op4 cit4 iii4 #gc4      #cch ,op4 cit4 
v4 7,allahabad1 #aiaa7 p4 #ff4      #cci
 ,op4 cit4 vii4 7,allahabad1 #aiaa7 p4  
#ajb4      #cdj ,the practice is        
curiously unlike the custom of ancient  
,italy1 in        most parts of which   
women were forbidden by law to walk on  
the        highroads twirling a spindle1
 because this was supposed to injure    
the crops 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 
#bh74 ,the purpose of the        ,indian
 custom may be to ward off evil         
influences from the field1 as           
,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke suggests 7,popular     
,religion and ,folk-lore of ,northern   
,india1 ii4 #cje1 8,this forms a sacred 
circle which repels evil                
influence from the crop074 ,compare ,the
 ,magic ,art and ,evolution of          
,kings1 i4 #aac sq4      #cda ,d4 ,c4   
,j4 ,ibbetson1 ,outlines of ,panjab     
,ethnography 7,calcutta1        #ahhc71 
p4 #aai4      ,m#ig ,sacrifices of      

first-fruits among the ancient ,hindoos4
      #cdb ,the ,satapatha ,brhmana1    
translated by ,julius ,eggeling1 ,part  
i4        7,oxford1 #ahhb71 pp4 #cfi-cgc
 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4     
xii474      ,m#ih ,sacrifices of        
first-fruits in ,burma and ,corea4      
#cdc 7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4  
,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma  
and        the ,shan ,states1 ,part i4  
vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aijj71 pp4 #dbe sq4 
#cdd ,rev4 ,g4 ,whitehead1 8,notes on   
the ,chins of ,burma10 ,indian          
,antiquary1 xxxvi4 7#aijg7 p4 #bjg4     
#cde ,a4 ,bourlet1 8,les ,thay10        
,anthropos1 ii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #fbg-fbi4   
#cdf ,ch4 ,dallet1 ,histoire de         
l',eglise de ,core 7,paris1 #ahgd71 i4  
p4        xxiv4      ,m#ii ,sacrifices  
of first-fruits in the ,east ,indies4   
#cdg ,fr4 ,junghuhn1 ,die ,battalnder   
auf ,sumatra 7,berlin1 #ahdg71 ii4 #cab4
      #cdh ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in
 the ,forests of the ,far ,east#b       
7,london1        #ahfc71 i4 #aia4       

#cdi ,b4 ,f4 ,matthes1 ,beknopt ,verslag
 mijner reizen in de ,binnenlanden van  
,celebes1 in de jaren #aheg en #ahfa1 p4
 #e 7,verzameling van ,berigten         
betreffende de ,bijbelverspreiding1     
,nos4 #if-ii74      #cej ,n4 ,graafland1
 ,de ,minahassa 7,rotterdam1 #ahfi71 i4 
#afe4      #cea ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de
 sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen  
,selebes        en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 
#ahhf71 p4 #ajg4      #ceb ,riedel1 op4 
cit4 pp4 #bha1 #bif sq4      #cec ,fr4  
,valentyn1 ,oud en nieuw ,oost-,indin   
7,dordrecht and ,amsterdam1             
#agbd-agbf71 iii4 #aj4      #ced ,c4 ,m4
 ,pleyte1 8,ethnographische             
,beschrijving der ,kei-,eilanden10      
,tijdschrift van het ,nederlandsch      
,aardrijkskundig ,genootschap1          
,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7 p4 #hja4     
#cee ,fr4 ,kramer1 8,der ,gtzendienst   
der ,niasser10 ,tijdschrift voor        
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiii4 7#ahij7 p4 #dhb4      #cef ,c4 
,semper1 ,die ,philippinen und ihre     

,bewohner 7,wrzburg1 #ahfi71 p4         
#ef4      #ceg ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8,das  
,stromgebiet des ,rio ,grande de        
,mindano10        ,petermanns           
,mittheilungen1 xxxvii4 7#ahia7 p4 #aaa4
     ,m#ajj ,sacrifices of first-fruits 
in ,new ,guinea4      #ceh ,stefan      
,lehner1 8,bukaua10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's  
,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4             
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #dcd-dcf4          
,m#aja ,sacrifices of first-fruits in   
,fiji and the ,new ,hebrides4      #cei 
,rev4 ,lorimer ,fison1 8,the ,nanga1 or 
,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of           
,wainimala1 ,fiji10 ,journal of the     
,anthropological ,institute1 xiv4       
7#ahhe7 p4 #bg4      #cfj ,j4 ,e4       
,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among   
the ,islands of the ,western            
,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #beb4     
#cfa ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa 7,london1      
#ahhd71 pp4 #cah sq4     ,m#ajb         
,sacrifices of first-fruits in the      
,solomon ,islands4      #cfb ,rev4 ,r4  
,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians      

7,oxford1 #ahia71 pp4 #acb        sq4   
#cfc ,c4 ,m4 ,woodford1 ,a ,naturalist  
among the ,head-hunters1 being an       
,account of ,three ,visits to the       
,solomon ,islands 7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 
#bf-bh4      #cfd ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4         
,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #ach4
     ,m#ajc ,sacrifices of first-fruits 
in the ,kingsmill ,islands4      #cfe   
,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states         
,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnology and  
,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4   
#ig4     ,m#ajd ,sacrifices of          
first-fruits in the ,tonga ,islands4    
,m#aje ,the first-fruits of the yams    
deposited on the grave of the last      
,tooitonga 7divine chief74      #cff    
,the mali is 8a piece of ground1        
generally before a large house1         
or chief's grave1 where public          
ceremonies are principally held0 7,w4   
,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ,vocabulary74
      #cfg ,the mataboole is 8a rank    
next below chiefs or nobles0 7ibid474   
#cfh ,w4 ,mariner1 ,account of the      

,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second
        ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 ii4  
#gh1 #aif-bjc4 ,as to the divine chief  
,tooitonga see ,taboo and the ,perils of
 the ,soul1 p4 #ba4     ,m#ajf          
,significance of the presentation of    
first-fruits to the divine chief        
at the grave of his predecessor4        
,m#ajg ,sacrifices of first-fruits in   
,samoa and other parts of ,polynesia4   
#cfi ,ch4 ,wilkes14 ,narrative of the   
,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 
,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 ii4  
#acc4      #cgj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4
 #gj sq4      #cga ,w4 ,ellis1          
,polynesian ,researches1 ,second        
,edition 7,london1        #ahcb-ahcf71  
i4 #cej4      #cgb ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 
,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and       
,travels 7,london1        #ahca71 i4    
#bhd4      #cgc ,geiseler1 ,die         
,oster-,insel 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 p4 #ca4 
#cgd ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new
 ,zealand10 ,journal of the             
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       

7#ahij7 p4 #aaj2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika  
,a        ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and   
its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition      
7,london1        #ahgj71 pp4 #afe sq42  
,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 
7,london1        #ahhd71 pp4 #ajc sq4   
,m#ajh ,sacrifices of first-fruits among
 the old ,prussians1 ,greeks1 and       
,romans4      #cge ,chr4 ,hartknoch1    
,alt und neues ,preussen 7,frankfort and
 ,leipsic1        #afhd71 p4 #afa2 id41 
,dissertationes historicae de variis    
rebus        ,prussicis1 p4 #afc        
7appended to his edition of ,p4 de      
,dusburg's        ,chronicon ,prussiae1 
,frankfort and ,leipsic1 #afgi74        
,compare ,w4        ,mannhardt1 ,die    
,korndmonen 7,berlin1 #ahfh71 p4 #bg4   
#cgf ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ec sqq4   
#cgg ,plutarch1 ,theseus1 #f4      #cgh 
,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #acj4      #cgi     
,festus1 s4v4 8,sacrima10 p4 #cai1 ed4  
,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,pliny1 ,nat4           
,hist4 xviii4 #h4      #chj ,varro1 ,de 
lingua ,latina1 vi4 #af1 ed4 ,c4 ,o4    

,mller4     ,m#aji ,sacrifices of       
first-fruits among the ,indians of      
,america4        ,chateaubriand's       
description of the harvest festival     
among the        ,natchez4      #cha    
,james ,teit1 ,the ,thompson ,indians of
 ,british ,columbia1 p4 #cde 7,the      
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1     
,memoir of the ,american ,museum of     
,natural ,history1 ,may1 #aijj74        
#chb ,c4 ,hill ,tout1 8,report on the   
,ethnology of the ,okanaken of ,british 
,columbia10 ,journal of the ,r4         
,anthropological ,institute1 xli4       
7#aiaa7 p4 #acb4      #chc ,brasseur de 
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique        et de      
l',amrique-,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71 ii4 #eff4      #chd        
,annales de l',association de la        
,propagation de la ,foi1 i4 7,paris     
and ,lyons1 #ahbf7 p4 #chf4      #che   
,above1 pp4 #gg sqq4      #chf          
,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4
 #acj-acf 7,michel ,lvy1        ,paris1 

#ahgj74     ,m#aaj ,custom of killing   
and eating the corn-spirit              
sacramentally4 ,belief        of the    
savage that by eating an animal or man  
he acquires the        qualities of that
 animal or man4      #chg ,see ,the     
,dying ,god1 pp4 #i sqq4     ,m#aaa     
,beliefs of the ,american ,indians as to
 the homoeopathic magic of the          
flesh of animals4      #chh ,james      
,adair1 ,history of the ,american       
,indians 7,london1 #agge71 p4           
#acc4      #chi ,alfred ,simson1        
,travels in the ,wilds of ,ecuador      
7,london1 #ahhg71 p4        #afh2 id41  
in ,journal of the ,anthropological     
,institute1 vii4        7#ahgh7 p4 #ejc4
      #cij ,a4 ,thevet1 ,les            
,singularitez de la ,france             
,antarctique1 autrement        nomme    
,amerique 7,antwerp1 #aeeh71 p4 #ee2    
id41 ,la ,cosmographie                  
,universelle 7,paris1 #aege71 ii4 pp4   
#ibi1 #ifc1 #idj #igd2 ,j4              
,lerius1 ,historia ,navigationis in     

,brasiliam1 quae et ,america            
dicitur 7#aehf71 pp4 #abf sq4      #cia 
,rochefort1 ,histoire ,naturelle et     
,morale des ,iles ,antilles1 ,seconde   
,edition 7,rotterdam1 #affe71 p4 #dfe4  
#cib ,c4 ,cuny1 8,de ,libreville au     
,cameroun10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de   
,gographie 7,paris71 vii4 ,srie1 xvii4  
7#ahif7 p4 #cdb4      #cic ,r4 ,southey1
 ,history of ,brazil1 ii4 7,london1     
#ahag7 p4 #cgc2 id41        iii4        
7,london1 #ahai7 p4 #afd4      #cid ,p4 
,lozano1 ,descripcion ,chorographica del
 ,gran ,chaco 7,cordova1        #agcc71 
p4 #ij4      #cie ,m4 ,dobrizhoffer1    
,historia de ,abiponibus 7,vienna1      
#aghd71 i4 #bhi        sq4      #cif ,j4
 ,teit1 ,the ,thompson ,indians of      
,british ,columbia1 p4 #cdh 7,the       
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1     
,memoir of the ,american ,museum of     
,natural ,history1 ,april1 #aijj74      
,m#aab ,bushman beliefs as to the       
homoeopathic magic of the flesh of      
animals4      #cig ,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek   

and ,c4 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,specimens of       
,bushman ,folklore        7,london1     
#aiaa71 pp4 #bga-bge4     ,m#aac ,other 
,african beliefs as to the homoeopathic 
magic of the flesh of        animals4   
,ancient beliefs as to the homoeopathic 
magic of the flesh        of animals4   
#cih ,a4 ,bertrand1 ,the ,kingdom of the
 ,barotsi1 ,upper ,zambezia 7,london1   
#ahii71 p4 #bgg1 quoting the description
 given by the ,french        missionary 
,m4 ,coillard4      #cii ,theophilus    
,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the ,supreme ,being
 of the ,khoi-,khoi        7,london1    
#ahha71 p4 #ajf4      #djj ,w4 ,h4 ,i4  
,bleek and ,l4 ,c4 ,lloyd1 ,specimens of
 ,bushman ,folklore        7,london1    
#aiaa71 p4 #cgc4      #dja ,rev4 ,h4    
,cole1 8,notes on the ,wagogo of ,german
 ,east ,africa10 ,journal        of the 
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7 p4 #cah4      #djb ,sir ,harry  
,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate1  
,second ,edition        7,london1       
#aijd71 ii4 #ghg4      #djc ,rev4 ,j4   

,macdonald1 ,light in ,africa1 ,second  
,edition 7,london1 #ahij71        p4    
#agd2 id41 in ,journal of the           
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       
7#ahij7 p4 #bhb4      #djd ,rev4 ,h4    
,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the    
,amazulu1 p4 #dch1 note        #af4     
#dje ,o4 ,baumann1 ,usambara und seine  
,nachbargebiete 7,berlin1 #ahia71 p4    
#abh4      #djf ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston1 
,british ,central ,africa 7,london1     
#ahig71 p4 #dch2        ,j4 ,buchanan1  
,the ,shire ,highlands1 p4 #ach4        
#djg ,m4 ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 ,the ,suk1     
their ,language and ,folklore 7,oxford1 
#aiaa71 p4 #aa4      #djh ,j4 ,shooter1 
,the ,kafirs of ,natal and the ,zulu    
,country 7,london1        #aheg71 p4    
#cii4      #dji ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the    
,ewe-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave    
,coast of ,west        ,africa 7,london1
 #ahij71 p4 #ii4      #daj ,m4 ,merker1 
,rechtsverhltnisse und ,sitten der      
,wadschagga 7,gotha1        #aijb71 p4  
#ch 7,petermanns ,mitteilungen1         

,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #ach74      #daa   
,rev4 ,h4 ,callaway1 ,nursery ,tales1   
,traditions1 and ,histories of the      
,zulus 7,natal and ,london1 #ahfh71 p4  
#age note4      #dab ,ovid1 ,metam4 vii4
 #bga sqq4 ,as to the supposed longevity
 of deer        and crows1 see ,l4      
,stephani1 in ,compte ,rendu de la      
,commission        ,archologique 7,st4  
,petersburg71 #ahfc1 pp4 #adj sq41 and  
my note on        ,pausanias1 viii4 #aj4
 #aj4      #dac ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4    
viii4 #aai4      #dad ,porphyry1 ,de    
,abstinentia1 ii4 #dh3                1 
1              1                        
4 ,pliny also mentions the custom of    
eating the        heart of a mole1 raw  
and palpitating1 as a means of acquiring
 skill        in divination 7,nat4      
,hist4 xxx4 #ai74     ,m#aad ,beliefs of
 the ,dyaks and ,aino as to the         
homoeopathic magic of the        flesh  
of animals4      #dae ,spenser ,st4     
,john1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far
 ,east1 ,second        ,edition         

7,london1 #ahfc71 i4 #ahf1 #bjf4        
#daf ,w4 ,h4 ,furness1 ,home-life of    
,borneo ,head-hunters 7,philadelphia1   
#aijb71 p4 #ga2 compare id41 pp4 #aff   
sq4      #dag ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the
 ,ainu and their ,folk-lore 7,london1   
#aija71        pp4 #eaa-eac4      #dah  
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccg4 
#dai ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and
 ,folk-lore of ,northern ,india         
7,westminster1 #ahif71 i4 #bgi4         
,m#aae ,beliefs as to the homoeopathic  
magic of the flesh of dogs1 tigers1     
etc4      #dbj ,bossu1 ,nouveaux        
,voyages aux ,indes occidentales        
7,paris1 #agfh71 i4        #aab4        
#dba ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian      
,tribes of the ,united ,states1 ii4     
7,philadelphia1 #ahec7 pp4 #gi sq4      
#dbb ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en 
kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes    
en ,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 pp4 #aj1
 #bfb4      #dbc ,james ,chalmers1      
,pioneering in ,new ,guinea 7,london1   
#ahhg71 p4 #aff4      #dbd ,journal of  

the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxiv4  
7#ahie7 p4 #agi4      #dbe ,e4 ,t4      
,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of     
,bengal 7,calcutta1 #ahgb71 p4          
#cc4      #dbf ,proceedings of the      
,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,n4,s41  
viii4 7#ahhf7        p4 #cjg4      #dbg 
,j4 ,henderson1 8,the ,medicine and     
,medical ,practice of the ,chinese10    
,journal of the ,north ,china ,branch of
 the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1          
,new ,series1 i4 7,shanghai1 #ahfe7 pp4 
#ce sq4 ,compare ,mrs4 ,bishop1         
,korea and her ,neighbours 7,london1    
#ahih71 i4 #gi4      #dbh ,mrs4 ,s4 ,s4 
,allison1 8,account of the ,similkameen 
,indians of ,british        ,columbia10 
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxi4 7#ahib7        p4 #cac4
     ,m#aaf ,beliefs as to the          
homoeopathic magic of the flesh of      
wolves1 bears1        and serpents4     
#dbi ,p4 ,e4 ,mller on ,saxo            
,grammaticus1 ,historia ,danica         
7,copenhagen1        #ahci-aheh71 vol4  

ii4 p4 #fj4      #dcj ,die ,edda1       
bersetzt von ,k4 ,simrock#h 7,stuttgart1
 #ahhb71 pp4 #ahj1        #cji4         
#dca ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,natur4 x4 #acg1    
xxix4 #gb4      #dcb ,philostratus1     
,vita ,apollonii1 i4 #bj1 iii4 #i4      
#dcc ,saxo ,grammaticus1 ,historia      
,danica1 ed4 ,p4 ,e4 ,mller             
7,copenhagen1        #ahci-aheh71 i4    
#aic sq4      #dcd ,p4 ,e4 ,mller1 note 
in his edition of ,saxo ,grammaticus1   
vol4 ii4 p4        #adf4      #dce ,a4  
,wuttke1 ,der deutsche                  
,volksaberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 
#aaj1         #aec2 ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1  
,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen   
und        ,mhren 7,prague and ,leipsic1
 #ahfd71 p4 #bcj1  #afeh4      #dcf     
,grimm1 ,kinder- und ,hausmrchen1 ,no4  
#ag2 id41 ,deutsche ,sagen#b            
7,berlin1 #ahfe-ahff71 ,no4 #acb 7vol4  
i4 pp4 #agd-agf72 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4     
,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen
 und ,gebruche 7,leipsic1        #ahdh71
 p4 #aed2 ,a4 ,waldau1 ,bhmisches       

,mrchenbuch 7,prague1 #ahfj71        pp4
 #ac sqq42 ,von ,alpenburg1 ,mythen und 
,sagen ,tirols 7,zurich1        #aheg71 
pp4 #cjb sqq42 ,w4 von ,schulenburg1    
,wendische ,volkssagen und              
,gebruche aus dem ,spreewald 7,leipsic1 
#ahhj71 p4 #if2 ,p4 ,sbillot1           
,traditions et ,superstitions de la     
,haute-,bretagne 7,paris1 #ahhb71       
ii4 #bbd2 ,w4 ,grant ,stewart1 ,the     
,popular ,superstitions and ,festive    
,amusements of the ,highlanders of      
,scotland1 ,new ,edition 7,london1      
#ahea71 pp4 #ec1 #ef2 ,j4 ,f4 ,campbell1
 ,popular ,tales of the ,west           
,highlands1 ,new ,edition 7,paisley and 
,london1 #ahij71 ,no4 #dg1 vol4 ii4     
pp4 #cgg sqq42 ,e4 ,prym und ,a4 ,socin1
 ,syrische ,sagen und ,maerchen         
7,gttingen1 #ahha71 pp4 #aej sq4 ,on the
 serpent in relation to the             
acquisition by men of the language of   
animals1 see further my        article1 
8,the ,language of ,animals10 ,the      
,archaeological ,review1 i4             

7#ahhh7 pp4 #aff sqq4 ,sometimes        
serpents have been thought to impart    
a knowledge of the language of animals  
voluntarily by licking the        ears  
of the seer4 ,see ,apollodorus1         
,bibliotheca1 i4 #i4 #aa sq42           
,porphyry1 ,de abstinentia1 iii4 #d4    
,m#aag ,various beliefs as to the       
homoeopathic magic of the flesh of      
animals4      #dcg ,a4 ,leared1 ,morocco
 and the ,moors 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4    
#bha4      #dch ,m4 ,quedenfelt1        
8,aberglaube und halb-religise          
,bruderschaft bei den                   
,marokkanarn10 ,verhandlungen der       
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte1 #ahhf1 p4 #fhb 7bound up 
with the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1   
xviii4 #ahhf74      #dci ,h4 ,vambery1  
,das ,trkenvolk 7,leipsic1 #ahhe71 p4   
#bah4      #ddj ,charlevoix1 ,histoire  
de la ,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71
 vi4 #h4      #dda ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 8,de  
leer der ,signatuur10 ,internationales  

,archiv fr        ,ethnographie1 vii4   
7#ahid7 pp4 #adj sq4      #ddb ,r4 ,w4  
,felkin1 8,notes on the ,for ,tribe of  
,central ,africa10        ,proceedings  
of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1   
xiii4 7#ahhd-ahhf7        p4 #bah4      
,m#aah ,the flesh and blood1 but        
especially the hearts1 of dead men eaten
 or        drunk for the sake of        
acquiring the good qualities of the     
dead4      #ddc ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1   
8,manners1 ,customs1 etc41 of the ,south
 ,african        ,tribes10 ,journal of  
the ,anthropological ,institute1 xx4    
7#ahia7 p4        #aaf2 id41 ,light in  
,africa 7,london1 #ahij71 p4 #bab4      
,compare ,rev4        ,e4 ,casalis1 ,the
 ,basutos 7,london1 #ahfa71 pp4 #beg    
sq42 ,dudley        ,kidd1 ,the         
,essential ,kafir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4  
#cji4      #ddd ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 in
 ,journal of the ,anthropological       
,institute1        xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #ach2 
id41 ,light in ,africa1 p4 #bbj4        
#dde ,h4 ,schinz1 ,deutsch              

,sdwest-,afrika 7,oldenburg and         
,leipsic1 preface        dated #ahia71  
p4 #cbj4      #ddf ,j4 ,macdonald1      
8,east ,central ,african ,customs10     
,journal of the        ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxii4 7#ahic7 p4 #aaa4      
,compare ,j4        ,buchanan1 ,the     
,shire ,highlands1 p4 #ach2 ,sir ,h4 ,h4
 ,johnston1        ,british ,central    
,africa 7,london1 #ahig71 p4 #dch4      
#ddg ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi       
7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #bg4      #ddh     
,rev4 ,h4 ,cole1 8,notes on the ,wagogo 
of ,german ,east ,africa10 ,journal     
of the ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #cah4      #ddi ,rev4 
,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,western ,africa       
7,london1 #ahef71 pp4 #afg sq4      #dej
 ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 ,the ,ewe-speaking     
,peoples of the ,slave ,coast 7,london1 
#ahij71 pp4 #ii sq4      #dea ,a4 ,b4   
,ellis1 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples  
of the ,slave ,coast        7,london1   
#ahid71 p4 #fi4      #deb ,a4 ,caulin1  
,historia ,coro-graphica natural y      

evangelica dela ,nueva        ,andalucia
 7#aggi71 p4 #ih4      #dec ,a4 de      
,herrera1 ,general ,history of the vast 
,continent and ,islands of              
,america1 translated by ,capt4 ,j4      
,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 vi4     
#ahg4      #ded ,f4 de ,castelnau1      
,expdition dans les parties centrales de
        l',amrique du ,sud 7,paris1     
#ahej-ahea71 iv4 #chb4      #dee ,james 
,adair1 ,history of the ,american       
,indians 7,london1 #agge71 p4           
#ace4      #def ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1      
8,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of 
the ,baganda10        ,journal of the   
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
7#aija7 pp4 #abi        sq42 id41       
8,further ,notes on the ,manners and    
,customs of the        ,baganda10       
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7        p4    
#de4      #deg ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1 8,the   
,eskimo about ,bering ,strait10         
,eighteenth ,annual        ,report of   
the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1    

,part i4 7,washington1        #ahii7 p4 
#cbh4      #deh ,e4 ,clement1           
8,ethnographical ,notes on the ,western 
,australian        ,aborigines10        
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 xvi4 7#aijd7        p4   
#h4     ,m#aai ,other parts than the    
heart are eaten for the purpose of      
acquiring        the virtues of the     
deceased4      #dei ,o4 ,opigez1 8,aperu
 gnral sur la ,nouvelle-,caldonie10     
,bulletin de        la ,socit de        
,gographie 7,paris71 vii4 ,srie1 vii4   
7#ahhf7 p4 #dcc4      #dfj ,a4 ,w4      
,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east
 ,australia 7,london1        #aijd71 p4 
#gec4      #dfa ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 op4    
cit4 p4 #geb4      #dfb ,s4 ,gason1 in  
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxiv4        7#ahie7 p4     
#agb4      #dfc ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1      
,kamilaroi 7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #afj4   
#dfd ,annales de la ,propagation de la  
,foi1 xi4 7,lyons1 #ahch-ahci7 p4       
#beh4      #dfe ,j4 ,henderson1 8,the   

,medicine and ,medical ,practice of the 
,chinese10        ,journal of the ,north
 ,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic  
,society1        ,new ,series1 i4       
7,shanghai1 #ahfe7 pp4 #ce sq4      #dff
 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1 8,het koppensnellen der
 ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 en    
zijne ,beteekenis10 ,verslagen en       
,mededeelingen der koninklijke          
,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling
 ,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1          
iii4 7,amsterdam1 #ahii7 p4 #bja4       
#dfg ,n4 ,adriani en ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1   
8,van ,posso naar ,mori10 ,mededeelingen
        van wege het ,nederlandsche     
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 
#afb4      #dfh ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8,der 
,ahnencultus und die religisen          
,anschauungen der        ,malaien des   
,philippinen-,archipels10 ,mittheilungen
 der ,wiener        ,geograph4          
,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #aed2 id41     
,versuch einer        ,ethnographie der 
,philippinen 7,gotha1 #ahhb71 p4 #cb    
7,petermann's        ,mittheilungen1    

,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #fg74      #dfi    
,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem ,leben der     
,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss's ,deutsch 
,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4  
#aca4      #dgj ,l4 ,magyar1 ,reisen in 
,sd-,afrika in den ,jahren #ahdi-aheg   
7,buda-,pesth and ,leipsic1 #ahei71 pp4 
#bgc-bgf4      #dga ,rev4 ,j4 ,shooter1 
,the ,kafirs of ,natal 7,london1 #aheg71
 p4 #baf4      #dgb ,rev4 ,h4 ,callaway1
 ,nursery ,tales1 ,traditions and       
,histories of the        ,zulus 7,natal 
and ,london1 #ahfh71 p4 #afc note4      
#dgc ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,the ,ethnography
 of the ,western ,tribe of ,torres      
,straits10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       
7#ahij7 p4        #dad1 compare p4 #cab2
 ,reports of the ,cambridge             
,anthropological        ,expedition to  
,torres ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd7
 p4 #cja4      #dgd ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 op4
 cit4 p4 #dbj2 ,reports of the          
,cambridge        ,anthropological      
,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4     

7,cambridge1 #aijd7        pp4 #cja sq4 
#dge ,s4 ,j4 ,hickson1 ,a ,naturalist in
 ,north ,celebes 7,london1 #ahhi71 p4   
#baf4      #dgf ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a 
,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its         
,inhabitants1        ,second ,edition   
7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #ceb4 ,compare     
ibid4 p4 #agc2 ,w4        ,ellis1       
,polynesian ,researches1 ,second        
,edition 7,london1 #ahca-ahcf71         
i4 #ceh2 ,j4 ,dumont ,d',urville1       
,voyage autour du ,monde et  la         
recherche de la ,prouse sur la corvette 
,astrolabe 7,paris1        #ahcb-ahcc71 
ii4 #edg2 ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of
 ,new ,zealand10        ,journal of the 
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       
7#ahij7 p4 #ajh4     ,m#abj ,moral      
virtues of the dead acquired through    
simple contact with their        bones4 
#dgg ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1 8,het koppensnellen
 der ,toradja's van ,midden-,celebes1 en
        zijne ,beteekenis10 ,verslagen  
en ,mededeelingen der koninklijke       
,akademie van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling

 ,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1          
iii4 7,amsterdam1 #ahii7 p4 #aff4       
#dgh ,the ,spectator1 ,no4 #caf1 ,march 
#c1 #agab2 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall1 
ch4 lxvii4      #dgi ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 
,ethnographie ,nordost-,afrikas3 die    
geistige ,cultur        der ,dankil1    
,galla und ,soml 7,berlin1 #ahif71 p4   
#ef4     ,m#aba ,savages sometimes seek 
to form a covenant of friendship with   
their        dead foes by drinking their
 blood4      #dhj ,for examples of the  
blood-covenant see ,h4 ,c4 ,trumbull1   
,the ,blood        ,covenant 7,london1  
#ahhg74 ,the custom is particularly     
common in        ,africa4      #dha     
,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bernau1 ,missionary      
,labours in ,british ,guiana 7,london1  
#ahdg71 pp4 #eg sq42 ,r ,schomburgk1    
,reisen in ,britisch-,guiana            
7,leipsic1 #ahdg-ahdh71 ii4 #dig4       
#dhb ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi       
7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #bg4      #dhc ,a4 
,g4 ,leonard1 ,the ,lower ,niger and its
 ,tribes 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4          

#ahj1 #aha sq4      #dhd ,mrs4 ,leslie  
,milne1 ,shans at ,home 7,london1       
#aiaj71 p4 #aib4     ,m#abb             
,blood-covenant formed by manslayers    
with the ghosts of their        victims4
      #dhe ,the ,kukis of north-eastern 
,india believe that the ghost of an     
animal        as well as of a man will  
haunt its slayer and drive him mad      
unless        he performs a ceremony    
called ai4 ,for example1 a man who has  
killed a tiger must dress himself up as 
a woman1 put flints into the            
tiger's mouth1 and eat eggs himself1    
after which he makes a speech        to 
the tiger and gives it three cuts over  
the head with a sword4        ,during   
this performance the principal performer
 must keep perfectly        grave4      
,should he accidentally laugh1 he says1 
8,the porcupine        laughed10        
referring to a real porcupine which he  
carries in his arms        for the      
purpose4 ,see ,lieut4-,colonel ,j4      
,shakespeare1 8,the ,kuki-,lushai       

,clans10 ,journal of the ,royal         
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4     
7#aiji7 pp4 #chj sq4      #dhf ,j4      
,dumont ,d',urville1 ,voyage autour du  
,monde et  la recherche de la           
,prouse 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 iii4 #cje4
      #dhg ,vincenzo ,dorsa1 ,la        
,tradizione greco-latina negli usi e    
nelle        credenze popolari della    
,calabria ,citeriore 7,cosenza1 #ahhd71 
p4 #ach4      #dhh ,f4 de ,castelnau1   
,expdition dans les parties centrales de
        l',amrique du ,sud 7,paris1     
#ahej-ahea71 iv4 #chb4      #dhi ,some  
of the evidence has already been cited  
by me in ,psyche's        ,task1 pp4    
#ef-eh4     ,m#abc ,communion with the  
dead by swallowing their ashes4         
#dij ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,travels on the  
,amazon and ,rio ,negro1 ,second        
,edition        7,london1 #ahhi71 ch4   
xvii4 pp4 #cdf sq4      #dia ,r4        
,southey1 ,history of ,brazil1 iii4     
7,london1 #ahai7 p4 #gbb4      #dib ,r4 
,southey1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bjd4      #dic 

,a4 de ,herrera1 ,the ,general ,history 
of the ,vast ,continent and             
,islands of ,america1 translated by     
,capt4 ,john ,stevens 7,london1         
#agbe-agbf71 iv4 #de4      #did ,a4     
,reich und ,f4 ,stegelmann1 8,bei den   
,indianern des ,urubamba und des        
,envira10 ,globus1 lxxxiii4 7#aijc7 p4  
#acg4 ,on similar custom                
practised by the ,american ,indians see 
further ,de la ,borde1 ,relation        
de l',origine1 ,murs1 ,coustumes1       
,religion1 ,guerres et ,voyages des     
,caraibes ,sauvages1 p4 #cg 7forming    
part of the ,recueil de divers          
,voyages faits en ,afrique et en        
l',amerique1 ,paris1 #afhd72 ,j4 ,f4    
,lafitau1 ,murs des ,sauvages           
,ameriquains 7,paris1 #agbd71 ii4       
#ddd-ddf2 ,a4 ,n4 ,cabea de ,vaca1      
,relation et ,naufrages 7,paris1        
#ahcg71 p4 #aji 7in ,ternaux ,compans'  
,voyages1 ,relations et ,mmoires        
originaux pour servir  l',histoire de la
 ,dcouverte de l',amrique72        ,r4  

,southey1 ,history of ,brazil1 i4       
7,second ,edition1 ,london1 #ahbb71     
,supplemental ,notes1 p4 xxxvi42 ,f4 de 
,castelnau1 ,expdition dans les         
parties centrales de l',amrique du ,sud 
7,paris1 #ahej-ahea71 iv4 #chj2         
,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 ,geschichte der         
amerikanischen ,urreligionen 7,ble1     
#ahfg71 pp4 #bhi sq42 ,h4 ,a4 ,coudreau1
 ,la ,france quinoxiale        7,paris1 
#ahhg71 ii4 #agc2 ,theodor ,koch1 8,die 
,anthropophagie der                     
sdamerikanischen ,indianer10            
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 xii4 7#ahii7 pp4 #gh-aaj2
 ,th4 ,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei             
,jahre unter den ,indianern 7,berlin1   
#aiji-aiaj71 ii4 #aeb4 ,some            
,indians of ,guiana rubbed their limbs  
with water in which the ashes        of 
their dead were mingled4 ,see ,a4 ,biet1
 ,voyage de la ,france                  
,equinoxiale en l',isle de ,cayenne     
7,paris1 #affd71 p4 #cib4      #die     
,aulus ,gellius1 ,noctes ,atticae1 x4   

#ah2 ,valerius ,maximus1 iv4 #f4 #e4    
#dif ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1   
,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern       
,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #ee4     
#dig ,see above1 p4 #aed sqq4     ,m#abd
 ,savages attempt to inoculate          
themselves with moral and other virtues 
by making cuts in their bodies and      
inserting in the cuts the ashes         
of animals and plants which they suppose
 to be endowed with the        virtues  
in question4      #dih ,rev4 ,e4        
,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 7,london1      
#ahfa71 pp4 #bef sq4      #dii ,e4      
,holub1 ,sieben ,jahre in ,sd ,afrika   
7,vienna1 #ahha71 ii4 #cfa4      #ejj   
,see above1 p4 #adh4      #eja ,j4      
,macdonald1 8,manners1 ,customs1 etc41  
of ,south ,african ,tribes10            
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7 p4 #acc4 ,the   
,barolong1 a ,bechuana tribe1 observe a 
custom of this sort4 ,see ,w4           
,joest1 8,bei den ,barolong10 ,das      
,ausland1 #afth ,june #ahhd1 p4 #dfd4   

#ejb ,col4 ,maclean1 ,a ,compendium of  
,kafir ,laws and ,customs 7,cape ,town1 
#ahff71 p4 #hb4      #ejc ,father       
,porte1 8,les reminiscences d'un        
missionnaire du ,basutoland10           
,les ,missions ,catholiques1 xxviii4    
7#ahif7 p4 #adi4      #ejd ,dudley      
,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood 7,london1     
#aijf71 p4 #gj1 compare p4        #dc4  
#eje ,lieut4 ,h4 ,pope-,hennessy1       
8,notes on the ,jukos and other ,tribes 
of the        ,middle ,benue10          
,anthropological ,reviews and           
,miscellanea1 p4 7#cj72        appended 
to ,journal of the ,anthropological     
,institute1 xxx4 7#aijj74     ,m#abe    
,the ,zulus think they can inoculate    
themselves with celestial power4        
,some ,caffres inoculate themselves     
against lightning4      #ejf ,rev4 ,h4  
,callaway1 ,religious ,system of the    
,amazulu1 pp4 #chj-chb4      #ejg ,col4 
,maclean1 ,a ,compendium of ,kafir ,laws
 and ,customs 7,cape ,town1             
#ahff71 pp4 #hc sq4      #ejh ,du       

,tertre1 ,histoire generale des ,isles  
de ,s4 ,christophe1 de la               
,guadeloupe1 de la ,martinique et autres
 dans l',amerique 7,paris1              
#afed71 pp4 #dag sq42 id41 ,histoire    
generale des ,antilles        7,paris1  
#affg-afga71 ii4 #cgg2 ,rochefort1      
,histoire ,naturelle et        ,morale  
des ,iles ,antilles#b 7,rotterdam1      
#affe71 p4 #eef4     ,m#abf ,some       
savages attempt to acquire the physical 
and mental qualities of        the dead 
by anointing themselves with their      
remains4 ,the juices of        animals  
are sometimes similarly applied for the 
same purpose4      #eji ,r4 ,brough     
,smith1 ,aborigines of ,victoria        
7,melbourne and ,london1        #ahgh71 
i4 p4 xxix41 ii4 #cac2 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 
,native ,tribes of        ,south-,east  
,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #cfg   
sqq4      #eaj ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1       
,kamilaroi 7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4 #afj4   
#eaa ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of
 ,south-,east ,australia 7,london1      

#aijd71 pp4 #dfg1 #dfh4      #eab ,j4   
,chalmers and ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,work and  
,adventure in ,new ,guinea              
7,london1 #ahhe71 pp4 #acj1 #bfe1 #cjh2 
,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel1 ,de sluik- en      
kroesharige rassen tusschen ,selebes en 
,papua 7,the ,hague1 #ahhf71 p4         
#cjh2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,sibree1 ,the ,great    
,african ,island 7,london1 #ahhj71 p4   
#bda4 ,other or the same peoples        
sometimes drink the juices of the       
decaying bodies of their kinsfolk1      
doubtless for a similar reason4         
,see ,reports of the ,cambridge         
,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres 
,straits1 vi4 7,cambridge1 #aijf7 p4    
#aei2 ,j4 ,chalmers and ,w4 ,gill1      
op4 cit4 pp4 #bg1 #bfe2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1   
,narrative of the ,united ,states       
,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition   
7,new ,york1 #ahea71 ii4 #aci2 ,j4 ,g4  
,f4 ,riedel1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfg2 ,a4      
,bastian1 ,indonesien1 ii4 7,berlin1    
#ahhe7 p4 #ie2 id41 ,die ,vlker des     
,ostlichen ,asien1 v4 7,jena1           

#ahfi7 p4 #ia2 ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 ,borneo's 
,westerafdeeling 7,zaltbommel1          
#ahed-ahef71 ii4 #bgj2 ,j4 ,jacobs1     
,eenigen ,tijd onder de ,baliers        
7,batavia1 #ahhc71 p4 #ec4      #eac    
,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,western ,africa 
7,london1 #ahef71 p4 #cid4      #ead    
,mgr4 ,le ,roy1 8,les ,pygmes10 ,les    
,missions ,catholiques1 xxix4 7#ahig7   
p4 #baj4      #eae 8,mourning for the   
,dead among the ,digger ,indians10      
,journal of the        ,anthropological 
,institute1 iii4 7#ahgd7 p4 #ecj4       
#eaf ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 ,aboriginal          
,inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands1  
p4 #ff4      #eag ,jerome ,becker1 ,la  
,vie en ,afrique 7,paris and ,brussels1 
#ahhg71 ii4        #cff4      #eah ,th4 
,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den  
,indianern 7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71
 ii4 #aec4      #eai ,t4 ,arbousset et  
,f4 ,daumas1 ,voyage d',exploration au  
,nord-est de la        ,colonie du ,cap 
de ,bonne-,esprance 7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4
 #cdi sq4      #ebj ,spencer and        

,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central    
,australia 7,london1        #ahii71 pp4 
#bjd sq4 ,men of other totem clans also 
partake of their        totems          
sacramentally at these ,intichiuma      
ceremonies 7,spencer and        ,gillen1
 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjb-bjf74 ,as to the     
,intichiuma ceremonies1        see ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #he sqq4 ,another            
,central ,australian mode of            
communicating qualities by external     
application is seen in the custom of    
beating boys on the calves of           
their legs with the leg-bone of an      
eagle-hawk2 strength is supposed        
to pass thereby from the bone into the  
boy's leg4 ,see ,spencer and            
,gillen1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgb2 ,report on   
the ,work of the ,horn                  
,scientific ,expedition to ,central     
,australia1 ,part iv4 7,london and      
,melbourne1 #ahif71 p4 #ahj4     ,m#abg 
,magical ointment used by ,mexican      
priests4      #eba ,manuscrit ,ramirez1 

,histoire de l',origine des ,indiens qui
 habitent        la ,nouvelle ,espagne  
selon leurs traditions1 publi par ,d4   
,charnay        7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4    
#aga-agc2 ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural and  
,moral ,history        of the ,indies   
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahhj71 ii4
 #cfd-cfg2 ,e4        ,seler1           
,altmexikanische ,studien1 ii4 7,berlin1
 #ahii71 pp4 #dc sq4                    
7,verffentlichungen aus dem kniglichen  
,museum fr ,vlkerkunde74     ,m#abh     
,qualities of a person1 animal1 or thing
 imparted by fumigation4      #ebb      
,dudley ,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood       
7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #ab sq4      #ebc 
,dudley ,kidd1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bj sq4     
,m#abi ,the savage custom of eating a   
god4 ,cicero on transubstantiation4     
#ebd ,on the custom of eating a god1 see
 also a paper by ,felix ,liebrecht1     
8,der aufgegessene ,gott10 ,zur         
,volkskunde 7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 pp4    
#dcf-dci2 and especially ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1
 article 8,sacrifice10                  

,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth      
,edition1 vol4 xxi4 pp4 #acg sq4        
,on wine as the blood of a god1 see     
,taboo and the ,perils of the           
,soul1 pp4 #bdh sqq4      #ebe ,cicero1 
,de natura deorum1 iii4 #af4 #da4       
,m#acj ,hunting and pastoral tribes1 as 
well as agricultural peoples1 have      
been in the habit of killing and eating 
the beings whom they        worship4    
,the ,californian ,indians used solemnly
 to kill the great        buzzard which 
they adored2 but they believed that     
though they slew        it annually1 it 
always came to life again4      #ebf    
,this does not refer to the ,californian
 peninsula1 which is an arid        and 
treeless wilderness of rock and sand4   
#ebg ,father ,geronimo ,boscana1        
8,chinigchinich2 a historical account of
 the        origin1 customs1 and        
traditions of the ,indians at the       
missionary        establishment of ,st4 
,juan ,capistrano1 ,alta ,california10  
appended to        ,alfred ,robinson's  

,life in ,california 7,new ,york1       
#ahdf71 pp4 #bia        sq42 ,h4 ,h4    
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states1 iii4        #afh4 ,the
 mission station of ,san ,juan          
,capistrano is described by ,r4         
,h4 ,dana 7,two ,years before the ,mast1
 chaps4 xviii4 and xxiv474 ,a           
favourable picture of the missions is   
drawn by ,h4 von ,langsdorf             
7,reise um die ,welt1 ,frankfort1 #ahab1
 ii4 pp4 #acd sqq471 by        ,duflos  
de ,mofras 78,fragment d'un ,voyage en  
,californie10 ,bulletin de        la    
,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ii4      
,srie1 xix4 7#ahdc7 pp4 #i-ac71         
and by a writer 7,h4 ,h47 in ,the       
,century ,magazine1 ,may1 #ahhc1 pp4    
#b-ah4 ,but the severe discipline of the
 ,spanish monks is noticed by           
other travellers4 ,we are told that the 
,indians laboured during the        day 
in the fields to support their ,spanish 
masters1 were driven to        church   
twice or thrice a day to hear service in

 a language which        they did not   
understand1 and at night were shut up in
 crowded and        comfortless         
barracks1 without windows and without   
beds4 ,when the        monks desired to 
make new proselytes1 or rather to       
capture new        slaves1 they called  
in the aid of the soldiery1 who attacked
 the        ,indian villages by night1  
lassoed the fugitives1 and dragged them 
back at their horses' tails to slavery  
in the missions4 ,see ,o4 von           
,kotzebue1 ,reise um die ,welt 7,weimar1
 #ahcj71 ii4 #db sqq42 ,f4 ,w4          
,beechey1 ,narrative of a ,voyage to the
 ,pacific and ,beering's ,strait        
7,london1 #ahca71 ii4 chap4 i42 ,a4     
,schabelski1 8,voyage aux colonies      
russes de l',amrique10 ,bulletin de la  
,socit de ,gographie        7,paris71   
ii4 ,srie1 iv4 7#ahce7 pp4 #baf-bah4 ,a 
poet has described        with prosaic  
accuracy the pastoral crook by which    
these good        shepherds brought back
 their strayed lambs to the spiritual   

fold3--          8,six horses sprang    
across the level ground         ,as six 
dragoons in open order dashed2          
,above their heads the lassos circled   
round1         ,in every eye a pious    
fervour flashed2         ,they charged  
the camp1 and in one moment more        
,they lassoed six and reconverted four40
          7,bret ,harte1 ,friar ,pedro's
 ,ride47          ,in the verses        
inscribed ,the ,angelus1 heard at the   
,mission ,dolores1        #ahfh1 and    
beginning          8,bells of the ,past1
 whose long-forgotten music             
,still fills the wide expanse10         
the same poet shews that he is not      
insensible to the poetical side         
of those old ,spanish missions1 which   
have long passed away4     ,m#aca       
,perhaps they hoped by the sacrifice of 
the individual bird to        preserve  
the species4      #ebh ,g4 ,turner1     
,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #ba4        
,compare id41 pp4 #bf1 #fa4     ,m#acb  
,ancient ,egyptian sacrifice of a ram at

 the festival of ,ammon4      #ebi      
,herodotus1 ii4 #db4 ,the custom has    
been already referred to above1 p4      
#da4      #ecj ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte 
des ,alterthums1#b i4 #b 7,stuttgart and
 ,berlin1        #aiji71 p4 #gc  #ahj4  
,compare ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,wilkinson1       
,manners and        ,customs of the     
,ancient ,egyptians 7,london1 #ahgh71   
iii4 #a sqq4      #eca ,above1 p4 #cf4  
,m#acc ,use of the skin of the          
sacrificed animal4      #ecb ,above1 p4 
#agj2 vol4 i4 p4 #bhe4      #ecc ,the   
,italmens of ,kamtchatka1 at the close  
of the fishing season1 used        to   
make the figure of a wolf out of grass4 
,this figure they        carefully kept 
the whole year1 believing that it wedded
 with their        maidens and prevented
 them from giving birth to twins2 for   
twins        were esteemed a great      
misfortune4 ,see ,g4 ,w4 ,steller1      
,beschreibung        von dem ,lande     
,kamtschatka 7,frankfort and ,leipsic1  
#aggd71 pp4 #cbg        sq4 ,according  

to ,chr4 ,hartknoch 7,dissertat4 histor4
 de variis        rebus ,prussicis1 p4  
#afc2 ,alt- und neues ,preussen1        
,frankfort and        ,leipsic1 #afhd1  
p4 #afa7 the image of the old ,prussian 
god ,curcho was        annually renewed4
 ,but see ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die          
,korndmonen 7,berlin1        #ahfh71 p4 
#bg4      #ecd ,see ,the ,magic ,art and
 the ,evolution of ,kings1 vol4 ii4 pp4 
#gj        sq4     ,m#acd ,the sacred   
serpent of ,issapoo in ,fernando ,po4   
#ece ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 ,impressions  
of ,western ,africa 7,london1 #aheh71   
pp4 #aif sq4 ,the writer does not       
expressly state that a serpent is       
killed annually1 but his statement      
implies it4      #ecf ,dr4 ,tautain1    
8,notes sur les croyances et pratiques  
religieuses des        ,banmanas10      
,revue d',ethnographie1 iii4 7#ahhe7 p4 
#cig4 ,compare        ,totemism and     
,exogamy1 ii4 #edc sq4      #ecg ,varro 
in ,priscian1 x4 #cb1 vol4 i4 p4 #ebd1  
ed4 ,keil2 ,pliny1 ,nat4        ,hist4  

vii4 #ad4 ,pliny's statement is to be   
corrected by ,varro's4     ,m#ace ,the  
killing of sacred turtles by the ,zuni  
,indians4      #ech ,when ,i wrote ,the 
,golden ,bough originally ,i said that  
in these        three cases 8the animal 
slain probably is1 or once was1 a       
totem40        ,but this seems to me    
less probable now than it did then4 ,in 
regard        to the ,californian custom
 in particular1 there appears to be no  
good        evidence that within the    
area now occupied by the ,united ,states
        totemism was practised by any   
tribes to the west of the ,rocky        
,mountains4 ,see ,h4 ,hale1 ,united     
,states ,exploring ,expedition1         
,ethnography and ,philology             
7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #aii2 ,george
        ,gibbs1 in ,contributions to    
,north ,american ,ethnology             
7,washington1        #ahgg71 i4 #ahd2   
,s4 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california     
7,washington1 #ahgg71        p4 #e2 ,a4 
,s4 ,gatschet1 ,the ,klamath ,indians of

 ,south-western ,oregon                 
7,washington1 #ahij71 vol4 i4 p4 cvi4   
8,california and ,oregon seem           
never to have had any gentes or         
phratries0 7,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet in a      
letter to me1 dated ,november #eth1     
#ahhh74 ,beyond the very doubtful       
case cited in the text1 ,i know of no   
evidence that totemism exists        in 
,fernando ,po4     ,m#acf ,the return of
 the procession with the turtles4       
,m#acg ,the turtle addressed as a dead  
relative4 ,the turtle killed4      #eci 
,frank ,h4 ,cushing1 8,my ,adventures in
 ,zui10 ,the ,century ,illustrated      
,monthly ,magazine1 ,may #ahhc1 pp4 #de 
sq4     ,m#ach ,in this custom is       
expressed a belief in the transmigration
 of human        souls into turtles4    
,from a later account it appears that   
the custom        is a mode of          
interceding with the ancestral spirits  
for rain4      #edj ,mr4 ,cushing1      
indeed1 while he admits that the        
ancestors of the ,zuni        may have  

believed in transmigration1 says1       
8,their belief1 to-day1        however1 
relative to the future life is          
spiritualistic40 ,but the               
expressions in the text seem to leave no
 room for doubting that the             
transmigration into turtles is a living 
article of ,zuni faith4      #eda ,h4   
,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of the
 ,united ,states        7,philadelphia1 
#ahec-ahef71 iv4 #hf4 ,on the totem     
clans of the ,moquis1        see ,j4 ,g4
 ,bourke1 ,snake-,dance of the ,moquis  
of ,arizona 7,london1        #ahhd71 pp4
 #aaf sq41 #ccd sqq4      #edb ,for this
 information ,i am indebted to the      
kindness of the late        ,captain ,j4
 ,g4 ,bourke1 #crd ,cavalry1 ,u4,s4     
,army1 author of the work               
mentioned in the preceding note4 ,in his
 letter ,captain ,bourke gave a         
list of fourteen totem clans of ,zuni1  
which he received on the #bjth        of
 ,may #ahha from ,pedro ,dino 7871      
,governor of ,zuni4      #edc ,it should

 be observed1 however1 that ,mr4        
,cushing omits to say        whether or 
not the persons who performed the       
ceremony described by        him had the
 turtle for their totem4 ,if they had   
not1 the ceremony        need not have  
had anything to do with totemism4       
#edd ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1     
,second ,edition1 pp4 #cja-cah4         
#ede ,mrs4 ,matilda ,coxe ,stevenson1   
8,the ,zui ,indians10 ,twenty-,third    
,annual ,report of the ,bureau of       
,american ,ethnology 7,washington1      
#aijd71 pp4 #adh-afb4     ,m#aci        
,ambiguous attitude of the ,aino towards
 the bear4      #edf ,b4 ,scheube1 8,der
 ,baerencultus und die ,baerenfeste der 
,ainos10        ,mittheilungen der      
deutschen ,gesellschaft b4 ,s4 und ,s4  
,ostasiens        7,yokohama71 ,heft    
xxii4 p4 #de4      #edg ,we are told    
that the ,aino have gods for almost     
every conceivable        object1 and    
that the word kamui 8has various shades 
of meaning1        which vary if used   

before or after another word1 and       
according to        the object to which 
it is applied40 8,when the term kamui is
        applied to good objects1 it     
expresses the quality of usefulness1    
beneficence1 or of being exalted or     
divine4 ,when applied to supposed       
evil gods1 it indicates that which is   
most to be feared and dreaded4          
,when applied to devils1 reptiles1 and  
evil diseases1 it signifies        what 
is most hateful1 abominable1 and        
repulsive4 ,when applied as a           
prefix to animals1 fish or fowl1 it     
represents the greatest or              
fiercest1 or the most useful for food or
 clothing4 ,when applied to             
persons1 it is sometimes expressive of  
goodness1 but more often is a           
mere title of respect and reverence40   
,see the ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1          
,the ,ainu of ,japan 7,london1 #ahib71  
pp4 #bde-bea2 id41 ,the ,ainu        and
 their ,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71 pp4 
#eha sq4 ,thus the ,aino        kamui   

appears to mean nearly the same as the  
,dacotan wakan1 as        to which see  
,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 
#bbe1 note4      #edh ,w4 ,martin ,wood1
 8,the ,hairy ,men of ,yesso10          
,transactions of the                    
,ethnological ,society of ,london1      
,n4,s41 iv4 7#ahff7 p4 #cf4      #edi   
,j4 ,j4 ,rein1 ,japan 7,leipsic1        
#ahha-ahhf71 i4 #ddf4      #eej ,h4 von 
,siebold1 ,ethnologische ,studien ber   
die ,aino auf der ,insel        ,yesso  
7,berlin1 #ahha71 p4 #bf4      #eea     
,miss ,isabella ,l4 ,bird1 ,unbeaten    
,tracks in ,japan 7new edition1         
#ahhe71 p4 #bge4      #eeb ,w4 ,martin  
,wood1 l4c4      #eec ,rev4 ,j4         
,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their        
,folk-lore1 p4 #dga4      #eed ,miss ,i4
 ,l4 ,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfi4      #eee 
,b4 ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #d        
7reprinted from ,mittheilungen d4       
deutsch4 ,gesell4 b4 ,s4 und ,s4        
,ostasiens1 ,yokohama74      #eef ,b4   
,scheube1 8,baerencultus10 etc41 p4 #de2

 ,w4 ,joest1 in ,verhandlungen          
der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr          
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte1 #ahhb1 p4 #ahh4      #eeg
 ,w4 ,martin ,wood1 l4c4      #eeh ,rev4
 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their   
,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71        pp4 
#dgf sq4 ,as to the inao see below1 p4  
#ahf1 note4      #eei ,miss ,i4 ,l4     
,bird1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgg4      #efj ,b4  
,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ae2 ,h4 von  
,siebold1 op4 cit4 p4 #bf2 ,w4          
,martin ,wood1 l4c42 ,j4 ,j4 ,rein1     
,japan1 i4 #ddg2 ,von ,brandt1 8,the    
,ainos and ,japanese10 ,journal of the  
,anthropological ,institute1        iii4
 7#ahgd7 p4 #acd2 ,miss ,bird1 op4 cit4 
pp4 #bge1 #bgf2 ,rev4 ,j4               
,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their        
,folk-lore1 pp4 #die sq4      #efa ,b4  
,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 pp4 #ae1 #af2    
,von ,brandt1 l4c42 ,rev4 ,j4           
,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their        
,folk-lore1 pp4 #ceb-ced1 #ejd sq4      
#efb ,b4 ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #af4 

#efc ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu   
and their ,folk-lore1 pp4 #h-aj4 ,e4    
,reclus 7,nouvelle ,gographie           
,universelle1 vii4 #gee7 mentions a     
7,japanese87 legend which attributes the
 hairiness of the ,ainos to        the  
suckling of their first ancestor by a   
bear4 ,but in the absence        of     
other evidence this is no proof of      
totemism4     ,m#adj ,aino custom of    
catching a bear cub1 rearing it for     
several years1        and killing it at 
a solemn festival4      #efd ,b4        
,scheube1 8,der ,baerencultus und die   
,baerenfeste der ,ainos10 p4 #de2       
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and    
their ,folk-lore1 pp4 #dhc-dhe4 ,mr4    
,batchelor formerly doubted or denied   
that the ,aino women suckle the         
bear cubs 7,the ,ainu of ,japan1 p4     
#agc72 but since then he has            
repeatedly seen them do it4 ,once1 while
 he was preaching1 a cub was            
being passed round among all the young  
women present and suckled by        each

 in turn4      #efe ,j4 ,j4 ,rein1      
,japan 7,leipsic1 #ahha-ahhf71 i4 #ddg4 
#eff ,b4 ,scheube1 8,der ,baerencultus  
und die ,baerenfeste der ,ainos10 p4    
#de2        ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the  
,ainu and their ,folk-lore1 pp4 #dhe sq4
      #efg ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the   
,ainu and their ,folk-lore1 pp4         
#dhf-dif4 ,the        killing of the    
bear is described somewhat differently  
by ,miss ,i4 ,l4        ,bird 7,unbeaten
 ,tracks in ,japan1 ,new ,edition1      
#ahhe1 pp4 #bgf sq471        but she did
 not witness the ceremony4 ,she tells us
 that at ,usu1 on        ,volcano ,bay1 
when the bear is being killed1 the ,aino
 shout1 8,we kill        you1 ,o bear6  
,come back soon into an ,aino40         
,according to ,dr4 ,siebold1        a   
very respectable authority1 the bear's  
own heart is frequently        offered  
to the dead beast to assure him that he 
is still in life        7,ethnologische 
,studien ber die ,aino auf der ,insel   
,yesso1 p4 #bf74        ,this1 however1 

is denied by ,dr4 ,scheube1 who says    
that the heart is        eaten          
78,baerencultus10 p4 #ej note74 ,the    
custom may vary in different            
places4     ,m#ada ,dr4 ,scheube's      
description of the ,aino custom of      
killing of a bear        ceremonially4  
#efh ,b4 ,scheube1 8,der ,baerencultus  
und die ,baerenfeste der ,ainos10       
,mittheilungen der deutschen            
,gesellschaft b4 ,s4 und ,s4 ,ostasiens 
7,yokohama71 ,heft xxii4 pp4 #df sqq4   
#efi ,b4 ,scheube1 8,baerencultus10     
etc41 p4 #df2 id41 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ae2 
,miss ,i4 ,l4 ,bird1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgc  
sq4 ,as to these whittled wands         
7inao71 which are so conspicuous about  
the ,aino huts1 see the ,rev4        ,j4
 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their       
,folk-lore1 pp4 #hi-ie4 ,he remarks     
7p4 #ib73 8,i have often insisted both  
in my lectures and also in my           
writings that the ,ainu do not worship  
their inao1 but that they        make   
them as offerings to the deities1 and   

set them up as signs        showing     
reverence towards them4 ,this1 ,i must  
now remark1 is true but        in part1 
for while some of the ordinary or less  
important kinds are        not          
worshipped1 there are several others    
which are4 ,those not        worshipped 
may almost always be regarded as        
offerings and charms        pure and    
simple1 while those which are worshipped
 must generally        be regarded as   
messengers sent to the higher deities40 
,on the whole        ,mr4 ,batchelor    
would describe the inao as fetishes of  
various        degrees of power4 ,see   
further ,p4 ,labb1 ,un bagne ,russe1    
l',isle de        ,sakhaline 7,paris1   
#aijc71 pp4 #aid sq41 who compares the  
use of        these whittled sticks to  
the use of holy candles among ,roman    
,catholics4 ,in ,borneo the search for  
camphor is attended by many             
superstitions2 among other things1 when 
the searchers have found a        tree  
which promises to yield much camphor    

8they plant near their hut        a     
stake1 whereof the outer surface has    
been cut into curled shavings        and
 tufts down the sides and at the top0   
7,w4 ,h4 ,furness1 ,home-life        of 
,borneo ,head-hunters1 ,philadelphia1   
#aijb1 p4 #afh74 ,according to          
some ancient authorities1 the old       
,italians worshipped peeled sticks      
as gods or as the images of gods2       
however1 the statement seems no         
better than an etymological guess to    
explain the word delubrum4        ,see  
,festus1 s4v4 8,delubrum10 p4 #gc1 ed4  
,c4 ,o4 ,mller2 ,servius on             
,virgil1 ,aen4 ii4 #bbe4     ,m#adb     
,early ,japanese account of the ,aino   
festival of the bear4      #egj         
8,ieso-,ki1 ou description de l'le      
d',iesso1 avec une notice sur la        
rvolte de ,samsay-in1 compose par       
l'interprte ,kannemon10 printed         
in ,malte-,brun's ,annales des ,voyages1
 xxiv4 7,paris1 #ahad7 p4 #aed4         
,m#adc ,the custom of rearing and       

killing bears among the ,aino of        
,saghalien4      #ega ,p4 ,labb1 ,un    
,bagne ,russe1 l',isle de ,sakhaline    
7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4        #bbg1       
#bcb-beh4 ,the ,gilyaks of ,saghalien   
similarly keep and sacrifice            
bears2 but the ceremonies are simpler1  
and they treat the animals        with  
less respect than the ,aino4 ,see ,p4   
,labb1 op4 cit4 pp4        #bfa-bfg4    
,m#add ,bear-festivals of the ,gilyaks4 
#egb ,they inhabit the banks of the     
lower ,amoor and the north of           
,saghalien4 ,see ,e4 ,g4 ,ravenstein1   
,the ,russians on the ,amur 7,london1   
#ahfa71 p4 #chi4      #egc 8,notes on   
the ,river ,amur and the ,adjacent      
,districts10 translated        from the 
,russian1 ,journal of the ,royal        
,geographical ,society1        xxviii4  
7#aheh7 p4 #cif4      #egd ,compare the 
custom of pinching a frog before cutting
 off his head2        see ,the ,magic   
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4  
#hf4 ,in ,japan        sorceresses bury 

a dog in the earth1 tease him1 then cut 
off his        head and put it in a box 
to be used in magic4 ,see ,a4 ,bastian1 
,die        ,culturlnder des alten      
,amerika 7,berlin1 #ahgh71 i4 #dge note1
 who        adds 8wie im ostindischen   
,archipelago die ,schutzseele gereizt   
wird40 ,he probably refers to the ,batta
 ,pang-hulu-balang4 ,see ,h4        von 
,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel  
7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 pp4 #ei        sq42  
,w4 ,kdding1 8,die ,batakschen ,gtter10 
,allgemeine                             
,missions-,zeitschrift1 xii4 7#ahhe7 pp4
 #dgh sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,neumann1 8,het      
,pane-en ,bila-stroomgebied op het      
eiland ,sumatra10 in ,tijdschrift       
van het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig  
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 dl4       
iii4 7#ahhf7 ,afdeeling1 meer           
uitgebreide artikelen1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #cjf2
        ,van ,dijk1 in ,tijdschrift voor
 ,indische ,taal- ,land- en             
,volkenkunde1        xxxviii4 7#ahie7   
pp4 #cjg sq4      #ege ,w4 ,joest1 in   

,b4 ,scheube1 ,die ,ainos1 p4 #ag2 ,j4  
,deniker1 8,les        ,ghiliaks d'aprs 
les derniers renseignements10 ,revue    
d',ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahhc7 pp4 #cjg   
sq4 7on the authority of ,mr4           
,seeland72 ,internationales ,archiv fr  
,ethnologie1 i4 7#ahhh7 p4 #ajb         
7on the authority of ,captain           
,jacobsen72 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1  
xxvi4 7#aijj7 p4 #gif 7abstract of a    
,russian work on the ,gilyaks by        
,dr4 ,seland or ,seeland74 ,what exactly
 is meant by 8dancing as bears0         
78tanzen beide ,geschlechter            
,reigentnze1 wie ,bren10 ,joest1        
l4c47 does not appear4     ,m#ade ,l4   
von ,schrenck's description of a        
bear-festival among the ,gilyaks        
of the ,amoor4 ,bears led in procession 
about the village4 ,slaughter        of 
the bears4   ,m#adf ,treatment of the   
bears' skins4   ,m#adg ,treatment of the
 bears' flesh4   ,m#adh ,banquet on the 
bears' flesh4 ,dance of the women4      
,disposal of the        skull and bones 

of the bear4      #egf ,l4 von          
,schrenck1 ,reisen und ,forschungen im  
,amur-lande 7,st4        ,petersburg1   
#ahia71 iii4 #fif-gca4     ,m#adi ,mr4  
,l4 ,sternberg's description of the     
bear-festivals of the ,gilyaks4         
#egg ,l4 ,sternberg1 8,die ,religion der
 ,giljaken10 ,archiv fr                 
,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7   
pp4 #bfj-bgd4     ,m#aej ,bear-festivals
 of the ,goldi4      #egh ,e4 ,g4       
,ravenstein1 ,the ,russians on the ,amur
 7,london1 #ahfa71 pp4 #cgi        sq42 
,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 ,travels in the      
,regions of the ,upper and        ,lower
 ,amoor 7,london1 #ahfj71 pp4 #dhb sq4  
,m#aea ,bear-festivals of the ,orotchis4
      #egi ,e4 ,h4 ,fraser1 8,the       
,fish-skin ,tartars10 ,journal of the   
,china ,branch        of the ,royal     
,asiatic ,society for the year          
#ahia-ahib1 ,new ,series1        xxvi4  
#cf-ci4 ,l4 von ,schrenck describes a   
bear-feast which he        witnessed in 
#ahee among the ,oltscha 7,reisen und   

,forschungen im        ,amur-lande1 iii4
 #gbc-gbh74 ,the ,oltscha are probably  
the same as the        ,orotchis4       
,m#aeb ,respect shewn by all these      
tribes for the bears which they kill and
        eat4      #ehj ,the ,magic ,art 
and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ei   
sqq4      #eha ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1    
,the ,ainu and their ,folk-lore1 pp4    
#dib1 #dic1        #die1 #dif4      #ehb
 ,op4 cit4 p4 #dhb4 ,mr4 ,batchelor says
 8totem gods40      #ehc ,op4 cit4 pp4  
#ehj sqq4      #ehd ,see above1 pp4 #ahh
 sq4      #ehe ,this account of the     
attitude of the ,gilyaks to the bear1   
and of        their reasons for holding 
the festival1 is the one given by ,mr4  
,leo        ,sternberg4 ,see his        
articles1 8,die ,religion der           
,giljaken10 ,archiv        fr           
,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7   
pp4 #bgc sq41 #def-deh4 ,he             
speaks of the bear as a minor deity     
78,er selbst ist ja eine                
,gottheit1 wenn auch eine kleine074 ,mr4

 ,sternberg and ,mr4 ,batchelor1        
two of the best-informed writers on the 
subject1 agree in denying        that   
the slaughter of the bear at the        
festival is a sacrifice to the          
gods4 ,see ,l4 ,sternberg1 op4 cit4 p4  
#deg2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the        
,ainu and their ,folk-lore1 p4 #dhb4 ,as
 to the belief of the ,gilyaks        in
 evil spirits1 which menace and destroy 
the life of man1 see ,l4                
,sternberg1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfj sqq4      
,m#aec ,similar respect shewn by the    
,aino for the eagle-owls which they keep
        in cages and kill4      #ehf    
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and    
their ,folk-lore1 pp4 #daj-dae4         
,m#aed ,similar respect shewn by the    
,aino for the eagles and hawks which    
they keep in cages and kill4      #ehg  
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dcb 
sq4      #ehh ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 op4 
cit4 p4 #dch4     ,m#aee ,advantages    
which the ,aino hopes to reap from      
slaughtering the        worshipful      

animals4      #ehi ,see above1 pp4 #ahc1
 #ahd1 #aif4      #eij ,rev4 ,j4        
,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their        
,folk-lore1 p4 #dgi4      #eia ,rev4 ,j4
 ,batchelor1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dha1 #dhb4   
,m#aef ,the bear-festivals of these     
tribes are probably nothing but an      
extension of the similar rites which the
 hunter performs over any        wild   
bear which he kills in the forest4      
#eib ,l4 ,sternberg1 8,die ,religion der
 ,giljaken10 ,archiv fr                 
,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7 p4
 #bgb4     ,m#aeg ,the apparent         
contradiction in the behaviour of these 
tribes to bears        is not so great  
as it seems to us at first sight4       
,savage logic4   ,m#aeh ,the savage     
believes that animals1 like men1 are    
endowed with souls        which survive 
the death of their bodies4 ,the         
,american ,indians draw        no sharp 
distinction between animals and men4    
#eic ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the      
,indians of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4

        #cej4      #eid ,j4 ,mooney1    
8,myths of the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth  
,annual ,report of the        ,bureau of
 ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4         
7,washington1 #aijj7 p4 #bfa4      #eie 
,rev4 ,john ,heckewelder1 8,an ,account 
of the ,history1 ,manners1 and          
,customs of the ,indian ,nations who    
once inhabited ,pennsylvania and        
the neighbouring ,states10 ,transactions
 of the ,historical and        ,literary
 ,committee of the ,american            
,philosophical ,society1 vol4 i4        
7,philadelphia1 #ahai7 pp4 #bdg sq4     
#eif ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the        
,religious ,system of ,china1 iv4       
7,leyden1        #aija7 pp4 #aeg sq4    
,m#aei ,some savages apparently fail to 
distinguish clearly even the bodies     
of animals from the bodies of men4      
#eig ,john ,campbell1 ,travels in ,south
 ,africa1 being a ,narrative of a       
,second ,journey in the ,interior of    
that ,country 7,london1 #ahbb71 ii4     
#cd4      #eih ,l4 ,sternberg1 8,die    

,religion der ,giljaken10 ,archiv fr    
,religionswissenschaft1 viii4 7#aije7 p4
 #bdh4      #eii ,i4 ,petroff1 ,report  
on the ,population1 ,industries1 and    
,resources of        ,alaska1 p4 #ade4  
#fjj ,above1 p4 #ada4      #fja ,a4 ,c4 
,haddon1 8,the ,ethnography of the      
,western ,tribe of ,torres              
,straits10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       
7#ahij7 p4        #cic2 id41            
,head-hunters 7,london1 #aija71 p4 #acc2
 ,reports of the        ,cambridge      
,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres 
,straits1 v4        7,cambridge1 #aijd7 
p4 #aff4      #fjb ,miss ,alice ,c4     
,fletcher1 ,the ,import of the ,totem1 a
 ,study from the        ,omaha ,tribe1  
p4 #f 7paper read before the ,american  
,association for        the ,advancement
 of ,science1 ,august #ahig74      #fjc 
,james ,teit1 8,the ,thompson ,indians  
of ,british ,columbia10 p4 #cef 7,the   
,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition4     
,memoir of the ,american ,museum of     

,natural ,history1 ,april #aijj74       
#fjd ,k4 von den ,steinen1 ,unter den   
,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens       
7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #ceb sq41 #eab4   
,the ,chambioa ,indians of ,central     
,brazil kept birds of the same species  
in captivity and used their             
brilliant feathers to cover enormous    
head-dresses or masks1 some six         
feet high1 which were worn by dancers in
 certain mystic dances4 ,the            
masks were guarded in a special hut of  
each village1 and no woman        might 
see them under pain of death4 ,see ,f4  
de ,castelnau1 ,expdition        dans   
les parties centrales de l',amrique du  
,sud 7,paris1 #ahej-ahea71        i4    
#dcf sq41 #ddj1 #ddi-dea4     ,m#afj    
,hence the savage attempts to propitiate
 the animals which he kills        and  
the other members of the species4       
,scruples entertained by the            
,dyaks as to the killing of crocodiles4 
#fje ,however1 many savages hunt the    
crocodile for the sake of its flesh1    

which some of them even regard as a     
delicacy4 ,see ,h4 von ,wissmann1       
,my ,second ,journey through ,equatorial
 ,africa1 from the ,congo to the        
,zambesi 7,london1 #ahia71 p4 #bih2 ,ch4
 ,partridge1 ,cross ,river              
,natives 7,london1 #aije71 p4 #adi2 ,a4 
,f4 ,mocler-,ferryman1 ,up the          
,niger 7,london1 #ahib71 p4 #bbb2       
,captain ,g4 ,burrows1 ,the ,land of the
        ,pigmies 7,london1 #ahih71 p4   
#bdg2 ,r4 ,e4 ,dennett1 ,bavili ,notes1 
,folk-lore1 xvi4 7#aije7 p4 #cii2 ,j4   
,halkin1 ,quelques ,peuplades du        
district de l',uel1 ,i4 ,les ,ababua    
7,lige1 #aijg71 p4 #cc2 ,h4             
,reynolds1 8,notes on the ,azand ,tribe 
of the ,congo10 ,journal of the         
,african ,society1 ,no4 xi4 7,april1    
#aijd7 p4 #bdb2 ,brard1 8,der           
,victoria-,nyansa10 ,petermann's        
,mittheilungen1 xliii4 7#ahig7 p4 #gh2  
,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme    
,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 p4         
#bji2 ,g4 ,kurze1 8,sitten und ,gebruche

 der ,lengua-,indianer10                
,mitteilungen der ,geographischen       
,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xxiii4          
7#aije7 p4 #cj2 ,w4 ,barbrooke ,grubb1  
,an unknown ,people in an unknown       
,land 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #hb sq42    
,census of ,india1 #aija1 vol4          
xxvi41 ,travancore 7,trivandrum1 #aijc71
 p4 #cec2 ,max ,krieger1                
,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 ,n4,d471 p4 #afc2
 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,northern        
,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1
 #aijd71 p4 #ggj2 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1        
,ethnological ,studies among the        
,north-,west-,central ,queensland       
,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1     
#ahig71 p4 #id2 ,n4 ,w4 ,thomas1        
,natives of ,australia 7,london1 #aijf71
 p4 #ajf4 ,in antiquity some of         
the ,egyptians worshipped crocodiles1   
but others killed and ate them4         
,see ,herodotus1 ii4 #fi2 ,plutarch1    
,isis et ,osiris1 #ej2 ,aelian1 ,de     
natura animalium1 x4 #ba4      #fjf     
,rev4 ,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak          

,religion10 ,journal of the ,straits    
,branch        of the ,royal ,asiatic   
,society1 ,no4 #aj 7,singapore1 #ahhc71 
p4 #bba4        ,compare ,c4 ,hupe1     
8,korte verhandeling over de godsdienst 
zeden1 enz4        der ,dajakkers10     
,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indi1      
#ahdf1 dl4 iii4        #afj2 ,s4 ,mller1
 ,reizen en onderzoekingen in den       
,indischen ,archipel        7,amsterdam1
 #aheg71 i4 #bch2 ,m4 ,t4 ,h4 ,perelaer1
 ,ethnographische        ,beschrijving  
der ,dajaks 7,zalt-,bommel1 #ahgj71 p4  
#g4     ,m#afa ,ceremonies observed by  
the ,dyaks at killing a crocodile4      
#fjg ,f4 ,grabowsky1 8,die ,theogonie   
der ,dajaken auf ,borneo10              
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahib7 pp4 #aai sq4 
#fjh ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of  
,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo    
7,london1 #ahif71 i4 #ddg sq4 ,compare  
,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1 ,seventeen years        
among the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo        
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #ef-fj4 ,similarly

        the ,kenyahs1 ,kayans1 and      
,ibans1 three tribes of ,sarawak1 will  
not        kill crocodiles except in    
revenge for the death of one of their   
people4 ,see ,c4 ,hose and ,w4          
,mac,dougall1 8,the ,relations between  
,men        and ,animals in ,sarawak10  
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1        xxxi4 7#aija7 pp4    
#ahf1 #aij1 #aii1 compare ib4 pp4 #aic  
sq4     ,m#afb ,ceremonies observed by  
the ,minangkabauers of ,sumatra at      
killing a        crocodile4      #fji   
,j4 ,l4 van der ,toorn1 8,het animisme  
bij den ,minangkabauer der              
,padangsche ,bovenlanden10 ,bijdragen   
tot de ,taal- ,land- en                 
,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi1   
xxxix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ge sq4     ,m#afc   
,belief in the kinship of men with      
crocodiles among the ,malays4      #faj 
,nelson ,annandale1 8,primitive ,beliefs
 and ,customs of the ,patani            
,fishermen10 ,fasciculi ,malayenses1    
,anthropology1 i4 7,april1 #aijc7       

pp4 #gf-gh4      #faa ,voyages of       
,captain ,james ,cook round the ,world  
7,london1 #ahji71 ii4        #caf-cai4  
,m#afd ,crocodiles respected in ,africa4
      #fab ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the      
,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #ccf4     
#fac ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4    
#cah1 #cbb1 #cce4      #fad ,fr4        
,stuhlmann1 ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz
 von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71          
pp4 #eaj sq4      #fae ,a4 ,raffenel1   
,voyage dans l',afrique occidentale     
7,paris1 #ahdf71 pp4        #hd sq4     
,m#afe ,crocodiles respected in         
,madagascar4      #faf ,j4 ,sibree1 ,the
 ,great ,african ,island 7,london1      
#ahhj71 p4 #bfi4      #fag ,father      
,abinal1 8,croyances fabuleuses des     
,malgaches10 ,les ,missions             
,catholiques1 xii4 7#ahhj7 p4 #ebg2 ,a4 
van ,gennep1 ,tabou et ,totmisme        
,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #bhc   
sq4      #fah ,w4 ,ellis1 ,history of   
,madagascar 7,london1 ,n4,d471 i4 #eg   
sq4     ,m#aff ,tigers respected in     

,sumatra4 ,ceremonies at killing tigers 
in ,sumatra        and ,bengal4         
#fai ,w4 ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra 
7,london1 #ahaa71 p4 #bib4      #fbj ,j4
 ,l4 van der ,toorn1 8,het animisme bij 
den ,minangkabauer der                  
,padangsche ,bovenlanden10 ,bijdragen   
tot de ,taal- ,land- en                 
,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indi1   
xxxix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #gd1 #ge sq4         
#fba ,h4 ,ris1 8,de onderafdeeling      
,mandailing ,oeloe en ,pahantan en hare 
,bevolking10 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-   
,land- en ,volkenkunde van              
,nederlandsch ,indi1 xlvi4 7#ahif7 pp4  
#dgb sq4      #fbb ,g4 ,g4 ,batten1     
,glimpses of the ,eastern ,archipelago  
7,singapore1        #ahid71 p4 #hf4     
#fbc ,th4 ,shaw1 8,on the ,inhabitants  
of the ,hills near ,rajamahall10        
,asiatic ,researches1 ,fourth ,edition1 
iv4 7,london1 #ahjg7 p4 #cg4      #fbd  
,annales de l',association de la        
,propagation de la ,foi1 v4 7#ahca7     
pp4 #cfc sq4     ,m#afg ,snakes1        

especially rattlesnakes1 respected by   
the ,north ,american        ,indians4   
#fbe ,j4 ,bricknell1 ,the ,natural      
,history of ,north ,carolina 7,dublin1  
#agcg71 p4 #cfh4      #fbf ,w4 ,bartram1
 ,travels through ,north and ,south     
,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,east        and   
,west ,florida1 etc4 7,london1 #agib7   
pp4 #beh-bfa4      #fbg ,h4 ,r4         
,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of the    
,united ,states        7,philadelphia1  
#ahec-ahef71 iii4 #bgc4      #fbh ,rev4 
,john ,heckewelder1 8,an ,account of the
 ,history1 ,manners1 and        ,customs
 of the ,indian ,nations who once       
inhabited ,pennsylvania and        the  
neighbouring ,states10 ,transactions of 
the ,historical and        ,literary    
,committee of the ,american             
,philosophical ,society1 i4             
7,philadelphia1 #ahai7 p4 #bde4         
#fbi ,w4 ,keating1 ,narrative of an     
,expedition to the ,source of ,st4      
,peter's        ,river 7,london1 #ahbe71
 i4 #abg4      #fcj ,j4 ,mooney1 8,myths

 of the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth ,annual 
,report of the        ,bureau of        
,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4          
7,washington1 #aijj7 pp4                
#bid-bif4 ,compare id41 pp4 #def-deh2   
,j4 ,adair1 ,history of the             
,american ,indians 7,london1 #agge71 pp4
 #bcg sq4      #fca ,henry1 ,travels1   
pp4 #agf-agi1 quoted by ,j4 ,mooney1 op4
 cit4 pp4        #deg sq4      #fcb ,c4 
,sapper1 8,die ,gebruche und religisen  
,anschauungen der                       
,kekch-,indianer10 ,internationales     
,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4         
7#ahie7 p4 #bjd4     ,m#afh ,ceremonies 
observed in ,kiziba at the killing of a 
snake4      #fcc ,h4 ,rehse1 ,kiziba1   
,land und ,leute 7,stuttgart1 #aiaj71   
pp4 #acj sq4     ,m#afi ,ceremonies     
observed by the ,north ,american        
,indians and others at the              
killing of a wolf4      #fcd ,fr4 ,boas1
 in ,eleventh ,report on the            
,north-,western ,tribes of              
,canada1 pp4 #i sq4 7separate reprint   

from the ,report of the        ,british 
,association for #ahif74      #fce ,rev4
 ,j4 ,jett1 8,on the ,medicine-men of   
the ,ten'a10 ,journal of the            
,royal ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxxvii4 7#aijg7 p4 #aeh4      #fcf ,j4  
,mooney1 8,myths of the ,cherokee10     
,nineteenth ,annual ,report of the      
,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,part  
i4 7,washington1 #aijj7 p4 #bfe4        
#fcg ,t4 de ,pauly1 ,description        
,ethnographique des ,peuples de la      
,russie        7,st4 ,petersburg1       
#ahfb71 ,peuples de la ,sibrie          
,orientale1 p4 #g4      #fch ,scholiast 
on ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonaut4 ii4 
#abd4     ,m#agj ,certain birds         
respected4      #fci 8,coutumes tranges 
des indignes du ,djebel-,nouba10 ,les   
,missions        ,catholiques1 xiv4     
7#ahhb7 p4 #deh4      #fdj ,c4 ,b4      
,klunzinger1 ,upper ,egypt 7,london1    
#ahgh71 pp4 #djb sq4      #fda ,caulin1 
,historia ,coro-graphica natural y      
evangelica dela ,nueva                  

,andalucia1 p4 #if3 8,reusan mucho matar
 qualquier animal no        comestibile 
que no sea nocibo10 etc4 ,here reusan   
appears to be a        misprint for     
recusan4     ,m#aga ,apologies offered  
by savages to the animals which they are
 obliged        to kill4 ,propitiation  
of slain bears by ,kamtchatkans1        
,ostiaks1        ,koryak1 ,finns1 and   
,lapps4      #fdb ,g4 ,w4 ,steller1     
,beschreibung von dem ,lande            
,kamtschatka 7,frankfort        and     
,leipsic1 #aggd71 pp4 #he1 #bhj1 #cca4  
#fdc ,voyages au ,nord 7,amsterdam1     
#agbg71 viii4 #da1 #daf2 ,p4 ,s4        
,pallas1        ,reise durch            
verschiedene ,provinzen des russischen  
,reichs 7,st4        ,petersburg1       
#agga-aggf71 iii4 #fd2 ,j4 ,g4 ,georgi1 
,beschreibung aller        ,nationen des
 russischen ,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1  
#aggf71 p4 #hc4      #fdd ,a4 ,erman1   
,travels in ,siberia 7,london1 #ahdh71  
ii4 #dc4 ,for the        veneration of  
the polar bear by the ,samoyedes1 who   

nevertheless kill        and eat it1 see
 ibid4 pp4 #ed sq4      #fde ,a4        
,bastian1 ,der ,mensch in der           
,geschichte 7,leipsic1 #ahfj71 iii4 #bf4
      #fdf ,w4 ,jochelson1 ,the ,koryak 
7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijh71 pp4 #hh
 sq4        7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific
 ,expedition1 vol4 vi41 ,memoir of the  
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74
      #fdg ,max ,buch1 ,die ,wotjken    
7,stuttgart1 #ahhb71 p4 #aci4      #fdh 
,a4 ,featherman1 ,social ,history of the
 ,races of ,mankind1 ,fourth            
,division1 ,dravido-,turanians1 etc4    
7,london1 #ahia7 p4 #dbb4      #fdi ,j4 
,scheffer1 ,lapponia 7,frankfort1       
#afgc71 pp4 #bcc sq4 ,the ,lapps        
8have still an elaborate ceremony in    
hunting the bear4 ,they pray and        
chant to his carcase1 and for several   
days worship before eating it0          
7,e4 ,rae1 ,the ,white ,sea ,peninsula  
7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #bgf74     ,m#agb  
,propitiation of slain bears by the     
,north ,american ,indians4      #fej    

,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle  
,france 7,paris1 #agdd71 v4 #agc        
sq42 ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en         
,amrique1 pp4 #agb-aha 7,paris1         
,michel ,lvy1 #ahgj74      #fea ,lettres
 difiantes et curieuses1 ,nouvelle      
dition1 vi4 7,paris1        #agha7 p4   
#aga4 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan states that the   
names of the ,otawa totem        clans  
had not been obtained 7,ancient         
,society1 ,london1 #ahgg1 p4            
#afg74 ,from the ,lettres difiantes1 vi4
 #afh-aga1 he might have        learned 
the names of the ,hare1 ,carp1 and ,bear
 clans1 to which may be        added the
 ,gull clan1 as ,i learn from an extract
 from ,the ,canadian        ,journal    
7,toronto7 for ,march #aheh1 quoted in  
,the ,academy1 #bgth        ,september  
#ahhd1 p4 #bjc4      #feb ,a ,narrative 
of the ,adventures and ,sufferings of   
,john ,r4 ,jewitt1 p4        #aag       
7,middletown1 #ahbj71 p4 #acc           
7,edinburgh1 #ahbd74      #fec ,de      
,smet1 ,western ,missions and           

,missionaries 7,new ,york1 #ahfc71 p4   
#aci4      #fed ,a4 ,p4 ,reid1          
8,religious ,belief of the ,ojibois     
,indians10 ,journal of        the       
,anthropological ,institute1 iii4       
7#ahgd7 p4 #aaa4      #fee ,henry's     
,travels1 pp4 #adc-ade1 quoted by ,j4   
,mooney1 8,myths of the                 
,cherokee10 ,nineteenth ,annual ,report 
of the ,bureau of ,american             
,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#aijj71 pp4 #ddf sq4      #fef ,a4      
,mackenzie1 8,descriptive notes on      
certain implements1 weapons1            
etc41 from ,graham ,island1 ,queen      
,charlotte ,islands1 ,b4,c410           
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,canada1 ix4 7#ahia7 section        ii4 
p4 #eh4      #feg ,james ,teit1 ,the    
,thompson ,indians of ,british          
,columbia1 p4 #cdg 7,the        ,jesup  
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american ,museum of        ,natural
 ,history1 ,april #aijj74 ,the ,thompson
 ,indians used to be known        as the

 ,couteau or ,knife ,indians4      #feh 
,j4 ,teit1 ,the ,lillooet ,indians      
7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijf71 p4 #bgi
        7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific    
,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american   
,museum        of ,natural ,history72   
id41 ,the ,shuswap 7,leyden and ,new    
,york1        #aiji71 pp4 #fjb sq4 7,the
 ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition74   
,m#agc ,propitiation of slain elephants 
in ,africa4      #fei ,stephen ,kay1    
,travels and ,researches in ,caffraria  
7,london1 #ahcc71        p4 #ach4       
#ffj ,l4 ,alberti1 ,de ,kaffers aan de  
,zuidkust van ,afrika 7,amsterdam1      
#ahaj71 p4 #ie4 ,alberti's information  
is repeated by ,h4 ,lichtenstein        
7,reisen im sdlichen ,afrika1 ,berlin1  
#ahaa-ahab1 i4 #dab7 and by             
,cowper ,rose 7,four ,years in ,southern
 ,africa1 ,london1 #ahbi1 p4 #aee74     
,the burial of the trunk is also        
mentioned by ,kay1 l4c4      #ffa ,j4   
,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal        
7,london1 #aheg71 p4 #bae4      #ffb    

,fr4 ,stuhlmann1 ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins 
,herz von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71     
p4 #hg4      #ffc ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1    
,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #ddg4
     ,m#agd ,propitiation of lions in   
,africa4      #ffd ,fr4 ,stuhlmann1 ,mit
 ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz von ,afrika    
7,berlin1 #ahid71        p4 #ghe4       
#ffe ,j4 ,becker1 ,la ,vie en ,afrique  
7,paris and ,brussels1 #ahhg71 ii4 #bih 
sq41 #cje4     ,m#age ,propitiation of  
slain leopards in ,africa4      #fff ,a4
 ,bastian1 ,die deutsche ,expedition an 
der ,loango-,kste 7,jena1               
#ahgd-ahge71 ii4 #bdc4      #ffg ,a4 ,f4
 ,mockler-,ferryman1 ,up the ,niger     
7,london1 #ahib71 p4 #cji4      #ffh    
,lieut4 ,herold1 8,bericht betreffend   
religise ,anschauungen und              
,gebruche der deutschen ,ewe-,neger10   
,mittheilungen von                      
,forschungsreisenden und ,gelehrten aus 
den deutschen ,schutzgebieten1        v4
 ,heft #d 7,berlin1 #ahib71 p4 #aef4    
#ffi ,h4 ,spieth1 8,jagdgebruche in     

,avatime10 ,mitteilungen der            
geographischen ,gesellschaft zu ,jena1  
ix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ah-bj4 ,compare        
,h4 ,klose1 ,togo unter deutscher       
,flagge 7,berlin1 #ahii71 pp4 #ade-adg4 
,the ceremonies observed after the      
slaughter of a wild buffalo are of      
the same general character with         
variations in detail4     ,m#agf        
,propitiation of slain buffaloes and    
sheep in ,uganda4      #fgj ,rev4 ,j4   
,roscoe1 8,further ,notes on the        
,manners and ,customs of the            
,baganda10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4     
7#aijb7        p4 #ed2 id41 ,the        
,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bhi1    
#ddh4      #fga ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the 
,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #bhh sq4 
,another        curious notion which the
 ,baganda have about sheep is that they 
give        health to cattle and prevent
 them from being struck by lightning4   
,hence a sheep is often herded with cows
 to serve as a sort of                  

lightning-conductor4 ,see ,j4 ,roscoe1  
op4 cit4 p4 #dba4      #fgb ,rev4 ,j4   
,roscoe1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dbc sq4 ,further1
 8if a man's dog        died in the     
house1 his wife dared not touch it1     
because she feared        its ghost2 she
 would call her husband to take it away0
 7op4 cit4 p4        #dbe74     ,m#agg  
,propitiation of dead whales among the  
,koryak4      #fgc ,w4 ,jochelson1 ,the 
,koryak 7,leyden and ,new ,york1 #aijh71
 p4 #ff 7,the        ,jesup ,north      
,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vi41 ,memoir 
of the ,american        ,museum of      
,natural ,history74      #fgd ,w4       
,jochelson1 ,the ,koryak 7,leyden and   
,new ,york1 #aijh71 pp4 #ff-gf          
7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific            
,expedition1 vol4 vi41 ,memoir of the   
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74
     ,m#agh ,propitiation of whales1    
hippopotamuses1 ounces1 and apes4       
#fge ,captain ,w4 ,f4 ,w4 ,owen1        
,narrative of ,voyages to explore the   
,shores        of ,africa1 ,arabia1 and 

,madagascar 7,london1 #ahcc71 i4 #agj4  
#fgf ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,nassau1 ,fetichism  
in ,west ,africa 7,london1 #aijd71 p4   
#bjd4      #fgg ,a4 ,thevet1 ,la        
,cosmographie ,universelle 7,paris1     
#aege71 ii4 #icf        #igj sq4        
#fgh ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans       
l',amrique ,mridionale1 iii4 7,paris and
        ,strasburg1 #ahdd7 p4 #bjb4     
#fgi ,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the      
,indians of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc71 p4
        #ceb4     ,m#agi ,propitiation  
of dead eagles4 ,deceiving the ghosts of
 spiders4      #fhj ,g4 ,b4 ,grinnell1  
,blackfoot ,lodge ,tales 7,london1      
#ahic71 p4 #bdj4      #fha ,a4 ,caulin1 
,historia ,coro-graphica natural y      
evangelica dela ,nueva        ,andalucia
 ,guayana y ,vertientes del ,rio        
,orinoco 7#aggi71 p4 #ig4      #fhb ,j4 
,mooney1 8,myths of the ,cherokee10     
,nineteenth ,annual ,report of the      
,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,part  
i4 7,washington1 #aijj7 p4 #bhb4        
#fhc ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey1 8,teton         

,folklore ,notes10 ,journal of ,american
        ,folklore1 ii4 7#ahhi7 p4 #acd2 
id41 8,a ,study of ,siouan ,cults10     
,eleventh ,annual ,report of the ,bureau
 of ,ethnology 7,washington1            
#ahid71 p4 #dgi4     ,m#ahj ,the        
ceremonies of propitiation offered to   
slain animals vary with        the more 
or less dangerous character of the      
creature4 ,animals which1        without
 being feared1 are valued for their     
flesh or their skin1 are        also    
treated with respect4      #fhd ,h4     
,mouhot1 ,travels in the ,central ,parts
 of ,indo-,china 7,london1              
#ahfd71 i4 #beb2 ,j4 ,moura1 ,le        
,royaume du ,cambodge 7,paris1 #ahhc71  
i4        #dbb4      #fhe ,h4 ,r4       
,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes of the    
,united ,states        7,philadelphia1  
#ahec-ahef71 v4 #dbj4     ,m#aha        
,respect shewn to dead sables4 ,bones of
 sables and beavers kept out        of  
reach of dogs1 lest the spirits of the  
dead animals should be        offended4 

#fhf ,j4 ,g4 ,gmelin1 ,reise durch      
,sibirien 7,gttingen1 #agea-ageb71 ii4  
#bgh4      #fhg ,l4 von ,schrenck1      
,reisen und ,forschungen im ,amur-lande1
 iii4 #efd4      #fhh ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska
 and its ,resources 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4
 #hi2 id41 in        ,the ,yukon        
,territory 7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #hi4    
#fhi ,fr4 ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report on   
the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 
p4 #ib 7separate reprint from the       
,report of the ,british ,association    
for #ahij74      #fij ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1  
8,notes1 archological1 industrial1 and  
sociological1        on the ,western    
,dns10 ,transactions of the ,canadian   
,institute1 iv4        7#ahib-ic7 p4    
#ajh4      #fia ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 ,au    
pays de l',ours ,noir1 chez les sauvages
 de la        ,colombie ,britannique    
7,paris and ,lyons1 #ahig71 p4 #ga4     
#fib ,l4 ,hennepin1 ,description de la  
,louisiane 7,paris1 #afhc71 pp4 #ig     
sq4      #fic ,relations des ,jsuites1  
#afcd1 p4 #bd 7,canadian reprint1       

,quebec1        #aheh74 ,nets are       
regarded by the ,indians as living      
creatures who not        only think and 
feel but also eat1 speak1 and marry     
wives4 ,see ,f4        ,gabriel ,sagard1
 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des        
,hurons1 p4 #bef 7pp4        #agh sq4 of
 the reprint1 ,librairie ,tross1 ,paris1
 #ahfe72 ,s4 ,hearne1        ,journey to
 the ,northern ,ocean 7,london1 #agie71 
pp4 #cbi sq42        ,relations des     
,jsuites1 #afcf1 p4 #aji2 ibid4 #afci1  
p4 #ie2        ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de
 la ,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71  
v4 #bbe2        ,chateaubriand1 ,voyage 
en ,amrique1 pp4 #adj sqq4 ,the ,hebrews
        sacrificed and burned incense to
 their nets 7,habakkuk i4 #af74 ,in     
some of the mountain villages of ,annam 
the people1 who are great               
hunters1 sacrifice fowls1 rice1 incense1
 and gilt paper to their        nets at 
the festival of the ,new ,year4 ,see ,le
 ,r4 ,p4 ,cadire1        8,coutumes     
populaires de la valle du ,ngun-,so'n10 

,bulletin de        l'cole ,franaise    
d',extrme-,orient1 ii4 7,hanoi1 #aijb7  
p4 #cha4 ,when        a net has caught  
little or nothing1 the ,ewe negroes     
think that it        must be hungry2 so 
they call in the help of a priest1 who  
commonly        feeds the hungry net by 
sprinkling maize-flour and fish1        
moistened        with palm oil1 on its  
meshes4 ,see ,g4 ,hrtter1 8,der         
,fischfang im        ,evheland10        
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxxviii4   
7#aijf7 p4 #ee4      #fid               
,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en ,amrique1 pp4
 #age1 #agh 7,paris1 ,michel        ,lvy
 ,frres1 #ahgj74 ,they will not let the 
blood of beavers fall on        the     
ground1 or their luck in hunting them   
would be gone 7,relations        des    
,jsuites1 #afcc1 p4 #ba74 ,compare the  
rule about not allowing the        blood
 of kings to fall on the ground4 ,see   
,taboo and the ,perils of        the    
,soul1 pp4 #bda sqq4     ,m#ahb ,deer1  
elk1 and elan treated by the ,american  

,indians with ceremonious               
respect4      #fie ,l4 ,hennepin1       
,nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que
 l',europe        7,utrecht1 #afih71 pp4
 #ada4 sq42 ,relations des ,jsuites1    
#afcf1 p4        #aji2 ,f4 ,gabriel     
,sagard1 ,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des
 ,hurons1 p4 #bee        7p4 #agh of the
 reprint1 ,libraire ,tross1 ,paris1     
#ahfe74 ,not quite        consistently  
the ,canadian ,indians used to kill     
every elan they could        overtake in
 the chase1 lest any should escape to   
warn their fellows        7,sagard1     
l4c474      #fif ,a4 de ,herrera1       
,general ,history of the vast ,continent
 and ,islands of        ,america1       
translated by ,capt4 ,john ,stevens     
7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 iv4        #adb4 
#fig ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1   
,nouvelle dition1 viii4 7,paris1        
#agha7 p4 #cci4      #fih ,c4 ,sapper1  
8,die ,gebruche und religisen           
,anschauungen der                       
,kekch-,indianer10 ,internationales     

,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 viii4         
7#ahie7 pp4 #aie sq4      #fii ,j4      
,mooney1 8,cherokee ,theory and         
,practice of ,medicine10 ,american      
,journal of ,folk-lore1 iii4 7#ahij7 pp4
 #de sq42 id41 8,sacred        ,formulas
 of the ,cherokees10 ,seventh ,annual   
,report of the ,bureau of               
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahia71 pp4    
#cbj sq41 #cdg2 id41 8,myths of         
the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth ,annual     
,report of the ,bureau of ,american     
,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#aijj7 pp4 #bfc sq4      #gjj ,j4 ,g4   
,bourke1 8,religion of the ,apache      
,indians10 ,folk-lore1 ii4              
7#ahia7 p4 #dch4      #gja ,l4          
,hennepin1 ,description de la ,louisiane
 7,paris1 #afhc71 pp4 #hj        sq4    
#gjb ,james ,teit1 ,the ,thompson       
,indians of ,british ,columbia1 pp4 #cdf
 sq4        7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific
 ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american  
,museum        of ,natural ,history1    
,april #aijj74      #gjc ,james ,teit1  

,the ,lillooet ,indians 7,leyden and    
,new ,york1 #aijf71 pp4        #bha sq4 
7,the ,jesup ,north ,pacific            
,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american   
,museum of ,natural ,history74      #gjd
 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 #bf 
7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1            
#aheh74     ,m#ahc ,porcupines1 turtles1
 and mice treated by ,american ,indians 
with        ceremonious respect4        
#gje ,fr4 ,boas1 in 8,ninth ,report on  
the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada10
        ,report of the ,british         
,association for #ahid1 ,,pp4 #dei sq4  
#gjf ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian      
,tribes of the ,united ,states          
7,philadelphia1 #ahec-ahef71 iii4 #bcj4 
#gjg ,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la       
,nouvelle ,france 7,paris1 #agdd71 v4   
#ddc4     ,m#ahd ,dead foxes1 turtles1  
deer1 and pigs treated with ceremonious 
respect4      #gjh ,w4 ,bogaras1 ,the   
,chuckchee 7,leyden and ,new ,york1     
#aijd-aiji71 p4 #dji        7,the ,jesup
 ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 vol4 vii41

 ,memoir of the        ,american ,museum
 of ,natural ,history74      #gji ,j4   
,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1     
#aijf71 pp4 #chi sq4      #gaj ,j4 ,a4  
,jacobsen1 ,reisen in die ,inselwelt des
 ,banda-,meeres 7,berlin1        #ahif71
 p4 #bcd4      #gaa ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1    
8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk 
en        maatschappelijk leven van den 
,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege 
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xli4 7#ahig7 pp4 
#d sq4     ,m#ahe ,ghost of ostrich     
outwitted4      #gab ,w4 ,barbrooke     
,grubb1 ,an ,unknown ,people in an      
,unknown ,land 7,london1        #aiaa71 
pp4 #abe sq4     ,m#ahf ,esquimau       
propitiation of the spirit who controls 
reindeer4        ,ceremonious treatment 
of sea-beasts by the ,esquimaux4        
#gac ,l4 ,m4 ,turner1 8,ethnology of the
 ,ungava ,district1 ,hudson ,bay        
,territory10 ,eleventh ,annual ,report  
of the ,bureau of ,ethnology            
7,washington1 #ahid71 pp4 #bjj sq4      

#gad ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the ,central         
,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual ,report of the 
,bureau        of ,ethnology            
7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4 #eie2 id41     
8,the ,eskimo of        ,baffin ,land   
and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of the     
,american ,museum of        ,natural    
,history1 xv4 7#aija7 pp4 #aai sqq4 ,as 
to the antagonism        which these    
,esquimaux suppose to exist between     
marine and        terrestrial animals1  
see above1 p4 #hd2 and with regard to   
the taboos        observed by these     
,esquimaux after the slaughter of       
sea-beasts1 see        ,taboo and the   
,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #bje sqq4     
#gae ,d4 ,crantz1 ,history of ,greenland
 7,london1 #agfg71 i4 #baf4     ,m#ahg  
,annual ceremony of returning the       
bladders of the sea-beasts to the       
sea in order that the animals may come  
to life again4      #gaf ,e4 ,w4        
,nelson1 8,the ,eskimo about ,bering    
,strait10 ,eighteenth ,annual           
,report of the ,bureau of ,american     

,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#ahii71 pp4 #cgi-cic1 #dcg4 ,compare ,a4
 ,woldt1 ,captain ,jacobsen's ,reise    
an der ,nordwestkste ,americas          
#ahha-ahhc 7,leipsic1 #ahhd71 pp4       
#bhi-bia4 ,in the text the ceremony has 
been described mainly as it        was  
witnessed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson at    
,kushunuk1 near ,cape ,vancouver1       
in ,december1 #ahgi4 ,as might have been
 expected1 the ritual varies in         
details at different places4     ,m#ahh 
,fish treated with respect by fishing   
tribes4 ,the ,peruvian ,indians         
worshipped the various sorts of fish    
which they caught4 ,fish treated        
with respect by the ,north ,american    
,indians4 ,herring respected by         
,european fishermen4 ,compensation made 
to fish for catching them4      #gag    
,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,royal         
,commentaries of the ,yncas1 translated 
by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 ,first ,part1 bk4  
i4 ch4 #aj1 vol4 i4 pp4 #di sq4         
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1            

#ahfi-ahga74 ,compare id41 vol4 ii4 p4  
#adh4      #gah ,fr4 ,boas1 in ,sixth   
,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes  
of ,canada1        pp4 #fa sq4 7separate
 reprint from the ,report of the        
,british        ,association for #ahij72
 id41 ,kwakiutl ,texts1 ii4 pp4 #cjc    
sq41        #cje sq41 #cjg1 #cag 7,jesup
 ,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of
 the        ,american ,museum of        
,natural ,history1 ,december1 #aijb74   
#gai ,relations des ,jsuites1 #affg1 p4 
#ab 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1        
#aheh74      #gbj ,f4 ,gabriel ,sagard1 
,le ,grand ,voyage du ,pays des ,hurons1
 pp4 #bee        sqq4 7pp4 #agh sqq4 of 
the reprint1 ,libraire ,tross1 ,paris1  
#ahfe74      #gba ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den
 ,papuas 7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 p4 #bgj4  
#gbb ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu   
and their ,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71  
pp4 #ebi sq4      #gbc ,a ,narrative of 
the ,adventures and ,sufferings of ,john
 ,r4 ,jewitt        7,middletown1       
#ahbj71 p4 #aaf4      #gbd ,m4 ,j4      

,schleiden1 ,das ,salz 7,leipsic1       
#ahge71 p4 #dg4 ,for this               
reference ,i am indebted to my late     
friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith4      #gbe 
,hugh ,miller1 ,scenes and ,legends of  
the ,north of ,scotland1 ch4            
xvii4 pp4 #bef sq4 7,edinburgh1 #ahhi74 
#gbf ,m4 ,martin1 8,description of the  
,western ,islands of ,scotland10 in     
,pinkerton's ,voyages and ,travels1 iii4
 7,london1 #ahji7 p4 #fbj4      #gbg ,w4
 ,powell1 ,wanderings in a ,wild        
,country 7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4 #ff      
sq4      #gbh ,c4 ,lumholtz1 ,unknown   
,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 i4 #djc4      
#gbi ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 or  
,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1     
,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4   
#bjj2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of  
,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #bjb2
 ,e4 ,tregear1 8,the ,maoris of ,new    
,zealand10 ,journal of the              
,anthropological ,institute1 xix4       
7#ahij7 p4        #aji4      #gcj ,rev4 
,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,baganda 7,london1    

#aiaa71 p4 #cie4     ,m#ahi ,ceremonious
 treatment of the first fish of the     
season4      #gca ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 ,au  
pays de l',ours ,noir 7,paris and       
,lyons1 #ahig71 p4        #bh4      #gcb
 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,origin of        
,civilisation#d 7,london1 #ahhb71 p4    
#bgg1        quoting ,metlahkatlah1 p4  
#if4      #gcc ,w4 ,dall1 ,alaska and   
its ,resources 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4     
#dac4      #gcd ,fr4 ,boas1 in 8,ninth  
,report on the ,north-,western ,tribes  
of ,canada10        ,report of the      
,british ,association for #ahid1 p4     
#dfa4 ,compare ,j4        ,teit1 ,the   
,lillooet ,indians 7,leyden and ,new    
,york1 #aijf71 pp4 #bhj        sq4 7,the
 ,jesup ,north ,pacific ,expedition1    
,memoir of the ,american        ,museum 
of ,natural ,history72 ,c4 ,hill ,tout1 
in ,journal of the                      
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxv4      
7#aije7 p4 #adj2 id41 ,the ,far         
,west1 the ,home of the ,salish and ,dn 
7,london1 #aijg71 pp4 #agj-agb4         

#gce ,fr4 ,boas1 in ,sixth ,report on   
the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 
pp4 #af sq4 7separate reprint from the  
,report of the ,british                 
,association for #ahij74      #gcf ,id41
 in ,fifth ,report on the               
,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 p4  
#ea 7separate reprint from the ,report  
of the ,british ,association for        
#ahhi74      #gcg ,stephen ,powers1     
,tribes of ,california 7,washington1    
#ahgg71 pp4 #ca        sq4      #gch    
,alex4 ,ross1 ,adventures of the ,first 
,settlers on the ,oregon or             
,columbia ,river 7,london1 #ahdi71 p4   
#ig4      #gci ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative 
of the ,united ,states ,exploring       
,expedition1        ,new ,edition 7,new 
,york1 #ahea71 iv4 #cbd1 v4 #aai1 where 
it is said1 8a        dog must never be 
permitted to eat the heart of a salmon2 
and in        order to prevent this1    
they cut the heart of the fish out      
before        they sell it40      #gdj  
,h4 ,c4 ,st4 ,john1 8,the ,ainos10      

,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 ii4 7#ahgc7 p4 #bec2 id41   
,notes and ,sketches from the           
,wild ,coasts of ,nipon1 pp4 #bg sq4    
,similarly it is a rule with the        
,aino to bring the flesh of bears and   
other game into the house1 not        by
 the door1 but by the window or the     
smoke-hole4 ,see ,rev4 ,j4              
,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and their        
,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71 p4 #abc2   
,p4        ,labb1 ,un ,bagne ,russe     
7,paris1 #aijc71 pp4 #bee sq4      #gda 
,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xxvi4 7#aijj7
 p4 #gif 7as to the ,gilyak of          
the ,amoor72 ,j4 ,scheffer1 ,lapponia   
7,frankfort1 #afgc71 pp4 #bdb           
sq42 ,c4 ,leemius1 ,de ,lapponibus      
,finmarchiae eorumque lingua1 vita1     
et religione pristina commentatio       
7,copenhagen1 #agfg71 p4 #ejc2          
,revue d',ethnographie1 ii4 7#ahhc7 pp4 
#cjh sq42 ,journal of the               
,anthropological ,institute1 vii4       
7#ahgh7 p4 #bjg2 ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the      

,central ,eskimo10 in ,sixth ,annual    
,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology    
7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4 #eie2 id41     
8,the ,eskimo of ,baffin ,land and      
,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of the         
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 
xv4 7#aija7 p4 #adh2 ,a4 ,g4 ,morice1 in
 ,transactions of the ,canadian         
,institute1 iv4 7#ahib-ic7 p4 #ajh4     
,m#aij ,some savages preserve the bones 
of the animals they kill in order       
that the animals may come to life again4
      #gdb ,e4 ,james1 ,expedition from 
,pittsburgh to the ,rocky ,mountains    
7,london1 #ahbc71 i4 #beg4      #gdc ,d4
 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new       
,world#b 7,new ,york1 #ahgf71 p4 #bgh4  
#gdd ,w4 ,h4 ,keating1 ,expedition to   
the ,source of ,st4 ,peter's ,river     
7,london1 #ahbe71 i4 #deb4      #gde    
,fr4 ,boas1 8,the ,eskimo of ,baffin    
,land and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of   
the ,american ,museum of ,natural       
,history1 xv4 7#aija7 p4 #afa4      #gdf
 ,a4 d',orbigny1 ,voyage dans l',amrique

 ,mridionale1 iii4 7,paris and          
,strasburg1 #ahdd7 p4 #bja4 ,however1 in
 this case a belief in the              
resurrection of the animals is not      
expressly affirmed1 and the             
practice of burning the bones seems     
inconsistent with it4      #gdg ,e4 ,j4 
,jessen1 ,de ,finnorum ,lapponumque     
,norwegicorum religione pagana          
tractatus singularis1 pp4 #df sq41 #eb  
sq41 #fe 7bound with ,c4        ,leem's 
,de ,lapponibus ,finmarchiae eorumque   
lingua1 vita et religione               
pristina commentatio1 ,copenhagen1      
#agfg74 ,compare ,leem's work1 pp4      
#dah-dbj1 #dbh sq42 ,j4 ,acerbi1        
,travels through ,sweden1 ,finnland1    
and ,lapland 7,london1 #ahjb71 ii4 #cjb4
      #gdh ,g4 ,w4 ,steller1            
,beschreibung von dem ,lande            
,kamtschatka 7,frankfort        and     
,leipsic1 #aggd71 p4 #bfi2 ,s4          
,krascheninnikow1 ,beschreibung des     
,landes ,kamtschatka 7,lemgo1 #agff71 p4
 #bdf4      #gdi ,see ,a4 ,erman1       

referred to above1 p4 #bbc2 ,j4 ,g4     
,gmelin1 ,reise durch        ,sibirien  
7,gttingen1 #agea-ageb71 i4 #bgd1 ii4   
#ahb sq41 #bad2 ,h4        ,vambery1    
,das ,trkenvolk 7,leipsic1 #ahhe71 pp4  
#aah sq4 ,when a fox1        the sacred 
animal of the ,conchucos in ,peru1 had  
been killed1 its        skin was stuffed
 and set up 7,a4 ,bastian1 ,die         
,culturlnder des alten        ,amerika1 
i4 #ddc74 ,compare the bouphonia1 above1
 pp4 #d sqq4      #gej ,at the annual   
sacrifice of the ,white ,dog1 the       
,iroquois were careful        to        
strangle the animal without shedding its
 blood or breaking its        bones2 the
 dog was afterwards burned 7,l4 ,h4     
,morgan1 ,league of the                 
,iroquois1 ,rochester1 #ahea1 p4 #baj74 
,it is a rule with some of the          
,australian blacks that in killing the  
native bear they may not break          
his bones4 ,they say that the native    
bear once stole all the water of        
the river1 and that if they were to     

break his bones or take off his         
skin before roasting him1 he would do so
 again 7,r4 ,brough ,smyth1             
,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #ddg sqq474
 ,some of the ,queensland               
aborigines believe that if the bones or 
skulls of dugong were not        put    
away in a heap or otherwise preserved1  
no more dugong would be        caught   
7,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,north ,queensland      
,ethnography1 ,bulletin ,no4 #e1        
,brisbane1 #aijc1 p4 #bg74 ,when the    
,tartars whom ,carpini visited killed   
animals for eating1 they might not break
 their bones but burned them        with
 fire 7,carpini1 ,historia ,mongalorum  
7,paris1 #ahch71 cap4 iii4         i4   
#b1 p4 #fbj74 ,north ,american ,indians 
might not break the bones of        the 
animals which they ate at feasts        
7,charlevoix1 ,histoire de la           
,nouvelle ,france1 vi4 #gb74 ,in the war
 feast held by ,indian warriors         
after leaving home1 a whole animal was  
cooked and had to be all        eaten4  

,no bone of it might be broken4 ,after  
being stripped of the        flesh the  
bones were hung on a tree 7,narrative of
 the ,captivity and        ,adventures  
of ,john ,tanner1 ,london1 #ahcj1 p4    
#bhg74 ,on ,st4 ,olaf's ,day            
7#bith ,july7 the ,karels of ,finland   
kill a lamb1 without using a            
knife1 and roast it whole4 ,none of its 
bones may be broken4 ,the lamb          
has not been shorn since spring4 ,some  
of the flesh is placed in a             
corner of the room for the              
house-spirits1 some is deposited on the 
field and beside the birch-trees which  
are destined to be used as              
,may-trees next year 7,w4 ,mannhardt1   
,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 pp4      
#afj sq41 note74 ,some of the ,esquimaux
 in skinning a deer are        careful  
not to break a single bone1 and they    
will not break the        bones of deer 
while walrus are being hunted 7,fr4     
,boas1 8,the ,central        ,eskimo10  
,sixth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of

 ,ethnology        7,washington1 #ahhh71
 pp4 #eie sq474 ,the ,innuit            
7,esquimaux7 of ,point        ,barrow1  
,alaska1 carefully preserve unbroken the
 bones of the seals        which they   
have caught and return them to the sea1 
either leaving        them in an        
ice-crack far out from the land or      
dropping them through        a hole in  
the ice4 ,by doing so they think they   
secure good fortune        in the       
pursuit of seals 7,report of the        
,international ,expedition to           
,point ,barrow1 ,alaska 7,washington1   
#ahhe71 p4 #dj74 ,in this last          
custom the idea probably is that the    
bones will be reclothed with            
flesh and the seals come to life again4 
,the ,mosquito ,indians of              
,central ,america carefully preserved   
the bones of deer and the shells        
of eggs1 lest the deer or chickens      
should die or disappear 7,h4 ,h4        
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states1 i4 #gda74 ,in ,syria  

at        the present time people offer 
a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven  
days old1 and they will not break a bone
 of the victim1 8because        they    
fear that if a bone of the sacrifice    
should be broken1 the        child's    
bones would be broken1 too0 7,s4 ,i4    
,curtiss1 ,primitive        ,semitic    
,religion ,to-day1 ,chicago1 etc41      
#aijb1 p4 #agh74 ,this last        may  
be a later misinterpretation of the old 
custom4 ,for ,west ,african        cases
 of refusal to break the bones of       
sacrificial victims1 see ,j4            
,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1     
#aijf71 pp4 #deh1 #dff1 #dhj1 #ebg1     
#gab1 #gif1 #hbd4 ,amongst the          
,narrinyeri of ,south ,australia1 when  
an        animal was being cut up1 the  
bystanders used to leap and yell as     
often as a bone was broken1 thinking    
that if they did not do so        their 
own bones would rot within them 7,a4 ,w4
 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes        of     
,south-,east ,australia1 p4 #gfc74      

#gea ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 
#be 7,canadian reprint1 ,quebec1        
#aheh72 ,a4 ,mackenzie1 ,voyages through
 the ,continent of ,america             
7,london1 #ahja71 p4 civ42 ,j4 ,dunn1   
,history of the ,oregon ,territory      
7,london1 #ahdd71 p4 #ii2 ,f4 ,whymper1 
in ,journal of the ,royal               
,geographical ,society1 xxxviii4 7#ahfh7
 p4 #bbh2 id41 in        ,transactions  
of the ,ethnological ,society1 ,n4,s41  
vii4 7#ahfi7 p4        #agd2 ,a4 ,p4    
,reid1 8,religious ,belief of the       
,ojibois ,indians10 ,journal        of  
the ,anthropological ,institute1 iii4   
7#ahgd7 p4 #aaa2 ,fr4 ,boas1            
8,the ,central ,eskimo10 ,sixth ,annual 
,report of the ,bureau of               
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhh71 p4     
#eif2 id41 8,the ,eskimo of ,baffin     
,land and ,hudson ,bay10 ,bulletin of   
the ,american ,museum of ,natural       
,history1 xv4 7#aija7 p4 #abc2 ,e4 ,w4  
,nelson1 8,the ,eskimo about ,bering    
,strait10 ,eighteenth ,annual ,report of

 the ,bureau of ,american               
,ethnology1 ,part i4 7,washington1      
#ahii7 pp4 #dch sq4 ,for more           
examples see above1 pp4 #bbe1 #bch sqq41
 #bdb sq41 #bdf4 ,after a        meal   
the ,indians of ,costa ,rica gather all 
the bones carefully and        either   
burn them or put them out of reach of   
the dogs4 ,see ,w4 ,m4        ,gabb1 ,on
 the ,indian ,tribes and ,languages of  
,costa ,rica 7read        before the    
,american ,philosophical ,society1 #bjth
 ,aug4 #ahge71 p4 #ebj                  
7,philadelphia1 #ahge74 ,the custom of  
burning the bones to prevent the        
dogs getting them does not necessarily  
contradict the view suggested        in 
the text4 ,it may be a way of           
transmitting the bones to the           
spirit-land4 ,the aborigines of         
,australia burn the bones of the        
animals which they eat1 but for a       
different reason2 they think that       
if an enemy got hold of the bones and   
burned them with charms1 it        would

 cause the death of the person who had  
eaten the animal        7,native ,tribes
 of ,south ,australia1 ,adelaide1 #ahgi1
 pp4 #bd1 #aif74     ,m#aia ,some       
savages preserve or destroy the bones of
 men in order to assist        or       
prevent their resurrection4      #geb   
,see ,taboo and the ,perils of the      
,soul1 pp4 #bgi sqq4      #gec ,a4 de   
,herrera1 ,general ,history of the vast 
,continent and ,islands of              
,america1 translated by ,capt4 ,john    
,stevens 7,london1 #agbe-agbf71 iv4     
#abf4      #ged ,baldwin ,spencer and   
,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of     
,central        ,australia 7,london1    
#ahii71 p4 #dge4     ,m#aib             
,unquestioning faith of savages in the  
immortality of animals4 ,the            
savage faith in human immortality is    
commonly supposed to be deduced         
from a primitive theory of dreams4      
,m#aic ,but can a theory of dreams      
account for the savage belief in the    
immortality of animals8   ,m#aid        

,apparently the savage conceives life as
 an indestructible form of              
energy4 ,analogy of the conception to   
the modern scientific        conception 
of the conservation of energy4      #gee
 ,for this suggestion ,i am indebted to 
a hint thrown out in        conversation
 by my friend ,professor ,g4 ,f4 ,stout4
      #gef ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #a4
      #geg ,the principle of the        
conservation of energy is clearly stated
 and        illustrated by ,balfour     
,stewart in his book ,the ,conservation 
of        ,energy1 ,fourth ,edition     
7,london1 #ahgg74 ,the writer does not  
countenance the view that life is a form
 of energy distinct from and            
independent of physical and chemical    
forces2 he regards a living        being
 simply as a very delicately constructed
 machine in which the        natural    
forces are in a state of unstable       
equilibrium4 ,to avoid                  
misapprehension it may be well to add   
that ,i do not pretend to argue         

either for or against the theory of life
 which appears to be        implicitly  
adopted by the savage2 my aim is simply 
to explain1 not        to justify or    
condemn1 the mental attitude of         
primitive man towards        these      
profound problems4     ,m#aie ,the      
resurrection of the body in tales and   
legends4      #geh ,w4 ,mannhardt1      
,germanische ,mythen 7,berlin1 #aheh71  
pp4 #eg-gd2 id41        ,baumkultus1 p4 
#aaf2 ,c4 ,l4 ,rochholz1 ,deutscher     
,glaube und ,brauch        7,berlin1    
#ahfg71 i4 #bai sqq42 ,j4 ,curtin1      
,myths and ,folk-lore of        ,ireland
 7,london1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #de sq42 ,e4    
,cosquin1 ,contes        populaires de  
,lorraine 7,paris1 ,n4,d471 ii4 #be2 ,e4
 ,s4 ,hartland1 8,the        ,physicians
 of ,myddfai10 ,archaeological ,review1 
i4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #cj        sq4 ,in       
folk-tales1 as in primitive custom1 the 
blood is sometimes        not allowed to
 fall on the ground4 ,see ,e4 ,cosquin1 
l4c4      #gei ,w4 ,mannhardt1          

,germanische ,mythen1 p4 #ff4      #gfj 
,jamblichus1 ,vita ,pythag4 #ib1 #ace1  
#adj2 ,porphyry1 ,vita ,pythag4         
#bh4      #gfa ,pindar1 ,olymp4 i4 #cg  
sqq41 with the ,scholiast4      #gfb    
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxviii4 #cd4       
#gfc ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ah4  
,this is one of the sacred stories      
which the pious ,herodotus 7ii4 #dh7    
concealed and the pious ,plutarch       
divulged4     ,m#aif ,the sinew of the  
thigh regularly cut out and thrown away 
by some        ,american ,indians4      
#gfd ,adam ,hodgson1 ,letters from      
,north ,america 7,london1 #ahbd71 i4    
#bdd4      #gfe ,j4 ,adair1 ,history of 
the ,american ,indians 7,london1 #agge71
 pp4 #acg        sq4 ,this writer1      
animated by a curious though not        
uncommon passion        for discovering 
the ten lost tribes of ,israel1 imagined
 that he        detected the missing    
,hebrews disguised under the red skins  
and        beardless faces of the       
,american ,indians4     ,m#aig ,story   

told by the ,indians to explain the     
custom4      #gff 4 ,petitot1           
,monographie des ,dn-,dindjie 7,paris1  
#ahfg71 pp4 #gg1 #ha        sq42 id41   
,traditions indiennes du ,canada        
,nord-ouest 7,paris1        #ahhf71 pp4 
#acb sqq41 compare pp4 #da1 #gf1 #bac1  
#bfd4 ,the story is        told in a    
briefer form1 though without any        
reference to the custom1        by      
another ,french missionary4 ,see the    
letter of ,mgr4 ,tache1 in              
,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 
xxiv4 7#aheb7 pp4 #ccf sq4     ,m#aih   
,the custom of cutting out the sinew of 
the thigh in animals seems to        be 
based on the principle of sympathetic   
magic4      #gfg ,the first part of this
 suggestion is due to my friend ,w4     
,robertson        ,smith4 ,see his      
,lectures on the ,religion of the       
,semites#b 7,london1        #ahid71 p4  
#chj1 note #a4 ,the ,faleshas1 a ,jewish
 sect of ,abyssinia1        after       
killing an animal for food1 8carefully  

remove the vein from        the thighs  
with its surrounding flesh40 ,see       
,halvy1 8,travels in        ,abyssinia10
 in ,publications of the ,society of    
,hebrew ,literature1        ,second     
,series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4 ,caffre men  
will not eat the sinew of        the    
thigh2 8it is carefully cut out and sent
 to the principal boy at        the     
kraal1 who with his companions consider 
it as their right40 ,see        ,col4   
,maclean1 ,kafir ,laws and ,customs     
7,cape ,town1 #ahff71 p4 #aea4          
,gallas who pride themselves on their   
descent will not eat the flesh        of
 the biceps2 the reasons assigned for   
the custom are inconsistent        and  
unsatisfactory4 ,see ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 
,ethnographie        ,nordost-,afrikas3 
die materielle ,cultur der ,dankil1     
,galla und ,soml        7,berlin1       
#ahic71 p4 #aed4 ,when the ,bushmen kill
 a hare1 they cut out a        sinew of 
the thigh and will not eat it1 alleging 
as their reason        that the hare was

 once a man1 and that this particular   
sinew is        still human flesh4 ,see 
,w4 ,h4 ,i4 ,bleek and ,l4 ,c4 ,lloyd4  
,specimens of        ,bushman ,folklore 
7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 xxxix41 #fj sq41  
#fc4      #gfh ,j4 ,mooney1 8,sacred    
,formulas of the ,cherokees10 ,seventh  
,annual        ,report of the ,bureau of
 ,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahia71 p4    
#cbc4        ,compare id41 8,myths of   
the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth ,annual     
,report of        the ,bureau of        
,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4          
7,washington1 #aijj7 pp4        #bfg1   
#ddg4 ,in the last of these passages the
 writer quotes ,buttrick1               
,antiquities1 p4 #ab1 as follows3 8,the 
,indians never used to eat a            
certain sinew in the thigh4444 ,some say
 that if they eat of the        sinew   
they will have cramp in it on attempting
 to run4 ,it is said        that once a 
woman had cramp in that sinew1 and      
therefore none must        eat it40     
#gfi ,see above1 pp4 #ach sqq4          

,m#aii ,some hunters hamstring the dead 
game in order to lame the ghosts of     
the animals4 ,some savages put out the  
eyes of dead game in order              
perhaps to blind the ghosts of the      
animals4      #ggj 4 ,aymonier1 ,notes  
sur le ,laos 7,saigon1 #ahhe71 p4 #bc4  
#gga ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1 8,the ,eskimo     
about ,bering ,strait10 ,eighteenth     
,annual        ,report of the ,bureau of
 ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4         
7,washington1        #ahii7 p4 #dbc4    
#ggb ,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu   
and their ,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71  
p4        #ejd4      #ggc ,l4 von       
,schrenck1 ,reisen und ,forschungen im  
,amur-,lande1 iii4 #edf4      #ggd ,p4  
,s4 ,pallas1 ,reise durch verschiedene  
,provinzen des ,russischen              
,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #agga-aggf71 
iii4 #gj4      #gge ,rev4 ,j4           
,macdonald1 ,light in ,africa1 ,second  
,edition 7,london1 #ahij71        p4    
#aga4      #ggf ,j4 ,teit1 ,the         
,thompson ,indians cf ,british          

,columbia1 p4 #cag 7,the        ,jesup  
,north ,pacific ,expedition1 ,memoir of 
the ,american ,museum of        ,natural
 ,history1 ,april1 #aijj74      #ggg ,so
 among the ,esquimaux of ,bering ,strait
 a girl at puberty is        considered 
unclean4 8,a peculiar atmosphere is     
supposed to surround        her at this 
time1 and if a young man should come    
near enough for it        to touch him  
it would render him visible to every    
animal he might        hunt1 so that his
 success as a hunter would be gone40    
,see ,e4 ,w4        ,nelson1 8,the      
,eskimo about ,bering ,strait10         
,eighteenth ,annual ,report        of   
the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1    
,part i4 7,washington1 #ahii7 p4        
#bia4      #ggh ,p4 ,dobell1 ,travels in
 ,kamtchatka and ,siberia 7,london1     
#ahcj71 i4        #ai4     ,m#bjj ,the  
custom of cutting out the tongues of    
dead animals may sometimes        be    
intended to prevent their ghosts from   
telling tales4 ,tongues of              

animals cut out in order to confer      
superhuman knowledge or power on        
their possessors4      #ggi ,rev4 ,j4   
,owen ,dorsey1 8,omaha ,sociology10     
,third ,report of the ,bureau        of 
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 pp4    
#bhi sq4      #ghj ,j4 ,g4 ,kohl1       
,kitschi-,gami 7,bremen1 #ahei71 ii4    
#bea sq42 ,charlevoix1        ,histoire 
de la ,nouvelle ,france1 v4 #agc2       
,chateaubriand1 ,voyage en              
,amrique1 pp4 #agi sq41 #ahd4      #gha 
,for examples of the incident1 see ,j4  
,f4 ,blad1 ,contes populaires           
recueillis en ,agenais 7,paris1 #ahgd71 
pp4 #ab1 #ad2 ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1          
,popular ,tales from the ,norse         
7,edinburgh1 #ahei71 pp4 #acc sq4       
78,shortshanks072 ,aug4 ,schleicher1    
,litauische ,mrchen 7,weimar1           
#aheg71 p4 #eh2 ,sepp1 ,altbayerischer  
,sagenschatz 7,munich1 #ahgf71 p4       
#aad2 ,r4 ,khler1 on ,l4 ,gonzenbach's  
,sicilianische ,mrchen 7,leipsic1       
#ahgj71 ii4 #bcj2 ,apollodorus1         

,bibliotheca1 iii4 #ac4 #c2 ,schol4 on  
,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonaut4 i4     
#eag2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald-    
und ,feldkulte1 p4 #ec2 ,j4 ,c4         
,poestion1 ,lapplndische ,mrchen        
7,vienna1 #ahgf71 pp4 #bca sq42 ,a4 ,f4 
,chamberlain1 in ,eighth ,report on     
the ,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1 
p4 #ce 7separate reprint from        the
 ,report of the ,british ,association   
for #ahib72 ,i4 ,v4 ,zingerle1          
,kinder und ,hausmrchen aus ,tirol#b    
7,gera1 #ahgj71 ,no4 #be1 p4 #abg2 ,a4  
,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche  
,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche           
7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #cdb2 ,s4         
,grundtvig1 ,dnische ,volksmrchen1      
bersetzt von ,w4 ,leo 7,leipsic1 #ahgh71
 p4 #bhi2 ,a4 ,leskien und ,k4          
,brugmann1 ,litauische ,volkslieder und 
,mrchen 7,strasburg1 #ahhb71        pp4 
#dje sq41 #dji sq42 ,a4 und ,a4 ,schott1
 ,walachische ,maerchen                 
7,stuttgart and ,tbingen71 ,no4 #aj1 p4 
#adb2 ,chr4 ,schneller1 ,mrchen         

und ,sagen aus ,wlschtirol 7,innsbruck1 
#ahfg71 ,no4 #ci1 pp4 #aaf sq42         
,g4 ,basile1 ,pentamerone1 bertragen von
 ,f4 ,liebrecht 7,breslau1              
#ahdf71 i4 #ii2 ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,contes   
,populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne      
7,paris1 #ahhe71 ,no4 #aa1 p4 #hj2 ,e4  
,cosquin1 ,contes ,populaires de        
,lorraine 7,paris1 ,n4,d471 i4 p4 #fa2  
,j4 ,haltrich1 ,deutsche                
,volksmrchen aus dem ,sachsenlande in   
,siebenbrgen#d 7,vienna and             
,hermannstadt1 #ahhe71 ,no4 #bd1 pp4    
#ajd sqq42 ,grimm1 ,household           
,tales1 ,no4 #fj4 ,the incident often   
occurs in the type of tale              
analysed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland in   
his ,legend of ,perseus 7vol4 i4        
pp4 #ab1 #ag1 #ah1 etc42 vol4 iii4 pp4  
#f1 #g1 #h1 etc474      #ghb ,fr4 ,boas1
 in ,fifth ,report on the               
,north-,western ,tribes of ,canada1     
p4 #eh 7separate reprint from the       
,report of the ,british ,association    
for #ahhi72 id41 in ,journal of         

,american ,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahhh7 p4     
#bah4      #ghc ,see ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1     
8,masks and ,labrets10 ,third ,annual   
,report of the        ,bureau of        
,ethnology 7,washington1 #ahhd71 pp4    
#aaa sq4 ,compare        id41 ,alaska   
and its ,resources 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 
#dbe2 ,ivan        ,petroff1 ,report on 
the ,population1 ,industries1 and       
,resources of        ,alaska1 p4 #agf4  
#ghd ,ph4 ,paulitschke1 ,ethnographie   
,nordost-,afrikas3 die ,geistige ,cultur
        der ,dankil1 ,galla und ,soml   
7,berlin1 #ahif71 p4 #dg4      #ghe ,ph4
 ,paulitschke1 op4 cit4 p4 #aef2 id41   
,ethnographie        ,nordost-,afrikas3 
die materielle ,cultur1 etc4 7,berlin1  
#ahic71 p4        #bbf4      #ghf ,j4   
,v4 ,grohmann1 ,aberglauben und         
,gebruche aus ,bhmen und ,mhren         
7,prague and ,leipsic1 #ahfd71 p4 #ed1  
#ced4      #ghg ,l4 ,strackerjan1       
,aberglaube und ,sagen aus dem          
,herzogthum ,oldenburg                  
7,oldenburg1 #ahfg71 ii4 #id1  #cha2 ,e4

 ,monseur1 in ,revue de                 
l',histoire des ,religions1 xxxi4       
7#ahie7 pp4 #big sq4      #ghh ,j4 ,v4  
,grohmann1 op4 cit4 p4 #ha1  #egf4      
#ghi ,homer1 ,od4 iii4 #ccb1 #cda4      
#gij ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1       
,plutus1 #aaaj2 ,athenaeus1 i4 #bh1 p4  
#af        ,b2 ,paroemiographi ,graeci1 
ed4 ,leutsch et ,schneidewin1 i4 #dae1  
,no4        #ajj4      #gia ,see further
 ,h4 ,gaidoz1 8,les ,langues coupes10   
,mlusine1 iii4        7#ahhf-hg7 coll4  
#cjc-cjg2 ,e4 ,monseur1 loc4 cit4       
,m#bja ,bechuana custom of mutilating a 
sacrificial ox in order to inflict      
corresponding mutilations on the enemy4 
,mutilation of the corpses of           
enemies or other dangerous persons for  
the purpose of maiming their            
ghosts4 ,disabling the ghost by         
mutilating his dead body4      #gib ,t4 
,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,relation    
d'un ,voyage d',exploration au          
,nord-est de la ,colonie du ,cap de     
,bonne-,esprance 7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4   

#efb-efd4      #gic ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1  
8,further ,notes on the ,manners and    
,customs of the        ,baganda10       
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7        p4    
#fj4 ,this custom appears not to be     
mentioned by the writer in his          
book ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa74    
#gid ,a4 ,oldfield1 8,on the ,aborigines
 of ,australia10 ,transactions of the   
,ethnological ,society of ,london1      
,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfe7 p4 #bhg4      #gie  
,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race   
7,melbourne and ,london1 #ahhf71 i4     
#cdh1 #cha4      #gif ,r4 ,southey1     
,history of ,brazil1 vol4 i4 ,second    
,edition 7,london1        #ahbb71 p4    
#bca4      #gig ,e4 ,w4 ,nelson1 8,the  
,eskimo about ,bering ,strait10         
,eighteenth ,annual        ,report of   
the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1    
part i4 7,washington1        #ahii7 p4  
#dbc4      #gih ,rev4 ,s4 ,mateer1 ,the 
,land of ,charity 7,london1 #ahga71 pp4 
#bjc sq4      #gii ,rev4 ,j4 ,owen      

,dorsey1 8,a ,study of ,siouan ,cults10 
,eleventh ,annual        ,report of the 
,bureau of ,ethnology 7,washington1     
#ahid71 p4 #dbj4      #hjj ,c4          
,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1 ,the ,great
 ,plateau of ,northern        ,rhodesia 
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #abf4     ,m#bjb   
,propitiation of the vermin which infest
 crops and cattle in ,europe4      #hja 
,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10        
,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen
        ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4  
,heft #b 7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 p4 #aje note4
      #hjb ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1           
,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter 
den ,sachsen        ,siebenbrgens       
7,hermannstadt1 #ahhj71 pp4 #ae sq4     
#hjc ,r4 ,f4 ,kaindl1 ,die ,huzulen     
7,vienna1 #ahid71 pp4 #gi1 #ajc2 id41   
8,viehzucht und ,viehzauber in den      
,ostkarpaten10 ,globus1 lxix4           
7#aijf7 p4 #chg4      #hjd ,e4 ,krause1 
8,aberglubische ,kuren und sonstiger    
,aberglaube in        ,berlin10         
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xv4 7#ahhc7

 p4 #ic4     ,m#bjc ,similar attempts   
made to propitiate vermin by savages4   
#hje ,l4 ,decle1 ,three ,years in       
,savage ,africa 7,london1 #ahih71 p4    
#afj4      #hjf ,vetter1 8,aberglaube   
unter dem ,jabim-,stamme in             
,kaiser-,wilhelmsland10                 
,mitteilungen der ,geographischen       
,gesellschaft zu ,jena1 xii4 7#ahic7    
pp4 #ie sq4      #hjg ,e4 ,modigliani1  
,un ,viaggio a ,nas 7,milan1 #ahij71 p4 
#fbf4      #hjh ,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular   
,religion and ,folklore of ,northern    
,india        7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4
 #cjc4      #hji ,m4 ,merker1           
8,rechtsverhltnisse und ,sitten der     
,wadschagga10        ,petermanns        
,mitteilungen1 ,ergnzungsheft ,no4 #aac 
7,gotha1 #aijb71 pp4        #ce sq4     
#haj ,rev4 ,h4 ,cole1 8,notes on the    
,wagogo of ,german ,east ,africa10      
,journal        of the ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #cbj4     
,m#bjd ,sometimes in dealing with vermin
 the farmer aims at a judicious mean    

between undue severity and weak         
indulgence4      #haa ,geoponica1 xiii4 
#e4 ,according to the commentator1 the  
field        assigned to the mice is a  
neighbour's1 but it may be a patch of   
waste ground on the farmer's own land4  
,the charm is said to have        been  
employed formerly in the neighbourhood  
of ,paris 7,a4 de ,nore1                
,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions des   
,provinces de ,france1 ,paris and       
,lyons1 #ahdf1 p4 #chc74      #hab ,a4  
,meyrac1 ,traditions1 ,coutumes1        
,lgendes et ,contes des ,ardennes       
7,charleville1 #ahij71 p4 #agf4         
#hac ,american ,journal of ,folk-lore1  
xi4 7#ahih7 p4 #afa4      #had ,g4      
,maan1 8,eenige mededeelingen omtrent de
 zeden en gewoonten der                 
,toerateya ten opzichte van den         
rijstbouw10 ,tijdschrift voor           
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xlvi4 7#aijc7 pp4 #cbi sq4      #hae   
,rev4 ,j4 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu and    
their ,folk-lore 7,london1 #aija71 p4   

#eji4     ,m#bje ,sometimes a few of the
 vermin are treated with high           
distinction1        while the rest are  
pursued with relentless rigour4 ,mock   
lamentations        of women for insects
 which destroy the crops4      #haf ,r4 
van ,eck1 8,schetsen van het eiland     
,bali10 ,tijdschrift voor               
,nederlandsch-,indi1 ,n4,s41 viii4      
7#ahgi7 p4 #abe4      #hag ,j4 ,l4 van  
,gennep1 8,bijdrage tot de kennis van   
den ,kangean-,archipel10                
,bijdragen tot de ,taal- ,land- en      
,volkenkunde van                        
,nederlandsch-,indi1 xlvi4 7#ahif7 p4   
#aja4      #hah ,c4 ,hose and ,w4       
,mc,dougall1 8,the ,relations between   
,men and ,animals in        ,sarawak0   
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxi4 7#aija7        pp4    
#aih sq4      #hai ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1   
,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen   
und ,mhren        7,prague and ,leipsic1
 #ahfd71 p4 #fj1  #dje4      #hbj ,j4   
,g4 von ,hahn1 ,albanesische ,studien   

7,jena1 #ahed71 ,heft i4 p4 #aeg4       
#hba ,lagarde1 ,reliquiae juris         
ecclesiastici antiquissimae1 p4 #ace4   
,for        this passage ,i am indebted 
to my late friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1
 who        kindly translated it for me 
from the ,syriac4 ,it occurs in the     
,canons        of ,jacob of ,edessa1 of 
which a ,german translation has been    
published        by ,c4 ,kayser 7,die   
,canones ,jacob's von ,edessa bersetzt  
und        erlutert1 ,leipsic1 #ahhf2   
see pp4 #be sq474      #hbb ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 
,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people
 7,london1 #ahgb71 p4        #bee4      
#hbc ,dudley ,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood1 
a ,study of ,kafir ,children 7,london1  
#aijf71 p4 #bib4     ,m#bjf ,ceremony   
performed by ,baronga women to drive    
insects from the crops4      #hbd ,h4   
,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-ronga 7,neuchatel1 
#ahih71 pp4 #dai sq4 ,as to        the  
rain-making ceremony among the ,baronga1
 see ,the ,magic ,art and        the    
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bfg sq4       

,m#bjg ,images made of vermin as a charm
 to get rid of them4      #hbe ,j4      
,malalas1 ,chronographia1 ed4 ,l4       
,dindorf 7,bonn1 #ahca71 p4 #bfd4       
#hbf ,d4 ,comparetti1 ,vergil in the    
,middle ,ages 7,london1 #ahie71 p4 #bfe4
 ,i        have to thank ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4   
,may of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 for  
this and        the following references
 to ,comparetti's book4      #hbg ,d4   
,comparetti1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bei1 #bic1   
#cda4      #hbh ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et   
,religion dans l',afrique du ,nord      
7,algiers1        #aijh71 p4 #add4      
#hbi ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 iv4       
7,london1 #aijc7 col4 #dcie4      #hcj  
,grgoire de ,tours1 ,histoire           
,ecclsiastique des ,francs1 traduction  
de ,m4 ,guizot1 ,nouvelle dition        
7,paris1 #ahgd71 viii4 #cc1 vol4 i4 p4  
#ead4 ,for some stories of the same     
sort1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,thiers1 ,trait       
des ,superstitions 7,paris1 #afgi71 pp4 
#cjf-cjh4      #hca #a ,samuel vi4      
#d-ah4 ,the passage in which the plague 

of mice is        definitely described  
has been omitted in the existing ,hebrew
 text1        but is preserved in the   
,septuagint 7#a ,samuel v4 #f1          
74 ,see ,dean ,kirkpatrick's note on #a 
,samuel        v4 #f 7,cambridge ,bible 
for ,schools and ,colleges74      #hcb  
,numbers xxi4 #f-i4     ,m#bjh ,greek   
gods who took titles from vermin4 ,mouse
 7,smintheus7 ,apollo4      #hcc ,homer1
 ,iliad1 i4 #ci1 with the ,scholia and  
the comment of        ,eustathius2      
,strabo1 xiii4 #a4 #dh and #fc2 ,aelian1
 ,nat4 ,anim4 xii4 #e2        ,clement  
of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ci1 p4  
#cd1 ed4 ,potter2        ,pausanias1 x4 
#ab4 #e4      #hcd ,strabo1 xiii4 #a4   
#fd2 ,pausanias1 i4 #bd4 #h4      #hce  
,strabo1 xiii4 #a4 #fd2 ,eustathius1 on 
,homer1 ,iliad1 i4 #ci1 p4 #cd2         
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fji 7vol4 ii4       
p4 #chf74      #hcf ,strabo and         
,eustathius1 ll4cc4      #hcg ,professor
 ,w4 ,ridgeway has pointed out that the 

epithet ,bassareus        applied to    
,dionysus 7,cornutus1 ,theologiae       
,graecae ,compendium1 #cj7              
appears to be derived from bassara1 8a  
fox40 ,see ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4        
on ,lycophron1 #gga2 ,w4 ,ridgeway1 in  
,the ,classical ,review1 x4             
7#ahif7 pp4 #ba sqq42 ,s4 ,reinach1     
,cultes1 ,mythes1 et ,religions1        
ii4 7,paris1 #aijf7 pp4 #ajf sqq4       
#hch ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 x4 #ge2       
,pausanias1 v4 #ad4 #a1 viii4 #bf4 #g2  
,clement        of ,alexandria1         
,protrept4 ii4 #ch1 p4 #cc1 ed4 ,potter4
      #hci ,robigo or personified as    
,robigus4 ,see ,varro1 ,rerum           
rusticarum1        i4 #a4 #f2 id41 ,de  
lingua latina1 vi4 #af2 ,ovid1 ,fasti1  
iv4 #ije        sqq42 ,tertullian1 ,de  
spectaculis1 #e2 ,augustine1 ,de        
civitate        ,dei1 iv4 #ba2          
,lactantius1 ,divin4 ,instit4 i4 #bj2   
,l4 ,preller1        ,rmische           
,mythologie#c 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhc71 ii4
 #dc sqq42 ,w4 ,warde        ,fowler1   

,the ,roman ,festivals of the ,period of
 the ,republic 7,london1        #ahii71 
pp4 #hh sqq4      #hdj ,aristotle1      
,hist4 ,anim4 vi4 #cg1 p4 #ehj b #ae    
sqq42 ,aelian1 ,nat4        ,anim4 xvii4
 #da2 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 in ,the       
,classical ,review vi4        7#ahib7 p4
 #dac4 ,in ,laos1 a province of ,siam1  
the ravages committed by        rats are
 terrible4 ,from time to time whole     
armies of these        destructive      
rodents appear and march across the     
country in dense        columns and     
serried ranks1 devouring everything as  
they go1 and        leaving famine1 with
 all its horrors1 in their train4 ,see  
,lieut4-,col4 ,tournier1 ,notice sur le 
,laos ,franais 7,hanoi1 #aijj71         
pp4 #ajd1 #ace4 ,so in ,burma1 the rats 
multiply in some years to such        an
 extent that they cause a famine by     
destroying whole crops and              
granaries4 ,see ,max and ,bertha        
,ferrars1 ,burma 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4  
#adi sq4      #hda ,polemo1 cited by a  

scholiast on ,homer1 ,iliad1 i4 #ci 7ed4
 ,im4        ,bekker74 ,compare         
,eustathius on ,homer1 ,iliad1 i4 #ci4  
#hdb ,aelian1 ,nat4 ,anim4 xii4 #e4     
#hdc ,aelian1 l4c4      #hdd ,see above1
 p4 #bgi4      #hde ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,les
 ,tchames et leurs religions10 ,revue de
 l',histoire        des ,religions1     
xxiv4 7#ahia7 p4 #bcf4     ,m#bji       
,wolfish ,apollo4      #hdf  or 1       
,pausanias1 i4 #ai4 #c 7with my note71  
ii4 #i4 #g1 ii4        #ai4 #c1 viii4   
#dj4 #e2 ,lucian1 ,anacharsis1 #g2 ,im4 
,bekker1 ,anecdota        ,graeca       
7,berlin1 #ahad-ahba71 i4 #bgg1 lines   
#aj sq4      #hdg ,pausanias1 ii4 #i4   
#g2 ,scholiast on ,demosthenes1 xxiv4   
#aad1 p4 #gcf4      #hdh ,sophocles1    
,electra1 #f4      #hdi ,scholiast on   
,demosthenes1 xxiv4 #aad1 p4 #gcf4      
#hej ,pausanias1 ii4 #i4 #g4      #hea  
,p4 ,einhorn1 ,reformatio gentis        
,letticae in ,ducatu ,curlandiae1       
reprinted in ,scriptores rerum          
,livonicarum1 vol4 ii4 7,riga and       

,leipsic1 #ahdh7 p4 #fba4 ,the preface  
of ,einhorn's work is dated #agth       
,july #afcf4     ,m#baj ,many savages   
spare certain animals because they      
believe the souls of        their dead  
to be lodged in them4 ,examples of this 
belief among the        ,american       
,indians4      #heb ,a4 ,biet1 ,voyage  
de la ,france ,equinoxiale en l',isle de
 ,cayenne        7,paris1 #affd71 p4    
#cfa4      #hec ,j4 ,chaffanjon1        
,l',ornoque et le ,caura 7,paris1       
#ahhi71 p4 #bjc4      #hed ,levrault1   
8,rapport sur les provinces de ,canlos  
et du ,napo10        ,bulletin de la    
,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 ,deuxime 
,srie1 xi4        7#ahci7 p4 #ge4       
#hee ,g4 ,osculati1 ,esplorazione delle 
regioni equatorali lungo il ,napo ed    
il fiume delle ,amazzoni 7,milan1       
#ahej71 p4 #aad4      #hef ,j4 ,b4      
,ambrosetti1 8,los ,indios ,caingua del 
alto ,paran 7misiones710        ,boletin
 del ,instituto ,geografico ,argentino1 
xv4 7,buenos ,ayres1        #ahie7 p4   

#gdj4      #heg ,ch4 ,wiener1 ,prou et  
,bolivie 7,paris1 #ahhj71 p4 #cfi4      
#heh ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1   
,nouvelle dition1 viii4 7,paris1        
#agha7 pp4 #cce sqq4      #hei ,fr4     
,coreal1 ,voyages aux ,indes            
occidentales 7,amsterdam1 #agbb71 ii4   
#acb4      #hfj ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1   
,indian ,tribes of the ,united ,states  
7,philadelphia1 #ahec-ahef71 v4 #bae sq4
      #hfa ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 op4    
cit4 iii4 #aac4     ,m#baa ,belief of   
the transmigration of human souls into  
animals in ,africa4      #hfb ,rev4 ,j4 
,l4 ,wilson1 ,western ,africa 7,london1 
#ahef71 p4 #baj4      #hfc ,j4 ,c4      
,reichenbach1 8tude sur le royaume      
d',assinie10 ,bulletin de la            
,socit de ,gographie 7,paris71 vii4     
,srie1 xi4 7#ahij7 pp4 #cbb sq4         
#hfd ,d4 ,livingstone1 ,missionary      
,travels and ,researches in ,south      
,africa        7,london1 #aheg71 p4     
#fae4      #hfe ,miss ,a4 ,werner1 ,the 
,natives of ,british ,central ,africa   

7,london1        #aijf71 p4 #fd4        
#hff ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1   
,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern       
,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #bjj4    
#hfg ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1 8,the ,bahima10 
,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological 
,institute1 xxxvii4 7#aijg7 pp4 #aja sq4
 ,compare ,major ,j4 ,a4 ,meldon1       
8,notes on the ,bahima of ,ankole10     
,journal of the ,african ,society1      
,no4 #bb 7,january1 #aijg71 p4 #aea4    
#hfh ,m4 ,merker1 ,die ,masai 7,berlin1 
#ahid71 p4 #bjb4 ,the belief that the   
human dead are turned into serpents is  
common in ,africa2 and the              
practice of offering milk to the        
reptiles appears to be not              
infrequent4 ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1       
,osiris1#b pp4 #ga sq4      #hfi ,j4    
,halkin1 ,quelques ,peuplades du        
district de l',uel 7,lige1 #aijg71      
p4 #ajb2 ,notes ,analytiques sur les    
,collections ,ethnographiques du        
,muse du ,congo1 ,la ,religion          
7,brussels1 #aijf71 p4 #afb4      #hgj  

,father ,courtois1 8,scnes de la vie    
,cafre10 ,les ,missions                 
,catholiques1 xv4 7#ahhc7 p4 #eic4 ,for 
more evidence of similar        beliefs 
in ,africa1 see ,father ,courtois1 8    
travers le haut ,zambze10        ,les   
,missions ,catholiques1 xvi4 7#ahhd7 p4 
#bii 7souls of the dead in              
guinea-fowl72 ,father ,lejeune1 8,dans  
la fort10 ,les ,missions                
,catholiques1 xxvii4 7#ahie7 p4 #bdh    
7souls of the dead in apes1 owls1       
etc474     ,m#bab ,belief in the        
transmigration of human souls into      
animals in        ,madagascar4      #hga
 ,father ,abinal1 8,croyances fabuleuses
 des ,malgaches10 ,les ,missions        
,catholiques1 xii4 7#ahhj7 pp4 #edi-eea4
 ,a somewhat different account        of
 the ,betsileo belief in the            
transmigration of souls is given by     
another authority4 ,see ,g4 ,a4 ,shaw1  
8,the ,betsileo10 ,antananarivo         
,annual and ,madagascar ,magazine1      
,reprint of the ,first ,four ,numbers   

7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71 p4 #daa4        
,compare ,a4 van ,gennep1 ,tabou et     
,totmisme  ,madagascar 7,paris1 #aijd71 
pp4 #bgb sq41 #bhc1 #bia4      #hgb     
,rev4 ,j4 ,sibree1 ,the ,great ,african 
,island 7,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #bgj4      
#hgc 8,das ,volk der ,tanala10 ,globus1 
lxxxix4 7#aijf7 p4 #cfb4     ,m#bac     
,belief in the transmigration of human  
souls into animals in ,assam1           
,burma1 and ,cochin ,china4      #hgd   
,w4 ,h4 ,furness1 8,the ,ethnography of 
the ,nagas of ,eastern ,assam10         
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #dfc4     
#hge ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1 ,the ,naga ,tribes
 of ,manipur 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #aei4 
#hgf 7,sir7 ,j4 ,george ,scott and ,j4  
,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper     
,burma        and the ,shan ,states     
7,rangoon1 #aijj-aija71 ,part ii4 vol4  
i4 p4 #bf4      #hgg ,guerlach1 8,chez  
les sauvages de la ,cochinchine         
,orientale1 ,bahnar1        ,reungao1   
,sdang10 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1   

xxvi4 7#ahid7 pp4 #adc        sq4       
#hgh ,e4 ,aymonier1 8,les ,tchames et   
leurs religions10 ,revue de l'histoire  
des ,religions1 xxiv4 7#ahia7 p4 #bfg4  
,compare ,d4 ,grangeon1 8,les ,cham     
et leurs superstitions10 ,les ,missions 
,catholiques1 xxviii4 7#ahif7        p4 
#df4 ,according to the latter writer1   
white horses are specially        set   
apart to serve as domiciles for these   
domestic deities4 ,after        its     
dedication such a horse is carefully    
tended and never mounted        again4  
,m#bad ,belief in the transmigration of 
human souls into animals in the         
,philippines1 the ,sandwich ,islands1   
and the ,pelew ,islands4      #hgi ,f4  
,blumentritt1 8,der ,ahnencultus und die
 religisen ,anschauungen der            
,malaien des ,philippinen-,archipels10  
,mittheilungen der ,wiener ,geogr4      
,gesellschaft1 #ahhb1 p4 #afd2 id41     
,versuch einer ,ethnographie der        
,philippinen 7,gotha1 #ahhb71 p4 #bi    
7,petermanns ,mittheilungen1            

,ergnzungsheft1 ,no4 #fg74      #hhj ,l4
 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du       
,monde1 ii4 7,paris1 #ahbi7 pp4 #eie    
sq4      #hha ,k4 ,semper1 ,die         
,palau-,inseln im ,stillen ,ocean       
7,leipsic1 #ahgc71 pp4        #hg sq41  
#aic4 ,these sacred animals were called 
kalids4 ,a somewhat        different    
account of the kalids of the ,pelew     
,islanders is given by        ,j4       
,kubary 78,die ,religion der ,pelauer10 
in ,a4 ,bastian's ,allerlei aus         
,volks- und ,menschenkunde1 ,leipsic1   
#ahhh1 i4 #e sqq474     ,m#bae          
,transmigration of human souls into     
tigers in ,sumatra4      #hhb ,w4 ,d4   
,helderman1 8,de tijger en het bijgeloof
 der ,bataks10        ,tijdschrift voor 
,indische ,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1
 xxxiv4        7#ahia7 pp4 #agj-age4    
,the account which this writer gives of 
the        reception of a dead tiger by 
the ,battas agrees with1 and is probably
        the source of1 ,mr4 ,batten's   
account cited above 7pp4 #baf sq474     

,m#baf ,belief in the transmigration of 
human souls into animals in ,borneo4    
#hhc ,c4 ,hose1 8,the ,natives of       
,borneo10 ,journal of the               
,anthropological        ,institute1     
xxiii4 7#ahid7 p4 #afe4 ,compare ,a4 ,w4
 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,in        ,centraal     
,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4 #adh2 id41 
,quer durch ,borneo        7,leyden1    
#aijd-aijg71 i4 #aje4 ,according to the 
latter writer the        ,kayans or     
,bahaus in general abstain from the     
flesh both of deer and        of grey   
apes1 because they think that the souls 
of the dead may be        in them4      
#hhd ,ch4 ,hose and ,w4 ,mc,dougall1    
8,the ,relations between ,men and       
,animals in        ,sarawak10 ,journal  
of the ,anthropological ,institute1     
xxxi4 7#aija7        p4 #aic4      #hhe 
,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1 ,seventeen ,years among 
the ,sea ,dyaks of ,borneo              
7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #adc4     ,m#bag   
,belief in the transmigration of human  
souls into animals in ,new              

,guinea4      #hhf ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de       
,clercq1 8,de ,west en ,noordkust van   
,nederlandsch        ,nieuw-,guinea10   
,tijdschrift van het ,koninklijk        
,nederlandsch        ,aardrijkskundig   
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4 7#ahic7
 p4 #fce4      #hhg ,max ,krieger1      
,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 ,n4,d471 p4 #djd4
      #hhh ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herber und
 hilf uns6 iii4 7,barmen1 #ahih7 p4 #bb4
        ,compare id41 in ,nachrichten   
ber ,kaiser ,wilhelms-,land1 #ahig1 pp4 
#hg sq42 ,b4 ,hagen1 ,unter den ,papuas 
7,wiesbaden1 #ahii71 p4 #bbe4      #hhi 
,h4 ,zahn1 8,die ,jabim10 in ,r4        
,neuhauss1 ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4  
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4 #caj4      #hij ,r4 
,parkinson1 8,die ,berlinhafen ,section1
 ein ,beitrag zur ,ethnographie         
der ,neu-,guinea ,kste10                
,internationales ,archiv fr             
,ethnographie1        xiii4 7#aijj7 p4  
#dj4      #hia ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem 
,leben der ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1
 ,deutsch        ,neu-,guinea1 iii4     

7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #aej sq4     ,m#bah
 ,belief in the transmigration of human 
souls into animals in the               
,solomon ,islands4      #hib ,mr4       
,sleigh of ,lifu1 quoted by ,prof4 ,e4  
,b4 ,tylor1 in ,journal of the          
,anthropological ,institute1 xxviii4    
7#ahih7 p4 #adg4      #hic ,r4 ,h4      
,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians 7,oxford1
 #ahia71 pp4 #agi sq4      #hid ,r4 ,h4 
,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #agg4      #hie
 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc4  
,east ,indian evidence of the           
belief in transmigration into animals is
 collected by ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken           
78,het animisme bij de volken van den   
,indischen ,archipel10 ,de              
,indische ,gids1 ,june #ahhd1 pp4 #ihh  
sqq471 who argues that this             
belief supplies the link between        
ancestor-worship and totemism4          
,compare the same writer's article      
8,iets over de ,papoewas van de         
,geelvinksbaai10 pp4 #bd sqq4 7separate 
reprint from ,bijdragen tot        de   

,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde van ,ned4 
,indi1 #e;e ,volgreeks ii474            
,wilken's view on this subject is       
favoured by ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor   
7,journal of the ,anthropological       
,institute1 xxviii4 7#ahih7 pp4 #adf    
sq474 ,see further1 ,totemism and       
,exogamy1 iv4 #de sqq4     ,m#bai ,the  
doctrine of the transmigration of human 
souls into animals in        ancient    
,india4 ,the doctrine of transmigration 
in ,buddhism4      #hif ,the ,laws of   
,manu1 ii4 #bja4      #hig ,id41 v4     
#afd4      #hih ,id41 xi4 #be4      #hii
 ,id41 xii4 #ci-gh4      #ijj ,sir      
,monier ,monier-,williams1 ,buddhism1   
,second ,edition 7,london1              
#ahij71 pp4 #aaa sq4 ,full1 if not      
always authentic1 particulars of        
the ,buddha's manifold transmigrations  
are contained in the        ,jatakas1 a 
large collection of stories which has   
been completely        translated into  
,english by the late ,professor ,e4 ,b4 
,cowell1 ,dr4 ,w4        ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1

 and other scholars 7#f volumes1        
,cambridge1 #ahie-aijg74     ,m#bbj ,the
 doctrine of the transmigration of souls
 taught in ancient ,greece        by    
,pythagoras and ,empedocles4      #ija  
,diodorus ,siculus1 x4 #f4 #a-c2        
,jamblichus1 ,de ,pythagorica vita1 xiv4
        #fc2 ,porphyry1 ,vita ,pythag4  
#bf sq42 ,ovid1 ,metamorph4 xv4 #afj    
sqq4 ,according to ,heraclides          
,ponticus1 the philosopher remembered   
his personal identity in four different 
human lives before he was        born   
into the world as ,pythagoras 7,diogenes
 ,laertius1 ,vit4        ,philosoph4    
viii4 #a4 #d sq474 ,see further ,e4     
,rohde1 ,psyche#c        7,leipsic and  
,tbingen1 #aijc71 ii4 #dag sqq4         
#ijb ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,vit4         
,philosoph4 viii4 #a4 #d and #cf4       
#ijc ,jamblichus1 ,de ,pythagorica vita1
 xxiv4 #ajg-aji2 ,sextus ,empiricus1    
ix4 #abg-acj2 ,aulus ,gellius1 iv4 #aa4 
#ijd ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,vit4         
,philosoph4 viii4 #b4 #gg2 ,h4 ,diels1  

,die        ,fragmente der              
,vorsokratiker1#b i4 7,berlin1 #aijf7 p4
 #bjh1 frag4 #aag4      #ije ,sextus    
,empiricus1 ix4 #abi2 ,h4 ,diels1 op4   
cit4 i4 pp4 #bac sq41        frag4 #acg4
      #ijf ,compare ,sextus ,empiricus1 
ix4 #abg-acj4      #ijg ,plutarch1      
,quaest4 ,conviv4 iii4 #a4 #b4 #g2      
,aulus ,gellius1 iv4 #aa4 #i2        ,h4
 ,diels1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bad1 fragments 
#adj1 #ada4     ,m#bba ,the doctrine of 
transmigration used by ,pythagoras and  
,empedocles        mainly to inculcate  
certain ethical precepts4 ,the pessimism
 of        ,empedocles unlike the       
ordinary ,greek view of life2 its       
similarity to        ,buddhism4         
#ijh ,as to ,pythagoras in this respect1
 see ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psyche#c 7,tbingen    
and ,leipsic1 #aijc71 ii4 #afa sqq4     
#iji ,plutarch1 ,de exilio1 #ag2 id41   
,de esu carnium1 i4 #g4 #d2 ,clement    
of ,alexandria1 ,strom4 iv4 #d4 #ab1 p4 
#efi ed4 ,potter2 ,hippolytus1          
,refutatio omnium ,haeresium1 vii4 #bi1 

p4 #chh ed4 ,l4 ,duncker and ,f4        
,g4 ,schneidewin2 ,h4 ,diels1 op4 cit4  
i4 pp4 #bjg sq41 fragments        #aae1 
#aai4      #iaj ,porphyry1 ,de antro    
nympharum1 #h4      #iaa ,h4 ,diels1 op4
 cit4 i4 pp4 #bjh sq41 frag4 #aba4      
#iab ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,strom4   
iii4 #c4 #ad1 iv4 #bc4 #aeb1 v4 #ad4    
#abc1        pp4 #eaf sq41 #fcb1 #gbb   
ed4 ,potter2 ,h4 ,diels1 ,die ,fragmente
 der        ,vorsokratiker1#b i4        
7,berlin1 #aijf7 pp4 #bjg1 #bji1 #bae   
sq41        fragments #aae1 #abd1       
#add-adg4      #iac ,empedocles is cited
 by ,aristotle as an example of the     
melancholy        which he believed to  
be characteristic of men of genius4 ,see
        ,aristotle1 ,problem4 #cj1 p4   
#iec a #bg ed4 ,im4 ,bekker4      #iad  
,stobaeus1 ,eclogae1 i4 #da4 #fj 7vol4  
i4 p4 #cca ed4 ,a4 ,meineke72           
,plutarch1 ,de esu carnium ii4 #d4 #d2  
,h4 ,diels1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #baj1        
frag4 #abf4      #iae ,it seems to be   
fairly certain that ,buddha died and    

,empedocles was        born somewhere   
about the year #dhj ,b4,c4 ,hence it is 
difficult to        suppose that the    
ideas of the former should have         
percolated from        ,india to        
,greece1 or rather to ,sicily1 in the   
lifetime of the latter4        ,as to   
their respective dates see ,h4          
,oldenberg1 ,buddha#e 7,stuttgart       
and ,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #aae1 #bbg2 ,e4
 ,zeller1 ,die ,philosophie der         
,griechen1 i4#d 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7 p4    
#fgh note #a4     ,m#bbb ,analogy of the
 physical speculations of ,empedocles to
 those of        ,herbert ,spencer4     
#iaf ,plutarch1 ,adversus ,coloten1 #aj2
 ,aristotle1 ,de ,xenophane1 #b1 p4     
#ige a #ci-;b #d ed4 ,im4 ,bekker2 ,h4  
,diels1 op4 cit4 i4 pp4 #age1 #agf1     
fragments #h and #ab4      #iag ,the    
evidence1 consisting of the testimonies 
of ancient authorities        and the   
fragments of ,empedocles's own writings1
 is fully collected        by ,h4 ,diels
 in his excellent work ,die ,fragmente  

der ,vorsokratiker1        ,zweite      
,auflage1 i4 7,berlin1 #aijf7 pp4 #aeh  
sqq41 #agc sqq4 ,compare                
,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1   
ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4 ,mullach1 i4            
7,paris1 #ahge7 pp4 #a sqq42 ,h4 ,ritter
 et ,l4 ,preller1 ,historia             
,philosophiae ,graecae et ,latinae ex   
fontium locis contexta1 ,editio         
,quinta 7,gothae1 #ahge71 pp4 #ia sqq42 
,e4 ,zeller1 ,die ,philosophie          
der ,griechen1 i4#d 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7   
pp4 #fgh sqq4     ,m#bbc ,herbert       
,spencer's theory of alternate periods  
of concentration and        dissipation 
of matter4      #iah ,herbert ,spencer1 
,first ,principles1 ,third ,edition     
7,london1 #ahge71        pp4 #ecf sq4   
,m#bbd ,evolution or dissolution4       
#iai ,on the discovery of the atomic    
disintegration of certain chemical      
elements1 and the general question      
7,evolution or ,dissolution87           
raised by that discovery1 see ,w4 ,c4   
,d4 ,whetham1 8,the ,evolution of       

,matter10 in ,darwin and ,modern        
,science 7,cambridge1 #aiji71 pp4       
#efe-ehb1 particularly his concluding   
paragraph3 8,in the strict sense        
of the word1 the process of atomic      
disintegration revealed to us by        
the new science of radio-activity can   
hardly be called evolution4 ,in         
each case radio-active change involves  
the breaking up of a heavier1           
more complex atom into lighter and      
simpler fragments4 ,are we to           
regard this process as characteristic of
 the tendencies in accord        with   
which the universe has reached its      
present state1 and is        passing to 
its unknown future8 ,or have we chanced 
upon an eddy in a        backwater1     
opposed to the main stream of advance8  
,in the chaos from        which the     
present universe developed1 was matter  
composed of large        highly complex 
atoms1 which have formed the simpler    
elements by        radio-active or      
rayless disintegration8 ,or did the     

primaeval        substance consist of   
isolated electrons1 which have slowly   
come        together to form the        
elements1 and yet have left here and    
there an        anomaly such as that    
illustrated by the unstable family of   
uranium        and radium1 or by some   
such course are returning to their state
 of        primaeval simplicity80       
,m#bbe ,empedocles as a forerunner of   
,darwin4      #ibj ,h4 ,diels1 ,die     
,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker1#b i4     
7,berlin1 #aijf7 pp4        #aij sqq42  
,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,graecorum1   
ed4 ,f4 ,g4 ,a4        ,mullach1 i4     
7,paris1 #ahge7 pp4 #h sqq42 ,h4 ,ritter
 und ,l4 ,preller1        ,historia     
,philosophiae ,graecae et ,latinae ex   
fontium locis        contexta#e         
7,gothae1 #ahge71 pp4 #ajb sq42 ,e4     
,zeller1 ,die        ,philosophie der   
,griechen1 i4#d 7,leipsic1 #ahgf7 pp4   
#gah sqq4      #iba ,aristotle1 ,physic4
 ,auscult4 ii4 #h1 p4 #aih b #bi sqq41  
ed4 ,im4        ,bekker2           1    

2           1   1             4 ,this   
passage is quoted by ,darwin in the     
8,historical        ,sketch0 prefixed to
 ,the ,origin of ,species with the      
remark1 8,we        here see the        
principle of natural selection shadowed 
forth1 but how        little ,aristotle 
fully comprehended the principle1 is    
shown by his        remarks on the      
formation of the teeth40 ,darwin omits  
,aristotle's        reference to        
,empedocles1 apparently deeming it      
irrelevant or        unimportant4 ,had  
he been fully acquainted with the       
philosophical        speculations of    
,empedocles1 we can scarcely doubt that 
,darwin would        have included him  
among the pioneers of evolution4        
,m#bbf ,empedocles as a pretender to    
divinity4      #ibb ,diogenes ,laertius1
 ,vit4 ,philosoph4 viii4 #b4 #fb2 ,h4   
,diels1 ,die        ,fragmente der      
,vorsokratiker1#b i4 7,berlin1 #aijf7 p4
 #bje1 frag4 #aab4        ,compare ,the 
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       

,kings1 i4 #cij4     ,m#bbg ,the        
doctrine of the transmigration of souls 
in ,plato4      #ibc ,plato1 ,phaedo1   
pp4 #ha ,b-#hd ,c2 ,republic1 x4 pp4    
#fag ,d-#fbj ,d2        ,timaeus1 pp4   
#da ,d-#db ,d2 ,phaedrus1 p4 #bdi ,b4   
#ibd ,this is the view of ,e4 ,zeller   
7,die ,philosophie der ,griechen1 ii4#c 
,leipsic1 #ahge1 pp4 #gjf sqq471 ,sir   
,w4 ,e4 ,geddes 7on ,plato1             
,phaedo1 p4 #ha ,e71 and ,j4 ,adam 7on  
,plato1 ,republic1 x4 p4 #fah ,a74      
,we have no right1 with some            
interpreters ancient and modern1 to     
dissolve the theory into an allegory    
because it does not square with         
our ideas4      #ibe ,in our own time   
the theory of transmigration is favoured
 by ,dr4        ,mc,taggart1 who argues 
that human beings may have lived before 
birth        and may live many1 perhaps 
an infinite number of1 lives after      
death4        ,like ,plato he further   
suggests that the nature of the body    
into        which a person transmigrates

 at death may be appropriate to and     
determined by his or her character in   
the preceding life4 ,see ,j4            
,mc,t4 ,ellis ,mc,taggart1 ,some ,dogmas
 of ,religion 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4     
#aab-aci4 ,however1 ,dr4 ,mc,taggart    
seems only to contemplate the           
transmigration of human souls into human
 bodies2 he does not discuss        the 
possibility of their transmigration into
 animals4     ,m#bbh ,the ambiguous     
behaviour of the ,aino and the ,gilyaks 
towards bears        explained4   ,m#bbi
 ,two forms of the worship of animals4  
#ibf ,this is known1 for example1 of the
 ,yuchi ,indians1 for among them        
8members of each clan will not do       
violence to wild animals having         
the form and name of their totem4 ,for  
instance1 the ,bear clan people         
never molest bears40 ,see ,f4 ,g4       
,speck1 ,ethnology of the ,yuchi        
,indians 7,philadelphia1 #aiji71 p4 #gj4
 ,but in spite of the attention         
which has been paid to ,american        

totemism1 we possess very little        
information as to the vital point of the
 system1 the relation        between a  
man and his totemic animal4 ,compare    
,totemism and        ,exogamy1 iii4 #hh 
sq41 #caa4      #ibg ,see ,the ,magic   
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4   
#he sqq4        ,however1 ,collins      
reports that among the natives of ,new  
,south ,wales        the women were     
8compelled to sit in their canoe1       
exposed to the        fervour of the    
mid-day sun1 hour after hour1 chaunting 
their little        song1 and inviting  
the fish beneath them to take their     
bait0 7,d4        ,collins1 ,an ,account
 of the ,english ,colony in ,new ,south 
,wales1        ,london1 #ahjd1 p4 #chg74
 ,this may have been a form of          
conciliation        like that employed  
by the ,american ,indians towards the   
fish and        game4 ,but the account  
is not precise enough to allow us to    
speak        with confidence4 ,it is    
sometimes reported that the ,australians

        attempt to appease the kangaroos
 which they have killed1 assuring       
the animals of their affection and      
begging them not to come back           
after death to torment them4 ,but the   
writer who mentions the report          
disbelieves it4 ,see ,dom ,thophile     
,brengier1 in ,les ,missions            
,catholiques1 x4 7#ahgh7 p4 #aig4       
#ibh ,g4 ,catlin1 ,o-,kee-pa1 a         
,religious ,ceremony1 and other ,customs
 of the        ,mandans 7,london1       
#ahfg71 ,folium reservatum2 ,lewis and  
,clarke1        ,travels to the ,source 
of the ,missouri ,river 7,london1       
#ahae71 i4 #bje        sq4     ,m#bcj   
,two types of animal sacrament1 the     
,egyptian and the ,aino type4   ,m#bca  
,examples of animal sacraments among    
pastoral tribes4 ,aino or               
expiatory type of animal sacrament among
 the ,abchases and ,kalmucks4      #ibi 
,a4 ,bastian1 in ,verhandlungen der     
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie1 und        

,urgeschichte1 #ahgj-ga1 p4 #ei4 ,j4    
,reinegg 7,beschreibung des ,kaukasus1  
,gotha1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 and           
,hildesheim1 #agif-ig1 ii4 #ab sq47     
describes what seems to be a            
sacrament of the ,abghazses 7,abchases74
 ,it takes place in the middle        of
 autumn4 ,a white ox called ,ogginn     
appears from a holy cave1 which         
is also called ,ogginn4 ,it is caught   
and led about amongst the               
assembled men 7women are excluded7 amid 
joyful cries4 ,then it is        killed 
and eaten4 ,any man who did not get at  
least a scrap of the        sacred flesh
 would deem himself most unfortunate4   
,the bones are then        carefully    
collected1 burned in a great hole1 and  
the ashes buried        there4      #icj
 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die ,vlker des stlichen 
,asien1 vi4 7,jena1 #ahga7 pp4          
#fcb1 note4 ,on the ,kalmucks as a      
people of shepherds and on their        
diet of mutton1 see ,j4 ,g4 ,georgi1    
,beschreibung aller ,nationen des       

russischen ,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1   
#aggf71 pp4 #djf sq41 compare p4        
#bjg2 ,b4 ,bergmann1 ,nomadische        
,streifereien unter den ,kalmcken       
7,riga1 #ahjd-e71 ii4 #hj sqq41 #abb2   
,p4 ,s4 ,pallas1 ,reise durch           
verschiedene ,provinzen des russischen  
,reichs 7,st4 ,petersburg1              
#agga-aggf71 i4 #cai1 #cbe4 ,according  
to ,pallas1 it is only rich             
,kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep 
or cattle for eating2        ordinary   
,kalmucks do not usually kill them      
except in case of        necessity or at
 great merry-makings4 ,it is1 therefore1
 especially        the rich who need to 
make expiation4     ,m#bcb ,egyptian    
type of animal sacrament among the      
,todas and ,madi4      #ica ,w4 ,e4     
,marshall1 ,travels amongst the ,todas  
7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #abi        sq4   
#icb ,w4 ,e4 ,marshall1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hj
 sq41 #acj4      #icc ,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1  
8,notes on the ,madi or ,moru ,tribe of 
,central ,africa10        ,proceedings  

of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1   
xii4 7#ahhb-hd7 pp4        #ccf sq4     
#icd ,mutton appears to be now eaten by 
the tribe as a regular article of       
food 7,r4 ,w4 ,felkin1 op4 cit4 p4      
#cjg71 but this is not inconsistent     
with the original sanctity of the sheep4
      #ice ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1         
,religion of the ,semites#b 7,london1   
#ahid71 pp4 #cdd        sqq4 ,as to     
communion by means of an external       
application1 see        above1 pp4 #afb 
sqq4     ,m#bcc ,form of communion with 
a sacred animal by taking it from house 
to        house4 ,effigy of a snake     
carried from house to house by members  
of        the ,snake tribe4      #icf   
,see above1 pp4 #aij1 #aib4      #icg   
,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 p4 #ia1
  #eee 7,march #ahhe74     ,m#bcd       
8,hunting the ,wren0 in ,europe4 ,sacred
 character of the wren in        popular
 superstition4      #ich ,see ,ch4      
,vallancey1 ,collectanea de rebus       
,hibernicis1 iv4 7,dublin1        #aghf7

 p4 #ig2 ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular           
,antiquities 7,london1 #ahhb-ahhc71     
iii4 #aie sq4 7,bohn's ed472 ,rev4 ,c4  
,swainson1 ,folk-lore of ,british       
,birds 7,london1 #ahhf71 p4 #cf2 ,e4    
,rolland1 ,faune populaire de la        
,france1 ii4 #bhh sqq4 ,the names for   
the bird are 1        regulus1 rex avium
 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 viii4 #ij1 x4    
#bjc71 re        di siepe1 reyezuelo1   
roitelet1 roi des oiseaux1 ,zaunknig1   
etc4 ,on the custom of hunting the wren 
see further ,n4 ,w4 ,thomas1            
8,the ,scape-,goat in ,european         
,folklore10 ,folk-lore1 xvii4 7#aijf7   
pp4        #bgj sqq41 #bhj2 ,miss ,l4   
,eckstein1 ,comparative ,studies in     
,nursery        ,rhymes 7,london1       
#aijf71 pp4 #agb sqq4 ,miss ,eckstein   
suggests that        the killing of the 
bird called 8the king0 may have been a  
mitigation        of an older custom of 
killing the real king4      #ici ,j4    
,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4     
#aid4      #idj ,r4 ,chambers1 ,popular 

,rhymes of ,scotland1 ,new ,edition     
7,london and        ,edinburgh1 ,n4,d471
 p4 #ahh4      #ida ,ibid4 p4 #ahf4     
#idb ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,traditions et       
,superstitions de la ,haute-,bretagne   
7,paris1 #ahhb71 ii4 #bad4      #idc ,a4
 ,bosquet1 ,la ,normandie ,romanesque et
 ,merveilleuse 7,paris and              
,rouen1 #ahde71 p4 #bba2 ,e4 ,rolland1  
op4 cit4 ii4 #bid sq42 ,p4              
,sbillot1 l4c42 ,rev4 ,c4 ,swainson1 op4
 cit4 p4 #db4     ,m#bce ,hunting the   
,wren in the ,isle of ,man4      #idd   
,g4 ,waldron1 ,description of the ,isle 
of ,man 7reprinted for the ,manx        
,society1 ,douglas1 #ahfe71 pp4 #di     
sqq42 ,j4 ,train1 ,account of the       
,isle of ,man 7,douglas1 #ahde71 ii4    
#abd sqq41 #ada4      #ide ,in ,the     
,morning ,post of ,wednesday1 #bgth     
,december #aiaa1 we read that           
8the observance of the ancient and      
curious custom known as #8the hunt      
of the wren' was general throughout the 
,isle of ,man yesterday4        ,parties

 of boys bearing poles decked with ivy  
and streamers went        from house to 
house singing to an indescribable tune a
 quaint ballad        detailing the     
pursuit and death of the wren1          
subsequently demanding                  
recompense1 which is rarely refused4    
,formerly boys actually engaged         
in the chase1 stoning the bird to death 
with the object of        distributing  
the feathers #8for luck4' 0 ,from this  
account we may        gather that in the
 ,isle of ,man the hunting of the wren  
is now merely        nominal and that   
the pretence of it is kept up only as an
 excuse for        collecting           
gratuities4 ,it is thus that the        
solemnity of ritual        dwindles into
 the pastime of children4 ,i have to    
thank ,mrs4 ,j4 ,h4        ,deane1 of   
#da ,iverna ,court1 ,kensington1 for    
kindly sending me the        extract    
from ,the ,morning ,post4     ,m#bcf    
,hunting the ,wren in ,ireland and      
,england4      #idf ,ch4 ,vallancey1    

,collectanea de rebus ,hibernicis1 iv4  
7,dublin1 #aghf7        p4 #ig2 ,j4     
,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 iii4     
#aie4      #idg ,g4 ,h4 ,kinahan1       
8,notes on ,irish ,folk-lore10          
,folk-lore ,record1 iv4        7#ahha7  
p4 #ajh2 ,rev4 ,c4 ,swainson1 ,folk-lore
 of ,british ,birds1 pp4        #cf sq42
 ,e4 ,rolland1 ,faune populaire de la   
,france1 ii4 #big2        ,professor ,w4
 ,ridgeway1 in ,academy1 #ajth ,may     
#ahhd1 p4 #ccb2 ,t4 ,f4                 
,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british ,popular     
,customs 7,london1 #ahgf71 p4 #dig2 ,l4 
,l4 ,duncan1 8,further ,notes from      
,county ,leitrim10 ,folk-lore1 v4       
7#ahid7 p4 #aig4 ,the custom is still1  
or was down to a few years ago1         
practised in ,county ,meath1 where the  
verses sung are practically the         
same as those in the text4 ,wrens are   
scarce in that part of the              
country1 8but as the boys go round more 
for the fun of dressing up        and   
collecting money1 the fact that there is

 no wren in their basket        is quite
 immaterial40 ,these particulars ,i     
learn from a letter of        ,miss ,a4 
,h4 ,singleton1 dated ,appey-,leix1     
,ireland1 #bdth ,february #aijd4        
#idh ,w4 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the  
,northern ,counties 7,london1 #ahgi71   
p4 #abe4      #idi ,rev4 ,c4 ,swainson1 
op4 cit4 pp4 #dj sq4     ,m#bcg ,hunting
 the ,wren in ,france4      #iej ,madame
 ,clment1 ,histoire des ,ftes civiles et
 religieuses1 etc41        de la        
,belgique ,mridionale 7,avesnes1 #ahdf71
 pp4 #dff-dfh2 ,a4 ,de        ,nore1    
,coutumes1 ,mythes et ,traditions des   
provinces de ,france        7,paris and 
,lyons1 #ahdf71 pp4 #gg sqq42 ,e4       
,rolland1 ,faune populaire        de la 
,france1 ii4 #bie sq42 ,j4 ,w4 ,wolf1   
,beitrge zur deutschen                  
,mythologie1 ii4 7,gttingen1 #aheg7 pp4 
#dcg sq4 ,the ceremony was              
abolished at the revolution of #aghi1   
revived after the restoration1          
and suppressed again after #ahcj4       

#iea ,e4 ,rolland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bif sq4
      #ieb ,c4 ,s4 ,sonnini1 ,travels in
 ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 translated   
from        the ,french 7,london1       
#ahjj71 pp4 #aa sq42 ,j4 ,brand1        
,popular        ,antiquities1 iii4 #aih4
 ,the 8hunting of the wren0 may be      
compared        with a ,swedish custom4 
,on the #ast of ,may children rob the   
magpies'        nests of both eggs and  
young4 ,these they carry in a basket    
from        house to house in the       
village and shew to the housewives1     
while one        of the children sings  
some doggerel lines containing a threat 
that1        if a present is not given1 
the hens1 chickens1 and eggs will fall a
        prey to the magpie4 ,they       
receive bacon1 eggs1 milk1 etc41 upon   
which        they afterwards feast4 ,see
 ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden  
7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bcg sq4 ,the     
resemblance of such customs to the      
8swallow song0 and 8crow song0 of the   
ancient ,greeks 7on which see           

,athenaeus1 viii4 #ei sq41 pp4 #cei1    
#cfj7 is obvious and has been           
remarked before now4 ,probably the      
,greek swallow-singers and              
crow-singers carried about dead swallows
 and crows or effigies of        them4  
,the 8crow song0 is referred to in a    
,greek inscription found in        the  
south of ,russia    4 ,see ,compte      
,rendu of the ,imperial ,archaeological 
,commission1 ,st4 ,petersburg1          
#ahgg1 pp4 #bgf sqq4 ,in modern ,greece 
and ,macedonia it is still              
customary for children on #ast ,march to
 go about the streets singing           
spring songs and carrying a wooden      
swallow1 which is kept turning on       
a cylinder4 ,see ,j4 ,grimm1 ,deutsche  
,mythologie1#d ii4 #fcf2 ,a4            
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1       
#ahgh71 p4 #cja2 ,g4 ,f4 ,abbott1       
,macedonian ,folk-lore 7,cambridge1     
#aijc71 p4 #ah2 ,j4 ,c4 ,lawson1 ,modern
 ,greek ,folklore and ancient ,greek    

,religion 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 p4 #ce4  
,the custom of making the image         
of the swallow revolve on a pivot1 which
 is practised in ,macedonia        as   
well as ,greece1 may be compared with   
the pirouetting of the girl        in   
the ,servian rain-making ceremony4 ,the 
meaning of these        revolutions is  
obscure4 ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the  
,evolution of        ,kings1 i4 #bgc1   
#bge4     ,m#bch ,religious processions 
with sacred animals4 ,ceremony of       
beating a man        clad in a cow's    
skin in the ,highlands of ,scotland4    
#iec ,s4 ,johnson1 ,a ,journey to the   
,western ,islands of ,scotland1 pp4 #abh
        sq4 7,the ,works of ,samuel     
,johnson1 ,,ll4,d41 edited by the ,rev4 
,r4        ,lynam1 ,london1 #ahbe1 vol4 
vi474      #ied ,john ,ramsay1 ,scotland
 and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth       
,century        7,edinburgh and ,london1
 #ahhh71 ii4 #dch sq4 ,the custom is    
clearly        referred to in the       
8,penitential of ,theodore10 quoted by  

,kemble1        ,saxons in ,england1 i4 
#ebe2 ,ch4 ,elton1 ,origins of ,english 
,history        7,london1 #ahhb71 p4    
#daa3 8,si quis in ,kal4 ,januar4 in    
cervulo vel        vitula vadit1 id est 
in ferarum habitus se communicant1 et   
vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt 
capita bestiarum10 etc4     ,m#bci      
,another description of the ,highland   
custom4      #iee ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1    
,witchcraft and ,second ,sight in the   
,highlands and        ,islands of       
,scotland 7,glasgow1 #aijb71 pp4        
#bcj-bcb4 ,shinty is the        ,scotch 
name for hockey3 the game is played with
 a ball and curved        sticks or     
clubs4      #ief ,r4 ,chambers1 ,popular
 ,rhymes of ,scotland1 ,new ,edition    
7,london and        ,edinburgh1 ,n4,d471
 pp4 #aff sq4      #ieg ,see above1 vol4
 i4 pp4 #bdf sq4     ,m#bdj ,processions
 of men disguised as animals1 in which  
the animal seems        to represent the
 corn-spirit4 ,the ,shrovetide ,bear in 
,bohemia4      #ieh ,w4 ,mannhardt1     

,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1 
#ahgg71 p4 #ahc4      #iei ,o4 ,freiherr
 von ,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,fest-     
,kalender aus ,bhmen        7,prague1   
,n4,d41 preface dated #ahfa71 pp4       
#di-eb4 ,compare ,e4 ,cortet1           
,essai sur les ,ftes ,religieuses       
7,paris1 #ahfg71 p4 #hc4 ,similar       
processions with a ,shrovetide ,bear    
take place among some of the            
,german peasantry of ,moravia1 though   
there the mummer is said to be          
wrapt in skins and furs rather than in  
straw and to personate        ,winter4  
,see ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur           
,volkskunde der ,deutschen in           
,mhren 7,vienna and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 p4  
#dca4 ,this latter        interpretation
 may be due to a misunderstanding of the
 old custom4      #ifj ,on this custom  
see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution 
of ,kings1 i4        #acg sqq4      #ifa
 ,real bears and other animals were     
formerly promenaded about both          
town and country with rags of coloured  

cloth attached to them4        ,scraps  
of these cloths and hairs of the animals
 were given1 rather        perhaps sold1
 to all who asked for them as           
preservatives against        sickness   
and the evil eye4 ,the practice was     
condemned by the ,council        of     
,constance4 ,see ,j4 ,b4 ,thiers1 ,trait
 des ,superstitions 7,paris1            
#afgi71 pp4 #cae sq4 ,we need not       
suppose that these animals              
represented the corn-spirit4     ,m#bda 
,the ,oats-goat1 the ,pease-bear1 etc4  
,the ,yule-goat in ,sweden4      #ifb   
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und      
,feldkulte1 pp4 #ahc sq4      #ifc ,see 
above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bha sqq4      #ifd  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #aij4       
#ife ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahh4  
#iff ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4       
#aia-aic4      #ifg ,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant
 ,life in ,sweden 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 
#ahd sq42 ,w4        ,mannhardt1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #aif sq4      #ifh ,w4         
,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #aif4      #ifi 

,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aig sq4   
#igj ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bge1 #bih 
sqq4     ,m#bdb ,the ,straw-bear at     
,whittlesey4      #iga ,letter of       
,professor ,g4 ,c4 ,moore ,smith1 dated 
,the ,university1        ,sheffield1    
#acth ,january1 #aiji4     ,m#bdc ,the  
ceremonies of ,plough ,monday in        
,england4      #igb ,r4 ,chambers1 ,the 
,book of ,days 7,london and ,edinburgh1 
#ahhf71 i4 #id        sq42 ,j4 ,brand1  
,popular ,antiquities1 ,new ,edition    
7,london1 #ahhc71        i4 #ejf sqq42  
,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,british      
,popular ,customs        7,london1      
#ahgf71 pp4 #cg sqq42 ,o4 ,freiherr von 
,reinsberg-,dringsfeld1 ,das festliche  
,jahr 7,leipsic1 #ahfc71 pp4 #bg        
sq4 ,compare ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus
 7,berlin1 #ahge71 pp4 #eeg        sq42 
,t4 ,fairman ,ordish1 8,english         
,folk-drama10 ,folk-lore1 iv4           
7#ahic7 pp4 #afc sqq42 ,folk-lore1 viii4
 7#ahig7 p4 #ahd2 ,e4 ,k4               
,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval ,stage       

7,oxford1 #aijc71 i4 #bjh-baj2 ,h4      
,munro        ,chadwick1 ,the ,origin of
 the ,english ,nation 7,cambridge1      
#aijg71 p4        #bch4 ,counties in    
which the custom of ,plough ,monday is  
reported to        have been observed   
are ,norfolk1 ,cambridgeshire1          
,huntingdonshire1                       
,northamptonshire1 ,lincolnshire1       
,leicestershire1 ,nottinghamshire1      
,derbyshire1 ,cheshire1 and ,yorkshire4 
,thus the custom would seem to          
have been characteristic of a group of  
counties in the centre of               
,england4 ,in ,january #ahhg1 ,i        
witnessed the ceremony in the streets of
        ,cambridge4 ,wooden ploughs of a
 primitive sort were dragged about by   
bands of young men who were profusely   
decked with scarves and        ribbons4 
,they ran at a good pace1 and beside    
them ran a companion        with a      
money-box collecting donations4 ,amongst
 them ,i did not        observe any     
woman or man in female attire4 ,compare 

,the ,folk-lore        ,journal1 v4     
7#ahhg7 p4 #afa4     ,m#bdd ,the object 
of the dances on ,plough ,monday is     
probably to ensure the        growth of 
the corn4   ,m#bde ,the ,straw-bear a   
representative of the corn-spirit4      
,m#bdf ,the rites of ,plough ,monday    
resemble the rites at the end of the    
,carnival in ,thrace4 ,similar rites are
 performed at the same time by          
the ,bulgarian peasants of ,thrace4 ,the
 intention of the rites is              
clearly to fertilise the ground4        
#igc ,see above1 vol4 i4 pp4 #be sqq4   
#igd ,g4 ,kazarow1 8,karnevalbruche in  
,bulgarien10 ,archiv fr                 
,religionswissenschaft1 xi4 7#aijh7 pp4 
#djg sq4     ,m#bdg ,similar customs are
 observed at the ,carnival in ,bulgaria4
      #ige ,g4 ,kazarow1                
8,karnevalbruche in ,bulgarien10 ,archiv
 fr        ,religionswissenschaft1 xi4  
7#aijh7 pp4 #djh sq4     ,m#bdh ,in all 
these cases the ceremonial ploughing and
 sowing are probably        charms to   

ensure the growth of the crops4   ,m#bdi
 ,such rites no doubt date from a remote
 antiquity4   ,m#bej ,effigy of a horse 
in a harvest festival of the ,garos4    
#igf ,major ,a4 ,playfair1 ,the ,garos  
7,london1 #aiji71 pp4 #id sq4     ,m#bea
 ,major ,playfair's description of the  
festival4   ,m#beb ,dance of a man      
wearing the mask of a horse's head4     
,m#bec ,the effigy of the horse at      
rice-harvest perhaps represents the     
spirit of the rice4      #igg ,see      
above1 p4 #ba4      #igh ,see my note on
 ,pausanias1 viii4 #cg4 #c 7vol4 iv4 pp4
 #cge sqq474