,illustration3 ,firing the ,kiln ,courtesy of the ,rookwood ,potteries ,,vocational ,,education ,,series ,,supervising ,,editor ,,fred ,d4 ,,crawshaw1 ,m4,e4 ,,professor ,,of ,,manual ,,arts1 ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,a ,,textbook ,,of ,,practical ,,methods ,,for ,,students1 ,,teachers1 ,,and ,,craftsmen ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,varnum ,,assistant ,,professor ,,of ,,drawing ,,and ,,design ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin ,,scott1 ,,foresman ,,and ,,company ,,chicago ,,new ,,york ,copyright #aiaf by ,,scott1 ,,foresman ,,and ,,company ,,preface ,place for the ,book4 ,as a textbook1 ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design is a practical guide for designing in wood1 clay1 and base and precious metals4 ,it is intended for individual student use in the ,high ,schools1 ,normal ,schools1 and ,colleges and as a reference book for elementary school teachers4 ,its more complex problems are intended as definite helps to the industrial arts designer or craftsman4 ,the wood problems are treated with special reference to their adaptability to bench and cabinet work4 ,need of the ,book4 ,it has been written to fill a decided demand for a textbook that shall1 without loss of time1 directly apply well-recognized principles of general design to specific materials and problems encountered in the ,industrial ,arts4 ,a brief description of the decorative processes adapted to the materials under discussion with the design principles directly applying to these processes1 insures designs that may be worked out in the studio or shop4 ,it is hoped that this provision will eliminate the large number of impractical designs that are frequently entirely unfitted to the technic of the craft4 ,this lack of mutual technical understanding between the teacher of design and the shop work instructor is the cause of friction that it is hoped will be removed by the methods advocated in these pages4 ,the ,author's ,motive4 ,it has been the intention to reduce unrelated and abstract theories to a minimum and reach directly rules and conclusions that shall be applicable to typical materials in common use in the schools and industries4 ,the original conception materialized in the publication of a series of articles upon ,design in the ,industrial ,arts ,magazine1 in #aiae4 ,these articles were favorably received and their results in the schools proved highly satisfactory4 ,through this encouragement1 the articles have been reprinted in book form1 enriched by the addition of illustrations1 review questions1 and three chapters on color with its applications4 ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design develops the principles of industrial design in a new and logical form which1 it is believed1 will simplify the teaching of craft design4 ,chapters ,i to ,v deal with the elementary problems confronting the designer as he begins the first steps on his working drawing2 ,chapters ,,vi to ,,viii show the methods by which he may express his individuality through contour or outline enrichment1 while ,chapters ,,ix to ,,xvii explain the treatment of the most difficult form of decoration1 that of surface enrichment4 ,the ,appendix4 ,the appendix is added to show the manner in which the rules may be directly applied to a course of study in either pottery or art metal4 ,the present work is not intended to include the chemistry of glaze mixing or other technical requirements to which reference is made in the appendix2 consequently the reader is referred to ,the ,potter's ,craft by ,c4,f4 ,binns and ,pottery by ,george ,j4 ,cox for fuller explanations of the formulae and technicalities of the craft4 ,source of ,principles4 ,the principles herein advocated are directly related to architectural design which is to be regarded as the standard authority for the industrial arts designer4 ,it was necessary to state these principles in the form of sufficiently flexible rules which would allow the student to use his own judgment1 but at the same time1 restrict him to the essential principles of good design4 ,rules4 ,this presentation of the principles of design by means of flexible rules in concrete form1 serves to vitalize design by virtue of their immediate application to the material4 ,the rules likewise save time for both pupil and instructor4 ,this is regarded as an important factor1 inasmuch as the amount of time usually allotted to classroom teaching of design is limited4 ,while these rules are applied to the specific materials1 the designer may readily adjust them to other materials and find them equally applicable4 ,direct copying of designs from the illustrations is a dangerous expedient and is to be discouraged as a form of plagiarism which will eventually destroy the student's initiative1 originality1 and reputation for creative work4 ,results4 ,from the tests so far observed1 it has been seen that under design guidance1 the projects become more noticeably individual in character1 lighter and better in construction1 and more fully adjusted to their environment4 ,the student's interest and initiative in his work are strengthened1 and he completes the truly valuable cycle of the educative process of evolving his own idea and crystallizing it in the completed work4 ,it is hoped that this book will tend to develop higher standards of good design in schools1 industrial establishments1 and the home4 ,in conclusion1 the author expresses his thanks to the following for their valuable suggestions and assistance in contributed illustrations3 ,miss ,d4,f4 ,wilson1 ,miss ,edna ,howard1 ,miss ,elizabeth ,upham1 ,miss ,a4,m4 ,anderson1 ,mr4 ,j4,m4 ,dorrans1 ,mr4 ,j4,b4 ,robinson1 author of ,architectural ,composition1 and others to whom reference is made in the text4 ,,william ,,harrison ,,varnum4 ,madison1 ,wisconsin4 ,april1 #aiaf4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,divisions ,,of ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design #g ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,and ,,its ,,proportions #ac ,,iii4 ,,horizontal ,,major ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass #ai ,,iv4 ,,vertical ,,major ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass #cc ,v4 ,,appendages ,,and ,,the ,,rules ,,governing ,,them #dc ,,vi4 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,wood #eg ,,vii4 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,clay #gg ,,viii4 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals #hg ,,ix4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood #ii ,x4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood4 7,continued7 #aag ,,xi4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,with ,,minor ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood #acc ,,xii4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay #ade ,,xiii4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,precious ,,metals4 ,,small ,,flat ,,planes #afj ,,xiv4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals #agi ,,xv4 ,,color3 ,,hue1 ,,value1 ,,and ,,chroma2 ,,stains #aid ,,xvi4 ,,color ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design4 ,,large ,,surfaces ,,of ,,wood2 ,,wall ,,and ,,ceiling ,,areas #bja ,,xvii4 ,,color ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design4 ,,small ,,surfaces ,,in ,,clay ,,and ,,metal #bji ,,complete ,,summary ,,of ,,rules #bah ,,appendix #bbc 7a7 ,a ,complete ,course of ,study for the ,applied ,arts in ,thin ,base and ,precious ,metals4 ,relation of the ,rules to the ,problems #bbd 7b7 ,a ,complete ,course of ,study for the ,applied ,arts in ,pottery4 ,relation of the ,rules to the ,problems #bcg ,,index #bde ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,,chapter ,i ,,divisions ,,of ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,sidenote3 ,non-technical ,criticism ,this book has been written with the view of presenting design from the standpoint of the industrial arts4 ,an instructor generally experiences difficulty in finding the exact word to use when criticizing a student's drawing4 ,the student has equal difficulty in understanding the criticism4 ,there is little wonder that he is confused1 when the rather ambiguous terms good-looking1 ugly1 squatty1 and stiff are used to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design4 ,sidenote3 ,intelligent ,analysis ,the lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be compared to the attitude of the average individual who knows what he likes4 ,he is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial design4 ,his reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend upon some whim or fancy1 the popular fashion of the times1 or a desire to possess a duplicate of something he has seen4 ,as a consumer with purchasing power1 he should have the ability to analyze intelligently the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing the best in industrial art--something that may be accepted as standard one hundred years from now4 ,it is1 therefore1 the intention to present design of industrial character in its simplest form1 freed from technicalities or ambiguous statements4 ,it is intended to give the average individual not particularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject1 based upon principles that have survived for hundreds of years in architectural monuments and history4 ,sidenote3 ,results of ,clear ,criticism ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,major ,,division ,,of ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,,plate #a ,it is possible that the presentation of these principles may enable the instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy and expensive stereotyped designs1 and by clear and simple criticism1 lead him to better forms of construction4 ,he may also be helped to lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmonious element into what may possibly be a harmonious setting4 ,the teacher1 pupil1 or layman should use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or appreciation of the field of the industrial arts4 ,sidenote3 ,requirements of an ,industrial ,problem ,in order to start successfully upon a design1 it is necessary to know what qualities a good industrial article should possess4 ,whether one is designing a bird-house1 a chocolate set1 or a gold pendant1 the article must meet three needs3 7#a7 ,it must be of service to the community or to the individual2 7#b7 ,it must be made of some durable material2 7#c7 ,it must possess beauty of proportion1 outline1 and color4 ,ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service4 ,the stream line body in automobile construction is the result of the automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service4 ,this is the attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of the industrial arts4 ,sidenote3 ,divisions in ,design ,evolution and ,enrichment ,there are three divisions or phases in the designing of a structure and its enrichment4 ,these are3 7#a7 ,structural ,design2 7#b7 ,contour ,enrichment2 7#c7 ,surface ,enrichment4 ,some objects are carried through only one of these divisions1 while others are developed through all three of them4 ,sidenote3 ,first ,major ,division ,plate #a1 illustrative of the first division1 deals naturally enough with the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and its parts4 ,it may be termed ,structural or ,constructive ,design4 ,questions of how high or how long an object should be1 to harmonize with its width1 the proper placing of rails1 shelves1 and brackets1 the determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to be decided in this period of ,proportions and ,space ,relations4 ,the knowledge of tools and materials1 and of the manner in which they may be used for constructive purposes1 influences the solution of these questions and others which we shall shortly discuss4 ,strictly utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of development4 ,sidenote3 ,second ,major ,division ,illustration3 ,,the ,,second ,,major ,,division ,,in ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,,plate #b ,plate #b indicates the next logical division--,contour ,enrichment--or the period of the enrichment of the structural outline or contour4 ,the bounding lines1 or contours1 of the structure may be enriched in many ways1 as1 for example1 curving certain portions to soften the severity of the plain structure4 ,the garden urn and small stool have contours treated in this manner4 ,chippendale1 ,sheraton1 and ,hepplewhite furniture1 simplified to the accepted range of shop technic1 vary the straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible developments of this division4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of ,second ,division ,the cement fence post at ,c1 ,plate #b1 is a strict utilitarian problem without interest4 ,the post at ,d1 enriched by a bevel1 has equal utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value4 ,sidenote3 ,third ,major ,division ,plate #c illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete structure4 ,this division is commonly called applied surface design or decorative design4 ,it is readily seen that this division should be considered after the structure has been carefully planned4 ,to separate this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we will call it ,surface ,enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,steps in ,design ,evolution ,it may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be carried through the following steps3 7#a7 ,blocking in the enclosing lines of the design1 as at ,figure ,b1 ,plate #b1 adding to this whatever may be needed for structural purposes1 keeping the lines as nearly vertical and horizontal as possible2 7#b7 ,enriching and varying the outline or contour4 ,it is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with extreme caution1 while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal2 7#c7 ,after careful consideration in determining the need of additional decoration1 the last step1 surface enrichment1 should be used4 ,the following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above4 ,sidenote3 ,ideal ,correlation ,the ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter includes correlated activity in the shop by working out the project in the required material4 ,as the technic of the individual improves1 the larger range of design principles will be found to accompany and parallel his increasing skill4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what three requirements should be met in a well designed industrial article8 #b4 ,state three major divisions in industrial arts design4 #c4 ,state briefly the problems to be considered in each division4 #d4 ,what is the last and ideal step for the designer8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,third ,,major ,,division ,,in ,,industrial ,,art ,,design ,,plate #c ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,and ,,its ,,proportions ,sidenote3 ,the ,architectural ,method ,upon first observing a building1 one seldom notices details of structure4 ,he sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky4 ,nearer approach discloses mouldings1 cornices1 and doorways2 while careful analytical study shows the technical points of construction4 ,the architect1 in his original planning1 thinks in terms of masses1 widths1 and heights1 disregarding at first the details and color4 ,as architecture stands for parent design principles and represents some of the world's best examples of composition and design1 industrial design should be based upon the best examples of architectural design4 ,to a certain degree1 also1 the methods of the industrial arts designer should be those of the architect4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,industrial ,arts ,method ,it is necessary to think at first of our problem as a single mass or solid1 bounded by enclosing dimensions of width1 height1 and thickness4 ,details like a mirror1 handles1 brackets1 or knobs may project outside of this mass1 but for the time being1 they may be disregarded4 ,figure ,b1 ,plate #b1 shows this manner of thinking1 and will enable us to regard the problem as a big1 simple mass so that the entire object1 unobstructed by small details1 may be seen4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,primary ,mass ,this is the method of thinking about the problem which should precede the drawing4 ,to further describe this mass1 which will be called the single or ,primary ,mass1 it is necessary to think of the intended service of the project4 ,a rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be put to no particular use1 may have been the original motive4 ,now the exact service should be defined as it will have a marked effect upon the shape of this primary mass4 ,sidenote3 ,service ,rule #a;a4 ,a primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service1 unless prohibited by technical requirements4 ,service is an important factor inasmuch as it limits the intended use of the mass4 ,a mass is horizontal when its largest dimension is horizontal4 ,when the horizontal dimension of this mass is reduced until the main vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one1 it becomes a vertical mass4 ,as an example1 a davenport is generally a horizontal mass intended to hold a number of people4 ,when the mass is narrowed to the point where the vertical dimension exceeds the horizontal1 it becomes a chair for one person4 ,a low bowl may be intended for pansies1 but as soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod1 it becomes a vertical mass4 ,the fable of the fox who1 upon being invited to dine with the stork1 found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the change of mass with the change of service4 ,illustration3 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,plate #d ,sidenote3 ,horizontal and ,vertical ,primary ,masses ,figures #a and #d1 ,plate #d1 are examples of horizontal masses with the dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes4 ,the shelter house contains a long bench1 making necessary the long horizontal lines of the building4 ,the calendar holder has to be a horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the calendar pad4 ,figures #b and #c are vertical masses4 ,the vase is intended for tall flowers1 while the chair1 as has already been mentioned1 must meet the needs of a single person4 ,utility and service then have been found to give the primary mass a given direction or dominance4 ,sidenote3 ,drawing the ,primary ,mass ,the designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to the block outline of ,figure ,b1 ,plate #b4 ,it is now necessary to see if the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid correctly2 in other words1 to test the proportions of the primary vertical or horizontal mass4 ,sidenote3 ,proportions of the ,primary ,masses ,rule #a;b4 ,a primary mass should have the ratio of one to three1 three to four1 three to five1 five to eight1 seven to ten1 or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze4 ,proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios4 ,a surface of five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight2 ten by sixteen feet is reducible to the same ratio4 ,certain ratios are monotonous and offend the eye by their lack of variety4 ,ratios such as one to one or one to two are of this class and should be avoided4 ,if these ratios could speak they would resemble people talking in a low monotonous tone of voice4 ,illustration3 ,,proportionate ,,ratios ,,process ,,of ,,designing ,,plate #e ,sidenote3 ,unsatisfactory ,ratios ,certain other ratios are weak and indeterminate1 showing a lack of clear thinking4 ,they are like people with no definite or cleancut ideas upon a subject they discuss4 ,examples in this class show ratios of two to two and one-eighth1 or three to three and one-fourth1 neither positively square nor frankly rectangular4 ,they hide around the corner1 as it were1 waiting to be anything4 ,figure #e1 ,plate #e1 is an example of unsatisfactory proportionate ratios of the primary mass4 ,the blotting tablet is nearly square1 while the candlestick and sconce1 which should have been designed with strongly vertical masses1 lack the type of definite thinking that results in a decided vertical dimension4 ,disregarding the improvement in technic1 ,figure #f shows problems designed with a definite knowledge of proportion4 ,the metal objects are refined in their dimensions1 and pleasing to the eye4 ,tests have been made with the idea of determining what the eye considers perfectly natural and agreeable proportion4 ,this has been found to be the ratio of two to three4 ,consequently1 it is clear why ,figure #f shows objects more pleasing than those in ,figure #e4 ,it may be felt that too much space is being given to this subject of proportion4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the industrial arts are intimately associated with daily life and that unless proportions are pleasing to our aesthetic sense1 many articles of common use shortly become intolerable4 ,sidenote3 ,preliminary ,thinking in ,terms of ,design ,this preliminary portion of the designer's task has been given to thinking out the problem and drawing one rectangle4 ,there is a tendency to start the design by pushing the pencil over the paper with a forlorn hope that a design may be evolved with little mental effort4 ,this should be regarded as illogical and unworthy of the desired end4 ,a rectangle of the most prominent surface of the problem1 based upon the desired service of the project1 and the best proportions which our knowledge of design and understanding of the limitations of construction will permit1 should be the final result of the first study4 ,from now on through the succeeding steps1 the details of the problem will become more and more clear1 as the technical limitations of the tools and materials governing the designer's ideas and controlling and shaping the work are better understood1 until all governing factors become crystallized in the form of a working drawing or model4 ,this is a strictly professional practice as illustrated in ,figure #g1 which shows the skilled ,rookwood potter developing a vase form1 the definite embodiment of correct thinking in terms of the material which is constantly before him4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #a;a4 ,a primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service1 unless prohibited by technical requirements4 ,rule #a;b4 ,a primary mass should have the ratio of one to three1 three to four1 three to five1 five to eight1 seven to ten1 or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to readily detect and analyze4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,how does the architect first plan his elevations8 #b4 ,how should the designer first think of his problem8 #c4 ,define a horizontal primary mass4 #d4 ,define a vertical primary mass4 #e4 ,state some desirable ratios to be used in designing the proportions of the primary mass4 ,explain4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,horizontal ,,major ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,in the second chapter we discussed the nature of the primary mass in its relation to the intended service or duty it has to perform4 ,it was found that the demands of service usually cause the primary mass to be designed with either a strong vertical or horizontal tendency4 ,sidenote3 ,divisions of the ,primary ,mass ,it now becomes imperative to carry the designing processes still further and divide the vertical or horizontal primary mass into parts or divisions1 demanded either by structural requirements or because the appearance of the object would be materially improved by their presence4 ,this latter point is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic requirement of the problem4 ,there are two simple types of divisions1 those crossing the primary mass horizontally and those crossing the primary mass in a vertical direction4 ,this chapter will be limited to the subject of horizontal divisions4 ,sidenote3 ,nature and ,need of ,horizontal ,space ,divisions ,if a city purchases a piece of land for park purposes1 presumably a landscape architect is assigned the task of laying out the paths and drives4 ,he does this by crossing his plan at intervals with lines to represent paths connecting important points4 ,under favorable conditions the architect is free to curve his path to suit his ideas4 ,he has considerable freedom in selecting his design but the paths or roads must dip and curve in sympathy with the contour of the land and in accord with the aesthetic requirements4 ,while the landscape designer has a broad latitude in his treatment of land divisions1 the industrial designer or architect is restricted1 on the other hand1 by the structural requirements of the object and by his materials4 ,he must cross his spaces or areas by horizontal shelves1 or rails1 or bands of metal that hold the structure together4 ,as architecture is of fundamental importance in industrial design1 let us see what the architect has in mind in designing a structure4 ,illustration3 ,,steps ,,illustrating ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,,from ,,primary ,,mass ,,to ,,the ,,structure ,,plate #f ,sidenote3 ,architectural ,horizontal ,divisions ,the architect has the surface of the ground with which to start4 ,this gives him a horizontal line as the base of his building4 ,he considers it of major importance in his design4 ,we find him crossing the front of his building with horizontal moulding or long bands of colored brick1 paralleling the base line and otherwise interestingly dividing the vertical face of the front and sides4 ,his guide is the bottom line of his primary mass or the line of the ground which binds the different parts of the building into a single unit4 ,it can be readily seen that if he shifted the position of his mouldings up or down with the freedom of the landscape architect in locating his roads1 he would not be planning his horizontal divisions in sympathy with the structural requirements of his primary mass4 ,these horizontal divisions or lines have a tendency to give apparent added length to an object4 ,thus by their judicious use a designer may make a building or room look longer than it really is4 ,let us now turn to the simpler objects with which we may be more directly concerned4 ,the piano bench has horizontal lines crossing it1 giving an effect quite similar to that of horizontal mouldings crossing a building4 ,there may also be ornamental inlaid lines crossing the bench and intended to beautify the design1 but it is to be remembered that at present we are considering the structural divisions only4 ,sidenote3 ,designing ,objects with ,horizontal ,divisions ,plate #f represents a concrete example of the methods to be used in designing the horizontal divisions of a piano bench4 ,the steps may be divided as follows3 7a7 ,the height of a piano bench may be determined either from measurement of a similar bench or from one of the books on furniture design now on the market4 ,the scale of one inch or one and one-half inches to the foot may be adopted4 ,two horizontal lines should be drawn1 one for the bottom and one for the top of the bench4 ,the distance between these lines we will arbitrarily fix at twenty inches4 7b7 ,many objects are designed within rectangles which enclose their main or over-all proportions4 ,with this in view1 and keeping in mind the width of the bench necessary to the accommodation of two players and the requirements of a well proportioned primary mass 7,rule #a;b71 the lines are now drawn completing the rectangular boundaries of the primary mass4 ,the limitations of service and the restrictions of good designing give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two inches1 with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half4 ,it is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to be followed by other views later in the designing process4 ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,and ,,constructive ,,design ,,principle #a3 ,a4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,single ,,primary ,,mass ,,with ,,dominance ,,of ,,the ,,horizontal ,,division ,,principle #b3 ,a4 ,,relation ,,of ,,horizontal ,,subdivisions ,,problem3 ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,,classes #a #b #c ,,plate #g ,sidenote3 ,designing ,objects with ,horizontal ,divisions--7,continued7 7c7 ,by observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a shelf1 making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three horizontal spaces4 ,several trial arrangements of these structural elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the rule governing three horizontal spaces4 ,rule #b;b4 ,we shall later discuss this rule and its applications fully4 7d7 ,by selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make he has the basis for the application of ,rule #b;b for the structural elements4 ,the project now begins to take on concrete form4 ,the top board may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially affecting the value of the designed proportions4 ,sidenote3 ,value of a ,full ,size ,drawing 7e7 ,the last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the front view4 ,this enables the designer to comprehend the project as a whole4 ,it is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full size4 ,in more elaborate designs the finer proportions are lost in the process of enlargement from a small sketch1 often hurriedly executed in the shop4 ,again much time is lost by necessary enlargement1 whereas a full size curved detail may be quickly transferred to wood by carbon paper or by holes pricked in the paper4 ,it is not expensive or difficult to execute full size drawings2 it is in accord with shop practice and the custom should be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions4 ,see ,figure #ajb;a4 ,the process of designing round objects is identical to that just described as illustrated by the low round bowl in ,plate #g4 ,it should be designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions4 ,rule #a;b4 ,the primary mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain devoid of interest4 ,it may be commonplace4 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,wood ,,plate #h ,as will shortly be shown1 the rules governing horizontal divisions serve as a check on the commonplace4 ,a horizontal division generally marks the point where the outward swell of the vase contour reaches its maximum width4 ,if this widest point in the primary mass 7,x-,plate #g7 is pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour will be found satisfactory4 ,sidenote3 ,architectural ,precedent for ,horizontal ,divisions ,it is possible to continue ad infinitum with these illustrations but horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some form1 due to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements4 ,it is an easy matter to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into interesting spaces1 well related to each other1 or pleasingly located1 but the designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work4 ,from the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be analyzed as dividing the primary mass into either two or three divisions or spaces1 regardless of the complexity of the project4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,sidenote3 ,two ,horizontal ,space ,divisions ,rule #b;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions1 the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section4 ,plate #g shows this division of the primary mass--the simplest division of the space4 ,a space divided just half way from top to bottom would be monotonous and expressive of the ratio of one to one4 ,this arrangement as we have already discovered in the second chapter is not conducive to good design4 ,by the stated rule1 #b;a1 the varied adjustment of this double horizontal division affords all possible latitude for constructive purposes4 ,it is better to place the division in such a manner that the upper division 7or lower7 will not appear pinched or dwarfed by comparison with the remaining area4 ,thus a ratio of one to three1 or three to five1 or five to eight is better than a ratio of one to one or one to eighteen1 but there is no exact or arbitrary ruling on this point4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,horizontal ,divisions in ,wood ,figure #h illustrates two horizontal divisions in wood construction and also the freedom of choice as to exact proportions4 ,the eye will be found a good judge of the proper spacings subject to the limitations already mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,clay ,,plate #i ,it is best to keep the design within the limits of two horizontal space divisions in designing cylindrical clay forms1 particularly in the elementary exercises4 ,enough variety will be found to make pleasing arrangements1 and the technical results obtained by two divisions are much better than those obtained from a greater number of divisions4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,horizontal ,divisions in ,clay ,figures #ad1 #ae1 and #af1 ,plate #i1 are clay forms with the dominance placed in either the upper or lower portion of the primary mass4 ,figure #ac has been used to illustrate the fact that horizontal space division principles are applicable to any material4 ,the horizontal divisions in ,figure #ac are due to structural needs4 ,a horizontal line carries this division across to ,figure #ad1 a clay vase4 ,the horizontal division line now becomes the one which marks the widest part of the vase4 ,it gives the same relation between the top and bottom horizontal spaces as in ,figure #ac4 ,it marks an aesthetic point in the design of the vase1 or a variation of the contour1 introduced by reason of its effect upon the beauty of the vase1 not called for by the needs of actual service4 ,a musical composition is often played in an orchestra first by the wood instruments1 taken up and repeated by the brasses1 then by the strings1 and finally played as an harmonious whole by the entire orchestra4 ,there is a close parallel in ,figure #ab1 an adaptation of one of ,gustav ,stickley's designs4 ,the two-division rule is used in the relations of the plaster and wainscoting2 again in the plaster over1 and the cement or tile around the fireplace4 ,it is repeated in the arrangement of the copper and cement of the fireplace facing and hood and in the door panels4 ,by repeating again and again similar space divisions the wall space becomes a unified and harmonious whole4 ,variety is secured by the introduction of three horizontal divisions in the details of the wainscoting4 ,this method of repeating similar space divisions is called echoing and is one of the most effective means known for securing the effect of unity4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,horizontal ,divisions in ,metal ,the horizontal subdivisions in metal are usually made for service4 ,figures #ag1 #ah1 and #ai1 ,plate #aj1 are examples of such divisions4 ,the location of the clock face in ,figure #ah calls for the placing of its horizontal axis in accordance with ,rule #b;a4 ,the lamp in ,figure #ai shows an instance where the entire design once divided by ,rule #b;a1 may be again subdivided into a similar series of divisions4 ,this arrangement is quite similar to the system of repetitions seen in ,figure #ab and termed echoing the original divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,,in ,,metal ,,plate #aj ,sidenote3 ,three ,horizontal ,space ,divisions ,rule #b;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections1 the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and lower thirds4 ,when it becomes necessary to divide the primary mass into more than two sections the designer's problem becomes more difficult4 ,with the addition of a greater number of horizontal divisions there is a manifest tendency for the design to become cut up into so many small sections that the simplicity of the whole mass is lost4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 that principle which we call unity or the quality of holding together is necessary and should be the constant test of the design4 ,the instant any part of the design seems to fly apart from the main mass it becomes the designer's duty to simplify the design or pull the parts together and thus restore the lost unity4 ,as a restriction against loss of unity it is necessary to group all of the minor horizontal divisions into a system of two or three large horizontal divisions4 ,referring to ,rule #b;b1 it is seen that when three divisions are used1 it becomes the practice to accentuate the center section by making it larger4 ,this arrangement is designed to give weight to the center portion and by this big stable division to hold the other subdivisions together and in unity4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,horizontal ,divisions in ,wood ,two horizontal masses and one vertical mass shown in ,figures #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 ,plate #h1 illustrate the application of this three-division rule to wood construction4 ,it is seen that the construction of rails1 doors1 and shelves is responsible for the fixing of all of these divisions4 ,it may also be seen that three divisions are applicable to either the vertical or the horizontal primary mass4 ,figure #aj illustrates the violation of this type of spacing at the point ,a1 where the shelves are no more pleasingly arranged than the rounds of a ladder4 ,later on we shall be able to rearrange these shelves in a pleasing manner but at present it is better to relieve the monotony by omitting the center shelf4 ,this applies the three division rule to the satisfactory appearance of the desk at ,b4 ,similar monotony in spacing is seen in the screen1 ,figure #aa4 ,the correction in ,b appeals at once as a far more satisfactory arrangement than that secured by placing the cross bar half way up as in ,a4 ,there are no infallible rules for this readjustment beyond those already stated4 ,the eye must in part be depended upon to guide the artistic sense aright4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,horizontal ,divisions in ,clay ,it is suggested that it is desirable to keep clay forms within the limitations of two divisions4 ,rectangular posts1 pedestals1 and other vertical forms in cement may be developed by the application of ,rule #b;a or #b;b1 if care is taken to group all minor divisions well within the limitations of these rules4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,horizontal ,divisions in ,metal ,the statement just made in reference to simplified groupings is illustrated in the candlestick and cup in ,figures #bj and #ba1 ,plate #aj4 ,the construction based upon the three functions performed by the cup1 the handle1 and the base1 suggests the use of these horizontal divisions4 ,the minor curves have been subordinated to1 and kept within1 these three divisions4 ,the final result gives a distinct feeling of unity impossible under a more complex grouping4 ,the ,greek column will afford an architectural illustration of a similar grouping system4 ,the lathe bed of ,figure #bb shows one of innumerable examples of space violations in the industrial arts4 ,a slight lowering of the cross brace would add materially to the appearance and strength of the casting4 ,figure #bc is a copper box with the following more or less common faults of design3 commonplace ratio of length and width 7#b3a7 partially counteracted1 however1 by a more pleasing ratio of the vertical dimension1 equal spacing in the width of cover of box and box body1 and equal spacing of the hinges of the box from the ends of the box and from each other4 ,by applying the two and three horizontal division rules these errors may be avoided4 ,sidenote3 ,freehand ,curves ,figure #bd shows a low bowl with a compass curve used in designing the contour4 ,this has brought the widest part of the design in the exact center of the bowl which makes it commonplace4 ,in addition to this the top and bottom are of the same width1 lacking variety in this respect4 ,correction is readily made by applying a freehand curve to the contour1 raising or lowering the widest point 7,f71 at the same time designing the bottom either larger or smaller than the top4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #g is a sheet suggestive of the application of ,rules #a;a1 #a;b1 #b;a1 and #b;b1 with an indication of the type of problem to be required4 ,the steps of the designing processes in either wood 7class #a71 clay 7class #b71 or metal 7class #c71 are summarized as follows3 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,construction of the rectangle representing the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable proportions4 ,it is better to select a typical view 7,plate #f1 ,d71 preferably a front elevation4 7b7 ,subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural sections2 horizontal in character4 ,make two or three trial freehand sketches for varied proportions and select the most pleasing one in accordance with ,rules #a;a1 #a;b1 #b;a1 and #b;b4 7c7 ,translate the selected sketch to a full size mechanical drawing or at least to a reasonably large scale drawing4 ,the structural elements3 i4e41 legs1 rails1 posts1 etc41 should be added and other additional views made4 7d7 ,dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop purposes4 7e7 ,construct the project4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a nasturtium bowl1 applying ,rules #a;a1 #a;b1 #b;a4 ,design a writing table #b feet #f inches high with three horizontal divisions4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #b;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions1 the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section4 ,rule #b;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections1 the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and lower thirds4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,state two methods of subdividing the primary mass4 #b4 ,define the nature and need of horizontal space divisions4 #c4 ,give five steps to be used in designing a foot stool or piano bench4 #d4 ,what point constitutes a horizontal division in the contour of a simple clay bowl8 #e4 ,state the rule governing two horizontal space divisions and furnish illustrations in wood1 clay1 and metal4 #f4 ,give the rule governing three horizontal space divisions and supply illustrations in wood1 clay1 and metal4 #g4 ,state five steps in the designing of a project in the industrial arts involving the use of horizontal structural divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,and ,,constructive ,,design ,,principle #c3 ,,vertical ,,space ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,single ,h ,,or ,v ,,primary ,,mass4 ,,problem3 ,,vertical ,,sub ,,divisions ,,in ,,classes #a #b #c4 ,,they ,,are ,,used ,,to ,,break ,,or ,,vary ,,large ,,areas ,,of ,,horizontal ,,or ,,vertical ,,masses4 ,,plate #aa ,chapter ,,iv ,,vertical ,,major ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,sidenote3 ,nature and ,need of ,vertical ,space ,division ,the design of the primary mass has now been considered under ,rules #a;a and #a;b1 and its horizontal divisions under ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,the next logical step is the consideration of the nature of the lines that cross the primary mass in a vertical direction4 ,in the original planning of the primary mass it was found that the horizontal bounding lines and the horizontal divisions were parallel to the base line of an object and that the base line was necessary to ensure stability4 ,vertical lines are necessary and equally important to give the needed vertical support to an object4 ,so accustomed is the eye to vertical lines in tree trunks1 tall buildings1 and thousands of other examples that the upward eye movement in viewing an object1 having a predominance of vertical elements1 seemingly adds to its height4 ,the designer thus has a most useful device with which to increase the apparent height of an object that1 for structural or other reasons1 must in reality not have great height4 ,chapter ,,iii drew attention to the influence of horizontal lines on a project4 ,vertical lines on an object are found to produce an analogous effect vertically4 ,sidenote3 ,architectural ,precedent for ,vertical ,divisions ,gothic cathedral builders used the vertical line1 repeated again and again in buttresses1 pinnacles1 and spires to give great apparent height to a building and to make it a unified vertical mass of great beauty4 ,the modern church spire1 together with the long1 vertical interior columns1 similarly affects our present day church edifices4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,vertical ,,space ,,divisions ,,in ,,class #a 7,,wood74 ,,the ,,divisions ,,of ,,this ,,class ,,are ,,generally ,,based ,,upon ,,the ,,structural ,,requirements4 ,,plate #ab ,this idea of repeating the vertical bounding lines of the primary mass by cutting the mass into vertical spaces is also useful in breaking up or destroying the monotony of large unbroken surfaces4 ,pilasters may cut the front of a building into interesting spaces2 piers may break up the regularity of a long fence2 legs and panels may1 each for the same purpose1 cross a cabinet4 ,while some of these may be structurally necessary and some not1 they are all witnesses to the desire to produce beauty in design4 ,as these examples are so numerous in the industrial arts1 it is well to study in detail their proper adaptation to our needs4 ,sidenote3 ,one ,vertical ,space ,division ,upon analyzing one vertical space division1 it will be found to be a primary mass1 vertical in character and governed by ,rule #a;a4 ,figure #be1 ,plate #ab1 illustrates one vertical division4 ,the foot is an appendage to be considered in ,chapter ,v4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,vertical ,space ,divisions ,rule #c;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions1 the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form4 ,exception may be made in case of structural requirements4 ,by imagining two adjacent doors of equal size1 the design effect of two vertical divisions may be made clear4 ,plate #aa illustrates a rectangle 7,a7 divided in this manner1 preliminary to the development of a problem4 ,figure #bg1 ,plate #ab1 represents the type of object to which the exception to the rule may be applied4 ,in the design of this desk1 the structure practically prohibits two equal vertical divisions1 necessitating an unequal division in the section occupied by the drawers4 ,in ,plate #ab1 ,figure #bf1 the designer had his vertical spacings dictated by service in the form of two doors4 ,as service demands a tall vertical primary mass1 it is but natural to design the doors to conform with the primary mass4 ,this gives a monotonously long space for the glass panels and suggests structural weakness4 ,to relieve this the designer applied ,rule #b;a and crossed the vertical panels by horizontal subdivisions1 relieving the monotony and still retaining the unity of the primary mass4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,vertical ,divisions in ,wood ,in ,figure #bg his problem was a variation of that presented in ,figure #bf4 ,structural limitations called for unequal divisions of the vertical space arrangement4 ,the left portion of the desk becomes dominant as demanded by service4 ,the drawer or brace is necessary in this design as it acts as a sort of link1 binding the two vertical legs together4 ,the omission of the drawer would destroy the unity of the mass4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,vertical ,,space ,,divisions ,,in ,,class #b4 ,,clay ,,and ,,cement4 ,,plate #ac ,sidenote3 ,two ,vertical ,divisions in ,clay ,as vertical space divisions are principally applicable to rectilinear or flat objects and moreover as it is in such forms only that they have structural value1 they are not commonly met in cylindrical pottery ware4 ,vertical divisions are1 however1 occasionally used in architectural tiles and other flat wall objects4 ,as three divisions are much more commonly used in clay and cement1 this material will now be left for later consideration in this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,vertical ,divisions in ,metal ,vertical spacings in metal are quite similar to space divisions in wood4 ,wrought iron fences are1 by reason of structural limitations composed of vertical and horizontal lines1 varied by the introduction of piers and curved members4 ,as they are typical of a certain branch of iron construction1 two designs of the ,anchor ,post ,iron ,company have been introduced4 ,figure #cb1 ,plate #ad1 represents two equal vertical divisions made so because of structural and aesthetic demands4 ,the piers in this instance form a part of the general design of the entire gate and must be considered accordingly4 ,the vertical subdivision in ,figure #cb1 ,plate #ad1 has been repeated or echoed by the long vertical bars1 alternating with the shorter ones and producing pleasing variety4 ,the horizontal divisions are designed according to ,rule #b;b4 ,in designing the newel lantern in ,figure #cd the designer was required to form a vertical primary mass to conform with the similar mass of the post4 ,this he determined to subdivide vertically in practically the same manner as the cabinet in ,figure #bf4 ,threatened with the same monotony he met the situation by subdividing the vertical sections into three horizontal divisions in accordance with ,rule #b;b4 ,the structural supports1 however1 rising up in the center of this mass1 destroy its unity4 ,they would have carried out the lines of the structure of the newel post and continued the lines of the lantern better1 if they had been attached to the corners rather than to the sides of the newel post4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,vertical ,space ,divisions ,rule #c;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions1 the center division should be the larger1 with the remaining divisions of equal size4 ,a large building with a wing on either side will give an idea of this form of spacing4 ,the size of the main building holds the wings to it1 thus preserving the unity of the structure1 while equal divisions on either side give balance4 ,plate #aa 7,b7 gives an example of a rectangle divided in this manner4 ,this three-division motive is a very old one4 ,in the middle ages painters and designers used three divisions or a triptych1 as it is called1 in their altar decorations4 ,a painting of the ,virgin was usually placed in the center division with a saint in each of the remaining panels to the right and left4 ,designers and mural decorators have been using the triptych ever since that period4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,two ,,and ,,three ,,vertical ,,subdivisions ,,in ,,class #c 7,,metal74 ,,plate #ad ,sidenote3 ,three ,vertical ,divisions in ,wood ,the desk in ,figure #bh1 ,plate #ab1 is a good example of the three-vertical space rule4 ,the drawer in the center forms the mid or dominant section and by its greater length holds the two smaller sections together4 ,this design is better than ,figure #bg1 which has a similar mass4 ,the prominent vertical lines in ,figure #bg counteract and destroy the effect of the long horizontal dominant lines of the table top1 whereas in ,figure #bh1 the vertical lines in the center of the design are so short that they do not interfere with the horizontal lines of the table top4 ,figure #bh supports the horizontal tendency of the primary mass while ,figure #bg neutralizes or practically destroys its character4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,vertical ,divisions in ,clay and ,cement ,figure #cj1 ,plate #ac1 represents an overmantle by the ,rookwood ,potteries4 ,it is typical of a class of overmantles which may be developed in tiles or in cement1 forming an agreeable contrast with the brick of a large fireplace4 ,the three divisions or triptych should be proportionately related to the opening of the fireplace and to the enclosing mass of brick or wood work4 ,we will consider ,figure #bi to show how this may be carried out4 ,figure #bi bears a strong resemblance to ,figure #ab1 ,plate #i1 and is an elaboration of a simple three-division theme of spacing4 ,the design seems to be complex until it is analyzed into two rules4 ,the primary mass of the entire fireplace motive 7including the surrounding panelling7 has first been planned with strong and prominent horizontal lines4 ,this was then divided vertically 7,a7 to conform with ,rule #c;b1 the three-division theme1 giving the divisions for the bookcases and mantle4 ,the horizontal divisions 7,b7 were then constructed within the remaining space1 affecting the distance from the picture moulding to the mantle and from the mantle to the floor line1 in accordance with ,rule #b;a4 ,that left the space of the width of the cement work 7,c7 to be subdivided again by ,rule #c;b1 while the top of the wainscoting panels re-echoed the previous horizontal divisions of ,rule #b;a4 ,the fireplace opening merely carries out at ,d the same proportionate relation that dominates all vertical divisions1 ,rule #c;b1 while the wainscoting follows the general horizontal divisions of ,rule #b;a4 ,by this method we have variety in spacing and unity through repetition of similar proportions4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,a ,,design ,,involving ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,two ,,horizontal ,,and ,,three ,,vertical ,,subdivisions ,,plate #ae ,the cement bench1 ,figure #ca1 has a three-division arrangement to break up the monotony of the long rail1 and at the same time to repeat the characteristics of a horizontal primary mass4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,vertical ,divisions in ,metal ,figure #cc1 ,plate #ad1 is a common example of three vertical divisions in metal suggested by the needs of service4 ,figures #ce and #cf are thin metal problems4 ,the familiar pen tray is primarily a horizontal mass1 so determined by its required service as a pen holder4 ,the projecting handles form the outer divisions1 and the spacing motive1 ,rule #c;b1 has been repeated in the raised projection1 decorating the handles4 ,the book rack in ,figure #cf is an example of the manner in which a nearly square mass1 so designed for structural reasons1 may1 by ,rules #c;b and #b;a1 be broken into a fairly pleasing arrangement of divisions4 ,sidenote3 ,more ,than ,three ,divisions ,rule #c;c4 ,in elementary problems1 if more than three vertical divisions are required1 they should be so grouped as to analyze into ,rules #c;a and #c;b1 or be exactly similar4 ,the eye becomes confused by a multitude of vertical divisions and it is much better designing to keep them within the number stated in this chapter4 ,there are instances1 however1 when this is impossible4 ,under such conditions the following treatment should be adopted3 ,unless1 as stated1 a large number of vertical divisions may be grouped into two or three vertical divisions it is better to make all of the divisions of the same size4 ,this does not fatigue the eye as much as would the introduction of a number of complex spacings4 ,this solution enables the amateur designer to deal with complex problems with an assurance of securing a degree of unity4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #ae is practically self-explanatory and shows the order in which the various divisions1 so far considered1 are to be introduced into the design together with the grouping of details within those divisions4 ,figure ,d introduces the additional element termed the appendage to be considered in ,chapter ,v4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,construction of the rectangle representing the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable proportions4 ,select the most prominent surface for this rectangle1 preferably the front elevation4 7b7 ,subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural sections1 horizontal and vertical in character4 ,make two or three trial freehand sketches on cross section paper for varied proportions and select the most pleasing in accordance with rules4 7c7 ,translate the selected sketch into a scale or full size drawing and add additional views to complete the requirements of a working drawing4 ,add additional structural elements3 legs1 rails1 etc4 7d7 ,for shop purposes1 enlarge a scale drawing to full size1 dimension and otherwise prepare it for actual use4 ,see ,figure #ajb;a1 page #fh1 for character of this change4 7e7 ,construct the project4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a fire screen with two horizontal and three vertical major subdivisions4 ,design a bookcase #d feet #b inches high with three horizontal and two vertical major subdivisions4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #c;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions1 the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form4 ,rule #c;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions1 the center division should be the larger1 with the remaining divisions of equal size4 ,rule #c;c4 ,in elementary problems1 if more than three vertical divisions are required1 they should be so grouped as to analyze into ,rules #c;a and #c;b1 or be exactly similar4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what is the nature and need of vertical space divisions8 #b4 ,state the rule governing the use of two vertical space divisions and give illustrations in wood1 clay1 and metal4 #c4 ,give the rule relating to the use of three vertical space divisions and furnish illustrations in wood1 clay1 and metal4 #d4 ,what is the treatment of more than three vertical divisions8 ,why8 ,chapter ,v ,,appendages ,,and ,,rules ,,governing ,,them ,sidenote3 ,use of the ,appendage ,an appendage is a member added to the primary mass for utilitarian purposes4 ,in the industrial arts1 when an appendage is added merely for the purpose of decoration1 it is as useless and functionless as the human appendix and1 as a source of discord1 should be removed4 ,an appendage in industrial arts may be1 among other things1 a plate rail1 bracket1 spout1 cover1 or handle1 all of which are capable of service either for or with the primary mass4 ,in architecture it may be a wing or ell added to the mass of the building4 ,simple as its design may seem1 it is often so placed in relation to the main or primary mass that it does not seem to fit or to be in unity with that mass4 ,sidenote3 ,designing an ,appendage ,rule #d;a4 ,the appendage should be designed in unity with1 and proportionately related to1 the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass1 but subordinated to it4 ,rule #d;b4 ,the appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly and1 if possible1 tangentially from the primary mass4 ,rule #d;c4 ,the appendage should1 if possible1 echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass4 ,sidenote3 ,violations of ,appendage ,design ,all of the foregoing rules are intended to promote the sense of unity between the primary mass and its appendages4 ,if a mirror on a dresser looks top-heavy it is generally due to the fact that it has not been subordinated in size to the primary mass4 ,rule #d;a4 ,if the handle projects from the primary mass of an object similar to the handle on a pump1 it has not been designed in accordance with ,rules #d;b and #d;c4 ,again1 if the appendage projects from a primary mass like a tall chimney from a long flat building1 it has violated ,rule #d;a and has not been proportionately related to the character of the vertical or horizontal proportions of the primary mass4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,appendages ,,in ,,class #a 7,,wood7 ,,added ,,to ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,for ,,utilitarian ,,purposes4 ,,they ,,should ,,always ,,be ,,related ,,to ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,by ,,tangents1 ,,parallels ,,or ,,both4 ,,plate #af ,it should be readily seen that if the primary mass has one dominant proportion while the appendage has another1 there will be a serious clash and the final result will be the neutralization of both motives1 resulting in either an insipid and characterless design or a downright lack of unity4 ,sidenote3 ,appendages in ,wood ,the design of the small dressing table1 ,figure #cg1 ,plate #af1 with the mirror classing as an appendage1 is an excellent illustration of ,rule #d;a4 ,the main mass of the table is vertical in character and the mirror carries out or repeats the character of the primary mass by having a similar but subordinate vertical mass4 ,in this instance it is so large that it has nearly the effect of a second primary mass4 ,as tangential junctions are difficult to arrange in wood construction and particularly in furniture1 the break between the table top and the mirror has been softened by the introduction of a bracket or connecting link4 ,the curves of the link cause the eye to move freely from the primary mass to the appendage and thus there is a sense of oneness or unity between the two masses4 ,the lantern in ,figure #ch becomes an appendage and is subordinated to the large pedestal or support4 ,the tangential junction has in this case been fully possible and the eye moves freely from the vertical lines of the base to the similar vertical mass of the lantern without noticeable break4 ,sidenote3 ,unifying ,appendage and ,primary ,mass ,the service of the dressing table1 ,figure #ci1 with its three-division mirror makes the problem of adaptation of the appendage to the mass of the table1 in accordance with the rules1 much more difficult4 ,under the circumstances1 about the best that can be done1 at the same time keeping within the limitations of desired service1 is to plan the mirrors in accordance with ,rule #c;b1 with the dominant section in the center4 ,to secure an approach to unity1 each section of the mirror should echo the vertical proportion of the primary mass of the table4 ,the top of the writing stand1 in ,figure #dj1 is an example of a horizontal appendage which repeats the horizontal character of the front or typical face of the primary mass of the table4 ,the small drawers and divisions again take up and repeat the horizontal motive of the table1 while the entire appendage may be subdivided under ,rule #c;b1 giving the dominance to the center portion4 ,the short curves in the appendage all tend to lead the eye in a satisfactory and smooth transition from one mass to the other or from the table top to the appendage4 ,the proportions of the small drawers are similar to the proportions of the table drawers4 ,rule #d;c4 ,all of these points of similarity bring the masses into close unity or oneness of appearance4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #da;a ,the table legs1 in ,figure #da1 are more difficult to adjust satisfactorily4 ,the idea of the designer is1 however1 apparent4 ,the legs leave the column of the table with a tangential curve and1 sweeping out with a strong curve1 repeat the horizontal line of the table top in the horizontal lines of their bottom surfaces4 ,sidenote3 ,industrial ,applications ,figure #da;a1 a modification of ,figure #ci1 shows close unity between the three divisions of the mirror due to the pleasing curve of the center section with its tendency to bind the other sections to it4 ,again1 the echoing of the spacings of the three drawers in the similar spacings of the three mirrors1 makes the bond of unity still closer to the ideal arrangement4 ,rule #d;c4 ,figures #da;b and #da;c are1 in a way1 parallel to ,figure #da4 ,the eye moves freely from the feet 7appendages7 along the smooth and graceful curves to the tall shaft or column of the primary mass4 ,the turned fillets1 introduced at the junction of the appendage and the primary mass1 in ,figure #da;c1 have a tendency to check this smooth passage making the arrangement in ,figure #da;b preferable4 ,the hardware for the costumers is well chosen and in sympathy with the vertical proportions of the design4 ,sidenote3 ,appendages in ,clay ,with the word clay all difficulties in the treatment of appendages vanish4 ,it is by far the easiest medium for the adaptation of the appendage to the primary mass4 ,covers1 handles1 and spouts are a few of the more prominent parts falling under this classification4 ,the process of the designer is to create the primary rectangle1 subdivide it into two horizontal subdivisions in accordance with ,rule #b;a1 and proceed to add the desired number of appendages4 ,the result may be suggested by the following illustrations4 ,in ,figure #dc1 ,plate #ag1 the cover is a continuation of the curve of the top of the bowl1 ,rule #d;a2 the tops of the handles are continuations of the horizontal line in the top contour of the bowl1 while the lower portions of the handles seem to spring or grow from the lower part of the bowl with a tangential curve4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #da;b ,,figure #da;c ,sidenote3 ,covers1 ,spouts1 and ,handles ,figure #dd is a horizontal primary mass with the horizontal subdivision in the upper section of that mass4 ,the spout and handle spring naturally from the body and balance each other in proportion1 while the cover handle rises smoothly from the primary mass4 ,the horizontal character of the primary mass is consistently carried out in the appendages4 ,the handle1 in ,figure #de1 leaving the body at a tangent1 rises with a long straight curve to turn suddenly and join the pitcher in harmony with its top4 ,the apparent abruptness of the junction is softened by the rounded corners typical of clay construction4 ,the ,rookwood set1 ,figure #db1 represents three similar primary masses4 ,the proportionate ratios and the horizontal subdivisions are the same throughout4 ,the handle for the teapot has been curved in the center to give variety to the handle4 ,this variation is a difficult thing to manage without consequent loss of unity as by this variation ,rule #d;a is violated4 ,one thing may be said in its favor4 ,it brings the hand closer to the spout and thus supports the pouring weight4 ,but the unusual in design is to be discouraged until sufficient skill in simple designing has been acquired4 ,in designing handle appendages for clay1 they should be so placed that they readily control the weight of the material in the container and afford room for the fingers4 ,thus1 it is better to have the larger portion of the handle opening at the top of the primary mass4 ,the spout in all instances should continue sufficiently high to allow the container to be filled to its full capacity without danger of the contents running out of the spout4 ,the glaze runs into rounded corners much more freely than into square ones1 hence it is preferable to use rounded corners wherever possible4 ,sidenote3 ,requirements for ,appendage ,design ,it is the unexpected curve that is welcome in all designing1 provided it supports the structure and conforms to established rules4 ,after completing a design involving appendages it should be checked from three points of view2 7#a7 service1 7#b7 unity between the primary mass and the appendages1 and 7#c7 variety of curvature4 ,on this last point it is needless to say that compass curves are not desirable except in rounding small corners or in using fillets4 ,it is well known that compass curves are difficult to assimilate into pleasing tangential effects4 ,they are inclined to be monotonous and regular with a made by the thousand appearance to them4 ,one should trust to freehand sweeps1 drawn freely with a full arm movement when possible4 ,all curves should spring naturally from the primary mass4 ,blackboard drawing is excellent practice for the muscles used in this type of designing4 ,in a short time it will be found possible to produce the useful long1 rather flat curve with its sudden turn 7the curve of force7 that will make the compass curve tame and commonplace by comparison4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,appendages ,,in ,,class #b 7,,pottery7 ,,added ,,to ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,for ,,utilitarian ,,purposes4 ,,the ,,plasticity ,,of ,,clay ,,allows ,a ,,perfect ,,tangential ,,union ,,with ,,the ,,body ,,plate #ag ,sidenote3 ,freehand ,curves ,sidenote3 ,appendages in ,metal ,figures #ee1 #ef1 and #eg1 ,plate #ah1 show the close bond between the appearance of the appendage in clay1 and the one in metal4 ,while it is technically more difficult to adapt metal to the rules governing appendages than is the case with clay1 the final results are1 in most instances1 equally pleasing to the eye4 ,in most of the figures showing examples in metal1 the appendages have to be secured to the primary mass by screws1 rivets1 or solder1 whereas in clay they may be moulded into the primary mass4 ,this tends to secure a more unified appearance2 but in metal1 the junction of the handle and the primary mass is often made a decorative feature of the design and gives added interest and variety to the project4 ,the simple primary mass1 ,figure #eh1 has a horizontal space division in the lower portion of the mass4 ,this point of variation of the contour has been used in the primary masses in ,figures #ee1 #ef1 and #eg1 also as the starting point of that dominant appendage1 the handle4 ,springing tangentially from the body1 it rises in a straight line of extreme value in service1 then with a slight turn it parallels and joins the top of the bowl1 thus fulfilling the design functions of an appendage from both points of service and beauty4 ,the spout and lid1 ,figure #ee1 may be likewise analyzed4 ,sidenote3 ,tangential ,junctions ,the points of tangency1 in ,figure #ed1 become a decorative feature of the design4 ,the handles in the parts of the fire set1 ,figures #dh and #di1 offer different problems4 ,it is difficult to analyze the latter figures to determine the appendages as they are in such thorough unity with the handles and are practically subdivisions of the primary mass4 ,but referring to the rule stating the fact that the appendages are subordinated to and attached to the primary mass1 it may justly be stated that the shovel portion of the design may legitimately be classed as an appendage4 ,this will explain the need of a curve at the junction points and the feature of the decorative twists in ,figure #di4 ,both designs may be analyzed into three horizontal divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,examples ,,of ,,appendages ,,in ,,class #c4 ,,metal 444 ,,see ,a 444 ,,note ,,the ,,tangential ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,appendage ,,and ,,primary ,,mass ,,at ,t ,,plate #ah ,sidenote3 ,andiron ,design ,the andirons1 ,figures #ej to #ec1 illustrate interesting transitions in wrought iron from the primary mass to the appendage4 ,the vertical shaft of wrought iron has been treated as a primary mass while the feet may be classed as appendages4 ,in ,figure #ej we have an example of a frankly square junction point4 ,figure #ea discloses a weld with rounded corners1 forming a more pleasing junction than does the abrupt angle of ,figure #ej4 ,this conforms to ,rule #d;b4 ,the appendage legs echo or repeat the vertical lines of the primary mass and there is consequently a sense of unity between them4 ,in ,figure #eb the appendage foot is curved1 and the primary mass has a similar curve on the top of the vertical column to apply ,rule #d;c to repeat the curve4 ,the small links at ,x indicate an attempt to make the junction point more pleasing to the eye1 but the link is too large to accomplish the desired result successfully4 ,in ,figure #ec the links have been materially reduced in size and in the amount of curvature4 ,in this example the eye goes unhampered from appendage to primary or back again1 without perceptible interruption and the unity of the mass1 seriously threatened in ,figure #eb1 is restored in ,figure #ec4 ,in ,figure #df there is an example of a link becoming large enough to be classed as an appendage connecting two primary masses1 e4g41 the lantern and the wall4 ,under these conditions1 one end of the appendage harmonizes with the lantern and the other end with the wall4 ,figure #dg shows a cast brass candlestick which is an excellent example1 from the ,studio1 of tangential junction4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,tools and ,materials ,clay may readily stand as the most adaptable material for appendages1 with metal ranking second1 and wood third4 ,the grain of wood seems to interfere with the tangential junction of the appendage and primary mass4 ,appendages of wood are1 however1 quite necessary at times4 ,their use is merely a matter of lessening the contrast of conflicting lines in an addition of this nature4 ,the band and bracket saws are required in many instances to construct the connecting link between opposing masses of wood4 ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,and ,,constructive ,,design ,,principle #d4 ,,relation ,,of ,,primary ,,mass ,,to ,,appendages ,,problem3 ,,application ,,to ,,classes #b ,,and #c ,,plate #ai ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,tools and ,materials 7,continued7 ,hand building or casting is the means used to construct the appendages in plastic materials4 ,appendages in cement are seen in the uprights for cement seats and are generally translated into the primary mass by means of mouldings or curves4 ,forging or thin and raised metal construction affords many examples of the adaptability of material in constructing appendages4 ,rivets form decorative features at the junction points and should be placed with great care and relation to the decoration and the point of tangency4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,,for ,,class ,,presentation ,the typical views to be used in classroom work1 with the ordinary range of problems1 are shown on ,plate #ai4 ,these typical views should be supplemented by dimensions1 cross sections1 and other views whenever necessary4 ,wood construction has been omitted from this sheet1 but its development in design is quite similar to the steps indicated in the summary4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the primary rectangle4 7b7 ,subdivide the rectangle into two or three horizontal and1 if necessary1 vertical divisions4 7c7 ,estimate the dimensions of the appendage necessary to perform the desired service in the best manner4 7d7 ,if the appendage is a handle1 place it in such a position that it not only appears to but actually does support the weight of the primary mass4 7e7 ,complete the contour curves of the primary mass based upon the horizontal division which acts as a unit of measurement or a turning point4 7f7 ,join the appendages to the primary mass by means of tangential curves4 7g7 ,establish unity between the primary mass and the appendages by applying ,rules #d;a1 #d;b1 and #d;c4 7h7 ,dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,see ,plate #bf4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a sugar bowl1 cream pitcher1 and teapot4 ,consider them as different members of one set4 ,design a sideboard #c feet #c inches high with plate rack1 the design to contain two vertical and two horizontal divisions exclusive of the appendage4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #d;a4 ,the appendage should be designed in unity with1 and proportionately related to1 the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass1 but subordinated to it4 ,rule #d;b4 ,the appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly and1 if possible1 tangentially from the primary mass4 ,rule #d;c4 ,the appendage should1 if possible1 echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,state the nature and use of the appendage4 #b4 ,what is the relation of the size of the appendage to the size of the primary mass8 #c4 ,how should the appendage be attached to the primary mass8 #d4 ,how does ,rule #d;c help to secure unity between the appendage and the primary mass8 #e4 ,are compass curves permissible in appendage design8 #f4 ,state influence of tools and materials upon appendage design4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,wood ,with this chapter we introduce contour enrichment1 the second major division of industrial arts design4 ,sidenote3 ,need and ,value of ,enrichment ,a critic of furniture designed by the average manual arts student has stated frankly that while it might have been honestly constructed it was1 in the first place1 too heavy for a woman to move about the house and1 in the second place1 it represented a decidedly uneconomical use of that valuable material1 wood4 ,that there is a basis in fact for this statement cannot be denied4 ,is it true1 then1 that furniture must of necessity be clumsy and heavy when it is sufficiently simplified in constructive processes for school work8 ,we may say emphatically1 ,no6 ,one may correct the proportions of an object and reduce the size of the materials in it to a minimum but still fail to secure the desirable elements of lightness and interest4 ,the object may still look heavy and remain a box-like structure void of the grace synonymous with the best in design4 ,it is1 however1 possible to correct the clumsy and heavy appearances by imparting to the design elements of grace and lightness4 ,two methods may be used1 singly or together3 7#a7 ,enrichment of the ,functional ,outlines or ,contours2 7#b7 ,surface ,enrichment sometimes called ,space ,filling4 ,these may be roughly classified respectively as three and two dimension enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,contour ,enrichment ,the first1 or outline enrichment1 concerns itself with the structural lines4 ,as all designing processes should start with the structure1 it will be our policy to do so4 ,the present chapter will deal only with enrichment of outlines of wood projects4 ,rule #e;a4 ,outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the structure4 ,rule #e;b4 ,outline enrichment should add grace1 lightness1 and variety to the design4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,errors ,,in ,,contour ,,enrichment ,,stamp ,,boxes ,,plate #ai;a ,sidenote3 ,purpose of ,contour ,enrichment ,sidenote3 ,requirements of ,contour ,enrichment ,it is the purpose of enrichment to add to the problem 7#a7 grace2 7#b7 lightness2 7#c7 variety2 7#d7 unity4 ,if it is applied in a proper manner it should likewise add to the apparent structural strength4 ,we should carefully guard the design1 therefore1 against 7#a7 enrichment that has a tendency to obscure or destroy the structural lines2 in other words1 enrichment that is not subordinated to the structure1 and 7#b7 enrichment that adds nothing to the structure by its application2 that is1 one which does not increase either the apparent strength or the beauty of the object4 ,as an example of this first point1 the turned candlestick with the candle supported by a stack of turned balls alternating with tauri or thin discs tends to obscure completely the sense of support4 ,again1 the landscape gardener feels that he is violating a fundamental principle in design if by planting vines to grow around a building1 he obscures the foundation1 and the roof appears1 consequently1 to rest on and be supported by the stems and leaves of the vines4 ,thus it is seen that the eye registers a sense of structural weakness when the main supports of an object disappear and are no longer to be traced under the enrichment4 ,under the second point falls the indiscriminate placing of unrelated objects in the contour enrichment4 ,naturalistic objects similar to the claw foot and the human head1 for example1 should give way to natural curves that add to the appearance of total strength4 ,where are we to find these curves suited to our purpose8 ,sidenote3 ,valuable ,curves for ,outline ,enrichment ,up to this point emphasis has been placed upon straight and curved lines immediately connected with pure service4 ,for grace and lightness it is necessary to depart at times from the rigidity of straight lines4 ,to understand the character of this departure let us consider a simple bracket as a support for a shelf4 ,this bracket acts as a link1 connecting a vertical wall or leg with a horizontal member or shelf4 ,a bracket shaped like a #de-;degree triangle1 ,figure #aj1 page #bd1 gives one the sense of clumsiness4 ,if the feeling of grace is to be imparted the eye must move smoothly along the outline of the bracket1 giving one a sensation of aesthetic pleasure4 ,a curved line will produce this effect more completely than will a straight line4 ,one must likewise get the feeling that the curve of the bracket is designed to support the shelf4 ,illustration3 ,,natural ,,and ,,geometric ,,curves ,,with ,,their ,,use ,,in ,,functional ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,plate #bj ,,the ,,curve ,,of ,,force ,sidenote3 ,valuable ,curves ,turning to ,figure #gj1 ,plate #bj1 we find that whenever nature desires to support a weight she is inclined to use a peculiar curve seen at ,f4 ,possibly through continued observation the eye has associated this curve with strength or supporting power4 ,figure #ga has detailed this curve4 ,it is found to consist of a long1 rather flat portion with a quick and sudden turn at its end4 ,the curve is known to designers as the ,curve of ,force and is most valuable in all forms of enrichment4 ,designers even in early ages used it in some form as will be noted from the fragment of ,greek sculpture in ,figure #gb4 ,its beauty rests in its variety4 ,a circle has little interest due to its rather monotonous curvature4 ,the eye desires variety and the curve of force administers to this need and gives a sense of satisfaction4 ,as designers on wood1 how are we to utilize this curve for purposes of outline enrichment8 ,sidenote3 ,an ,approximate ,curve of ,force ,for approximate similarity of curvature an ellipse constructed as shown in ,figure #gc will be found convenient4 ,by drawing several ellipses of varying sizes upon sheets of tin or zinc1 a series of templates of utmost practical value may be formed and used as was done in securing the curves of force in ,figures #gd and #ge4 ,if the rail or shelf is longer than the post1 measured downward from the rail to the floor or to the next shelf1 the ellipse should be used with its major axis placed in a horizontal position1 ,figure #ge4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the post is longer than the shelf the ellipse should have its major axis in a vertical position1 ,figure #gd4 ,figures #gf and #gg show other instances of the use of the approximate curve of force4 ,many similar practical applications will occur to the designer4 ,sidenote3 ,mouldings ,we have classed the bracket as a link connecting a vertical and horizontal structure4 ,mouldings may likewise be considered as links connecting similar horizontal or vertical surfaces by bands of graded forms4 ,inasmuch as they effect the outline they are considered in this chapter4 ,as the mouldings are to assist the eye to make the jump from one surface to another by easy steps1 the position from which the mouldings are to be seen determines to some extent their design4 ,illustration3 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contour ,,or ,,outline ,,by ,,mouldings ,,applied ,,to ,,wood 444 ,,types ,,of ,,moulding 444 ,,wood ,,turning ,,problems ,,plate #ba ,sidenote3 ,mouldings 7,continued7 ,figure #gh shows the relation of the spectator to three types of mouldings at ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,the top or crown 7,a7 is to be seen from below4 ,on a large project the angle of the mouldings with the body of the object should be approximately #de degrees4 ,the intermediate moulding 7,b7 is lighter than the crown and forms a transitional link that may be seen from either above or below4 ,the lower or base moulding 7,c7 is the widest member of the group as demanded by our sense of stability4 ,it is seen from above4 ,both for sanitary and structural reasons it projects but slightly from the base4 ,with this grouping in mind it is needless to say that a faulty moulding is one1 some portion of which1 hidden by intervening moulding1 cannot be seen by the spectator4 ,architectural design and history have formulated a series of curves1 geometric in character1 that are regarded as standards in the ,industrial ,arts4 ,some of the more prominent curves with their constructions are shown in ,figure #gi4 ,the horizontal divisions are analyzed in accordance with ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,it is noticed that the ,scotia possesses a curve having the shape of the curve of force1 while the two ,cymas are saved from monotonous division by means of their reversed curves1 illustrating the contrast of direction4 ,the curves of ,figure #hj are excellent lines for freehand practice in designing mouldings and will develop the principle of continuity of curvature or the smooth transition of one curve into the next4 ,sidenote3 ,continuity and ,contrast ,to keep this continuity from the monotony of a ,marcel ,wave it is customary to break continuous curves by a fillet such as a straight line as shown at ,d1 ,figures #ha1 #hb1 and #hc4 ,when the desired outside diameter has been reached1 contrast of direction is necessary and pleasing as a return1 ,figure #hb4 ,a glance at the curves so far considered will quickly determine whether they are fitted for the crown1 intermediate or base mouldings4 ,a curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction1 which makes for positiveness in contour expression4 ,sidenote3 ,grouping of ,curves ,illustration3 ,,figure #he4--,modern ,candlesticks ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #hf4--,modern ,book ,trough ,application of these curves to outline enrichment for wood turning projects is to be governed by a strict adherence to ,rules #b;a or #b;b1 otherwise confusion and lack of unity will result4 ,figure #hc shows a major grouping under ,rule #b;b with the subdivisions and minor curves arranged under ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,figure #hd shows a disregard for rules and the result is an undesirable monotony of contour4 ,if smooth and even continuity of curvature is given considerable thought1 together with that for systematic grouping and variety1 a pleasing result from wood turning 7a much abused but pleasing form of outline enrichment7 may be secured4 ,figures #he and #hf are illustrations from the industrial field with moulding curves grouped1 following and supporting the structural lines of the object4 ,the columns in ,figure #hf might1 however1 be advantageously reversed4 ,sidenote3 ,materials ,large objects designed to be seen from a distance require larger space divisions for their mouldings than do small objects seen from a nearer point4 ,material affects the curve somewhat4 ,smaller mouldings are more suited to the expensive woods like mahogany while larger curves may be used in pine or oak4 ,sidenote3 ,evolution of ,enriched ,outline ,design ,we now have at our command a number of interesting and serviceable curves suited to the material4 ,plate #bb is a sheet of applications4 ,figures #hg to #id deal with the book-rack end and in this1 as in the initial chapter1 architecture is referred to as the source for many laws of industrial design4 ,it has seemed wise to illustrate some of these important parallels as follows3 ,we will assume the type of joint construction of the book-rack end as settled and the question of enrichment to be under consideration4 ,figure #hg is a simple primary mass without enrichment4 ,it is comparable to the plain box-like structure with monotonous outline and without interest4 ,the eye follows the outline in the direction of the arrows1 pausing at the square corners1 which interrupt a free movement by a harsh right angle4 ,the base 7an appendage7 repeats in each instance the lines of the primary mass4 ,figure #hh4 ,round corners1 by freeing the design from the right angles1 accelerate the eye movement and give a sense of added interest and grace to the contour4 ,figure #hi4 ,the cornice of a building suggests a similar arrangement which may be added to the primary mass4 ,it adds the element of contrast of direction and variety of widths4 ,sidenote3 ,variations ,figure #ij4 ,the main primary mass of a building with two equal appendages will suggest the enrichment of the outline in sympathy with three vertical divisions4 ,rule #c;b4 ,the rounded corners again assist the eye to travel freely around the contours1 thus giving a sense of unity to the entire form4 ,illustration3 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,functional ,,outlines ,,or ,,contours ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,wood ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,a ,,book ,,rack ,,end ,,with ,,cross ,,references ,,to ,,parallels ,,in ,,architecture ,,plate #bb ,illustration3 ,,figures #aja and #ajb ,figure #ia4 ,the pediment of a ,greek temple with the interest centered at the top of the pediment 7x7 causes a similar concentration of interest in the book-rack end4 ,the slight inclination of the sides supplies variety of widths4 ,the architect considers an object with the interest centered in this manner in the upper portion1 as possessing more individuality than a motive with purely horizontal lines across the top boundary4 ,illustration3 ,,folding ,,screen ,,figure #ajb;a ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #ajc4--;,a ,modern ,telephone ,stand and ,stool ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #ajd4--,modern ,chair ,figure #ib4 ,in this figure the curved inclination facilitates the upward movement of the eye1 at the same time supplying variety of width4 ,figure #ic4 ,the addition of an appendage to the outline of the ,greek temple suggests a slight drop or variation in the top edge of the book-rack end which gives increased interest and grace through variety4 ,figure #id4 ,contrast of direction is supplied in this suggestion but it is questionable whether we are adding much to the interest by the corner4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #aje4--;,a ,modern ,serving ,table ,figures #ie to #ih are variations of one theme1 the foot stool1 and ,figure #ii adds suggestive designs for rails4 ,d in ,figure #ii shows the enrichment line cut to a depth which threatens the structural value of the rail4 ,this is corrected in ,figure #ajc4 ,figure #ajj is an application of the curve of force to a chair leg ,b1 with other possibilities at ,a and ,c4 ,numerous applications of the varied curves under consideration are found throughout this sheet4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aje;a ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #ajf4--,sheraton ,table ,before closing with enriched outlines it is well to consider flagrant violations of this enrichment now on the market4 ,figure #aja shows a typical example of complete lack of unity and simplicity4 ,it is a type of design often associated with cheaply constructed furniture4 ,it is an ornate parody on outline enrichment4 ,the curves of extravagance are well shown in ,figure #ajb where large bulbous curves with no systematic grouping combine disastrous waste of material with lack of grace or lightness4 ,it is excellent practice to redesign such examples as those shown in ,figures #aja and #ajb with special reference to ,rule #e;c4 ,rule #e;c4 ,outline enrichment1 by its similarity1 should give a sense of oneness or unity to the design1 binding divergent members together4 ,illustration3 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,,contour ,,enrichment ,,of ,,wood ,,drawn ,,and ,,designed ,,by ,,jeannette ,e4 ,,fitch ,u4 ,,of ,w4 ,illustrations #ajc to #ajf are typical forms of present day outline enrichment4 ,limitations of space will not permit reference to the use of ,period furniture4 ,sheraton and ,hepplewhite designs are most adaptable for school uses as may be seen by comparing the ,sheraton desk 7,figure #ajf7 with the foot stool in ,figure #if4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,figure #hc and ,plates #bb and #bc are indicative of what might be obtained from a class4 ,the problem represented on ,plate #bc is advantageously colored with the intended stain and with a small section of side wall and trim visible4 ,see ,chapter #af1 ,figures #deh to #dfc4 ,figure #ajb;a shows the method of enlarging a design into a full size working drawing for shop purposes4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the primary rectangle4 7b7 ,subdivide the rectangle into vertical and horizontal divisions4 7c7 ,determine parts to be treated by contour enrichment4 7d7 ,determine method suited to the project3 wood turning1 moulding1 etc4 7e7 ,group the wood turning curves under a definite system included under ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,group the mouldings under crown1 intermediate1 and base classifications4 ,add this enrichment to the primary mass or make other simple variations that will not destroy the unity of the project4 7f7 ,dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 7g7 ,construct the project4 ,note4--,if the designer is not properly equipped to prepare his own mouldings1 he should consult moulding catalogs or the stock of some local lumber company4 ,,additional ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a wood pedestal with the curves grouped into three horizontal divisions4 ,design a hall table #b feet #aj inches high and add simple contour enrichment4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #e;a4 ,outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the structure4 ,rule #e;b4 ,outline enrichment should add grace1 lightness1 and variety to the design4 ,rule #e;c4 ,outline enrichment1 by its similarity1 should give a sense of oneness or unity to the design1 binding divergent members together4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,state nature and need of enrichment4 #b4 ,what two forms of enrichment are commonly used in industrial arts design8 #c4 ,what four qualities are added to industrial design by contour enrichment8 #d4 ,what disturbing elements should be guarded against in the application of contour enrichment8 #e4 ,describe the curve of force and its function in the contour enrichment of wood4 #f4 ,what are mouldings8 ,name three types of mouldings1 their positions with relation to the eye level1 and some curves used in their design4 #g4 ,give examples of curves of continuity and contrast4 ,by what means should two contrasting curves be separated8 #h4 ,how should a curve join a straight line8 #i4 ,explain the grouping of contour curves in wood turning projects similar to a round leg or candlestick4 #aj4 ,present five designs for book-racks1 enriched by changes of the contour4 ,give architectural cross references for each design4 #aa4 ,present three well designed table or chair legs and top and bottom rails and assemble one of these in a design4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,clay ,sidenote3 ,need of ,enrichment ,in the medium we are now about to consider there is a tendency for the enthusiastic beginner to over-elaborate the outline into meaningless forms4 ,this possibly is due to the ease with which clay is manipulated4 ,it would be well then to ask two questions before starting with the work of enriching the simple structure4 ,first1 why should it be enriched--is there a positive gain by so doing8 ,second1 7if the decision is favorable to enrichment7 where should it be enriched8 ,let us co-ordinate the parts to assist in this process4 ,sidenote3 ,parts ,differing in ,function ,sidenote3 ,unity ,rule #e;d4 ,parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,as a suggestion to guide one in enriching an object it is necessary to consider that parts differing in function may differ in appearance1 but as members of one family they should still be related to the whole4 ,for example1 a spout1 handle1 and lid may differ in design from that of the body of a pitcher because they differ from it in function4 ,again1 the rim and foot of a vase may be slightly changed or individually accented because of their respective duties4 ,the base and holder of a candlestick may vary in design from the central part or handle1 as each has a special function to perform4 ,this rule of the change of appearance with the change of functional service 7,rule #e;d71 is found throughout architectural design4 ,the variation in design in the base1 shaft1 and capital of a column is possibly one of the most common examples4 ,while differing in function they still must have unity and hold together4 ,these functional parts of one design1 differing in service rendered1 form centers of construction and may receive emphasis in outline enrichment4 ,corners and terminal points are likewise available for decoration and will be discussed at length later4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ajg4--;,clay ,outline ,enrichment in the ,rookwood ,potteries ,enrichment in clay and metal generally means a substitution of curved for straight lines in the enriched portions of the design4 ,these curves have the ability to impart grace1 lightness1 and variety to an object provided they are based upon constructive features of the problem4 ,they must have a unit of measurement and must likewise be appropriate to the material4 ,it is therefore necessary to deal with clay in this chapter and follow with a consideration of metal in another chapter4 ,in ,figures #aji to #abc1 ,plate #bd1 we have a number of examples of variation of practically the same primary enclosing rectangle4 ,figure #ajh represents a squarely proportioned circular bowl lacking both refinement of proportion and enrichment4 ,figure #aji has added refinement of proportions4 ,figures #aaj and #aaa have introduced an outline enriched to the extent of a simple curve4 ,the base is the dominant width in the first1 and the top dominates in width in the second4 ,the outline in ,figure #aab1 while similar to #aaj for a portion of its length1 departs at a stated point and by curving in toward the base supplies more variety to the contour4 ,we have already said that this outline curve should have a unit of measurement and by referring to ,rules #b;a and #b;b we are able to formulate the following3 ,sidenote3 ,unit of ,measurement for ,curves in ,outline ,enrichment ,rule #e;e4 ,in cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,figures #aab and #aac have as their unit of measurement two horizontal spaces formed in accordance with ,rule #b;a1 while ,figures #aaf and #aag have still more variety by the addition of a compound curve with its turning points or unit of measurement based upon ,rule #b;b4 ,figures #aad and #aae with outlines similar to those in ,figures #aab and #aac1 respectively1 have an additional enrichment1 the foot and rim accentuation4 ,sidenote3 ,accentuation of ,functional ,parts in ,clay ,the new element of enrichment consists of accenting by adding to the design a modeled rim and a base or foot1 as it is technically known4 ,this not only strengthens the structure at these two functional points but1 by adding a small section of shadow1 it tends to break up the surface1 ,figure #abg1 and add to the variety of enrichment4 ,figures #abd to #abg show the building processes connected with this interesting and constructive addition4 ,sidenote3 ,appendages ,figures #aaf to #aai show variations of the preceding figures while ,figures #abj to #abc introduce the appendages to preceding figures4 ,as in the designing of all appendages1 discussed in ,chapter ,v1 it is the designer's intention to balance spout and handle to avoid a one-sided or top-heavy appearance4 ,one of the principal difficulties that confronts the amateur designer is the failure to secure variety while retaining unity4 ,this is largely due to a lack of ideas upon the subject and a marked lack of systematic development of one theme4 ,attention is directed to the diagram in the lower portion of ,plate #bd4 ,the idea is to start with some simple form in columns ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,figure #abh4 ,figure #abi introduces two horizontal divisions4 ,rule #b;a4 ,the black portion is the dominant section4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,clay ,,good ,,constructive ,,design ,,is ,a ,,free ,,and ,,adequate ,,embodiment ,,of ,,an ,,idea ,,in ,a ,,form ,,peculiarly ,,appropriate ,,to ,,the ,,idea ,,itself ,,hegel ,,plate #bd ,sidenote3 ,systematic ,development of ,outline ,enrichment in ,clay ,notice the change in outlines based upon this division4 ,figure #acj raises the division point of the two subdivisions into the upper half of the object4 ,this brings out the need of an accented foot which is1 however1 not of sufficient prominence to be considered as a horizontal spacing4 ,figure #aca raises the horizontal division points1 again causing the introduction of a larger foot and now qualifying it as a division of the whole mass4 ,this then makes our design a three-division problem1 ,rule #b;b1 and places it under the restrictions of ,rule #e;e4 ,the feet of all of the bowls have been systematically decreased in width by the converging lines ,c-,c while the tops have been maintained constant in width4 ,by this simple diagram an infinite number of designs may be formed and the choice of selection from the series1 thoughtfully exercised1 will supply the ideal bowl1 ready to be translated into a full size working drawing4 ,it is not the idea1 however1 to guarantee a perfect design in each one of these divisions as that would be practically impossible1 but we have systematically applied a method of determination for stimulating the imagination4 ,a series of articles by ,f4,h4 ,rhead in the ,keramic ,studio first suggested the system of development by means of graded rectangles4 ,sidenote3 ,candlesticks ,plate #be shows a further elaboration of the succeeding themes4 ,the candlestick series1 ,figures #acb to #ach1 introduces two or three-space division problems with contour turning points at ,a1 ,rule #e;e1 and with accented or embryonic feet and rims4 ,the change from the purely functional and unenriched member of ,figure #acb through the series shows the enrichment changing slightly to meet the needs of the three functional parts3 the base1 the handle1 and the candle socket4 ,rule #e;d4 ,sidenote3 ,containers ,figure #aci shows a series of illustrations representing variations for containers4 ,the first figure is without enrichment1 followed by variations of the outline in the manner already suggested4 ,sidenote3 ,pourers ,figure #adj indicates a series of pourers with the least attractive design on the left end4 ,this unsatisfactory design is found1 upon analysis1 to be due to centrally placed horizontal division violating ,rule #b;a4 ,the design of the appendages in this series will again be found to conform with the rules in ,chapter ,v4 ,the units of measurement for the curves may be readily ascertained from observation4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,clay ,,with ,,methods ,,of ,,securing ,,variety ,,plate #be ,sidenote3 ,similarity with ,varying ,primary ,masses ,figure #ada is useful for the following purpose4 ,it is desirable at times to develop a number of similar forms for a set1 with a gradually increasing ratio of proportions1 either in height or width4 ,figure #ada shows how the height may be increased while maintaining a common width4 ,notice the gradual proportionate increase of the height of the neck ,a-,b as well as that of the body4 ,the line ,x is of the utmost value in ascertaining the height of the intermediate bowls4 ,the eye should now be so trained that the height of the neck ,a-,b on the last bowl can be readily proportioned by eye measurement to that of the first bowl4 ,a line similar to ,x will give the intermediate points4 ,figure #adb varies the width in a similar manner4 ,notice the gradually decreasing distances ,c-,d-,e-,f1 the spaces for which may be determined by the eye4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #bf suggests the sequential progression of steps leading to the potter's working drawing4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the primary rectangle4 7b7 ,add limits of functional parts3 handle1 spout1 cover1 etc4 7c7 ,establish unit of measurement for primary rectangle contour curves4 7d7 ,design contour of primary mass and add the appendages to it1 observing the rules pertaining to appendages and unit of measurement4 7e7 ,dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for the potter's use4 ,this includes the planning of a working drawing1 one-eighth larger in all directions than the preliminary design1 to allow for the shrinkage of the clay body4 ,the working drawing should also be in partial sections to show the construction of the interior of the ware4 ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a teapot1 tea caddy1 and cup showing a common unity in contour design4 7,plate #hb47 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #e;d4 ,parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,rule #e;e4 ,in cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,illustration3 ,,rules #e;,d ,,and #e;,e ,,contour ,,or ,,outline ,,enrichment4 ,,clay4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,,plate #bf ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,give and illustrate the rule governing the change in the appearance of the design with the change of functional service4 #b4 ,what is the aesthetic value of curves in outline enrichment8 #c4 ,correlate the rule governing the unit of measurement for vertical contour curves with the rules controlling horizontal divisions4 #d4 ,show1 by a diagram1 the method of systematically varying the contours of circular forms3 7a7 by changing the horizontal divisions2 7b7 by varying the proportion of the primary mass4 #e4 ,what is the value of accenting the functional parts in clay design8 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,james ,milliken ,university ,,figure #adb;a4--,outline and ,surface ,enrichment in ,college ,pottery ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,masses ,,of ,,the ,,baser ,,metals ,,enrichment ,,of ,,edges1 ,,corners1 ,,intermediate ,,points1 ,,appendages4 ,,see ,,plate #bh ,,for ,,terminals1 ,,links1 ,,details4 ,,plate #bg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,contours ,,or ,,outlines ,,of ,,designs ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of the ,base ,metals--,iron1 ,copper1 ,brass1 ,bronze ,the contours of clay forms are generally free to follow the curves and take the direction dictated by the knowledge and taste of the designer4 ,metal outlines are more restricted in this respect4 ,metal is frequently associated with service and consequently its design is often governed by its intended use4 ,for example1 if we were to design a metal drawer pull for a buffet1 it would have to be considered in relation to the character and shape of the buffet4 ,again1 the screws with which it is attached to the buffet would influence its outline design4 ,it is1 in other words1 a dependent outline4 ,sidenote3 ,free and ,dependent ,outlines ,to distinguish between an unrestricted outline and one bound by other considerations we will term the restricted outline a dependent outline1 for its enrichment must be related to other forms either within or without its surface4 ,a free outline on the other hand is one in which the designer is free to use his ideas unrestricted by any other outside consideration1 except service and design consistent with the material4 ,in order to emphasize the nature of a dependent outline we have ,rule #e;f4 ,dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions2 it must be consistent with the idea of the subject4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,edges ,we will start with the simplest form of outline enrichment of base metals1 the decoration of an edge4 ,it is contrary to the laws of service to leave sharp edges on articles intended for intimate household use1 except where cutting edges are required4 ,the rounding of sharp edges is likewise dictated by the laws of beauty4 ,the transition from one plane surface to another is assisted by a rounded edge1 as the eye takes kindly to the softened play of light and shade4 ,this gives us the simplest form of enrichment--the beveled1 chamfered1 or rounded edge1 ,figures #adc and #add1 ,plate #bg4 ,the rim of a thin #ah-;gauge plate is likewise improved and strengthened by lapping the edge as shown in ,figure #ade1 giving the rounded effect shown in ,figure #add4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,functional ,parts ,there are six important functional parts with which we are brought into common contact in industrial design of base metals4 ,there are many more1 but these are the most common and consequently are of the utmost importance to the designer as design centers4 ,these parts are itemized as follows3 7#a7 ,corners1 7#b7 ,appendages1 7#c7 ,intermediate ,points1 7#d7 ,terminals1 7#e7 ,links1 7#f7 ,details4 ,as the decorative treatment of each part varies with the functional duty1 ,rule #e;d1 separate treatment and consideration of each part will be necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,corners ,corners1 as extreme turning points of a design1 are often found convenient for the location of screw holes1 rivets1 etc4 ,these important construction elements become prominent functional parts of the design and by custom and the laws of design1 ,rule #e;d1 they are capable of receiving outline enrichment4 ,but the contour of the corner must be related to the screws or rivets1 particularly if they are near the edge1 hence our outline becomes a dependent outline and as such must be related to the rivets or screws by ,rule #e;f4 ,figures #adf to #adi show various arrangements of this type of design4 ,the unity of the design is not lost1 and the functional parts are enriched by contours related to the elements of service 7rivets74 ,figure #aec shows another but slightly modified example of the same laws applied to hinge construction4 ,the enriched outline in this case is closely associated with the holes in the hinge4 ,the hinges in turn must be related to the object for which they are designed4 ,figure #aej gives a common example of corner enrichment by means of varying the edge at the corners1 i4e41 by rounding the tray corners4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,appendages ,as appendages have distinct functional duties their design may vary as the design of the arm of the human figure differs from the head4 ,yet1 as parts of the same body1 they must fit the shape of the object to which they are attached4 ,the candle holder and handle as appendages in ,figure #aej are designed in sympathetic relation by means of tangential and similar curves sufficiently varied to give the eye a feeling of variety in the design4 ,the novel single flower holders1 ,figures #aea and #aeb1 with the glass test tube acting as a container show other possible forms of the appendage design4 ,the first is informal while the second is formal1 but both adhere to the first simple rules of appendage design4 ,rule #d;a1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,intermediate ,points ,illustration3 ,,figure #aef;a4--,candlestick1 ,rendered by ,e4,r4 ,the enrichment of center or intermediate points should be handled with great care and with a definite reason4 ,careless handling may cause the design to lack unity4 ,figures #aed and #aee show a simple twist as enrichment4 ,the serviceable reason for this is to obtain a grip at the point of the twist4 ,again1 it varies the character of the straight edges and adds interest without loss of compactness or unity4 ,if one is desirous of widening a vertical or horizontal rod1 the enrichment made by welding a number of small rods together with a spreading twist gives a pleasing and serviceable handle4 ,figure #aef4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,terminals ,sidenote3 ,free and ,dependent ,contour ,enrichment ,as the public demands a happy ending to a story or a play1 so does the eye demand a well-designed ending to a design4 ,the part that terminal enrichment plays in industrial design is1 therefore1 to say the least1 important to us as designers4 ,figure #aeg illustrates terminals in thin metal and is shown by courtesy of the ,school ,arts ,magazine from one of the articles by ,mr4 ,augustus ,rose4 ,the outlines are in part dependent in character1 controlled by rivets4 ,notice the change of curve as the function changes from the dependent curve of the rivet area to the free outline of the handle and again from the handle to the cutting blade2 a functional change of marked character1 but in thorough unity with the entire design4 ,it is again emphasized that whether the design possesses a free or a dependent outline1 or a combination of both types1 all parts of the design must be held together by entire unity4 ,the rivets are occasionally placed toward the edge and a domed boss is used to accent the center as is shown in ,figure #aeh4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,the ,,baser ,,metals4 ,,the ,,enrichment ,,of ,,terminals1 ,,links1 ,,and ,,details4 ,,free ,,outlines ,,plate #bh ,,the ,,ionic ,,volute ,sidenote3 ,terminal ,enrichment in ,wrought ,metal ,as the ,curve of ,force was a valuable curve in wood construction1 so we find it an equally valuable curve for wrought metal4 ,its recurrence again and again in industrial design leads us to appreciate its value in the arts4 ,it is the ,ionic volute handed down to us in its present form from the time of the ,greeks1 who developed it to a high state of perfection4 ,sidenote3 ,curve of ,beauty ,while its geometric development is a tedious process1 it may be easily constructed for practical purposes by the following method4 ,in ,figure #aei1 ,p represents a small cylinder of wood1 possibly a dowel4 ,a strong piece of thread1 or fine wire1 is wrapped around the base of the dowel a number of times and a loop is formed in the free end4 ,a pencil with a sharp point is inserted in the loop and the pencil and dowel are placed together on a sheet of paper4 ,as the thread unwinds from the dowel the point of the pencil will describe a volute which may be developed indefinitely4 ,it will be noticed that no corresponding parts of the curve are concentric and it thus has constant variety4 ,it has been termed the ,,curve ,,of ,,beauty and is found in nature in the wonderfully designed shell of the nautilus4 ,it is advisable to form several templates for the volute out of bent wrought iron1 of different sizes1 and to practice drawing the curve many times to accustom the hand and the eye to its changes of direction4 ,the eye or center portion is sometimes terminated by thinning and expanding in the manner shown in ,figure #afj4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,precious ,,metals4 ,,silver4 ,a ,,dependent ,,outline ,,related ,,to ,,and ,,enclosing ,a ,,semi-,,precious ,,stone4 ,,plate #bi ,sidenote3 ,greek ,scroll ,one form of application of the volute is shown in the terminal points of the candlestick in ,figure #afa4 ,it is here shown combined with the second volute in the form of a reverse curve4 ,in ,figure #afb1 it has been combined with a smaller but reversed volute at the upper end4 ,the entire and combined curve is commonly known as a ,greek ,scroll4 ,in ,figure #afc the ,greek ,scroll has been combined with the reverse curve of ,figure #afa to form a portion of the bracket4 ,in this figure we find the familiar curve of force faithfully serving its function as a supporting member for the top portion of the bracket4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,links ,a link is a convenient filler in connecting parts of a right angle4 ,it likewise serves as a brace in connecting several disconnected parts and is useful in maintaining the unity of a design4 ,figure #afd shows a common form of link with its ends thinned and expanded as shown in ,figure #afj4 ,this construction may1 however1 be disregarded as it is technically quite difficult to accomplish4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment of ,details ,details are the smaller portions of a design and are similar to the trimmings and minor brackets of a building in relative importance4 ,they enter to a considerable extent into wrought metal grille design1 and are generally formed of the link1 ,greek scroll1 or the ,ionic volute1 so as to be in harmony with the other parts of the design outline4 ,rule #e;f4 ,their presence and use may be readily detected on ,plate #bh4 ,rule #e;g4 ,a curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of ,wrought ,metal ,free ,outline ,enrichment ,as we are now familiar with continuity in wood moulding curves we should feel1 in reviewing the figures in this chapter1 the value of flowing continuity and tangential junction points 7,rule #e;g7 necessary in wrought metal enrichment4 ,the curves that we have considered are adapted to the materials and a comparatively large and new field of design is opened to the designer through a combination of curves mentioned4 ,plate #cj is self-explanatory and brings out the general application of the foregoing principles as applied to cast bronze hardware4 ,it is interesting to notice the change of enrichment paralleling the change of function as outlined in ,rule #e;d4 ,,outline ,,enrichment ,,of ,,precious ,,metals ,sidenote3 ,outline ,enrichment of ,silver ,sidenote3 ,stones and ,their ,cuttings ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,p4 and ,f4 ,corbin ,,plate #cj ,little has been written regarding the designing of jewelry4 ,as can be readily seen1 a semi-precious stone is the controlling factor in the major portion of the designs with silver as a background4 ,any enrichment merely accentuates the beauty of the setting4 ,this statement would lead us to consider the outline as dependent in character and thoroughly related to the stone4 ,it is necessary then to take the stone as a point of departure4 ,the standard stone cuttings used in simple jewelry are shown in ,figures #aff to #agj4 ,the first three and the last are cabochon cut1 elliptical in contour with flat bottoms4 ,the long axes have been drawn in each instance4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of ,stone to ,contour ,with ,figures #aga to #agd we begin to see the close relation between the stone and its enclosing form4 ,rule #e;f4 ,a longer major axis in the stone calls for an increased length in the corresponding axis of the silver foundation or background4 ,it is really a re-echo of the proportions of the primary mass of the stone in the mass of the silver4 ,it is well for the beginner to make the axis of the stone and the silver blank coincide and to use this long axis as a basis for future enrichment4 ,in a vertical primary mass1 similar to the one shown in ,figure #ahj1 it is better design to place the stone a short distance above the geometric center of the mass as it insures a sense of stability and balance4 ,a stone when placed toward the bottom of a design of this nature is inclined to give a feeling of settling down or lost balance4 ,figure #agf varies the design shown in ,figure #aga4 ,the two circles related to the stone are connected by four silver grains or balls4 ,figure #agg shows an attempt to enrich the contour of the silver1 but there is a resulting tendency to detract from the simplicity of the unbroken outline and1 as a result1 little is gained by its attempted enrichment4 ,figures #agh and #agi show a better form of enrichment by accentuating the outline4 ,this may be accomplished either by engraving a single line paralleling the contour or by soldering a thin wire around the outline4 ,sidenote3 ,need of ,top and ,side ,views ,while the top view of an article of jewelry may have been carefully designed the side view in most instances is totally neglected4 ,the side view should show a steady graduation from the surface of the silver to the outline of the stone4 ,this prevents the stone from bulging from the surface like a sudden and unusual growth4 ,doming1 small wedges of silver1 or a twist around the bezel may accomplish this as can be readily seen in ,figures #aha1 #ahb1 and #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,,rules #e;,d #e;,e #e;,f #e;,g4 ,,contour ,,or ,,outline ,,enrichment4 ,,clay4 ,,metal4 ,,instruction ,,sheet4 ,,plate #ca ,sidenote3 ,motives for ,outline ,enrichment in ,silver ,while emphasis should be placed upon simplicity of outline1 certain well regulated forms of enrichment may be added to the contour and enhance the beauty of the stone4 ,such motives with constructive steps are shown in ,figure #ahd and their application in ,figures #ahe to #ahh4 ,it will be noticed that the enrichment invariably leads up to the stone which is the center of interest in the design4 ,the ornament is likewise based upon the prominent axes of the stone4 ,sidenote3 ,free ,outline ,enrichment in ,silver ,figures #ahi1 #aij1 and #aia are types of beaten and raised silver work and show characteristic forms in silver1 with two examples of accented outline enrichment4 ,as they are curvilinear forms1 their design is similar in many ways to clay forms of similar proportions and uses4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #ca shows the design steps necessary to the evolution of a lamp in two materials4 ,a full size working drawing should follow ,figure ,d4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the unenriched primary mass4 7b7 ,for dependent contours1 locate the elements of service within the primary mass4 ,this may be interpreted to mean rivets1 screw holes1 semi-precious stones1 etc4 7c7 ,determine upon the portion of the contours to be enriched1 gauged by its need for grace1 lightness1 and variety4 ,this enrichment is preferably concentrated at the following points3 edges1 corners1 appendages1 intermediate points1 terminals1 links1 and details4 ,these points may be combined provided the result does not violate the simplicity of the structural lines4 7d7 ,draw the enrichment in the predetermined area1 causing it to be in harmony with such interior functional parts as screw holes1 rivets1 semi-precious stones1 etc4 ,utilize suggested curves4 7e7 ,review all of the contour curves added to the design4 ,are they feeble compass curves or do they have the character of long sweeping curves with short snappy turns for variety8 7f7 ,test the entire design for unity4 ,does the eye move smoothly through all parts of the contour8 ,does the design hold together8 ,are all links and appendages joined to the primary mass in a graceful tangential manner8 7g7 ,dimension1 add additional views1 and details1 if necessary1 and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design an electric table lamp with square copper rod as a support1 feet1 and copper shade4 ,design a hinge for a cedar chest4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #e;f4 ,dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions2 it must be consistent with the idea of the subject4 ,rule #e;g4 ,a curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,contrast contour enrichment of wood1 clay1 and metal4 #b4 ,define free and dependent outline in contour enrichment of base metal4 #c4 ,describe and explain the use of the ,ionic volute in contour enrichment of metal4 #d4 ,define and present illustrations of contour enrichment designed for edges1 corners1 appendages1 intermediate points1 terminals1 links1 and other details in base metal4 #e4 ,define and illustrate free and dependent contour enrichment of precious metal4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aij;a4--,union of ,outline ,enrichment on ,clay and ,metal ,,chapter ,,ix ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,with this chapter we enter upon a consideration of the third and last major division of ,industrial ,arts ,design1 that of ,surface ,enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,nature and ,need of ,surface ,enrichment ,we have considered in previous chapters the subject of contour or outline enrichment4 ,now consider for a moment the fact that articles such as a square box1 or tile1 are not suited to outline enrichment1 yet they have large1 flat1 and rather monotonous surfaces capable of decoration4 ,it is readily seen that such surfaces will admit of further elaboration which we will distinguish from contour enrichment by using the term ,surface ,enrichment4 ,as in contour enrichment1 so in surface enrichment1 the added element of design not only increases the beauty of the object but it likewise1 if properly applied1 gives apparent added strength to the structure4 ,rule #f;a4 ,surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,when and ,where to ,enrich a ,surface ,strictly utilitarian articles should not be ornamented by surface enrichment4 ,as an example1 a wooden mixing spoon1 bowl1 or wooden knife handle should not be enriched by carving1 as the carving would interfere with the proper cleansing of the article4 ,a surface exposed to considerable wear should not be enriched4 ,objects not strictly in the utilitarian class1 such as a paper knife1 book stall1 envelope holder1 or library table may be appropriately enriched in an unostentatious manner so that they will harmonize with their surroundings4 ,but the enrichment should first be placed upon the surface in such a manner that it will not interfere with the functional use of the article for service4 ,large projections upon the back of a chair or upon the handle of a paper cutter are unpleasant and interfere with intended uses4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aia;a4--,structure ,obscured by ,surface and ,contour ,enrichment ,rule #f;b4 ,surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure4 ,careful consideration should be given to the often-mentioned law that the surface enrichment must be thoroughly related to structure and contour but not so as to obscure either4 ,we must keep in mind the fact that it is necessary to support the structure1 not to cover it up by related ornament1 as in ,figure #aia;a4 ,sidenote3 ,conservative ,use of ,ornament ,most critics of industrial design complain of an overwhelming desire upon the part of the designer to over-decorate the structure4 ,surface enrichment runs wild over steam radiators1 stoves1 and wooden rocking chairs4 ,reserve is the watchword recommended as of extreme importance4 ,the illustrations in this chapter are restricted to a limited range of design motives for the express purpose of simplifying the number of recommended methods4 ,rule #f;c4 ,the treatment must be appropriate to the material4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of ,enrichment to ,material ,the close-fibered woods with smooth1 even textures are capable of more delicate enrichment than woods of coarser grain4 ,small articles are generally seen from a close range and should1 therefore1 be ornamented with finer decoration than large articles1 such as a piece of furniture that is to be seen from a distance4 ,the latter should have surface enrichment of sufficient boldness to carry or to be distinct from a distant point4 ,furthermore the enrichment should not have a stuck on appearance1 but be an integral part of the original mass4 ,sidenote3 ,appropriate ,methods of ,surface ,enrichment for ,wood ,there are three distinct means of ornamenting wood3 7#a7 inlaying1 depending for interest upon the difference in value and hue of the different inlaying woods used2 7#b7 carved enrichment1 depending upon line and mass for its beauty and made visible by contrasts of light and shade2 7#c7 painting or staining of the surface with the interest dependent upon the colors or stains and their relation to each other and to the hue of the wood4 ,it has been deemed wise to consider the first two types in the present chapter1 and leave the last type for later consideration4 ,in ,chapters ,,xv1 ,,xvi1 and ,,xvii1 accentuation has been placed on wood coloring4 ,the designer is advised to read those chapters before attempting to stain or color his problem4 ,sidenote3 ,inlaying ,treating surface enrichment in its listed order we find that inlaying is one of the most common and best forms of enrichment for wood work4 ,as inlaying readily adapts itself to bands and borders1 emphasis is placed upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,straight ,,line ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,a ,,small ,,primary ,,mass ,,in ,,wood ,,bands ,,and ,,borders ,,for ,,inlaying1 ,,carving1 ,,staining ,,plate #cb ,rule #f;i4 ,inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface4 ,sidenote3 ,errors in ,wood ,inlay ,two conspicuous errors are often associated with inlaid designs4 ,the first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the project4 ,figure #bji1 ,page #ajf4 ,the right contrast of value is established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor sink through it4 ,it should remain on the surface of the plane to be enriched1 for it is surface enrichment4 ,figures #baj1 #baa1 and #bab are illustrative of pleasing contrasts4 ,the second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay4 ,as an example1 an ,indian club is created by gluing many varicolored woods around a central core4 ,the result of the pattern so formed has little relation to the structural lines1 fails entirely to support them2 and1 as a result1 should be discarded4 ,sidenote3 ,carving ,carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design1 therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested as advisable4 ,figure #bje;a4 ,if an elaborate design is desired 7,figure #bje;c71 it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by ,plastelene4 ,this model is then an effective guide for the carver1 supplementing the original outline drawing4 ,sidenote3 ,divisions of ,carving ,carving may be roughly divided into the following groups3 7#a7 high relief carving similar to heads1 human figures1 and capitals2 7#b7 low relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a comparatively short distance above the original block of wood1 such as panels1 which are good examples of this group2 7#c7 pierced carving where the background has been entirely cut away in places1 such as screens1 which illustrate this type2 7#d7 incised carving in which the design has been depressed below the surface of the wood4 ,geometric chip carving is a representative type of this group4 ,there are possible variations and combinations of these groups4 ,rule #f;j4 ,carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass4 ,the central governing thought in all carved designs is to show an interesting proportion of light and shade coupled with a unity between the raised portion of the design and the background4 ,if the carving has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped or machine-produced ornament4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,with ,,borders ,,of ,,curved ,,and ,,straight ,,lines ,,for ,,inlaying1 ,,carving1 ,,staining ,,plate #cc ,sidenote3 ,steps ,taken in ,carving ,a typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps3 7#a7 the design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper2 7#b7 the design is set in or separated from the ground by means of a grooved chisel2 7#c7 the wood is cut away from the back of the design by a process of grounding2 7#d7 the leaves and flowers or other elements of the design are modeled4 ,the designer should keep these processes in mind when developing his design4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,designer's ,vocabulary ,it is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for the designer of surface enrichment4 ,he has three large sources of information3 first1 geometric forms and abstract spots2 second1 natural organic objects such as flowers1 leaves1 animals1 etc42 third1 artificial objects1 pots1 jars1 ink bottles1 and other similar objects4 ,he may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs into four typical systems3 first1 bands or borders2 second1 panels2 third1 free ornament2 and fourth1 the diaper or all-over patterns4 ,,designing ,,bands ,,on ,,borders ,rule #f;d4 ,bands and borders should have a consistent lateral1 that is1 onward movement4 ,rule #f;e4 ,bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion1 opposed to the main forward movement4 ,sidenote3 ,bands ,bands are particularly suitable for inlaying4 ,they are composed of straight lines arranged in some orderly and structurally related manner4 ,they are used for bordering1 framing1 enclosing1 or connecting4 ,they give a decided onward motion which tends to increase the apparent length of the surface to which they are applied4 ,referring to ,plate #cb1 ,figure #aib1 we find three typical bands1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,it is often the custom to limit the width of the inlayed bands to the width of the circular saw cut4 ,to secure unity1 the center band in ,c is wider than the outside sections4 ,sidenote3 ,accenting ,a possible variation of motive in band designing may be secured by accenting4 ,the single band has been broken up at ,d into geometric sections of pleasing length4 ,but while this design gives variety1 it also destroys the unity of a single straight line4 ,unity may1 however1 be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at ,e4 ,this method of restoring unity is of extreme value in all border arrangements and is constantly used by the designer4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,application ,,of ,,bands ,,and ,,borders ,,plate #cd ,rule #f;f4 ,all component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border4 ,sidenote3 ,borders ,bands1 as has just been stated1 give distinctly onward movement4 ,borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's vocabulary4 ,as will be seen1 bands1 by their onward movement1 tend to hold the other elements of the border together4 ,figure #aic is a border design without variety1 unity1 or interest4 ,figure #aid has added unity to a similar border by the addition of the double bands1 but monotony is still present4 ,figure #aie suggests a method of relieving the monotony by accentuating every other repeat1 thus supplying variety and creating an analogy to march-time music4 ,figure #aif has accentuated the monotonous border in ,figure #aid by omitting every other square4 ,this makes a simple and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible variations that could be applied to accented band motives4 ,sidenote3 ,moorish ,ornament ,figures #aig and #aih are border motives of geometric derivation taken from the historic schools of ornament4 ,figure #aih illustrates the strap ornament of the ,moorish school4 ,the simple underlying geometric net upon which these designs are based may be found in ,meyer's ,handbook of ,ornament4 ,,inceptive ,,axes ,rule #f;h4 ,borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement1 provided the lateral movement dominates4 ,sidenote3 ,upward and ,onward ,borders ,in addition to the purely onward borders we now come to a variety with a distinctly upward movement as well4 ,while this new feature adds materially to the interest of the border1 it also adds to the difficulty of designing4 ,the upward movement is often centered about an axis termed the ,axis of ,symmetry or ,inceptive ,axis1 about which are grouped and balanced the different elements from the designer's vocabulary4 ,when both sides are alike1 the unit so formed is called a bilateral unit4 ,figure #aii shows the formation of a bilateral unit by means of grouping1 accenting1 and balancing straight lines over an inceptive axis4 ,by adding bands above and below and doubling these vertical lines to gain width1 we form at ,a and ,b1 ,figure #aii1 inlaid designs with an upward and onward tendency or movement4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #bae4--;,inlaid ,band ,border ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #baf4--,single and ,double ,band ,inlaid ,border ,the introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more grace to these combined movements4 ,the leading lines of a small border1 designed to be seen at close range1 are planned in ,figure #bjj4 ,the central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this axis4 ,these leading lines1 as can be readily seen1 have an upward and onward movement4 ,to insure continuity1 a small link and the top and bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,c4,e4 ,partch ,,figure #baf;a4--,work of ,high ,school ,students ,material for straight borders may be derived from geometry1 nature1 or artificial forms1 but for borders designed in curves1 nature is generally selected as a source4 ,figure #bja illustrates a crude and uninteresting form1 unsuited to outline enrichment4 ,figure #bjb has brought ,figure #bja into some semblance of order1 but as can be readily seen by the primary outline which encloses it1 the widest point occurs exactly midway from top to bottom1 which makes the form monotonous4 ,this defect has been remedied in ,figure #bjc and an interesting and varied area appears for the first time4 ,what ,dr4 ,haney calls the feebly flapping curve of ,figure #bjb has been replaced by the vigorous and snappy curve of ,figure #bjc1 which gives what is termed a dynamic or rhythmic value in surface enrichment4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,c4,e4 ,partch ,,figure #baf;b4--,work of ,high ,school ,students ,rule #f;g4 ,each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and1 if possible1 partake of the main movements of the border4 ,any form which causes the eye to move in a given direction is strongly dynamic1 and is opposed to the static form which does not cause a marked eye movement4 ,a circle is symbolic of the static form1 while a triangle is dynamic4 ,in the designer's nomenclature1 the term rhythmic may be used synonymously with dynamic4 ,dynamic areas or forms should carry out the upward and onward movement of the leading lines4 ,figure #bjd shows how closely dynamic areas are connected with nature's units for design motives4 ,a slight change in the contour may transform a leaf into excellent material with which to clothe the leading lines4 ,the curve of force1 the cyma1 and other curves described in previous chapters should be recognized by the designer and utilized in the contours of dynamic forms4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,c4,e4 ,partch ,,figure #baf;c4--,instruction ,sheet ,problem ,the leading lines of the border in ,figure #bjj are shown clothed or enriched in ,figure #bje4 ,vigorous dynamic spots1 conventionalized from natural units1 continue the upward and onward movement of the original leading lines4 ,as will be noted1 the background has been treated to allow the spots to appear in relief4 ,small fussy spots or areas have been omitted and the units1 varied in size and strongly dynamic in form1 balance over an inceptive axis4 ,the small link reaches out its helping hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unity1 while the bands above and below bind the design together and assist in the lateral movement4 ,figure #bje shows three methods of treatment3 simple spots without modeling1 from ,a to ,b2 slight indications of modeling1 from ,b to ,c2 full modeling of the entire unit at ,c4 ,the choice of treatment depends1 of course1 upon the skill of the craftsman4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #bag4--;,carved and ,accented ,border and ,triple ,carved ,band ,figure #bjf shows a design varied from formal balance over a central axis of symmetry or an inceptive axis4 ,it has a decided onward movement with the leaves balanced above and below the stem which is the axis4 ,the repeat has been reversed at ,b and is more pleasing than the portion at ,a4 ,the area of the background1 in its relation to that used for ornamentation or filling1 cannot be predetermined with exactness4 ,there should be no blank spaces for the eye to bridge4 ,some designers allow about one-third ground for two-thirds filling or enrichment4 ,this proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most instances as satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,c4,e4 ,partch ,,plate #ce4--;,instruction ,sheet ,sidenote3 ,point of ,concentration--,effect upon ,structure ,when a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons3 first1 to strengthen1 apparently1 the structure at these points2 second1 to assist the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner4 ,the corner enforcement affords momentary resting points for the eye1 and adds pleasing variety to the long line of border4 ,the strengthened point is called the point of concentration or point of force4 ,its presence and effect may be noted by the symbol ,p4,c4 in ,figures #bjg1 #bjh1 #bac1 and #bad4 ,sidenote3 ,chip ,carving ,figure #bac represents the rather angular and monotonous chip carving motive4 ,it is1 however1 a simple form of carved enrichment for wood construction4 ,figure #bad shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and modeled enrichment4 ,two methods of leaf treatment are given at ,a and ,b4 ,figures #bae1 #baf1 and #bag are industrial and public school examples of the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #ce shows the necessary working drawings for wood inlay and is supplied as a typical high school problem by ,mr4 ,c4,e4 ,partch of ,des ,moines1 ,iowa4 ,see ,figure #baf;c4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the primary rectangle1 appendage1 etc4 7b7 ,subdivide the rectangle into its horizontal and vertical subdivisions4 7c7 ,design very simple contour enrichment4 7d7 ,determine the location of zone of enrichment1 and the amount and method of enriching the surface4 7e7 ,make several preliminary sketches to determine the best design and add the one finally selected to the structure4 ,correlate with contour enrichment4 7f7 ,add additional views1 dimension1 and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a walnut side table #c feet high and enrich with a double band inlay of ebony4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #f;a4 ,surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment4 ,rule #f;b4 ,surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure4 ,rule #f;c4 ,the treatment must be appropriate to the material4 ,rule #f;d4 ,bands and borders should have a consistent lateral1 that is1 onward movement4 ,rule #f;e4 ,bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion1 opposed to the main forward movement4 ,rule #f;f4 ,all component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border4 ,rule #f;g4 ,each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and1 if possible1 partake of the main movement of the border4 ,rule #f;h4 ,borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement1 provided the lateral movement dominates4 ,rule #f;i4 ,inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface4 ,rule #f;j4 ,carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,give the reasons why surface enrichment may be used as decoration4 #b4 ,state an original example illustrating when and where to use surface enrichment4 #c4 ,name an object from the industrial arts in which the structure has been weakened or obscured by the application of surface enrichment4 ,name an example of the correct use of surface enrichment and state wherein it has been correctly applied4 #d4 ,how should surface enrichment of small masses differ from that applied to larger masses2 in what manner does the fiber of the wood affect the design8 #e4 ,name three means of enriching the surface of wood4 ,briefly describe the processes of inlaying and carving1 with the design restrictions governing each4 #f4 ,give three sources of ornament open to the designer of surface enrichment4 #g4 ,draw an accented triple band motive for inlay4 #h4 ,what is the inceptive axis2 a bilateral unit8 ,what are leading lines2 dynamic forms2 points of concentration8 #i4 ,design an upward and onward continuous carved border for wood and base it upon a vertical inceptive axis4 ,treat as in ,a1 ,figure #bje4 #aj4 ,illustrate the manner in which structure may be apparently strengthened by a band or border4 ,,chapter ,x ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood--,continued ,,enclosed ,,and ,,free ,,ornament ,sidenote3 ,enclosed ,ornament 7,panels7 ,chapter ,,ix dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating ornament 7bands or borders74 ,this leaves enclosed and free forms of surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter4 ,as an enclosed form1 a panel may be enriched by geometric1 natural1 or artificial ornament4 ,it is enclosed in a definite boundary of bands or lines and may be a square or other polygon1 circle1 ellipse1 lunette1 spandrel1 lozenge1 or triangle4 ,as the decoration does not have the continuous repeating movement of the border and as it covers an enclosed area1 it is necessarily treated in a different manner from either band or border4 ,its object is to decorate a plane surface4 ,the enrichment may be made by means of carving1 inlaying1 or painting4 ,sidenote3 ,free ,ornament ,free ornament means the use of motives not severely enclosed by bands or panels4 ,free ornament is generally applied to centers or upper portions of surfaces to relieve a monotonous area not suited to either panel or border treatment4 ,it may have an upward or a radial movement dependent upon the character of the member to be enriched4 ,sidenote3 ,summary ,we then have three forms of possible surface enrichment3 repeating or continuous motives1 enclosed motives1 and free motives4 ,our next point is to consider where the last two may be used appropriately in surface enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,zone of ,enrichment ,the panel of a small primary mass of wood may be enriched at any one of three places3 first1 at the margins2 second1 at the center2 third1 over the entire surface4 ,the exact position is a matter to be determined by the structural design and the utilitarian requirements of the problem4 ,for example1 a bread board or taboret top would require the enrichment in the margin with the center left free4 ,a table leg might require an enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg1 while a square panel to be inserted in a door1 ,figure #bcc1 ,page #abd1 might require full surface treatment4 ,sidenote3 ,structural ,reinforcement ,each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points known as points of concentration4 ,the design should become more prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before passing to the next point of prominence4 ,the accented portion of the design at these points should be so related to the structure that it apparently reinforces the structure as a whole4 ,corners1 centers of edges1 and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure2 we shall therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coinciding with them4 ,let us then consider the first of these arrangements as applied to enclosed enrichment4 ,,marginal ,,panel ,,enrichment ,,enclosed ,,enrichment ,,for ,,partly ,,enriched ,,surfaces ,rule #g;a4 ,marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich4 ,rule #g;b4 ,marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed 7#a7 preferably at the corner or 7#b7 in the center of each margin4 ,rule #g;c4 ,to insure unity of design in panels1 the elements composing the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other4 ,sidenote3 ,marginal ,zone ,enrichment ,the marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to enrich the entire surface4 ,the marginal zone is adapted to enriching box tops1 stands1 table tops1 and similar surfaces designed preferably with the thought of being seen from above4 ,we shall call such surfaces horizontal planes4 ,as the design is to be limited to the margin1 the panel outline is bound to parallel the contours1 or outlines1 of the surface to be enriched4 ,it is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines of the enriched surface4 ,figure #bah4 ,the next step is to place the point of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure4 ,common usage dictates the corners as the proper points4 ,sidenote3 ,points of ,concentration ,sidenote3 ,points of ,concentration in the ,corner of ,margin ,it may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands1 ,figures #bah1 #bai1 #bbj1 with a single accentuation at the corners4 ,the spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment4 ,figure #bbj is1 in this respect1 an improvement over ,figure #bai4 ,but these examples are not true enclosed panel enrichment4 ,they are the borders of ,chapter ,,ix acting as marginal enrichment4 ,it is not until we reach ,figure #bba that the true enclosed enrichment appears1 when the panel motive is clearly evident4 ,in this figure a single incised band parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached4 ,here we find it turning1 gracefully widening to give variety1 and supporting the structure by its own increased strength4 ,the single band in ,figure #bba acts as a bridge1 leads the eye from one point of concentration to the next similar point1 forms a compact mass with the point of concentration1 and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched surface4 ,sidenote3 ,points of ,concentration in the ,center of ,margin ,in ,figure #bbb the point of concentration is to be found in the center of each margin4 ,this bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the center lines of the square panel4 ,these points of concentration take the place of previous concentrations at the corners which were based upon the square's diagonals4 ,while accenting based upon the center lines is acceptable1 this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of concentration based upon the diagonals4 ,the latter1 therefore1 is recommended for beginners4 ,the corners of ,figure #bbb are1 however1 slightly accented by means of the bridging spots x-x4 ,sidenote3 ,inceptive ,axes or ,balancing ,lines ,the diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of ,figures #bba and #bbb and similar structural lines are inceptive axes1 as they are center lines for new design groups4 ,it may then be said that a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure1 may become the center line or inceptive axis upon which to construct a bilateral design4 ,it is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass through the enrichment zone of the panel4 ,hereafter in the drawings1 inceptive axes will be designated by the abbreviation ,i4,a4 while the point of concentration will be indicated by the abbreviation ,p4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,marginal ,,enrichment ,,of ,,square ,,areas ,,symbols3 ,,pc ,,point ,,of ,,concentration2 ,,ia ,,inceptive ,,axis ,,tool ,,processes4 ,,inlaying ,,and ,,carving ,,plate #cf ,sidenote3 ,inceptive ,axis ,the strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it interlocks surface enrichment with the structure1 insuring a degree of unity that might otherwise be unattainable4 ,the carved enrichment of ,figure #bbc fully illustrates this point4 ,the analytical study of ,figure #bbd shows the diagonal used as an inceptive axis1 with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of concentration4 ,,free ,,enrichment ,rule #h;a4 ,free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure4 ,rule #h;b4 ,free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces4 ,rule #h;c4 ,points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design4 ,sidenote3 ,center ,zone ,enrichment ,this method of surface enrichment is used to relieve the design of heavy members in the structure or to distribute ornament over the surface of lighter parts in a piece of furniture4 ,an example is noted in ,figure #bdf1 ,page #abh1 where the upper portion of the legs has center enrichment4 ,as can be readily seen1 the enrichment is generally free in character with little or no indication of enclosure4 ,figure #bbe shows the application of free enrichment to a paneled screen or hinged door4 ,the ,p4,c4 is in the upper portion of the door and is re-echoed in the door frames1 while the ornament itself is strongly dynamic in movement with a decided upward tendency in sympathy with the proportions of the door4 ,this motive might be developed by inlay1 carving1 or paint4 ,figure #bbf is a carved ,gothic leaf1 appropriately used as enrichment of heavy furniture4 ,the unit may be raised above the surface or1 even more easily1 depressed or incised into the surface4 ,the small corner spot is added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic conformity with the contours4 ,note how the center line of both units in ,figures #bbe and #bbf coincides with the inceptive axis of the structure4 ,let it again be reiterated that this binding of the surface enrichment to the structure by means of the coincidence of the axes of symmetry and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity4 ,no part of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it the appearance of being separated from the main surface4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,free ,,center ,,enrichment ,,for ,,vertical ,,areas ,,tool ,,processes3 ,,inlaying1 ,,low ,,relief ,,carving ,,plate #cg ,sidenote3 ,examples of ,free ,enrichment ,figures #bbg and #bbh are additional examples of free enrichment4 ,figure #bbh has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so essential to the success of school designing4 ,the monogram represents free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point of concentration in the center of the top edge4 ,both types of enrichment are related to each other and to the structural contours4 ,sidenote3 ,pierced ,free ,enrichment ,sidenote3 ,errors in the ,use of ,pierced ,enrichment ,figure #bbi is typical free pierced enrichment4 ,the wood in the enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added lightness of construction and variety to the surface4 ,one encounters this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater frequency than either inlaying or carving4 ,it is with the thought of adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter forms have been introduced4 ,a word regarding the errors often encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of ,figure #bbi may not be amiss4 ,pupils1 believing the square to be the last word in this form of enrichment1 place the figure on the member to be enriched with little thought of its possible relation to the structural contours2 the result is the un-unified design illustrated in ,figure #bcj4 ,to correct this1 reference should be made to ,rule #h;b4 ,,full ,,panel ,,enrichment ,rule #g;d4 ,the contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions4 ,sidenote3 ,full ,surface ,enrichment ,this is the richest and most elaborate form of enrichment when carried to its full perfection4 ,it generally takes the form of a panel filled with appropriate design material4 ,this panel may be used to enrich the plain end of a project such as a book stall and thus cover the entire surface1 or it may be inserted into a large primary mass and accentuate its center as in a door1 in a manner similar to ,figure #bcc4 ,its use1 whatever its position1 leads us to the consideration of methods of designing full panels4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,enclosed ,,enrichment3 ,,square ,,and ,,rectangular ,,panels--,,tool ,,processes ,,carving1 ,,inlaying ,,plate #ch ,rule #g;e4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin4 ,sidenote3 ,square ,panels ,in planning designs for full panels1 it would be well to consider3 first1 square panels2 second1 rectangular panels2 third1 varied panels4 ,the point of concentration may be kept in the corners of a square panel1 as designed in ,figure #bca1 or it may be placed in the center1 as shown in ,figure #bcb4 ,the effects1 when assembled1 are indicated in ,figure #bcc4 ,to secure these effects1 a square panel is commonly divided into quarter sections by center lines4 ,the diagonals of each quarter should be drawn before proceeding with the details of the design4 ,these diagonals and center lines are the building lines or leading axes of the pattern4 ,the leading lines and details are then grouped around these center and diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in ,figures #bbc and #bbd4 ,these leading lines are then clothed with enrichment by applying the processes indicated in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,sidenote3 ,steps in ,panel ,designing ,without going into detail we may say that it is good practice3 first1 to draw the square panel2 second1 to draw the center lines and diagonals2 third1 to locate points of concentration2 fourth1 to make the leading lines move inwardly to center concentration or outwardly to corner concentration2 fifth1 to clothe these lines with ornament having strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines2 sixth1 to fill in remaining space with ornament1 supporting the movement toward points of concentration1 even though slight and minor contrasts of direction are added to give variety4 ,when the entire design is completed one should ask the following questions3 ,does the design have unity8 ,does it seem too thin and spindling8 ,and most of all1 do the points of concentration and shape of the panel fit the structural outlines and proportions8 ,we cannot fit a square peg into a round hole2 neither can we fit a square panel into a circular or rectangular mass without considerable change to the panel4 ,figures #bcd and #bce have been drawn with the idea of suggesting a simple and modified form of panel enrichment which may be readily handled by the beginner4 ,the tree as a decorative symbol is appropriate to wood1 and its adaption to a square panel is drawn at ,figure #bce4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,enclosed ,,panel ,,enrichment--,,formal ,,and ,,free ,,balance ,,application ,,of ,,natural ,,and ,,artificial ,,motives ,,plate #ci ,sidenote3 ,rectangular ,panels ,while a rectangular panel may be divided into sections by a number of different methods1 it is well for the beginner in design to treat it as a vertical mass1 designed to enrich a vertical surface4 ,this vertical panel may then be divided into halves by the axis of symmetry1 which should coincide with an inceptive axis1 but it is not essential to balance the enrichment exactly in each half4 ,small deviations from exact symmetry sometimes give added variety to the design4 ,figure #bce4 ,rule #g;f4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel4 ,sidenote3 ,vertical ,panels ,the point of concentration in vertical panels should be in the upper portion1 and all parts of the design1 both leading lines and clothing1 should have a strong upward tendency4 ,figure #bcf is a vertical panel from historic ornament4 ,the heavier parts have been designed at the bottom for stability and the lighter and more intricate members have been placed at the top4 ,rule #g;g4 ,the fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines1 with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure4 ,to see how to apply rectangular panels to wood surfaces1 let us look at ,figure #bdj4 ,this is a simple design with an incised background and might be used for enriching a narrow paneled door1 newel post1 or frame4 ,the large areas are at the bottom2 the point of concentration is at the top1 and the entire design balances over the inceptive axis4 ,the point of concentration consists of the geometrically treated small flower form1 with its original lines modified to simplify the carving processes4 ,the stem coincides with the inceptive axis1 while narrow and sympathetically related minor panels fill in the background and keep the design from appearing weak and thin4 ,sidenote3 ,adapting ,data to ,material ,figure #bcg is an accurate rendering of the flower form and is the data or record of facts for ,figure #bdj4 ,figure #bch introduces the method of plotting the areas from these facts4 ,variety of form and area is1 at this stage1 desirable4 ,figure #bci has assembled these areas into orderly balance over the axis of symmetry4 ,figure #bdj has again slightly modified them to apply to the vertical panel in wood4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,berkey and ,gay ,,figure #bdf4--;,example of ,free and ,marginal ,enrichment ,,varied ,,panels ,sidenote3 ,panels of ,varied ,shapes ,the panels under consideration up to this time have been designed to harmonize with square and rectangular contours4 ,the panel may1 however1 become a most flexible and sympathetic element1 changing its form to suit the ever-changing contours4 ,but though change of shape affects the contents of the panel to a certain extent the points of concentration and the inceptive axes still act as our guide4 ,objects are arranged formally on each side of the inceptive axes and the space filling is approximately the same as in former examples4 ,sidenote3 ,use of ,artificial ,objects ,the still life sketches of the art class may be conventionalized into appropriate motives for utilitarian objects as shown in ,figure #bda4 ,this use of still life suggests a most desirable correlation and a welcome one to many drawing teachers4 ,three points should be kept in mind3 first1 adaptability of the object1 its decorative possibilities1 and appropriateness to service2 second1 adjustment of the panel to contours2 third1 adjustment of the object to the wood panel4 ,some portion of the object should be designed to parallel the panel4 ,small additional spots may assist in promoting harmony between the object and the panel boundary4 ,these three considerations are essentially necessary factors in the design of enclosed enrichment4 ,figures #bdb and #bdc are other adaptations of panel design to varied contours4 ,sidenote3 ,free ,balance ,in the foregoing examples the designs are more or less rigidly balanced over the inceptive axis or axis of symmetry4 ,imaginary axis it is1 but1 acting with the panel1 it nevertheless arbitrarily limits the position of all parts within the panel4 ,by removing this semblance of formal balance1 we approach what is termed free balance4 ,in this we find that the designer attempts to balance objects informally over the geometric center of the panel or combined panels4 ,as the arrow points in ,figure #bdd indicate1 the problem is to balance the trees in an informal and irregular manner1 avoiding picket fence regularity4 ,in all of this freedom there is a sense of order1 since a mass of trees on one side of the geometric center is balanced by a similar mass on the other side4 ,indeed1 in ,figure #bdd this may be carried even to the point of duplicating in reverse order the outside panels of the ,triptych4 ,illustration3 ,,rules #g;,d ,,to #g;,e--,,enclosed ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,with ,,application ,,of ,,still ,,life ,,to ,a ,,fully ,,enriched ,,surface ,,plate #dj ,figure #bde again reverts to artificial motives1 illustrated in free balance4 ,the jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup into harmony with the enclosing space4 ,figure #bdf shows illustrations of free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #dj indicates the necessary design steps for a panel surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing4 ,note the connection between the ink bottle1 pen1 and book as used to decorate a book stall4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps ,,for ,,square ,,panel ,,surface ,,enrichment 7a7 ,draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface1 appendages1 etc4 7b7 ,subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions4 7c7 ,design simple contour enrichment4 ,determine location of zone of enrichment 7the panel71 the amount and method of enriching the surface4 7d7 ,draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically related to the contours4 7e7 ,draw diameters1 diagonals1 or center lines of the panel4 ,regard these as possible inceptive axes4 7f7 ,locate points of concentration on either diameters1 diagonals1 or center lines4 7g7 ,draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the panel1 the inceptive axis1 and the point of concentration4 7h7 ,clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be appropriate to the structure1 the material1 and the intended service4 ,note the result4 ,is the panel agreeably filled without appearing overcrowded or meager8 ,several preliminary sketches should be made4 7i7 ,add additional views1 dimension1 and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a glove box and enrich the cover with a simple carved panel with marginal panel enrichment4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,enclosed ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,for ,,partly ,,enriched ,,panels ,rule #g;a4 ,marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass1 and to the panel it is to enrich4 ,rule #g;b4 ,marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed 7#a7 preferably at the corners or 7#b7 in the center of each margin4 ,rule #g;c4 ,to insure unity of design in panels1 the elements composing the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other4 ,,enclosed ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,for ,,fully ,,enriched ,,panels ,rule #g;d4 ,the contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions4 ,rule #g;e4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin4 ,rule #g;f4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel4 ,rule #g;g4 ,the fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines1 with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure4 ,,free ,,surface ,,enrichment ,rule #h;a4 ,free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure4 ,rule #h;b4 ,free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces4 ,rule #h;c4 ,points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design4 ,postulate3 ,surface enrichment should be inseparably linked to the surface and to the outlines or contours4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what is a panel8 #b4 ,state three sections or areas at which a panel may be enriched4 ,give reasons for selecting a given area4 #c4 ,explain relation of point of concentration to each section4 #d4 ,in marginal enrichment1 is it preferable to locate the point of concentration in the center or corner of the margin8 ,why8 #e4 ,what is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the unity of a design8 ,what is its relation to the structure8 #f4 ,give the characteristics and use of free enrichment4 #g4 ,state the use of full panel enrichment4 #h4 ,where may the point of concentration be located in full square panel enrichment8 #i4 ,name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel4 #aj4 ,for what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel adapted8 #aa4 ,where should the point of concentration be located in a vertical rectangular panel8 #ab4 ,draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in wood4 #ac4 ,to what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted8 #ad4 ,how may artificial objects be adapted to surface enrichment8 #ae4 ,explain the term free balance4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,with ,,minor ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,sidenote3 ,minor ,subdivisions ,this article is1 in part1 a brief summary and review of ,rules #b;a1 #b;b1 #c;a1 #c;b1 #c;c 7vertical and horizontal major divisions7 with application to minor subdivisions4 ,by minor spacings or subdivisions in wood work we refer to the areas occupied by drawers1 doors1 shelves1 and other small parts subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large front or side panels1 etc4 ,these smaller or minor subdivisions in wood work are bounded by runners1 rails1 guides1 and stiles depending upon the form of construction and character of the minor subdivision4 ,major divisions are often bounded by legs1 table tops1 and principal rails4 ,it is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones4 ,there are a few exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places4 ,when minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the most interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment1 for if we consider paneling an appropriate form of decoration1 we are equally privileged to feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of interest to the sum total of the entire mass4 ,we are equally justified in accenting these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other forms of surface enrichment provided that harmony is maintained4 ,these minor subdivisions1 properly enriched1 may become equalizers1 or elements which adjust the design to the character of the surroundings destined to receive the project of which they are a part4 ,sidenote3 ,vertical ,sections and ,their ,divisions ,with reference to the illustrations1 ,figure #bdg1 ,plate #da1 shows a simple minor panel treatment falling under ,rule #c;a4 ,single or preferably double band inlay might have been suitably substituted for the sunken panels4 ,as many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce inlays1 it is practicable to use stock inlays1 thus simplifying the process4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,and ,,minor ,,space ,,divisions ,,for ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood4 ,,accentuation ,,of ,,minor ,,vertical ,,divisions ,,plate #da ,sidenote3 ,minor ,subdivisions of ,three ,vertical ,major ,parts or ,divisions ,in a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of lightness and height by the use of ,rule #c;b4 ,as a simple treatment of a three-part design1 ,figure #bdh needs little comment4 ,figures #bdi and #bej are examples of dividing1 by means of minor divisions1 the outer sections of a three-part design4 ,the small drawers in the right and left sections of ,figure #bej might have been improved in proportion by again applying ,rule #b;a to their design1 thereby varying the measure of their heights4 ,the enclosed panel enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front panels4 ,rule #g;g4 ,sidenote3 ,unbroken ,vertical ,divisions ,figures #bea and #beb show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all three vertical sections1 thus definitely binding these sections together4 ,it is seen that this device is conducive to unity1 whenever two or three vertical divisions have been used4 ,figure #beb is a repetition of ,figure #bea1 but shows the echo or continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the appendage4 ,the use of the single or double band enrichment still further binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with the appendage4 ,,sequential ,,progression ,,of ,,minor ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,rule #b;c4 ,a primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass4 ,sidenote3 ,sequential ,arrangement of ,minor ,horizontal ,divisions ,rule #b;c4 ,let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to be removed and extended upward4 ,its transformation by this process into a cabinet or chiffonier similar to ,figure #bec1 ,plate #db1 introduces the new principle of sequential progression4 ,instead of adhering to the limitation of ,rules #b;a and #b;b1 this arrangement shows that the horizontal divisions may be gradually decreased in height from the bottom toward the top of the primary mass4 ,by this rhythmic decrease in the measure of the height1 the eye is led through an orderly gradation through lesser areas to the top1 thus giving a pleasing sensation of lightness and variety to the structure4 ,by this method1 also1 the large areas are retained at the bottom to give stability and solidity to the structure4 ,a quick test of these conditions may be made by reversing ,figure #bed1 thus producing a more decidedly pleasing effect4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,and ,,minor ,,space ,,divisions ,,for ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,sequential ,,arrangement ,,of ,,minor ,,horizontal ,,divisions ,,in ,,one ,,or ,,three ,,vertical ,,divisions ,,plate #db ,sidenote3 ,sequential ,arrangements--7,continued7 ,this orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried out with absolute mathematical precision such as #g - #f - #e - #d - #c - #b - #a4 ,arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally pleasing and more varied effect3 #i-a_/d - #h - #f-c_/d - #f - #e - #d-c_/d4 ,many designers repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces as1 #f - #e - #e - #d-c_/d1 but the upward gradation should be apparent4 ,figure #bee1 an ,austrian motive1 shows a strongly marked sequence with the top division broken by ,rule #c;b4 ,it is better practice to keep such attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or loss of unity may be the final result4 ,by applying this principle to the center section of a three-part design1 we now have illustrated in ,figure #bef the new sequence in its application1 and ,figures #beg and #beh are variations of the same idea4 ,sidenote3 ,two ,horizontal and ,three ,vertical ,divisions ,we now come to the transitional type of design where three vertical sections begin to lose their dominance as major divisions1 but still retain their places in the design as minor sections4 ,replacing these in prominence is the horizontal major section or division4 ,the first immediate result of this change as shown in ,plate #dc is to produce a more compact surface with a greater impression of length because of the presence of strongly accented horizontal lines which are always associated with horizontal divisions4 ,this transitional style with its minor but dominant horizontal divisions would harmonize with the long horizontal lines of a room or similar lines in the furniture4 ,the full expression of this style or type will be readily seen by comparing ,plates #dc and ,figures #bea and #beb1 ,plate #da4 ,several styles of period furniture have been introduced in ,plate #dc to prove the universality of these principles of space divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,and ,,minor ,,sub ,,divisions ,,for ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,three ,,vertical ,,divisions ,,crossed ,,by ,,two ,,horizontal ,,divisions ,,plate #dc ,sidenote3 ,dominance of ,lower or ,upper ,sections ,figures #bei1 #bfj1 and #bfb1 ,plate #dc1 are divided by three minor vertical sections cut by two minor horizontal divisions with the dominance in the lower section4 ,rule #b;a4 ,the arrangement of the small central drawers could have been more varied by the application of the principle of sequential progression4 ,figures #bfa and #bfc show similar vertical spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the horizontal divisions4 ,in these figures the dominance has been placed in the upper section of the primary mass by the division created by the runner above the lower drawer4 ,it is likewise seen that ,figure #bfc needs a top appendage to bind the top into closer unity with minor spacings4 ,sidenote3 ,transitional ,types ,in carrying the transitional type to which we have referred in the previous paragraphs from the vertical space influence toward the horizontal1 we are gradually approaching three minor horizontal divisions1 still maintaining three minor vertical divisions in a modified and less prominent form4 ,figure #bfd is an approach toward three horizontal divisions4 ,as only one clear-cut horizontal space division is visible1 this figure is not a pure example4 ,the upper horizontal space division is broken up into a three-part design by the drawer guides4 ,it is not until we reach ,figure #bff that three horizontal divisions are clearly evident4 ,,horizontal ,,divisions ,sidenote3 ,three ,minor ,horizontal ,divisions ,cut by ,varying ,numbers of ,vertical ,divisions ,the horizontal minor divisions in furniture are generally drawer runners and the vertical minor divisions are often drawer guides4 ,the horizontal divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways3 first1 by the application of ,rule #b;b2 or second1 by applying ,rule #b;c1 the rule of sequential progression4 ,figures #bff1 #bfg1 and #bfh1 ,plate #dd1 are representative of the former while ,figures #bfi and #bgj are typical of the latter4 ,the result in either case is a compactly designed and solid mass of simple structural lines4 ,on some occasions we find the three-part rule used for minor divisions within the horizontal sections1 while again the two-part rule is used4 ,the method depends upon the desired use and appearance4 ,in either case the long areas and large masses are to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each primary mass1 as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the design4 ,sidenote3 ,four ,vertical ,divisions ,figure #bga is a rare reversion to more than three vertical divisions4 ,in this case1 ,rule #c;c has been observed and we find all of the panels are of equal size4 ,variety has been secured by means of the horizontal spacings4 ,,free ,,balance ,sidenote3 ,free ,minor ,space ,treatment ,sidenote3 ,free ,balance ,this form of design is inherent in the ,japanese system4 ,it consists in the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center4 ,it is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing4 ,the reader is referred to ,mr4 ,arthur ,dow's excellent book on ,composition for further discussion of the subject4 ,figure #bgb1 ,plate #de1 is an example of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment4 ,sidenote3 ,carving and ,piercing as ,applied to ,large ,masses ,figures #bgc and #bgd are pierced designs1 thoroughly related to the structure and in no way weakening it4 ,figure #bgc is representative of a type which1 if carried to extremes1 will cause the structure to become too weak for service2 it is1 therefore1 necessary to guard and restrict this form of enrichment4 ,the carving of ,figure #bge1 combined with the contour enrichment1 forms a pleasing variation to this common type of furniture design4 ,small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as much care as the larger major or minor parts4 ,the larger areas or spaces in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must harmonize in proportion with the space in which they are placed and of which they are a part4 ,sidenote3 ,small ,minor ,details of ,large ,primary ,masses ,the three-part or three-vertical division system1 ,rule #c;b1 is generally used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in ,figures #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgh1 and #bgi2 while the rule of sequence1 ,rule #b;c1 may be employed again to subdivide these small details in a horizontal direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity4 ,figure #bhj is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors4 ,note the leading lines of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant proportions of the panel opening4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #df is a typical high school sheet of design problems1 with the masses accentuated by pen shading4 ,see ,plate #ae4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 to 7e74 ,see similar steps in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,and ,,minor ,,sub ,,divisions ,,for ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,free ,,minor ,,spacings4 ,,appendages4 ,,pierced ,,and ,,carved ,,enrichment4 ,,plate #de ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a sideboard #c feet #c inches high with plate rack4 ,the primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and three minor vertical divisions1 with the horizontal divisions accented4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,sequential ,,progression ,,of ,,minor ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,rule #b;c4 ,a primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what are minor subdivisions in wood construction8 #b4 ,what is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major divisions8 ,state its use4 #c4 ,show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major divisions into minor subdivisions4 #d4 ,state the rule of sequential progression4 ,give illustrations from the industrial arts4 #e4 ,describe the transitional stage between the point where the dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal influence begins4 #f4 ,what is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal major divisions8 ,state its use4 #g4 ,show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major divisions into minor subdivisions4 #h4 ,what should be the relation in a design between the details of a project and the divisions of the primary mass8 ,illustration3 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,masses ,,in ,,wood ,,drawing ,,and ,,design ,,by ,a4 ,j4 ,,fox4 ,u4 ,,of ,w4 ,,plate #df ,,chapter ,,xii ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,sidenote3 ,limitations for ,surface ,enrichment ,in some respects the surface enrichment of clay is similar to that of wood as1 for example1 the similarity produced by inlays in clay and in wood4 ,on the other hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material1 such as the grain of wood4 ,again it is limited to those effects or forms of enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which ceramic decoration is subjected4 ,see ,frontispiece4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,rookwood ,potteries ,,figure #bha4--;,filling the ,saggars before ,firing ,sidenote3 ,decorative ,processes of ,surface ,enrichment ,before proceeding with a design it is well for one to understand clearly the possibilities of clay enrichment4 ,he must know what kind of designs are best suited to clay as a medium1 to the intended service1 and to the ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln4 ,without entering into technicalities let us briefly discuss the following processes4 ,the first three deal with finger and tool manipulation of the clay body and are consequently the simpler of the processes4 ,the last five are concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the clay or to the glaze and are1 therefore1 more complex in character4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,the ,rookwood ,potteries ,,figure #bhb4--,stacking the ,kiln ,sidenote3 ,forms of ,manipulation ,,processes ,rule #i;a4 ,surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted4 ,rule #i;b4 ,incised1 pierced1 and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material4 ,sidenote3 ,incising #a4 ,this is the simplest form of enrichment1 a process familiar to the earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners4 ,it consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch4 ,these lines or planes should be bold and broad4 ,they may be made with a blunt pencil or a flat pointed stick4 ,a square1 rectangular1 or round stick may be used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising4 ,illustrations of simple incising may be found in ,figures #bhc1 #bhd1 #bie1 #cai1 #ccj4 ,the tiles shown are about six inches square4 ,sidenote3 ,piercing #b4 ,this process is less common and1 as its name implies1 is carried out by cutting through the clay4 ,it may be done with a fine wire4 ,either the background or the design itself may be thus removed4 ,the effect produced is that of lightening an object such as the top of a hanging flower holder1 a window flower box1 or a lantern shade4 ,sidenote3 ,modeling #c4 ,by adding clay to the main body1 and by working this clay into low relief flower or geometric forms1 one has the basic process of modeling4 ,the slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing play of light and shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the ware4 ,the process should be used with caution1 for over-modeling1 ,figure #cbe1 will obstruct the structural outlines and1 because of its over prominence as decoration1 will cease to be surface enrichment4 ,in the technical language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichment which is not subordinated to the surface4 ,in articles intended for service this high relief modeling is unsanitary and unsatisfactory4 ,figures #bhf and #bhg show incising with slight modeling1 while #cbd1 #cbh1 and #cbi are examples of more complex enrichment4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,,rectangular ,,and ,,square ,,areas ,,plate #dg ,sidenote3 ,introduction of ,coloring ,pigments ,with the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and difficulty1 that of the introduction of color4 ,pigments that will withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points4 ,sidenote3 ,inlay #d4 ,this process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted clay4 ,tints formed by the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting effects4 ,figures #bhd1 #bhe1 #cbj1 and #cba show forms which may be developed by this process4 ,sgraffito1 an ,italian process1 is more difficult than inlaying1 but the effect is similar4 ,a thin layer of colored clay is placed over the natural clay body1 and the design is developed by cutting away this colored coating in places1 thus exposing the natural clay body4 ,figure #cjf4 ,there are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the advanced designer4 ,sidenote3 ,slip ,painting #e4 ,slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream4 ,for slip painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the ceramist4 ,this thick1 creamy1 colored slip is then painted on the surface of the clay body while damp1 much as the artist would apply oil colors4 ,the ware1 when thoroughly dried1 is glazed and fired1 which produces the effect shown in ,figures #bij1 #bia1 and #cbg4 ,the color range is large2 almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and strong yellows4 ,a colorless transparent glaze should be used over beginner's slip painting4 ,sidenote3 ,colored ,glazes #f4 ,this process refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment into the glaze4 ,by varying the glaze formula we may have a clear1 transparent1 or glossy glaze similar to ,figure #cag1 a dull surfaced opaque effect1 termed a matt glaze1 ,figure #ccb2 or a glossy but opaque faience glaze similar to the blue and white ,dutch tiles4 ,there are other forms such as the crystalline and reduced glazes1 but these as a rule are far beyond the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics4 ,sidenote3 ,combinations ,it is possible to use these three types of glazed surface in various ways4 ,for example1 a vase form with an interesting contour may be left without further surface enrichment except that supplied by clear glaze or by a colored matt similar to certain types of ,teco ,ware4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,,shallow ,,circular ,,forms3 ,,plates1 ,,etc ,,plate #dh ,it is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised designs1 inlay or slip painting1 increasing their beauty and the serviceability of the ware4 ,a semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the ,vellum ,ware of the ,rookwood ,potteries4 ,figure #ccb4 ,greens1 blues1 yellows1 and browns1 with their admixtures1 are the safest combinations for the craftsman who desires to mix his own glazes4 ,sidenote3 ,underglaze ,painting #g4 ,this process may be seen in the examples of ,newcomb ,pottery illustrated particularly in ,figure #cad or #cbf4 ,the underglaze pigment is thinly painted upon the fired biscuit1 or unglazed ware4 ,a thin1 transparent glaze is then placed over the color1 and in the final firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating1 thus illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze painting4 ,sage-green and cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently used in ,newcomb designs with harmonious results4 ,the outline of the design is often incised and the underglaze color1 settling into these channels1 helps to accentuate the design4 ,figure #cad4 ,sidenote3 ,porcelain or ,overglaze ,painting #h4 ,this is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china kiln where a temperature between #fjj degrees and #ijj degrees ,c4 is developed4 ,at this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the porcelain glaze1 thus insuring its reasonable permanence4 ,figure #cjb4 ,the eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number the processes and are added to each figure number4 ,two processes are sometimes suggested as possible for one problem4 ,sidenote3 ,classification of ,structural ,clay ,forms ,different clay forms require different modes of treatment4 ,to simplify these treatments will now be our problem4 ,it has been found convenient to form four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the ware4 ,the first1 ,plate #dg1 includes rectangular and square areas2 the second1 ,plate #dh1 shallow and circular forms2 the third1 ,plate #di1 low cylindrical forms2 and the fourth1 ,plate #ej1 high cylindrical forms4 ,the first three divisions have distinct modes of design treatment1 while the fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method4 ,we shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possible forms of enrichment4 ,for the sake of brevity1 the results have been condensed into tabulated forms4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,,low ,,cylindrical ,,forms ,,plate #di ,each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinctive methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the design as well4 ,these places or zones of enrichment have been indicated in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses4 ,there are a number of zones for each plate4 ,for example1 ,plate #dg has its distinctive problems as tiles1 weights1 etc41 and five characteristic zones of enrichment described on pages #aec-aee and indicated by the letters ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 followed by a brief description of that zone4 ,each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of design1 inceptive axis1 point of concentration1 and illustrations4 ,each plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure number and in turn followed by the process number4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,square and ,rectangular ,areas1 ,plate #dg ,problems3 ,tiles for tea and coffee pots1 paper weights1 window boxes2 architectural tiles for floors1 and fire places4 99 99 99 99 99 7,a7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 ,in the margin4 ,reason for ,choice3 ,central area to be devoted to zone of service requiring simplicity in design4 ,sidenote3 ,marginal ,enrichment ,type of ,design3 ,bands or borders4 ,inceptive ,axis3 ,for corners2 the bisector of the angle4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,the corners and1 if desired1 at equal intervals between the corners4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhh4 99 99 99 99 99 7,b7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 center of surface1 free ornament4 ,sidenote3 ,center ,enrichment ,type of ,design3 ,initials1 monograms1 street numbers1 geometric patterns1 and other examples for free ornament4 ,a star or diamond is not appropriate enrichment for a square area unless properly related to the contour by connecting areas4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,vertical or horizontal diameters or diagonals4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,center of embellishment4 ,illustrations3 ,figure #bhe4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,,high ,,cylindrical ,,forms4 ,,vases1 ,,pitchers1 ,,etc ,,plate #ej 7,c7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 full surface enrichment in a horizontal position4 ,type of ,design3 ,a symmetrical pattern generally radiating from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least two-thirds of the surface4 ,sidenote3 ,full ,vertical ,surface ,enrichment ,inceptive ,axes3 ,diameters or diagonals of the area4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,at the corners or the center of the outer margin2 at geometric center1 as in a rosette4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #bhc1 #bhi1 and #bia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,full ,horizontal ,surface ,enrichment 7,d7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 full surface enrichment in a vertical position4 ,type of ,design3 ,a symmetrical pattern with a strong upward movement and covering more than one-half of the surface4 ,inceptive ,axis3 ,the vertical center line4 ,point of ,concentration3 ,upper section of the surface4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #bij and #bib4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,free ,balance 7,e7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 free balance over full surface4 ,type of ,design3 ,semi-decorative motive preferably covering the entire surface4 ,inceptive ,axis3 ,masses freely balanced over the geometric center of the area4 ,point of ,concentration3 ,near1 but not in the exact center4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #bic1 #bid1 #bie1 #bif1 #big1 #bih4 ,note3 ,the points of concentration should be accented by slight contrast of value and hue4 ,see chapters on color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,shallow ,circular ,forms1 ,plate #dh ,problems3 ,plates1 saucers1 ash trays1 card receivers1 almond and candy bowls4 99 99 99 99 99 7,a7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 margin of interior surface2 margin of exterior surface4 ,type of ,design3 ,bands or borders thoroughly related to the structural contours4 ,bands for exterior enrichment may be placed directly on the contour1 ,figures #bii and #cja1 thus forming an ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,and ,,constructive ,,design ,,rule #i3 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,,by ,a ,,border ,,problem3 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,class #b 7,,pottery7 ,,plate #ea4--;,instruction ,sheet ,sidenote3 ,marginal ,enrichment accented contour 7,f7 or slightly removed from it1 as in ,figure #cjj4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,for interior surfaces1 the radii of the contour circle generally supply the axes of symmetry4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,for interior surfaces1 the points of concentration may be placed in or near the radii of the area4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #cjb1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cjf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,problems3 ,cups1 pitchers1 steins1 nut and rose bowls1 low vase forms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,low ,cylindrical ,forms1 ,plate #di 7,a7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 upper margin of exterior4 ,sidenote3 ,marginal ,enrichment ,type of ,design3 ,borders of units joining each other or connected by bands or spots acting as connecting links4 ,rule #i;c4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,vertical elements of the exterior surface4 ,elements are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into any given number of vertical sections4 ,elements used as center lines form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of ,figure #cjh and similar designs are constructed4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,on each vertical element4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #cjh1 #cji1 #caj1 #caa1 #cab1 #caf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,full ,vertical ,surface ,enrichment 7,d7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 full vertical surface4 ,type of ,design3 ,extended borders with strongly developed vertical lines or forms4 ,less than one-half of the surface may be covered4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,vertical elements4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,in upper portion of vertical elements1 hence in upper portion of area4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #cjg1 #cad1 #cag1 #cah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,high ,cylindrical ,forms1 ,plate #ej 7,e7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 free balance of full surface4 7,see ,d1 above74 ,illustration3 ,figure #cae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,problems3 ,vases1 jars1 pitchers1 tall flower holders1 covered jars for tea1 crackers1 or tobacco4 ,sidenote3 ,marginal ,enrichment 7,a7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 margin of exterior4 ,type of ,design3 ,borders of geometric units1 freely balanced floral units1 and other natural motives placed in upper margin of mass4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,vertical elements of cylinder4 ,points of ,concentration3 ,in upper portion of vertical elements4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #cai1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cca1 #ccb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,full ,surface ,enrichment 7,d7 ,zone of ,enrichment3 full surface of exterior4 ,type of ,design3 ,free of formal conventionalized unit repeated on each vertical element4 ,the units may be juxtaposed or may be connected by bands or similar links4 ,inceptive ,axes3 ,vertical elements of cylinder4 ,point of concentration3 ,in upper portion of vertical elements4 ,illustrations3 ,figures #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,types of ,commercial ,pottery ,the reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions of ,rule #g and try to apply them to the material now under consideration4 ,acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the ,rookwood ,potteries for ,figures #bhh1 #bhi1 #bib1 #bic1 #bid1 #big1 #bih1 #cae2 #cbg and #ccb2 ,newcomb ,potteries1 ,figures #cad1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah1 #cbf2 ,teco ,potteries1 #cbi2 ,keramic ,studio ,publishing ,company1 #cjb1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cab4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plate #ea illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low cylindrical forms1 with part surface enrichment of two higher forms4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw primary mass3 ,for square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle1 etc4 ,for shallow circular forms draw a circle4 ,for low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle2 subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions4 ,for high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle2 subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal divisions4 ,rule #e;e4 7b7 ,design simple contour enrichment based upon these units of measurement4 7c7 ,locate zone of enrichment4 7d7 ,draw inceptive axes3 ,for square or rectangular areas draw diameters1 diagonals1 or both4 ,for shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle2 concentric circles for bands4 ,for low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the top or bottom of the primary mass for bands4 ,for high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low cylindrical forms4 7e7 ,locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes4 7f7 ,determine manner and amount of surface enrichment4 7g7 ,add leading lines and develop these into surface enrichment4 7h7 ,make potter's working drawing1 full size 7,see ,plate #bf74 ,add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare the drawing for potter's use4 7i7 ,make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a contour guide in building the form4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a cider or chocolate set with appropriate surface enrichment4 ,design an architectural tile #f in4 by #i in4 for accenting a brick fireplace in the home4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #i;a4 ,surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted4 ,rule #i;b4 ,incised1 pierced1 and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material4 ,rule #i;c4 ,a border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form4 ,the contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,compare the surface enrichment of clay with that of wood4 #b4 ,state a major requirement of a good pottery design4 #c4 ,give the broad divisions into which it is possible to divide the decorative processes of clay surface enrichment4 #d4 ,name and briefly describe eight methods of enriching the surface of clay4 #e4 ,what precautions should be exercised with regard to the use of incised1 pierced1 and modeled decoration8 #f4 ,should a border be placed at the point of greatest curvature of the contour8 ,give reasons4 #g4 ,name method of classifying structural forms in clay into four groups4 #h4 ,state problems and possible zones of enrichment in each group4 ,give reasons for choice4 #i4 ,state type of design unit1 conventionalized1 natural or artificial forms1 location of inceptive axis1 points of concentration1 and process for each zone of enrichment4 #aj4 ,what is an element of a cylindrical surface8 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,precious ,,metals ,,small ,,flat ,,planes ,sidenote3 ,base and ,precious ,metals ,chapter ,,xii referred to clay as a free and plastic material adapted to a wide range of surface enrichment processes4 ,metal as a more refractory material offers greater resistance to the craftsman and is relatively more limited in its capacity for surface enrichment4 ,as was the case in the consideration of contour enrichment for designing purposes1 it is necessary in the consideration of surface enrichment to divide metal into two groups3 precious and base metals4 ,as the field of design in both base and precious metals is large1 we shall consider the surface enrichment of precious metals only in this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,divisions for ,enrichment ,following an order similar in character to that used in clay designing1 problems in both base and precious metals may be divided into four classified groups as follows3 flat1 square1 rectangular1 or irregular planes2 shallow circular forms2 low cylindrical forms2 high cylindrical forms4 ,designs included in the first group1 flat planes1 comprise such problems as are typically represented by tie pins1 fobs1 rings1 and pendants4 ,the design problems presented by these examples are so important that it is wise to restrict this chapter to flat planes4 ,rule #aj;g4 ,the inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone1 and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure4 ,rule #aj;h4 ,the position of the inceptive axis should be determined by3 7#a7 use of the project as ring1 pendant1 or bar pin1 7#b7 character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion4 ,sidenote3 ,inceptive ,axes and ,points of ,concentration ,the semi-precious or precious stone is commonly found to be the point of concentration of these designs4 ,the inceptive axes of tie pins1 pendants1 and fobs are generally vertical center lines because of the vertical positions of the objects when worn4 ,the inceptive axes1 moreover1 should pass through the point of concentration and1 at the same time1 be sympathetically related to the structure4 ,rings and bar pins are frequently designed with horizontal inceptive axes1 so determined by their horizontal characteristics and positions4 ,the point of concentration for tie pins1 pendants1 and fobs in formal balance1 in addition to coinciding with the inceptive axis1 is generally located above or below the geometric center of the primary mass4 ,the point of concentration for rings and bar pins is placed in the horizontal inceptive axis and centrally located from left to right4 ,sidenote3 ,typical ,processes of ,enrichment ,sidenote3 ,economy of ,material ,as a step preliminary to designing1 and in order that the enrichment may be conventionalized or adapted to conform to the requirements of tools1 processes1 and materials1 it is now imperative to become familiar with a number of common forms of surface enrichment in metal4 ,there are eight processes frequently encountered in the decoration of silver and gold3 piercing1 etching1 chasing or repoussing1 enameling1 inlaying1 stone setting1 building1 carving4 ,to these may be added planishing1 frosting or matting1 and oxidizing as methods employed to enrich the entire surface4 ,economy of material is of prime importance in the designing of precious metal and1 particularly in gold projects1 conservation of the metals should be an urgent consideration in all designs4 ,rule #aj;a4 ,designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons3 7#a7 good taste2 7#b7 economy of material4 ,sidenote3 ,evolution and ,technical ,rendering of ,processes ,a non-technical and brief description of each process follows4 ,all designs in this chapter may be identified by referring to the process numbers after the figure description as #a1 #c1 #e2 #b1 #d1 #f1 corresponding to the key numbers on ,plate #eb4 ,a design to be submitted to the craftsman should be a graphic record of technical facts in addition to good design1 which requires that we should have an expressive technical means of rendering each process4 ,the last column1 on ,plate #eb1 indicates this rendering4 ,in addition to this rendering each one of the eight technical processes has been carried through three design steps4 #a4 7first column1 ,plate #eb7 ,planning the original primary mass1 with its inceptive axis suggested by the structure and intended use4 ,it passes through the point of concentration4 #b4 7second column1 ,plate #eb74 ,the division of the primary mass into zones of service and enrichment with the suggestion of the leading lines which1 at some points1 are parallel to the contours and lead up to the point of concentration4 ,the contours in this column have1 in several instances1 been changed to add lightness and variety to the problem4 #c4 ,the last step 7column three1 ,plate #eb7 shows the design with graphic rendering suggestive of the completed process4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,metal ,,with ,,evolution ,,and ,,rendering ,,of ,,eight ,,processes ,,of ,,enrichment ,,plate #eb ,,technical ,,processes ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,illustrating ,,same ,,in ,a ,,design ,sidenote3 ,piercing #a4 ,removal of design unit or background by means of the jeweler's saw4 ,bridges of metal should be left to support firmly all portions of the design4 ,test this by careful study of the design4 ,rendering--shade all pierced portions of the design in solid black4 ,slightly tint portions of the design passing under other parts4 ,illustration1 ,figure #ccf4 ,rule #aj;j4 ,all surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity4 ,pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence4 ,sidenote3 ,etching #b4 ,coating either design or background with an acid resistant1 to be followed by immersion of the article in an acid bath4 ,allow the unprotected portion to be attacked and eaten by the acid to a slight depth4 ,rendering--slightly tint all depressed or etched parts of the design4 ,illustration1 ,figure #cci4 ,sidenote3 ,chasing or ,repoussing #c4 ,the embossing and fine embellishment of a metal surface by the application of the hammer and punches4 ,the work is conducted mainly from the top surface4 ,rendering--stipple all parts of the background not raised by the process4 ,chasing should seem an integral part of the background and not appear stuck upon it4 ,illustration1 ,figure #cdb4 ,rule #ajk4 ,sidenote3 ,enameling 7,champleve7 #d4 ,a process of enameling over metal in which the ground is cut away into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted4 ,exercise reserve in the use of enamel4 ,over-decoration tends to cheapen this valuable form of decoration4 ,rendering--shade the lower and right-hand sides of all enameled areas to suggest relief4 ,illustration1 ,figure #cde4 ,if possible render in tempera color4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,precious ,,metal ,,contour ,,and ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,flat ,,planes ,,pins ,,and ,,brooches ,,plate #ec ,rule #aj;i4 ,caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel4 ,over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design4 ,rule #ajl4 ,the lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass4 ,sidenote3 ,inlaying #e4 ,the process of applying wire1 etc41 to an incision on metal either by burnishing or fusing the metal into the cavities4 ,rendering--tint the darker metal or1 if possible1 render in color4 ,illustration1 ,figure #cdh4 ,sidenote3 ,stone ,cutting #f4 ,an enrichment of the surface by the addition of semi-precious or precious stones4 ,other enrichment is generally subordinated to the stone which then becomes the point of concentration4 ,all enrichment should lead toward the stone4 ,small stones may1 however1 be used to accentuate other points of concentration in surface enrichment4 ,rendering--shade the lower and right-side of the stone to suggest relief4 ,pierced subordinate enrichment should be shaded in solid black4 ,a concentric line should be drawn outside of the contour of the stone to designate the thin holding band1 or bezel1 enclosing the stone on all sides4 ,illustration1 ,figure #cea4 ,rule #aj;d4 ,surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration1 especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel4 ,rule #aj;e4 ,in the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration1 surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting1 or background4 ,rule #aj;f4 ,stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal1 either in color1 brilliancy1 or value1 or all three combined4 ,sidenote3 ,building #g4 ,the process of applying leaves1 wire1 grains1 and other forms of surface enrichment to the plane of the metal4 ,these may afterwards be carved or chased4 ,rendering--shade the lower and right-hand lines2 slightly tint the lower planes of the metal4 ,illustration1 ,figure #ced4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,elverhoj ,colony ,figure #cgb;a4--,tie ,pins #h4 ,the process of depressing or raising certain portions of the metal surface by means of chisels and gravers4 ,by the use of these tools the surface is modeled into planes of light and shade1 to which interest is added if the unaggressive tool marks are permitted to remain on the surface4 ,rendering--shade the raised and depressed portions to express the modeling planes4 ,as this is a difficult technical process the designer is advised to model the design in plastelene or jewelers' wax first4 ,illustration1 ,figure #ceg4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,elverhoj ,colony ,,figure #cgb;b4--,tie ,pins ,sidenote3 ,carving ,rule #ajk4 ,built1 carved1 and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration4 ,it is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass4 ,when using this form of enrichment1 the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass1 but should be approached by a series of rising planes4 ,sidenote3 ,planishing #i4 ,the process of smoothing and1 at the same time1 hardening the surface of the metal with a steel planishing hammer4 ,the hammer strokes give an interesting texture to the surface which may be varied1 from the heavily indented to the smooth surface1 at the will of the craftsman4 ,the more obvious hammer strokes are not to be desired as they bring a tool process into too much prominence for good taste4 ,rendering--print desired finish on the drawing4 ,sidenote3 ,frosting #aj4 ,a process of sand blasting or scratch brushing a metal surface to produce an opaque or satin finish4 ,rendering--similar to planishing4 ,sidenote3 ,oxidizing #aa4 ,a process of darkening the surface of metal by the application of chemicals4 ,potassium sulphite will supply a deep1 rich black to silver and copper4 ,rendering--see ,planishing4 ,sidenote3 ,design of ,pins and ,brooches ,the eleven processes mentioned above are among those which1 by recent common practice1 have become familiar to the craftsman in precious metals4 ,while they do not cover the entire field1 they at least give the beginner an opportunity to design intelligently in terms of the material4 ,sidenote3 ,dependent ,surface ,enrichment for ,pins ,plate #ec is mainly the enrichment of the flat plane by the addition of semi-precious stones 7process six74 ,whatever surface enrichment is added to this design becomes dependent enrichment and quite analogous to dependent contour enrichment1 ,plate #bi1 inasmuch as it has to be designed with special reference to the shape and character of the stone4 ,figures #ceh to #cfc are examples of dependent contour enrichment2 ,figures #cfd to #cga are examples of dependent surface enrichment4 ,figures #ceh to #cfg are based upon vertical inceptive axes as appropriate to their intended service4 ,the point of concentration may be located at practically any point on this inceptive axis1 provided the major axis of the stone coincides with the inceptive axis4 ,the best results are obtained by placing the stone a little above or below the exact geometrical center of the primary mass4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,precious ,,metals ,,contour ,,and ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,applied ,,to ,,fobs ,,mainly ,,full ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,based ,,upon ,,vertical ,,inceptive ,,axes ,,plate #ed ,sidenote3 ,inceptive ,axes for ,pins ,figures #cfh to #cgb show articles based upon a horizontal inceptive axis4 ,the stone1 in accordance with formal balance1 is in the geometric center from left to right4 ,one notices the important fact that the surface enrichment must bring the stone and contour together in sympathetic relation and1 at the same time1 be related to both stone and contour4 ,this again brings out the meaning of dependent surface enrichment4 ,the contour enrichment is to be kept as simple as possible and the interest concentrated upon the surface enrichment4 ,the accentuation of both surface and contour enrichment in a single design marks the height of bad taste in design4 ,rule #aj;b4 ,contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design4 ,sidenote3 ,fobs ,plate #ed shows flat planes1 the service of which suggests vertical inceptive axes4 ,figure #chj is noted as an exception to this vertical inceptive axis as it possesses a vertical primary mass but with radial inceptive axes4 ,the interesting manner by which the dynamic leaves of the outer border transmit their movement to the inner border1 which in turn leads toward the point of concentration1 is worthy of attention4 ,the points of concentration in other designs on this plate are all contained in the vertical inceptive axes4 ,sidenote3 ,rings ,plate #ee1 at first thought1 would seem to fall under the classification of low cylindrical forms but when reference is made to ,figure #che it is readily seen that the ring has to be first developed as a flat plane1 to be afterwards bent into the required form4 ,care should be taken to keep the design narrow enough to be visible when the ring is in position on the finger4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,precious ,,metal ,,enrichment ,,of ,,flat ,,planes ,,rings ,,plate #ee ,the long horizontal band of the ring supplies the motive for the horizontal inceptive axis as a common basis or starting point for a large number of designs4 ,if the designer so desires1 the vertical axis of the finger is authority for an elliptical stone to be placed with its major axis as a vertical line in harmony with the finger axis4 ,in any instance the designer seeks to lead the eye from the horizontal portion of the ring 7the finger band7 toward the point of concentration 7the stone71 by means of surface enrichment4 ,a long sloping contour curve helps1 as a transition line in the boundary1 to carry the attention from the stone to the finger band4 ,a great number of devices are used to complete a similar transition in the surface enrichment4 ,figure #cij;a4 ,too much piercing weakens the structure1 and it is therefore to be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,elverhoj ,colony ,,figure #cij;a4--,rings ,plate #ef suggests some vertical flat planes for pendants4 ,while no definite rule can be stated for the location of the stone1 from past experience1 it is easier for beginners to place the stone on the vertical inceptive axis slightly above the geometric center of the primary mass4 ,figures #cia to #cie4 ,a design thus formed is less likely to appear heavy1 although there is nothing arbitrary about the suggestion4 ,rule #aj;c4 ,parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,precious ,,metal ,,enrichment ,,of ,,flat ,,planes ,,of ,,pendants1 ,,chains1 ,,lockets ,,plate #ef ,sidenote3 ,pendants and ,chains ,in pendant design the surface enrichment generally carries the attention from the contour of the pendant to the stone1 thus insuring unity at this point1 while the contour lines often lead the attention from the pendant to the chain4 ,the eye should move in unbroken dynamic movement from pendant to chain4 ,the chain may have points of accent designed to vary the even distribution of the links4 ,these accents are frequently composed of small stones with surface enrichment sympathetically designed in unity with pendant1 chain1 and stone4 ,figure #dja shows examples of this arrangement and similarly the need of a horizontal inceptive axis to harmonize with the length of the chain4 ,these small accents are quite similar in design to bar pin motives4 ,rule #ajm4 ,transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of ,stones to ,metal ,for the designer's purposes we may consider two kinds of stones1 the transparent and the opaque4 ,these should not be mixed in one design4 ,the most favorable stones are those forming contrasts of value or brilliancy with the metal as1 for example1 the amethyst1 lapis lazuli1 or ,new ,zealand jade1 with silver2 or the dark topaz1 or ,new ,zealand jade1 with gold4 ,lack of these contrasts gives dull1 monotonous effects that fail to make the stone the point of concentration4 ,figure #dfg4 ,these effects may be partially overcome by frosting1 plating1 or oxidizing the metal1 thus forming stronger contrasts of value4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plates #eb and #eg are representative of the steps1 processes1 and problems for school use4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw the primary mass4 7b7 ,locate the inceptive axis in this primary mass with its direction determined by the ultimate use or position of the primary mass and its general shape4 7c7 ,locate zone of enrichment4 7d7 ,locate point of concentration in the zone of enrichment and in the inceptive axis4 7e7 ,design simple contour enrichment4 7f7 ,design leading lines in sympathy with the contour and leading toward the point of concentration4 7g7 ,elaborate the leading lines in sympathy with the material1 the type of enrichment1 the contours1 and the inceptive axis4 7h7 ,render in the technical manner suggested by ,plate #eb1 dimension the primary mass1 and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,elverhoj ,colony ,,figure #dja;a4--,pendants ,illustration3 ,courtesy of the ,elverhoj ,colony ,,figure #djb4--,pendants ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a built-up ring using an elliptical cabochon cut stone as the point of concentration4 ,the inceptive axis is vertical4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,small ,,flat ,,planes ,rule #aj;a4 ,designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons3 7#a7 good taste2 7#b7 economy of material4 ,rule #aj;b4 ,contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design4 ,rule #aj;c4 ,parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,rule #aj;d4 ,surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration1 especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel4 ,rule #aj;e4 ,in the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration1 surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting1 or background4 ,rule #aj;f4 ,stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal1 either in color1 brilliancy1 or value1 or all three combined4 ,rule #aj;g4 ,the inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone1 and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure4 ,rule #aj;h4 ,the position of the inceptive axis should be determined by 7#a7 use of the project as ring1 pendant1 or bar pin1 7#b7 character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion4 ,rule #aj;i4 ,caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel4 ,over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design4 ,illustration3 ,,rules #aj ,a ,,to ,m3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,small ,,flat ,,planes ,,of ,,precious ,,metal ,,ia ,,inceptive ,,axis ,,instruction ,,sheet ,,pendants1 ,,rings ,,and ,,fobs ,,in ,,sliver ,,designed ,,by ,,miss ,,gertrude ,,evans ,u4 ,,of ,w4 ,,plate #eg ,rule #aj;j4 ,all surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity4 ,pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence4 ,rule #ajk4 ,built1 carved1 and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration4 ,it is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass4 ,when using this form of enrichment the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass1 but should be approached by a series of rising planes4 ,rule #ajl4 ,the lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass4 ,rule #ajm4 ,transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design4 ,postulate4--,the design should conform to the limitations and requirements of tools1 processes1 and materials1 and should be durable and suitable for service4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what is often used as a point of concentration in the surface enrichment of precious metals8 ,why8 #b4 ,state direction of the inceptive axis for problems similar to3 7a7 tie pins1 7b7 pendants1 7c7 fobs1 7d7 rings1 7e7 bar pins8 ,why8 ,under what grouping of planes may they be placed8 #c4 ,state the relation between the point of concentration and the inceptive axis4 #d4 ,give three steps in the design evolution of surface enrichment for small flat planes4 #e4 ,describe briefly eleven decorative processes for the surface enrichment of precious metals with the technical rendering of each4 #f4 ,illustrate examples of dependent contour and dependent surface enrichment of precious metals4 #g4 ,where should a stone in a design similar to a pin or brooch be placed with reference to the inceptive axis and the geometric center of the primary mass8 #h4 ,illustrate manner of planning primary mass1 inceptive axis1 point of concentration1 contour1 and surface enrichment of3 7a7 pins1 7b7 fobs1 7c7 rings1 7d7 pendants and chains4 #i4 ,state the relation of stone or enamel to metal4 #aj4 ,what rule should govern the amount of metal used in a design8 #aa4 ,state the objection to a design with contour and surface enrichment equally elaborated4 #ab4 ,is it possible to vary the design motive of a chain from that of a pendant8 ,why and how8 #ac4 ,give illustration and requirements of a good design in champleve enamel4 #ad4 ,what precautions should be exercised in designing pierced enrichment8 #ae4 ,what rules should be observed in designing a built-up or carved design8 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,precious ,,metals ,,treatment ,,of ,,flat ,,and ,,semi-,,flat ,,surfaces ,,work ,,of ,,students ,,of ,,milwaukee-,,downer ,,college ,,plate #eh ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals ,sidenote3 ,enrichment for ,small ,areas ,the surface enrichment of small1 flat primary masses treated in ,chapter ,,xiii emphasized the designer's tendency for full surface enrichment of small areas4 ,such treatment has proved satisfactory because the eye can readily and immediately observe and comprehend or assimilate an enrichment upon a small area4 ,for larger enriched areas considered in this chapter1 full surface enrichment becomes a questionable policy for the following reasons4 ,sidenote3 ,enrichment for ,large ,areas ,it is true that the old time craftsman with consummate skill fully enriched large surfaces1 but two factors interfere with this mode of treatment today4 ,the first factor is the decidedly practical nature of the problem4 ,the service to which the modern industrial project is put interferes with the use of full surface enrichment4 ,the second is the lack of skill on the part of the modern amateur designer4 ,it is a sound policy to avoid the ornateness that frequently accompanies a large and unskillfully planned area4 ,in place of this1 we should limit the enrichment of large masses to a few salient areas which are well related to the structural lines4 ,rule #aa;b4 ,conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses4 ,its use should3 7#a7 lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction2 7#b7 support or apparently strengthen good structure2 7#c7 add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces4 ,sidenote3 ,essentials of ,good ,surface ,enrichment ,these salient areas should determine the surface enrichment appropriate to the structure1 so that the enrichment3 7#a7 will lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction as in ,figure #djc2 7#b7 support or apparently strengthen good structure1 ,figure #dac2 7#c7 add interest to large unbroken or otherwise uninteresting surfaces as illustrated in ,figure #dje4 ,to aid in producing the desired results1 we have the technical processes mentioned in ,chapter ,,xiii as follows3 7#a7 ,piercing2 7#b7 ,etching2 7#c7 ,chasing2 7#d7 ,enameling2 7#e7 ,inlaying2 7#f7 ,stone setting2 7#g7 ,building2 7#h7 ,carving2 7#i7 ,planishing2 7#aj7 ,frosting2 7#aa7 ,oxidizing4 ,on the plates for this chapter1 the figure generally following the cut number refers to the process1 as3 ,figure #ddf1 #c4 ,illustration3 ,figure #djf;a4--,mainly ,objects ,designed to be ,seen from ,above ,,surface ,,design ,,evolution ,rule #aa;a4 ,the preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn4 ,a designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper4 ,in the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution1 provided his thinking is systematic4 ,a sequential order of points to be observed is given below4 ,the object of systematic thought is to form a mental picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes and to the contours4 ,the unenriched mass has been designed and we are now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following order4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of ,steps in ,surface ,enrichment 7a7 ,placing the ,zone of ,service4 #a4 ,where is the zone of service8 99 99 99 99 99 7b7 ,classification of ,form4 #a4 ,is the object flat1 shallow and circular1 low and cylindrical1 high and cylindrical8 99 99 99 99 99 7c7 ,placing the ,zone of ,enrichment4 #a4 ,is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side8 ,see ,figure #djf;a4 #b4 ,what point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface enrichment8 ,is it the primary mass1 appendages1 terminals1 links1 or details8 ,let the area selected become the zone of enrichment4 7d7 ,amount of ,enrichment4 #a4 ,will the enrichment cover the full surface1 part surface 7center or margin71 or accented outline8 7e7 ,location of ,inceptive ,axis4 #a4 ,is the zone of enrichment associated with a square1 rectangle1 hexagon1 or irregularly shaped flat plane1 circular or cylindrical surface8 ,figure #dgj4 #b4 ,how should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to harmonize with the structural forms suggested by #a 7e7 and the point from which it is viewed #a 7c78 ,see the violation of this latter point in ,figure #dci4 ,presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center line1 horizontal center line1 diagonal1 diameter1 radius1 the element of a cylinder1 or a dynamic curve for a free border4 7f7 ,point of ,concentration4 ,sidenote3 ,surface ,enrichment #a4 ,where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive axis8 7g7 ,unison of ,enrichment and ,materials4 #a4 ,what decorative process will be adaptable to service1 the material1 and the contemplated design8 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,metals ,,treatment ,,of ,,flat ,,and ,,semi-,,flat ,,surfaces ,courtesy of ,p4 and ,f4 ,corbin ,,plate #ei ,sidenote3 ,summary of ,steps in ,surface ,enrichment 7h7 ,type of ,units4 #a4 ,what design units are suited to the process selected in 7g71 appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be enriched and to its ultimate service8 ,choice may be made from nature1 geometric pattern1 or historic ornament4 ,the above points may all be thought out4 ,now1 with some assurance1 the designer may take his pencil and begin to draw the units in their proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis4 ,rules and suggestions for this execution have been previously given4 99 99 99 99 99 7i7 ,designing of the ,units4 #a4 ,how should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive axis1 the contours1 and to each other8 ,the above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog through which the average designer approaches his problem4 ,the steps will1 in time1 become practically automatic and may be thought out in a surprisingly short period of time4 ,rule #aa;c4 ,the type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses4 ,sidenote3 ,large ,masses and ,their ,treatment ,as may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this chapter as compared with those for small primary masses1 ,chapter ,,xiii1 it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and bolder than those used for smaller masses4 ,the more effective designs are those whose appropriateness1 simplicity1 and correct structural proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty4 ,figures #djc1 #djd1 and #djf are composed of projects designed mainly on vertical inceptive axes or center lines4 ,the freely balanced natural units in ,figure #djc have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of the appendage 7handles71 and the point of concentration in the upper portion of the zone of enrichment4 ,formal symmetrical balance controls the placing of enrichment in ,figure #djd4 ,initial letters1 through lack of consideration of design principles1 are frequently misplaced on masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations with the structural contours4 ,as a contrast to this1 notice the carefully considered relations between the letter ,w on the tea strainer in ,figure #djd and its adaptation to the contours of the appendage4 ,the stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in ,figure #djd in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is therefore appropriate as surface enrichment4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,metal ,,treatment ,,of ,,flat ,,planes ,,in ,,cast ,,bronze ,door ,plates1 ,courtesy of ,p4 and ,f4 ,corbin ,,plate #fj ,sidenote3 ,large ,flat and ,semi-flat ,surfaces in ,precious ,metal1 ,plate #eh ,the pierced enrichment of the silver box in ,figure #dje contains vertical and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into harmonious relation with the structural contours4 ,figure #djf shows both formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of enrichment4 ,c and ,d could have been improved by a more strongly marked point of concentration which would have added more character to the designs4 ,sidenote3 ,flat and ,semi-flat ,surfaces in ,base ,metal1 ,plate #ei ,in ,chapter ,,viii1 the contour terminal enrichment problem was described at some length4 ,many illustrations on ,plates #eh1 #ei1 and #fj are1 in a way1 similar in their type of surface decoration1 which is termed surface terminal enrichment4 ,the happy ending mentioned in ,chapter ,,viii as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface enrichment1 particularly shown in ,figures #djc1 #djd1 #djg1 #djh1 #dji1 and #daj4 ,the terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment4 ,sidenote3 ,contour ,versus ,surface ,enrichment ,it is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment to it1 ,rule #aj;b1 otherwise the strife for dominance arising between these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design1 ,figure #dag4 ,whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord with the surface enrichment1 ,rule #aj;d1 as noted in the preceding figures and in ,figure #daa4 ,here we find the closest connection1 as the chased forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour4 ,thus surface and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment1 which maintains its dominance throughout4 ,the simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in ,figure #dac is synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty1 ,rule #aa;b4 ,the peacock motives of ,figures #dad and #dae are applied to the desk set4 ,the motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to their respective areas and inceptive axes4 ,sidenote3 ,surface ,enrichment of ,hardware1 ,plate #fj ,rule #aa;f4 ,repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment4 ,figure #dag is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence4 ,in the combat1 the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for irrelevant and disconnected ornament4 ,figure #dah illustrates correctly related surface ornament1 with a dominance of the latter form1 ,rule #aj;b4 ,figure #dai represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet the needs of service4 ,it proves1 however1 to be unpleasant to the touch and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way4 ,the naturalistic snake motive of ,figure #dba is repulsive to many people2 this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to the more conventionalized pattern of ,figure #dbb1 ,rule #aa;f4 ,rule #aa;e4 ,two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design4 ,sidenote3 ,historic ,ornament ,applied to ,period ,hardware ,design ,door ,plates ,it is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the influence of the great schools of architectural history upon contemporary design4 ,there is a growing tendency for manufacturers to use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design of the building4 ,a ,colonial building frequently calls for ,colonial hardware1 a ,gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that period4 ,as introductory illustrations1 ,figure #dbc stands as a simple example of accented 7beveled7 contour while ,figure #dbd has been accented with reminiscent moulding appropriate to ,colonial architecture4 ,they might1 however1 be used with many simply designed articles of furniture4 ,from this slight indication or portion of a style1 we have a more pronounced beginning in ,figure #dbe with its clearly marked ,greek egg and dart ornamental border4 ,the acanthus leaf of the ,byzantine school1 ,figure #dbf1 changes to the geometric arabesques of the ,moorish school in ,figure #dbg4 ,the ,gothic arch1 cusps1 and quatrefoil of ,figure #dbh are changed to the classic acanthus foliage of the ,french ,renaissance period4 ,figure #dbi4 ,figures #dcj and #dca are later developments of the ,renaissance4 ,the heavily enriched ,flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs4 ,only a small number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown4 ,sidenote3 ,shallow ,circular ,forms1 ,plate #fa ,with circular plates and trays1 the enrichment normally takes the form of a border 7marginal enrichment71 with the inceptive axes or center lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle4 ,figures #dcc1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dcg1 #dch1 and #dci4 ,an elliptical form frequently calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by ,figure #dcd4 ,both ,figures #dcg and #dch have divided points of concentration and would be materially improved by the omission of the center unit ,a4 ,the small tree used as a connecting link in the border of ,figure #dcg should be reversed1 as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger tree units4 ,the contour enrichment in ,figure #dch could well be omitted or moved around to support the surface enrichment4 ,the pierced enrichment ,a1 ,figure #dci1 is incorrectly used as it is not designed to be seen from above1 the normal viewpoint of the tray4 ,the design should have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to ,figure #dci at ,b4 ,sidenote3 ,low ,cylindrical ,forms1 ,plate #fb ,differing from the shallow plate1 with the increased height of the low cylindrical forms of ,plate #fb1 there now develops the possibility of enriching the sides of this class of project3 a zone of enrichment not readily accessible in the shallow plate form4 ,in addition to the sides there remain the appendages1 quite capable of carrying enrichment to advantage4 ,one should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and primary mass4 ,two points of enrichment1 both calling for equal attention1 divide the interest in the problem1 and cause a lack of unity or oneness4 ,rule #aa;d4 ,the eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment1 whether located upon the primary mass1 appendage1 terminals1 links1 or details4 ,all other zones should be subordinate to this area4 ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metal ,,treatment ,,of ,,shallow ,,circular ,,forms ,,plate #fa ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metal ,,treatment ,,of ,,low ,,circular ,,forms ,,plate #fb ,illustration3 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,,in ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals ,,treatment ,,of ,,high ,,cylindrical ,,forms ,,plate #fc ,enrichment upon the appendages may be found in ,figures #ddj1 #dda1 #ddb1 #dde1 and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass in ,figures #ddc and #ddd4 ,the decorative units composing the border on these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis4 ,the enrichment for the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is commonly based upon the center line of the appendage4 ,sidenote3 ,cylindrical ,forms1 ,plate #fc ,the principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms4 ,the inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of ,figures #ddf and #ddg may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder4 ,figures #ddh and #ddi are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the vertical lines of the cylinder4 ,horizontal bands similar to ,figures #ddd and #ddg are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment4 ,figure #dej marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials with the shade 7appendage7 as the dominating enriched member4 ,rule #aj;c4 ,the small chased bosses used as enrichment in ,figure #deb are re-echoed on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity4 ,the top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of enrichment1 as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part4 ,the symbol ,x could have been better located by being moved to that place4 ,the point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a large mass whenever that arrangement is possible4 ,it is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing4 ,in addition the technical rendering suggested in ,chapter ,,xiii should be carefully used in each drawing4 ,,instruction ,,sheet ,plates #fh and #gb show problems suitable for class presentation4 ,the method of development is similar to that presented on ,plate #eb4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping as follows3 ,for flat areas draw square1 rectangle1 etc4 ,for shallow circular forms draw a circle4 ,for low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal proportions4 ,for high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical proportions4 7b7 ,locate zone of service4 7c7 ,locate zone of enrichment3 appendages1 terminals1 margins1 full surface1 etc4 7d7 ,determine amount of enrichment4 7e7 ,locate inceptive axes4 7f7 ,place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where it traverses the zone of enrichment4 7g7 ,select the decorative process suited to the material and contemplated motive4 7h7 ,draw leading lines toward the point of concentration4 7i7 ,draw conventionalized design motives based upon the leading lines1 converging toward the point of concentration4 ,vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design motives1 provided such variation of the original primary mass is necessary to complete unity4 7j7 ,add additional views1 dimension1 and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use4 ,,suggested ,,problem ,design a copper nut bowl and spoon4 ,enrich with a chased border appropriate to the subject4 ,enrich spoon1 using fitting method of enrichment4 ,the bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,rule #aa;a4 ,the preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn4 ,rule #aa;b4 ,conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses4 ,its use should3 7#a7 lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction2 7#b7 support or apparently strengthen good structure2 7#c7 add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces4 ,rule #aa;c4 ,the type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses4 ,rule #aa;d4 ,the eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment1 whether located upon the primary mass1 appendage1 terminal1 links1 or details4 ,all other zones should be subordinate to this area4 ,rule #aa;e4 ,two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design4 ,rule #aa;f4 ,repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of base and precious metals4 ,illustrate4 ,what is the character of surface enrichment for large areas8 #b4 ,name three essentials to good surface design for base and precious metals4 ,illustrate each4 #c4 ,give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of surface enrichment4 #d4 ,name method of classifying the structural forms of metal into four groups4 ,how does this compare with the classification of clay forms8 #e4 ,between which two groups does the transition from a horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur8 #f4 ,is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass8 #g4 ,in which group or groups is the relation between surface and contour enrichment closest8 #h4 ,give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for flat or semi-flat planes4 #i4 ,state the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone4 #aj4 ,discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware and their correction4 #aa4 ,in what manner does historic ornament influence industrial design8 ,why8 #ab4 ,give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for1 7a7 large1 shallow circular forms2 7b7 large1 low cylindrical forms2 7c7 large1 high cylindrical forms4 #ac4 ,how does the point from which the article is to be seen affect the character of the design8 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,color3 ,,hue1 ,,value1 ,,and ,,chroma2 ,,stains ,sidenote3 ,need of ,harmonious ,color ,in the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with proportions1 contours1 and surface enrichment4 ,the use of color1 particularly in surface enrichment1 is equally important inasmuch as its use is often necessary to bring the project1 as for example a piece of furniture1 into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final color environment4 ,the incorrect use of color may seriously mar a project otherwise correctly designed in line and form1 and may also weaken its influence in a particular setting4 ,sidenote3 ,use of ,color ,systems ,while there are a number of excellent systems of color notation1 it is well to bear in mind that a color system1 however excellent1 is a good servant but a poor master4 ,it is nevertheless considered as essential to have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form with some degree of certainty4 ,sidenote3 ,color ,pigments for ,design ,rendering ,for rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is suggested that the beginner use the tempera1 or opaque colors now on the market4 ,these colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem1 while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the ordinary water colors4 ,tubes of cobalt blue1 ultramarine1 light chrome yellow1 vermilion1 emerald green1 crimson madder1 black1 and white will serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,application of ,pigment ,white is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments1 which should be mixed with water to the consistency of cream1 and applied to cover well the surface of the paper4 ,one should guard against a thin1 transparent wash1 as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color4 ,the pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied4 ,the usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering wood stains4 ,these pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain4 ,the natural color of wood may be first represented and1 when dry1 followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain4 ,sidenote3 ,rendering of ,wood ,stains ,lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards1 it now becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms necessary to the designer4 ,sidenote3 ,hue and ,hue ,rectangles ,hue is the technical name for color2 a change of color means a change of hue4 ,for the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues4 ,each hue will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations1 which is a sufficient number for our purpose4 ,these gradations are to be graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a hue rectangle4 ,there are twelve of these rectangles1 one for each of the selected hues1 and they are found arranged in sequence in ,figure #ded4 ,sidenote3 ,standard ,hues ,sidenote3 ,full ,chromatic ,intensity ,by referring to ,figure #dee1 it is seen that the twelve selected standard hues are represented at what is termed full chromatic intensity1 which1 to the designer1 means hues of the full strength of his color pigment4 ,this is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum1 but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve as standards for comparison and classification4 ,the hues should be evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without noticeable unevenness in the gradations4 ,red violet is the link which connects the right end with the left1 thus completing the circuit of the twelve hues4 ,the following pigment table gives name and symbol of various hues4 ,sidenote3 ,approximate ,related ,standard ,hues ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,hues ,,pigments ,,values ,,symbols ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,red ,pure crimson madder ,high dark ,r-,,hd ,orange ,crimson madder and vermilion ,middle ,,or-,m ,orange ,vermilion and light chrome yellow ,low light ,o-,,ll ,orange yellow ,vermilion and light chrome yellow ,light ,,oy-,l ,yellow ,pure light chrome yellow ,high light ,y-,,hl ,yellow green ,light chrome yellow and emerald green ,light ,,yg-,l ,green ,pure emerald green ,low light ,g-,,ll ,green blue ,emerald green and cobalt blue ,middle ,,gb-,m ,blue ,pure cobalt blue ,high dark ,b-,,hd ,blue violet ,ultramarine and crimson madder ,dark ,,bv-,d ,violet ,ultramarine and crimson madder ,low dark ,v-,,ld ,red violet ,ultramarine and crimson madder ,dark ,,rv-,d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,sidenote3 ,locating ,standard ,hues ,it now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite place in each rectangle4 ,this invariably occurs at a predetermined point in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue4 ,from inspection of ,figure #dee1 it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the darkest hue2 yellow the lightest1 with the others between these hues4 ,this variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their proper placing in the hue rectangle4 ,sidenote3 ,values and ,horizontal ,value ,lines ,value is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a light one4 ,for design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to grade from white at the top to black at the bottom4 ,we will draw horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle1 marking nine even value steps from white to black2 the top one to be termed ,white 7,w71 followed by ,high ,light 7,,hl72 ,light 7,l72 ,low ,light 7,,ll72 ,middle 7,m72 ,high ,dark 7,,hd72 ,dark 7,d72 ,low ,dark 7,,ld72 and ,black 7,b74 ,these value steps may be thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the right boundary of the hue rectangle4 ,they have been roughly indicated in the hue rectangle at the left of ,figure #ded4 ,sidenote3 ,relation of the ,standard ,hue to the ,hue ,rectangle ,each standard hue may now be located in the left boundary of its hue rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right boundary4 ,if the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer1 it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the value column of the pigment table4 ,the small arrows leading from ,figure #dee to #ded show where four standard hues are located2 the remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in the remaining rectangles1 and upon their respective value lines4 ,standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the right column of the pigment table4 ,sidenote3 ,tints ,each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten it1 forming what is known as a tint of that hue4 ,red1 in ,figure #ded1 reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value ,high ,dark1 may be lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white4 ,each step is to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle above the standard hue1 and is to be recorded by the symbols1 ,r-,m3 ,r-,,ll3 ,r-,l3 ,r-,,hl4 ,orange yellow has only one possible tint4 ,strawberry1 light lavender1 rose1 etc41 are merely nicknames for various tints4 ,sidenote3 ,shades ,each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black1 thus forming shades of that hue4 ,red is capable of producing two shades1 ,r-,d and ,r-,,ld1 which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle below the standard hue4 ,browns1 russets1 and dark tans are shades of different hues4 ,these modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards4 ,but even these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting large wood or wall surfaces4 ,there is a brilliancy and glare about certain tints which require modification4 ,the shades are safer for use on large areas4 ,the remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue4 ,sidenote3 ,chroma ,chroma is the strength of a color4 ,it is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a weak one4 ,the standard hue is approximately full chromatic intensity4 ,likewise each tint and shade is considered to be of its full chromatic intensity1 making the left-hand boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma4 ,from this boundary1 each tint1 standard1 and shade fades out or loses chroma until the right boundary of the rectangle is reached4 ,in this boundary each tint1 standard1 and shade has faded out of its gray equivalent1 but without changing its original value2 in other words it has traveled along its horizontal value line to a complete grayness4 ,the right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray value scale of nine steps1 including white and black4 ,sidenote3 ,vertical ,chroma ,lines ,it becomes necessary to record at regular intervals1 this loss of chroma4 ,for this purpose1 we have cut the hue rectangle by three vertical lines4 ,the first vertical line from the left boundary of the rectangle marks the position where the standard with its tints and shades have been grayed to the point where only three-fourths of the original of hue remains4 ,similarly1 the center and right vertical lines mark the points where one-half and one-fourth1 respectively1 of the color have been retained4 ,these losses of chroma are recorded by similar fractions4 ,with possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now has twenty-seven possible changes4 ,the full hue title or symbol may now be written as follows3 7#a7 hue name1 7#b7 amount of chroma1 7#c7 value4 ,examples3 ,,gb ,sidenote3 ,full ,hue ,symbols #c_/d;,d-,v#a_/b;,,hl4 ,we are now in a position to write whatever color we may have in mind and another person will understand it1 provided the other person adopts our standard4 ,through the teachings of ,dr4 ,d4,w4 ,ross1 ,mr4 ,a4,h4 ,munsell1 and others1 the symbols and standards are now quite generally understood and have1 in a slightly modified form been accepted in several standard color industries4 ,sidenote3 ,technical ,practice ,sidenote3 ,warm and ,cold ,colors ,to familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues1 it is excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the three-quarter-inch squares4 ,there should be nine steps from white to black2 an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue rectangle4 ,the warm standard hues at their full standard intensities2 ,,rv-,r-,,or-,o-,,oy-,y1 may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents on the left side of the gray scale1 while the remaining or cold colors may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the right of it4 ,sidenote3 ,scales of ,color ,a vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues1 duplicating the left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades4 ,one shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness1 but without change of the original value4 ,yellow1 by the addition of black becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of a small amount of vermilion4 ,sidenote3 ,wood ,stains ,a large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue rectangles1 ,red-,orange1 ,yellow and ,green1 or in the warm portion of the spectrum4 ,as a wood stain must blend harmoniously with the natural wood color1 it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition4 ,sidenote3 ,basic ,primary ,hues ,it is possible to duplicate nearly all the twelve standard hues of ,figure #dee with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red1 yellow1 and blue4 ,it makes a fairly approximate scale which is1 however1 not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes4 ,the scale is formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the intermediate hues of orange1 yellow1 and blue for the greens1 and blue and red for the violets4 ,this practice of mixing three primary colors together serves as an important step1 governing wood stain mixing for beginners4 ,sidenote3 ,three ,basic ,aniline ,wood ,dyes ,developing this idea further1 we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as approximating red2 metanil yellow1 approximating yellow2 and acid green as a substitute for blue4 ,these stains are shown in the top portion of ,figure #def4 ,by comparison with ,figure #dee1 scarlet is found to be orange red2 metanil yellow1 orange1 and acid green to be true standard green4 ,these basic stains have been located in their proper positions with regard to their hue1 value1 and chroma4 ,their positions are located by the large circles in the hue diagrams of ,figure #def4 ,sidenote3 ,wood ,stain ,mixing ,these stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them with nigrosene black1 an aniline dye of blue black appearance1 which fills all the needs of an ivory black in water or oil color pigment4 ,with these four stains1 almost any commercial stain may be duplicated4 ,aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special aniline for oil staining is first cut with naphtha4 ,sidenote3 ,dark ,mahogany ,stain ,dark mahogany stain in ,figure #def is orange red1 ,,hd1 and is indicated by the circle ,a in the same figure4 ,to duplicate this stain we have as the nearest base stain1 brilliant scarlet1 which corresponds to orange red4 ,this is placed at its full intensity in the circle ,,or on the middle horizontal value line4 ,to duplicate dark mahogany stain it will be necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet1 slightly more than one horizontal value step1 by the addition of nigrosene4 ,we shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium1 oil or water1 to reduce slightly the stain in chroma4 ,sidenote3 ,flemish ,oak ,stain ,flemish oak stain is orange ,d4 ,this calls for a mixture of metanil yellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form the orange hue4 ,we must then add nigrosene to reduce the value to ,d1 and add a small amount of thinner to produce the necessary reduction in chroma4 ,sidenote3 ,fumed ,oak ,stain ,this is commonly produced by fuming the wood with ammonia4 ,the hue may however be closely duplicated by a mixture of brilliant scarlet1 metanil yellow1 and nigrosene4 ,it is practically the same as ,flemish oak1 but possesses one-quarter more color as can be seen on the orange hue rectangle4 ,sidenote3 ,olive ,green ,stain ,the circle ,d shows this stain to be slightly below yellow green1 ,m1 in value and chroma4 ,the hue rectangle containing it is nearer the green than the orange yellow rectangle2 hence in mixing the stain we should keep the green hue dominant by adding more of it than of metanil yellow4 ,as in other stains1 nigrosene is added to reduce the full chromatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of olive green stain4 ,sidenote3 ,light ,weathered ,oak ,stain ,this stain is practically blue1 #a_/d,m1 and is formed by thinning nigrosene to the proper value4 ,sidenote3 ,color ,changes of the ,stain ,aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight4 ,there are1 however1 certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to treat in detail4 ,the natural color of the wood is inclined to make a stain warmer than when originally mixed4 ,this should be allowed for4 ,wood filler1 the wood grain1 porosity1 qualities1 and hue of the wood1 all influence the final value of the stain4 ,it frequently becomes darker in value as may be seen by comparing ,figure #def and ,figures #deh to #dfa4 ,it is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the final effect4 ,the tests may be kept for future reference4 ,it is readily seen from the few examples in ,figure #def that1 with the three basic stains1 almost any other stains may be produced1 thus affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the environment4 ,the next chapters will take up the question of color harmony and its application to wood1 wall surfaces1 clay1 and metal4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,see paragraph upon ,technical ,practice in this chapter1 page #aih4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems8 ,what pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood stains8 ,how should each be applied8 #b4 ,what are standard hues8 ,why do we need standards of hue8 #c4 ,define the term values4 #d4 ,what are tints and shades8 #e4 ,define fully the term chroma4 #f4 ,bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines4 #g4 ,locate in its proper hue rectangle 7,figure #dee7 the following hues3 ,,oy #c_/d;,,hd2 ,,yg #a_/b,,ll2 ,,rv #c_/d,m2 ,,yl4 #h4 ,name the three primary hues4 ,how may an approximate scale of twelve hues be prepared from them8 #i4 ,name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their relation to the three primary hues4 ,what is the practical use of nigrosene in stain mixing8 #aj4 ,give the symbol and explain the method of mixing ,flemish oak wood stain4 ,name and explain the method of mixing two others4 #aa4 ,how does its application to wood effect the color and value of aniline stain8 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fd ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,color ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,,large ,,surfaces ,,of ,,wood2 ,,wall ,,and ,,ceiling ,,areas ,sidenote3 ,color ,harmony ,in the preceding chapter1 the classification and standardization of color were emphasized as preliminary to the study of color harmony4 ,color harmony is obtained by the proper balancing of value1 hue1 and chroma upon a surface or surfaces to give a pleasing reaction to the eye1 and through the eye to the intellect4 ,we are now ready to familiarize ourselves with the specific applications of these factors to practical design problems4 ,too many pieces of furniture are stained with no thought as to the final adaptation in the school or home4 ,this is not wise1 either from the standpoint of a complete educative process or of good taste4 ,figures #deh1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dfa1 show stains of ,plate #fd applied to wood4 ,two new stains have been added1 sage green and silver gray4 ,these six stains are representative ones and act as a typical data for study of color harmony4 ,,furniture--,,trim--,,side ,,walls--,,ceilings ,sidenote3 ,backgrounds ,the side walls of a room form the background for furniture2 trim1 wall brackets1 and similarly related objects2 therefore the closest relation and harmony should be maintained between them4 ,sidenote3 ,value ,range of ,wood ,stains ,the wood stains #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 and #ah1 ,plate #fe1 as they appear on various kinds of wood are1 in part1 duplicates of the unapplied stains of ,plate #fd1 ,figure #def4 ,the effect of the wood has changed their values and in some instances their color as can be seen by comparing the two plates4 ,their new relations have been plotted on the hue rectangles of ,figure #deg1 ,plate #fe1 and the results joined by a dotted line4 ,the circles in the diagrams contain cross reference figures in order that the stains may be traced without difficulty4 ,the highest value is near middle 7#ah71 and the lowest is low dark 7#f71 showing a value range of four steps4 ,sidenote3 ,value ,range of ,side ,walls ,the side walls1 taken from well-known wall tint catalogs have been similarly plotted in ,figure #deg1 and the results joined together by a heavy black line4 ,the lightest value is light 7#aa71 and the darkest is middle value 7#ad71 an average range of three steps slightly above middle value4 ,sidenote3 ,value ,range of ,ceilings ,ceilings are the lightest of the surfaces considered4 ,their range is from slightly below white 7#aj71 to light 7#af71 a range of two values4 ,from the results1 as plotted in ,figure #deg1 it is seen that there is a tendency to keep the ceilings within a close range of values4 ,the results have been joined together by means of a double black line4 ,there are exceptions to these results1 but it is quite safe to keep well within the suggested range for harmonious results4 ,we may now draw the following rules as a result of an empirical method of deduction4 ,rule #ab;a4 ,an average wood stain is to be retained between the values middle and low dark4 ,rule #ab;b4 ,an average wall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle4 ,rule #ab;c4 ,an average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values white 7minus7 and light4 ,sidenote3 ,value ,range of ,side ,walls and ,wood ,work ,averaging the value range between the wood work which includes the furniture1 trim1 and the side walls of ,figures #deh1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dfa1 #dfb1 and #dfc1 we find that the range varies from five values in ,figures #dei to slightly more than one in ,figure #dfc4 ,as the side walls and furniture are to be regarded as unobtrusive settings for pictures and people it is well to be very conservative with the use of values4 ,a wide range of values will cause a lack of unity4 ,in this respect ,figure #dei may be regarded as approaching the extreme limit of contrasts of value compatible with good taste4 ,let us1 therefore1 limit the value range to four values1 as1 for example3 low light for side walls and dark for stain4 ,rule #ab;d4 ,the relation between the side walls and furniture1 trim1 etc41 should be retained within the range of four values or less1 as low light and dark4 ,sidenote3 ,value ,range of ,side ,walls and ,ceilings ,the ceiling and side walls in ,figure #dei are four values apart and in ,figure #dfc this has been reduced to a one-value step4 ,there seems to be a common average of three values as an acceptable and agreeable contrast4 ,for dark rooms this would well be increased4 ,for rooms with light side walls the contrast would be considerably lessened4 ,rule #ab;e4 ,the relation between side walls and ceiling should be within the range of three values or less1 as high light and low light4 ,,hue ,,groupings ,sidenote3 ,hue ,range for ,wood ,work and ,walls ,a wood stain should be closely related to the natural color of the wood4 ,as this is usually a warm color we naturally find most of the wood stains included between the red and the yellow hue rectangles1 inclusive of red and yellow green4 ,walnut then may be stained a deep shade of orange or red1 but would not be adapted to a blue green stain4 ,this arbitrary but wide range of hues of stained wood naturally affects the hue of the side walls4 ,the plotting of the hues for the side walls1 ,figure #deg1 shows a close relation to the hues of the stain to the wall4 ,in no instance do we find the hue rectangle of the wood work more than three hues away from that of the walls4 ,in four instances they are within two hue rectangles of each other and in one instance they are both within the same rectangle4 ,this develops the fact that analogous or neighboring groupings of hues prevail in relating the hues of wood work and side walls4 ,sidenote3 ,analogous ,hues ,an analogous group of hues is an arrangement based upon a selection of tints and shades within three rectangles of each other1 as orange and yellow4 ,these harmonize because yellow is mixed with and becomes a hue common to both4 ,while the analogous arrangement of hues seems to be most commonly used1 and with a result that seems to justify its adoption into general practice1 there are other arrangements that are pleasing to the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,contrasted ,hues ,figure #deh illustrates what is commonly known as a contrasted grouping or arrangement of hues4 ,it consists of the tints or shades of one or more hues and gray4 ,it is the basis of color harmony between silver and semi-precious stones4 ,if two hues are used1 one of them should be reduced in chroma to nearly gray4 ,sidenote3 ,dominant ,hue ,figure #dfc is typical of still another form of positive hue grouping4 ,by consulting the yellow hue rectangle of ,figure #deg it is noted that the wood work1 side walls1 and ceiling of ,figure #dfc are all contained in one rectangle4 ,this classes this color scheme as an example of dominant arrangement which may be simply defined as the tints and shades of one hue4 ,the arrangement does not have the variety supplied by analogous grouping1 introducing as it does1 two hues from different rectangles1 but for large surfaces dominant grouping is a conservative and safe arrangement4 ,its tendency toward monotony should be guarded against by the introduction of some object high in chroma in the room decorative scheme4 ,a bright colored vase will accomplish this successfully4 ,rule #abo1 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,rule #ab;f4 ,color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings3 analogous1 contrasted1 or dominant arrangements of hues4 ,analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is desirable4 ,sidenote3 ,special ,arrangements ,the above rule is not to be taken as arbitrary4 ,in the hands of competent designers attractive color schemes are developed that differ materially from the above suggestions4 ,but1 for the usual home setting1 the above arrangement may be regarded as satisfactory1 and is given with the idea of bringing the school shop work and the home environment into closer color harmony4 ,a specimen of special arrangement is given by the ,circle #c;,a4 ,this is delft blue1 which harmonizes with dark mahogany in a satisfactory manner4 ,sidenote3 ,hue ,range for ,side ,walls and ,ceilings ,in adjusting the hues for side walls and ceilings1 the relations should be of the closest4 ,the plotting of ceiling hues in ,figure #deg shows a strong tendency for the ceiling to be colored with a tint of the side walls 7dominant arrangement71 or by a tint selected from the next rectangle 7analogous arrangement74 ,yellow or yellow-green1 very light and much reduced in chroma1 seems to be the almost universal custom4 ,this is due to the strongly light reflecting qualities of yellow4 ,rule #ab;g4 ,ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue4 ,sidenote3 ,range of ,chroma for ,stains ,stains1 as they occupy a comparatively limited area in the room color scheme1 are of their full chroma value or reduced to three-fourths chroma4 ,in only one instance 7#ah71 ,figure #dfc1 do we find a reduction to one-fourth chroma1 demanded by the nearly gray color scheme of the walls4 ,we find it to be an established fact that small areas are capable of enrichment by colors of greater purity and higher chroma than larger surfaces4 ,a silver pin may be designed to contain a stone of high brilliancy1 but a wall surface has to be materially reduced in chroma to possess color harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fe ,sidenote3 ,range of ,chroma for ,stain ,rule #ab;h4 ,stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity4 ,nearly gray side walls1 however1 call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity4 ,sidenote3 ,range of ,chroma for ,walls ,as the walls occupy a large proportionate area of the color scheme of the room we find it necessary to reduce them in chroma in order to soften the glare of too brilliant colors4 ,figure #deg shows only one instance 7#ad7 of a hue unreduced in chroma4 ,it is retained at the full chroma for that value on account of the brightness of the sage green wood stain4 ,the other hues represented in the diagram are grayed or reduced in chroma from three-fourths to less than one-fourth1 or to nearly neutral gray4 ,rule #ab;i4 ,wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma4 ,sidenote3 ,range of ,chroma for ,ceilings ,the same tendency toward chromatic reduction is to be seen in ceilings1 although we have two examples in ,figure #deg 7#aj and #ac7 of nearly white and high light ceilings that have not been reduced4 ,to avoid crudity a reduction in chroma by the addition of gray is to be desired4 ,rule #ab;j4 ,ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths intensity with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum reduction4 ,sidenote3 ,summary ,with a single exception 7#c;,a71 the stains and wall tints have been selected between and including the red and green rectangles4 ,this is customary and gives safe hue range as it insures the retention of wall and ceiling hues in unified conformity with the warm tints of the natural wood and its equally dark hued stains4 ,sidenote3 ,wall and ,ceiling ,pigments ,the following is a list of dry colors which may be purchased at a paint or hardware store for a few cents a pound4 ,it is suggested for the designer or craftsman who desires to tint his own wall or ceiling4 ,while oil paint is to be preferred1 these colors are readily and quickly applied and form serviceable backgrounds4 ,sidenote3 ,calcimine ,the pigments are white1 yellow ochre1 chrome yellow light1 chrome yellow medium1 and chrome yellow dark1 burnt and raw sienna1 turkey and raw umber1 ultramarine and ivory black4 ,the greens are preferably mixed by adding ultramarine to one of the chromes4 ,shades are formed by the addition of the siennas1 umbers1 or black4 ,black and white1 mixed to a gray1 are useful in reducing the chroma of a hue4 ,the stains should be mixed with hot water and a small amount of glue for a binder4 ,white occasionally comes prepared with glue in its composition4 ,sidenote3 ,opaque ,wood ,finishes ,while this chapter has emphasized the transparent finish for wood treatment1 as a method best fitted for woods with a distinct grain1 it is realized that oil painting of wood surfaces has a distinct and important part to play in the interior decorative scheme of a room4 ,this latter method is adapted to soft woods without a strongly marked grained surface4 ,the warm hued rectangle of the spectrum3 red1 orange1 and yellow with their associated hues1 which are so intimately connected with the natural wood colors and their stains1 no longer stand as a limiting factor in controlling the color of the wood or the side walls4 ,the opaque nature of oil paints allows us to disregard the color of the wood1 and thus select any hue of oil paint which harmonizes with the walls and decorative scheme of the room4 ,the rules stated herein are equally applicable to opaque colors4 ,it may be necessary to reduce oil paints in chroma beyond the point indicated in ,rule #ab;h4 ,while it is not within the scope of this chapter to enter into a complete discussion of the subject of interior decoration1 the following suggestions are considered as applying to our subject3 viz41 the surface enrichment of large areas4 ,complete color harmony in interior decoration generally demands the presence of the three so-called primary hues3 red1 yellow1 and blue1 in some form in the wall color scheme4 ,while this is not always possible1 two may be introduced as follows4 ,sidenote3 ,northern ,exposure ,the light from the north1 northeast1 or northwest is cold blue1 supplying blue in the decorative scheme of three primary colors3 blue1 red1 and yellow4 ,the wall tints should then be composed of combinations of red and yellow1 the remaining primaries4 ,these may be applied to the walls by means of tints of yellow and orange reduced in chroma1 or shades of orange and orange-red4 ,no greens or blues should be used4 ,sidenote3 ,southern ,exposure ,the light from the south1 southeast1 and southwest supplies plenty of yellow4 ,it is1 then1 necessary to add the remaining primaries or at least one of them in the form of gray-blue1 orange1 or orange-yellow1 reduced to one-fourth chroma and practically to neutrality or grayish-reds and greens1 well reduced in chroma4 ,any hue strongly yellow should be avoided4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of ,hue upon ,apparent ,size ,certain hues materially affect the apparent size of a room4 ,if the room is small certain values and hues will make it appear much smaller4 ,dark values1 as a rule1 make the room look smaller by seemingly drawing the walls closer together4 ,red contracts the apparent size of a room1 while yellow and blue expand it4 ,green and shades of yellow and red-orange1 if not too dark1 have little effect upon the apparent size of a room4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps 7a7 ,determine1 by its exposure1 the kind of light the room receives4 7b7 ,choose a hue for the walls embodying one or both of the primary hues not represented by this daylight4 7c7 ,select a value and chroma for this hue in accordance with ,rules #ab;b and #ab;i4 7d7 ,select a hue1 value1 and chroma for the ceiling in accordance with ,rules #ab;g1 #ab;e1 and #ab;j4 7e7 ,select the correct hue1 value1 and chroma for paint or stain for the wood work in accordance with ,rules #ab;f1 #ab;a1 and #ab;h4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,develop the color scheme for the walls1 ceiling1 and wood work of a room with a northern exposure2 southern exposure4 ,mix the stain for a piece of oak to harmonize with the wood work and walls of the living room of your home4 ,determine the wall tints to harmonize with dark weathered oak4 ,mix them from dry colors4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #ab;a4 ,an average wood stain is to be retained between the values middle and low dark4 ,rule #ab;b4 ,an average wall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle4 ,rule #ab;c4 ,an average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values white 7minus7 and light4 ,rule #ab;d4 ,the relation between the side walls and furniture1 trim1 etc41 should be retained within the range of four values or less1 as low light and dark4 ,rule #ab;e4 ,the relation between the side walls and ceiling should be within the range of three values or less1 as high light and low light4 ,rule #ab;f4 ,color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings3 analogous1 contrasted1 or dominant arrangements of hues4 ,analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is desirable4 ,rule #ab;g4 ,ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue4 ,rule #ab;h4 ,stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity4 ,nearly gray side walls1 however1 call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity4 ,rule #ab;i4 ,wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma4 ,rule #ab;j4 ,ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths intensity1 with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum reduction4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,what should we have in mind when staining furniture for the home8 #b4 ,why are the side walls important when considering the color scheme of a room8 #c4 ,give the value range for the average wood stains1 side walls1 and ceiling4 #d4 ,state the value range to include wood work1 furniture1 trim1 and side walls4 #e4 ,state the value range that includes side walls and ceilings4 #f4 ,give the hue range for wood work and side walls4 #g4 ,explain the analogous1 contrasted1 and dominant groupings of hues and name two examples of each4 #h4 ,give the hue range for side walls and ceilings4 ,name several good combinations4 #i4 ,give range of chroma for wood work1 side walls1 and ceiling4 ,explain the reasons for each change of chroma4 #aj4 ,what experience have you had in mixing calcimine for wall decoration8 #aa4 ,discuss opaque finishes for wood4 #ab4 ,give the hues for rooms with northern and southern exposures4 ,why8 #ac4 ,state the effect of hues upon the apparent size of a room4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,color ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,industrial ,,arts ,,design ,,small ,,surfaces ,,in ,,clay ,,and ,,metal ,before proceeding to the discussion of the application of color to clay it becomes necessary to determine what technical possibilities are presented4 ,sidenote3 ,color ,applied to the ,surface ,enrichment of ,clay ,plain glazing of the entire surface is a common form of pottery enrichment4 ,a piece of ware1 thus glazed1 may become a point of concentration in the color arrangement of a room1 and should be definitely located in that arrangement4 ,the ware may harmonize with the background 7side wall7 by analogy1 dominance1 or contrast or through complementary coloring4 ,rule #abo4 ,a glaze from the diagram in ,figure #dfd should be selected as forming a part in the selected arrangement4 ,side wall 7#aa71 ,figure #deg1 would harmonize with glaze ,c#i by virtue of its dominant relation or with ,m#g through analogy4 ,the glaze selected should be higher in chroma than the side wall and will be found to form a cheerful and brilliant element in the room color scheme4 ,the definite linking of these different factors of interior decoration into unity has been earnestly advocated in these chapters4 ,figures #deg and #dfd show the possibilities of cross references4 ,sidenote3 ,stains for ,glazes ,it soon becomes apparent because of the coloring of clay ware that the designer must know something of the color possibilities of glazed pottery forms4 ,the decorative processes were explained at some length in ,chapter ,,xii1 wherein we described the common types of surface enrichment4 ,as we are now primarily considering the question of color1 we first regard the ware as uniformly glazed with either clear or matt glaze4 ,the former is brilliant1 of high chroma1 and has a highly polished surface1 while the latter is dull surfaced glaze of lower chroma4 ,sidenote3 ,metallic ,oxides ,metallic oxides are used to stain or color clear glazes1 while underglaze colors are ordinarily used for matts4 ,the percentage of stains to be added to the dry glazes is stated in ,figure #dfd where they can be readily traced to their approximate locations in the hue rectangles by the reference letters ,m#a1 ,c#a1 etc4 ,certain oxides are weak coloring agents and require larger amounts of oxide to color the glaze perceptibly4 ,iron and copper oxide may be mixed to produce a large variety of yellow greens2 other combinations will suggest themselves4 ,it is possible to use oxides as well as underglaze colors for staining matt glazes4 ,sidenote3 ,harmony of ,color ,we have1 to this point1 considered the enrichment of large surfaces whose areas were arbitrarily determined by construction1 as1 for example1 the extent of wall surface1 ceiling1 or wood trim and furniture4 ,the essential element in this type of problem is the selection of a one1 two1 or three-hued color arrangement that would harmoniously link ceiling1 wall1 and wood together4 ,if we had introduced stencilling or figured wall paper it would have immediately called for the solution of another problem1 the factor of how much strong color to use4 ,in other words1 it would have introduced the question of proportionate distribution of color upon a given area4 ,it was thought best to limit the subject of proportionate distribution to small areas1 where the designer is often forced to make decisions and to divide surfaces into proportionate color parts for his surface enrichment4 ,we may now repeat the definition of harmony with the accentuation placed upon a certain wording directly applicable to small surfaces4 ,harmony is obtained by the proper balancing and proportionate distribution of value1 hue1 and chroma upon a surface to give a unified and pleasing reaction to the eye and intellect4 ,sidenote3 ,proportionate ,distribution of ,color for ,small ,areas ,rule #abk4 ,proportionate distribution of hue1 value1 and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area1 high in chroma1 and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface but harmonizing with it4 ,this is usually located in the area of concentration4 ,the larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the background4 ,sidenote3 ,examples of ,proportionate ,distribution ,figure #dfe illustrates some of the salient factors of distribution of values and hues4 ,hues of or near standard chromatic intensity should be used in small quantities and should accentuate the point of concentration4 ,these small areas are to be regarded as giving brilliancy and life to the surface and to hold the eye at the point of concentration4 ,very small surfaces are capable of sustaining spots of high chroma1 as is shown in the silver pin of ,figure #dfh4 ,the remaining portions of the surface enrichment should be kept subordinated in hue and value to the point of concentration1 but related to it4 ,the bands of ,figure #dfe are well reduced in value and make little contrast with the background1 thus forming true surface enrichment or that which neither rises above or apparently falls through the surface4 ,the point of concentration is higher in chroma than the surrounding areas4 ,rule #abl4 ,one hue1 or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes4 ,the point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by 7#a7 contrasted1 7#b7 dominant1 7#c7 analogous1 7#d7 complementary relations4 ,this hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues4 ,rule #abm4 ,an extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity4 ,restraint in the use of values is essential4 ,rule #abn4 ,the amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in the decorated area4 ,exceptions may be made to this under ,rule #abo4 ,sidenote3 ,value and ,hue and ,chroma ,range for ,small ,areas ,in the vase1 ,figure #dfd;,a1 the designer selected hues from neighboring or analogous rectangles green and blue-green4 ,the value range is restricted to four steps and the areas of concentration are placed at the top of the vase by the stronger value and hue contrasts of the foliage of the trees and dark blue rim4 ,in both ,figures1 #dfd;,a and #dfe1 the designer has used analogous hue arrangements4 ,this is suggested to the beginner as serviceable for objects exceeding the dimensions of jewelry and includes such problems as vase forms1 book stalls1 and brackets4 ,contrasted and dominant arrangements are also good1 safe1 and sound arrangements1 but fail to give the variety of color to small objects afforded by analogous grouping4 ,at a later point in this chapter the subject of complementary coloring will suggest a new arrangement to the reader1 but this scheme is to be left until he has sufficiently mastered the possibilities of the arrangements just indicated4 ,five values form a safe value range for small objects4 ,it is good practice to keep the larger areas1 including the background1 within three steps of each other and to allow the point of concentration to form the strongest value contrast4 ,sidenote3 ,over ,reduction in ,chroma ,the chroma may range from full to three-quarters intensity4 ,reduction to one-half or one-fourth intensity is inclined to make a small object appear washed out or chalky4 ,shades1 at their full intensity1 are good colors to use for small surfaces in wood4 ,small enameled objects may be developed in full chroma1 while pottery forms range from full chroma to one-half chroma in forms of slip and underglaze painting4 ,sidenote3 ,color ,applied to the ,surface ,enrichment of ,metal ,it is interesting to note the gradually increasing chroma percentage of the different coloring media in direct proportion to the reduction of the area of the surface to be enriched4 ,by comparing the diagrams of ,figures #dfd and #deg it will be seen that there is a steady movement toward the left sides of the hue rectangles or toward stronger intensity4 ,the wall areas are shown to be lowest in chroma1 followed by the increasing intensity of wood stains1 glazes1 and enamels4 ,sidenote3 ,enamels ,enamels1 commonly used to enrich metal surfaces1 are highest in chroma of the decorative materials under discussion and are to be treated with nearly as much restraint as one would use in enriching a surface with semi-precious stones1 for strong hues are cheapened by excessive use4 ,the plate in ,figure #dcf has small circles filled with enamel and a large field of chased or uncolored design4 ,sidenote3 ,transparent ,enamels ,transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring medium is the same4 ,their preparation is difficult and therefore trade names have been given in the table of ,figure #dfd4 ,as will be seen by consulting the diagram of ,figure #dfd1 ,t#a1 ,t#b1 ,t#c1 etc41 they are all at their full value intensity4 ,enamels1 as supplied by the trade1 are much too intense for use in enrichment and consequently are applied over a coating of colorless clear enamel1 technically named flux or fondant4 ,as the thickness of coating of enamel may vary1 the hue classification is to be regarded as approximate4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ff ,sidenote3 ,opaque ,enamels ,opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes1 for1 while the texture of the surface has a distinct gloss1 the enamels themselves are not so strong in hue as the transparent enamels4 ,by referring to the diagram of ,figure #dfd1 it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are reduced in chroma1 thus accounting for their softened hue4 ,sidenote3 ,oxidation ,metals are capable of considerable change of color by the application of chemicals to the surface4 ,potassium sulphuret will lower the surface value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with antiques4 ,this may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear1 thus varying the dead black appearance4 ,copper and brass may be coated with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and greenish appearance4 ,heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is1 therefore1 not considered4 ,sidenote3 ,harmony through ,oxidation ,these surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its environment1 as1 for example1 copper trimmings and a shade for a pottery lamp2 or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper surface4 ,the surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the surface by frosting or sanding and plating4 ,gold may be readily plated with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone4 ,plating1 applied to base metals1 merely to give the impression of a more expensive metal1 is to be discouraged4 ,sidenote3 ,metal ,backgrounds ,one has to consider metal as a background in much the same manner as we considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture4 ,whatever color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate distribution as well as hue1 value1 and chroma4 ,we have a small amount of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of oxidation and plating4 ,sidenote3 ,enamel on a ,copper ,background ,as one of the more common processes1 let us consider the application of enamel to copper in the form of champleve enrichment4 ,our first thought would be the analysis of the natural copper color4 ,it is found to be a shade of orange-red and will1 therefore1 readily harmonize with the analogous oranges and reds1 as they both have the common hue of red4 ,there should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the background4 ,if this contrast is not present1 it is well to oxidize slightly the copper to lower its value and thus produce the contrast4 ,sidenote3 ,complementary ,arrangement ,the fourth harmonious hue combination1 that of complementary arrangement or grouping1 has been left to the last as its use is more closely associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas4 ,a hue approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue2 this will give the hue complementary to the initial hue4 ,thus1 starting with red and moving through seven rectangles toward the right1 we find the complement to be green4 ,any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the brilliancy of each other4 ,the best results are secured when one hue dominates the color scheme by its increased area4 ,pottery may be adapted to a complementary color scheme by ,rule #ab;i4 ,rule #abo4 ,small one or two-hued projects in clay1 designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted1 dominant1 analogous1 or complementary relation to the side walls of the room4 ,the project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,relation of ,colored ,glazes to ,interior ,decoration of a ,room ,to find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by complementary arrangement of hues1 select the desired wall tint from the diagram in ,figure #deg4 ,find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of ,figure #dfd and1 starting with this rectangle as one1 count seven hues from the side wall rectangle in either direction4 ,in the seventh rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of glazes answering the requirements and bearing a complementary relation to the side walls4 ,select a glaze from these that will make a contrast of chroma or value with the side wall4 ,example3 background or side wall1 ,figure #deg1 ,no4 #h1 is in the orange yellow rectangle4 ,counting seven from this in ,figure #dfd we find the complement to be blue violet4 ,as there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the left4 ,this gives us clear glaze1 ,c#a1 containing one and one-half per cent black oxide of cobalt1 or a matt glaze containing seven per cent mazarine blue4 ,glazes that will harmonize with side wall #h through dominant arrangements are found in the same rectangle1 ,o ,y1 and are numbered ,m#e1 ,m#f1 ,c#g1 ,c#h4 ,glazes that will harmonize by analogy are ,c#i and ,m#g1 and are found in the left and right neighboring rectangles4 ,in ,figure #dff1 the copper fob1 ,r ,o1 is combined with its complementary blue-green4 ,let us look at ,figure #dfd4 ,counting seven intervals or hue rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we find ,t#d which is transparent blue green enamel4 ,we may associate with this an analogous enamel from the green rectangle2 this proves to be ,t#e medium green transparent enamel4 ,sidenote3 ,development of ,design for ,enamel on ,metal ,the point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel complementary to the blue green hue4 ,counting seven rectangles to the left we again encounter the red orange rectangle4 ,here there are no enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find ,t#g which is slightly orange-red4 ,a small portion of this1 ,rule #abk1 is applied and is found to center the design at the point of concentration in a satisfactory manner4 ,slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels4 ,upon attempting to develop the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type1 but many analogous combinations4 ,autumn brown with the point of concentration developed in orange 7,o#e7 would be an excellent compromise4 ,rule #abp4 ,correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied1 but should stay upon the plane of that surface4 ,correct value and chroma range will accomplish this4 ,sidenote3 ,color for ,silver ,enrichment ,the gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem stones1 forming examples of contrasted arrangements4 ,care should be taken to form contrasts of value4 ,figure #dfg is an example of a weak and insipid combination1 lacking in value and hue contrast4 ,the amethyst of ,figure #dfh corrects this error1 while the oxidation of ,figure #dfi has partially corrected the lack of contrast shown in ,figure #dfg4 ,these illustrations tend to show that even stronger contrasts may be attempted with small gems and semi-precious stones than with enamels4 ,this again proves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining stronger contrasts of hue1 value1 and chroma than are large ones4 ,,summary ,,of ,,design ,,steps ,the outline of the surface enrichment is considered as complete4 7a7 ,,metal ,,or ,,wood4 ,analyze the background into its hue1 value1 and chroma4 ,,clay4 ,select a background that will harmonize with the controlling hue or hues of the proposed color scheme4 ,rule #abo4 ,if this is a one hued color scheme without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may terminate at this point4 7b7 ,,metal1 ,,wood1 ,,and ,,clay4 ,select the extreme value range of the color scheme1 considering1 if possible1 the background as a balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may balance above and below4 ,as the side walls formed a balancing point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work1 so may the background of metal1 wood1 or colored clay become a similar balancing factor for small surfaces4 ,rule #abm4 7c7 ,,metal1 ,,wood1 ,,and ,,clay4 ,select a hue or hues which will harmonize with the background through dominant1 contrasting1 or analogous relations4 ,rule #abl4 ,in selecting the hues consider the final placing of the object4 7d7 ,,metal1 ,,wood1 ,,and ,,clay4 ,select a chroma range4 ,allow the point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher chromatic relation than the other hues4 ,the point of concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may bear a complementary relation to them4 ,the hues may be averaged and a complementary to the average selected4 ,rule #abn4 7e7 ,,metal1 ,,wood1 ,,and ,,clay4 ,apply the rule of proportionate distribution1 ,rule #abk4 7f7 ,,metal ,,and ,,wood4 ,using the pigments suggested in ,chapter ,,xv1 design the problem4 ,test the result by applying ,rule #abp4 7g7 ,,clay4 ,if the design has been developed in slip or underglaze painting1 select a glaze for an overglaze coating that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by dominance or analogy4 ,other arrangements may destroy the hues of the original color scheme4 7h7 ,develop the problem in its material4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,design a bowl for nasturtiums2 make the color arrangement harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers4 ,design a vase for chrysanthemums2 make the surface enrichment and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the hues of the flowers4 ,design a hat pin for a blue hat2 materials1 copper1 and transparent enamels4 ,design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress4 ,design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the shade4 ,through oxidation and glazing1 bring the lamp into color unity4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,rule #abk4 ,proportionate distribution of hue1 value1 and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface1 but harmonizing with it4 ,this is usually located in the area of concentration4 ,the larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the background4 ,,hues ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abl4 ,one hue1 or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes4 ,the point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by 7#a7 contrasted1 7#b7 dominant1 7#c7 analogous1 or 7#d7 complementary relations4 ,this hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues4 ,,values ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abm4 ,an extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity4 ,restraint in the use of values is essential4 ,,chroma ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abn4 ,the amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in the decorated area4 ,exceptions may be made to this under ,rule #abo4 ,rule #abo4 ,small one or two-hued projects in clay1 designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted1 dominant1 analogous1 or complementary relation to the side walls of the room4 ,the project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls4 ,rule #abp4 ,correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied1 but should stay upon the plane of that surface4 ,correct value and chroma range will accomplish this4 ,,review ,,questions #a4 ,state the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative scheme of a room4 #b4 ,what are generally used as stains for clear glazes2 matt glazes8 #c4 ,what is highest in chroma--matt1 or clear glaze8 #d4 ,make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by them4 #e4 ,why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green stain8 ,what stains will be produced by cobalt and copper oxides2 cobalt and manganese oxides2 cobalt and nickel oxides8 #f4 ,describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted for clear glazed pottery forms2 matt glazed pottery forms4 #g4 ,define harmony of color4 #h4 ,what is meant by proportionate distribution8 ,describe proportionate distribution4 #i4 ,give the value1 hue1 and chroma range for small areas4 ,see ,rules #abl1 #abm1 and #abn4 #aj4 ,how does the size of the area to be enriched by color affect the color medium1 i4e41 stains1 glazes1 enamels1 etc48 #aa4 ,describe enamels1 their types1 characteristics1 and range of hues4 ,consult catalogs for fuller possibilities4 #ab4 ,what is the effect of oxidation2 what is its value8 #ac4 ,describe fully complementary arrangements and give illustrations for enamel on silver or copper4 #ad4 ,state the color scheme for a fob to be worn with a blue-green dress2 with a gray suit for a man4 #ae4 ,select a stone for a silver brooch that would harmonize with a light blue dress2 for a dress of orange dark hue and value4 ,see catalogs of dealers in semi-precious stones for color of stones4 #af4 ,what problems of hue1 value1 and chroma would arise in ,question #ae8 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,general ,,and ,,special ,,rules ,,in ,,the ,,preceeding ,,chapters ,,horizontal ,,and ,,vertical ,,primary ,,masses ,rule #a;a4 ,a primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service1 unless prohibited by technical requirements4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,mass ,rule #a;b4 ,the primary mass should have the ratio of one to three1 three to four1 three to five1 five to eight1 seven to ten1 or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze4 ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,rule #b;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions1 the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section4 ,rule #b;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections1 the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and lower thirds4 ,,sequential ,,progression ,,of ,,minor ,,horizontal ,,space ,,divisions ,rule #b;c4 ,a primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass4 ,,vertical ,,space ,,divisions ,rule #c;a4 ,if the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions1 the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form4 ,rule #c;b4 ,if the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions1 the center division should be the larger1 with the remaining divisions of equal size4 ,rule #c;c4 ,in elementary problems1 if more than three vertical divisions are required1 they should be so grouped as to analyze into ,rules #c;a1 and #c;b1 or be exactly similar4 ,,appendages ,rule #d;a4 ,the appendage should be designed in unity with1 and proportionately related to1 the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass1 but subordinated to it4 ,rule #d;b4 ,the appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly and1 if possible1 tangentially from the primary mass4 ,rule #d;c4 ,the appendage should1 if possible1 echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass4 ,,outline ,,or ,,contour ,,enrichment ,rule #e;a4 ,outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the structure4 ,rule #e;b4 ,outline enrichment should add grace1 lightness1 and variety to the design4 ,rule #e;c4 ,outline enrichment1 by its similarity1 should give a sense of oneness or unity to the design1 binding divergent members together4 ,rule #e;d4 ,parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,rule #e;e4 ,in cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of ,rules #b;a and #b;b4 ,rule #e;f4 ,dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions2 it must be consistent with the idea of the subject4 ,rule #e;g4 ,a curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,postulate4 ,the design should conform to the limitations and requirements of tools1 processes1 and materials1 and should be durable and suitable for service4 ,rule #f;a4 ,surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment4 ,rule #f;b4 ,surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure4 ,rule #f;c4 ,the treatment must be appropriate to the material4 ,,continuous ,,bands ,,and ,,borders ,,for ,,partly ,,enriched ,,surfaces ,rule #f;d4 ,bands and borders should have a consistent lateral1 that is1 onward movement4 ,rule #f;e4 ,bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion1 opposed to the main forward movement4 ,rule #f;f4 ,all component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border4 ,rule #f;g4 ,each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and1 if possible1 partake of the main movements of the border4 ,rule #f;h4 ,borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement1 provided the lateral movement dominates4 ,rule #f;i4 ,inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface4 ,rule #f;j4 ,carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass4 ,,enclosed ,,enrichment--,,partly ,,enriched ,,panels ,,for ,,surface ,,enrichment ,rule #g;a4 ,marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich4 ,rule #g;b4 ,marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed 7#a7 preferably at the corners or 7#b7 in the center of each margin4 ,rule #g;c4 ,to insure unity of design in panels1 the elements composing the point of concentration and links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other4 ,,enclosed ,,enrichment--,,fully ,,enriched ,,panels ,,for ,,surface ,,enrichment ,rule #g;d4 ,the contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions4 ,rule #g;e4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin4 ,rule #g;f4 ,the points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel4 ,rule #g;g4 ,the fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines1 with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure4 ,,free ,,ornament ,,for ,,partly ,,enriched ,,surfaces ,rule #h;a4 ,free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure4 ,rule #h;b4 ,free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces4 ,rule #h;c4 ,points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,clay ,rule #i;a4 ,surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted4 ,rule #i;b4 ,incised1 pierced1 and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material4 ,rule #i;c4 ,a border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form4 ,the contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals ,,for ,,small ,,masses ,rule #aj;a4 ,designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons3 7#a7 good taste2 7#b7 economy of material4 ,rule #aj;b4 ,contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design4 ,rule #aj;c4 ,parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design4 ,rule #aj;d4 ,surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel4 ,rule #aj;e4 ,in the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration1 surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting1 or background4 ,rule #aj;f4 ,stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal1 either in color1 brilliancy1 or value1 or all three combined4 ,rule #aj;g4 ,the inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure4 ,rule #aj;h4 ,the position of the inceptive axis should be determined by3 7#a7 use of the project as ring1 pendant1 or bar pin1 7#b7 character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion4 ,rule #aj;i4 ,caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel4 ,over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design4 ,rule #aj;j4 ,all surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity4 ,pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence4 ,rule #ajk4 ,built1 carved1 and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration4 ,it is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass4 ,when using this form of enrichment1 the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass1 but should be approached by a series of rising planes4 ,rule #ajl4 ,the lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass4 ,rule #ajm4 ,transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design4 ,,surface ,,enrichment ,,of ,,base ,,and ,,precious ,,metals ,,for ,,large ,,primary ,,masses ,rule #aa;a4 ,the preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn4 ,rule #aa;b4 ,conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses4 ,its use should3 7#a7 lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction2 7#b7 support or apparently strengthen good structure2 7#c7 add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces4 ,rule #aa;c4 ,the type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses4 ,rule #aa;d4 ,the eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment1 whether located upon the primary mass1 appendage1 terminal1 links1 or details4 ,all other zones should be subordinate to this area4 ,rule #aa;e4 ,two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design4 ,rule #aa;f4 ,repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment4 ,,application ,,of ,,color ,,to ,,large ,,areas ,,values ,rule #ab;a4 ,an average wood stain is to be retained between the values middle and low dark4 ,rule #ab;b4 ,an average wall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle4 ,rule #ab;c4 ,an average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values white 7minus7 and light4 ,rule #ab;d4 ,the relation between the side walls and furniture1 trim1 etc41 should be retained within the range of four values or less1 as low light and dark4 ,rule #ab;e4 ,the relation between the side walls and ceiling should be within the range of three values or less1 as high light and low light4 ,,hues ,rule #ab;f4 ,color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings3 analogous1 contrasted1 or dominant arrangements of hues4 ,analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is desirable4 ,rule #ab;g4 ,ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue4 ,,chroma ,rule #ab;h4 ,stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity4 ,nearly gray side walls1 however1 call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity4 ,rule #ab;i4 ,wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma4 ,rule #ab;j4 ,ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths intensity1 with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum reduction4 ,,distribution ,rule #abk4 ,proportionate distribution of hue1 value1 and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area1 high in chroma1 and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface1 but harmonizing with it4 ,this is usually located in the area of concentration4 ,the larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the background4 ,,hues ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abl4 ,one hue1 or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes4 ,the point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by 7#a7 contrasted1 7#b7 dominant1 7#c7 analogous1 7#d7 complementary relations4 ,this hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues4 ,,values ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abm4 ,an extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity4 ,restraint in the use of values is essential4 ,,chroma ,,for ,,small ,,objects ,rule #abn4 ,the amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in the decorated area4 ,exceptions may be made to this under ,rule #abo4 ,rule #abo4 ,small one or two-hued projects in clay1 designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted1 dominant1 analogous1 or complementary relation to the side walls of the room4 ,the project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls4 ,rule #abp4 ,correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied1 but should stay upon the plane of that surface4 ,correct value and chroma range will accomplish this4 ,,appendix ,the following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems in thin metal 7copper and silver71 and clay4 ,the problems are based upon what is known as the group system4 ,the process forms the basis for each group in each course4 ,the stated problem in each group is merely one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the group4 ,the design rule that should be applied to each problem has been indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate1 as #aj;a1 etc4 ,the plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the process and may be summarized as follows4 ,,thin ,,metal ,plate #fg3 ,bending4 ,sawing4 ,riveting4 ,plate #fh3 ,bending4 ,soft ,soldering4 ,plate #fi3 ,raising4 ,piercing4 ,etching4 ,plate #gj3 ,raising and ,planishing4 ,plate #ga3 ,bending4 ,piercing4 ,etching4 ,hard ,soldering4 ,plate #gb3 ,hinge ,construction4 ,plate #gc3 ,raising4 ,planishing4 ,hard ,soldering4 ,plate #gd3 ,raising4 ,planishing4 ,plate #ge3 ,champleve ,enamelling4 ,plate #gf3 ,precious ,stone ,mounting2 ,pins4 ,plate #gg3 ,precious ,stone ,mounting2 ,rings4 ,plate #gh3 ,precious ,stone ,mounting2 ,pendants4 ,,pottery ,plate #gi3 ,hand ,built ,tile4 ,plate #hj3 ,hand ,built ,bowl1 ,coil and ,strip ,method4 ,plate #ha3 ,same with ,appendage ,added4 ,plate #hb3 ,hand ,building2 ,spouts1 ,lids1 ,handles4 ,plate #hc3 ,poured ,forms and ,mould ,making4 ,plate #hd3 ,slip ,painting4 ,plate #he3 ,glaze ,testing4 ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #a4 ,,bending1 ,,sawing1 ,,riveting ,,plate #fg ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #b3 ,,bending ,,and ,,soft ,,soldering ,,plate #fh ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #c3 ,,raising1 ,,piercing1 ,,etching ,,plate #fi ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #c3 ,,raising1 ,,planishing3 ,,trays ,,plate #gj ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #d3 ,,bending1 ,,piercing1 ,,etching1 ,,hard ,,soldering ,,plate #ga ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #e3 ,,hinge ,,construction ,,plate #gb ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #f3 ,,raising1 ,,planishing1 ,,soldering ,,plate #gc ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #g3 ,,raising1 ,,planishing ,,plate #gd ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #h3 ,,champleve ,,enamelling4 ,,plate #ge ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #i3 ,,semi-,,precious ,,stone ,,mounting ,,plate #gf ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process3 #aj3 ,,soldering1 ,,carving1 ,,stone ,,mounting ,,plate #gg ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,thin ,,metal ,,process #aa3 ,,pendant ,,construction1 ,,chain ,,making ,,plate #gh ,illustration3 ,,figure #dgj4--;,inceptive ,axes4 ,partial ,illustration of the ,metal ,course ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,clay4 ,,pottery ,,process #a3 ,,hand ,,built ,,tile4 ,,cut ,,from ,,flat ,,piece ,,plate #gi ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,clay4 ,,pottery ,,process #b3 ,,hand ,,building4 ,,coil ,,and ,,strip ,,plate #hj ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,pottery ,,process #c3 ,,hand ,,building1 ,,spout1 ,,handle1 ,,lid ,,plate #ha ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,clay4 ,,pottery ,,process #c3 ,,hand ,,building3 ,,spout1 ,,handle1 ,,lid ,,plate #hb ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,pottery ,,process #d3 ,,poured ,,forms4 ,,two ,,and ,,three ,,piece ,,moulds ,,plate #hc ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,pottery ,,process #e3 ,,slip ,,painting 7,,under ,,glaze ,,decoration7 ,,plate #hd ,illustration3 ,,applied ,,arts3 ,,pottery ,,process #f3 ,,glaze ,,testing ,,plate #he ,illustration3 ,,figure #dga4--,results of the ,pottery ,course ,figure #dga shows the actual results produced by the preceding course4 ,the process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware4 ,the preceding sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original thinking on the part of the student4 ,they merely suggest technical guidance1 in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his increasing skill4 ,the glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions of base1 alumina1 and acid content of each glaze clearly stated4 ,by referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface1 these glazes may be developed into the potter's formulae4 ,in both metal and pottery courses1 two or more types are frequently represented upon one plate4 ,these types will allow the teacher to assign a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience4 ,,index ,,page ,accenting bands in wood1 #aje ,accentuation of functional parts1 #gi ,adapting data to material1 #abg ,analogous hues1 #bjc ,analysis1 intelligent1 #g ,andiron design1 #ec ,aniline wood dyes1 #aii ,appendage design1 #dc-di ,appendage1 use of1 #dc ,appendages1 #dc ,appendages and primary mass1 #de ,appendages1 contour enrichment of1 #hh ,appendages1 design violations1 #dc ,appendages in clay1 #dg ,appendages1 industrial applications1 #dg ,appendages1 influence of tools and materials1 #ec ,appendages in metal1 #ea ,appendages in wood1 #de ,artificial objects1 #abi ,architectural1 horizontal divisions for1 #ba ,bands1 wood inlay1 #aje ,backgrounds1 #aac1 #bja ,base metals1 enrichment of1 #hg ,base and precious metals1 surface enrichment of1 #afj1 #afc1 #afe1 #afg ,borders for wood1 #ajg ,building1 #afe ,candlesticks1 #ha ,carving1 #ajc ,carving and piercing1 #ada ,carving1 design steps for1 #aje ,ceilings1 #bjb-bje ,center zone enrichment1 #aba ,chasing1 #afc ,chip carving1 #aae ,chroma1 #aig ,chromatic intensity1 full1 #aie ,clay1 coloring for underglaze1 #aea ,clay1 decorative processes1 #ade ,clay1 incising1 #adg ,clay1 inlay1 #adi ,clay1 introduction of pigments1 #adi ,clay1 modeling1 #adg ,clay1 piercing1 #adg ,clay1 slip painting1 #adi ,clay1 surface enrichment for1 #ade ,clay1 surface enrichment1 structural classification for1 #aea ,clay1 underglaze painting1 #aea ,color for clay enrichment1 #bji ,color for small areas1 #baj ,color harmony1 #bja ,color pigments1 #aid ,color pigments1 application of1 #aid ,color symbols1 #aih ,color systems1 #aid ,commercial pottery1 #aeh ,complementary hues1 #bad ,conservative use of ornament1 #aja ,contrasted hues1 #bjc ,containers1 #ha ,continuity and contrast1 #fc ,contour enrichment1 influence of materials1 #fe ,contour enrichment1 methods of varying1 #gj ,contour enrichment of clay1 need of1 #gg ,contour enrichment1 evolution of1 #fe ,contour enrichment1 purpose of1 #ei ,contour enrichment1 requirements of1 #ei ,contour enrichment1 systematic development of1 #ha ,contour versus surface enrichment1 #ahe ,corners1 contour enrichment of1 #hh ,correlation1 ideal1 #aa ,covers1 design for1 #di ,criticism1 clear1 #g ,criticism1 non-technical1 #g ,curve of beauty1 #ia ,curve of force1 #fa ,curve of force1 approximate1 #fa ,curves for contour enrichment1 #ei ,curves1 grouping of1 #fc ,curves of extravagance1 #gc ,dependent surface enrichment1 #afg ,details1 contour enrichment of1 #ic ,design evolution1 major divisions1 #i ,design evolution1 steps in1 #aa ,design1 preliminary thought1 #ag ,dominant hue1 #bjd ,dynamic curves and areas1 #aaa ,edges1 contour enrichment of1 #hg ,elements1 #aeg ,enameling1 #afc1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae ,enrichment for small metal areas1 #agi ,enrichment1 need and value of1 #eg ,enrichment of large metal areas1 #agi1 #ahc ,enrichment1 types of1 #eg ,essentials of good surface enrichment1 #agi ,exposures1 #bjf1 #bjg ,flat surfaces in base and precious metal1 #ahe ,fobs1 design of1 #afi ,four vertical minor divisions1 #aci ,free balance1 #abi ,free enrichment1 #aba ,free minor division treatment1 #ada ,free ornament1 #aag ,freehand curves1 #cj1 #ea1 #fc ,full size drawing1 value of1 #bc ,functional parts1 enrichment of1 #hh ,glazes for pottery1 #adi ,glazes related to interior decoration1 #bad ,glazes1 stains for1 #bji ,greek scroll1 #ic ,handles1 design for1 #di ,harmonious color1 need of1 #aid ,harmony of color1 #baj ,high cylindrical forms in clay1 #aeg ,high cylindrical forms in metal1 #aia ,historic ornament in hardware1 #ahf ,horizontal and vertical minor divisions1 #acg ,horizontal divisions1 architectural precedent1 #be ,horizontal divisions1 nature and need of1 #ai ,horizontal divisions1 steps in designing1 #ba ,horizontal minor divisions1 #aci ,hue and hue rectangles1 #aie ,hue groupings1 #bjc ,industrial problems1 requirements of1 #i ,inceptive axes1 #ajg1 #aba1 #afa ,inceptive axes for marginal enrichment1 #aai ,inlaying1 #aja-ajc ,intermediate points1 contour enrichment of1 #hi ,ionic volute1 #ia ,leading lines1 curved1 #ajh ,links1 #de ,links1 contour enrichment of1 #ic ,low cylindrical forms in clay1 #aeg ,low cylindrical forms in metal1 #ahg ,major design division1 first1 #i ,major design division1 second1 #i ,major design division1 third1 #aa ,marginal zone enrichment1 #aah ,material1 adapting data to1 #abg ,material1 economy of1 #afa ,material1 relation to surface enrichment1 #aja ,metallic oxides1 #baj ,methods1 architectural design1 #ac ,methods1 industrial design1 #ac ,minor details1 #ada ,minor subdivisions in wood1 #acc ,moorish ornament1 #ajg ,mouldings1 #fa ,one vertical division1 #ce ,outlines1 free and dependent1 #hg1 #ia 7,see ,contours47 ,oxidation1 #bac ,panels1 #aag1 #abc1 #abe1 #abg1 #abi ,panel design1 steps in1 #abe ,parts differing in function1 #gg ,pendants and chains1 design of1 #agc ,pierced enrichment1 #abc ,pigment table1 #aie ,pigments1 wall and ceiling1 #bje ,pins and brooches1 design of1 #afg ,point of concentration1 #aae1 #afa ,point of concentration for marginal enrichment1 #aai ,porcelain painting1 #aea ,pourers1 #ha ,precious metals1 processes of enrichment1 #afa1 #afc1 #afe1 #afi ,primary hues1 #aih ,primary masses1 #ac ,primary mass1 drawing of1 #ae ,primary mass1 divisions of1 #ai ,primary masses1 vertical and horizontal1 #ae ,primary masses1 proportions of1 #ae ,proportionate distribution1 #baj ,ratios1 unsatisfactory1 #ag ,rectangular panels1 #abg ,rings1 design of1 #afi ,sequential progression1 #ace ,service1 influence of1 #i1 #ac1 #ae ,sets1 designing of1 #hc ,shades1 #aig ,shallow circular forms in clay1 #aee ,shallow circular forms in metal1 #ahg ,side walls1 #bjb-bje ,silver1 color for1 #bae ,silver1 contour enrichment of1 #ic ,silver1 free outline enrichment1 #ig ,silver1 motives for contour enrichment1 #ig ,spouts1 design of1 #di ,square and rectangular areas in clay1 #aec ,square panels1 #abe ,standard hues1 #aie ,standard hues1 locating1 #aif ,stones1 cutting1 #ie ,stones1 relation to contour1 #ie ,stones1 relation to metal1 #agc ,structural forms1 classification1 #afj ,structural forms1 classification for clay surface enrichment1 #aea ,structural reinforcement1 #aah ,surface design evolution1 #ahj ,surface enrichment1 nature and need of1 #ii ,surfaces1 when and where to enrich1 #ii ,tangential junctions1 #ea1 #ic ,technical processes for metal1 #afc ,technical rendering1 #afa ,terminals1 contour enrichment of1 #hi-ia ,three horizontal divisions1 #bi ,three horizontal divisions in clay1 #cj ,three horizontal divisions in metal1 #cj ,three horizontal divisions in wood1 #bi ,three vertical divisions1 #cg ,three vertical divisions in clay1 #ci ,three vertical divisions in metal1 #da ,three vertical divisions in wood1 #ci ,tints1 #aif ,transitional types in furniture1 #aci ,two horizontal divisions1 #be ,two horizontal divisions in clay1 #bg ,two horizontal divisions in metal1 #bg ,two horizontal divisions in wood1 #be ,two vertical divisions1 #ce ,two vertical divisions in clay1 #cg ,two vertical divisions in metal1 #cg ,two vertical divisions in wood1 #ce ,unit of measurement for vertical curves1 #gi ,unity1 #bi ,unity in clay design curves1 #gg ,value lines1 #aif ,varied panels1 #abi ,vertical divisions1 architectural precedent1 #cc ,vertical divisions1 more than three1 #da ,vertical divisions1 nature and need1 #cc ,vertical and horizontal division evolution1 #dj ,vertical sections and their minor divisions1 #acc-ace ,vocabulary1 designer's1 #aje ,walls and ceilings1 #bjc-bjd ,walls and wood work1 #bjb-bjc ,warm and cold colors1 #aih ,wood finishes1 opaque1 #bjf ,wood1 methods of surface enrichment1 #aja ,wood stains1 #aih ,wood stains1 chroma range1 #bje ,wood stain mixing1 #aii1 #bjj ,wood stain rendering1 #aie ,wood stains1 value range1 #bja ,wrought iron enrichment1 #ia ,zones of enrichment1 #aah 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent hyphenation and obvious punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected4 ,,pc and ,,ia have been used to represent the letters ,p and ,c or ,i and ,a overlaid on one another to label the ,point of ,concentration and ,inceptive ,axis respectively4 ,although referred to on page #ge1 no illustration is captioned as ,plate #bc in the original text4