,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,liquid ,,gases3 ,another important use of liquid gases is as analytic agents1 and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an almost essential laboratory reagent4 'as' amended from 'an'4 ,,article ,,liquor ,,laws3 ,the proceedings are stricter and more summary in the case of a new licence2 notice of application must be given to the local authorities2 444 'authorities' amended from 'authorites'4 ,,article ,,lisbon3 444 and the royal national theatre 7,teatro de ,dona ,maria ,segunda71 erected on the site which the ,inquisition buildings occupied from #aebj to #ahcf4 ',teatro' amended from ',theatro'4 ,,article ,,liversedge3 444 ,great ,northern1 and ,london ,north ,western railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ac1ihj4 ',northern' amended from ',nothern'4 ,,article ,,locri3 444 and found in ,syracuse a support against ,rhegium3 it was thus an active adversary of ,athenian aggrandisement in the west4 'of' amended from 'or'4 ,,article ,,log3 ,the ,bliss resembles the ,rocket log in shape1 and is secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling4 'sling' amended from 'slung'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xvi1 ,,slice ,,vii ,liquid ,gases to ,logar ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,liquid ,,gases ,,llanwrtyd ,,wells ,,liquorice ,,llewelyn ,,liquor ,,laws ,,llorente1 ,,juan ,,antonio ,,lira ,,lloyd1 ,,edward ,,liri ,,lloyd1 ,,william ,,liroconite ,,lloyd1 ,,william ,,watkiss ,,lisbon ,,lloyd ,,george1 ,,david ,,lisburn ,,lloyd',s ,,lisieux ,,llwyd1 ,,edward ,,liskeard ,,loach ,,lisle1 ,,alice ,,load2 ,,lode ,,lismore 7,scottish island7 ,,loaf ,,lismore 7,australian town7 ,,loam ,,lismore 7,irish town7 ,,loan ,,lissa 7,austrian island7 ,,loanda ,,lissa 7,prussian town7 ,,loango ,,list1 ,,friedrich ,,lobachevskiy1 ,,nicolas ,,ivanovich ,,list ,,lobanov-,,rostovski1 ,,alexis ,,borisovich ,,lista ,y ,,aragon1 ,,alberto ,l,,bau ,,lister1 ,,joseph ,,lister ,,lobby ,,lister1 ,,martin ,,lobbying ,,liston1 ,,john ,,lobe ,,liston1 ,,robert ,,lobeck1 ,,christian ,,august ,,liszt1 ,,franz ,,lobeira1 ,,jo,o ,,litany ,,lobelia ,,litchfield 7,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,lobenstein ,,litchfield 7,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,lobo1 ,,francisco ,,rodrigues ,,litchi ,,lobo1 ,,jeronimo ,,literature ,,lobster ,,liternum ,,local ,,government ,,lithgow1 ,,william ,,local ,,government ,,board ,,lithgow ,,locarno ,,lithium ,,loch1 ,,henry ,,brougham ,,loch ,,lithography ,,lochaber ,,lithosphere ,,loches ,,lithuanians and ,,letts ,,lochgelly ,,litmus ,,lochgilphead ,,litopterna ,,lochmaben ,,litotes ,,lock1 ,,matthias ,,litter ,,lock ,,little ,,falls 7,minnesota1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,locke1 ,,john ,,little ,,falls 7,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,locke1 ,,matthew ,,littlehampton ,,lockerbie ,,little ,,rock ,,locker-,,lampson1 ,,frederick ,,littleton1 ,,edward ,,lockhart1 ,,george ,,littleton1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,de ,,lockhart1 ,,john ,,gibson ,,littr1 ,,maximilien ,,paul ,,mile ,,lockhart1 ,,sir ,,william ,,alexander ,,liturgy ,,lock ,,haven ,,lituus ,,lockport 7,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,liudprand ,,lockport 7,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,live ,,oak ,,lockroy1 ,,douard ,,liver ,,lockwood1 ,,sir ,,frank ,,livermore1 ,,mary ,,ashton ,,rice ,,lockwood1 ,,wilton ,,liverpool1 ,,earls ,,of ,,lockyer1 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,norman ,,liverpool ,,locle1 ,,le ,,liversedge ,,locmariaquer ,,livery ,,locomotor ,,ataxia ,,livery ,,companies ,,loco-,,weeds ,,livia ,,drusilla ,,locri 7people of ancient ,greece7 ,,livingston1 ,,edward ,,locri 7,italian city7 ,,livingston1 ,,robert ,r4 ,l,,cse ,,livingston1 ,,william ,,locus ,,livingstone1 ,,david ,,locust ,,livingstone ,,mountains ,,locust-,,tree ,,livius ,,andronicus ,,lod,,ve ,,livno ,,lodge1 ,,edmund ,,livonia ,,lodge1 ,,henry ,,cabot ,,livy ,,lodge1 ,,sir ,,oliver ,,joseph ,,lizard ,,lodge1 ,,thomas ,,lizard ,,point ,,lodge ,,ljunggren1 ,,gustaf ,h,,kan ,,jordan ,,lodger ,,and ,,lodgings ,,llama ,,lodi ,,llanberis ,,lodz ,,llandaff ,,loess ,,llandeilo ,,group ,,lofft1 ,,capel ,,llandilo ,,lofoten ,,and ,,vesteraalen ,,llandovery ,,loft ,,llandovery ,,group ,,loftus1 ,,adam ,,llandrindod ,,log ,,llandudno ,,logan1 ,,john 7,american ,indian chief7 ,,llanelly ,,logan1 ,,john 7,scottish poet7 ,,llanes ,,logan1 ,,john ,,alexander ,,llangollen ,,logan1 ,,sir ,,william ,,edmond ,,llanquihue ,,logan 7,utah1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,llantrisant ,,logansport ,,llantwit ,,major ,,logar ,,liquid ,,gases4#a ,though ,lavoisier remarked that if the earth were removed to very cold regions of space1 such as those of ,jupiter or ,saturn1 its atmosphere1 or at least a portion of its aeriform constituents1 would return to the state of liquid 7,oeuvres1 ii4 #hje71 the history of the liquefaction of gases may be said to begin with the observation made by ,john ,dalton in his essay ,on the ,force of ,steam or ,vapour from ,water and various other ,liquids 7#ahja73 ,there can scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind into liquids2 and we ought not to despair of effecting it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted on the unmixed gases4 ,it was not1 however1 till #ahbc that the question was investigated by systematic experiment4 ,in that year ,faraday1 at the suggestion of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 exposed hydrate of chlorine to heat under pressure in the laboratories of the ,royal ,institution4 ,he placed the substance at the end of one arm of a bent glass tube1 which was then hermetically sealed1 and decomposing it by heating to #ajj ,f41 he saw a yellow liquid distil to the end of the other arm4 ,this liquid he surmised to be chlorine separated from the water by the heat and condensed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant vapour1 and he verified his surmise by compressing chlorine gas1 freed from water by exposure to sulphuric acid1 to a pressure of about four atmospheres1 when the same yellow fluid was produced 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahbc1 #aac1 pp4 #afj-afe74 ,he proceeded to experiment with a number of other gases subjected in sealed tubes to the pressure caused by their own continuous production by chemical action1 and in the course of a few weeks liquefied sulphurous acid1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 carbonic acid1 euchlorine1 nitrous acid1 cyanogen1 ammonia and muriatic acid1 the last of which1 however1 had previously been obtained by ,davy4 ,but he failed with hydrogen1 oxygen1 fluoboric1 fluosilicic and phosphuretted hydrogen gases 7,phil4 ,trans41 ib4 pp4 #ahi-aih74 ,early in the following year he published an ,historical statement respecting the liquefaction of gases 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,sci41 #ahbd1 #af1 pp4 #bbi-bdj71 in which he detailed several recorded cases in which previous experimenters had reduced certain gases to their liquid state4 ,in #ahce ,thilorier1 by acting on bicarbonate of soda with sulphuric acid in a closed vessel and evacuating the gas thus obtained under pressure into a second vessel1 was able to accumulate large quantities of liquid carbonic acid1 and found that when the liquid was suddenly ejected into the air a portion of it was solidified into a snow-like substance 7,ann4 chim4 phys41 #ahce1 #fj1 pp4 #dbg-dcb74 ,four years later ,j4 ,k4 ,mitchell in ,america1 by mixing this snow with ether and exhausting it under an air pump1 attained a minimum temperature of #adf below zero ,f41 by the aid of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid4 ,stimulated by ,thilorier's results and by considerations arising out of the work of ,j4 ,c4 ,cagniard de la ,tour 7,ann4 chim4 phys41 #ahbb1 #ba1 pp4 #abg and #agh1 and #ahbc1 #bb1 p4 #daj71 which appeared to him to indicate that gases would pass by some simple law into the liquid state1 ,faraday returned to the subject about #ahdd1 in the hope of seeing nitrogen1 oxygen and hydrogen either as liquid or solid bodies1 and the latter probably as a metal 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahde1 #ace1 pp4 #aee-aeg74 ,on the basis of ,cagniard de la ,tour's observation that at a certain temperature a liquid under sufficient pressure becomes a vapour or gas having the same bulk as the liquid1 he inferred that at this temperature or one a little higher1 it is not likely that any increase of pressure1 except perhaps one exceedingly great1 would convert the gas into a liquid4 ,he further surmised that the ,cagniard de la ,tour condition might have its point of temperature for oxygen1 nitrogen1 hydrogen1 c41 below that belonging to the bath of solid carbonic acid and ether1 and he realized that in that case no pressure which any apparatus would be able to bear would be able to bring those gases into the liquid or solid state1 which would require a still greater degree of cold4 ,to fulfil this condition he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of solid carbonic acid and ether1 the temperature of which was reduced by exhaustion under the air pump to -#aff ,f41 or a little lower1 and at the same time he subjected the gases to pressures up to #ej atmospheres by the use of two pumps working in series4 ,in this way he added six substances1 usually gaseous1 to the list of those that could be obtained in the liquid state1 and reduced seven1 including ammonia1 nitrous oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen1 into the solid form1 at the same time effecting a number of valuable determinations of vapour tensions4 ,but he failed to condense oxygen1 nitrogen and hydrogen1 the original objects of his pursuit1 though he found reason to think that further diminution of temperature and improved apparatus for pressure may very well be expected to give us these bodies in the liquid or solid state4 ,his surmise that increased pressure alone would not suffice to bring about change of state in these gases was confirmed by subsequent investigators1 such as ,m4 ,p4 ,e4 ,berthelot1 who in #ahej compressed oxygen to #ghj atmospheres 7,ann4 chim4 phys41 #ahej1 #cj1 p4 #bcg71 and ,natterer1 who a few years later subjected the permanent gases to a pressure of #bgij atmospheres1 without result2 and in #ahfi ,thomas ,andrews 7,phil4 ,trans41 #aa7 by his researches on carbonic acid finally established the conception of the critical temperature as that temperature1 differing for different bodies1 above which no gas can be made to assume the liquid state1 no matter what pressure it be subjected to 7see ,,condensation ,,of ,,gases74 ,about #ahgg the problem of liquefying the permanent gases was taken up by ,l4 ,p4 ,cailletet and ,r4 ,p4 ,pictet1 working almost simultaneously though independently4 ,the former relied on the cold produced by the sudden expansion of the gases at high compression4 ,by means of a specially designed pump he compressed about #ajj cc4 of oxygen in a narrow glass tube to about #bjj atmospheres1 at the same time cooling it to about -#bi ,c41 and on suddenly releasing the pressure he saw momentarily in the interior of the tube a mist 7brouillard71 from which he inferred the presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction4 ,a few days later he repeated the experiment with hydrogen1 using a pressure of nearly #cjj atmospheres1 and observed in his tube an exceedingly fine and subtle fog which vanished almost instantaneously4 ,at the time when these experiments were carried out it was generally accepted that the mist or fog consisted of minute drops of the liquefied gases4 ,even had this been the case1 the problem would not have been completely solved1 for ,cailletet was unable to collect the drops in the form of a true stable liquid1 and at the best obtained a dynamic not a static liquid1 the gas being reduced to a form that bears the same relation to a true liquid that the partially condensed steam issuing from the funnel of a locomotive bears to water standing in a tumbler4 ,but subsequent knowledge showed that even this proximate liquefaction could not have taken place1 and that the fog could not have consisted of drops of liquid hydrogen1 because the cooling produced by the adiabatic expansion would give a temperature of only #dd abs41 which is certainly above the critical temperature of hydrogen4 ,pictet again announced that on opening the tap of a vessel containing hydrogen at a pressure of #fej atmospheres and cooled by the cascade method 7see ,,condensation ,,of ,,gases7 to -#adj ,c41 he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he assumed to consist of hydrogen in the liquid form or in the liquid and solid forms mixed4 ,but he was no more successful than ,cailletet in collecting any of the liquid1 which--whatever else it may have been1 whether ordinary air or impurities associated with the hydrogen--cannot have been hydrogen because the means he employed were insufficient to reduce the gas to what has subsequently been ascertained to be its critical point1 below which of course liquefaction is impossible4 ,it need scarcely be added that if the liquefaction of hydrogen be rejected a fortiori ,pictet's claim to have effected its solidification falls to the ground4 ,after ,cailletet and ,pictet1 the next important names in the history of the liquefaction of gases are those of ,z4 ,f4 ,wroblewski and ,k4 ,s4 ,olszewski1 who for some years worked together at ,cracow4 ,in ,april #ahhc the former announced to the ,french ,academy that he had obtained oxygen in a completely liquid state and 7a few days later7 that nitrogen at a temperature of -#acf ,c41 reduced suddenly from a pressure of #aej atmospheres to one of #ej1 had been seen as a liquid which showed a true meniscus1 but disappeared in a few seconds4 ,but with hydrogen treated in the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by ,cailletet4 ,at the beginning of #ahhd he performed a more satisfactory experiment4 ,cooling hydrogen in a capillary glass tube to the temperature of liquid oxygen1 he expanded it quickly from #ajj atmospheres to one1 and obtained the appearance of an instantaneous ebullition4 ,olszewski confirmed this result by expanding from a pressure of #aij atmospheres the gas cooled by liquid oxygen and nitrogen boiling under reduced pressure1 and even announced that he saw it running down the walls of the tube as a colourless liquid4 ,wroblewski1 however1 was unable to observe this phenomenon1 and ,olszewski himself1 when seven years later he repeated the experiment in the more favourable conditions afforded by a larger apparatus1 was unable to produce again the colourless drops he had previously reported3 the phenomenon of the appearance of sudden ebullition indeed lasted longer1 but he failed to perceive any meniscus such as would have been a certain indication of the presence of a true liquid4 ,still1 though neither of these investigators succeeded in reaching the goal at which they aimed1 their work was of great value in elucidating the conditions of the problem and in perfecting the details of the apparatus employed4 ,wroblewski in particular devoted the closing years of his life to a most valuable investigation of the isothermals of hydrogen at low temperatures4 ,from the data thus obtained he constructed a van der ,waals equation which enabled him to calculate the critical temperature1 pressure and density of hydrogen with very much greater certainty than had previously been possible4 ,liquid oxygen1 liquid nitrogen and liquid air--the last was first made by ,wroblewski in #ahhe--;became something more than mere curiosities of the laboratory1 and by the year #ahia were produced in such quantities as to be available for the purposes of scientific research4 ,still1 nothing was added to the general principles upon which the work of ,cailletet and ,pictet was based1 and the cascade method1 together with adiabatic expansion from high compression 7see ,,condensation ,,of ,,gases71 remained the only means of procedure at the disposal of experimenters in this branch of physics4 ,in some quarters a certain amount of doubt appears to have arisen as to the sufficiency of these methods for the liquefaction of hydrogen4 ,olszewski1 for example1 in #ahie pointed out that the succession of less and less condensible gases necessary for the cascade method breaks down between nitrogen and hydrogen1 and he gave as a reason for hydrogen not having been reduced to the condition of a static liquid the non-existence of a gas intermediate in volatility between those two4 ,by #ahid attempts had been made in the ,royal ,institution laboratories to manufacture an artificial gas of this nature by adding a small proportion of air to the hydrogen1 so as to get a mixture with a critical point of about -#bjj ,c4 ,when such a mixture was cooled to that temperature and expanded from a high degree of compression into a vacuum vessel1 the result was a white mass of solid air together with a clear liquid of very low density4 ,this was in all probability hydrogen in the true liquid state1 but it was not found possible to collect it owing to its extreme volatility4 ,whether this artificial gas might ultimately have enabled liquid hydrogen to be collected in open vessels we cannot say1 for experiments with it were abandoned in favour of other measures1 which led finally to a more assured success4 ,vacuum ,vessels4--,the problem involved in the liquefaction of hydrogen was in reality a double one4 ,in the first place1 the gas had to be cooled to such a temperature that the change to the liquid state was rendered possible4 ,in the second1 means had to be discovered for protecting it1 when so cooled1 from the influx of external heat1 and since the rate at which heat is transferred from one body to another increases very rapidly with the difference between their temperatures1 the question of efficient heat insulation became at once more difficult and more urgent in proportion to the degree of cold attained4 ,the second part of the problem was in fact solved first4 ,of course packing with non-conducting materials was an obvious expedient when it was not necessary that the contents of the apparatus should be visible to the eye1 but in the numerous instances when this was not the case such measures were out of the question4 ,attempts were made to secure the desired end by surrounding the vessel that contained the cooled or liquid gas with a succession of other vessels1 through which was conducted the vapour given off from the interior one4 ,such devices involved awkward complications in the arrangement of the apparatus1 and besides were not as a rule very efficient1 although some workers1 e4g4 ,dr ,kamerlingh ,onnes1 of ,leiden1 reported some success with their use4 ,in #ahib it occurred to ,dewar that the principle of an arrangement he had used nearly twenty years before for some calorimetric experiments on the physical constants of hydrogenium1 which was a natural deduction from the work of ,dulong and ,petit on radiation1 might be employed with advantage as well to protect cold substances from heat as hot ones from cold4 ,he therefore tried the effect of surrounding his liquefied gas with a highly exhausted space4 ,the result was entirely successful4 ,experiment showed that liquid air contained in a glass vessel with two walls1 the space between which was a high vacuum1 evaporated at only one fifth the rate it did when in an ordinary vessel surrounded with air at atmospheric pressure1 the convective transference of heat by means of the gas particles being enormously reduced owing to the vacuum4 ,but in addition these vessels lent themselves to an arrangement by which radiant heat could still further be cut off1 since it was found that when the inner wall was coated with a bright deposit of silver1 the influx of heat was diminished to one-sixth of the amount existing without the metallic coating4 ,the total effect1 therefore1 of the high vacuum and silvering is to reduce the in-going heat to one-thirtieth part4 ,in making such vessels a mercurial vacuum has been found very satisfactory4 ,the vessel in which the vacuum is to be produced is provided with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the main vessel1 and connected with a powerful air-pump4 ,a quantity of mercury having been placed in it1 it is heated in an oil- or air-bath to about #bjj ,c41 so as to volatilize the mercury1 the vapour of which is removed by the pump4 ,after the process has gone on for some time1 the pipe leading to the pump is sealed off1 the vessel immediately removed from the bath1 and the small subsidiary part immersed in some cooling agent such as solid carbonic acid or liquid air1 whereby the mercury vapour is condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity left in the large one4 ,the final step is to seal off the tube connecting the two4 ,in this way a vacuum may be produced having a vapour pressure of about the hundred-millionth of an atmosphere at #j ,c4 ,if1 however1 some liquid mercury be left in the space in which the vacuum is produced1 and the containing part of the vessel be filled with liquid air1 the bright mirror of mercury which is deposited on the inside wall of the bulb is still more effective than silver in protecting the chamber from the influx of heat1 owing to the high refractive index1 which involves great reflecting power1 and the bad heat-conducting powers of mercury4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,metallic ,vacuum ,vessel4 ,with the discovery of the remarkable power of gas absorption possessed by charcoal cooled to a low temperature 7see below71 it became possible to make these vessels of metal4 ,previously this could not be done with success1 because gas occluded in the metal gradually escaped and vitiated the vacuum2 but now any stray gas may be absorbed by means of charcoal so placed in a pocket within the vacuous space that it is cooled by the liquid in the interior of the vessel4 ,metal vacuum vessels 7fig4 #a71 of a capacity of from #b to #bj litres1 may be formed of brass1 copper1 nickel or tinned iron1 with necks of some alloy that is a bad conductor of heat1 silvered glass vacuum cylinders being fitted as stoppers4 ,such flasks1 when properly constructed1 have an efficiency equal to that of the chemically-silvered glass vacuum vessels now commonly used in low temperature investigations1 and they are obviously better adapted for transport4 ,the principle of the ,dewar vessel is utilized in the ,thermos flasks which are now extensively manufactured and employed for keeping liquids warm in hospitals1 c4 ,thermal ,transparency at ,low ,temperatures4--,the proposition1 once enunciated by ,pictet1 that at low temperatures all substances have practically the same thermal transparency1 and are equally ineffective as non-conductors of heat1 is based on erroneous observations4 ,it is true that if the space between the two walls of a double-walled vessel is packed with substances like carbon1 magnesia1 or silica1 liquid air placed in the interior will boil off even more quickly than it will when the space merely contains air at atmospheric pressure2 but in such cases it is not so much the carbon1 c41 that bring about the transference of heat1 as the air contained in their interstices4 ,if this air be pumped out such substances are seen to exert a very considerable influence in stopping the influx of heat1 and a vacuum vessel which has the space between its two walls filled with a non-conducting material of this kind preserves a liquid gas even better than one in which that space is simply exhausted of air4 ,in experiments on this point double-walled glass tubes1 as nearly identical in shape and size as possible1 were mounted in sets of three on a common stem which communicated with an air-pump1 so that the degree of exhaustion in each was equal4 ,in two of each three the space between the double walls was filled with the powdered material it was desired to test1 the third being left empty and used as the standard4 ,the time required for a certain quantity of liquid air to evaporate from the interior of this empty bulb being called #a1 in each of the eight sets of triple tubes1 the times required for the same quantity to boil off from the other pairs of tubes were as follows3-- _/ ,charcoal #e _/ ,lampblack #e ,magnesia #b ,silica #d _/ ,graphite #a4c _/ ,lampblack #d ,alumina #c4c ,lycopodium #b4e _/ ,calcium carbonate #b4e _/ ,barium carbonate #a4c ,calcium fluoride #a4be ,calcium phosphate #b4g _/ ,phosphorus 7amorphous7 #a _/ ,lead oxide #b ,mercuric iodide #a4e ,bismuth oxide #f ,other experiments of the same kind made--7a7 with similar vacuum vessels1 but with the powders replaced by metallic and other septa2 and 7b7 with vacuum vessels having their walls silvered1 yielded the following results3-- _/7a7 ,vacuum space empty #a _/ ,vacuum space empty #a ,three turns silver ,three turns black paper1 paper1 bright black outside #c surface inside #d ,three turns black paper1 ,three turns silver black inside #c paper1 bright surfaceoutside #d _/ ,vacuum space empty #a _/ ,vacuum space empty #a ,three turns gold paper1 ,three turns1 not touching1 gold outside #d of sheet lead #d ,some pieces of goldleaf ,three turns1 not touching1 put in so as of sheet aluminium #d to make contact between walls of vacuum-tube #j4c _/7b7 ,vacuum space empty1 _/ ,empty silvered vacuum #a silvered on inside ,charcoal in silvered surfaces #a vacuum #a4be ,silica in silvered vacuum space #a4a ,it appears from these experiments that silica1 charcoal1 lampblack1 and oxide of bismuth all increase the heat insulations to four1 five and six times that of the empty vacuum space4 ,as the chief communication of heat through an exhausted space is by molecular bombardment1 the fine powders must shorten the free path of the gaseous molecules1 and the slow conduction of heat through the porous mass must make the conveyance of heat-energy more difficult than when the gas molecules can impinge upon the relatively hot outer glass surface1 and then directly on the cold one without interruption4 7,see ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst4 xv4 #hba-hbf47 ,density of ,solids and ,coefficients of ,expansion at ,low ,temperatures4--,the facility with which liquid gases1 like oxygen or nitrogen1 can be guarded from evaporation by the proper use of vacuum vessels 7now called ,dewar vessels71 naturally suggests that the specific gravities of solid bodies can be got by direct weighing when immersed in such fluids4 ,if the density of the liquid gas is accurately known1 then the loss of weight by fluid displacement gives the specific gravity compared to water4 ,the metals and alloys1 or substances that can be got in large crystals1 are the easiest to manipulate4 ,if the body is only to be had in small crystals1 then it must be compressed under strong hydraulic pressure into coherent blocks weighing about #dj to #ej grammes4 ,such an amount of material gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling point of air1 and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary temperature enables the mean coefficient of expansion between #ae ,c4 and -#ahe ,c4 to be determined4 ,one of the most interesting results is that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not more than #j4ic1 the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore #j4jjjjha4 ,as the value of the same coefficient between #j ,c4 and -#bg ,c4 is #j4jjjaee1 it is clear the rate of contraction is diminished to about one-half of what it was above the melting point of the ice4 ,this suggests that by no possible cooling at our command is it likely we could ever make ice as dense as water at #j ,c41 far less #d ,c4 ,in other words1 the volume of ice at the zero of temperature would not be the minimum volume of the water molecule1 though we have every reason to believe it would be so in the case of the majority of known substances4 ,another substance of special interest is solid carbonic acid4 ,this body has a density of #a4ec at -#gh ,c4 and #a4fcc at -#ahe ,c41 thus giving a mean coefficient of expansion between these temperatures of #j4jjjeg4 ,this value is only about #a_/f of the coefficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid gas just above its melting point1 but it is still much greater at the low temperature than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur1 which at #dj ,c4 has a value of #j4jjjai4 ,the following table gives the densities at the temperature of boiling liquid air 7-#ahe ,c47 and at ordinary temperatures 7#ag ,c471 together with the mean coefficient of expansion between those temperatures1 in the case of a number of hydrated salts and other substances3 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,mean coefficient ,density ,densityof expansion at -#ahe at #ag between ,c4 ,c4 -#ahe ,c4 and #ag ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,aluminium sulphate 7#ah799 #a4gaid #a4fiac #j4jjjjhaa ,sodium biborate 7#aj7 #a4gbhd #a4ficg #j4jjjajjj ,calcium chloride 7#f7 #a4gahg #a4fgge #j4jjjaaia ,magnesium chloride 7#f7 #a4fjci #a4efic #j4jjjajgb ,potash alum 7#bd7 #a4fdad #a4fadd #j4jjjjhac ,chrome alum 7#bd7 #a4ghdb #a4gffi #j4jjjjdgh ,sodium carbonate 7#aj7 #a4dibf #a4ddfj #j4jjjaefc ,sodium phosphate 7#ab7 #a4eddf #a4ebjj #j4jjjjghg ,sodium thiosulphate 7#e7 #a4gfce #a4gbij #j4jjjjifi ,potassium ferrocyanide 7#c7 #a4hihh #a4hecc #j4jjjaaie ,potassium ferricyanide #a4hidd #a4haji #j4jjjbbdd ,sodium nitro-prusside 7#d7 #a4gaif #a4fhjc #j4jjjaach ,ammonium chloride #a4egeg #a4eahh #j4jjjahbj ,oxalic acid 7#b7 #a4gjbd #a4fade #j4jjjbfdc ,methyl oxalate #a4ebgh #a4dbfj #j4jjjcdhb ,paraffin #j4iggj #j4iajc #j4jjjcefg ,naphthalene #a4bcee #a4aehi #j4jjjcbjj ,chloral hydrate #a4igdd #a4iaea #j4jjjadhb ,urea #a4cfag #a4caij #j4jjjaegi ,iodoform #d4ddei #d4aiee #j4jjjbicj ,iodine #d4hidc #d4ffca #j4jjjbeaj ,sulphur #b4jihi #b4jebb #j4jjjaaeb ,mercury #ad4chb 44 #j4jjjjhha9999 ,sodium #a4jjef #j4igb #j4jjjahaj ,graphite 7,cumberland7 #b4acjb #b4jiij #j4jjjjgcc ---------------------------------------- ---------------- 99 ,the figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules of water of crystallization4 9999 -#ahi to -#ch4he ,c4 ,it will be seen from this table that1 with the exception of carbonate of soda and chrome alum1 the hydrated salts have a coefficient of expansion that does not differ greatly from that of ice at low temperatures4 ,iodoform is a highly expansive body like iodine1 and oxalate of methyl has nearly as great a coefficient as paraffin1 which is a very expansive solid1 as are naphthalene and oxalic acid4 ,the coefficient of solid mercury is about half that of the liquid metal1 while that of sodium is about the value of mercury at ordinary temperatures4 ,further details on the subject can be found in the ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst4 7#ahie71 and ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 7#aijb74 ,density of ,gases at ,low ,temperatures4--,the ordinary mode of determining the density of gases may be followed1 provided that the glass flask1 with its carefully ground stop-cock sealed on1 can stand an internal pressure of about five atmospheres1 and that all the necessary corrections for change of volume are made4 ,all that is necessary is to immerse the exhausted flask in boiling oxygen1 and then to allow the second gas to enter from a gasometer by opening the stop-cock until the pressure is equalized4 ,the stop-cock being closed1 the flask is now taken out of the liquid oxygen and left in the balance-room until its temperature is equalized4 ,it is then weighed against a similar flask used as a counterpoise4 ,following such a method1 it has been found that the weight of #a litre of oxygen vapour at its boiling point of #ij4e absolute is #d4dbj grammes1 and therefore the specific volume is #bbf4be cc4 ,according to the ordinary gaseous laws1 the litre ought to weigh #d4cac grammes1 and the specific volume should be #bca4hb cc4 ,in other words1 the product of pressure and volume at the boiling point is diminished by #b4df4 ,in a similar way the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling point of oxygen was found to be #c4ij1 and the inferred value for #gh absolute1 or its own boiling point1 would be #d4ea1 giving a specific volume of #bba4c4 ,regenerative ,cooling4--,one part of the problem being thus solved and a satisfactory device discovered for warding off heat in such vacuum vessels1 it remained to arrange some practically efficient method for reducing hydrogen to a temperature sufficiently low for liquefaction4 ,to gain that end1 the idea naturally occurred of using adiabatic expansion1 not intermittently1 as when gas is allowed to expand suddenly from a high compression1 but in a continuous process1 and an obvious way of attempting to carry out this condition was to enclose the orifice at which expansion takes place in a tube1 so as to obtain a constant stream of cooled gas passing over it4 ,but further consideration of this plan showed that although the gas jet would be cooled near the point of expansion owing to the conversion of a portion of its sensible heat into dynamical energy of the moving gas1 yet the heat it thus lost would be restored to it almost immediately by the destruction of this mechanical energy through friction and its consequent reconversion into heat4 ,thus the net result would be nil so far as change of temperature through the performance of external work was concerned4 ,but the conditions in such an arrangement resemble that in the experiments of ,thomson and ,joule on the thermal changes which occur in a gas when it is forced under pressure through a porous plug or narrow orifice1 and those experimenters found1 as the former of them had predicted1 that a change of temperature does take place1 owing to internal work being done by the attraction of the gas molecules4 ,hence the effective result obtainable in practice by such an attempt at continuous adiabatic expansion as that suggested above is to be measured by the amount of the ,thomson-,joule effect1 which depends entirely on the internal1 not the external1 work done by the gas4 ,to ,linde belongs the credit of having first seen the essential importance of this effect in connexion with the liquefaction of gases by adiabatic expansion1 and he was1 further1 the first to construct an industrial plant for the production of liquid air based on the application of this principle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,laboratory ,liquid ,air ,machine4 ,a1 ,air or oxygen inlet4 ,b1 ,carbon dioxide inlet4 ,c1 ,carbon dioxide valve4 ,d1 ,regenerator coils4 ,f1 ,air or oxygen expansion valve4 ,g1 ,vacuum vessel with liquid air or oxygen4 ,h1 ,carbon dioxide and air outlet4 ,o1 ,air coil4 ,o1 ,carbon dioxide coil4 ,the change of temperature due to the ,thomson-,joule effect varies in amount with different gases1 or rather with the temperature at which the operation is conducted4 ,at ordinary temperatures oxygen and carbonic acid are cooled1 while hydrogen is slightly heated4 ,but hydrogen also is cooled if before being passed through the nozzle or plug it is brought into a thermal condition comparable to that of other gases at ordinary temperatures--that is to say1 when it is initially cooled to a temperature having the same ratio to its critical point as their temperatures have to their critical points--and similarly the more condensible gases would be heated1 and not cooled1 by passing through a nozzle or plug if they were employed at a temperature sufficiently above their critical points4 ,each gas has therefore a point of inversion of the ,thomson-,joule effect1 and this temperature is1 according to the theory of van der ,waals1 about #f4ge times the critical temperature of the body4 ,olszewski has determined the inversion-point in the case of hydrogen1 and finds it to be #aib4e absolute1 the theoretical critical point being thus about #bh4e absolute4 ,the cooling effect obtained is small1 being for air about ,c4 per atmosphere difference of pressure at ordinary temperatures4 ,but the decrement of temperature is proportional to the difference of pressure and inversely as the absolute temperature1 so that the ,thomson-,joule effect increases rapidly by the combined use of a lower temperature and greater difference of gas pressure4 ,by means of the regenerative method of working1 which was described by ,c4 ,w4 ,siemens in #aheg1 developed and extended by ,ernest ,solvay in #ahhe1 and subsequently utilized by numerous experimenters in the construction of low temperature apparatus1 a practicable liquid air plant was constructed by ,linde4 ,the gas which has passed the orifice and is therefore cooled is made to flow backwards round the tube that leads to the nozzle2 hence that portion of the gas that is just about to pass through the nozzle has some of its heat abstracted1 and in consequence on expansion is cooled to a lower temperature than the first portion4 ,in its turn it cools a third portion in the same way1 and so the reduction of temperature goes on progressively until ultimately a portion of the gas is liquefied4 ,apparatus based on this principle has been employed not only by ,linde in ,germany1 but also by ,tripler in ,america and by ,hampson and ,dewar in ,england4 ,the last-named experimenter exhibited in ,december #ahie a laboratory machine of this kind 7fig4 #b71 which when supplied with oxygen initially cooled to -#gi ,c41 and at a pressure of #ajj-aej atmospheres1 began to yield liquid in about a quarter of an hour after starting4 ,the initial cooling is not necessary1 but it has the advantage of reducing the time required for the operation4 ,the efficiency of the ,linde process is small1 but it is easily conducted and only requires plenty of cheap power4 ,when we can work turbines or other engines at low temperatures1 so as to effect cooling through the performance of external work1 then the economy in the production of liquid air and hydrogen will be greatly increased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,hydrogen ,jet ,apparatus4 ,a1 ,cylinder containing compressed hydrogen4 ,b and ,c1 ,vacuum vessels containing carbonic acid under exhaustion and liquid air respectively4 ,d1 ,regenerating coil in vacuum vessel4 ,f1 ,valve4 ,g1 ,pin-hole nozzle4 ,this treatment was next extended to hydrogen4 ,for the reason already explained1 it would have been futile to experiment with this substance at ordinary temperatures1 and therefore as a preliminary it was cooled to the temperature of boiling liquid air1 about -#aij ,c4 ,at this temperature it is still #b times above its critical temperature1 and therefore its liquefaction in these circumstances would be comparable to that of air1 taken at #fj ,c41 in an apparatus like that just described4 ,dewar showed in #ahif that hydrogen cooled in this way and expanded in a regenerative coil from a pressure of #bjj atmospheres was rapidly reduced in temperature to such an extent that after the apparatus had been working a few minutes the issuing jet was seen to contain liquid1 which was sufficiently proved to be liquid hydrogen by the fact that it was so cold as to freeze liquid air and oxygen into hard white solids4 ,though with this apparatus1 a diagrammatic representation of which is shown in fig4 #c1 it was now found possible at the time to collect the liquid in an open vessel1 owing to its low specific gravity and the rapidity of the gas-current1 still the general type of the arrangement seemed so promising that in the next two years there was laid down in the laboratories of the ,royal ,institution a large plant--it weighs #b tons and contains #cjjj ft4 of pipe--which is designed on precisely the same principles1 although its construction is far more elaborate4 ,the one important novelty1 without which it is practically impossible to succeed1 is the provision of a device to surmount the difficulty of withdrawing the liquefied hydrogen after it has been made4 ,the desideratum is really a means of forming an aperture in the bottom of a vacuum vessel by which the contained liquid may be run out4 ,for this purpose the lower part of the vacuum vessel 7,d in fig4 #c7 containing the jet is modified as shown in fig4 #d2 the inner vessel is prolonged in a fine tube1 coiled spirally1 which passes through the outer wall of the vacuum vessel1 and thus sufficient elasticity is obtained to enable the tube to withstand without fracture the great contraction consequent on the extreme cold to which it is subjected4 ,such peculiarly shaped vacuum vessels were made by ,dewar's directions in ,germany1 and have subsequently been supplied to and employed by other experimenters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,bottom of ,vacuum ,vessel4 ,with the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen was for the first time collected in an open vessel on the #ajth of ,may #ahih4 ,the gas at a pressure of #ahj atmospheres was cooled to -#bje ,c4 by means of liquid air boiling in vacuo1 and was then passed through the nozzle of the regenerative coil1 which was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a way as to exclude external heat as perfectly as possible4 ,in this way some #bj cc4 of the liquid had been collected when the experiment came to a premature end1 owing to the nozzle of the apparatus becoming blocked by a dense solid--air-ice resulting from the congelation of the air which was present to a minute extent as an impurity in the hydrogen4 ,this accident exemplifies what is a serious trouble encountered in the production of liquid hydrogen1 the extreme difficulty of obtaining the gas in a state of sufficient purity1 for the presence of #a of foreign matters1 such as air or oxygen1 which are more condensible than hydrogen1 is sufficient to cause complete stoppage1 unless the nozzle valve and jet arrangement is of special construction4 ,in subsequent experiments the liquid was obtained in larger quantities--on the #acth of ,june #aija five litres of it were successfully conveyed through the streets of ,london from the laboratory of the ,royal ,institution to the rooms of the ,royal ,society--and it may be said that it is now possible to produce it in any desired amount1 subject only to the limitations entailed by expense4 ,finally1 the reduction of hydrogen to a solid state was successfully undertaken in #ahii4 ,a portion of the liquid carefully isolated in vacuum-jacketed vessels was suddenly transformed into a white mass resembling frozen foam1 when evaporated under an air-pump at a pressure of #cj or #dj mm41 and subsequently hydrogen was obtained as a clear transparent ice by immersing a tube containing the liquid in this solid foam4 ,liquefaction of ,helium4--,the subjection of hydrogen completed the experimental proof that all gases can be reduced to the liquid and solid states by the aid of pressure and low temperature1 at least so far as regards those in the hands of the chemist at the beginning of the last decade of the #aith century4 ,but a year or so before hydrogen was obtained in the liquid form1 a substance known to exist in the sun from spectroscopic researches carried out by ,sir ,edward ,frankland and ,sir ,j4 ,norman ,lockyer was shown by ,sir ,william ,ramsay to exist on the earth in small quantities4 ,helium 7q4v471 as this substance was named1 was found by experiment to be a gas much less condensable than hydrogen4 ,dewar in #aija expanded it from a pressure of #hj-ajj atmospheres at the temperature of solid hydrogen without perceiving the least indication of liquefaction4 ,olszewski repeated the experiment in #aije1 using the still higher initial compression of #ahj atmospheres1 but he equally failed to find any evidence of liquefaction1 and in consequence was inclined to doubt whether the gas was liquefiable at all1 whether in fact it was not a truly permanent gas4 ,other investigators1 however1 took a different and more hopeful view of the matter4 ,dewar1 for instance 7,pres4 ,address ,brit4 ,assoc41 #aijb71 basing his deductions on the laws established by van der ,waals and others from the study of phenomena at much higher temperatures1 anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would be about #e absolute1 so that the liquid would be about four times more volatile than liquid hydrogen1 just as liquid hydrogen is four times more volatile than liquid air2 and he expressed the opinion that the gas would succumb on being subjected to the process that had succeeded with hydrogen1 except that liquid hydrogen1 instead of liquid air1 evaporating under exhaustion must be employed as the primary cooling agent1 and must also be used to surround the vacuum vessel in which the liquid was collected4 ,various circumstances combined to prevent ,dewar from actually carrying out the operation thus foreshadowed1 but his anticipations were justified and the sufficiency of the method he indicated practically proved by ,dr ,h4 ,kamerlingh ,onnes1 who1 working with the splendid resources of the ,leiden cryogenic laboratory1 succeeded in obtaining helium in the liquid state on the #ajth of ,july #aijh4 ,having prepared #bjj litres of the gas 7#afj litres in reserve7 from monazite sand1#b he cooled it with exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of #ae or #af abs41 and expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure of #ej to #ajj atmospheres1 making use of the most elaborate precautions to prevent influx of heat and securing the absence of less volatile gases that might freeze and block the tubes of the apparatus by including in the helium circuit charcoal cooled to the temperature of liquid air4 ,operations began at #e4de in the morning with the preparation of the necessary liquid hydrogen1 of which #bj litres were ready by #a4cj4 ,the circulation of the helium was started at #d4cj in the afternoon and was continued until the gas had been pumped round the circuit twenty times2 but it was not till #g4cj1 when the last bottle of liquid hydrogen had been brought into requisition1 that the surface of the liquid was seen1 by reflection of light from below1 standing out sharply like the edge of a knife against the glass wall of the vacuum vessel4 ,its boiling-point has been determined as being #d abs41 its critical temperature #e1 and its critical pressure not more than three atmospheres4 ,the density of the liquid is found to be #j4jae or about twice that of liquid hydrogen4 ,it could not be solidified even when exhausted under a pressure of #b mm41 which in all probability corresponds to a temperature of #b abs4 7see ,communications from the physical laboratory at the ,university of ,leiden1 #aijh-aiji74 ,the following are brief details respecting some of the more important liquid gases that have become available for study within recent years4 7,for argon1 neon1 krypton1 c41 see ,,argon47 ,oxygen4--,liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid1 possessing a faint blue colour4 ,at atmospheric pressure it boils at -#aha4e ,c42 under a reduced pressure of #a cm4 of mercury its temperature falls to -#baj ,c4 ,at the boiling point it has a density of #a4abd according to ,olszewski1 or of #a4afh according to ,wroblewski2 ,dewar obtained the value #a4acge as the mean of twenty observations by weighing a number of solid substances in liquid oxygen1 noting the apparent relative density of the liquid1 and thence calculating its real density1 ,fizeau's values for the coefficients of expansion of the solids being employed4 ,the capillarity of liquid oxygen is about one-sixth that of water2 it is a non-conductor of electricity1 and is strongly magnetic4 ,by its own evaporation it cannot be reduced to the solid state1 but exposed to the temperature of liquid hydrogen it is frozen into a solid mass1 having a pale bluish tint1 showing by reflection all the absorption bands of the liquid4 ,it is remarkable that the same absorption bands occur in the compressed gas4 ,dewar gives the melting-point as #ch absolute1 and the density at the boiling-point of hydrogen as #a4debf4 ,the refractive index of the liquid for the ,d sodium ray is #a4bbcf4 ,ozone4--,this gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air4 ,the liquid obtained is intensely blue1 and on allowing the temperature to rise1 boils and explodes about -#abj ,c4 ,about this temperature it may be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution4 ,the liquid ozone seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen4 ,nitrogen forms a transparent colourless liquid1 having a density of #j4hjdb at its boiling-point1 which is -#aie4e ,c4 ,the refractive index for the ,d line is #a4bjec4 ,evaporated under diminished pressure the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of -#bae ,c41 melting under a pressure of #ij mm4 ,the density of the solid at the boiling-point of hydrogen is #a4jbfe4 ,air4--,seeing that the boiling-points of nitrogen and oxygen are different1 it might be expected that on the liquefaction of atmospheric air the two elements would appear as two separate liquids4 ,such1 however1 is not the case2 they come down simultaneously as one homogeneous liquid4 ,prepared on a large scale1 liquid air may contain as much as #ej of oxygen when collected in open vacuum-vessels1 but since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first1 and as the liquid gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature at which it boils rises from about -#aib ,c4 to about -#ahb ,c4 ,at the former temperature it has a density of about #j4iaj4 ,it is a non-conductor of electricity4 ,properly protected from external heat1 and subjected to high exhaustion1 liquid air becomes a stiff transparent jelly-like mass1 a magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid oxygen1 which may indeed be extracted from it by means of a magnet1 or by rapid rotation of the vacuum vessel in imitation of a centrifugal machine4 ,the temperature of this solid under a vacuum of about #ad mm4 is -#baf4 ,at the still lower temperatures attainable by the aid of liquid hydrogen it becomes a white solid1 having1 like solid oxygen1 a faint blue tint4 ,the refractive index of liquid air is #a4bjfh4 ,fluorine1 prepared in the free state by ,moissan's method of electrolysing a solution of potassium fluoride in anhydrous hydrofluoric acid1 was liquefied in the laboratories of the ,royal ,institution1 ,london1 in #ahig4 ,exposed to the temperature of quietly-boiling liquid oxygen1 the gas did not change its state1 though it lost much of its chemical activity1 and ceased to attack glass4 ,but a very small vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient to determine liquefaction1 a result which was also obtained by cooling the gas to the temperature of freshly-made liquid air boiling at atmospheric pressure4 ,hence the boiling-point is fixed at about -#ahg ,c4 ,the liquid is of a clear yellow colour1 possessing great mobility4 ,its density is #a4ad1 and its capillarity rather less than that of liquid oxygen4 ,the liquid1 when examined in a thickness of #a cm41 does not show any absorption bands1 and it is not attracted by a magnet4 ,cooled in liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid1 melting at about #dj abs4 ,hydrogen4--,liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the chemist1 having a density slightly less than #j4jg as compared with water1 and being six times lighter than liquid marsh-gas1 which is next in order of lightness4 ,one litre weighs only #gj grammes1 and #a gramme occupies a volume of #ad-ae cc4 ,in spite of its extreme lightness1 however1 it is easily seen1 has a well-defined meniscus and drops well4 ,at its boiling-point the liquid is only #ee times denser than the vapour it is giving off1 whereas liquid oxygen in similar condition is #beh times denser than its vapour1 and nitrogen #agg times4 ,its atomic volume is about #ad4c1 that of liquid oxygen being #ac4g1 and that of liquid nitrogen #af4f1 at their respective boiling-points4 ,its latent heat of vaporization about the boiling-point is about #aba gramme-calories1 and the latent heat of fluidity cannot exceed #af units1 but may be less4 ,hydrogen appears to have the same specific heat in the liquid as in the gaseous state1 about #c4d4 ,its surface tension is exceedingly low1 about one-fifth that of liquid air at its boiling-point1 or one-thirty-fifth that of water at ordinary temperatures1 and this is the reason that bubbles formed in the liquid are so small as to give it an opalescent appearance during ebullition4 ,the liquid is without colour1 and gives no absorption spectrum4 ,electric sparks taken in the liquid between platinum poles give a spectrum showing the hydrogen lines ,c and ,f bright on a background of continuous spectrum4 ,its refractive index at the boiling-point has theoretically the value #a4aa4 ,it was measured by determining the relative difference of focus for a parallel beam of light sent through a spherical vacuum vessel filled successively with water1 liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen2 the result obtained was #a4ab4 ,liquid hydrogen is a non-conductor of electricity4 ,the precise determination of its boiling-point is a matter of some difficulty4 ,the first results obtained from the use of a platinum resistance thermometer gave -#bch ,c41 while a similar thermometer made with an alloy of rhodium-platinum indicated a value #h degrees lower4 ,later1 a gold thermometer indicated about -#bdi ,c41 while with an iron one the result was only -#baj ,c4 ,it was thus evident that electrical resistance thermometers are not to be trusted at these low temperatures1 since the laws correlating resistance and temperature are not known for temperatures at and below the boiling-point of hydrogen1 though they are certainly not the same as those which hold good higher up the thermometric scale4 ,the same remarks apply to the use of thermo-electric junctions at such exceptional temperatures4 ,recourse was therefore had to a constant-volume hydrogen thermometer1 working under reduced pressure1 experiments having shown that such a thermometer1 filled with either a simple or a compound gas 7e4g4 oxygen or carbonic acid7 at an initial pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere1 may be relied upon to determine temperatures down to the respective boiling-points of the gases with which they are filled4 ,the result obtained was -#beb ,c4 ,subsequently various other determinations were carried out in thermometers filled with hydrogen derived from different sources1 and also with helium1 the average value given by the experiments being -#beb4e ,c4 7,see ,the ,boiling ,point of ,liquid ,hydrogen determined by ,hydrogen and ,helium ,gas ,thermometers1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #gth ,february #aija47 ,the critical temperature is about #cj absolute 7-#bdc ,c471 and the critical pressure about #ae atmospheres4 ,hydrogen has not only the lowest critical temperature of all the old permanent gases1 but it has the lowest critical pressure4 ,given a sufficiently low temperature1 therefore1 it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is concerned4 ,solid hydrogen has a temperature about #d less4 ,by exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may be attained1 and a steady temperature reached less than #af above the zero of absolute temperature4 ,by the use of high exhaustion1 and the most stringent precautions to prevent the influx of heat1 a temperature of #ac absolute 7-#bfj ,c47 may be reached4 ,this is the lowest steady temperature which can be maintained by the evaporation of solid hydrogen4 ,at this temperature the solid has a density of about #j4jgg4 ,solid hydrogen presents no metallic characteristics1 such as were predicted for it by ,faraday1 ,dumas1 ,graham and other chemists and neither it nor the liquid is magnetic4 ,the ,approach to the ,absolute ,zero4--,the achievement of ,kamerlingh ,onnes has brought about the realization of a temperature removed only #c from the absolute zero1 and the question naturally suggests itself whether there is any probability of a still closer approach to that point4 ,the answer is that if1 as is not impossible1 there exists a gas1 as yet unisolated1 which has an atomic weight one-half that of helium1 that gas1 liquefied in turn by the aid of liquid helium1 would render that approach possible1 though the experimental difficulties of the operation would be enormous and perhaps prohibitive4 ,the results of experiments bearing on this question and of theory based on them are shown in table ,,ii4 ,the third column shows the critical temperature of the gas which can be liquefied by continuous expansion through a regenerative cooling apparatus1 the operation being started from the initial temperature shown in the second column1 while the fourth column gives the temperature of the resulting liquid4 ,it will be seen that by the use of liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent1 it should be possible to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about #f to #h on the absolute scale1 and a boiling point of about #d or #e1 while with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature of #e we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of #b and a boiling point of #a4 ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,initial ,critical ,boiling ,points4 ,substance4 ,temperature4,temperature4 ,abs4 ,degrees4 ,abs4 ,degrees4,abs4 ,degrees4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 7,low red heat7 #gfj #cjd #aie 7,,co#b7 7#eb ,c47 #cbe #acj #hf 7,air7 ,liquid air under exhaustion #ge #cj #bj 7,h7 ,liquid hydrogen #bj #h #e 7,he7 ,solid hydrogen #ae #f #d ,liquid helium #e #b #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that even so the physicist would not have attained the absolute zero1 and he can scarcely hope ever to do so4 ,it is true he would only be a very short distance from it1 but it must be remembered that in a thermodynamic sense one degree low down the scale1 say at #aj absolute1 is equivalent to #cj at the ordinary temperature1 and as the experimenter gets to lower and lower temperatures1 the difficulties of further advance increase1 not in arithmetical but in geometrical progression4 ,thus the step between the liquefaction of air and that of hydrogen is1 thermodynamically and practically1 greater than that between the liquefaction of chlorine and that of air1 but the number of degrees of temperature that separates the boiling-points of the first pair of substances is less than half what it is in the case of the second pair4 ,but the ratio of the absolute boiling-points in the first pair of substances is as #a to #d1 whereas in the second pair it is only #a to #c1 and it is this value that expresses the difficulty of the transition4 ,but though ,ultima ,thule may continue to mock the physicist's efforts1 he will long find ample scope for his energies in the investigation of the properties of matter at the temperatures placed at his command by liquid air and liquid and solid hydrogen4 ,indeed1 great as is the sentimental interest attached to the liquefaction of these refractory gases1 the importance of the achievement lies rather in the fact that it opens out new fields of research and enormously widens the horizon of physical science1 enabling the natural philosopher to study the properties and behaviour of matter under entirely novel conditions4 ,we propose to indicate briefly the general directions in which such inquiries have so far been carried on1 but before doing so will call attention to the power of absorbing gases possessed by cooled charcoal1 which has on that account proved itself a most valuable agent in low temperature research4 ,,table ,,iii4--,gas ,absorption by ,charcoal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,volume ,volume absorbed at absorbed at #j ,cent4 -#ahe ,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,helium #b cc4 #ae cc4 ,hydrogen #d #ace ,electrolytic gas #ab #aej ,argon #ab #age ,nitrogen #ae #aee ,oxygen #ah #bcj ,carbonic oxide #ba #aij ,carbonic oxide and oxygen #cj #aie ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,gas ,absorption by ,charcoal4--,felix ,fontana was apparently the first to discover that hot charcoal has the power of absorbing gases1 and his observations were confirmed about #aggj by ,joseph ,priestley1 to whom he had communicated them4 ,a generation later ,theodore de ,saussure made a number of experiments on the subject1 and noted that at ordinary temperatures the absorption is accompanied with considerable evolution of heat4 ,among subsequent investigators were ,thomas ,graham and ,stenhouse1 ,faure and ,silberman1 and ,hunter1 the last-named showing that charcoal made from coco-nut exhibits greater absorptive powers than other varieties4 ,in #ahgd ,tait and ,dewar for the first time employed charcoal for the production of high vacua1 by using it1 heated to a red heat1 to absorb the mercury vapour in a tube exhausted by a mercury pump2 and thirty years afterwards it occurred to the latter investigator to try how its absorbing powers are affected by cooling it1 with the result that he found them to be greatly enhanced4 ,some of his earlier observations are given in table ,,iii41 but it must be pointed out that much larger absorptions were obtained subsequently when it was found that the quality of the charcoal was greatly influenced by the mode in which it was prepared1 the absorptive power being increased by carbonizing the coco-nut shell slowly at a gradually increasing temperature4 ,the results in the table were all obtained with the same specimen of charcoal1 and the volumes of the gases absorbed1 both at ordinary and at low temperatures1 were measured under standard conditions--at #j ,c41 and #gfj mm4 pressure4 ,it appears that at the lower temperature there is a remarkable increase of absorption for every gas1 but that the increase is in general smaller as the boiling-points of the various gases are lower4 ,helium is conspicuous for the fact that it is absorbed to a comparatively slight extent at both the higher and the lower temperature1 but in this connexion it must be remembered that1 being the most volatile gas known1 it is being treated at a temperature which is relatively much higher than the other gases4 ,at -#ahe 7 #hh abs471 while hydrogen is at about #d times its boiling-point 7#bj abs471 helium is at about #bj times its boiling-point 7#d4e abs471 and it might1 therefore1 be expected that if it were taken at a temperature corresponding to that of the hydrogen1 i4e4 at #d or #e times its boiling-point1 or say #bj abs41 it would undergo much greater absorption4 ,this expectation is borne out by the results shown in table ,,iv41 and it may be inferred that charcoal cooled in liquid helium would absorb helium as freely as charcoal cooled in liquid hydrogen absorbs hydrogen4 ,it is found that a given specimen of charcoal cooled in liquid oxygen1 nitrogen and hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three gases 7about #bfj cc4 per gramme72 and1 as the relation between volume and temperature is nearly lineal at the lowest portions of either the hydrogen or the helium absorption1 it is a legitimate inference that at a temperature of #e to #f abs4 helium would be as freely absorbed by charcoal as hydrogen is at its boiling-point and that the boiling-point of helium lies at about #e abs4 ,,table ,,iv4--,gas ,absorption by ,charcoal at ,low ,temperatures4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,helium4 ,hydrogen4 ,temperature4 ,vols4 of ,vols4 of ,carbon4 ,carbon4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- -#ahe ,c4 7boiling-point of liquid air7 #b #acg -#baj ,c4 7liquid air under exhaustion7 #e #ahj -#beb ,c4 7boiling-point of liquid hydrogen7 #afj #beh -#beh ,c4 7solid hydrogen7 #aie 44 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at -#ahe ,c4 and under small pressures is illustrated by table ,v41 which shows the reductions of pressure effected in a tube of #bjjj cc4 capacity by means of #bj grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air4 ,,table ,v4--,velocity of ,absorption4 --------------------------------------- ,time of ,pressure ,time of ,pressure ,exhaustion4 in mm4 ,exhaustion4 in mm4 --------------------------------------- #j sec4 #b4aij #fj sec4 #j4cdg #aj #a4bga #b min4 #j4aec #bj #j4hfi #e #j4jbgd #cj #j4fcb #aj #j4jjbje #dj #j4edc #ai #j4jjjbe #ej #j4dce 44 44 --------------------------------------- ,,table ,,vi4 ------------------------------- ,volume ,occlusion ,occlusion of ,gas ,hydrogen ,nitrogen absorbed4 ,pressure4 ,pressure4 ------------------------------- cc4 mm4 mm4 #j #j4jjjjc #j4jjjje #e #j4jbbh 44 #aj #j4jdee 44 #ae #j4jfde 44 #bj #j4jhfa 44 #be #j4aaje 44 #cj #j4acci #j4jjjca #ce #j4afbc 44 #dj #j4ahgj 44 #acj 44 #j4jjaaj #ejj 44 #j4jjcad #ajjj 44 #j4jagef #aejj 44 #j4jbibj #bejj 44 #j4jfagb ------------------------------- ,charcoal ,occlusion ,pressures4--,for measuring the gas concentration1 pressure and temperature1 use may be made of an apparatus of the type shown in fig4 #e4 ,a mass of charcoal1 ,e1 immersed in liquid air1 is employed for the preliminary exhaustion of the ,mc,leod gauge ,g and of the charcoal ,c1 which is to be used in the actual experiments1 and is then sealed off at ,s4 ,the bulb ,c is then placed in a large spherical vacuum vessel containing liquid oxygen which can be made to boil at any definite temperature under diminished pressure which is measured by the manometer ,r4 ,the volume of gas admitted into the charcoal is determined by the burette ,d and the pipette ,p1 and the corresponding occlusion pressure at any concentration and any temperature below #ij abs4 by the gauge ,g4 ,in presence of charcoal1 and for small concentrations1 great variations are shown in the relation between the pressure and the concentration of different gases1 all at the same temperature4 ,table ,,vi4 gives the comparison between hydrogen and nitrogen at the temperature of liquid air1 #be grammes of charcoal being employed4 ,it is seen that #ae cc4 of hydrogen produce nearly the same pressure 7#j4jfde mm47 as #bejj cc4 of nitrogen 7#j4jfagb mm474 ,this result shows how enormously greater1 at the temperature of liquid air1 is the volatility of hydrogen as compared with that of nitrogen4 ,in the same way the concentrations1 for the same pressure1 vary greatly with temperature1 as is exemplified by table ,,vii41 even though the pressures are not quite constant4 ,the temperatures employed were the boiling-points of hydrogen1 oxygen and carbon dioxide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,table ,,vii4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,concentration ,pressure,temperature ,gas4 in cc4 per grm4 in mm4 ,absolute4 of ,charcoal4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,helium #ig #b4b #bj ,hydrogen #cig #b4b #bj ,hydrogen #ae #b4a #ij ,nitrogen #bej #a4f #ij ,oxygen #cjj #a4j #ij ,carbon dioxide #ij #c4f #aie ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,table ,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,concentration ,molecular ,mean ,gas4 cc4 per grm4,latent ,heat4,temperature4 ,absolute4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,helium #ig #dhc4j #ah ,hydrogen #cij #ebd4d #ah ,hydrogen #bj #bjje4f #gh ,nitrogen #bej #cjei4j #hb ,oxygen #cjj #cadf4d #hb ,carbon dioxide #ij #fjii4f #ahj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,heat of ,occlusion4--,in every case when gases are condensed to the liquid state there is evolution of heat1 and during the absorption of a gas in charcoal or any other occluding body1 as hydrogen in palladium1 the amount of heat evolved exceeds that of direct liquefaction4 ,from the relation between occlusion-pressure and temperature at the same concentration1 the reaction being reversible1 it is possible to calculate this heat evolution4 ,table ,,viii4 gives the mean molecular latent heats of occlusion resulting from ,dewar's experiments for a number of gases1 having concentrations in the charcoal as shown4 ,the concentrations were so regulated as to start with an initial pressure not exceeding #c mm4 at the respective boiling-points of hydrogen1 nitrogen1 oxygen and carbon dioxide4 ,production of ,high ,vacua4--,exceedingly high vacua can be obtained by the aid of liquid gases1 with or without charcoal4 ,if a vessel containing liquid hydrogen be freely exposed to the atmosphere1 a rain of snow 7solid air7 at once begins to fall upon the surface of the liquid2 similarly1 if one end of a sealed tube containing ordinary air be immersed in the liquid1 the same thing happens1 but since there is now no new supply to take the place of the air that has been solidified and has accumulated in the cooled portion of the tube1 the pressure is quickly reduced to something like one-millionth of an atmosphere1 and a vacuum is formed of such tenuity that the electric discharge can be made to pass only with difficulty4 ,liquid air can be employed in the same manner if the tube1 before sealing1 is filled with some less volatile gas or vapour1 such as sulphurous acid1 benzol or water vapour4 ,but if a charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with the liquid air it becomes possible to obtain a high vacuum when the tube contains air initially4 ,for instance1 in one experiment1 with a bulb having a capacity of #cjj cc4 and filled with air at a pressure of about #a4g mm4 and at a temperature of #ae ,c41 when an attached condenser with #e grammes of charcoal was cooled in liquid air1 the pressure was reduced to #j4jede mm4 of mercury in five minutes1 to #j4jajcb mm4 in ten minutes1 to #j4jjjaci mm4 in thirty minutes1 and to #j4jjjjdg mm4 in sixty minutes4 ,the condenser then being cooled in liquid hydrogen the pressure fell to #j4jjjjaed mm4 in ten minutes1 and to #j4jjjjjeh mm4 in a further ten minutes when solid hydrogen was employed as the cooling agent1 and no doubt1 had it not been for the presence of hydrogen and helium in the air1 an even greater reduction could have been effected4 ,another illustration of the power of cooled charcoal to produce high vacua is afforded by a ,crookes radiometer4 ,if the instrument be filled with helium at atmospheric pressure and a charcoal bulb attached to it be cooled in liquid air1 the vanes remain motionless even when exposed to the concentrated beam of an electric arc lamp2 but if liquid hydrogen be substituted for the liquid air rapid rotation at once sets in4 ,when a similar radiometer was filled with hydrogen and the attached charcoal bulb was cooled in liquid air rotation took place1 because sufficient of the gas was absorbed to permit motion4 ,but when the charcoal was cooled in liquid hydrogen instead of in liquid air1 the absorption increased and consequently the rarefaction became so high that there was no motion when the light from the arc was directed on the vanes4 ,these experiments again permit of an inference as to the boiling-point of helium4 ,a fall of #ge in the temperature of the charcoal bulb1 from the boiling-point of air to the boiling-point of hydrogen1 reduced the vanes to rest in the case of the radiometer filled with hydrogen2 hence it might be inferred that a fall of like amount from the boiling-point of hydrogen would reduce the vanes of the helium radiometer to rest1 and consequently that the boiling-point of helium would be about #e abs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the vacua obtainable by means of cooled charcoal are so high that it is difficult to determine the pressures by the ,mc,leod gauge1 and the radiometer experiments referred to above suggested the possibility of another means of ascertaining such pressures1 by determining the pressures below which the radiometer would not spin4 ,the following experiment shows how the limit of pressure can be ascertained by reference to the pressures of mercury vapour which have been very accurately determined through a wide range of temperature4 ,to a radiometer 7fig4 #f7 with attached charcoal bulb ,b was sealed a tube ending in a small bulb ,a containing a globule of mercury4 ,the radiometer and bulb ,b were heated1 exhausted and repeatedly washed out with pure oxygen gas1 and then the mercury was allowed to distil for some time into the charcoal cooled in liquid air4 ,on exposure to the electric beam the vanes began to spin1 but soon ceased when the bulb ,a was cooled in liquid air4 ,when1 however1 the mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in liquid water1 the vanes began to move again1 and in the particular radiometer used this was found to happen when the temperature of the mercury had risen to -#bc ,c4 corresponding to a pressure of about one fifty-millionth of an atmosphere4 ,for washing out the radiometer with oxygen the arrangement shown in fig4 #g is convenient4 ,here ,a is a bulb containing perchlorate of potash1 which when heated gives off pure oxygen2 ,c is again the radiometer and ,b the charcoal bulb4 ,the side tube ,e is for the purpose of examining the gas given off by minerals like thorianite or the gaseous products of the transformation of radioactive bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,analytic ,uses4--,another important use of liquid gases is as analytic agents1 and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an almost essential laboratory reagent4 ,it is one of the most convenient agents for drying gases and for their purification4 ,if a mixture of gases be subjected to the temperature of liquid air1 it is obvious that all the constituents that are more condensable than air will be reduced to liquid1 while those that are less condensable will either remain as a gaseous residue or be dissolved in the liquid obtained4 ,the bodies present in the latter may be separated by fractional distillation1 while the contents of the gaseous residue may be further differentiated by the air of still lower temperatures1 such as are obtainable by liquid hydrogen4 ,an apparatus such as the following can be used to separate both the less and the more volatile gases of the atmosphere1 the former being obtained from their solution in liquid air by fractional distillation at low pressure and separation of the condensable part of the distillate by cooling in liquid hydrogen1 while the latter are extracted from the residue of liquid air1 after the distillation of the first fraction1 by allowing it to evaporate gradually at a temperature rising only very slowly4 ,in fig4 #h1 ,a represents a vacuum-jacketed vessel1 containing liquid air2 this can be made to boil at reduced pressure and therefore be lowered in temperature by means of an air-pump1 which is in communication with the vessel through the pipe s4 ,the liquid boiled away is replenished when necessary from the reservoir ,c1 p being a valve1 worked by handle q1 by which the flow along r is regulated4 ,the vessel ,b1 immersed in the liquid air of ,a1 communicates with the atmosphere by a2 hence when the temperature of ,a falls under exhaustion below that of liquid air1 the contents of ,b condense1 and if the stop-cock m is kept open1 and n shut1 air from the outside is continuously sucked in until ,b is full of liquid1 which contains in solution the whole of the most volatile gases of the atmosphere which have passed in through a4 ,at this stage of the operation m is closed and n opened1 a passage thus being opened along b from ,a to the remainder of the apparatus seen on the left side of the figure4 ,here ,e is a vacuum vessel containing liquid hydrogen1 and d a three-way cock by which communication can be established either between b and ,d1 between b and e1 the tube leading to the sparking-tube g1 or between ,d and e4 ,if now d is arranged so that there is a free passage from b to ,d1 and the stop-cock n also opened1 the gas dissolved in the liquid in ,b1 together with some of the most volatile part of that liquid1 quickly distils over into ,d1 which is at a much lower temperature than ,b1 and some of it condenses there in the solid state4 ,when a small fraction of the contents of ,b has thus distilled over1 d is turned so as to close the passage between ,d and b and open that between ,d and e1 with the result that the gas in ,d is pumped out by the mercury-pump1 shown diagrammatically at ,f1 along the tube e 7which is immersed in the liquid hydrogen in order that any more condensable gas carried along by the current may be frozen out7 to the sparking-tube or tubes g1 where it can be examined spectroscopically4 ,when the apparatus is used to separate the least volatile part of the gases in the atmosphere1 the vessel ,e and its contents are omitted1 and the tube b made to communicate with the pump through a number of sparking-tubes which can be sealed off successively4 ,the nitrogen and oxygen which make up the bulk of the liquid in ,b are allowed to evaporate gradually1 the temperature being kept low so as to check the evaporation of gases less volatile than oxygen4 ,when most of the oxygen and nitrogen have thus been removed1 the stop-cock n is closed1 and the tubes partially exhausted by the pump2 spectroscopic examination is made of the gases they contain1 and repeated from time to time as more gas is allowed to evaporate from ,b4 ,the general sequence of spectra1 apart from those of nitrogen1 oxygen and carbon compounds1 which are never eliminated by the process of distillation alone1 is as follows3 ,the spectrum of argon first appears1 followed by the brightest 7green and yellow7 rays of krypton4 ,then the intensity of the argon spectrum wanes and it gives way to that of krypton1 until1 as ,runge observed1 when a ,leyden jar is in the circuit1 the capillary part of the sparking-tube has a magnificent blue colour1 while the wide ends are bright pale yellow4 ,without a jar the tube is nearly white in the middle and yellow about the poles4 ,as distillation proceeds1 the temperature of the vessel containing the residue of liquid air being allowed to rise slowly1 the brightest 7green7 rays of xenon begin to appear1 and the krypton rays soon die out1 being superseded by those of xenon4 ,at this stage the capillary part of the sparking-tube is1 with a jar in circuit1 a brilliant green1 and it remains green1 though less brilliant1 if the jar is removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,apparatus for ,fractional ,distillation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,apparatus for continuous ,spectroscopic ,examination4 ,an improved form of apparatus for the fractionation is represented in fig4 #i4 ,the gases to be separated1 that is1 the least volatile part of atmospheric air1 enter the bulb ,b from a gasholder by the tube a with stop-cock c4 ,b1 which is maintained at a low temperature by being immersed in liquid hydrogen1 ,a1 boiling under reduced pressure1 in turn communicates through the tube b and stop-cock d with a sparking-tube or tubes f1 and so on through e with a mercurial pump4 ,to use the apparatus1 stop-cock d is closed and c opened1 and gas allowed to pass from the gasholder into ,b1 where it is condensed in the solid form4 ,stop-cock c then being closed and d opened1 gas passes into the exhausted tube f1 where it is examined with the spectroscope4 ,the vessel ,d contains liquid air1 in which the tube e is immersed in order to condense vapour of mercury which would otherwise pass from the pump into the sparking-tube4 ,the success of the operation of separating all the gases which occur in air and which boil at different temperatures1 depends on keeping the temperature of ,b as low as possible1 as will be understood from the following consideration3-- ,the pressure p1 of a gas ,g1 above the same material in the liquid state1 at temperature ,t1 is given approximately by the formula ,b log p ,a - ---1 ,t where ,a and ,b are constants for the same material4 ,for some other gas ,g the formula will be ,b#a log p#a ,a#a - ---1 ,t and p ,b#a - ,b log --- ,a - ,a#a ------1 p#a ,t ,now for argon1 krypton and xenon respectively the values of ,a are #f4ghb1 #f4igb and #f4ifc1 and those of ,b are #cci1 #dif4c and #ffi4b2 so that for these substances and many others ,a - ,a#a is always a small quantity1 while 7,b#a - ,b7_/,t is considerable and increases as ,t diminishes4 ,hence the ratio of p to p#a increases rapidly as ,t diminishes1 and by evaporating all the gases from the solid state1 and keeping the solid at as low a temperature as possible1 the gas that is taken off by the mercurial pump first consists mainly of the substance which has the lowest boiling point1 in this case nitrogen1 and is succeeded with comparative abruptness by the gas which has the next higher boiling point4 ,examination of the spectrum in the sparking-tube easily reveals the change from one gas to another1 and when that is observed the reservoirs into which the gases are pumped can be changed and the fractions stored separately4 ,or several sparking-tubes may be arranged so as to form parallel communications between b and e1 and can be successively sealed off at the desired stages of fractionation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,analytical operations can often be performed still more conveniently with the help of charcoal1 taking advantage of the selective character of its absorption1 the general law of which is that the more volatile the gas the less is it absorbed at a given temperature4 ,the following are some examples of its employment for this purpose4 ,if it be required to separate the helium which is often found in the gases given off by a thermal spring1 they are subjected to the action of charcoal cooled with liquid air4 ,the result is the absorption of the less volatile constituents1 i4e4 all except hydrogen and helium4 ,the gaseous residue1 with the addition of oxygen1 is then sparked1 and the water thus formed is removed together with the excess of oxygen1 when helium alone remains4 ,or the separation may be effected by a method of fractionation as described above4 ,to separate the most volatile constituents of the atmosphere an apparatus such as that shown in fig4 #aj may be employed4 ,in one experiment with this1 when #bjj c4c4 was supplied from the graduated gas-holder ,f to the vessel ,d1 containing #ae grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air1 the residue which passed on unabsorbed to the sparking-tube ,,ab1 which had a small charcoal bulb ,c attached1 showed the ,c and ,f lines of hydrogen1 the yellow and some of the orange lines of neon and the yellow and green of helium4 ,by using a second charcoal vessel ,e1 with stop-cocks at ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k and ,l to facilitate manipulation1 considerable quantities of the most volatile gases can be collected4 ,after the charcoal in ,e has been saturated1 the stop-cock ,k is closed and ,i and ,j are opened for a short time1 to allow the less condensable gas in ,e to be sucked into the second condenser ,d along with some portion of air4 ,the condenser ,e is then taken out of the liquid air1 heated quickly to #ae ,c4 to expel the occluded air and replaced4 ,more air is then passed in1 and by repeating the operation several times #ej litres of air can be treated in a short time1 supplying sparking-tubes which will show the complete spectra of the volatile constituents of the air4 ,the less volatile constituents of the atmosphere1 krypton and xenon1 may be obtained by leading a current of air1 purified by passage through a series of tubes cooled in liquid air1 through a charcoal condenser also cooled in liquid air4 ,the condenser is then removed and placed in solid carbon dioxide at -#gh ,c4 ,the gas that comes off is allowed to escape1 but what remains in the charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion1 the carbon compounds and oxygen are removed and the residue1 consisting of nitrogen with krypton and xenon1 is separated into its constituents by condensation and fractionation4 ,another method is to cover a few hundred grammes of charcoal with old liquid air1 which is allowed to evaporate slowly in a silvered vacuum vessel2 the gases remaining in the charcoal are then treated in the manner described above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of oxygen to be extracted from the atmosphere4 ,in one experiment #ej grammes of it1 after being heated and exhausted were allowed to absorb air at -#ahe ,c42 some #e or #f litres were taken up in ten minutes1 and it then presumably contained air of the composition of the atmosphere1 i4e4 #bj oxygen and #hj nitrogen1 as shown in fig4 #aa4 ,but when more air was passed over it1 the portion that was not absorbed was found to consist of about #ih nitrogen1 showing that excess of oxygen was being absorbed1 and in the course of a few hours the occluded gas attained a new and apparently definite composition exhibited in fig4 #ab4 ,when the charcoal containing this mixture was transferred to a vacuum vessel and allowed to warm up slowly1 the successive litres of gas when collected and analyzed separately showed the following composition3-- #ast litre #ah4e oxygen #bnd litre #bj4f #crd litre #ec4j #dth litre #gb4j #eth litre #gi4j #fth litre #hd4j ,,table ,,ix4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,liquid ,volume ,volume of ,gas ,boiling of #a gram at ,latent ,heatat #j ,c4 and ,liquid ,gases4 ,point4 ,boiling ,point in gram #gfj mm4 per in c4c4 ,calories4 gram ,calorie in c4c4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,sulphurous acid #aj;,c4 #j4g #ig4j #c4f ,carbonic acid - #gh4j #j4fe 7solid7 #adb4d #c4f ,ethylene -#ajc4j #a4g #aai4j #g4j ,oxygen -#ahb4e #j4i #ec4j #ac4b ,nitrogen -#aie4f #a4c #ej4j #ae4i ,hydrogen -#beb4e #ad4c #abe4j #hh4i ,helium -#bfi4j #g4j #ac4j #dej4j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,calorimetry4--,certain liquid gases lend themselves conveniently to the construction of a calorimeter1 in which the heat in weighed quantities of any substance with which it is desired to experiment may be measured by the quantity of liquid gas they are able to evaporate4 ,one advantage of this method is that a great range of temperature is available when liquid air1 oxygen1 nitrogen or hydrogen is employed as the calorimetric substance4 ,another is the relatively large quantity of gas yielded by the evaporation1 as may be seen from table ,,ix41 which shows the special physical constants of the various gases that are of importance in calorimetry4 ,in consequence it is easy to detect #a_/ej gram calorie with liquid air and so little as #a_/cjj gram calorie with liquid hydrogen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,calorimetric ,apparatus4 ,the apparatus 7fig4 #ac7 consists of a large vacuum vessel ,a1 of #b or #c litres' capacity1 containing liquid air1 in which is inserted a smaller vacuum vessel ,b1 of #be-cj c4c4 capacity1 having sealed to it a long narrow tube ,g that projects above the mouth of ,a and is held in place by some loosely packed cotton wool4 ,to the top of this tube the test tube ,c1 containing the material under investigation1 is connected by a piece of flexible rubber tubing ,d2 this enables ,c to be tilted so as to throw a piece or pieces of the contained material into the calorimeter4 ,an improved form of this receptacle1 attached to ,b by a flexible tube at ,d1 is shown at ,c4 ,in this ,p is a wire movable through a cork ,q and having at its end a hook by which a piece of the substance under examination can be pulled up and dropped into ,b4 ,in the absence of other arrangements the substance is at the temperature of the room1 but when lower initial temperatures are desired a vacuum vessel ,h containing solid carbonic acid1 liquid ethylene1 air or other gas1 can be placed to envelop ,c or ,c1 or higher temperatures may be obtained by filling the surrounding vessel with vapour of water or other liquids4 ,the gas volatilized in ,b is conveyed by a side tube ,e to be collected in a graduated receiver ,f over water1 oil or other liquid4 ,if liquid hydrogen is to be used as the calorimetric substance the instrument must be so modified as to prevent the ordinary atmosphere from entering ,g1 and to that end a current of hydrogen supplied from a ,kipp apparatus is arranged to flow continuously through ,d and ,e until the moment of making the experiment1 when it is cut off by a suitable stop-cock4 ,in this case the outer vessel must contain liquid hydrogen instead of liquid air4 ,,table ,x4 ---------------------------------------- #ah to -#gh to -#ahh to ,substance4 -#gh ,c41 -#ahh ,c41 -#beb ,c41 or1 at or1 at or1 at -#cj ,c4 -#acc ,c4 -#bbj ,c4 ---------------------------------------- ,diamond #j4jgid #j4jaij #j4jjdc ,graphite #j4acda #j4jeii #j4jacc ,ice #j4dfc99 #j4bhe #j4adf ---------------------------------------- 99 ,this is from -#ah to -#gh in the ice experiment4 ,dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying definite amounts of heat to liquid gas calorimeters of this kind1 that metal being selected on the ground of the small variation in its specific heat at low temperatures4 ,he was thus able to determine the latent heats of evaporation of liquid oxygen1 nitrogen and hydrogen directly at their boiling points1 and he also ascertained the specific heats of a large number of inorganic and organic bodies1 and of some gases in the solid state1 such as carbon dioxide1 sulphurous acid and ammonia4 ,perhaps his most interesting results were those which showed the variation in the specific heats of diamond1 graphite and ice as typical bodies 7table ,x474 ,with ,professor ,curie he used both the liquid oxygen and the liquid hydrogen calorimeter for preliminary measurements of the rate at which radium bromide gives out energy at low temperatures4 ,the quantity of the salt available was #j4db gram1 and the thermal evolutions were as follows3-- ,gas evolved ,calories per minute4 per hour4 ,liquid oxygen #e4e cc4 #bb4h ,liquid hydrogen #ea4j #ca4f ,crystals4 ,melting ice 44 #bd4a _/ ,liquid oxygen #b4j #h4c ,after fusion4 ,liquid oxygen #b4e #aj4c ,emanation condensed4 ,the apparent increase of heat evolution at the temperature of liquid hydrogen was probably due to the calorimeter being too small2 hydrogen spray was thus carried away with the gas1 making the volume of gas too great and inferentially also the heat evolved4 ,liquid air and liquid hydrogen calorimeters open up an almost unlimited field of research in the determination of specific heats and other thermal constants1 and are certain to become common laboratory instruments for such purposes4 ,chemical ,action4--,by extreme cold chemical action is enormously reduced1 though it may not in all cases be entirely abolished even at the lowest temperatures yet attained2 one reason for this diminution of activity may doubtless be sought in the fact that in such conditions most substances are solid1 that is1 in the state least favourable to chemical combination4 ,thus an electric pile of sodium and carbon ceases to yield a current when immersed in liquid oxygen4 ,sulphur1 iron and other substances can be made to burn under the surface of liquid oxygen if the combustion is properly established before the sample is immersed1 and the same is true of a fragment of diamond4 ,nitric oxide in the gaseous condition combines instantly with free oxygen1 producing the highly-coloured gas1 nitric peroxide1 but in the solid condition it may be placed in contact with liquid oxygen without showing any signs of chemical action4 ,if the combination of a portion of the mixture is started by elevation of temperature1 then detonation may take place throughout the cooled mass4 ,the stability of endothermic bodies like nitric oxide and ozone at low temperatures requires further investigation4 ,the behaviour of fluorine1 which may be regarded as the most active of the elements1 is instructive in this respect4 ,as a gas1 cooled to -#ahj ,c4 it loses the power of attacking glass2 similarly silicon1 borax1 carbon1 sulphur and phosphorus at the same temperature do not become incandescent in an atmosphere of the gas4 ,passed into liquid oxygen1 the gas dissolves and imparts a yellowish tint to the liquid2 if the oxygen has been exposed to the air for some hours1 the fluorine produces a white flocculent precipitate1 which if separated by filtering deflagrates with violence as the temperature rises4 ,it appears to be a hydrate of fluorine4 ,as a liquid at -#baj fluorine attacks turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive force and the evolution of light1 while the direction of a jet of hydrogen upon its surface is immediately followed by combination and a flash of flame4 ,even when the point of a tube containing solid fluorine is broken off under liquid hydrogen1 a violent explosion ensues4 ,photographic ,action4--,the action of light on photographic plates1 though greatly diminished at -#ahj1 is far from being in abeyance2 an ,eastman film1 for instance1 remains fairly sensitive at -#baj4 ,at the still lower temperature of liquid hydrogen the photographic activity is reduced to about half what it is at that of liquid air2 in other words1 about #aj of the original sensitivity remains4 ,experiments carried out with an incandescent lamp1 a ,rntgen bulb and the ultra-violet spark from magnesium and cadmium1 to discover at what distances from the source of light the plates must be placed in order to receive an equal photographic impression1 yielded the results shown in table ,,xi4 ,,table ,,xi4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cooled ,uncooled ,ratio of ,source of ,light4 ,plate4 ,plate4 ,intensities at ,balance4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #af ,c4,p4 lamp #bj in4 #ej in4 #a to #f ,rntgen bulb #aj in4 #bd in4 #a to #f ,ultra-violet spark #bb in4 #ij in4 #a to #af ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,it appears that the photographic action of both the incandescent lamp and the ,rntgen rays is reduced by the temperature of liquid air to #ag of that exerted at ordinary temperatures1 while ultra-violet radiation retains only #f4 ,it is possible that the greater dissipation of the latter by the photographic film at low temperatures than at ordinary ones is due to its absorption and subsequent emission as a phosphorescent glow1 and that if the plate could be developed at a low temperature it would show no effect1 the photographic action taking place subsequently through an internal phosphorescence in the film during the time it is heating up4 ,with regard to the transparency of bodies to the ,rntgen radiation at low temperatures1 small tubes of the same bore1 filled with liquid argon and chlorine1 potassium1 phosphorus1 aluminium1 silicon and sulphur1 were exposed at the temperature of liquid air 7in order to keep the argon and chlorine solid71 in front of a photographic plate shielded with a sheet of aluminium1 to an ,x-ray bulb4 ,the sequence of the elements as mentioned represents the order of increasing opacity observed in the shadows4 ,sodium and liquid oxygen and air1 nitrous and nitric oxides1 proved much more transparent than chlorine4 ,tubes of potassium1 argon and liquid chlorine showed no very marked difference of density on the photographic plates4 ,it appears that argon is relatively more opaque to the ,rntgen radiation than either oxygen1 nitrogen or sodium1 and is on a level with potassium1 chlorine1 phosphorus1 aluminium and sulphur4 ,this fact may be regarded as supporting the view that the atomic weight of argon is twice its density relative to hydrogen1 since in general the opacity of elements in the solid state increases with the atomic weight4 ,phosphorescence4--,phosphorescing sulphides of calcium1 which are luminous at ordinary temperatures1 and whose emission of light is increased by heating1 cease to be luminous if cooled to -#hj ,c4 ,but their light energy is merely rendered latent1 not destroyed1 by such cold1 and they still retain the capacity of taking in light energy at the low temperature1 to be evolved again when they are warmed4 ,at the temperature of liquid air many bodies become phosphorescent which do not exhibit the phenomenon at all1 or only to a very slight extent1 at ordinary temperatures1 e4g4 ivory1 indiarubber1 egg-shells1 feathers1 cottonwool1 paper1 milk1 gelatine1 white of egg1 c4 ,of definite chemical compounds1 the platinocyanides among the inorganic bodies seem to yield the most brilliant effects4 ,crystals of ammonium platinocyanide1 if stimulated by exposure to the ultra-violet radiation of the electric arc--or better still of a mercury vapour lamp in quartz--while kept moistened with liquid air1 may be seen in the dark to glow faintly so long as they are kept cold1 but become exceedingly brilliant when the liquid air evaporates and the temperature rises4 ,among organic bodies the phenomenon is particularly well marked with the ketonic compounds and others of the same type4 ,the chloro-1 bromo-1 iodo-1 sulpho- and nitro-compounds show very little effect as a rule4 ,the activity of the alcohols1 which is usually considerable1 is destroyed by the addition of a little iodine4 ,coloured salts1 c41 are mostly inferior in activity to white ones4 ,when the lower temperature of liquid hydrogen is employed there is a great increase in phosphorescence under light stimulation as compared with that observed with liquid air4 ,the radio-active bodies1 like radium1 which exhibit self-luminosity in the dark1 maintain that luminosity unimpaired when cooled in liquid hydrogen4 ,some crystals become for a time self-luminous when placed in liquid hydrogen1 because the high electric stimulation due to the cooling causes actual electric discharges between the crystal molecules4 ,this phenomenon is very pronounced with nitrate of uranium and some platinocyanides1 and cooling such crystals even to the temperature of liquid air is sufficient to develop marked electrical and luminous effects1 which are again observed1 when the crystal is taken out of the liquid1 during its return to normal temperature4 ,since both liquid hydrogen and liquid air are good electrical insulators1 the fact that electric discharges take place in them proves that the electric potential generated by the cooling must be very high4 ,a crystal of nitrate of uranium indeed gets so highly charged electrically that it refuses to sink in liquid air1 although its density is #b4h times greater1 but sticks to the side of the vacuum vessel1 and requires for its displacement a distinct pull on the silk thread to which it is attached4 ,such a crystal quickly removes cloudiness from liquid air by attracting all the suspended particles to its surface1 just as a fog is cleared out of air by electrification4 ,it is interesting to observe that neither fused nitrate of uranium nor its solution in absolute alcohol shows any of the remarkable effects of the crystalline state on cooling4 ,cohesion4--,the physical force known as cohesion is greatly increased by low temperatures4 ,this fact is of much interest in connexion with two conflicting theories of matter4 ,lord ,kelvin's view was that the forces that hold together the ultimate particles of bodies may be accounted for without assuming any other forces than that of gravitation1 or any other law than the ,newtonian4 ,an opposite view is that the phenomena of cohesion1 chemical union1 c41 or the general phenomena of the aggregation of molecules1 depend on the molecular vibrations as a physical cause 7,tolver ,preston1 ,physics of the ,ether1 p4 #fd74 ,hence at the zero of absolute temperature1 this vibrating energy being in complete abeyance1 the phenomena of cohesion should cease to exist and matter generally be reduced to an incoherent heap of cosmic dust4 ,this second view receives no support from experiment4 ,atmospheric air1 for instance1 frozen at the temperature of liquid hydrogen1 is a hard solid1 the strength of which gives no hint that with a further cooling of some #bj degrees it would crumble into powder4 ,on the contrary1 the lower the scale of temperature is descended1 the more powerful become the forces which hold together the particles of matter4 ,a spiral of fusible metal1 which at ordinary temperatures cannot support the weight of an ounce without being straightened out1 will1 when cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen1 and so long as it remains in that cooled condition1 support several pounds and vibrate like a steel spring4 ,similarly a bell of fusible metal at -#ahb ,c4 gives a distinct metallic ring when struck4 ,balls of iron1 lead1 tin1 ivory1 c41 thus cooled1 exhibit an increased rebound when dropped from a height2 an indiarubber ball1 on the other hand1 becomes brittle1 and is smashed to atoms by a very moderate fall4 ,tables ,,xii4 and ,,xiii41 which give the mean results of a large number of experiments1 show the increased breaking stress gained by metals while they are cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen4 ,,table ,,xii4--,breaking ,stress in ,pounds of ,metallic ,wires #j4jih inch in diameter4 #ae ,c4 -#ahb ,c4 ,steel 7soft7 #dbj #gjj ,iron #cbj #fgj ,copper #bjj #cjj ,brass #caj #ddj ,german silver #dgj #fjj ,gold #bee #cdj ,silver #ccj #dbj ,,table ,,xiii4--,breaking ,stress in ,pounds of ,cast ,metallic ,testpieces2 diameter of rod #j4b inch4 #ae ,c4 -#ahb ,c4 ,tin #bjj #cij ,lead #gg #agj ,zinc #ce #bf ,mercury #j #ca ,bismuth #fj #cj ,antimony #fa #cj ,solder #cjj #fde ,fusible1 metal 7,wood7 #adj #dej ,in the second series of experiments the test-pieces were #b in4 long and were all cast in the same mould4 ,it will be noticed that in the cases of zinc1 bismuth and antimony the results appear to be abnormal1 but it may be pointed out that it is difficult to get uniform castings of crystalline bodies1 and it is probable that by cooling such stresses are set up in some set of cleavage planes as to render rupture comparatively easy4 ,in the case of strong steel springs the rigidity modulus does not appear to be greatly affected by cold1 for although a number were examined1 no measurable differences could be detected in their elongation under repeated additions of the same load4 ,no quantitative experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the metals at the temperature of boiling hydrogen 7-#beb71 owing to the serious cost that would be involved4 ,a lead wire cooled in liquid hydrogen did not become brittle1 as it could be bent backwards and forwards in the liquid4 ,electrical ,resistivity4--,the first experiments on the conductivity of metals at low temperatures appear to have been made by ,wroblewski 7,comptes rendus1 ci4 #afj71 and by ,cailletet and ,bouty 7,journ4 de phys4 #ahhe1 p4 #big74 ,the former's experiments were undertaken to test the suggestion made by ,clausius that the resistivity of pure metals is sensibly proportional to the absolute temperature2 he worked with copper having a conductibility of #ih1 and carried out measurements at various temperatures1 the lowest of which was that given by liquid nitrogen boiling under reduced pressure4 ,his general conclusion was that the resistivity decreases much more quickly than the absolute temperature1 so as to approach zero at a point not far below the temperature of nitrogen evaporating in vacuo4 ,cailletet and ,bouty1 using ethylene as the refrigerant1 and experimenting at temperatures ranging from #j ,c4 to -#ajj ,c4 and -#abc ,c41 constructed formulae intended to give the coefficients of variation in electrical resistance for mercury1 tin1 silver1 magnesium1 aluminium1 copper1 iron and platinum4 ,between #ahib and #ahif ,dewar and ,fleming carried out a large number of experiments to ascertain the changes of conductivity that occur in metals and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to -#bjj ,c4 ,the method employed was to obtain the material under investigation in the form of a fine regular wire and to wind it in a small coil2 this was then plunged in the liquid and its resistance determined4 ,the accompanying chart 7fig4 #ad7 gives the results in a compendious form1 the temperatures being expressed not in degrees of the ordinary air-thermometer scale1 but in platinum degrees as given by one particular platinum resistance thermometer which was used throughout the investigation4 ,a table showing the value of these degrees in degrees centigrade according to ,dickson will be found in the ,phil4 ,mag4 for ,june #ahih1 p4 #ebg2 to give some idea of the relationship1 it may be stated here that -#ajj of the platinum thermometer -#id4b ,c41 -#aej plat4 -#adj4gh ,c41 and -#bjj plat4 -#ahe4ec ,c4 ,in general1 the resistance of perfectly pure metals was greatly decreased by cold--so much so that1 to judge by the course of the curves on the chart1 it appeared probable that at the zero of absolute temperature resistance would vanish altogether and all pure metals become perfect conductors of electricity4 ,this conclusion1 however1 has been rendered very doubtful by subsequent observations by ,dewar1 who found that with the still lower temperatures attainable with liquid hydrogen the increases of conductivity became less for each decrease of temperature1 until a point was reached where the curves bent sharply round and any further diminution of resistance became very small2 that is1 the conductivity remained finite4 ,the reduction in resistance of some of the metals at the boiling point of hydrogen is very remarkable4 ,thus copper has only 7#a_/aje7th1 gold 7#a_/cj7th1 platinum 7#a_/ce7th to 7#a_/ag7th1 silver 7#a_/bd7th the resistance at melting ice1 but iron is only reduced to 7#a_/h7th part of the same initial resistance4 ,table ,,xiv4 shows the progressive decrease of resistance for certain metals and one alloy as the temperature is lowered from that of boiling water down to that of liquid hydrogen boiling under reduced pressure2 it also gives the vanishing temperature1 at which the conductivity would become perfect if the resistance continued to decrease in the same ratio with still lower temperatures1 the values being derived from the extrapolation curves of the relation between resistance and temperature1 according to ,callendar and ,dickson4 ,it will be seen that many of the substances have actually been cooled to a lower temperature than that at which their resistance ought to vanish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,chart of the ,variation of ,electrical ,resistance of ,pure ,metals and ,alloys with ,temperature4 7,dewar and ,fleming47 ,in the case of alloys and impure metals1 cold brings about a much smaller decrease in resistivity1 and the continuations of the curves at no time show any sign of passing through the zero point4 ,the influence of the presence of impurities in minute quantities is strikingly shown in the case of bismuth4 ,various specimens of the metal1 prepared with great care by purely chemical methods1 gave in the hands of ,dewar and ,fleming some very anomalous results1 appearing to reach at -#hj ,c4 a maximum of conductivity1 and thereafter to increase in resistivity with decrease of temperature4 ,but when the determinations were carried out on a sample of really pure bismuth prepared electrolytically1 a normal curve was obtained corresponding to that given by other pure metals4 ,as to alloys1 there is usually some definite mixture of two pure metals which has a maximum resistivity1 often greater than that of either of the constituents4 ,it appears too that high1 if not the highest1 resistivity corresponds to possible chemical compounds of the two metals employed1 e4g4 platinum #cc parts with silver #ff parts ,pt,ag#d2 iron #hj with nickel #bj ,fe#d,ni2 platinum #hj with iridium #bj ,ir,pt#d2 and copper #gj with manganese #cj ,cu#b,mn4 ,the product obtained by adding a small quantity of one metal to another has a higher specific resistance than the predominant constituent1 but the curve is parallel to1 and therefore the same in shape as1 that of the latter 7cf4 the curves for various mixtures of ,al and ,cu on the chart74 ,the behaviour of carbon and of insulators like gutta-percha1 glass1 ebonite1 c41 is in complete contrast to the metals1 for their resistivity steadily increases with cold4 ,the thermo-electric properties of metals at low temperatures are discussed in the article ,,thermoelectricity4 ,,table ,,xiv4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,platinum- ,metals4 ,platinum4 rhodium ,gold4 ,silver4 ,copper4 ,iron4 ,alloy4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,resistance at #ajj #ci4fee #cf4hg #af4aj #h4ccf #aa4egb #d4bij #j ,c #bh4hea #ca4ic #aa4eh #e4iij #h4aag #b4gfe carbonic acid #ai4fbj 44 44 44 44 44 liquid oxygen #g4ffb #bb4ag #c4chj #a4ffi #a4ehi #j4fcc nitrogen 44 44 44 44 #a4adi 44 oxygen under exhaustion #d4fcd #bj4gc 44 44 44 hydrogen #j4hbf #ah4if #j4cha #j4bdd #j4jgg #j4cef hydrogen under exhaustion #j4gje #ah4ij #j4bih #j4bbf #j4jga ,resistance coefficients #j4jjcgde #j4jjcfjgj4jjcijcj4jjciagj4jjdbeg #j4jjeeae ,vanishing temperatures 7,centigrade7_/ -#bdd4ej -#edc4ci-beg4ij-beb4bf-bbe4fb-beh4dj;,c4 -#bdd4ae -#ecj4cb-beg4h -#beb4be-bbf4jd-bdf4hj;,d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,magnetic ,phenomena4--,low temperatures have very marked effects upon the magnetic properties of various substances4 ,oxygen1 long known to be slightly magnetic in the gaseous state1 is powerfully attracted in the liquid condition by a magnet1 and the same is true1 though to a less extent1 of liquid air1 owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it contains4 ,a magnet of ordinary carbon steel has its magnetic moment temporarily increased by cooling1 that is1 after it has been brought to a permanent magnetic condition 7aged74 ,the effect of the first immersion of such a magnet in liquid air is a large diminution in its magnetic moment1 which decreases still further when it is allowed to warm up to ordinary temperatures4 ,a second cooling1 however1 increases the magnetic moment1 which is again decreased by warming1 and after a few repetitions of this cycle of cooling and heating the steel is brought into a condition such that its magnetic moment at the temperature of liquid air is greater by a constant percentage than it is at the ordinary temperature of the air4 ,the increase of magnetic moment seems then to have reached a limit1 because on further cooling to the temperature of liquid hydrogen hardly any further increase is observed4 ,the percentage differs with the composition of the steel and with its physical condition4 ,it is greater1 for example1 with a specimen tempered very soft than it is with another specimen of the same steel tempered glass hard4 ,aluminium steels show the same kind of phenomena as carbon ones1 and the same may be said of chrome steels in the permanent condition1 though the effect of the first cooling with them is a slight increase of magnetic moment4 ,nickel steels present some curious phenomena4 ,when containing small percentages of nickel 7e4g4 #j4hd or #c4hb71 they behave under changes of temperature much like carbon steel4 ,with a sample containing #g4fe1 the phenomena after the permanent state had been reached were similar1 but the first cooling produced a slight increase in magnetic moment4 ,but steels containing #ah4fd and #bi of nickel behaved very differently4 ,the result of the first cooling was a reduction of the magnetic moment1 to the extent of nearly #ej in the case of the former4 ,warming again brought about an increase1 and the final condition was that at the temperature of liquid air the magnetic moment was always less than at ordinary temperatures4 ,this anomaly is all the more remarkable in that the behaviour of pure nickel is normal1 as also appears to be generally the case with soft and hard iron4 ,silicon1 tungsten and manganese steels are also substantially normal in their behaviour1 although there are considerable differences in the magnitudes of the variations they display 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 lx4 #eg et seq42 also ,the ,effect of ,liquid ,air ,temperatures on the ,mechanical and other ,properties of ,iron and its ,alloys1 by ,sir ,james ,dewar and ,sir ,robert ,hadfield1 ,id4 lxxiv4 #cbf-ccf74 ,low temperatures also affect the permeability of iron1 i4e4 the degree of magnetization it is capable of acquiring under the influence of a certain magnetic force4 ,with fine ,swedish iron1 carefully annealed1 the permeability is slightly reduced by cooling to -#ahe ,c4 ,hard iron1 however1 in the same circumstances suffers a large increase of permeability4 ,unhardened steel pianoforte wire1 again1 behaves like soft annealed iron4 ,as to hysteresis1 low temperatures appear to produce no appreciable effect in soft iron2 for hard iron the observations are undecisive4 ,biological ,research4--,the effect of cold upon the life of living organisms is a matter of great intrinsic interest as well as of wide theoretical importance4 ,experiment indicates that moderately high temperatures are much more fatal1 at least to the lower forms of life1 than are exceedingly low ones4 ,professor ,m',kendrick froze for an hour at a temperature of -#ahb ,c4 samples of meat1 milk1 c41 in sealed tubes2 when these were opened1 after being kept at blood-heat for a few days1 their contents were found to be quite putrid4 ,more recently some more elaborate tests were carried out at the ,jenner 7now ,lister7 ,institute of ,preventive ,medicine on a series of typical bacteria4 ,these were exposed to the temperature of liquid air for twenty hours1 but their vitality was not affected1 their functional activities remained unimpaired and the cultures which they yielded were normal in every respect4 ,the same result was obtained when liquid hydrogen was substituted for air4 ,a similar persistence of life has been demonstrated in seeds1 even at the lowest temperatures2 they were frozen for over #ajj hours in liquid air at the instance of ,messrs ,brown and ,escombe1 with no other effect than to afflict their protoplasm with a certain inertness1 from which it recovered with warmth4 ,subsequently commercial samples of barley1 peas and vegetable-marrow and mustard seeds were literally steeped for six hours in liquid hydrogen at the ,royal ,institution1 yet when they were sown by ,sir ,w4 ,t4 ,thiselton ,dyer at ,kew in the ordinary way1 the proportion in which germination occurred was no smaller than with other batches of the same seeds which had suffered no abnormal treatment4 ,mr ,harold ,swithinbank has found that exposure to liquid air has little or no effect on the vitality of the tubercle bacillus1 although by very prolonged exposures its virulence is modified to some extent2 but alternate exposures to normal and very cold temperatures do have a decided effect both upon its vitality and its virulence4 ,the suggestion once put forward by ,lord ,kelvin1 that life may in the first instance have been conveyed to this planet on a meteorite1 has been objected to on the ground that any living organism would have been killed before reaching the earth by its passage through the intense cold of interstellar space2 the above experiments on the resistance to cold offered by seeds and bacteria show that this objection at least is not fatal to ,lord ,kelvin's idea4 ,at the ,lister ,institute of ,preventive ,medicine liquid air has been brought into use as an agent in biological research4 ,an inquiry into the intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus1 initiated under the direction of ,dr ,allan ,macfadyen1 necessitated the separation of the cell-plasma of the organism4 ,the method at first adopted for the disintegration of the bacteria was to mix them with silver-sand and churn the whole up in a closed vessel in which a series of horizontal vanes revolved at a high speed4 ,but certain disadvantages attached to this procedure1 and accordingly some means was sought to do away with the sand and triturate the bacilli per se4 ,this was found in liquid air1 which1 as had long before been shown at the ,royal ,institution1 has the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of plants to such a state of brittleness that they can easily be powdered in a mortar4 ,by its aid a complete trituration of the typhoid bacilli has been accomplished at the ,jenner ,institute1 and the same process1 already applied with success also to yeast cells and animal cells1 is being extended in other directions4 ,industrial ,applications4--,while liquid air and liquid hydrogen are being used in scientific research to an extent which increases every day1 their applications to industrial purposes are not so numerous4 ,the temperatures they give used as simple refrigerants are much lower than are generally required industrially1 and such cooling as is needed can be obtained quite satisfactorily1 and far more cheaply1 by refrigerating machinery employing more easily condensable gases4 ,their use as a source of motive power1 again1 is impracticable for any ordinary purposes1 on the score of inconvenience and expense4 ,cases may be conceived of in which for special reasons it might prove advantageous to use liquid air1 vaporized by heat derived from the surrounding atmosphere1 to drive compressed-air engines1 but any advantage so gained would certainly not be one of cheapness4 ,no doubt the power of a waterfall running to waste might be temporarily conserved in the shape of liquid air1 and thereby turned to useful effect4 ,but the reduction of air to the liquid state is a process which involves the expenditure of a very large amount of energy1 and it is not possible even to recover all that expended energy during the transition of the material back to the gaseous state4 ,hence to suggest that by using liquid air in a motor more power can be developed than was expended in producing the liquid air by which the motor is worked1 is to propound a fallacy worse than perpetual motion1 since such a process would have an efficiency of more than #ajj4 ,still1 in conditions where economy is of no account1 liquid air might perhaps1 with effectively isolated storage1 be utilized as a motive power1 e4g4 to drive the engines of submarine boats and at the same time provide a supply of oxygen for the crew2 even without being used in the engines1 liquid air or oxygen might be found a convenient form in which to store the air necessary for respiration in such vessels4 ,but a use to which liquid air machines have already been put to a large extent is for obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere4 ,although when air is liquefied the oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously1 yet owing to its greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two1 so that the remaining liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in oxygen4 ,the fractional distillation of liquid air is the method now universally adopted for the preparation of oxygen on a commercial scale1 while the nitrogen simultaneously obtained is used for the production of cyanamide1 by its action on carbide of calcium4 ,an interesting though minor application of liquid oxygen1 or liquid air from which most of the nitrogen has evaporated1 depends on the fact that if it be mixed with powdered charcoal1 or finely divided organic bodies1 it can be made by the aid of a detonator to explode with a violence comparable to that of dynamite4 ,this explosive1 which might properly be called an emergency one1 has the disadvantage that it must be prepared on the spot where it is to be used and must be fired without delay1 since the liquid evaporates in a short time and the explosive power is lost2 but1 on the other hand1 if a charge fails to go off it has only to be left a few minutes1 when it can be withdrawn without any danger of accidental explosion4 ,for further information the reader may consult ,w4 ,l4 ,hardin1 ,rise and ,development of the ,liquefaction of ,gases 7,new ,york1 #ahii71 and ,lefvre1 ,la ,liqufaction des gaz et ses applications2 also the article ,,condensation ,,of ,,gases4 ,but the literature of liquid gases is mostly contained in scientific periodicals and the proceedings of learned societies4 ,papers by ,wroblewski and ,olszewski on the liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in the ,comptes rendus1 vols1 xcvi4-cii41 and there are important memoirs by the former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on the compressibility of hydrogen in ,wien4 ,akad4 ,sitzber4 vols4 xciv4 and xcvii42 his pamphlet ,comme l'air a t liqufi 7,paris1 #ahhe7 should also be referred to4 ,for ,dewar's work1 see ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst4 from #ahgh onwards1 including ,solid ,hydrogen 7#aijj72 ,liquid ,hydrogen ,calorimetry 7#aijd72 ,new ,low ,temperature ,phenomena 7#aije72 ,liquid ,air and ,charcoal at ,low ,temperatures 7#aijf72 ,studies in ,high ,vacua and ,helium at ,low ,temperatures 7#aijg72 also ,the ,nadir of ,temperature and ,allied ,problems 7,bakerian ,lecture71 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 7#aija71 and the ,presidential ,address to the ,british ,association 7#aijb74 ,the researches of ,fleming and ,dewar on the electrical and magnetic properties of substances at low temperatures are described in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 lx41 and ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst4 7#ahif72 see also ,electrical ,resistance of ,pure ,metals1 ,alloys and ,non-,metals at the ,boiling-point of ,oxygen1 ,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 xxxiv4 7#ahib72 ,electrical ,resistance of ,metals and ,alloys at ,temperatures approaching the ,absolute ,zero1 ibid4 vol4 xxxvi4 7#ahic72 ,thermoelectric ,powers of ,metals and ,alloys between the ,temperatures of the ,boiling-point of ,water and the ,boiling-point of ,liquid ,air1 ibid4 vol4 xl4 7#ahie72 and papers on the dielectric constants of various substances at low temperatures in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vols4 lxi4 and lxii4 ,optical and spectroscopic work by ,liveing and ,dewar on liquid gases is described in ,phil4 ,mag4 vols4 xxxiv4 7#ahib71 xxxvi4 7#ahic71 xxxviii4 7#ahid7 and xl4 7#ahie72 for papers by the same authors on the separation and spectroscopic examination of the most volatile and least volatile constituents of atmospheric air1 see ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vols4 lxiv41 lxvii4 and lxviii4 ,an account of the influence of very low temperatures on the germinative power of seeds is given by ,h4 ,t4 ,brown and ,f4 ,escombe in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 lxii41 and by ,sir ,w4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ibid4 vol4 lxv41 and their effect on bacteria is discussed by ,a4 ,macfadyen1 ibid4 vols4 lxvi4 and lxxi4 7,j4 ,dr47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,figs4 #a1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac in this article are from ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst41 by permission4 #b ,it may be noted that now that the commercial production of oxygen is effected by the liquefaction of air1 with separation of its constituents in what is essentially a ,coffey still1 the chemist has at his command large quantities not only of the less volatile constituents1 krypton and xenon1 but also of the more volatile ones1 neon and helium4 ,roughly a million volumes of air contain #bj volumes of neon and helium1 about #ae of the former to #e of the latter1 approximately #a volume of hydrogen being associated with them1 so that in view of the enormous amounts of oxygen that are produced1 helium can be obtained in practically any quantity directly from the atmosphere4 ,,liquorice4 ,the hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste1 black in colour and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste1 known as liquorice paste or black sugar1 are the inspissated juice of the roots of a leguminous plant1 ,glycyrrhiza glabra1 the radix glycyrrhizae of the pharmacopoeia4 ,the plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of ,europe1 especially on the ,mediterranean shores1 and to some extent in ,louisiana and ,california4 ,the roots for use are obtained in lengths of #c or #d ft41 varying in diameter from #a_/d to #a in42 they are soft1 flexible and fibrous1 and internally of a bright yellow colour1 with a characteristic1 sweet pleasant taste4 ,to this sweet taste of its root the plant owes its generic name ,glycyrrhiza 7,greek3 glykyrrhiza1 the sweet-root71 of which the word liquorice is a corruption4 ,the roots contain grape-sugar1 starch1 resin1 asparagine1 malic acid and the glucoside glycyrrhizin1 ,c#bd;,h#cf,o#i1 a yellow amorphous powder with an acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste4 ,on hydrolysis1 glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin4 ,stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp1 which is boiled in water over an open fire1 and the decoction separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a sufficient degree of concentration is attained1 after which1 on cooling1 it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the market4 ,the preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry along the ,mediterranean coasts2 but the quality best appreciated in the ,united ,kingdom is made in ,calabria1 and sold under the names of ,solazzi and ,corigliano juice4 ,liquorice enters into the composition of many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations2 and in the form of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in masking the taste of nauseous medicines4 ,,liquor ,,laws4 ,in most ,western countries the sale of alcoholic liquor is regulated by law4 ,the original and principal object is to check the evils arising from the immoderate use of such liquor1 in the interest of public order1 morality and health2 a secondary object is to raise revenue from the traffic4 ,the form and the stringency of the laws passed for these purposes vary very widely in different countries according to the habits of the people and the state of public opinion4 ,the evils which it is desired to check are much greater in some countries than in others4 ,generally speaking they are greater in northern countries and cold and damp climates than in southern and more sunny ones4 ,climate has a marked influence on diet for physiological reasons over which we have no control4 ,the fact is attested by universal experience and is perfectly natural and inevitable1 though usually ignored in those international comparisons of economic conditions and popular customs which have become so common4 ,it holds good both of food and drink4 ,the inhabitants of south ,europe are much less given to alcoholic excess than those of central ,europe1 who again are more temperate than those of the north4 ,there is even a difference between localities so near together as the east and west of ,scotland4 ,the chairman of the ,prison ,commissioners pointed out before a ,british royal commission in the year #ahig the greater prevalence of drunkenness in the western half1 and attributed it in part to the dampness of the climate on the western coast4 ,but race also has an influence4 ,the ,british carry the habit of drinking wherever they go1 and their colonial descendants retain it even in hot and dry climates4 ,the ,slav peoples and the ,magyars in central ,europe are much more intemperate than the ,teutonic and ,latin peoples living under similar climatic conditions4 ,these natural differences lead1 in accordance with the principle discerned and enunciated by ,montesquieu1 to the adoption of different laws1 which vary with the local conditions4 ,but social laws of this character also vary with the state of public opinion1 not only in different countries but in the same country at different times4 ,the result is that the subject is in a state of incessant flux4 ,there are not only many varieties of liquor laws1 but also frequent changes in them1 and new experiments are constantly being tried4 ,the general tendency is towards increased stringency1 not so much because the evils increase1 though that happens in particular places at particular times1 as because public opinion moves broadly towards increasing condemnation of excess and increasing reliance on legislative interference4 ,the first is due partly to a general process of refining manners1 partly to medical influence and the growing attention paid to health2 the second to a universal tendency which seems inherent in democracy4 ,liquor laws may be classified in several ways1 but the most useful way for the present purpose will be to take the principal methods of conducting the traffic as they exist1 under four main headings1 and after a brief explanation give some account of the laws in the principal countries which have adopted them4 ,the four methods are3 7#a7 licensing or commercial sale for private profit under a legal permit2 7#b7 sale by authorized bodies not for private profit1 commonly known as the ,scandinavian or company system2 7#c7 state monopoly2 7#d7 prohibition4 ,it is not a scientific classification1 because the company system is a form of licensing and prohibition is no sale at all2 but it follows the lines of popular discussion and is more intelligible than one of a more technical character would be4 ,all forms of liquor legislation deal mainly with retail sale1 and particularly with the sale for immediate consumption on the spot4 #a4 ,licensing4--,this is by far the oldest and the most widely adopted method2 it is the one which first suggests itself in the natural course of things4 ,men begin by making and selling a thing without let or hindrance to please themselves4 ,then objections are raised1 and when they are strong or general enough the law interferes in the public interest1 at first mildly2 it says in effect--,this must not go on in this way or to this extent2 there must be some control1 and permission will only be given to duly authorized persons4 ,such persons are licensed or permitted to carry on the traffic under conditions1 and there is obviously room for infinite gradations of strictness in granting permission and infinite variety in the conditions imposed4 ,the procedure may vary from mere notification of the intention to open an establishment up to a rigid and minutely detailed system of annual licensing laid down by the law4 ,but in all cases1 even when mere notification is required1 the governing authority has the right to refuse permission or to withdraw it for reasons given1 and so it retains the power of control4 ,at the same time holders of the permission may be compelled to pay for the privilege and so contribute to the public revenue4 ,the great merit of the licensing system is its perfect elasticity1 which permits adjustment to all sorts of conditions and to the varying demands of public opinion4 ,it is in force in the ,united ,kingdom1 which first adopted it1 in most ,european countries1 in the greater part of ,north ,america1 including both the ,united ,states and ,canada1 in the other ,british dominions and elsewhere4 #b4 ,the ,scandinavian or ,company ,system4--,the principle of this method is the elimination of private profit on the ground that it removes an incentive to the encouragement of excessive drinking4 ,a monopoly of the sale of liquor is entrusted to a body of citizens who have1 or are supposed to have1 no personal interest in it1 and the profits are applied to public purposes4 ,the system1 which is also called disinterested management1 is adopted in ,sweden and ,norway2 and the principle has been applied in a modified form in ,england and ,finland by the operation of philanthropic societies which1 however1 have no monopoly but are on the same legal footing as ordinary traders4 #c4 ,state ,monopoly4--,as the name implies1 this system consists in retaining the liquor trade in the hands of the state1 which thus secures all the profit and is at the same time able to exercise complete control4 ,it is adopted in ,russia1 in certain parts of the ,united ,states and1 in regard to the wholesale trade1 in ,switzerland4 #d4 ,prohibition4--,this may be general or local2 in the latter case it is called local option or local veto4 ,the sale of liquor is made illegal in the hope of preventing drinking altogether or of diminishing it by making it more difficult4 ,general prohibition has been tried in some ,american states1 and is still in force in a few2 it is also applied to native races1 under civilized rule1 both in ,africa and ,north ,america4 ,local prohibition is widely in force in the ,united ,states1 ,canada and ,australasia1 ,sweden and ,norway4 ,in certain areas in other countries1 including the ,united ,kingdom1 the sale of liquor is in a sense prohibited1 not by the law1 but by the owners of the property who refuse to allow any public-houses4 ,such cases have nothing to do with the law1 but they are mentioned here because reference is often made to them by advocates of legal prohibition4 ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom ,england has had a very much longer experience of liquor legislation than any other country1 and the story forms an introduction necessary to the intelligent comprehension of liquor legislation in general4 ,england adopted a licensing system in #aeea1 and has retained it1 with innumerable modifications1 ever since4 ,the ,english were notorious for hard drinking for centuries before licensing was adopted1 and from time to time sundry efforts had been made to check it1 but what eventually compelled the interference of the law was the growth of crime and disorder associated with the public-houses towards the end of the #aeth century4 ,numbers of men who had previously been engaged in the civil wars or on the establishment of feudal houses were thrown on the world and betook themselves to the towns1 particularly ,london1 where they frequented the ale-houses1 dicing and drinking1 and lived largely on violence and crime4 ,an act was passed in #adie against vagabonds and unlawful games1 whereby justices of the peace were empowered to put away common ale-selling in towns and places where they should think convenient and to take sureties of keepers of ale-houses in their good behaviour4 ,that was the beginning of statutory control of the trade4 ,the act clearly recognized a connexion between public disorder and public-houses4 ,the latter were ale-houses1 for at that time ale was the drink of the people2 spirits had not yet come into common use1 and wine1 the consumption of which on the premises was prohibited in #aeeb1 was only drunk by the wealthier classes4 ,early ,history of ,licensing4--,the act of #aeea-aeeb1 which introduced licensing1 was on the same lines but went further4 ,it confirmed the power of suppressing common ale-selling1 and enacted that no one should be allowed to keep a common ale-house or tippling house without obtaining the permission of the justices in open session or of two of their number4 ,it further directed that the justices should take from the persons whom they licensed such bond and surety by recognisance as they should think convenient1 and empowered them in quarter session to inquire into and try breaches by licensed persons of the conditions of their recognisances and cases of persons keeping ale-houses without licences and to punish the offenders 7,bonham ,carter1 ,royal ,commission on ,liquor ,licensing ,laws1 vol4 iii474 ,this act embodied the whole principle of licensing1 and the object was clearly stated in the preamble3 ,for as much as intolerable hurts and troubles to the commonwealth of this realm doth daily grow and increase through such abuses and disorders as are had and used in common ale-houses and other places called tippling houses4 ,the evil was not due merely to the use of alcoholic liquor but to the fact that these houses1 being public-houses1 were the resort of idle and disorderly characters4 ,the distinction should be borne in mind4 ,the act seems to have been of some effect1 for no further legislation was attempted for half a century1 though there is abundant evidence of the intemperate habits of all classes4 ,mr ,bonham ,carter 7loc4 cit47 observes3-- ,the recognisances referred to in the act were valuable instruments for controlling the conduct of ale-house keepers4 ,the justices1 in exercise of their discretion1 required the recognisances to contain such conditions for the management and good order of the business as they thought suitable4 ,in this way a set of regulations came into existence1 many of which were subsequently embodied in acts of ,parliament4 ,in some counties general rules were drawn up1 which every ale-house keeper was bound to observe4 ,it is interesting to note that among the conditions laid down about this time were the following3 ,closing at #i ,p4,m4 and during divine service on ,sunday2 in some cases complete closing on ,sunday except to travellers2 the licence-holder to notify to the constable all strangers staying for more than a night and not to permit persons to continue drinking or tippling2 prohibition of unlawful games1 receiving stolen goods and harbouring bad characters2 the use of standard measures and prices fixed by law4 ,there was1 however1 no uniformity of practice in these respects until the #agth century1 when an attempt was made to establish stricter and more uniform control by a whole series of acts passed between #afjc and #afbg4 ,the evils which it was sought to remedy by these measures were the existence of unlicensed houses1 the use of ale-houses for mere drinking and the prevalence of disorder4 ,it was declared that the ancient and proper use of inns and ale-houses was the refreshment and lodging of travellers1 and that they were not meant for entertainment and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend and consume their money and their time in lewd and drunken manner4 ,regulations were strengthened for the suppression of unlicensed houses1 licences were made annual1 and the justices were directed to hold a special licensing meeting once a year 7#afah74 ,penalties were imposed on innkeepers for permitting tippling1 and also on tipplers and drunkards 7#afbe74 ,in #afcd licensing was first applied to ,ireland4 ,later in the century heavy penalties were imposed for adulteration4 ,the next chapter in the history of licensing has to do with spirits1 and is very instructive4 ,spirits were not a native product like beer2 brandy was introduced from ,france1 gin from the ,netherlands and whisky from ,ireland2 but down to the year #afij the consumption was small4 ,the home manufacture was strictly limited1 and high duties on imported spirits rendered them too dear for the general public unless smuggled4 ,consequently the people had not acquired the taste for them4 ,but in #afij distilling was thrown open to any one on the payment of very trifling duties1 spirits became extremely cheap and the consumption increased with great rapidity4 ,regulation of the retail traffic was soon found to be necessary1 and by an act passed in #agjj-agja1 the licensing requirements already existing for ale-house keepers were extended to persons selling distilled liquors for consumption on the premises4 ,a new class of public-houses in the shape of spirit bars grew up4 ,in the year #agcb a complete and detailed survey of all the streets and houses in ,london was carried out by ,william ,maitland1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,out of a total of #ie1ifh houses he found the following3 brew-houses #aga1 inns #bjg1 taverns #ddg1 ale-houses #eige1 brandy-shops #hfei2 total number of licensed houses for the retail sale of liquor #ae1bhh1 of which considerably more than one-half were spirit bars4 ,the population was about three-quarters of a million4 ,about one house in every six was licensed at this time1 and that in spite of attempts made to check the traffic by restrictive acts passed in #agbh-agbi4 ,the physical and moral evils caused by the excessive consumption of spirits were fully recognized2 an additional duty of #es4 a gallon was placed on the distiller1 and retailers were compelled to take out an excise licence of #bj per annum4 ,the object was to make spirits dearer and therefore less accessible4 ,at the same time1 with a view to lessening the number of houses1 the licensing procedure of the justices was amended by the provision that licences should only be granted at a general meeting of the justices acting in the division where the applicant resided1 thus abolishing the power conferred by the original licensing act1 of any two justices to grant a licence4 ,this change1 effected in #agbi1 was a permanent improvement1 though it did not prevent the existence of the prodigious numbers of houses recorded by ,maitland in #agcb4 ,the attempt to make spirits dearer by high excise duties1 on the other hand1 was adjudged a failure because it led to illicit trade1 and the act of #agbh was repealed in #agcb4 ,but the evil was so glaring that another and more drastic attempt in the same direction was made in #agcf1 when the famous ,gin ,act was passed in response to a petition presented to parliament by the ,middlesex magistrates1 declaring that the drinking of geneva and other distilled waters had for some years past greatly increased2 that the constant and excessive use thereof had destroyed thousands of ,his ,majesty's subjects2 that great numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful labour1 debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice and wickedness4444 ,the retailing of spirits in quantities of less than #b gallons was made subject to a licence costing #ej and the retailer had also to pay a duty of #bjs4 on every gallon sold4 ,this experiment in high licensing was a disastrous failure1 though energetic attempts were made to enforce it by wholesale prosecutions and by strengthening the regulations against evasion4 ,public opinion was inflamed against it1 and the only results were corruptions of the executive and an enormous increase of consumption through illicit channels4 ,the consumption of spirits in ,england and ,wales nearly doubled between #agcc and #agdb1 and the state of things was so intolerable that after much controversy the high duties were repealed in #agdb with the object of bringing the trade back into authorized channels2 the cost of a licence was reduced from #ej to #a and the retail duty from #bjs4 to #a;d4 a gallon4 ,this period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance in ,england4 ,from various contemporary descriptions it is abundantly clear that the state of things was incomparably worse than anything in modern times1 and that women1 whose participation in the practice of drinking and frequenting public-houses is recorded by writers in the previous century1 were affected as well as men4 ,the experience is particularly instructive because it includes examples of excess and deficiency of opportunities and the ill effects of both on a people naturally inclined to indulgence in drink4 ,it was followed by more judicious action1 which showed the adaptability of the licensing system and the advantages of a mean between laxity and severity4 ,between #agdc and #agec acts were passed which increased control in a moderate way and proved much more successful than the previous measures4 ,the retail licence duty was moderately raised and the regulations were amended and made stricter4 ,the class of houses eligible for licensing was for the first time taken into account1 and the retailing of spirits was only permitted on premises assessed for rates and1 in ,london1 of the annual value of #aj2 justices having an interest in the trade were excluded from licensing functions4 ,another measure which had an excellent effect made tippling debts--that is1 small public-houses debts incurred for spirits--irrecoverable at law4 ,the result of these measures was that consumption diminished and the class of houses improved4 ,at the same time 7#agec7 the general licensing provisions were strengthened and extended4 ,the distinction between new licences and the renewal of old ones was for the first time recognized2 applicants for new licences in country districts were required to produce a certificate of character from the clergy1 overseers and church-wardens or from three or four householders4 ,the annual licensing sessions were made statutory1 and the consent of a justice was required for the transfer of a licence from one person to another during the term for which it was granted4 ,penalties for infringing the law were increased1 and the licensing system was extended to ,scotland 7#agee-agef74 ,with regard to wine1 it has already been stated that consumption on the premises was forbidden in #aeeb1 and at the same time the retail sale was restricted to towns of some importance and the number of retailers1 who had to obtain an appointment from the corporation or the justices1 was strictly limited4 ,in #affj consumption on the premises was permitted under a ,crown 7excise7 licence1 good for a variable term of years2 in #agef this was changed to an annual excise licence of fixed amount1 and in #agib wine was brought under the same jurisdiction of the justices as other liquors4 ,it is clear from the foregoing that a great deal of legislation occurred during the #ahth century1 and that by successive enactments1 particularly about the middle of the century1 the licensing system gradually became adjusted to the requirements of the time and took a settled shape4 ,the acts then passed still form the basis of the law4 ,in the early part of the #aith century another period of legislative activity set in4 ,a parliamentary inquiry into illicit trade in spirits took place in #ahba1 and in #ahbh important acts were passed amending and consolidating the laws for ,england and for ,scotland2 in #ahcc a general ,licensing ,act was passed for ,ireland4 ,these are still the principal acts1 though they have undergone innumerable amendments and additions4 ,the ,english act of #ahbh introduced certain important changes4 ,a licence from the justices was no longer required for the sale of liquor for consumption off the premises1 and the power of the justices to suppress public-houses at their discretion 7apart from the annual licensing71 which they had possessed since #adie1 was taken away4 ,the removal of this power1 which had long been obsolete1 was the natural corollary of the development of the licensing system1 its greater stringency and efficiency and the increase of duties imposed on the trade4 ,men on whom these obligations were laid1 and who were freshly authorized to carry on the business every year1 could not remain liable to summary deprivation of the privileges thus granted and paid for4 ,the justices had absolute discretion to withhold licences from an applicant whether new or old2 but an appeal was allowed to quarter sessions against refusal and also against conviction for offences under the act4 ,the main points in the law at this time were the following4 ,the sale of alcoholic liquors for consumption on the premises was forbidden under penalties except to persons authorized according to law by the justices4 ,licences were granted for one year and had to be renewed annually4 ,the justices held a general meeting each year at a specified time for the purpose of granting licences2 those peculiarly interested in the liquor trade were disqualified4 ,the licence contained various provisions for regulating the conduct of the house and maintaining order1 but closing was only required during the hours of divine service on ,sunday4 ,applicants for new licences and for the transfer of old ones 7granted at a special sessions of the justices7 were required to give notice to the local authorities and to post up notices at the parish church and on the house concerned4 ,excise ,licences4--,it will be convenient at this point to explain the relation between that part of the licensing system which is concerned with the conduct of the traffic and lies in the jurisdiction of the justices and that part which has to do with taxation or revenue4 ,the former is the earlier and more important branch of legislative interference2 we have traced its history from #adie down to #ahbh4 ,its object from the beginning was the maintenance of public order and good conduct1 which were impaired by the misuse of public-houses2 and all the successive enactments were directed to that end4 ,they were attempts to suppress or moderate the evils arising from the traffic by regulating it4 ,the excise licensing system has nothing to do with public order or the conduct of the traffic2 its object is simply to obtain revenue1 and for a long time the two systems were quite independent4 ,but time and change gradually brought them into contact and eventually they came to form two aspects of one unified system4 ,licensing for revenue was first introduced in #affj at the same time as duties on the manufacture of beer and spirits3 but it was of an irregular character and was only applied to wine1 which was not then under the jurisdiction of the justices at all 7see above74 ,in #agaj a small annual tax was imposed on the retailers of beer and ale and collected by means of a stamp on the justices' licence4 ,in #agbh an annual excise licence of #bj was imposed on retailers of spirits1 and in #agcf this was raised to #ej 7see above74 ,the object of these particular imposts1 however1 was rather to check the sale1 as previously explained1 than to secure revenue4 ,in #agef the previous tax on the retail sale of wine for consumption on the premises was changed to an annual excise licence1 which was in the next year extended to made wines and sweets 7,british wines74 ,similar licences1 in place of the previous stamps1 were temporarily required for beer and ale between #agbe and #agdb and permanently imposed in #ahjh4 ,thus the system of annual excise licences became gradually applied to all kinds of liquor4 ,in #ahbe the laws relating to them were consolidated and brought into direct relation with the other licensing laws4 ,it was enacted that excise licences for the retail of liquor should only be granted to persons holding a justices' licence or--to use the more correct term--certificate4 ,the actual permission to sell was obtained on payment of the proper dues from the excise authorities1 but they had no power to withhold it from persons authorized by the justices4 ,and that was still the system in #aiaj4 ,licensing since #ahbh4--,there was no change in the form of the ,british licensing system between the consolidation of the law in #ahbe-ahbh and the time 7#aiaj7 at which we write2 but there were a great many changes in administrative detail and some changes in principle4 ,only the most important can be mentioned4 ,in #ahcj a bold experiment was tried in exempting the sale of beer from the requirement of a justice's licence4 ,any householder rated to the parish was entitled1 under a bond with sureties1 to take out an excise licence for the sale of beer for consumption on or off the premises4 ,this measure1 which applied to ,england and was commonly known as the ,duke of ,wellington's ,act1 had two objects2 one was to encourage the consumption of beer in the hope of weaning the people from spirits2 the other was to counteract the practice of tieing public-houses to breweries by creating free ones4 ,with regard to the first1 it was believed that spirit-drinking was increasing again at the time and was doing a great deal of harm4 ,the reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of consumption1 which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from #aas4 #h;d4 to #gs4 a gallon in #ahbe4 ,the latter step was taken because of the prevalence of illicit distillation4 ,in #ahbc the duty had been lowered for the same reason in ,scotland from #fs4 #b;d4 and in ,ireland from #es4 #g;d4 to a uniform rate of #bs4 #d;d4 a gallon1 with so much success in turning the trade from illegal to legal channels that a similar change was thought advisable in ,england1 as stated4 ,the legal or apparent consumption rose at once from #g to nearly #ac million gallons2 but it is doubtful if there was much or any real increase4 ,according to an official statement1 more than half the spirits consumed in #ahbj were illicit4 ,the facts are of much interest in showing what had already been shown in the #ahth century1 that the liquor trade will not bear unlimited taxation2 the traffic is driven underground4 ,it is highly probable that this accounts for part of the great fall in consumption which followed the raising of the spirit duty from #aas4 to #ads4 #i;d4 under ,mr ,lloyd ,george's ,budget in #aiji4 ,with regard to tied houses1 this is the original form of public-house4 ,when beer was first brewed for sale a tap for retail purposes was attached to the brewery1 and public-houses may still be found bearing the name ,the ,brewery ,tap4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century complaints were made of the increasing number of houses owned or controlled by breweries and of the dependence of the licence-holders1 and in #ahag a ,select ,committee inquired into the subject4 ,the ,beerhouse ,act does not appear to have checked the practice or to have diminished the consumption of spirits2 but it led to a great increase in the number of beer-houses4 ,it was modified in #ahcd and #ahdj1 but not repealed until #ahfi1 when beer-houses were again brought under the justices4 ,most of the other very numerous changes in the law were concerned with conditions imposed on licence-holders4 ,the hours of closing are the most important of these4 ,apart from the ancient regulations of closing during divine service on ,sunday1 there were no restrictions in #ahbh2 but after that at least a dozen successive acts dealt with the point4 ,the first important measure was applied in ,london under a ,police ,act in #ahci2 it ordered licensed houses to be closed from midnight on ,saturday to mid-day on ,sunday1 and produced a wonderful effect on public order4 ,in #ahec a very important act 7,forbes ,mackenzie7 was passed for ,scotland1 by which sale on ,sunday was wholly forbidden1 except to travellers and lodgers1 and was restricted on week days to the hours between #h ,a4,m4 and #aa ,p4,m4 ,this act also introduced a distinction between hotels1 public-houses and grocers licensed to sell liquor1 and forbade the sale to children under #ad years1 except as messengers1 and to intoxicated persons4 ,in ,england1 after a series of enactments in the direction of progressive restriction1 uniform regulations as to the hours of opening and closing for licensed premises were applied in #ahgd1 and are still in force 7see below74 ,in #ahgh complete ,sunday closing1 as in ,scotland1 was applied in ,ireland1 with the exemption of the five largest towns1 ,dublin1 ,belfast1 ,cork1 ,limerick and ,waterford2 and in #ahha the same provision was extended to ,wales4 ,other changes worthy of note are the following4 ,in #ahfj the free sale of wine for consumption off the premises was introduced by the ,wine and ,refreshment ,houses ,act1 which authorized any shopkeeper to take out an excise licence for this purpose2 the licences so created were subsequently known as grocers' licences4 ,by the same act refreshment houses were placed under certain restrictions1 but were permitted to sell wine for consumption on the premises under an excise licence4 ,in #ahfa spirit dealers were similarly authorized to sell spirits by the bottle4 ,the effect of these measures was to exempt a good deal of the wine and spirit trade from the control of the justices1 and the idea was to wean people from public-house drinking by encouraging them to take what they wanted at home and in eating-houses4 ,in #ahfi this policy of directing the habits of the people into channels thought to be preferable1 which had been inaugurated in #ahcj1 was abandoned for one of greater stringency all round1 which has since been maintained4 ,all the beer and wine retail licences were brought under the discretion of the justices1 but they might only refuse off licences and the renewal of previously existing beer-house on licences upon specified grounds1 namely 7#a7 unsatisfactory character1 7#b7 disorder1 7#c7 previous misconduct1 7#d7 insufficient qualification of applicant or premises4 ,in #ahgb an important act further extended the policy of restriction2 new licences had to be confirmed1 and the right of appeal in case of refusal was taken away2 penalties for offences were increased and extended1 particularly for public drunkenness1 and for permitting drunkenness2 the sale of spirits to persons under #af was prohibited4 ,in #ahgf many of these provisions were extended to ,scotland4 ,in #ahhf the sale of liquor for consumption on the premises was forbidden to persons under #ac years4 ,in #aija the sale for off consumption was prohibited to persons under #ad1 except in sealed vessels2 this is known as the ,child ,messenger ,act4 ,these measures for the protection of children were extended in #aijh by an act which came into operation in ,april #aiji1 excluding children under #ad from the public-house bars altogether4 ,the progressive protection of children by the law well illustrates the influence of changing public opinion4 ,the successive measures enumerated were not due to increasing contamination of children caused by their frequenting the public-house1 but to recognition of the harm they sustain thereby4 ,the practice of taking and sending children to the public-house1 and of serving them with drink1 is an old one in ,england4 ,a great deal of evidence on the subject was given before a ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,commons in #ahcd2 but it is only in recent years1 when the general concern for children has undergone a remarkable development in all directions1 that attempts have been made to stop it4 ,in #aijb clubs1 which had been increasing1 and habitual drunkards1 were brought under the law4 ,in #aijd a new principle was introduced into the licensing system in ,england1 and this1 too1 was due to change in public opinion4 ,between #ahcj and #ahfi1 under the influence of the legislation described above1 a continuous increase in the number of public-houses took place in ,england2 but after #ahfi they began to diminish through stricter control1 and this process has gone on continuously ever since4 ,reduction of numbers became a prime object with many licensing benches2 they were reluctant to grant new licences1 and made a point of extinguishing old ones year by year4 ,at first this was easily effected under the new and stringent provisions of the legislation of #ahfi-ahgb1 but it gradually became more difficult as the worst houses disappeared and the remaining ones were better conducted1 and gave less and less excuse for interference4 ,but the desire for reduction still gained ground1 and a new principle was adopted4 ,houses against which no ill-conduct was alleged were said to be superfluous1 and on that ground licences were taken away4 ,but this1 again1 offended the general sense of justice2 it was felt that to take away a man's living or a valuable property for no fault of his own was to inflict a great hardship4 ,to meet the difficulty the principle of compensation was introduced by the act of #aijd4 ,it provides that compensation shall be paid to a licence-holder 7also to the owner of the premises7 whose licence is withdrawn on grounds other than misconduct of the house or unsuitability of premises or of character4 ,the compensation is paid out of a fund raised by an annual charge on the remaining licensed houses4 ,this act has been followed by a large reduction of licences4 ,state of the ,law in #aiaj4--;,in consequence of the long history and evolution of legislation in the ,united ,kingdom and of the innumerable minor changes introduced1 only a few of which have been mentioned above1 the law has become excessively complicated4 ,the differences between the ,english1 ,scottish and ,irish codes1 the distinction between the several kinds of liquor1 between consumption on and off the premises1 between new licences and the renewal of old ones1 between premises licensed before #ahfi and those licensed since1 between excise and justices' licences--all these and many other points make the subject exceedingly intricate2 and it is further complicated by the uncertainty of the courts and a vast body of case-made law4 ,only a summary of the chief provisions can be given here4 #a4 ,the open sale of intoxicating liquor 7spirits1 wine1 sweets1 beer1 cider7 by retail is confined to persons holding an excise licence1 with a few unimportant exceptions1 including medicine4 #b4 ,a condition precedent to obtaining such a licence is permission granted by the justices who are the licensing authority and called a justices' licence or certificate4 ,theatres1 passenger boats and canteens are exempted from this condition2 also certain dealers in spirits and wine4 #c4 ,justices' licences are granted at special annual meetings of the local justices1 called ,brewster ,sessions4 ,justices having a pecuniary interest in the liquor trade of the district1 except as railway shareholders1 are disqualified from acting2 bias due to other interests may also be a disqualification4 #d4 ,justices' licences are only granted for one year and must be renewed annually1 with the exception of a particular class1 created by the act of #aijd and valid for a term of years4 ,distinctions are made between granting a new licence and renewing an old one4 ,the proceedings are stricter and more summary in the case of a new licence2 notice of application must be given to the local authorities2 the premises must be of a certain annual value2 a plan of the premises must be deposited beforehand in the case of an on licence2 the justices may impose conditions and have full discretion to refuse without any right of appeal2 the licence1 if granted1 must be confirmed by a higher authority4 ,in the case of old licences on the other hand1 no notice is required2 they are renewed to the former holders on application1 as a matter of right2 unless there is opposition or objection1 which may come from the police or from outside parties or from the justices themselves4 ,if there is objection the renewal may be refused1 but only on specified grounds--namely misconduct1 unfitness of premises or character1 disqualification2 otherwise compensation is payable on the plan explained above4 ,there is a right of appeal to a higher court against refusal4 ,in all cases1 whether the justices have full discretion or not1 they must exercise their discretion in a judicial manner and not arbitrarily4 #e4 ,licences may be transferred from one person to another in case of death1 sickness1 bankruptcy1 change of tenancy1 wilful omission to apply for renewal1 forfeiture or disqualification4 ,licences may also be transferred from one house to another in certain circumstances4 #f4 ,a licence may be forfeited through the conviction of the holder of certain specified serious offences4 #g4 ,persons may similarly be disqualified from holding a licence4 #h4 ,liquor may only be sold on the premises specified in the licence and during the following hours3--week-days2 ,london1 #e ,a4,m4 to #ab4cj ,p4,m4 7,saturday1 midnight72 large towns #f ,a4,m4 to #aa ,p4,m42 other places #f ,a4,m4 to #aj ,p4,m4--,sundays2 ,london1 #a ,p4,m4 to #c ,p4,m41 #f ,p4,m4 to #aa ,p4,m42 other places #ab4cj ,p4,m4 7or #a ,p4,m47 to #b4cj ,p4,m4 7or #c ,p4,m471 #f ,p4,m4 to #aj ,p4,m42 ,christmas ,day and ,good ,friday are counted as ,sunday4 ,in ,scotland1 ,wales and ,ireland 7except the five chief towns7 no sale is permitted on ,sunday4 ,licence holders may sell during prohibited hours to lodgers staying in the house and to bona-fide travellers1 who must be not less than #c m4 from the place they slept in on the previous night4 ,extension of hours of sale may be granted for special occasions and for special localities 7e4g4 early markets74 #i4 ,the following proceedings are prohibited in licensed premises3 permitting children under #ad to be in a bar1 selling any liquor to children under #ad for consumption on the premises1 selling liquor to children under #ad as messengers except in corked and sealed vessels1 selling spirits for consumption on the premises to persons under #af2 selling to drunken persons and to habitual drunkards2 permitting drunkenness1 permitting disorder1 harbouring prostitutes1 harbouring constables1 supplying liquor to constables on duty1 bribing constables1 permitting betting 7persistent7 or gaming1 permitting premises to be used as a brothel1 harbouring thieves1 permitting seditious meetings2 permitting the payment of wagers on premises2 permitting premises to be used for election committee rooms4 ,in and within #bj m4 of ,london music and dancing are prohibited on licensed premises except under special licences4 #aj4 ,the police have the right of entry to licensed premises at any time for the purpose of preventing or detecting offences4 #aa4 ,the injurious adulteration of any liquor is prohibited2 also the dilution of beer2 but dilution of spirits is not unlawful if the customer's attention is drawn to the fact4 #ab4 ,all clubs in which intoxicating liquor is sold must be registered4 ,if the liquor is the collective property of the members no licence is required for retail sale1 but no liquor can be sold for consumption off the premises4 ,clubs run for profit1 known as proprietory clubs1 are on the same legal footing as public-houses4 #ac4 ,penalties incurred by licence-holders for offences under the foregoing provisions4 ,for selling any other kind of liquor than that authorized--first offence1 fine not exceeding #ej or one month's imprisonment2 second offence1 fine not exceeding #ajj or #c months' imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and1 if ordered1 confiscation of liquor and disqualification for five years2 third offence1 fine not exceeding #ajj or six months' imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and1 if ordered1 confiscation of liquor and unlimited disqualification4 ,under the ,excise ,acts the penalty for selling without a licence is--for spirits1 a fine of #ajj1 confiscation of liquor1 forfeiture of licence and perpetual disqualification2 for wine1 a fine of #bj2 for beer or cider on consumption #bj1 off consumption #aj4 ,for sale to children2 first offence1 fine up to #b1 second offence1 fine up to #e4 ,permitting premises to be used as a brothel1 fine of #bj1 forfeiture of licence and perpetual disqualification4 ,other offences1 fine up to #aj for first conviction1 up to #bj for second4 #ad4 ,the following are offences on the part of the public4 ,being found drunk on any highway or other public place or on licensed premises2 penalty1 fine up to #ajs4 for first conviction1 up to #bjs4 for second1 and up to #djs4 for third4 ,riotous or disorderly conduct while drunk2 fine up to #djs4 ,falsely pretending to be a traveller or lodger2 fine up to #e4 ,causing children to be in a bar or sending them for liquor contrary to the law2 fine up to #b for first and up to #e for second offence4 ,attempt to obtain liquor by a person notified to the police as an habitual drunkard2 fine up to #bjs4 for first offence1 up to #djs4 for subsequent ones4 ,giving drunken persons liquor or helping them to get it on licensed premises2 fine up to #djs4 or imprisonment for a month4 ,causing children under #aa to sing or otherwise perform on licensed premises1 and causing boys under #ad or girls under #af to do so between #i ,p4,m4 and #f ,a4,m42 fine up to #be or three months' imprisonment4 ,the foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects apply to ,scotland and ,ireland1 where the administration differs somewhat from that of ,england4 ,in ,scotland the provost and bailies are the licensing authority in royal and parliamentary burghs1 and elsewhere the justices4 ,they hold two sessions annually for granting licences and have considerably more power in some respects than in ,england4 ,the hours of opening are from #h ,a4,m4 to #aa ,p4,m4 7week days only71 but there is a discretionary power to close at #aj ,p4,m4 ,in ,ireland the licensing authority is divided between quarter sessions and petty sessions4 ,public-house licences are granted and transferred at quarter sessions2 renewals and other licences are dealt with at petty sessions4 ,in ,dublin1 ,belfast1 ,cork1 ,londonderry and ,galway the licensing jurisdiction of quarter sessions is exercised by the recorder1 elsewhere by the justices assembled and presided over by the county court judge4 ,the licensing jurisdiction of petty sessions is exercised by two or more justices1 but in ,dublin by one divisional justice4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,licence4 ,old ,duty4 ,new ,duty #aiji-aiaj4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,manufacturers' ,licences-- ,distiller 7spirits7 #aj1 #ajs4 #aj for first #ej1jjj gallons1 #aj for every additional #be1jjj gallons4 ,rectifier 7spirits7 #aj1 #ajs4 #ae1 #aes4 ,brewer #a #a for first #ajj barrels1 #abs4 for every additional #ej barrels4 ,sweets 7,british wines7 #a #e1 #es4 ,wholesale ,dealers' ,licences-- ,spirits #aj1 #ajs4 #ae1 #aes4 ,beer #c1 #fs4 #a;d4 #aj1 #ajs4 ,wine #aj1 #ajs4 ,no change4 ,sweets #e1 #es4 ,no change4 ,retail ,licences ,on-- ,full or ,publican's #d1 #ajs4 to #fj ,half the annual value of 7spirits1 beer1 wine and according to premises1 with a fixed cider7 annual value minimum ranging from #e in of premises4 places with less than #bjjj inhabitants to #ce in towns having over #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,beer-house #c1 #ajs4 ,one-third of annual value of premises1 with a minimum as above ranging from #c1 #ajs4 to #bc1 #ajs4 ,wine 7confectioners'7 #c1 #ajs4 ,from #d1 #ajs4 to #ab according to annual value4 ,cider #a1 #es4 ,from #b1 #es4 to #f4 ,sweets #a1 #es4 ,from #b1 #es4 to #f4 ,retail ,licences ,off-- ,spirits #c1 #cs4 _/ ,spirits 7grocers'1 ,scotland7 #d1 #ds4 to ,from #aj to #ej according to #ac1 #acs4 #f;d4 annual value4 ,spirits 7grocers'1 ,ireland7 #i1 #ahs4 #e;d4 to #ad1 #fs4 #g;d4 ,beer 7,england7 #a1 #es4 #a1 #ajs4 to #aj4 ,beer 7grocers'1 ,scotland7 #b1 #ajs4 and #d1 #ds4 #a1 #ajs4 to #aj4 ,wine 7grocers'7 #b1 #ajs4 #j;d4 #b1 #ajs4 to #aj4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,excise ,licences and ,taxation4--,the excise licences may be divided into four classes1 7#a7 manufacturers'1 7#b7 wholesale dealers'1 7#c7 retail dealers' for on consumption1 7#d7 retail dealers' for off consumption4 ,only the two last classes come under the jurisdiction of the justices1 as explained above4 ,the total number of different excise licences is between #cj and #dj1 but several of them are subvarieties and unimportant or are peculiar to ,scotland or ,ireland4 ,the duties charged on them were greatly changed and increased by the ,finance ,act of #aiji-aiaj1 and it seems desirable to state the changes thus introduced4 ,the table on the previous page gives the principal kinds of licence with the old and the new duties4 ,there are in addition occasional licences valid for one or more days1 which come under the jurisdiction of the justices2 the duty is #bs4 #f;d4 a day for the full licence 7raised to #ajs47 and #as4 for beer or wine only 7raised to #es474 ,the total amount raised by the excise licences in the ,united ,kingdom for the financial year ending #cast ,march #aiji was #b1bji1ibh4 ,of this amount #a1gab1afj1 or nearly four-fifths1 was derived from the full or publicans' licence1 #abf1jec from the wholesale spirit licence and #hh1afg from the beer-house licence2 the rest are comparatively unimportant4 ,but the licences only represent a small part of the revenue derived from liquor4 ,the great bulk of it is collected by means of duties on manufacture and importation4 ,the total amount for the year ending ,march #aiji was #cg1dbh1ahi1 or nearly #cj of the total taxation revenue of the country4 ,the excise duties on the manufacture of spirits yielded #ag1def1cff and those on beer #ab1fia1ccb2 customs duties on importation yielded #e1jdf1idi4 ,the excise duty on spirits was at the rate of #aas4 a gallon1 raised at the end of ,april #aiji to #ads4 #i;d42 the corresponding duty on beer is #gs4 #i;d4 a barrel 7#cf gallons74 ,the relative taxation of the liquor trade in the ,united ,states1 which has become important as a political argument1 is discussed below4 ,effects of ,legislation4--,the only effects which can be stated with precision and ascribed with certainty to legislation are the increase or diminution of the number of licences or licensed premises2 secondary effects1 such as increase or diminution of consumption and of drunkenness1 are affected by so many causes that only by a very careful1 well-informed and dispassionate examination of the facts can positive conclusions be drawn with regard to the influence of legislation 7see ,,temperance74 ,there is no more prolific ground for fallacious statements and arguments1 whether unconscious or deliberate4 ,the course of legislation traced above1 however1 does permit the broad conclusion that great laxity and the multiplication of facilities tend to increase drinking and disorder in a country like the ,united ,kingdom1 and that extreme severity produces the same or worse effects by driving the trade into illicit channels1 which escape control1 and thus really increasing facilities while apparently diminishing them4 ,the most successful course has always been a mean between these extremes in the form of restraint judiciously applied and adjusted to circumstances4 ,the most salient feature of the situation as influenced by the law in recent years is the progressive reduction in the number of licensed houses since #ahfi4 ,previously they had been increasing in ,england4 ,the number of public-houses1 including beer-houses for on consumption1 in #ahca was #hb1dff2 in #ahfi it had risen to #aah1fjb2 in #aiji it had fallen again to #id1gid4 ,but if the proportion of public-houses to population be taken there has been a continuous fall since #ahca1 as the following table shows3-- ,england and ,wales4 --------------------------------------- ,no4 of ,proportion ,year4 on ,licences4 per #aj1jjj of ,population4 --------------------------------------- #ahca #hb1dff #ei #ahga #aab1hhf #di #aija #aja1idj #ca #aiji #id1gid #bf --------------------------------------- ,the change may be put in another way4 ,in #ahca there was one public-house to #afh persons2 in #aiji the proportion was #a to #cge4 ,the proportional reduction goes back to the #ahth century4 ,in #agcb there was in ,london one public-house to every #ej persons 7see above74 ,in ,scotland the number of public-houses has been diminishing since #ahbi1 when there were #ag1gac2 in #aiji there were only #gjfe1 while the population had more than doubled4 ,the number in proportion to population has therefore fallen far more rapidly than in ,england1 thus--#ahca1 #a to #acd persons2 #aiji1 #a to #fij persons4 ,in ,ireland the story is different4 ,there has been a fall in the number of public-houses since #ahbi1 when there were #bj1edh2 but it has not been large or continuous and the population has been steadily diminishing during the time1 so that the proportion to population has actually increased1 thus--#ahca1 #a to #cie persons2 #aiji1 #a to #bdi persons4 ,as a whole1 however1 the ,united ,kingdom shows a large and progressive diminution of public-houses to population2 nor is this counterbalanced by an increase of off licences4 ,if we take the whole number of licences we get the following movement in recent years3-- ,no4 of ,retail ,licences 7on and off7 per #aj1jjj of ,population4 ---------------------------------------- #ahic4 #aijc4 #aiji4 ---------------------------------------- ,england and ,wales #df #db #cg ,scotland #cg #cc #cj ,ireland #da #df #de ,united ,kingdom #de #db #cg ---------------------------------------- ,the diminution in the number of public-houses in ,england was markedly accelerated by the act of #aijd1 which introduced the principle of compensation4 ,the average annual rate of reduction in the ten years #ahid-aijd before the act was #cei2 in the four years #aije-aijh2 after the act it rose to #achh4 ,the average annual number of licences suppressed with compensation was #aacg1 and the average annual amount of compensation paid was #a1jif1idf1 contributed by the trade as explained above4 ,the reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent years by a constant increase in the number of clubs4 ,by the act of #aijb1 which imposed registration1 they were brought under some control and the number of legal clubs was accurately ascertained4 ,previously the number was only estimated from certain data with approximate accuracy4 ,the following table gives the official figures3-- ,clubs3 ,england and ,wales4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahhg4 #ahif4 #aijd4 #aije4 #aijf4 #aijg4 #aijh4 #aiji4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,number #aihb #cfee #fcga #fehi #fgba #fijg #gacc #gcec ,proportion per #aj1jjj #j4g #a4a #a4hi #a4ic #a4ie #a4ih #b4jb #b4jh ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,clubs represent alternative channels to the licensed trade and they are under much less stringent control2 they have no prohibited hours and the police have not the same right of entry4 ,in so far1 therefore1 as clubs replace public-houses the reduction of the latter does not mean diminished facilities for drinking1 but the contrary4 ,in the years #aijc-aijh the average number of clubs proceeded against for offences was #gd and the average number struck off the register was #eb4 ,the increase of clubs and the large proportion struck off the register suggest the need of caution in dealing with the licensed trade2 over-stringent measures defeat their own end4 ,persistent attempts have for many years been made to effect radical changes in the ,british system of licensing by the introduction of some of the methods adopted in other countries1 and particularly those in the ,united ,states4 ,but it is difficult to engraft new and alien methods1 involving violent change1 upon an ancient system consolidated by successive statutory enactments and confirmed by time and usage4 ,the course of the law and administration since #ahfi has made it particularly difficult4 ,the stringent conditions imposed on licence-holders have given those who fulfil them a claim to consideration1 and the reduction of licences1 by limiting the market1 has enhanced their value4 ,an expectation of renewal1 in the absence of misconduct1 has grown up by usage and been confirmed by the law1 which recognizes the distinction between granting a new licence and renewing an old one1 by the treasury which levies death duties on the assumption that a licence is an enduring property1 by local authorities which assess upon the same assumption1 and by the ,high ,courts of ,justice1 whose decisions have repeatedly turned on this point4 ,the consequence of all this is that very large sums have been invested in licensed property1 which has become part of the settled order of society2 and to destroy it by some sudden innovation would cause a great shock4 ,the position is entirely different in other countries where no such control has ever been exercised4 ,it is possible to impose a new system where previously there was none1 but not to replace suddenly an old and settled one for something entirely different4 ,only the most convincing proof of the need and the advantages of the change would justify it2 and such proof has not been forthcoming4 ,the ,british system has the great merit of combining adaptability to different circumstances and to changing customs with continuity and steadiness of administration4 ,the advantages of abandoning it for some other are more than doubtful1 the difficulties are real and serious4 ,over a very long period it has been repeatedly readjusted in conformity with the movement of public opinion and of national habits2 while under it the executive have gradually got the traffic well in hand1 and a great and progressive improvement in order and conduct has taken place4 ,the process is gradual but sure1 and the record will compare favourably with that of any other comparable country4 ,further readjustment will follow and is desirable4 ,the great defect of the law is its extreme complexity2 it needs recasting and simplification4 ,there are too many kinds of licence1 and the classification does not correspond with the actual conditions of the traffic4 ,some licences are obsolete and superfluous2 others make no distinction between branches of the trade which fulfil entirely different functions and require different treatment4 ,the full or publican's licence1 which is incomparably the most important1 places on the same legal footing hotels1 restaurants1 village inns and mere drinking bars1 and the lack of distinction is a great stumbling-block4 ,in the attempt made in #aijh to introduce new legislation it was found necessary to incorporate distinctions between different classes of establishment1 although that was not contemplated in the original bill4 ,it will always be found necessary whenever the subject is seriously approached1 because the law has to deal with things as they actually are4 ,it does not fall within the scope of this article to discuss the numerous controversial questions which arise in connexion with various legislative proposals for dealing with the liquor traffic2 but an account of the methods which it has been proposed to adopt from other countries will be found below4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the liquor legislation of the ,united ,states presents a great contrast to that of the ,united ,kingdom1 but it is not less interesting in an entirely different way4 ,in place of a single homogeneous system gradually evolved in the course of centuries it embraces a whole series of different ones based on the most diverse principles and subject to sudden changes and frequent experiments4 ,it is not sufficiently understood in ,europe that the legislatures of the several states are sovereign in regard to internal affairs and make what laws they please subject to the proviso that they cannot over-ride the ,federal law4 ,there is therefore no uniformity in regard to such matters as liquor legislation1 and it is a mistake to speak of any particular system as representing the whole country4 ,the ,united ,states government only interferes with the traffic to tax it for revenue1 and to regulate the sale of liquor to ,indians1 to soldiers1 etc4 ,the liquor traffic is subject--whether in the form of manufacture1 wholesale or retail trade--to a uniform tax of #be dollars 7#e7 per annum imposed on every one engaged in it4 ,congress1 under the constitution1 controls interstate commerce1 and the ,supreme ,court has decided that without its consent no state can prevent a railway or other carrying agency from bringing liquor to any point within its borders from outside4 ,thus no state can keep out liquor or prevent its consumption1 but any state legislature may make what internal regulations it pleases and may prohibit the manufacture and sale altogether within its own borders4 ,it may go further4 ,in #ahhg a judgment was delivered by the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states that it is within the discretionary power of a state to protect public health1 safety and morals even by the destruction of property without compensation1 and that the constitution of the ,united ,states is not thereby violated4 ,use has been made of this power in ,kansas1 and it appears therefore that persons who engage in the liquor trade do so at their own risk4 ,there is in fact no stability at all except in a few states which have incorporated some principle in their constitutions1 and even that does not ensure continuity of practice1 as means are easily found for evading the law or substituting some other system which amounts to the same thing4 ,as a whole the control of the liquor traffic oscillates violently between attempted suppression and great freedom combined with heavy taxation of licensed houses4 ,in the great majority of the states some form of licensing exists2 it is the prevailing system and was adopted1 no doubt from ,england1 at an early period4 ,it is exercised in various ways4 ,the licensing authority may be the municipality or a specially constituted body or the police or a judicial body4 ,the last1 which is the method in ,pennsylvania1 seems to be exceptional4 ,according to ,mr ,fanshawe there is a general tendency1 due to the prevailing corruption1 to withdraw from municipal authorities power over the licensing1 and to place this function in the hands of commissioners1 who may be elected or nominated4 ,in ,new ,york state the licensing commissioners used to be nominated in cities by the mayors and elected elsewhere2 but by the ,raines law of #ahif the whole administration was placed under a state commissioner appointed by the governor with the consent of the ,senate4 ,a similar plan is in force in some important cities in other states4 ,in ,boston the licensing is in the hands of a police board appointed by the governor2 in ,baltimore and ,st ,louis the authority is vested in commissioners similarly appointed2 and in ,washington the licensing commissioners are appointed by the president4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 where the court of quarter sessions is the authority1 the vesting of licensing in a judicial body dates back to #afgf and bears the stamp of ,english influence4 ,it is noteworthy that in ,philadelphia and ,pittsburg 7,allegheny county7 the judicial court was for a time given up in favour of commissioners1 but the change was a great failure and abandoned in #ahhh4 ,the powers of the licensing authority vary widely2 in some cases the only grounds of refusal are conduct and character1 and licences are virtually granted to every applicant2 in others the discretion to refuse is absolute4 ,in ,massachusetts the number of licences allowed bears a fixed ratio to the population1 namely #a to #ajjj1 except in ,boston1 where it is #a to #ejj1 but as a rule where licences are given they are given freely4 ,they are valid for a year and granted on conditions4 ,the first and most general condition is the payment of a fee or tax1 which varies in amount in different states4 ,under the high licence system 7see below7 it generally varies according to the size of the locality and the class of licence where different classes are recognized4 ,in ,massachusetts there are six licences2 three for consumption on the premises--namely 7#a7 full licence for all liquors1 7#b7 beer1 cider1 and light wine1 7#c7 beer and cider2 two for consumption off the premises--namely 7#a7 spirits1 7#b7 other liquors2 the sixth is for druggists4 ,in ,new ,york state also there are six classes of licence1 though they are not quite the same2 but in many states there appears to be only one licence1 and no distinction between on and off sale1 wholesale or retail4 ,another condition generally imposed in addition to the tax is a heavy bond with sureties2 it varies in amount but is usually not less than #bjjj dollars 7#djj7 and may be as high as #fjjj dollars 7#abjj74 ,a condition precedent to the granting of a licence imposed in some states is the deposit of a petition or application some time beforehand1 which may have to be backed by a certain number of local residents or tax-payers4 ,in ,pennsylvania the required number is #ab1 and this is the common practice elsewhere2 in ,missouri a majority of tax-payers is required1 and the licence may even then be refused1 but if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the tax-payers the licensing authority is bound to grant it4 ,this seems to be a sort of genuine local option4 ,provision is also generally made for hearing objectors4 ,another condition sometimes required 7,massachusetts and ,iowa7 is the consent of owners of adjoining property4 ,in some states no licences are permitted within a stated distance of certain institutions2 e4g4 public parks 7,missouri7 and schools 7,massachusetts74 ,regulations imposed on the licensed trade nearly always include prohibition of sale to minors under #ah and to drunkards1 on ,sundays1 public holidays and election days1 and prohibition of the employment of barmaids4 ,sunday closing1 which is universal1 dates at least from #ahaf 7,indiana7 and is probably much older4 ,the hours of closing on week days vary considerably but are usually #aj ,p4,m4 or #aa ,p4,m4 ,other things are often prohibited including indecent pictures1 games and music4 ,state ,prohibition4--,in a few states no licences are allowed4 ,state prohibition was first introduced in #ahdf under the influence of a strong agitation in ,maine1 and within a few years the example was followed by the other ,new ,england states2 by ,vermont in #aheb1 ,connecticut in #ahed1 ,new ,hampshire in #ahee and later by ,massachusetts and ,rhode ,island4 ,they have all now after a more or less prolonged trial given it up except ,maine4 ,other states which have tried and abandoned it are ,illinois 7#ahea-ahec71 ,indiana 7#ahee-aheh71 ,michigan1 ,iowa1 ,nebraska1 ,south ,dakota4 ,the great ,middle states have either never tried it1 as in the case of ,new ,york 7where it was enacted in #ahee but declared unconstitutional71 ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey1 or only gave it a nominal trial1 as with ,illinois and ,indiana4 ,a curious position came about in ,ohio1#a one of the great industrial states4 ,it did not adopt prohibition1 which forbids the manufacture and sale of liquor2 but in #ahea it abandoned licensing1 which had been in force since #agib1 and incorporated a provision in the constitution declaring that no licence should thereafter be granted in the state4 ,the position then was that retail sale without a licence was illegal and that no licence could be granted4 ,this singular state of things was changed in #ahhf by the ,dow law1 which authorized a tax on the trade and rendered it legal without expressly sanctioning or licensing it4 ,there were therefore no licences and no licensing machinery1 but the traffic was taxed and conditions imposed4 ,in effect the ,dow law amounted to repeal of prohibition and its replacement by the freest possible form of licensing4 ,in ,iowa1 which early adopted a prohibitory law1 still nominally in force1 a law1 known as the mulct law1 was passed in #ahid for taxing the trade and practically legalizing it under conditions4 ,the story of the forty years' struggle in this state between the prohibition agitation and the natural appetites of mankind is exceedingly instructive2 it is an extraordinary revelation of political intrigue and tortuous proceedings1 and an impressive warning against the folly of trying to coerce the personal habits of a large section of the population against their will4 ,it ended in a sort of compromise1 in which the coercive principle is preserved in one law and personal liberty vindicated by another contradictory one4 ,the result may be satisfactory1 but it might be attained in a less expensive manner4 ,what suffers is the principle of law itself1 which is brought into disrepute4 ,state prohibition1 abandoned by the populous ,new ,england and central states1 has in recent years found a home in more remote regions4 ,in #aijg it was in force in five states--,maine1 ,kansas1 ,north ,dakota1 ,georgia and ,oklahoma2 in ,january1 #aiji1 it came into operation in ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 and ,north ,carolina2 and in ,july #aiji in ,tennessee4 ,local ,prohibition4--,the limited form of prohibition known as local veto is much more extensively applied4 ,it is an older plan than state prohibition1 having been adopted by the legislature of ,indiana in #ahcb4 ,georgia followed in the next year1 and then other states took it up for several years until the rise of state prohibition in the middle of the century caused it to fall into neglect for a time4 ,but the states which adopted and then abandoned general prohibition fell back on the local form1 and a great many others have also adopted it4 ,in #aijg it was in force in over #cj states1 including all the most populous and important1 with one or two exceptions4 ,but the extent to which it is applied varies very widely and is constantly changing1 as different places take it up and drop it again4 ,some alternate in an almost regular manner every two or three years1 or even every year2 and periodical oscillations of a general character occur in favour of the plan or against it as the result of organized agitation followed by reaction4 ,the wide discrepancies between the practice of different states are shown by some statistics collected in #aijg1 when the movement was running favourably to the adoption of no licence4 ,in ,tennessee the whole state was under prohibition with the exception of #e municipalities2 ,arkansas1 #ef out of #ge counties2 ,florida1 #ce out of #df counties2 ,mississippi1 #ef out of #gg counties2 ,north ,carolina1 #gj out of #ig counties2 ,vermont1 #c out of #f cities and #bjh out of #bda towns4 ,these appear to be the most prohibitive states1 and they are all of a rural character4 ,at the other end of the scale were ,pennsylvania with #a county and a few towns 7town in ,america is generally equivalent to village in ,england72 ,michigan1 #a county and a few towns2 ,california1 parts of #h or #aj counties4 ,new ,york had #cjh out of #icc towns1 ,ohio1 #dhj out of #gfh towns1 ,massachusetts1 #ai out of #cc cities and #bdi out of #cba towns4 ,at the end of #aiji a strong reaction against the prohibition policy set in1 notably in ,massachusetts4 ,there is no more uniformity in the mode of procedure than in the extent of application4 ,at least five methods are distinguished4 ,in the most complete and regular form a vote is taken every year in all localities whether there shall be licences or not in the ensuing year and is decided by a bare majority4 ,a second method of applying the general vote is to take it at any time1 but not oftener than once in four years1 on the demand of one-tenth of the electorate4 ,a third plan is to apply this principle locally and put the question to the vote1 when demanded1 in any locality4 ,a fourth and entirely different system is to invest the local authority with powers to decide whether there shall be licences or not2 and a fifth is to give residents power to prevent licences by means of protest or petition4 ,the first two methods are those most widely in force2 but the third plan of taking a local vote by itself is adopted in some important states1 including ,new ,york1 ,ohio and ,illinois4 ,opinions differ widely with regard to the success of local veto1 but all independent observers agree that it is more successful than state prohibition1 and the preference accorded to it by so many states after prolonged experience proves that public opinion broadly endorses that view4 ,its advantage lies in its adaptability to local circumstances and local opinion4 ,it prevails mainly in rural districts and small towns2 in the larger towns it is best tolerated where they are in close proximity to safety valves or licensed areas in which liquor can be obtained2 the large cities do not adopt it4 ,on the other hand1 it has some serious disadvantages4 ,the perpetually renewed struggle between the advocates and opponents of prohibition is a constant cause of social and political strife2 and the alternate shutting up and opening of public houses in many places makes continuity of administration impossible1 prevents the executive from getting the traffic properly in hand1 upsets the habits of the people1 demoralizes the trade and stands in the way of steady improvement4 ,public ,dispensaries4--,this entirely different system of controlling the traffic has been in general operation in one state only1 ,south ,carolina2 but it was also applied to certain areas in the neighbouring states of ,north ,carolina1 ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,the coloured element is very strong in these states1 especially in ,south ,carolina1 where the coloured far exceeds the white population4 ,the dispensary system was inaugurated there in #ahic4 ,it had been preceded by a licensing system with local veto 7adopted in #ahhb71 but a strong agitation for state prohibition brought matters to a crisis in #ahia4 ,the usual violent political struggle1 which is the only constant feature of liquor legislation in the ,united ,states1 took place1 partly on temperance and partly on economic grounds2 and a way out was found by adopting an idea from the town of ,athens in ,georgia1 where the liquor trade was run by the municipality through a public dispensary4 ,a law was passed in #ahib embodying this principle but applying it to the whole state4 ,the measure was fiercely contested in the courts and the legislature for years and it underwent numerous amendments1 but it survived4 ,under it the state became the sole purveyor of liquor1 buying wholesale from the manufacturers and selling retail through dispensaries under public management and only for consumption off the premises4 ,many changes were introduced from time to time without abandoning the principle1 but in #aijg the system of state control was replaced by one of county administration4 ,local veto is also in force1 and thus the localities have the choice of a dispensary or no sale at all4 ,the regulations are very strict4 ,the dispensaries are few and only open on week-days and during the day-time2 they close at sunset4 ,liquor is only sold in bottles and in not less quantities than half a pint of spirits and a pint of beer1 and it must be taken away2 bars are abolished4 ,there is a general consensus of testimony to the effect of the system in improving public order especially among the coloured population1 who are very susceptible to drink4 ,the law seems to be well carried out in general1 but ,charleston and ,columbia1 the only two considerable towns1 are honeycombed with illicit drink-shops1 as the writer has proved by personal experience4 ,columbia is the capital and the seat of cotton manufactures1 as are all the larger towns1 with the exception of ,charleston1 which is the port and business centre4 ,the population of the state is predominantly rural1 and local prohibition obtains in #ah out of #da counties4 ,the following statistical comparison1 extracted from the ,united ,states ,census of #aijj and the ,inland ,revenue ,returns by ,mr ,w4 ,o4 ,tatum 7,new ,encyclopedia of ,social ,reform7 and here presented in tabular form1 is highly instructive4 ,it shows the population and number of liquor dealers paying the ,united ,states tax in two prohibition states1 one state under what is considered the best licensing system1 and ,south ,carolina4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,wholesale ,retail ,state4 ,population4 ,liquor ,liquor ,dealers4 ,dealers4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,maine 7,prohibition7 #fid1dff #ea #acff ,kansas 7,prohibition7 #a1dgj1die #abi #cabe ,massachusetts 7,licence7 #b1hje1cdf #fag #ejib ,s4 ,carolina 7,dispensary7 #a1cdj1caf #ac #ecd ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,this table may be said to epitomize the results of the ,united ,states restrictive liquor laws4 ,it presents examples of three different systems2 the proportion of retail liquor sellers to population is--under complete prohibition1 #a to #ejh and #a to #dge2 under licence and local prohibition1 #a to #ecj2 under dispensary and local prohibition1 #a to #beji4 ,but the remarkable thing is the enormous amount of illicit traffic existing under all three systems4 ,it is incomparably greatest under complete prohibition because the whole of the traffic in these states is illicit4 ,in ,south ,carolina one of the wholesale dealers and #chh of the #ecd retailers were illicit4 ,in ,massachusetts the number cannot be stated1 but it is very large4 ,if the whole state were under licence the total legal number of licences1 which is limited in proportion to population 7see above71 would be #cdjj2 and in that case there would be some #agjj illicit retailers4 ,but a large part of the state1 probably more than half1 is under local prohibition1 so that the majority of the #ejjj retail dealers must be illicit4 ,these facts1 which are typical and not exceptional1 reveal the failure of the laws to control the traffic2 only partial or spasmodic attempts are made to enforce them and to a great extent they are ignored by common consent4 ,the illegal trade is carried on so openly that the ,united ,states revenue officers have no difficulty in collecting the federal tax4 ,it is not a satisfactory state of things1 or one which countries where law is respected would care to imitate4 ,the example is a good lesson in what to avoid4 ,taxation4--,mention has been made above of the federal and state taxation imposed on the liquor trade4 ,the former is uniform2 the latter varies greatly1 even in those states which have adopted the high licence4 ,this system is intended to fulfil two purposes2 to act as an automatic check on the number of licences and to produce revenue4 ,it was introduced in ,nebraska in #ahha1 when a tax of #ajjj dollars 7#bjj7 was placed on saloons 7public houses7 in large towns1 and half that amount in smaller ones4 ,the practice gradually spread and has now been adopted by a large number of states1 noticeably the populous and industrial north-eastern and central states4 ,in ,massachusetts1 where the high licence was adopted in #ahgd when the state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition1 the fees are exceptionally high1 the minimum for a fully licensed on and off house being #acjj dollars 7#bfj72 in ,boston the average tax is #caj4 ,in ,new ,york state it ranges from #aej dollars 7#cj7 in sparsely populated districts to #abjj dollars 7#bdj71 and in ,pennsylvania it is much the same4 ,in ,new ,jersey1 on the other hand1 it ranges from #bj to #fj2 in ,connecticut from #ej to #ij2 in ,rhode ,island from #dj to #hj4 ,in ,missouri1 which has a special system of its own and a sort of sliding scale1 great variations occur and in some cases the tax exceeds #ejj4 ,in ,michigan it is uniform at #ajj4 ,the mean for the large cities is #acc4 ,the revenue derived from this source is distributed in many ways1 but is generally divided in varying proportions between the state1 the county and the municipality2 sometimes a proportion goes to the relief of the poor1 to road-making or some other public purpose4 ,the amount levied in the great cities is very large4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing that the taxation of licences is much heavier in the ,united ,states than in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the total yield was ascertained by a special inquiry in #ahif and found to be rather less than #ab millions sterling2 in the same year the yield from the same source in the ,united ,kingdom was just under #b millions4 ,allowing for difference of population the ,american rate of taxation was #c times as great as the ,british4 ,it has been inferred that the liquor trade is much more highly taxed in the ,united ,states and that it would bear largely increased taxation in the ,united ,kingdom2 that argument was brought forward in support of ,mr ,lloyd ,george's budget of #aiji4 ,but it only takes account of the tax on licences and leaves out of account the tax on liquor which is the great source of revenue in the ,united ,kingdom1 as has been shown above4 ,the scales are much lower in the ,united ,states1 especially on spirits1 which are only taxed at the average rate of #es4 #h;d4 a gallon against #aas4 7raised to #ads4 #i;d4 in #aiji7 in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,mr ,frederic ,thompson has calculated out the effect of the two sets of rates and shown that if ,british rates were applied to the ,united ,states the average yield in the three years ending #aijh would be raised from #dd millions to #gf millions2 and conversely if ,american rates were applied to the ,united ,kingdom the average yield would be lowered from #cf millions to #bc millions4 ,taking licences and liquor taxation together he finds that the application of the ,british standards for both would still raise the total yield in the ,united ,states by #ci2 and that even the exceptionally high rates prevailing in ,massachusetts would1 if applied to the ,united ,kingdom1 produce some #d millions less revenue than the existing taxation4 ,other calculations based on the consumption and taxation per head lead to the same conclusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably higher rate in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,in the three years ending #aijh the average amount paid per head in taxation was #acs4 #h;d4 in the ,united ,states and #ags4 #f;d4 in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it may be added that the method of taxing licences heavily has certain disadvantages2 it stimulates that illicit trade which is the most outstanding feature of the traffic in the ,united ,states1 and combined with the extreme insecurity of tenure involved in local option it gives licence-holders additional inducements to make as much money as possible by any means available1 while they have the opportunity1 for no compensation is ever paid for sudden dispossession4 ,the notion that the trade will stand an indefinite amount of taxation is a dangerous and oft-proved fallacy4 ,european ,countries4 ,with the exception of ,sweden1 ,norway and ,russia1 which have special systems of their own1 the continental countries of ,europe have as yet paid comparatively little legislative attention to the subject of the liquor traffic1 which is recognized by the law but for the most part freely permitted with a minimum of interference4 ,differences exist1 but1 generally speaking1 establishments may be opened under a very simple procedure1 which amounts to an elementary form of licensing1 and the permission is only withdrawn for some definite and serious offence4 ,regulations and conditions are for the most part left to the discretion of the local authority and the police and are not burdensome4 ,the reason for such freedom as compared with the elaborate and stringent codes of the ,united ,kingdom and the ,united ,states is not less concern for public welfare but the simple fact that the traffic gives less trouble and causes less harm through the abuse of drink2 the habits of the people are different in regard to the character of the drinks consumed1 the mode of consumption and the type of establishment4 ,cafs1 restaurants and beer-gardens are much more common1 and mere pot-houses less so than in the ,english-speaking countries4 ,where trouble arises and engages the attention of the authorities and the legislature1 it is almost invariably found to be associated with the consumption of spirits4 ,in several of the wine-producing countries1 which are generally marked by the temperate habits of the people1 the widespread havoc among the vines caused some years ago by the phylloxera led to an increased consumption of spirits which had a bad effect and aroused considerable anxiety4 ,this was notably the case in ,france1 where an anti-alcohol congress1 held in #aijc1 marked the rise of public and scientific opinion on the subject4 ,temperance societies have become active1 and in some countries there is a movement towards stricter regulations or at least a demand for it2 but in others the present law is a relaxation of earlier ones4 ,france4--,the present law governing the licensing of establishments where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was passed in #ahhj2 it abrogated the previous decree of #ahea1 by which full discretion was vested in the local authorities1 and freed the traffic from arbitrary restrictions4 ,it provides that any person desiring to open a caf1 cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must give notice to the authorities1 with details concerning himself1 the establishment and the proprietor1 at least #ae days beforehand2 the authority in ,paris is the prfecture of police and elsewhere the mairie4 ,transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified within #ae days1 and intended transference of location #h days beforehand4 ,the penalty for infraction is a fine of #af francs to #ajj francs4 ,legal minors and persons convicted of certain crimes and offences--theft1 receiving stolen goods1 various forms of swindling1 offences against morality1 the sale of adulterated articles--are prohibited2 in the case of crimes1 forever2 in the case of offences1 for five years4 ,otherwise permission cannot be refused1 subject to conditions which the local authority has power to lay down regulating the distance of such establishments from churches1 cemeteries1 hospitals1 schools and colleges4 ,but persons engaged in the trade1 who are convicted of the offences mentioned above and of infraction of the law for the suppression of public drunkenness1 are disabled1 as above4 ,the law practically amounts to free trade and the number of houses has increased under it2 in #aijj there was one to every #ha persons4 ,this proportion is only exceeded by ,belgium4 ,under the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhd municipal authorities are empowered1 for the maintenance of public order1 to fix hours of closing1 regulate dancing1 forbid the employment of girls and the harbouring of prostitutes and make other regulations4 ,the hours of closing differ considerably but usually they are #aa ,p4,m41 midnight or #a ,a4,m4 ,the trade is lightly taxed2 retailers pay from #ae to #ej francs a year2 wholesale dealers1 #abe francs2 breweries the same in most departments1 distilleries #be francs4 ,the excise revenue from liquor amounted to #bj1jjj1jjj in #aijj4 ,germany4--,the ,german law and practice are broadly similar to the ,french1 but the several states vary somewhat in detail4 ,under the imperial law of #ahgi inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for on or off consumption may not be carried on without a permit or licence from the local authority which1 however1 can only be refused on the ground of character or of unsuitability of premises4 ,this is the general law of the empire2 but the state governments are empowered to make the granting of a licence for retailing spirits dependent on proof that it is locally required1 and also to impose the same condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other drinks in places with less than #ae1jjj inhabitants and in larger ones which obtain a local statute to that effect4 ,before a licence is granted the opinion of the police and other executive officers is to be taken4 ,the licensing authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of the district council in rural areas4 ,the provisions with regard to the dependence of a licence on local requirements have been adopted by ,prussia and other states1 but apparently little or no use is made of them4 ,permits are very freely granted1 and the number of licensed houses1 though not so great as in ,france1 is very high in proportion to population4 ,three classes of establishment are recognized--7#a7 ,gast-wirthschaft1 7#b7 ,schank-wirthschaft1 7#c7 ,klein-handel4 ,gast-wirthschaft is inn-keeping1 or the lodging of strangers in an open house for profit1 and includes pensions of a public character2 the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this function and need not include the retailing of liquor4 ,schank-wirthschaft is the retailing for profit of all sorts of drinks1 including coffee and mineral waters2 it corresponds to caf in ,france and refreshment house in ,england2 but the mere serving of food does not come under the law with which we are here concerned4 ,klein-handel is retail sale either for on or off consumption1 and the liquor for which a licence is required in this connexion is described as branntwein or spiritus1 and is defined as distilled alcoholic liquor1 whether by itself or in combination4 ,a licence for ,schank-wirthschaft includes ,klein-handel1 but not vice-versa2 none is required for the retail sale of wine which is the seller's own produce4 ,licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law4 ,licensed houses are under the supervision of the police1 who fix the hours of closing2 it is usually #aj ,p4,m41 but is commonly extended to #aa ,p4,m4 or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of particular establishments4 ,some cafs in ,berlin do not close till #c ,a4,m4 and some never close at all4 ,persons remaining on the premises in forbidden hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are liable to punishment4 ,serving drunkards and persons of school age is forbidden4 ,drunkards1 in addition to fines or imprisonment for disorderly conduct1 are liable to be deprived of control of their affairs and placed under guardianship4 ,for music and dancing special permits are required4 ,with regard to taxation1 in ,prussia all business establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax and licensed houses are on the same footing as the rest4 ,businesses producing less than #ge a year or of less than #aej capital value are free2 the rest are arranged in four classes on a rising scale4 ,in the three lower classes the tax ranges from a minimum of #ds4 to a maximum of #bd2 in the highest class1 which represents businesses producing #bejj and upwards 7or a capital value of #ej1jjj and upwards7 the tax is #a of the profits4 ,there is also a stamp duty on the licence ranging from #as4 #f;d4 to #e4 ,the latter goes to the local revenue1 the business tax to the government4 ,beer and spirits are also subject to an excise tax1 from which the imperial revenue derived #g1gjj1jjj in #aija2 but the total taxation of the liquor trade could only be calculated from the returns of all the federated states4 ,the laws of ,france and ,germany are fairly representative of the ,european states1 with some minor variations4 ,in ,holland the number of licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to population 7#a to #ejj71 and the taxation1 which is both national and local1 ranges from #aj to #be of the annual value4 ,in ,austria-,hungary and ,rumania the licence duty is graduated according to the population of the place1 as used to be the case in ,prussia4 ,in #ahgg a severe police law was applied to ,galicia in order to check the excesses of spirit-drinking4 ,the ,poles1 it may be observed1 are spirit-drinkers1 and the exceptional treatment of this part of the ,austrian empire is one more illustration of the trouble arising from that habit1 which forces special attempts to restrain it4 ,the law1 just mentioned1 in ,holland is another instance2 and the particular cases of ,russia and ,scandinavia1 described below1 enforce the same lesson4 ,where the drink of the people is confined to wine and beer there is comparatively little trouble4 ,in ,switzerland the manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly since #ahhg1 but the retailing is a licensed trade1 as elsewhere1 and is less restricted than formerly4 ,before federation in #ahgd the cantons used to direct local authorities to restrict the number of licences in proportion to population2 but under the new constitution the general principle of free trade was laid down1 and the ,federal ,council intimated to the cantonal authorities that it was no longer lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that it was not needed4 ,russia4--,in #ahie ,russia entered upon an experiment in regard to the spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing licence system into a state monopoly4 ,the experiment was held to be successful and was gradually extended to the whole country4 ,under this system1 which to some extent resembles that of ,south ,carolina but is much less rigid1 the distilleries remain in private hands but their output is under government control4 ,the retail sale is confined to government shops1 which sell only in sealed bottles for consumption off the premises1 and to commercial establishments which sell on commission for the government4 ,spirit bars are abolished and only in a few high class restaurants are spirits sold by the glass2 in ordinary eating-houses and at railway refreshment rooms they are sold in sealed government bottles but may be consumed on the premises4 ,the primary object was to check the excesses of spirit-drinking which were very great in ,russia among the mass of the people4 ,the effect has been a very large reduction in the number of liquor shops1 which has extended also to the licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected as such4 ,presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not pay them to take out a licence for beer4 ,sweden and ,norway4--,in these countries the celebrated ,gothenburg or company system is in force together with licensing and local veto4 ,like the ,russian state monopoly the company system applies only to spirits1 and for the same reason2 spirits are or were the common drink of the people and excessive facilities in the early part of the #aith century produced the usual result4 ,the story is very similar to that of ,england in the #ahth century1 given above4 ,from #aggd to #aghh distilling in ,sweden was a crown monopoly1 but popular opposition and illicit trade compelled the abandonment of this plan in favour of general permission granted to farmers1 innkeepers and landowners4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century the right to distil belonged to every owner and cultivator of land on payment of a trifling licence duty1 and it was further extended to occupiers4 ,in #ahbi the number of stills paying licence duty was #agc1abd or #a to every #af persons2 the practice was in fact universal and the whole population was debauched with spirits4 ,the physical and moral results were the same as those recorded in ,england a hundred years before4 ,the supply was somewhat restricted by royal ordinance in #ahce1 but the traffic was not effectively dealt with until #ahee when a law was passed which practically abolished domestic distilling by fixing a minimum daily output of #bjj gallons1 with a tax of about #aj;d4 a gallon4 ,this turned the business into a manufacture and speedily reduced the number of stills4 ,at the same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic regulations4 ,a licensing system was introduced which gave the local authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to auction or to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company formed for the purpose of carrying it on4 ,the latter idea1 which is the ,gothenburg system1 was taken from the example of ,falun and ,jnkping which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan4 ,the law of #ahee further gave rural districts the power of local veto4 ,four-fifths of the population live in rural districts1 and the great majority of them immediately took advantage of the provision4 ,the company system1 on the other hand1 was not applied by the towns until #ahfe1 when ,gothenburg adopted it4 ,in ,norway the course of events was very similar4 ,there1 too1 distilling and spirit-drinking were practically universal in the early part of the century under the laws of #ahaf1 but were checked by legislation a few years sooner than in ,sweden4 ,in #ahde a special licensing system was introduced1 giving the local authority power to fix the number of licences1 and in #ahdh the small and domestic stills were stopped4 ,the ,gothenburg system was not adopted in ,norway until #ahga and then with some modification4 ,the essence of this method of conducting the retail traffic is that the element of private gain is eliminated4 ,a monopoly is granted to a company consisting of a number of disinterested citizens of standing with a capital1 and they manage the sale both for on and off consumption in the public interest4 ,the profits1 after payment of #e on the capital1 originally went in ,sweden mainly to the municipality in relief of rates1 in ,norway to objects of public utility4 ,the latter was considered preferable because it offers less temptation to make the profits as high as possible4 ,fault has1 however1 been found with both methods1 and payment of profits to the state is now preferred4 ,in #ahid a law was passed in ,norway providing for the following distribution3 #fe to the state1 #bj to the company1 and #ae to the municipality4 ,in #aijg ,sweden adopted a law in the same direction4 ,the intention is to eliminate more completely the motive of gain from the traffic4 ,in #ahih the net profits of the companies exceeded half a million sterling in ,sweden and reached #aag1ejj in ,norway4 ,the company system had in #aiaj had more than half a century's trial2 it had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to much criticism1 which was balanced by at least as much eulogy4 ,it had held its own in ,sweden1 where #aja towns had adopted it in #aijf4 ,in ,norway at the same date it was in force in #cb towns while #bi had adopted local veto1 which was extended from the country districts1 where it had previously been optional1 to the towns by the law of #ahid4 ,as we have already said1 it only applies to spirits4 ,in both countries the sale of beer and wine for on consumption is carried on in the ordinary way under a licensing system2 the sale of beer in bottles for consumption off the premises is practically free4 ,the beer traffic is regarded by some as a safety valve and by others as a defect in the system4 ,the consumption has greatly increased in ,sweden2 in ,norway it increased up to #aijj and has since declined4 ,but other more deleterious substitutes for spirits have come into use in the shape of concocted wines and methylated spirits4 ,the company management has had the following effects3 it has greatly reduced the number of spirit bars1 improved their character and conduct1 added eating-rooms1 where good and cheap meals are served1 stopped drinking on credit and by persons under #ah years of age1 shortened the hours of sale1 raised the price and lowered the strength of spirits4 ,but the restrictions placed on the sale for consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail bottle trade and home drinking4 ,british ,dominions4 ,canada4--,liquor legislation in ,canada has been much influenced by the proximity and example of the ,united ,states4 ,licensing1 modified by local veto1 prevails throughout the ,dominion except in the ,indian settlements2 but the several provinces have their own laws1 which vary in stringency4 ,as a whole the licensing system rather resembles the ,american than the ,british type4 ,the licensing authority is either a board of commissioners or the municipality1 and there has been the same tendency as in the ,united ,states to substitute the former for the latter4 ,in ,british ,columbia no new hotel licence is granted in cities except on the request of two-thirds of the owners and occupiers of the adjoining property1 but their consent is not necessary for renewal4 ,in other provinces the municipal authority has power to limit as well as regulate the licensed trade4 ,sunday closing is the rule2 on week-days the usual closing hour in the large towns is #aa ,p4,m4 ,the power of locally prohibiting licensed houses by vote was introduced by the ,canada ,temperance ,act1 a federal law passed in #ahge and commonly known as the ,scott ,act4 ,extensive use has been made of it1 especially in the maritime provinces1 where the temperance sentiment is very strong1 but in recent years it has rather lost ground4 ,in #aijh it was in force in #bb counties or cities1 of which ten were in ,nova ,scotia1 ten in ,new ,brunswick and two in ,manitoba2 it was nowhere in force in the remaining provinces4 ,three elections were held under the act in #aijg-aijh1 two in ,nova ,scotia and one in ,new ,brunswick1 and in the first two prohibition was defeated4 ,in #aiaj ,nova ,scotia1 apparently dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition under the ,scott ,act1 passed a prohibitory law for the whole province1 exempting ,halifax1 the capital and only considerable town1 but making provision for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to the ratepayers4 ,there is in ,canada the same oscillation of public opinion as in the ,united ,states1 and the same toleration of evasion of the law4 ,the writer has stayed in hotels in several prohibition towns1 where there was not only a regular bar but a printed wine list from which anything could be ordered at meals without any concealment at all4 ,the chief difference between the conduct of hotels under prohibition and under licensing is that under licensing the bar is closed at the legal hour1 which is usually #aa o'clock1 and under prohibition it remains open as long as there are any customers to serve4 ,the law is nominally respected by imposing a periodical fine4 ,in small towns and rural districts local prohibition is much more effective4 ,in short the experience of ,canada confirms that of the ,united ,states4 ,in addition to the federal law1 the local authorities have power1 in ,quebec1 to prohibit as well as to regulate the trade4 ,the high licence system has not been adopted in ,canada4 ,the total revenue derived by the ,dominion government in #aijh from taxation of the liquor trade1 including duties and licence fees1 was #a1hjj1jjj4 ,australia4--,the licensing laws of ,australia are less repressive and the practice more resembles the ,british model4 ,queensland has adopted local prohibition1 but it is not applied4 ,new ,south ,wales has a limited form of veto applying only to new licences2 ,south ,australia has the same together with a provision for the optional reduction of licences2 ,victoria1 on the other hand1 allows an option both ways1 for reducing or increasing the licences2 ,west ,australia and ,tasmania merely give the local ratepayers the right of protest2 in ,west ,australia it holds good against new licences only and if a majority object the licence is refused2 in ,tasmania protest may be made against renewals and transfers also1 but the decision lies with the licensing authority4 ,there is practically no prohibition in the ,commonwealth4 ,new ,zealand4--,this state has a licensing system with local option provisions of its own4 ,the licensing authority is a local committee1 and there are seven kinds of licence1 of which two are for consumption on the premises4 ,the fees range from #a for a wine licence to #dj for a full publican's licence in towns1 or #de for one permitting an additional hour's sale at night2 the fees go to the revenue of the local authority4 ,in #aijg the total number of licences granted was #bagi and the fees paid amounted to #de1hfe4 ,of the whole number1 #acfg1 or #a to every #fff persons1 were houses licensed for on consumption4 ,the closing hour is #aj ,p4,m4 except for houses specially licensed to be open till #aa ,p4,m4 ,in #ahic local option was introduced by the ,alcoholic ,liquors ,sale ,control ,act1 which provided for the taking of a poll on the question of licences4 ,the electoral districts for the purpose are the same as for the ,house of ,representatives1 except that the cities of ,auckland1 ,wellington1 ,christchurch and ,dunedin each form a single district for the licensing poll4 ,it is taken at the same time as the election of members of the ,house of ,representatives1 and three questions are propounded--7#a7 continuance of existing licences1 7#b7 reduction1 7#c7 no licences4 ,a voter may vote for two proposals but not more4 ,an absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries 7#a72 an absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries 7#b71 whereupon the licensing committee reduces the licences by any number from #e to #be of the total4 ,but if three-fifths of all the votes cast are in favour of no licence then that supersedes 7#a7 and 7#b74 ,the poll taken in ,december #aije gave the following results3 of the #fh districts #dj carried no proposal 7which is equivalent to continuance of existing licences71 #ah carried continuance1 #d reduction1 #f no licence1 including #c which had previously adopted no licence4 ,women1 it must be remembered1 vote as well as men4 ,the aggregate vote in favour of no licence shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in the present system in #ahif4 ,,authorities4--,royal ,commission on ,liquor ,licensing ,laws #ahif-ahii1 ,reports and ,appendices2 ,licensing ,statistics of ,england and ,wales1 annual4 ,canada ,year-book2 ,new ,zealand ,year-book2 ,code de ,commerce1 ,france2 ,gewerbeordnung1 ,german ,empire2 ,hand-book of ,canada 7,british ,association72 ,new ,encyclopedia of ,social ,reform2 ,brewers' ,almanack2 ,committee of ,fifty 7,new ,york71 ,the ,liquor ,problem in its ,legislative ,aspects 7,f4 ,h4 ,wines and ,j4 ,koren72 ,e4 ,l4 ,fanshawe1 ,liquor ,legislation in the ,united ,states and ,canada2 ,e4,r4,l4 ,gould1 ,the ,gothenburg ,system 7,special ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,labor72 ,e4 ,a4 ,pratt1 ,licensing and ,temperance in ,sweden1 ,norway and ,denmark2 ,j4 ,rowntree and ,a4 ,sherwell1 ,the ,temperance ,problem and ,social ,reform2 ,the ,taxation of the ,liquor ,trade2 ,a4 ,shadwell1 ,drink1 ,temperance and ,legislation2 ,strauss und ,torney1 ,schanks-,konzessionswesen2 ,f4 ,w4 ,thompson1 ,high ,licence4 ,see also ,,temperance4 7,a4 ,sl47 ,,footnote3 #a ,in #aijh local option was adopted in ,ohio4 ,,lira1 the ,italian name 7,lat4 libra1 pound7 for a silver coin1 the ,italian unit of value in the ,latin ,monetary ,union1 corresponding to the ,french1 ,swiss and ,belgian franc 7q4v471 and the drachma of ,greece1 c4 ,the name is sometimes used of the ,turkish pound1 medjidie4 ,,liri1 or ,,garigliano 7anc4 ,liris71 a river of central ,italy1 which rises at ,cappadocia1 #g m4 ,w4 of ,avezzano1 and traverses a beautiful valley between lofty mountains1 running ,s4,s4,e4 as far as ,arce4 ,this valley is followed by the railway from ,avezzano to ,roccasecca4 ,at ,isola del ,liri are two fine waterfalls4 ,below ,ceprano1 the ancient ,fregellae1 after it has issued from the mountains1 the ,liri is joined by the ,sacco 7anc4 ,trerus7 formed by the union of several torrents between ,palestrina and ,segni1 and the ,melfa from the mountains ,n4,e4 of ,atina1 and runs ,e4 through a broader valley4 ,it then turns ,s4 again through the mountains ,s4,w4 of the ,via ,latina 7the line of which is followed by the modern railway to ,naples71 keeping ,w4 of ,rocca ,monfina1 and falls into the sea just below ,minturnae1 after a course of #ajd m4 ,it is not navigable at any point4 ,,liroconite1 a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper and aluminium arsenate1 with the probable formula ,cu#i;,al#d7,,oh7#ae7;,as,o#d7ebj;,h#b,o 4 ,it crystallizes in the monoclinic system1 forming flattened octahedra almost lenticular in shape 7hence the ,german name ,linsenkupfer74 ,characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour1 though sometimes1 possibly owing to differences in chemical composition1 it is verdigris-green4 ,the colour of the streak or powder is rather paler2 hence the name liroconite1 from the ,gr4 ,greek3 leiros1 pale1 and ,greek3 konia1 powder4 ,the hardness is #b1 and the specific gravity #b4ie4 ,the mineral was found at the beginning of the #aith century in the copper mines near ,gwennap in ,cornwall1 where it was associated with other copper arsenates in the upper1 oxidized portions of the lodes4 7,l4 ,j4 ,s47 ,,lisbon 7,lisboa71 the capital of the kingdom of ,portugal and of the department of ,lisbon2 on the right bank of the river ,tagus1 near its entrance into the ,atlantic ,ocean1 in #ch #db #bd ,n4 and #i #aa #aj ,w4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #cef1jji4 ,lisbon1 the westernmost of ,european capitals1 is built in a succession of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills1 backed by the granite mountains of ,cintra4 ,it fronts the ,tagus1 and the view from the river of its white houses1 and its numerous parks and gardens1 is comparable in beauty with the approach to ,naples or ,constantinople by sea4 ,the lower reaches of the estuary form a channel 7,entrada do ,tejo7 about #b m4 wide and #h m4 long1 which is partially closed at its mouth by a bar of silt4 ,owing to the reclamation of the foreshore on the right1 and the consequent narrowing of the waterway1 the current flows very swiftly down this channel1 which is the sole outlet for the immense volume of water accumulated in the ,rada de ,lisboa--a tidal lake formed by the broadening of the estuary in its upper part to fill a basin #aa m4 long with an average breadth of nearly #g m4 ,the southern or left shore of the channel rises sharply from the water's edge in a line of almost unbroken though not lofty cliffs2 the margin of the lake is flat1 marshy and irregular4 ,lisbon extends for more than #e m4 along the shores of both channel and lake1 and for more than #c m4 inland4 ,its suburbs1 which generally terminate in a belt of vineyards1 parks or gardens1 interspersed with villas and farms1 stretch in some cases beyond the ,estrada ,militar1 or ,estrada da ,nova ,circumvallao1 an inner line of defence #be m4 long1 supplementary to the forts and other military works at the mouth of the ,tagus1 on the heights of ,cintra and ,alverca1 and at ,caxias1 ,sacavem1 ,monsanto and ,ameixoeira4 ,the climate of ,lisbon is mild and equable1 though somewhat oppressive in summer4 ,extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years #ahef-ahgf snow fell only thrice2 and in the #ahth and early #aith centuries ,lisbon was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort4 ,the mean annual temperature is #fj4a ,f41 the mean for winter #ej4i1 the average rainfall #bi4de in4 ,as in #aijf1 when no rain fell between ,april and ,september1 long periods of drought are not uncommon1 although the proximity of the ,atlantic and the frequency of sea-fogs keep the atmosphere humid2 the mean atmospheric moisture is nearly #ga 7#ajj saturation74 ,there is a good water supply1 conveyed to the city by two vast aqueducts4 ,the older of these is the ,aqueducto das ,aguas ,livres1 which was built in the first half of the #ahth century and starts from a point near ,bellas1 #ae m4 ,w4,n4,w4 ,its conduits1 which are partly underground1 are conveyed across the ,alcantara valley through a magnificent viaduct of thirty-five arches1 exceeding #bjj ft4 in height4 ,at the ,lisbon end of the aqueduct is the ,mae d',agua 7i4e4 ,mother of ,water71 containing a huge stone hall in the midst of which is the reservoir4 ,the ,alviella aqueduct1 opened in #ahhj1 brings water from ,alviella near ,pernes1 #gj m4 ,n4,n4,e4 ,numerous fountains are among the means of distribution4 ,sewage is discharged into the ,tagus1 and the sanitation of the city is good1 except in the older quarters4 ,divisions of the ,city4--,the four municipal districts 7bairros7 into which ,lisbon is divided are the ,alfama1 or old town1 in the east2 the ,cidade ,baixa1 or lower town1 which extends inland from the naval arsenal and custom house2 the ,bairro ,alto1 comprising all the high ground west of the ,cidade ,baixa2 and the ,alcantara1 or westernmost district1 named after the small river ,alcantara1 which flows down into the ,tagus4 ,other names commonly used1 though unofficial1 are ,lisboa ,oriental as an alternative for ,alfama2 ,lisboa ,occidental for the slopes which lead from the ,cidade ,baixa to the ,bairro ,alto2 ,buenos ,ayres 7originally so named from the number of its ,south ,american residents7 for the ,bairro ,alto ,s4,w4 of the ,estrella ,gardens and ,e4 of the ,necessidades ,park2 ,campo de ,ourique and ,rato for the suburbs respectively ,n4,w4 and ,n4,e4 of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the ,alfama4--,the ,alfama1 which represents ,roman and ,moorish ,lisbon1 is less rich in archaeological interest than its great antiquity might suggest1 although parts of a ,roman temple1 baths1 c41 have been disinterred4 ,but as the earthquake of #agee did comparatively little damage to this quarter1 many of its narrow1 steep and winding alleys retain the medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost2 and almost rival the slums of ,oporto in picturesque squalor4 ,the most conspicuous feature of the ,alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the ,castello de ,so ,jorge1 a ,moorish citadel which has been converted into a fort and barracks4 ,the ,s ,patriarchal1 a cathedral founded in #aaej by ,alphonso ,i41 is said by tradition to have been a ,moorish mosque4 ,it was wrecked by an earthquake in #acdd and rebuilt in #achj1 but the earthquake of #agee shattered the dome1 the roof and belfry were subsequently burned1 and after the work of restoration was completed the choir and faade were the only parts of the #adth-century ,gothic church unspoiled4 ,in one of the side chapels is the tomb of ,st ,vincent 7d4 #cjd71 patron saint of ,lisbon2 a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral precincts are popularly believed to be the same birds which1 according to the legend1 miraculously guided the saint's vessel to the city4 ,the armorial bearings of ,lisbon1 representing a ship and two ravens1 commemorate the legend4 ,other noteworthy buildings in the ,alfama are the #abth-century church of ,so ,vicente de ,fra1 originally1 as its name implies1 outside the city2 the #acth-century chapel of ,nossa ,senhora do ,monte2 the #afth-century church of ,nossa ,senhora da ,graa1 which contains a reputed wonder-working statue of ,christ and the tomb of ,alphonso d',albuquerque 7#adec-aeae72 and a secularized ,augustinian monastery1 used as the archbishop's palace4 ,modern ,lisbon4--,west of the ,alfama the city dates chiefly from the period after the great earthquake4 ,its lofty houses1 arranged in long straight streets1 its gardens and open spaces1 a few of its public buildings1 and almost all its numerous statues and fountains1 will bear comparison with those of any ,european capital4 ,the centre of social and commercial activity is the district which comprises the ,praa do ,commercio1 ,rua ,augusta1 ,roco1 and ,avenida da ,liberdade1 streets and squares occupying the valley of a vanished tributary of the ,tagus4 ,the ,praa do ,commercio is a spacious square1 one side of which faces the river1 while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded buildings of the custom house1 post office and other government property4 ,in the midst is a bronze equestrian statue of ,joseph ,i41 by ,j4 ,m4 de ,castro1 which was erected in #agge and gives point to the name of ,black ,horse ,square commonly applied to the ,praa by the ,british4 ,a triumphal arch on the north side leads to ,rua ,augusta1 originally intended to be the cloth-merchants' street2 for the plan upon which ,lisbon was rebuilt after #agee involved the restriction of each industry to a specified area4 ,this plan succeeded in the neighbouring ,rua ,aurea and ,rua da ,prata1 still1 as their names indicate1 famous for goldsmiths' and silversmiths' shops4 ,rua ,augusta terminates on the north in the ,roco or ,praa de ,dom ,pedro ,quarto1 a square paved with mosaic of a curious undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains1 a lofty pillar surmounted by a statue of ,pedro ,,iv41 and the royal national theatre 7,teatro de ,dona ,maria ,segunda71 erected on the site which the ,inquisition buildings occupied from #aebj to #ahcf4 ,the narrow ,rua do ,principe1 leading past the central railway station1 a handsome ,mauresque building1 connects the ,roco with the ,avenida da ,liberdade1 one of the finest avenues in ,europe4 ,the central part of the ,avenida1 a favourite open-air resort of ,lisbon society1 is used for riding and driving2 on each side of it are paved double avenues of trees1 with flower-beds1 statues1 ponds1 fountains1 c41 and between these and the broad pavements are two roadways for trams and heavy traffic4 ,thus the ,avenida has the appearance of three parallel streets1 separated by avenues of trees instead of houses4 ,its width exceeds #cjj ft4 ,it owes its name to an obelisk #ih ft4 high1 erected in #ahhb at its southern end1 to commemorate the liberation of ,portugal from ,spanish rule 7,december1 #afdj74 ,north and north-east of the ,avenida are the ,avenida ,park1 the ,edward ,,vii4 ,park 7so named in memory of a visit paid to ,lisbon by the king of ,england in #aijc71 ,campo ,grande1 with its finely wooded walks1 and ,campo ,pequeno1 with the bull-ring4 ,other noteworthy public gardens are the ,passeio da ,estrella1 commanding magnificent views of the city and river1 the ,largo do ,principe ,real1 planted with bananas and other tropical trees1 the ,tapada das ,necessidades1 originally the park of one of the royal residences1 and the ,botanical ,gardens of the polytechnic school1 with a fine avenue of palms and collections of tropical and subtropical flora hardly surpassed in ,europe4 ,there are large ,portuguese cemeteries east and west of ,lisbon1 a ,german cemetery1 and an ,english cemetery1 known also as ,os ,cyprestes from the number of its cypresses4 ,this was laid out in #agag at the cost of the ,british and ,dutch residents and contains the graves of ,henry ,fielding 7#agjg-aged71 the novelist1 and ,dr ,philip ,doddridge 7#agjb-agea71 the ,nonconformist divine4 ,lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since #agaf has borne ex officio the honorary title of patriarch2 he presides over the ,house of ,peers and is usually appointed a cardinal4 ,the churches of modern ,lisbon are generally built in the ,italian style of the #ahth century2 the interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament4 ,perhaps the finest is the ,estrella church1 with its white marble dome and twin towers visible for many miles above the city4 ,the late ,renaissance church of ,so ,roque contains two beautiful chapels dating from the #ahth century1 one of which is inlaid with painted tiles1 while the other was constructed in ,rome of coloured marbles1 and consecrated by the pope before being shipped to ,lisbon4 ,its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are exceptionally fine4 ,the #adth-century ,gothic ,igreja do ,carmo was shattered by the great earthquake4 ,only the apse1 pillared aisles and outer walls remain standing1 and the interior has been converted into an archaeological museum4 ,the church of ,nossa ,senhora da ,conceio has a magnificent ,manoeline faade4 ,the ,palacio das ,cortes1 in which both ,houses of ,parliament sit1 is a #afth-century ,benedictine convent1 used for its present purpose since #ahcd4 ,it contains the national archives1 better known as the ,torre do ,tombo collection1 because in #acge the archives were first stored in a tower of that name4 ,the royal palace1 or ,pao das ,necessidades1 west of ,buenos ,ayres1 is a vast #ahth-century mansion occupying the site of a chapel dedicated to ,nossa ,senhora das ,necessidades 7i4e4 ,our ,lady who helps at need74 ,the ,suburbs of ,ajuda and ,belem4--,in the extreme west of ,lisbon1 beyond the ,alcantara valley1 are ,belem 7i4e4 ,bethlehem71 beside the ,tagus1 and ,ajuda1 on the heights above4 ,the ,pao de ,belem1 built in #agjj for the counts of ,aveiro1 became the chief royal palace under ,john ,v4 7#agjf-agej74 ,the ,torre de ,belem1 on the foreshore1 is a small tower of beautiful design1 built in #aebj for the protection of shipping4 ,the finest ecclesiastical building in ,portugal except the monasteries of ,alcobaa and ,batalha also fronts the river4 ,it is the ,convento dos ,jeronymos1 a ,hieronymite convent and church1 founded in #adii to commemorate the discovery of the sea-route to ,india by ,vasco da ,gama4 ,it was built of white limestone by ,joo de ,castilho 7d4 #aeha71 perhaps the greatest of ,manoeline architects4 ,its cloisters form a square with blunted corners1 surrounded by a two-storeyed arcade1 every available portion of which is covered with exquisite sculptures4 ,parts of the building have been restored1 but the cloisters and the beautiful central gateway remain unspoiled4 ,the interior contains many royal tombs1 including that of ,catherine of ,braganza 7d4 #agje71 the wife of ,charles ,,ii4 of ,england4 ,the supposed remains of ,camoens and ,vasco da ,gama were interred here in #ahhj4 ,in #ahcd1 when the convent was secularized1 its buildings were assigned to the ,casa ,pia1 an orphanage founded by ,maria ,i4 ,since #aijc they have contained the archaeological collections of the ,portuguese ,ethnological ,museum4 ,the royal ,ajuda palace1 begun 7#ahaf-ahbf7 by ,john ,,vi4 but left unfinished1 derives its name from the chapel of ,n4 ,s4 de ,ajuda 7,our ,lady of ,aid74 ,it contains some fine pictures and historical trophies4 ,in the coach-house there is an unsurpassed collection of state coaches1 the cars upon which figures of saints are borne in procession1 sedan chairs1 old cabriolets and other curious vehicles4 ,the ,environs of ,lisbon4--,the administrative district of ,lisbon has an area of #cjfe sq4 m41 with a population of #gji1eji in #aijj4 ,it comprises the lower parts of the ,tagus and ,sado2 the sea-coast from #e m4 ,s4 of ,cape ,carvoeiro to within #c m4 of the bluff called the ,escarpa do ,rojo2 and a strip of territory extending inland for a mean distance of #cj m4 ,this region corresponds with the southern part of ,estremadura 7q4v474 ,its more important towns1 ,setubal1 ,cintra1 ,torres ,vedras and ,mafra1 are described in separate articles4 ,sines1 a small seaport on ,cape ,sines1 was the birthplace of ,vasco da ,gama4 ,on the left bank of the ,tagus1 opposite ,lisbon1 are the small towns of ,almada1 ,barreiro1 ,aldeia ,gallega and ,seixal1 and the hamlet of ,trafaria1 inhabited by fishermen4 ,the beautiful strip of coast west of ,oeiras and south of ,cape ,roca is often called the ,portuguese ,riviera4 ,its fine climate1 mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the picturesque fortified bay of ,cascaes1 or to ,estoril1 ,mont' ,estoril and ,so ,joo do ,estoril1 modern towns consisting chiefly of villas1 hotels and gardens4 ,the ,boca do ,inferno 7,mouth of ,hell7 is a cavity in the rocks at ,cascaes resembling the ,bufador at ,peiscola 7q4v474 ,the villages of ,carcavellos1 ,bucellas1 ,lumiar and ,collares produce excellent wines2 at ,carcavellos is the receiving station for cables1 with a large ,british staff1 and a club and grounds where social and athletic meetings are held by the ,british colony4 ,alhandra1 on the right bank of the ,tagus1 above ,lisbon1 was the birthplace of ,albuquerque2 fighting bulls for the ,lisbon arena are bred in the adjacent pastures4 ,railways1 ,shipping and ,commerce4--,lisbon has five railway stations--the central 7,lisboa-,roco71 for the lines to ,cintra1 northern and central ,portugal1 and ,madrid via ,valencia de ,alcntara2 the ,santa ,apolonia or ,caes dos ,soldados1 at the eastern extremity of the quays1 for the same lines 7excluding ,cintra7 and for southern ,portugal and ,andalusia2 the ,caes do ,sodr and ,santos1 farther west along the quays1 for ,cascaes2 and the ,barreiro1 on the left bank of the ,tagus1 for southern ,portugal4 ,in #aijb the railways north and south of the ,tagus were connected near ,lisbon by a bridge4 ,in the previous year an extensive system of electric tramways replaced the old-fashioned cable cars and mule trams4 ,electric and hydraulic lifts are used where the streets are too steep for trams4 ,lisbon is lighted by both electricity and gas2 it has an admirable telephone service1 and is connected by the ,carcavellos cable-station with ,cornwall 7,england71 ,vigo in ,galicia1 ,gibraltar1 the ,azores and ,madeira4 ,ships of the largest size can enter the ,tagus1 and the ,barreiro inlet is navigable at low water by vessels drawing #af ft4 ,there are extensive quays along the right bank1 with hydraulic cranes1 two graving docks1 a slipway1 warehouses and lines of railway4 ,the government and private docks are on the left bank4 ,loading and discharging are principally effected by means of lighters4 ,the exports are wines1 oil1 fruit1 tinned fish1 salt1 colonial produce1 cork1 pitwood1 leather and wool4 ,the imports include cotton and woollen goods1 linen1 ale and porter1 butter1 tea1 hardware1 tin plates1 coal1 iron1 machinery1 chemical manure1 c41 from ,great ,britain2 grain and petroleum from the ,united ,states2 dried codfish from ,norway and ,newfoundland2 silks1 perfumery and fancy goods from ,france2 hemp1 flax1 grain1 petroleum and cloth from ,russia2 linen1 machinery1 hardware1 sugar1 c41 from ,germany and ,holland1 iron1 steel1 timber1 pitch and salt fish from the ,baltic2 cocoa1 coffee1 wax and rubber from the ,portuguese colonies4 ,towards the close of the #aith century the tourist traffic from ,great ,britain and ,germany attained considerable importance1 and ,lisbon has long been one of the principal ports of debarcation for passengers from ,brazil and of embarcation for emigrants to ,south ,america4 ,shipbuilding1 including the construction of vessels for the national navy1 is a growing industry4 ,the fisheries have always been important1 and in no ,european fishmarket is the produce more varied4 ,sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export4 ,in addition to a fleet of about #fjj sailing boats1 the ,tagus is the headquarters of a small fleet of steam trawlers4 ,the industries of ,lisbon include dyeing1 distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen1 cotton1 silk and linen fabrics1 of pottery1 soap1 paper1 chemicals1 cement1 corks1 tobacco1 preserved foods and biscuits4 ,education and ,charity4--,although the seat of the only university in ,portugal was fixed at ,coimbra in #aebg1 ,lisbon is the educational centre of the ,portuguese world1 including ,brazil4 ,its chief learned societies are the ,society of ,medical ,sciences1 the ,geographical ,society1 the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 the ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 the ,royal ,conservatory of ,music and the ,propaganda de ,portugal4 ,the museum of the ,academy of ,fine ,arts contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by native and foreign artists in ,portugal4 ,the ,geographical ,society has gained an international reputation2 it possesses a valuable library and museum4 ,the ,national ,library1 founded in #agif1 contains over #djj1jjj printed books1 and upwards of #ijjj ,,mss4 ,there are also colonial1 naval1 artillery1 natural history and commercial museums1 meteorological and astronomical observatories1 zoological gardens and an aquarium4 ,purely educational institutions include the medical1 polytechnic1 military and naval schools1 commercial1 agricultural and industrial institutes1 a school of art1 a central lyceum1 a school for teachers1 c4 ,the ,english college for ,british ,roman ,catholics dates from #afbh4 ,the ,irish ,dominicans have a seminary1 and ,portuguese ecclesiastical schools are numerous4 ,there are hospitals for women1 and for contagious diseases1 almshouses1 orphanages1 a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine station on the south bank of the ,tagus1 founded in #aheg after an outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city4 ,foremost among the theatres1 circuses and other places of amusement is the royal opera-house of ,so ,carlos1 built in #agib-agic on the model of the ,scala at ,milan4 ,population4--,the population of ,lisbon1 #ahg1djda in #ahgh1 rose to #cja1bjf in #ahij and #cef1jji in #aijj4 ,it includes a large foreign colony1 composed chiefly of ,spaniards1 ,british1 ,germans1 ,french1 ,brazilians and immigrants from the ,portuguese colonies1 among whom are many half-castes4 ,the majority of the ,spaniards are domestic servants and labourers from ,galicia1 whose industry and easily gained knowledge of the kindred ,portuguese language enables them to earn a better livelihood here than in their own homes4 ,the ,british1 ,german and ,french communities control a large share of the foreign trade4 ,the ,brazilians and colonial immigrants are often merchants and landowners who come to the mother-country to spend their fortunes in a congenial social environment4 ,the street life of the city is full of interest4 ,the bare-footed1 ungainly fishwives1 dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish on their heads2 the ,galician water-carriers1 with their casks2 the bakers1 bending beneath a hundredweight of bread slung in a huge basket from their shoulders2 the countrymen1 with their sombreros1 sashes and hardwood quarter-staves1 give colour and animation to their surroundings2 while the bag-pipes played by peasants from the north1 the whistles of the knife-grinders1 and the distinctive calls of the vendors of fruit1 lottery tickets1 or oil and vinegar1 contribute a babel of sound4 ,for church festivals and holidays the country-folk come to town1 the women riding on pillions behind the men1 adorned in shawls1 aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or other vivid hues1 and wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of exquisite gold and silver filigree which represent their savings or dowries4 ,the costumes and manners of all classes may be seen at their best in the great bull-ring of ,campo ,pequeno1 a ,mauresque building which holds many thousands of spectators4 ,a ,lisbon bullfight is a really brilliant exhibition of athletic skill and horsemanship1 in which amateurs often take part1 and neither horses nor bulls are killed4 ,there is a ,tauromachic ,club solely for amateurs4 ,history4--,the name ,lisbon is a modification of the ancient name ,olisipo1 also written ,ulyssippo under the influence of a mythical story of a city founded by ,odysseus 7,ulysses7 in ,iberia1 which1 however1 according to ,strabo1 was placed by ancient tradition rather in the mountains of ,turdetania 7the extreme south of ,spain74 ,under the ,romans ,olisipo became a municipium with the epithet of ,felicitas ,julia1 but was inferior in importance to the less ancient ,emerita ,augusta 7,mrida74 ,from #djg to #ehe it was occupied by ,alaric1 and thenceforward by the ,visigoths until #gaa1 when it was taken by the ,moors4 ,under the ,moors the town bore in ,arabic the name of ,al ,oshbuna or ,lashbuna4 ,it was the first point of ,moslem ,spain attacked by the ,normans in #hdd4 ,when ,alphonso ,i4 of ,portugal took advantage of the decline and fall of the ,almoravid dynasty to incorporate the provinces of ,estremadura and ,alemtejo in his new kingdom1 ,lisbon was the last city of ,portugal to fall into his hands1 and yielded only after a siege of several months 7#bast ,october #aadg71 in which he was aided by ,english and ,flemish crusaders on their way to ,syria4 ,in #aahd the city was again attacked by the ,moslems under the powerful caliph ,abu ,yakub1 but the enterprise failed4 ,in the reign of ,ferdinand ,i41 the greater part of the town was burned by the ,castilian army under ,henry ,,ii4 7#acgc71 and in #achd the ,castilians again besieged ,lisbon1 but without success4 ,lisbon became the seat of an archbishop in #acij1 the seat of government in #adbb4 ,during the #afth century it gained much in wealth and splendour from the establishment of a ,portuguese empire in ,india and ,africa4 ,from #aehj to #afdj ,lisbon was a provincial town under ,spanish rule1 and it was from this port that the ,spanish ,armada sailed in #aehh4 ,in #afdj the town was captured by the duke of ,braganza1 and the independence of the kingdom restored4 ,for many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes1 and on the #ast of ,november #agee the greater part of it was reduced almost in an instant to a heap of ruins4 ,a tidal wave at the same time broke over the quays and wrecked the shipping in the ,tagus2 fire broke out to complete the work of destruction2 between #cj1jjj and #dj1jjj persons lost their lives2 and the value of the property destroyed was about #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,the shock was felt from ,scotland to ,asia ,minor4 ,careful investigation by ,daniel ,sharpe1 an ,english geologist1 has delimited the area in and near ,lisbon to which its full force was confined4 ,lisbon is built in a geological basin of ,tertiary formation1 the upper portion of which is loose sand and gravel destitute of organic remains1 while below these are the so-called ,almada beds of yellow sand1 calcareous sandstone and blue clay rich in organic remains4 ,the ,tertiary deposits1 which altogether cover an area of more than #bjjj sq4 m41 are separated near ,lisbon from rocks of the ,secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt4 ,the uppermost of these ,secondary rocks is the hippurite limestone4 ,it was found that no building on the blue clay escaped destruction1 none on any of the ,tertiary deposits escaped serious injury1 and all on the hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged4 ,the line at which the earthquake ceased to be destructive thus corresponded exactly with the boundary of the ,tertiary deposits4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century the ,french invasion1 followed by the removal of the court to ,rio de ,janeiro1 the ,peninsular ,war1 the loss of ,brazil and a period of revolution and dynastic trouble1 resulted in the utter decadence of ,lisbon1 from which the city only recovered after #ahej 7see ,,portugal3 ,history74 ,,bibliography4--,every book which deals with the topography1 trade or history of ,portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion of its space to the capital2 see ,,portugal3 ,bibliography4 ,the following treat more exclusively of ,lisbon3 ,a4 ,dayot1 ,lisbonne 7,no4 ix4 of the ,capitales du monde series7 7,paris1 #ahib72 ,freire de ,oliveira1 ,elementos para a historia do municipio de ,lisboa 7#i vols41 ,lisbon1 #ahhe-ahih72 ,j4 de ,castilho1 ,lisboa antiga 7#g vols41 ,lisbon1 #ahij71 and 7by the same author7 ,a ,ribeira de ,lisboa 7,lisbon1 #ahic74 ,,footnote3 #a ,this figure represents the population of a smaller area than that of modern ,lisbon1 for the civic boundaries were extended by a decree dated the #bcrd of ,december #ahhf4 ,,lisburn1 a market town1 and cathedral city of ,co4 ,antrim1 ,ireland1 situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the ,lagan1 and on the ,great ,northern railway1 #h m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,belfast4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aa1dfa4 ,christ ,church 7#afbb7 which possesses a fine octagonal spire1 is the cathedral church of the united ,protestant dioceses of ,down1 ,connor and ,dromore1 and contains a monument to ,jeremy ,taylor1 who was bishop of the see4 ,the public park was presented to the town by ,sir ,richard ,wallace 7d4 #ahij71 and after his death the castle gardens were also given to the town4 ,the staple manufacture is linen1 especially damasks and muslins1 originally introduced by ,huguenots4 ,there are also bleaching and dyeing works1 and a considerable agricultural trade4 ,the town is governed by an urban district council4 ,the ruins of ,castle ,robin1 #b m4 ,n4 of the town1 stand on a summit of the ,white ,mountains1 and the building dates from the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,at ,drumbo1 #c m4 ,e4 of ,lisburn1 is one of the finest examples of early fortification in ,ireland1 known as the ,giant's ,ring1 with a cromlech in the centre4 ,here are also a round tower and the remains of a church ascribed to ,st ,patrick4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i41 ,lisburn1 which was then known as ,lisnegarvy 7,gambler's ,fort71 was an inconsiderable village1 but in #afbg it was granted by ,charles ,i4 to ,viscount ,conway1 who erected the castle for his residence1 and laid the foundation of the prosperity of the town by the introduction of ,english and ,welsh settlers4 ,in ,november #afda the town was taken by the insurgents1 who on the approach of superior numbers set fire to it4 ,the troops of ,cromwell gained a victory near the town in #afdh1 and the castle surrendered to them in #afej4 ,the church was constituted a cathedral in #affb by ,charles ,,ii41 from whom the town received the privilege of returning two members to parliament1 but after the ,union it returned only one and in #ahhe ceased to be a parliamentary borough4 ,lisburn gives the titles of earl and viscount to the family of ,vaughan4 ,,lisieux1 a town of north-western ,france1 capital of an arrondissement in the department of ,calvados1 #cj m4 ,e4 of ,caen by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #ae1aid4 ,lisieux is prettily situated in the valley of the ,touques at its confluence with the ,orbiquet4 ,towers of the #afth century1 relics of the old fortifications1 remain1 and some of the streets1 bordered throughout by houses of the #adth1 #aeth and #afth centuries1 retain their medieval aspect4 ,the church of ,st ,peter1 formerly a cathedral1 is reputed to be the first ,gothic church built in ,normandy4 ,begun in the latter half of the #abth century it was completed in the #acth and #afth centuries4 ,there is a lantern-tower over the crossing and two towers surmount the west faade1 one only of which has a spire1 added towards the end of the #afth century4 ,in the interior there is a ,lady-,chapel1 restored in the #aeth century by ,bishop ,pierre ,cauchon1 one of the judges of ,joan of ,arc4 ,the church of ,st ,jacques 7late #aeth century7 contains beautiful glass of the ,renaissance1 some remarkable stalls and old frescoes1 and a curious picture on wood1 restored in #afha4 ,the church of ,st ,dsir 7#ahth century7 once belonged to a ,benedictine abbey4 ,the old episcopal palace near the cathedral is now used as a court-house1 museum1 library and prison1 and contains a beautiful hall called the salle dore4 ,lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect1 and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce1 a chamber of arts and manufactures1 a board of trade arbitrators and a communal college4 ,its manufactures of woollens are important1 and bleaching1 wool and flax-spinning1 tanning1 brewing1 timber-sawing1 metal-founding1 and the manufacture of machinery1 hosiery and boots and shoes are carried on2 there is trade in grain1 cattle and cheese4 ,in the time of ,caesar1 ,lisieux1 under the name of ,noviomagus1 was the capital of the ,lexovii4 ,though destroyed by the barbarians1 by the #fth century it had become one of the most important towns of ,neustria4 ,its bishopric1 suppressed in #ahjb1 dates from that period4 ,in #hgg it was pillaged by the ,normans2 and in #iaa was included in the duchy of ,normandy by the treaty of ,st ,clair-sur-,epte4 ,civil authority was exercised by the bishop as count of the town4 ,in #aacf ,geoffrey ,plantagenet laid siege to ,lisieux1 which had taken the side of ,stephen of ,blois4 ,the town was not reduced till #aada1 by which time both it and the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst extremities of famine4 ,in #aaeb the marriage of ,henry ,,ii4 of ,england to ,eleanor of ,guienne1 which added so largely to his dominions1 was celebrated in the cathedral4 ,thomas ,becket took refuge here1 and some vestments used by him are shown in the hospital chapel4 ,taken by ,philip ,augustus and reunited to ,france in #abjc1 the town was a frequent subject of dispute between the contending parties during the ,hundred ,years' ,war1 the religious wars1 and those of the ,league4 ,,liskeard1 a market town and municipal borough in the ,bodmin parliamentary division of ,cornwall1 ,england1 #ae m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,plymouth1 on the ,great ,western and the ,liskeard and ,looe railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #djaj4 ,it lies high1 above two small valleys opening to that of the ,looe river1 in a hilly1 picturesque district4 ,the ,perpendicular church of ,st ,martin1 with a tower of earlier date1 having a ,norman arch1 is one of the largest ecclesiastical buildings in the county4 ,the site of a castle built by ,richard1 brother of ,henry ,,iii4 and earl of ,cornwall1 is occupied by public gardens4 ,at the grammar school1 which formerly occupied a building in those gardens1 ,dr ,john ,wolcot1 otherwise known as ,peter ,pindar1 was educated4 ,liskeard was formerly an important mining centre4 ,its manufactures include leather and woollen goods1 and there are iron foundries4 ,the borough is under a mayor1 #d aldermen and #ab councillors4 ,area1 #bgjd acres4 ,liskeard 7,liscarret7 was at the time of the ,domesday ,survey an important manor with a mill rendering #ab;d4 yearly and a market rendering #ds4 ,by the ,conqueror it had been given to the count of ,mortain by whom it was held in demesne4 ,ever since that time it has passed with the earldom or duchy of ,cornwall4 ,the fertility of its soil and the river ,looe probably led to early settlement at ,liskeard4 ,richard1 king of the ,romans1 recognized its natural advantages and built the manor house or castle and resided there occasionally4 ,in #abdj he constituted ,liskeard a free borough and its burgesses freemen with all the liberties enjoyed by the burgesses of ,launceston and ,helston4 ,in #abff he granted fairs at the ,feasts of the ,assumption and ,st ,matthew4 ,his son ,edmund earl of ,cornwall in #abge granted to the burgesses for a yearly rent of #ah 7sold by ,william ,,iii4 to ,lord ,somers7 the borough in fee farm with its mills1 tolls1 fines and pleas1 pleas of the crown excepted4 ,liskeard was made a coinage town for tin in #acjd4 ,edward the ,black ,prince secured to the burgesses in #acee immunity from pleas outside their franchise for trespass done within the borough4 ,queen ,elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation in #aehj under which there were to be a mayor1 recorder and eight councillors4 ,this charter was surrendered to ,charles ,,ii4 in #afhj and a new one granted by his brother under which the corporation became a self-elected body4 ,from #abie to #ahcb ,liskeard sent two members to the ,house of ,commons4 ,the parliamentary franchise1 at first exercised by the burgesses1 was vested by ,james' charter in the corporation and freemen4 ,by determining to admit no new freemen the voters became reduced to between #cj and #fj4 ,sir ,edward ,coke was returned for this borough in #afbj1 and ,edward ,gibbon the historian in #aggd4 ,in #ahcb ,liskeard was deprived of one of its members and in #ahhe it became merged in the county4 ,besides the fairs already mentioned a third was added by ,elizabeth's charter to be held on ,ascension ,day4 ,these are still among the most considerable cattle fairs in the county4 ,the same charter ratified a market on ,mondays and provided for another on ,saturdays4 ,the latter is now held weekly1 the former twice a month4 ,the flour mill at ,lamellion mentioned in the charter of #abge1 and probably identical with the mill of the ,domesday ,survey1 is still driven by water4 ,,lisle1 ,,alice 7c4 #afad-afhe71 commonly known as ,lady ,alice ,lisle1 was born about #afad4 ,her father1 ,sir ,white ,beckenshaw1 was descended from an old ,hampshire family2 her husband1 ,john ,lisle 7d4 #affd71 had been one of the judges at the trial of ,charles ,i41 and was subsequently a member of ,cromwell's ,house of ,lords--hence his wife's courtesy title4 ,lady ,lisle seems to have leaned to ,royalism1 but with this attitude she combined a decided sympathy with religious dissent4 ,on the #bjth of ,july #afhe1 a fortnight after the battle of ,sedgemoor1 the old lady consented to shelter ,john ,hickes1 a well-known ,nonconformist minister1 at her residence1 ,moyles ,court1 near ,ringwood4 ,hickes1 who was a fugitive from ,monmouth's army1 brought with him ,richard ,nelthorpe1 also a partizan of ,monmouth1 and under sentence of outlawry4 ,the two men passed the night at ,moyles ,court1 and on the following morning were arrested1 and their hostess1 who had denied their presence in the house1 was charged with harbouring traitors4 ,her case was tried by ,judge ,jeffreys at the opening of the ,bloody ,assizes at ,winchester4 ,she pleaded that she had no knowledge that ,hickes's offence was anything more serious than illegal preaching1 that she had known nothing previously of ,nelthorpe 7whose name was not included in the indictment1 but was1 nevertheless1 mentioned to strengthen the case for the ,crown71 and that she had no sympathy with the rebellion4 ,the jury reluctantly found her guilty1 and1 the law recognizing no distinction between principals and accessories in treason1 she was sentenced to be burned4 ,jeffreys ordered that the sentence should be carried out that same afternoon1 but a few days' respite was subsequently granted1 and ,james ,,ii4 allowed beheading to be substituted for burning4 ,lady ,lisle was executed in ,winchester market-place on the #bnd of ,september #afhe4 ,by many writers her death has been termed a judicial murder1 and one of the first acts of parliament of ,william and ,mary reversed the attainder on the ground that the prosecution was irregular and the verdict injuriously extorted by the menaces and violences and other illegal practices of ,jeffreys4 ,it is1 however1 extremely doubtful whether ,jeffreys1 for all his gross brutality1 exceeded the strict letter of the existing law4 ,see ,howell1 ,state ,trials2 ,h4 ,b4 ,irving1 ,life of ,judge ,jeffreys2 ,stephen1 ,history of the ,criminal ,law of ,england4 ,,lismore1 an island in the entrance to ,loch ,linnhe1 ,argyllshire1 ,scotland1 #e m4 ,n4,w4 of ,oban4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ejj4 ,it lies ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e41 is #i m4 long and #a m4 broad1 and has an area of #ifjj acres4 ,it divides the lower end of the loch into two channels1 the ,lynn of ,morvern on the ,w4 and the ,lynn of ,lome on the ,e4 ,the name is derived from the ,gaelic lios mr1 great garden4 ,several ruined castles stand on the coast1 and the highest point of the island is #ejj ft4 above the sea4 ,the inhabitants raise potatoes1 oats1 cattle and horses1 and these1 with dairy produce1 form the bulk of the trade4 ,steamers call at ,auchnacrosan4 ,a ,columban monastery was founded in ,lismore by ,st ,moluag about #eib4 ,about #abjj the see of ,argyll was separated from ,dunkeld by ,bishop ,john1 the ,englishman1 and ,lismore soon afterwards became the seat of the bishop of ,argyll1 sometimes called ,episcopus ,lismoriensis1 quite distinct from the bishop of the ,isles 7,sudreys and ,isle of ,man71 called ,episcopus ,sodoriensis or ,insularum1 whose see was divided in the #adth century into the ,english bishopric of ,sodor and ,man and the ,scottish bishopric of the ,isles4 ,the ,rev4 ,john ,macaulay 7d4 #aghi71 grandfather of ,lord ,macaulay1 the historian1 and the ,rev4 ,donald ,m',nicol 7#agce-ahjb71 who took up the defence of the ,highlands against ,dr ,johnson1 were ministers of ,lismore4 ,for the ,book of the ,dean of ,lismore see ,,celt3 ,scottish ,gaelic ,literature4 ,,lismore1 a town of ,rous county1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,australia1 #cbj m4 direct ,n4 by ,e4 of ,sydney4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #dcgh4 ,it is the principal town of the north coast district1 and the seat of a ,roman ,catholic bishop4 ,the surrounding country is partly pastoral1 and partly agricultural1 the soil being very fertile4 ,the town has a cathedral1 school of art1 and other public buildings1 while its industrial establishments include saw-mills1 sugar-mills1 butter factories and an iron foundry4 ,standing at the head of navigation of the ,richmond river1 ,lismore has a large export trade in dairy produce1 poultry1 pigs1 and pine and cedar timber4 ,,lismore1 a market town and seat of a diocese in ,co4 ,waterford1 ,ireland1 #dc m4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,waterford by the ,waterford and ,mallow branch of the ,great ,southern ,western ,railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aehc4 ,it is beautifully situated on a steep eminence rising abruptly from the ,blackwater4 ,at the verge of the rock on the western side is the old baronial castle1 erected by ,king ,john in #aahe1 which was the residence of the bishops till the #adth century4 ,it was besieged in #afda and #afdc1 and in #afde it was partly destroyed by fire4 ,the present fabric is largely modern2 while the portico was designed by ,inigo ,jones4 ,to the east1 on the summit of the height1 is the cathedral of ,st ,carthagh1 of various dates4 ,there are portions probably of the #abth and #acth centuries1 but the bulk of the building is of the #agth century1 and considerable additions1 including the tower and spire1 were made in the #aith4 ,there are a grammar school1 a free school and a number of charities4 ,some trade is carried on by means of the river1 and the town is the centre of a salmon fishery district4 ,the original name of ,lismore was ,maghsciath4 ,a monastery founded here by ,st ,carthagh in #fcc became so celebrated as a seat of learning that it is said no fewer than twenty churches were erected in its vicinity4 ,the bishopric1 which is said to have originated with this foundation1 was united to that of ,waterford in #acfc4 ,in the #ith and beginning of the #ajth centuries the town was repeatedly plundered by the ,danes1 and in #igh the town and abbey were burned by the men of ,ossory4 ,henry ,,ii41 after landing at ,waterford1 received in ,lismore castle the allegiance of the archbishops and bishops of ,ireland4 ,in #aeah the manor was granted to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 from whom it passed to ,sir ,richard ,boyle1 afterwards earl of ,cork4 ,from the earls of ,cork it descended by marriage to the dukes of ,devonshire4 ,it was incorporated as a municipal borough in the time of ,charles ,i41 when it also received the privilege of returning members to parliament1 but at the ,union in #ahjj it was disfranchised and also ceased to exercise its municipal functions4 ,,lissa 7,serbo-,croation ,vis2 ,lat4 ,issa71 an island in the ,adriatic sea1 forming part of ,dalmatia1 ,austria4 ,lissa lies #ca m4 ,s4 by ,w4 of ,spalato1 and is the outermost island of the ,dalmatian ,archipelago4 ,its greatest length is #aj m42 its greatest breadth #d m4 ,in shape it is a long1 roughly drawn parallelogram1 surrounded by a wall of rock1 which incloses the fertile central plain1 and is broken1 on the north1 west and east by natural harbours4 ,its culminating point is ,mount ,hum 7#aidb ft471 on the south-west4 ,the island1 which belongs to the administrative district of ,lesina1 is divided between two communes1 named after the chief towns1 ,lissa 7,vis71 on the north1 and ,comisa 7,komia71 on the west4 ,lissa1 the capital1 has a strongly fortified harbour4 ,it contains the palace of the old ,venetian counts ,gariboldi1 the former residence of the ,english governor1 the monastery of the ,minorites and at a little distance to the west the ruins of the ancient city of ,issa4 ,the islanders gain their livelihood by viticulture1 for which ,issa was once famous1 by sardine fishing and by the distillation of rosemary oil4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #iiah1 of whom #ebfa belonged to the town and commune of ,lissa1 and #dfeg to ,comisa4 ,issa is said to have been settled by people from ,lesbos1 the ,issa of the ,aegean4 ,the ,parians1 assisted by ,dionysius the ,elder of ,syracuse1 introduced a colony in the #dth century ,b4,c4 ,during the ,first ,punic ,war 7#bfe-bda ,b4,c47 the ,issaeans with their beaked ships helped the ,roman ,duilius2 and the great republic1 having defended their island against the attacks of ,agron of ,illyria and his queen ,teuta1 again found them serviceable allies in the war with ,philip of ,macedon 7c4 #bae-baa74 ,as early as #iif the ,venetians ruled the island1 and1 though they retired for a time before the ,ragusans1 their power was effectually established in #abgh4 ,velo ,selo1 then the chief settlement1 was destroyed by ,ferdinand of ,naples in #adhc and by the ,turks in #aega4 ,the present city arose shortly afterwards4 ,during the ,napoleonic wars1 the ,french held ,lissa until #ahaa1 and during this period the island prospered greatly1 its population increasing from #djjj to #ab1jjj between #ahjh and #ahaa4 ,in the latter year the ,french squadron was defeated by the ,british 7see below72 though in the same year a ,french fleet1 flying ,british colours1 entered ,lissa1 and only retired after burning #fd merchantmen4 ,thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in ,british goods1 which1 being excluded from every port under ,french control1 were smuggled into ,dalmatia4 ,in #ahab the ,british established an administrative system1 under native officials1 in ,lissa and the adjoining islands of ,curzola and ,lagosta4 ,all three were ceded to ,austria in #ahae4 ,battles of ,lissa4--,two naval actions have been fought in modern times near this island4 ,the first took place on the #acth of ,march #ahaa1 and was fought between a ,franco-,venetian squadron1 under the command of an officer named ,dubourdieu 7of whom little or nothing else is known71 and ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,william ,hoste with a small ,british force4 ,the ,franco-,venetian squadron 7,venice was then part of the dominions of the emperor ,napoleon7 consisted of six frigates1 of which four were of forty guns1 and of five corvettes or small craft4 ,the ,british squadron was composed of three frigates1 the ,amphion1 #cb 7,captain ,william ,hoste71 the ,cerberus 7,captain ,henry ,whitby7 and the ,active1 #ch 7,captain ,james ,a4 ,gordon74 ,with them was the ,volage1 #bb 7,captain ,phipps ,hornby74 ,the action has a peculiar interest because the ,french captain imitated the method of attack employed by ,nelson at ,trafalgar4 ,he came down from windward in two lines parallel to one another1 and at an angle to the ,british squadron4 ,captain ,hoste was not compelled to lie still as the allies did at ,trafalgar4 ,he stood on1 and as the two ,french lines had to overtake him as he slipped away at an angle to their course1 one of them got in the way of the other4 ,captain ,hoste materially forwarded the success of his manoeuvre by leading the foremost ,french ship1 the ,favorite1 #dj1 on to a reef1 which was known to himself1 but not to the enemy4 ,both squadrons then turned1 and the ,franco-,venetians falling into great confusion were defeated in spite of the gallant fighting of the individual ships4 ,two prizes were taken and ,dubourdieu was killed4 ,the second naval battle of ,lissa was fought between the ,austrian and ,italian navies on the #bjth of ,july #ahff4 ,the island1 then in possession of the ,austrians1 was attacked by an ,italian squadron from ,ancona of #ab ironclads and #bb wooden vessels4 ,one of the ironclads was damaged in a bombardment of the forts1 and two were detached on other service1 when an ,austrian squadron of #g ironclads1 one unarmoured warship the ,kaiser and a number of small craft which had left ,fasano under the command of ,admiral ,tegethoff came to interrupt their operations4 ,the ,italian admiral ,persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead1 which allowing for the necessary space between them meant that the ,italian formation stretched for more than #b m4 ,just before the action began ,admiral ,persano shifted his flag from the ,r d',italia1 the fourth ship in order from the van1 to the ram ,affondatore1 the fifth4 ,this made it necessary for the ,affondatore and the ships astern to shorten speed1 and1 as the leading vessels stood on1 a gap was created in the ,italian line4 ,admiral ,tegethoff1 who was on the port bow of the ,italians1 attacked with his squadron in three divisions formed in obtuse angles4 ,the ,italians opened a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of #ajjj yds4 ,the ,austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of #cjj yds4 ,under ,tegethoff's vigorous leadership1 and aided by the disorder in the ,italian line1 the ,austrians brought on a brief1 but to the ,italians destructive1 mle4 ,they broke through an interval between the third and fourth ,italian ships4 ,the unarmed ,austrian ships headed to attack the unarmed ,italians in the rear4 ,at this point an incident occurred to which an exaggerated importance was given4 ,the ,italian ironclad ,r di ,portogallo of #efjj tons1 in the rear of the line1 stood out to cover the unarmoured squadron by ramming the ,austrians4 ,she was herself rammed by the wooden ,kaiser 7#ejjj tons71 but received little injury1 while the ,austrian was much injured4 ,the ,kaiser and the wooden vessels then made for the protection of fort ,san ,giorgio on ,lissa unpursued4 ,in the centre1 where the action was hottest1 the ,austrian flagship ,ferdinand ,max of #ebjj tons rammed and sank the ,r d',italia4 ,the ,italian ,palestro of #bjjj tons was fired by a shell and blew up4 ,by midday the ,italians were in retreat1 and ,tegethoff anchored at ,san ,giorgio4 ,his squadron had suffered very little from the wild fire of the ,italians4 ,the battle of the #bjth ,july was the first fought at sea by modern ironclad steam fleets1 and therefore attracted a great deal of attention4 ,the sinking of the ,r d',italia and the ramming of the ,portogallo by the ,kaiser gave an immense impulse to the then popular theory that the ram would be a leading1 if not the principal1 weapon in modern sea warfare4 ,this calculation has not been borne out by more recent experience1 and indeed was not justified by the battle itself1 in which the attempts to ram were many and the successes very few4 ,the ,r d',italia was struck only because she was suddenly and most injudiciously backed1 so that she had no way on when charged by the ,ferdinand ,max4 ,for the first battle of ,lissa see ,james's ,naval ,history1 vol4 v4 7#ahcg74 ,a clear account of the second battle will be found in ,sir ,s4 ,eardley-,wilmot's ,development of ,navies 7,london1 #ahib72 see also ,h4 ,w4 ,wilson's ,ironclads in ,action 7,london1 #ahif74 7,d4 ,h47 ,,lissa 7,polish ,lzno71 a town in the ,prussian province of ,posen1 #be m4 ,n4,e4 from ,glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to ,breslau1 ,posen and ,landsberg4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #af1jba4 ,the chief buildings are the handsome palace1 the medieval town-hall1 the four churches and the synagogue4 ,its manufactures consist chiefly of shoes1 machinery1 liqueurs and tobacco2 it also possesses a large steam flour-mill1 and carries on a brisk trade in grain and cattle4 ,lissa owes its rise to a number of ,moravian ,brothers who were banished from ,bohemia by the emperor ,ferdinand ,i4 in the #afth century and found a refuge in a village on the estate of the ,polish family of ,leszczynski4 ,their settlement received municipal rights in #aefa4 ,during the ,thirty ,years' ,war the population was reinforced by other refugees1 and ,lissa became an important commercial town and the chief seat of the ,moravian ,brothers in ,poland4 ,johann ,amos ,comenius was long rector of the celebrated ,moravian school here4 ,in #afef and #agjg ,lissa was burned down4 ,see ,voigt1 ,aus ,lissas erster ,bltezeit 7,lissa1 #aije71 and ,sanden1 ,geschichte der ,lissaer ,schule 7,lissa1 #aije74 ,,list1 ,,friedrich 7#aghi-ahdf71 ,german economist1 was born at ,reutlingen1 ,wrttemberg1 on the #fth of ,august #aghi4 ,unwilling to follow the occupation of his father1 who was a prosperous tanner1 he became a clerk in the public service1 and by #ahaf had risen to the post of ministerial under-secretary4 ,in #ahag he was appointed professor of administration and politics at the university of ,tbingen1 but the fall of the ministry in #ahai compelled him to resign4 ,as a deputy to the ,wrttemberg chamber1 he was active in advocating administrative reforms4 ,he was eventually expelled from the chamber and in ,april #ahbb sentenced to ten months' imprisonment with hard labour in the fortress of ,asperg4 ,he escaped to ,alsace1 and after visiting ,france and ,england returned in #ahbd to finish his sentence1 and was released on undertaking to emigrate to ,america4 ,there he resided from #ahbe to #ahcb1 first engaging in farming and afterwards in journalism4 ,it was in ,america that he gathered from a study of ,alexander ,hamilton's work the inspiration which made him an economist of his pronounced ,national views4 ,the discovery of coal on some land which he had acquired made him financially independent1 and he became ,united ,states consul at ,leipzig in #ahcb4 ,he strongly advocated the extension of the railway system in ,germany1 and the establishment of the ,zollverein was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour4 ,his latter days were darkened by many misfortunes2 he lost much of his ,american property in a financial crisis1 ill-health also overtook him1 and he brought his life to an end by his own hand on the #cjth of ,november #ahdf4 ,list holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as applied to practical objects4 ,his principal work is entitled ,das ,nationale ,system der ,politischen konomie 7#ahda74 ,though his practical conclusions were different from those of ,adam ,mller 7#aggi-ahbi71 he was largely influenced not only by ,hamilton but also by the general mode of thinking of that writer1 and by his strictures on the doctrine of ,adam ,smith4 ,it was particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the modern economical system that he protested1 and against the absolute doctrine of free trade1 which was in harmony with that principle4 ,he gave prominence to the national idea1 and insisted on the special requirements of each nation according to its circumstances and especially to the degree of its development4 ,he refused to ,smith's system the title of the industrial1 which he thought more appropriate to the mercantile system1 and designated the former as the exchange-value system4 ,he denied the parallelism asserted by ,smith between the economic conduct proper to an individual and to a nation1 and held that the immediate private interest of the separate members of the community would not lead to the highest good of the whole4 ,that the nation was an existence1 standing between the individual and humanity1 and formed into a unity by its language1 manners1 historical development1 culture and constitution4 ,that this unity must be the first condition of the security1 wellbeing1 progress and civilization of the individual2 and private economic interests1 like all others1 must be subordinated to the maintenance1 completion and strengthening of the nationality4 ,the nation having a continuous life1 its true wealth must consist--and this is ,list's fundamental doctrine--not in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses1 but in the full and many-sided development of its productive powers4 ,its economic education should be more important than the immediate production of values1 and it might be right that one generation should sacrifice its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of the future4 ,in the sound and normal condition of a nation which has attained economic maturity1 the three productive powers of agriculture1 manufactures and commerce should be alike developed4 ,but the two latter factors are superior in importance1 as exercising a more effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of the nation1 as well as on its independence4 ,navigation1 railways1 all higher technical arts1 connect themselves specially with these factors2 whilst in a purely agricultural state there is a tendency to stagnation4 ,but for the growth of the higher forms of industry all countries are not adapted--only those of the temperate zones1 whilst the torrid regions have a natural monopoly in the production of certain raw materials2 and thus between these two groups of countries a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously takes place4 ,list then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic development through which the nations of the temperate zone1 which are furnished with all the necessary conditions1 naturally pass1 in advancing to their normal economic state4 ,these are 7#a7 pastoral life1 7#b7 agriculture1 7#c7 agriculture united with manufactures2 whilst in the final stage agriculture1 manufactures and commerce are combined4 ,the economic task of the state is to bring into existence through legislative and administrative action the conditions required for the progress of the nation through these stages4 ,out of this view arises ,list's scheme of industrial politics4 ,every nation1 according to him1 should begin with free trade1 stimulating and improving its agriculture by intercourse with richer and more cultivated nations1 importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products4 ,when it is economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself1 then a system of protection should be employed to allow the home industries to develop themselves fully1 and save them from being overpowered in their earlier efforts by the competition of more matured foreign industries in the home market4 ,when the national industries have grown strong enough no longer to dread this competition1 then the highest stage of progress has been reached2 free trade should again become the rule1 and the nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the universal industrial union4 ,what a nation loses for a time in exchange values during the protective period she much more than gains in the long run in productive power--the temporary expenditure being strictly analogous1 when we place ourselves at the point of view of the life of the nation1 to the cost of the industrial education of the individual4 ,the practical conclusion which ,list drew for ,germany was that she needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south1 and a vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce1 and that the way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a customs union comprising all ,german lands1 and a ,german marine with a ,navigation ,act4 ,the national ,german spirit1 striving after independence and power through union1 and the national industry1 awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground1 were favourable to the success of ,list's book1 and it produced a great sensation4 ,he ably represented the tendencies and demands of his time in his own country2 his work had the effect of fixing the attention1 not merely of the speculative and official classes1 but of practical men generally1 on questions of political economy2 and his ideas were undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern ,germany1 as applied by the practical genius of ,bismarck4 ,see biographies of ,list by ,goldschmidt 7,berlin1 #ahgh7 and ,jentsch 7,berlin1 #aija71 also ,fr4 ,list1 ein ,vorlufer und ein ,opfer fr das ,vaterland 7,anon41 #b vols41 ,stuttgart1 #ahgg72 ,m4 ,e4 ,hirst's ,life of ,friedrich ,list 7,london1 #aiji7 contains a bibliography and a reprint of ,list's ,outlines of ,american ,political ,economy 7#ahbg74 ,,list 7,o4,e4 liste1 a ,teutonic word1 cf4 ,dut4 lijst1 ,ger4 ,leiste1 adapted in ,ital4 lista and ,fr4 liste71 properly a border or edging4 ,the word was thus formerly used of a geographical boundary or frontier and of the lobe of the ear4 ,in current usage list is the term applied to the selvage of a piece of cloth1 the edging1 i4e4 of a web left in an unfinished state or of different material from the rest of the fabric1 to be torn or cut off when it is made up1 or used for forming a seam4 ,a similar edging prevents unravelling4 ,the material1 cut off and collected1 is known as list1 and is used as a soft cheap material for making slippers1 padding cushions1 c4 ,until the employment of rubber1 list was used to stuff the cushions of billiard tables4 ,the same word probably appears1 in a plural form lists1 applied to the barriers or palisades enclosing a space of ground set apart for tilting 7see ,,tournament74 ,it is thus used of any place of contest1 and the phrase to enter the lists is frequently used in the sense of to challenge4 ,the word in this application was taken directly from the ,o4 ,fr4 lisse1 modern lice1 in ,med4 ,lat4 liciae4 ,this word is usually taken to be a ,romanic adaptation of the ,teutonic word4 ,in medieval fortifications the lices were the palisades forming an outwork in front of the main walls of a castle or other fortified place1 and the word was also used of the space enclosed between the palisades and the enceinte2 this was used for exercising troops1 c4 ,from a transference of list1 meaning edge or border1 to a strip of paper1 parchment1 c41 containing a list of names1 numbers1 c41 comes the use of the word for an enumeration of a series of names of persons or things arranged in order for some specific purpose4 ,it is the most general word for such an enumeration1 other words1 such as register1 schedule1 inventory1 catalogue1 having usually some particular connotation4 ,the chief early use of list in this meaning was of the roll containing the names of soldiers2 hence to list a soldier meant to enter a recruit's name for service1 in modern usage to enlist him4 ,there are numerous particular applications of list1 as in civil list 7q4v471 active or retired list in the navy or army4 ,the term free list is used of an enumeration of such commodities as may at a particular time be exempt from the revenue laws imposing an import duty4 ,the verb to list1 most commonly found in the imperative1 meaning hark6 is another form of listen1 and is to be referred1 as to its ultimate origin1 to an ,indo-,european root klu-1 seen in ,gr4 ,greek3 klyein1 to hear1 ,greek3 kleos1 glory1 renown1 and in the ,english loud4 ,the same root is seen in ,welsh clst and ,irish clas1 ear4 ,another word list1 meaning pleasure1 delight1 or1 as a verb1 meaning to please1 choose1 is chiefly found in such phrases as the wind bloweth where it listeth4 ,this is from the ,o4,e4 lystan1 cf4 ,dut4 lusten1 ,ger4 lsten1 to take pleasure in1 and is also found in the ,english doublet lust1 now always used in the sense of an evil or more particularly sexual desire4 ,it is probably an application of this word1 in the sense of inclination1 that has given rise to the nautical term list1 for the turning over of a ship on to its side4 ,,lista ,y ,,aragon1 ,,alberto 7#agge-ahdh71 ,spanish poet and educationalist1 was born at ,seville on the #aeth of ,october #agge4 ,he began teaching at the age of fifteen1 and when little over twenty was made professor of elocution and poetry at ,seville university4 ,in #ahac he was exiled1 on political grounds1 but pardoned in #ahag4 ,he then returned to ,spain and1 after teaching for three years at ,bilbao1 started a critical review at ,madrid4 ,shortly afterwards he founded the celebrated college of ,san ,mateo in that city4 ,the liberal character of the ,san ,mateo educational system was not favoured by the government1 and in #ahbc the college was closed4 ,lista after some time spent in ,bayonne1 ,paris and ,london was recalled to ,spain in #ahcc to edit the official ,madrid ,gazette4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,ateneo1 the free university of ,madrid1 and up till #ahdj was director of a college at ,cadiz4 ,all the leading spirits of the young generation of ,spaniards1 statesmen1 writers1 soldiers and diplomatists came under his influence4 ,he died at ,seville on the #eth of ,october #ahdh4 ,,lister1 ,,joseph ,,lister1 #ast ,,baron 7#ahbg- 71 ,english surgeon1 was born at ,upton1 in ,essex1 on the #eth of ,april #ahbg4 ,his father1 ,joseph ,jackson ,lister1 ,f4,r4,s41 was eminent in science1 especially in optical science1 his chief claim to remembrance being that by certain improvements in lenses he raised the compound microscope from the position of a scientific toy1 distorting as much as it magnified1 to its present place as a powerful engine of research4 ,other members of ,lord ,lister's family were eminent in natural science4 ,in his boyhood ,joseph ,lister was educated at ,quaker schools2 first at ,hitchin in ,hertfordshire1 and afterwards at ,tottenham1 near ,london4 ,in #ahdd he entered ,university ,college1 ,london1 as a student in arts1 and took his ,b4,a4 degree at the ,university of ,london in #ahdg4 ,he continued at ,university ,college as a medical student1 and became ,m4,b4 and ,f4,r4,c4,s4 in #aheb4 ,the keen young student was not long in bringing his faculties to bear upon pathology and the practice of medicine4 ,while house-surgeon at ,university ,college ,hospital1 he had charge of certain cases during an outbreak of hospital gangrene1 and carefully observed the phenomena of the disease and the effects of treatment upon it4 ,he was thus early led to suspect the parasitic nature of the disorder1 and searched with the microscope the material of the spreading sore1 in the hope of discovering in it some invading fungus2 he soon convinced himself of the cardinal truth that its causes were purely local4 ,he also minutely investigated cases of pyaemia1 another terrible scourge of hospitals at that time1 and made camera lucida sketches of the appearances revealed by the microscope4 ,to realize ,lister's work it is necessary to remember the condition of surgical practice at that date4 ,about the middle of the #aith century the introduction of anaesthetics had relieved the patient of much of the horror of the knife1 and the surgeon of the duty of speed in his work4 ,the agony of the sufferer had naturally and rightly compelled the public to demand rapid if not slap-dash surgery1 and the surgeon to pride himself on it4 ,within decent limits of precision1 the quickest craftsman was the best4 ,with anaesthetics this state of things at any rate was changed4 ,the pain of the operation itself no longer counted1 and the surgeon was enabled not only to be as cautious and sedulous as dexterous1 but also to venture upon long1 profound and intricate operations which before had been out of the question4 ,yet unhappily this new enfranchisement seemed to be but an ironical liberty of ,nature1 who with the other hand took away what she had given4 ,direct healing of surgical wounds 7by first intention71 far from being the rule1 was a piece of luck too rare to enter into the calculations of the operator2 while of the graver surgical undertakings1 however successful mechanically1 the mortality by sepsis was ghastly4 ,suppuration1 phagedaena and septic poisonings of the system carried away even the most promising patients and followed even trifling operations4 ,often1 too1 these diseases rose to the height of epidemic pestilences1 so that patients1 however extreme their need1 dreaded the very name of hospital1 and the most skilful surgeons distrusted their own craft4 ,new hospitals or new wards were built1 yet after a very short time the new became as pestiferous as the old2 and even scrupulous care in ventilation and housemaids' cleanliness failed to prevent the devastation4 ,surgery had enlarged its freedom1 but only to find the weight of its new responsibilities more than it could bear4 ,when ,lister was appointed to the chair of surgery in ,glasgow the infirmary of that city was a hotbed of septic disease2 so much so that his hospital visits evidently distressed him greatly4 ,windows were widely opened1 piles of clean towels were supplied1 but still the pestilence stalked through the wards4 ,the building stands to-day as it stood then1 with no substantial alteration2 but by the genius of ,lister its surgical wards are now as free from septic accidents as the most modern hospital in the land4 ,james ,simpson1 early in the 'sixties1 pathetically denounced the awful mortality of operations in hospitals1 and indeed uttered desperate protests against the hospital system itself2 yet1 not long afterwards1 ,lister came to prove that it was not in the hospital that the causes of that mortality lay hidden1 but in the operator himself1 his tools and his assistants4 ,happily this beneficent discovery was made in time to preserve the inestimable boon of the hospital system from the counsels of despair4 ,when ,lister took up the task speculation was on the wrong tack2 the oxygen of the air was then supposed to be the chief cause of the dissolution of the tissues1 and to prevent access of air was impossible4 ,for instance1 a simple fracture1 as of a bone of the leg1 would do perfectly well1 while in the very next bed a compound fracture--one1 that is1 where the skin is lacerated1 and access to the seat of injury opened out--would go disastrously wrong4 ,if the limb were amputated1 a large proportion of such cases of amputation succumbed to septic poisoning4 ,on graduation as bachelor of medicine1 ,lister went to ,edinburgh1 where he soon afterwards became house-surgeon to ,mr ,syme2 and he was much impressed by the skill and judgment of this great surgeon1 and also by the superiority of his method of dressing recent wounds with dry lint1 as compared with the water dressing in use at ,university ,college4 ,yet under these more favourable conditions the amelioration was only one of degree2 in most wounds indeed union by first intention was rendered impossible by the presence of the silk ligatures employed for arresting bleeding1 for these could come away only by a process of suppuration4 ,on the expiry of his house-surgeoncy in ,edinburgh1 ,lister started in that city an extra-academical course of lectures on surgery2 and in preparation for these he entered on a series of investigations into inflammation and allied subjects4 ,these researches1 which were detailed fully in three papers in ,phil4 ,trans4 7#ahei71 and in his ,croonian lecture to the ,royal ,society in #ahfc1 testified to an earnestness of purpose1 a persevering accuracy of observation and experiment and an insight of scientific conception which show that if ,lister had never developed the aseptic method of surgery1 he would have taken a very high place in pathology4 ,in his speech in ,paris at the ,thirteenth ,international ,congress of ,medicine in #aijj1 ,lord ,lister said that he had done no more than seize upon ,pasteur's discoveries and apply them to surgery4 ,but though ,lister saw the vast importance of the discoveries of ,pasteur1 he saw it because he was watching on the heights2 and he was watching there alone4 ,from ,pasteur ,lister derived no doubt two fruitful ideas3 first1 that decomposition in organic substances is due to living germs2 and1 secondly1 that these lowly and minute forms of vegetable life spring always1 like higher organisms1 from parents like themselves1 and cannot arise de novo in the animal body4 ,after his appointment to the ,glasgow chair in #ahfj1 ,lister had continued his researches on inflammation2 and he had long been led to suspect that decomposition of the blood in the wound was the main cause of suppuration4 ,the two great theories established by ,pasteur seemed to ,lister to open out the possibility of what had before appeared hopeless--namely1 the prevention of putrefaction in the wound1 and consequently the forestalling of suppuration4 ,to exclude the oxygen of the air from wounds was impossible1 but it might be practicable to protect them from microbes4 ,the first attempt to realize this idea was made upon compound fractures2 and the means first employed was carbolic acid1 the remarkable efficacy of which in deodorizing sewage made ,lister regard it as a very powerful germicide4 ,it was applied to the wound undiluted1 so as to form with the blood a dense crust1 the surface of which was painted daily with the acid till all danger had passed4 ,the results1 after a first failure1 were in the highest degree satisfactory1 so that1 as ,lister said in his presidential address to the ,british ,association in ,liverpool1 he had the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow the same safe and tranquil course as simple fractures4 ,the caustic property of undiluted carbolic acid1 though insignificant in comparison with the far greater evils to be avoided in compound fracture1 made it unsuited for general surgery4 ,to make it applicable to the treatment of abscesses and incised wounds1 it was necessary to mitigate its action by blending it with some inert body2 and the endeavour to find the best medium for this purpose1 such as to combine perfect antiseptic efficiency with the least possible irritation of the tissues1 formed the subject of experiments continued for many years in the laboratory and in the ward4 ,at one stage in these inquiries an attempt was made to provide an atmosphere free from living organisms by means of a fine spray of a watery solution of carbolic acid2 for it was then supposed by ,lister to be necessary not only to purify the surgeon's hands and instruments and the skin of the patient about the seat of operation1 but also to wage war with the microbes which1 as ,pasteur had shown1 people every cubic inch of the air of an inhabited room4 ,under the use of the spray better results were obtained than ever before1 and this success encouraged its use4 ,but researches carried on for several years into the relations of the blood to micro-organisms led ,lister to doubt the harmfulness of the atmospheric dust4 ,at the ,london ,congress in #ahha he narrated experiments which proved that the serum of the blood is a very unfavourable soil for the development of the bacteria diffused through the air1 and others which showed that the cells of an organizing blood-clot have a very remarkable power of disposing of microbes and of limiting their advance4 ,hence he considered it probable that in surgical operations the atmosphere might be disregarded altogether4#a ,as long1 however1 as this was only a matter of probability1 he did not dare to discard the spray4 ,but at length1 at the ,berlin ,congress in #ahij1 he was able to announce that the certainty he had so long desired had been arrived at4 ,a careful consideration of the physical constitution of the spray had shown him that the microbes of the dust involved in its vortex could not possibly have their vitality destroyed or even impaired by it4 ,such being the case1 the uniform success obtained when he had trusted the spray implicitly as an aseptic atmosphere1 abandoning completely certain other precautions which he had before deemed essential1 proved conclusively to his mind that the air might safely be left entirely out of consideration in operating4#b ,thus he learnt that not the spray only1 but all antiseptic irrigations or washings of the wound also1 with their attendant irritation of the cut surfaces1 might be dispensed with--a great simplification1 indirectly due to experiments with the spray4 ,the spray had also served a very useful purpose by maintaining a pure condition of the entourage of the operation2 not indeed in the way for which it was devised1 but as a very mild form of irrigation4 ,and ,lister took care to emphasize the necessity for redoubled vigilance on the part of the surgeon and his assistants when this unconscious caretaker1 as he called it1 had been discarded4 ,the announcement that he had given up the spray was absurdly interpreted in some quarters to mean that he had virtually abandoned his theory and his antiseptic methods4 ,the truth is that the spray was only one of many devices tried for a while in the course of the long-continued endeavour to apply the antiseptic principle to the best advantage1 and abandoned in favour of something better4 ,two main objects were always kept steadily in view by him--during the operation to guard the wound against septic microbes by such means as existing knowledge indicated1 and afterwards to protect it against their introduction1 avoiding at the same time all needless irritation of the tissues by the antiseptic4 ,upon the technical methods of attaining these ends this is not the place to enlarge2 suffice it to say that the endowments and the industry of the discoverer1 as seen in the rapidity and flexibility of mind with which he seized upon and selected the best means1 were little less remarkable than the activity of the same faculties in his original ideas4 ,to illustrate this opinion1 his work on the ligature may be taken4 ,it had long been the universal practice of surgeons to employ threads of silk or flax for tying arteries1 long ends being left to provide escape of the pus 7invariably formed during the tedious process of the separation of the ligature7 together with the portion of the arterial coats included in the knot4 ,lister hoped that if1 by antiseptic means1 the thread were deprived of living microbes1 it would no longer cause suppuration1 but might be left with short cut ends to become embedded permanently among the tissues of the wound1 which thus would be allowed to heal by primary union throughout4 ,a trial of this method upon the carotid artery of a horse having proved perfectly successful1 he applied it in a case of aneurysm in the human subject2 and here again the immediate results were all that could be desired4 ,but a year later1 the patient having died from other causes1 the necropsy showed remnants of the silk thread incompletely absorbed1 with appearances around them which seemed to indicate that they had been acting as causes of disturbance4 ,thus was suggested to him the idea of employing for the ligature some material susceptible of more speedy absorption2 and the antiseptic treatment of contused wounds having shown that dead tissue1 if protected from putrefaction1 is removed by the surrounding structures without the intervention of suppuration1 he resolved to try a thread of some such nature4 ,catgut1 which is prepared from one of the constituents of the small intestine of the sheep1 after steeping in a solution of carbolic acid1 was used in a preliminary trial upon the carotid artery of a calf4 ,the animal was killed a month later1 when1 on dissection1 a very beautiful result was disclosed4 ,the catgut1 though removed1 had not been simply absorbed2 pari passu with its gradual removal1 fibrous tissue of new formation had been laid down1 so that in place of the dead catgut was seen a living ligature embracing the artery and incorporated with it4 ,the wound meanwhile had healed without a trace of suppuration4 ,this success appeared to justify the use of the catgut ligature in the human subject1 and for a while the results were entirely satisfactory4 ,but though this was the case with the old samples of catgut first employed1 which1 as ,lister was afterwards led to believe1 had been seasoned by long keeping1 it was found that when catgut was used fresh as it comes from the makers1 it was unsuited in various ways for surgical purposes4 ,the attempt by special preparation to obtain an article in all respects trustworthy engaged his attention from time to time for years afterwards4 ,to quote the words of ,sir ,hector ,cameron1 who was for several years assistant to ,lord ,lister1 it required labour and toilsome investigation and experiment of which few can have any adequate idea4 ,in #ahfi ,lister succeeded his father-in-law1 ,syme1 in the chair of clinical surgery of ,edinburgh4 ,in #ahgg he accepted an invitation to the chair of surgery at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 in the anticipation that here he would be more centrally placed for communication with the surgical world at home and abroad1 and might thus exercise his beneficent mission to more immediate advantage4 ,in #ahif ,lister retired from practice1 but not from scientific study4 ,from #ahie to #aijj he was ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,in #ahhc he was created a baronet1 and in #ahig he was raised to the peerage as ,baron ,lister of ,lyme ,regis4 ,among the ,coronation honours in #aijb1 he was nominated an original member of the new ,order of ,merit4 ,in ,england ,lister's teaching was slow in making its way4 ,the leading surgeons of ,germany were among the first to seize upon the new idea with avidity and practical success2 so early as #ahge1 in the course of a tour he made on the ,continent1 great festivals were held in his honour in ,munich and ,leipzig4 ,the countrymen of ,pasteur did not lag far behind2 and it is no exaggeration to speak of ,lister's appearances in foreign countries at this time as triumphal4 ,the relation of ,semmelweiss to ,lister is of historical importance4 ,lister's work on the antiseptic system began in #ahfd2 his first publication on the subject was in ,march #ahfg4 ,at this date1 and for long afterwards1 ,semmelweiss was unknown1 or ignored1 not only by ,french and ,germans1 but also by his own ,hungarian people2 and this neglect broke his heart4 ,the ,french ,academy pronounced against his opinions1 and so did the highest pathological authority in ,germany4 ,in ,england1 till long after his death1 probably his name was not so much as mentioned4 ,in the early 'seventies ,lister's method was in full operation in ,hungary as elsewhere1 yet none of the surgeons of ,budapest ever mentioned ,semmelweiss2 not even when1 in #ahhc1 they gave a great banquet to ,lister4 ,it was after this occasion that ,dr ,duka1 a ,hungarian physician practising in ,london1 wrote a biography of ,semmelweiss1 which he sent to ,lister1 and thus brought ,semmelweiss before him for the first time4 ,thenceforth ,lister generously regarded ,semmelweiss as in some measure his forerunner2 though ,semmelweiss was not aware of the microbic origin of septic poisons1 nor were his methods1 magnificent as was their success in lying-in hospitals1 suitable for surgical work4 ,in public ,lord ,lister's speeches were simple1 clear and graceful1 avoiding rhetorical display1 earnest for the truth1 jealous for his science and art1 forgetful of himself4 ,his writings1 in like manner plain1 lucid and forcible1 scarcely betray the labour and thought of their production4 ,with the courtesy and serenity of his carriage he combined a passionate humanity1 so often characteristic of those who come of the ,society of ,friends1 and a simple love of truth which showed itself in his generous encouragement of younger workers4 7,t4 ,c4 ,a47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,trans4 of the ,international ,medical ,congress 7#ahha71 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgc4 #b ,see ,verhandlungen des ,x internationalen ,congresses1 ,bd4 i4 p4 #cc4 ,,lister1 ,,martin 7c4 #afch-agab71 ,english naturalist and physician1 was born at ,radclive1 near ,buckingham4 ,he was nephew of ,sir ,matthew ,lister1 physician to ,anne1 queen of ,james ,i41 and to ,charles ,i4 ,he was educated at ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 #afee1 graduated in #afeh_/i1 and was elected a fellow in #affj4 ,he became ,f4,r4,s4 in #afga4 ,he practised medicine at ,york until #afhc1 when he removed to ,london4 ,in #afhd he received the degree of ,m4,d4 at ,oxford1 and in #afhg became ,f4,r4,c4,p4 ,he contributed numerous articles on natural history1 medicine and antiquities to the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,his principal works were ,historiae animalium ,angliae tres tractatus 7#afgh72 ,historiae ,conchyliorum 7#afhe-afib71 and ,conchyliorum ,bivalvium 7#afif74 ,as a conchologist he was held in high esteem1 but while he recognized the similarity of fossil mollusca to living forms1 he regarded them as inorganic imitations produced in the rocks4 ,in #afhc he communicated to the ,royal ,society 7,phil4 ,trans41 #afhd71 ,an ingenious proposal for a new sort of maps of countries2 together with tables of sands and clays1 such as are chiefly found in the north parts of ,england4 ,in this essay he suggested the preparation of a soil or mineral map of the country1 and thereby is justly credited with being the first to realize the importance of a geological survey4 ,he died at ,epsom on the #bnd of ,february #agab4 ,,liston1 ,,john 7c4 #aggf-ahdf71 ,english comedian1 was born in ,london4 ,he made his public dbut on the stage at ,weymouth as ,lord ,duberley in ,the ,heir-at-law4 ,after several dismal failures in tragic parts1 some of them in support of ,mrs ,siddons1 he discovered accidentally that his forte was comedy1 especially in the personation of old men and country boys1 in which he displayed a fund of drollery and broad humour4 ,an introduction to ,charles ,kemble led to his appearance at the ,haymarket on the #ajth of ,june #ahje as ,sheepface in the ,village ,lawyer1 and his association with this theatre continued with few interruptions until #ahcj4 ,paul ,pry1 the most famous of all his impersonations1 was first presented on the #acth of ,september #ahbe1 and soon became1 thanks to his creative genius1 a real personage4 ,liston remained on the stage till #ahcg2 during his last years his mind failed1 and he died on the #bbnd of ,march #ahdf4 ,he had married in #ahjg ,miss ,tyrer 7d4 #ahed71 a singer and actress4 ,several pictures of ,liston in character are in the ,garrick ,club1 ,london1 and one as ,paul ,pry in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,,liston1 ,,robert 7#agid-ahdg71 ,scottish surgeon1 was born on the #bhth of ,october #agid at ,ecclesmachan1 ,linlithgow1 where his father was parish minister4 ,he began the study of anatomy under ,dr ,john ,barclay 7#ageh-ahbf7 at ,edinburgh in #ahaj1 and soon became a skilful anatomist4 ,after eight years' study1 he became a lecturer on anatomy and surgery in the ,edinburgh ,school or ,medicine2 and in #ahbg he was elected one of the surgeons to the ,royal ,infirmary4 ,in #ahce he was chosen professor of clinical surgery in ,university ,college1 ,london1 and this appointment he held until his death1 which occurred in ,london on the #gth of ,december #ahdg4 ,liston was a teacher more by what he did than by what he said4 ,he taught simplicity in all operative procedures2 fertile in expedients1 of great nerve and of powerful frame1 he is remembered as an extraordinarily bold1 skilful and rapid operator4 ,he was the author of ,the ,elements of ,surgery 7#ahca-ahcb7 and ,practical ,surgery 7#ahcg71 and made several improvements in methods of amputation1 and in the dressing of wounds4 ,,liszt1 ,,franz 7#ahaa-ahhf71 ,hungarian pianist and composer1 was born on the #bbnd of ,october #ahaa1 at ,raiding1 in ,hungary4 ,his appeal to musicians was made in a threefold capacity1 and we have1 therefore1 to deal with ,liszt the unrivalled pianoforte virtuoso 7#ahcj-ahdh72 ,liszt the conductor of the music of the future at ,weimar1 the teacher of ,tausig1 ,blow and a host of lesser pianists1 the eloquent writer on music and musicians1 the champion of ,berlioz and ,wagner 7#ahdh-ahfa72 and ,liszt the prolific composer1 who for some five-and-thirty years continued to put forth pianoforte pieces1 songs1 symphonic orchestral pieces1 cantatas1 masses1 psalms and oratorios 7#ahdg-ahhb74 ,as virtuoso he held his own for the entire period during which he chose to appear in public2 but the militant conductor and prophet of ,wagner had a hard time of it1 and the composer's place is still in dispute4 ,liszt's father1 a clerk to the agent of the ,esterhazy estates and an amateur musician of some attainment1 was ,hungarian by birth and ancestry1 his mother an ,austrian-,german4 ,the boy's gifts attracted the attention of certain ,hungarian magnates1 who furnished #fjj gulden annually for some years to enable him to study music at ,vienna and ,paris4 ,at ,vienna he had lessons in pianoforte playing from ,carl ,czerny of ,velocity fame1 and from ,salieri in harmony and analysis of scores4 ,in his eleventh year he began to play in public there1 and ,beethoven came to his second concert in ,april #ahbc4 ,during the three years following he played in ,paris1 the ,french provinces and ,switzerland1 and paid three visits to ,england4 ,in ,paris he had composition lessons from ,par1 and a six months' course of lessons in counterpoint from ,reicha4 ,in the autumn of #ahbe the handsome and fascinating enfant gt of the salons and ateliers--,la ,neuvime ,merveille du monde--had the luck to get an operetta 7,don ,sancho7 performed three times at the ,acadmie ,royale4 ,the score was accidentally destroyed by fire1 but a set of studies la ,czerny and ,cramer1 belonging to #ahbf and published at ,marseilles as #ab tudes1 op4 i41 is extant1 and shows remarkable precocity4 ,after the death of his father in #ahbh young ,liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in ,paris1 got through a good deal of miscellaneous reading1 and felt the influence of the religious1 literary and political aspirations of the time4 ,he attended the meetings of the ,saint-,simonists1 lent an ear to the romantic mysticism of ,pre ,enfantin and later to the teaching of ,abb ,lamennais4 ,he also played ,beethoven and ,weber in public--a very courageous thing in those days4 ,the appearance of the violinist ,paganini in ,paris1 #ahca1 marks the starting-point of the supreme eminence ,liszt ultimately attained as a virtuoso4 ,paganini's marvellous technique inspired him to practise as no pianist had ever practised before4 ,he tried to find equivalents for ,paganini's effects1 transcribed his violin caprices for the piano1 and perfected his own technique to an extraordinary degree4 ,after ,paganini he received a fresh impulse from the playing and the compositions of ,chopin1 who arrived in #ahca1 and yet another impulse of equal force from a performance of ,berlioz's ,symphonie ,fantastique1 pisode de la vie d'un artiste1 in #ahcb4 ,liszt transcribed this work1 and its influence ultimately led him to the composition of his ,pomes symphoniques and other examples of orchestral programme-music4 ,from #ahcc to #ahdh--when he gave up playing in public--he was greeted with frantic applause as the prince of pianists4 ,five years 7#ahce-ahdj7 were spent in ,switzerland and ,italy1 in semi-retirement in the company of ,madame la comtesse d',agoult 7,george ,sand's friend and would-be rival1 known in literary circles as ,daniel ,stern1 by whom ,liszt had three children1 one of them afterwards ,frau ,cosima ,wagner73 these years were devoted to further study in playing and composition1 and were interrupted only by occasional appearances at ,geneva1 ,milan1 ,florence and ,rome1 and by annual visits to ,paris1 when a famous contest with ,thalberg took place in #ahcg4 ,the enthusiasm aroused by ,liszt's playing and his personality--the two are inseparable--reached a climax at ,vienna and ,budapest in #ahci-ahdj1 when he received a patent of nobility from the emperor of ,austria1 and a sword of honour from the magnates of ,hungary in the name of the nation4 ,during the eight years following he was heard at all the principalcentres--including ,london1 ,leipzig1 ,berlin1 ,copenhagen1 ,st ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 ,warsaw1 ,constantinople1 ,lisbon and ,madrid4 ,he gained much money1 and gave large sums in charity4 ,his munificence with regard to the ,beethoven statue at ,bonn made a great stir4 ,the subscriptions having come in but sparsely1 ,liszt took the matter in hand1 and the monument was completed at his expense1 and unveiled at a musical festival conducted by ,spohr and himself in #ahde4 ,in #ahdh he settled at ,weimar with ,princess ,sayn-,wittgenstein 7d4 #ahhg71 and remained there till #ahfa4 ,during this period he acted as conductor at court concerts and on special occasions at the theatre1 gave lessons to a number of pianists1 wrote articles of permanent value on certain works of ,berlioz and the early operas of ,wagner1 and produced those orchestral and choral pieces upon which his reputation as a composer mainly depends4 ,his ambition to found a school of composers as well as a school of pianists met with complete success on the one hand and partial failure on the other4 ,his efforts on behalf of ,wagner1 who was then an exile in ,switzerland1 culminated in the first performance of ,lohengrin on the #bhth of ,august #ahej1 before a special audience assembled from far and near4 ,among the works produced for the first time or rehearsed with a view to the furtherance of musical art were ,wagner's ,tannhuser1 ,der fliegende ,hollnder1 ,das ,liebesmahl der ,apostel1 and ,eine ,faust ,overtre1 ,berlioz's ,benvenuto ,cellini1 the ,symphonie ,fantastique1 ,harold en ,italie1 ,romo et ,juliette1 ,la ,damnation de ,faust1 and ,l',enfance du ,christ--the last two conducted by the composer--,schumann's ,genoveva1 ,paradise and the ,peri1 the music to ,manfred and to ,faust1 ,weber's ,euryanthe1 ,schubert's ,alfonso und ,estrella1 ,raff's ,knig ,alfred1 ,cornelius's ,der ,barbier von ,baghdad and many more4 ,it was ,liszt's habit to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory articles or essays1 which were written in ,french 7some for the ,journal des dbats and the ,gazette musicale of ,paris7 and translated for the journals of ,weimar and ,leipzig--thus his two masterpieces of sympathetic criticism1 the essays ,lohengrin et ,tannhuser ,weimar and ,harold en ,italie1 found many readers and proved very effective4 ,they are now included1 together with articles on ,schumann and ,schubert1 and the elaborate and rather high-flown essays on ,chopin and ,des ,bohmiens et de leur musique en ,hongrie 7the latter certainly1 and the former probably1 written in collaboration with ,madame de ,wittgenstein71 in his ,gesammelte ,schriften 7#f vols41 ,leipzig74 ,the compositions belonging to the period of his residence at ,weimar comprise two pianoforte concertos1 in ,e flat and in ,a1 the ,todtentanz1 the ,concerto pathtique for two pianos1 the solo sonata ,an ,robert ,schumann1 sundry tudes1 fifteen ,rhapsodies ,hongroises1 twelve orchestral ,pomes symphoniques1 ,eine ,faust ,symphonie1 and ,eine ,symphonie zu ,dante's ',divina ,commedia1' the #acth ,psalm for tenor solo1 chorus and orchestra1 the choruses to ,herder's dramatic scenes ,prometheus1 and the ,missa solennis known as the ,graner ,fest ,messe4 ,liszt retired to ,rome in #ahfa1 and joined the ,franciscan order in #ahfe4a ,from #ahfi onwards ,abb ,liszt divided his time between ,rome and ,weimar1 where during the summer months he received pupils--gratis as formerly--and1 from #ahgf up to his death at ,bayreuth on the #cast of ,july #ahhf1 he also taught for several months every year at the ,hungarian ,conservatoire of ,budapest4 ,about ,liszt's pianoforte technique in general it may be said that it derives its efficiency from the teaching of ,czerny1 who brought up his pupil on ,mozart1 a little ,bach and ,beethoven1 a good deal of ,clementi and ,hummel1 and a good deal of his 7,czerny's7 own work4 ,classicism in the shape of solid1 respectable ,hummel on the one hand1 and ,carl ,czerny1 a trifle flippant1 perhaps1 and inclined to appeal to the gallery1 on the other1 these gave the musical parentage of young ,liszt4 ,then appears the ,parisian ,incroyable and grand seigneur--,monsieur ,lits1 as the ,parisians called him4 ,later1 we find him imitating ,paganini and ,chopin1 and at the same time making a really passionate and deep study of ,beethoven1 ,weber1 ,schubert1 ,berlioz4 ,thus gradually was formed the master of style--whose command of the instrument was supreme1 and who played like an inspired poet4 ,liszt's strange musical nature was long in maturing its fruits4 ,at the pianoforte his achievements culminate in the two books of studies1 twice rewritten1 and finally published in #aheb as tudes d'excution transcendante1 the tudes de concert and the ,paganini ,studies2 the two concertos and the ,todtentanz1 the ,sonata in ,b minor1 the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies and the fine transcriptions of ,beethoven's symphonies 7the #ith for two pianofortes as well as solo71 and of ,berlioz's ,symphonie fantastique1 and the symphony1 ,harold en ,italie4 ,in his orchestral pieces of ,liszt appears--next to ,berlioz--as the most conspicuous and most thorough-going representative of programme music1 i4e4 instrumental music expressly contrived to illustrate in detail some poem or some succession of ideas or pictures4 ,it was ,liszt's aim to bring about a direct alliance or amalgamation of instrumental music with poetry4 ,to effect this he made use of the means of musical expression for purposes of illustration1 and relied on points of support outside the pale of music proper4 ,there is always danger of failure when an attempt is thus made to connect instrumental music with conceptions not in themselves musical1 for the order of the ideas that serve as a programme is apt to interfere with the order which the musical exposition naturally assumes--and the result in most cases is but an amalgam of irreconcilable materials4 ,in pieces such as ,liszt's ,pomes symphoniques1 ,ce qu'on entend sur la montagne 7#ahdh-ahef71 after a poem by ,victor ,hugo1 and ,die ,ideale 7#ahec-aheg71 after a poem by ,schiller1 the hearer is bewildered by a series of startling orchestral effects which succeed one another apparently without rhyme or reason4 ,the music does not conform to any sufficiently definite musical plan--it is hardly intelligible as music without reference to the programme4 ,liszt's masterpiece in orchestral music is the ,dante ,symphony 7#ahdg-ahee71 the subject of which was particularly well suited to his temperament1 and offered good chances for the display of his peculiar powers as a master of instrumental effect4 ,by the side of it ranks the ,faust ,symphony 7#ahed-aheg71 in which the moods of ,goethe's characters--,faust1 ,gretchen and ,mephistopheles--are depicted in three instrumental movements1 with a chorus of male voices1 supplying a kind of comment1 by way of close4 ,the method of presentation in both symphonies is by means of representative themes 7,leitmotif71 and their combination and interaction4 ,incidents of the poem or the play are illustrated or alluded to as may be convenient1 and the exigencies of musical form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of special effects4 ,of the twelve ,pomes symphoniques1 ,orphe is the most consistent from a musical point of view1 and is exquisitely scored4 ,melodious1 effective1 readily intelligible1 with a dash of the commonplace1 ,les ,prludes1 ,tasso1 ,mazeppa and ,fest-,klnge bid for popularity4 ,in these pieces1 as in almost every production of his1 in lieu of melody ,liszt offers fragments of melody--touching and beautiful1 it may be1 or passionate1 or tinged with triviality2 in lieu of a rational distribution of centres of harmony in accordance with some definite plan1 he presents clever combinations of chords and ingenious modulations from point to point2 in lieu of musical logic and consistency of design1 he is content with rhapsodical improvisation4 ,the power of persistence seems wanting4 ,the musical growth is spoilt1 the development of the themes is stopped1 or prevented1 by some reference to extraneous ideas4 ,everywhere the programme stands in the way4 ,in much of ,liszt's vocal music1 particularly in the songs and choral pieces written to ,german words1 an annoying discrepancy is felt to exist between the true sound of the words and the musical accents4 ,the music is generally emotional1 the expression direct and passionate2 there is no lack of melodic charm and originality1 yet the total effect is frequently disappointing4 ,in the choral numbers of the five masses1 and in the oratorios ,die ,heilige ,elisabeth and ,christus1 the rarity of fugal polyphony acts as a drawback4 ,its almost complete absence in some of these works makes for monotony and produces a sense of dullness1 which may not be inherent in all the details of the music1 but is none the less distinctly present4 ,omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled1 the following list of compositions may be taken as fairly comprehensive3-- ,pianoforte ,pieces4--tudes d'excution transcendante2 tudes de concert2 ,zwei ,etuden1 ,waldesrauschen1 ,gnomentanz2 ,ab ,irato2 ,paganini ,studies2 ,annes de ,plerinage1 #c sets2 ,harmonies potiques et religieuses1 #a-aj2 ,consolations1 #a-f2 ,ave ,maria in ,e2 ,sonata in ,b minor2 ,konzert-,solo in ,e minor2 ,scherzo und ,marsch2 ,ballades1 ,i4 ,,ii42 ,polonaises1 ,i4 ,,ii42 ,apparitions1 #a-c2 ,berceuse2 ,valse impromptu2 ,mazurka brillant2 #c ,caprices ,valses2 ,galop chromatique2 ,mephisto-,walzer1 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4 and ,polka2 ,zwei ,legenden1 ,die ,vogelpredigt1 ,der heilige ,franciscus auf den ,wogen schreitend2 ,der ,weihnachtsbaum1 #a-ab2 ,sarabande und ,chaconne 7,almira72 ,elegies1 ,i41 ,,ii4 and ,,iii42 ,la lugubre ,gondola2 ,dem ,andenken ,petfi's2 ,mosonyi's ,grabgeleit2 ,romance oublie2 ,valses oublies1 #a-c2 ,liebestrume1 #a-c 7originally songs72 ,hexameron2 ,rhapsodies ,hongroises1 #a-ah4 ,pieces for ,two ,pianos4--,concerto pathtique 7identical with the ,konzert-,solo in ,e minor72 ,dante symphony2 ,faust symphony2 ,pomes symphoniques1 #a-ab2 ,beethoven's #ith symphony4 ,pianoforte with ,orchestra4--,concertos ,i4 in ,e flat1 ,,ii4 in ,a2 ,todtentanz2 ,fantasie ueber ,motif aus ,beethoven's ,ruinen von ,athen2 ,fantasie ueber ,ungarische ,national ,melodien2 ,schubert's ,fantasia in ,c2 ,weber's ,polacca in ,e4 ,fantaisies de ,concert for ,piano ,solo4--,don ,juan2 ,norma2 ,sonnambula2 ,i ,puritani2 ,lucia1 ,i41 ,,ii42 ,lucrezia1 ,i41 ,,ii42 ,la ,juive2 ,robert le ,diable2 ,les ,huguenots2 ,le ,prophte1 #a-d4 ,paraphrases1 ,auber1 ,tarantella di bravura 7,masaniello72 ,verdi1 ,rigoletto1 ,ernani1 ,il ,trovatore2 ,mendelssohn1 ,hochzeitsmarsch und ,elfenreigen2 ,gounod1 ,valse de ,faust1 ,les ,adieux de ,romo et ,juliette2 ,tschaikowsky1 ,polonaise2 ,dargomiyski1 ,tarantelle2 ,cui1 ,tarantella2 ,saint-,sans1 ,danse macabre2 ,schubert1 ,soires de ,vienne1 ,valses caprices1 #a-i4 ,transcriptions4--,beethoven's ,nine ,symphonies2 ,berlioz's ,symphonie fantastique1 ,harold en ,italie2 ,bndiction et ,serment 7,benvenuto ,cellini72 ,danse des ,sylphes 7,damnation de ,faust72 ,weber's overtures1 ,der ,freischtz1 ,euryanthe1 ,oberon1 ,jubilee2 ,beethoven's and ,hummel's ,septets2 ,schubert's ,divertissement la ,hongroise2 ,beethoven's ,concertos in ,c minor1 ,g and ,e flat 7orchestra for a second piano72 ,wagner's ,tannhuser overture1 march1 romance1 chorus of pilgrims2 ,lohengrin1 ,festzug und ,brautlied1 ,elsa's ,brautgang1 ,elsa's ,traum1 ,lohengrin's ,verweiss an ,elsa2 ,fliegender ,hollnder1 ,spinnlied2 ,rienzi1 ,gebet2 ,rheingold1 ,walhall2 ,meistersinger1 ,am stillen ,herd2 ,tristan1 ,isolde's ,liebestod2 ,chopin's six ,chants ,polonais2 ,meyerbeer's ,schillermarsch2 ,bach's six organ ,preludes and ,fugues2 ,prelude and ,fugue in ,g minor2 ,beethoven1 ,adelaide2 #f miscellaneous and #f ,geistliche ,lieder2 ,liederkreis2 ,rossini's ,les ,soires musicales2 ,schubert1 #ei songs2 ,schumann1 #ac songs2 ,mendelssohn1 #h songs2 ,robert ,franz1 #ac songs4 ,organ ,pieces4--,missa pro organo2 ,fantasia and ,fugue1 ,ad nos1 ad salutarem undam2 ,b-,a-,c-,h ,fugue2 ,variations on ,bach's ,basso continuo1 ,weinen1 ,klagen2 ,bach's ,introduction and ,fugue1 ,ich hatte viel ,bekmmerniss2 ,bach's ,choral ,fugue1 ,lob und ,ehre2 ,nicolai's ,kirchliche ,festouvertre1 ,ein feste ,burg2 ,allegri's ,miserere2 ,mozart's ,ave ,verum2 ,arcadelt's ,ave ,maria2 ,lasso's ,regina ,coeli4 ,orchestral ,pieces4--,eine ,symphonie zu ,dante's ,divina ,commedia2 ,eine ,faust ,symphonie2 ,pomes symphoniques3 #a4 ,ce qu'on entend sur la montagne2 #b4 ,tasso2 #c4 ,les ,prludes2 #d4 ,orphe2 #e4 ,promthe2 #f4 ,mazeppa2 #g4 ,fest-,klnge2 #h4 ,hrode funbre2 #i4 ,hungaria2 #aj4 ,hamlet2 #aa4 ,hunnenschlacht2 #ab4 ,die ,ideale2 ,zwei ,episoden aus ,lenau's ,faust3 ,i4 ,der nchtliche ,zug1 ,,ii4 ,der ,tanz in der ,dorfschenke2 ,marches1 ,rakoczy1 ,goethe1 ,huldigung1 ,vom ,fels zum ,meer 7for a military band72 ,ungarischer1 ,heroischer and ,sturmmarsch2 ,le ,triomphe funbre du ,tasse2 ,von der ,wiege bis zum ,grab2 six ,hungarian rhapsodies2 four marches2 four songs1 and ,die ,allmacht1 by ,schubert4 ,vocal ,music4--,oratorios3 ,die ,legende von der ,heiligen ,elisabeth1 ,christus1 ,stanislaus 7unfinished74 ,masses3 ,missa solennis for the inauguration of the cathedral at ,gran2 ,ungarische ,krnungs-messe2 ,missa choralis 7with organ72 ,missa and ,requiem for male voices 7with organ72 ,psalms1 #ac1 #acg1 #bc and #ah2 #ab ,kirchen-,chor-,gesnge 7with organ74 ,cantatas3 ,prometheus-chre2 ,beethoven ,cantata2 ,an die ,knstler2 ,die ,glocken des ,strassburger ,mnsters2 #ab ,chre fr ,mnnergesang2 ,songs1 #h books2 ,scena1 ,jeanne d',arc au bcher4 ,melodramatic ,pieces for ,declamation1 with ,pianoforte ,accompaniment4--,leonore 7,brger72 ,der traurige ,mnch 7,lenau72 ,des todten ,dichter's ,liebe 7,jokai72 ,der blinde ,snger 7,tolstoy74 ,editions1 ,text and ,variants4--,beethoven's ,sonatas2 ,weber's ,concertstck and ,sonatas2 ,schubert ,fantasia1 #d ,sonatas1 ,impromptus1 ,valses and ,moments musicaux4 ,see also ,l4 ,ramaun1 ,fr4 ,liszt als ,knstler und ,mensch 7#ahhj-ahid72 ,e4 ,dannreuther1 ,oxford ,hist4 of ,music1 vol4 vi47#aije74 7,e4 ,da47 ,,footnote3 #a ,it is understood that1 in point of fact1 the ,princess ,wittgenstein was determined to marry ,liszt2 and as neither he nor her family wished their connexion to take this form1 ,cardinal ,hohenlohe quietly had him ordained4--,,ed4 ,e4,b44 ,,litany4 ,this word 7,greek3 litaneia71 like ,greek3 lit 7both from ,greek3 litomai71 is used by ,eusebius and ,chrysostom1 commonly in the plural1 in a general sense1 to denote a prayer or prayers of any sort1 whether public or private2 it is similarly employed in the law of ,arcadius 7,cod4 ,theod4 xvi4 tit4 #e1 leg4 #cj71 which forbids heretics to hold assemblies in the city ad litaniam faciendam4 ,but some trace of a more technical meaning is found in the epistle 7,ep4 #fc7 of ,basil to the church of ,neocaesarea1 in which he argues1 against those who were objecting to certain innovations1 that neither were litanies used in the time of ,gregory ,thaumaturgus4 ,the nature of the recently introduced litanies1 which must be assumed to have been practised at ,neocaesarea in ,basil's day1 can only be conjectured2 probably they had many points in common with the rogationes1 which1 according to ,sidonius ,apollinaris1 had been coming into occasional use in ,france about the beginning of the #eth century1 especially when rain or fine weather was desired1 and1 so far as the three fast days before ,ascension were concerned1 were first fixed1 for one particular district at least1 by ,mamertus or ,mamercus of ,vienne 7,a4,d4 c4 #dej74 ,we gather that they were penitential and intercessory prayers offered by the community while going about in procession1 fasting and clothed in sackcloth4 ,in the following century the manner of making litanies was to some extent regulated for the entire ,eastern empire by one of the ,novels of ,justinian1 which forbade their celebration without the presence of the bishops and clergy1 and ordered that the crosses which were carried in procession should not be deposited elsewhere than in churches1 nor be carried by any but duly appointed persons4 ,the first synod of ,orleans 7,a4,d4 #eaa7 enjoins for all ,gaul that the litanies before ,ascension be celebrated for three days2 on these days all menials are to be exempt from work1 so that every one may be free to attend divine service4 ,the diet is to be the same as in ,quadragesima2 clerks not observing these rogations are to be punished by the bishop4 ,in ,a4,d4 #eag the synod of ,gerunda provided for two sets of litanies2 the first were to be observed for three days 7from ,thursday to ,saturday7 in the week after ,pentecost with fasting1 the second for three days from ,november #a4 ,the second council of ,vaison 7#ebi71 consisting of twelve bishops1 ordered the ,kyrie eleison--now first introduced from the ,eastern ,church--to be sung at matins1 mass and vespers4 ,a synod of ,paris 7#egc7 ordered litanies to be held for three days at the beginning of ,lent1 and the fifth synod of ,toledo 7#fcf7 appointed litanies to be observed throughout the kingdom for three days from ,december #ad4 ,the first mention of the word litany in connexion with the ,roman ,church goes back to the pontificate of ,pelagius ,i4 7#eee71 but implies that the thing was at that time already old4 ,in #eij ,gregory ,i41 moved by the pestilence which had followed an inundation1 ordered a litania septiformis1 sometimes called litania major1 that is to say1 a sevenfold procession of clergy1 laity1 monks1 virgins1 matrons1 widows1 poor and children4 ,it must not be confused with the litania septena used in church on ,easter ,even4 ,he is said also to have appointed the processions or litanies of ,april #be 7,st ,mark's day71 which seem to have come in the place of the ceremonies of the old ,robigalia4 ,in #gdg the synod of ,cloveshoe ordered the litanies or rogations to be gone about on ,april #be after the manner of the ,roman ,church1 and on the three days before ,ascension after the manner of our ancestors4 ,the latter are still known in the ,english ,church as ,rogation ,days4 ,games1 horse racing1 junkettings were forbidden2 and in the litanies the name of ,augustine was to be inserted after that of ,gregory4 ,the reforming synod of ,mainz in #hac ordered the major litany to be observed by all for three days in sackcloth and ashes1 and barefoot4 ,the sick only were exempted4 ,as regards the form of words prescribed for use in these litanies or supplications1 documentary evidence is defective4 ,sometimes it would appear that the procession or litany did nothing else but chant ,kyrie eleison without variation4 ,there is no reason to doubt that from an early period the special written litanies of the various churches all showed the common features which are now regarded as essential to a litany1 in as far as they consisted of 7#a7 invocations1 7#b7 deprecations1 7#c7 intercessions1 7#d7 supplications4 ,but in details they must have varied immensely4 ,the offices of the ,roman ,catholic ,church at present recognize two litanies1 the ,litaniae majores and the ,litaniae breves1 which differ from one another chiefly in respect of the fulness with which details are entered upon under the heads mentioned above4 ,it is said that in the time of ,charlemagne the angels ,orihel1 ,raguhel1 ,tobihel were invoked1 but the names were removed by ,pope ,zacharias as really belonging to demons4 ,in some medieval litanies there were special invocations of ,s4 ,fides1 ,s4 ,spes1 ,s4 ,charitas4 ,the litanies1 as given in the ,breviary1 are at present appointed to be recited on bended knee1 along with the penitential psalms1 in all the six week-days of ,lent when ordinary service is held4 ,without the psalms they are said on the feast of ,saint ,mark and on the three rogation days4 ,a litany is chanted in procession before mass on ,holy ,saturday4 ,the litany or general supplication of the ,church of ,england1 which is appointed to be sung or said after morning prayer upon ,sundays1 ,wednesdays and ,fridays1 and at other times when it shall be commanded by the ordinary1 closely follows the ,litaniae majores of the ,breviary1 the invocations of saints being of course omitted4 ,a similar ,german litany will be found in the works of ,luther4 ,in the ,roman ,church there are a number of special litanies peculiar to particular localities or orders1 such as the ,litanies of ,mary or the ,litanies of the ,sacred ,name of ,jesus4 ,there was originally a close connexion between the litany and the liturgy 7q4v474 ,the ninefold ,kyrie eleison at the beginning of the ,roman ,mass is a relic of a longer litany of which a specimen may still be seen in the ,stowe missal4 ,in the ,ambrosian liturgy1 the threefold ,kyrie eleison or ,lesser ,litany occurs thrice1 after the ,gloria in excelsis1 after the gospel and at the end of ,mass2 and on the first five ,sundays in ,lent a missal litany is placed before the ,oratio super populum1 and on the same five ,sundays in the ,mozarabic rite before the epistle4 ,in ,eastern liturgies litanies are a prominent feature1 as in the case of the deacon's litany at the beginning of the ,missa fidelium in the ,clementine liturgy1 immediately before the ,anaphora in the ,greek liturgy of ,st ,james1 c4 7,f4 ,e4 ,w47 ,,litchfield1 a township and the county-seat of ,litchfield county1 ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #bh m4 ,w4 of ,hartford1 and including the borough of the same name4 ,pop4 of the township 7#ahij7 #ccjd2 7#aijj7 #cbad2 7#aiaj7 #cjje2 of the borough 7#ahij7 #ajeh2 7#aijj7 #aabj2 7#aiaj7 #ijc4 ,area of the township1 #dh4f sq4 m4 ,the borough is served by the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railroad4 ,it is situated on elevated land1 and is one of the most attractive of southern ,new ,england summer resorts4 ,the principal elevation in the township is ,mt4 ,prospect1 at the base of which there is a vein of pyrrhotite1 with small quantities of nickel and copper4 ,on the southern border of the borough is ,lake ,bantam 7about #ijj acres1 the largest lake in the state7 whose falls1 at its outlet1 provide water power for factories of carriages and electrical appliances4 ,dairying is the most important industry1 and in #ahii the county ranked first among the counties of the state in the value of its dairy products--#a1cgc1ieg1 from #cdfe farms1 the value of the product for the entire state being #g1jij1ahh4 ,the lands included in the township of ,litchfield 7originally called ,bantam7 were bought from the ,indians in #agae-agaf for #ae4 the ,indians reserving a certain part for hunting4 ,the township was incorporated in #agai1 was named ,litchfield1 after ,lichfield in ,england1 and was settled by immigrants from ,hartford1 ,windsor1 ,wethersfield1 ,farmington and ,lebanon 7all within the state7 in #agbj-agba4 ,in #agea it became the county-seat of ,litchfield county1 and at the same time the borough of ,litchfield 7incorporated in #ahgi7 was laid out4 ,from #aggf to #aghj two depts for military stores and a workshop for the ,continental army were maintained1 and the leaden statue of ,george ,,iii41 erected in ,bowling ,green1 ,new ,york ,city1 in #aggj1 and torn down by citizens on the #ith of ,july #aggf1 was cut up and taken to ,litchfield1 where1 in the house 7still standing7 of ,oliver ,wolcott it was melted into bullets for the ,american army by ,wolcott's daughter and sister4 ,aaron ,burr1 whose only sister married ,tapping ,reeve 7#agdd-ahbc71 lived in ,litchfield with ,reeve in #aggd-agge4 ,in #aghd ,reeve established here the ,litchfield ,law ,school1 the first institution of its kind in ,america4 ,in #agih he associated with himself ,james ,gould 7#aggj-ahch71 who1 after ,reeve's retirement in #ahbj1 continued the work1 with the assistance of ,jabez ,w4 ,huntington 7#aghh-ahdg71 until #ahcc4 ,the school was never incorporated1 it had no buildings1 and the lectures were delivered in the law offices of its instructors1 but among its #ajjj or more students were many who afterwards became famous1 including ,john ,c4 ,calhoun2 ,levi ,woodbury 7#aghi-ahea71 ,united ,states senator from ,new ,hampshire in #ahbe-ahca and in #ahda-ahde1 secretary of the navy in #ahca-ahcd and of the treasury in #ahcd-ahda1 and a justice of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court from #ahde2 ,john ,y4 ,mason2 ,john ,m4 ,clayton2 and ,henry ,baldwin 7#aghj-ahdd71 a justice of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court from #ahcj4 ,in #agib ,mrs ,sarah ,pierce made one of the first efforts toward the higher education of women in the ,united ,states by opening in ,litchfield her ,female ,seminary1 which had an influential career of about forty years1 and numbered among its alumnae ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 ,mrs ,marshall ,o4 ,roberts1 ,mrs ,cyrus ,w4 ,field and ,mrs ,hugh ,mc,culloch4 ,litchfield was the birthplace of ,ethan ,allen2 of ,henry ,ward ,beecher2 of ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 whose novel1 ,poganuc ,people1 presents a picture of social conditions in ,litchfield during her girlhood2 of ,oliver ,wolcott1 ,jr4 7#agfj-ahcc72 of ,john ,pierpont 7#aghe-ahff71 the poet1 preacher and lecturer2 and of ,charles ,loring ,brace1 the philanthropist4 ,it was also the home1 during his last years1 of ,oliver ,wolcott 7#agbf-agig72 of ,colonel ,benjamin ,tallmadge 7#aggd-ahce71 an officer on the ,american side in the ,war of ,independence and later 7from #ahja to #ahag7 a ,federalist member of ,congress2 and of ,lyman ,beecher1 who was pastor of the ,first ,congregational church of ,litchfield from #ahaj to #ahbf4 ,see ,payne ,k4 ,kilbourne1 ,sketches and ,chronicles of the ,town of ,litchfield1 ,connecticut 7,hartford1 ,conn41 #ahei72 ,george ,c4 ,boswell1 ,the ,litchfield ,book of ,days 7,litchfield1 #aijj72 and for an account of the ,litchfield ,female ,seminary1 ,emily ,n4 ,vanderpoel1 ,chronicles of a ,pioneer ,school 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aijc74 ,,litchfield1 a city of ,montgomery county1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a41 about #ej m4 ,n4 ,e4 of ,st ,louis1 ,missouri4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #eiah2 7#aiaj7 #eiga4 ,its principal importance is as a railway and manufacturing centre2 it is served by the ,chicago1 ,burlington ,quincy1 the ,chicago ,alton1 the ,cleveland1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago ,st ,louis1 the ,illinois ,central1 the ,wabash1 and the ,litchfield ,madison railways1 and by electric lines connecting with ,st ,louis and the neighbouring towns4 ,in the vicinity are deposits of bituminous coal1 fire-clay and moulding sand4 ,there are various manufactures in the city4 ,litchfield was incorporated as a town in #ahef1 and was first chartered as a city in #ahei4 ,,litchi1 or ,,lee-,,chee1 the fruit of ,nephelium ,litchi1 a small tree1 native of southern ,china and one of the most important indigenous fruits4 ,it is also cultivated in ,india4 ,the tree bears large compound leaves with two to four pairs of leathery lanceolate pointed leaflets about #c in4 long1 and panicles of small flowers without petals4 ,the fruits are commonly roundish1 about #a in4 in diameter1 with a thin1 brittle1 red shell which bears rough protuberances4 ,in the fresh state they are filled with a sweet white pulp which envelops a large brown seed1 but in the dried condition the pulp forms a blackish fleshy substance4 ,the pulp is of the nature of an aril1 that is1 an additional seed-coat4 ,nephelium ,longana1 the longan tree1 also a native of southern ,china1 is cultivated in that country1 in the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,india and ,ceylon for its fruit1 which is smaller than that of the litchi1 being half an inch to an inch in diameter with a nearly smooth yellowish-brown brittle skin1 and containing a pulpy aril resembling that of the litchi in flavour4 ,another species1 ,n4 lappaceum1 a tall tree native of the ,malay ,peninsula1 where it is known under the names ,rambutan or ,rambosteen1 is also cultivated for its pleasantly acid pulpy aril4 ,the fruit is oval1 bright red in colour1 about #b in4 long and covered with long fleshy hairs4 ,nephelium belongs to the natural order ,sapindaceae1 and contains about twenty-two species4 ,,literature1 a general term which1 in default of precise definition1 may stand for the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing4 ,its various forms are the result of race peculiarities1 or of diverse individual temperaments1 or of political circumstances securing the predominance of one social class which is thus enabled to propagate its ideas and sentiments4 ,in early stages of society1 the classes which first attain a distinct literary utterance are priests who compile the chronicles of tribal religious development1 or rhapsodes who celebrate the prowess of tribal chiefs4 ,as man feels before he reasons1 so poetry generally precedes prose4 ,it embodies more poignantly the sentiment of unsophisticated man4 ,hence sacred books and war-songs are everywhere the earliest literary monuments1 and both are essentially poetic compositions which have received a religious or quasi-religious sanction4 ,the recitation of the ,homeric poems at the ,panathenaea corresponds to the recitation elsewhere of the sacred texts in the temple2 the statement of ,phemios 7,odyssey1 xxii4 #cdg7 that a god inspired his soul with all the varied ways of song expresses the ordinary belief of early historical times4 ,versicles of the sacred chronicles1 or fragments of epic poems1 were learned by heart and supplied a standard of popular literary taste4 ,the public declamation of long chosen passages by priests1 and still more by contending rhapsodes1 served to evoke the latent sense of literary criticism2 and1 at a later stage1 the critical spirit was still further stimulated by the performance of dramatic pieces written by competing poets4 ,the epical record of the past was supplemented by the lyrical record of contemporary events1 and as the ,homeric poets had immortalized the siege of ,troy1 so ,pindar commemorated ,salamis4 ,prose of any permanent value would first show itself in the form of oratory1 and the insertion of speeches by early historians indicates a connexion with rhetoric4 ,the development of abstract reasoning would tend to deprive prose of its superfluous ornament and to provide a simpler and more accurate instrument4 ,no new genre has been invented since the days of ,plato4 ,the evolution of literature is completed in ,greece1 and there its subdivisions may best be studied4 ,epic poetry is represented by the ,homeric cycle1 lyrical poetry by ,tyrtaeus1 dramatic poetry by ,aeschylus1 history by ,herodotus1 oratory by ,pericles1 philosophy by ,plato1 and criticism by ,zoilus1 the earliest of slashing reviewers2 and in each department there is a long succession of illustrious names4 ,roughly speaking1 all subsequent literature is imitative4 ,ennius transplanted ,greek methods to ,rome2 his contemporary ,l4 ,fabius ,pictor1 the earliest ,roman historian1 wrote in ,greek2 and the later ,roman poets from ,lucretius to ,horace abound in imitations of ,greek originals4 ,the official adoption of ,christianity as the state religion changed the spirit of literature1 which became more and more provincial after the downfall of the empire4 ,literature did not perish during the dark ages which extend from the sixth century to the beginning of the #aath1 but it was subordinate to scholarship4 ,the dissolution of ,latin was not complete till about the middle of the #ith century1 and the new varieties of ,romance did not become ripe for literary purposes till a hundred years later4 ,meanwhile1 not a single literary masterpiece was produced in western ,europe for five centuries2 by comparison only do ,bothius and ,venantius ,fortunatus seem to be luminous points in the prolonged night2 the promise of a literary renaissance at the court of ,charlemagne was unfulfilled1 and the task of creating a new literature devolved upon the descendants of the barbarians who had destroyed the old4 ,the ,celtic and ,teutonic races elaborated literary methods of their own2 but the fact that the most popular form of ,irish verse is adopted from ,latin prosody is conclusive evidence that the influence of ,roman--and therefore of ,greek--models persisted in the literature of the outlying provinces which had attained political independence4 ,the real service rendered to literature by the provincials lay in the introduction and diffusion of legends freighted with a burden of mystery which had disappeared with ,pan1 and these new valuable materials went to form the substance of the new poetry4 ,the home of modern ,european literature must be sought in ,france1 which assimilated the best elements in ,celtic and ,teutonic literature4 ,from the #aath to the #adth century1 ,france was the centre of intellectual life in ,europe1 as ,greece and ,rome had been before1 and as ,italy was to be afterwards4 ,the chansons de geste1 inspired by the sense of patriotism and the yearning for religious unity1 inculcate feudal and ,catholic doctrine1 and as society in the western world was universally committed to feudalism and ,catholicism1 these literary expressions of both theories were widely accepted and copied4 ,the ,germanic origin of the ,french epic is lost sight of1 and imitators are attracted by the ,french execution1 and by the creative power of the chansons de geste4 ,again1 ,france takes the stories of the ,arthurian court from ,welsh texts or from the lips of ,welsh settlers1 rehandles the romantic element1 and1 through ,marie de ,france and ,chrtien de ,troyes1 imparts to the whole a touch of personal artistry which is absent from the chansons de geste4 ,the matire de ,bretagne goes forth to ,italy1 ,germany and ,england--later to ,portugal and ,spain--bearing the imprint of the ,french genius4 ,thus ,france internationalizes local subjects1 and first assumes a literary function which1 with few interruptions1 she has since discharged4 ,she further gives to ,europe models of allegory in the ,roman de la rose1 founds the school of modern history through ,villehardouin1 inaugurates the religious drama and the secular theatre4 ,she never again dominated the literatures of ,europe so absolutely4 ,the literary sceptre passed from ,france to ,italy during the #adth century4 ,brunetto ,latini1 who wrote in ,french as well as in ,italian1 is the connecting link between the literatures of the two countries2 but ,italy owes its eminence not so much to a general diffusion of literary accomplishment as to the emergence of three great personalities4 ,dante1 ,boccacio and ,petrarch created a new art of poetry and of prose4 ,england yielded to the fascination in the person of ,chaucer1 ,spain in the person of her chancellor ,lpez de ,ayala1 and ,france in the person of ,charles d',orlans1 the son of an ,italian mother4 ,petrarch1 once ambassador in ,france1 alleged that there were no poets out of ,italy1 and indeed there were no living poets to compare with him elsewhere4 ,but in all countries he raised up rivals--,chaucer1 ,marot1 ,garcilaso de la ,vega--as ,sannazaro did a century and a half later4 ,sannazaro's ,arcadia captured the ,portuguese ,montemr1 whose pastoral novel the ,diana1 written in ,spanish1 inspired d',urf no less than ,sidney1 and1 as d',urf's ,astre is considered the starting-point of the modern ,french novel1 the historical importance of the ,italian original cannot be exaggerated4 ,spain never obtained any intellectual predominance corresponding to that exercised by ,france and ,italy1 or to her political authority during the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,this may be attributed partly to her geographical position which lies off the main roads of ,europe1 and partly to the fact that her literature is essentially local4 ,cervantes1 indeed1 may be said to have influenced all subsequent writers of fiction1 and the influence of ,spanish literature is visible in the body of ,european picaresque tales2 but1 apart from ,corneille and a few other dramatists who preceded ,molire in ,france1 and apart from the ,restoration drama in ,england1 the influence of the ,spanish drama was relatively small4 ,in some respects it was too original to be imitated with success4 ,much the same may be said of ,england as of ,spain4 ,like ,spain1 she lies outside the sphere of continental influence2 like ,spain1 she has innumerable great names in every province of literature1 and1 in both cases1 to ,europe at large these long remained names and nothing more2 like ,spain1 she is prone to reproduce borrowed materials in shapes so transformed and rigid as to be unrecognizable and unadaptable4 ,moreover1 the ,reformation isolated ,england from literary commerce with the ,latin races1 and till the #ahth century ,germany was little more than a geographical expression4 ,even when ,germany recovered her literary independence1 ,lessing first heard of ,shakespeare through ,voltaire4 ,neither ,shakespeare nor ,milton was read in ,france before the #ahth century--the first translated by ,ducis1 the second by ,dupr de ,saint-,maur--and they were read with curiosity rather than with rapture4 ,on the other hand1 ,boileau1 ,rapin and ,le ,bossu were regarded as oracles in ,england1 and through them ,french literature produced the correctness of ,queen ,anne's reign4 ,horace ,walpole is half a ,frenchman1 ,hume imitates ,montesquieu's cold lucidity1 ,gibbon adapts ,bossuet's majestic periods to other purposes4 ,on the other hand ,voltaire takes ideas from ,locke1 but his form is always intensely personal and inimitably ,french4 ,after the #afth century ,english literature1 as a whole1 is refractory to external influence4 ,waves of enthusiasm pass over ,england--for ,rousseau1 for ,goethe--but leave no abiding trace on ,english literature4 ,during the latter half of the #ahth century ,france resumed something of her old literary supremacy2 the literatures of ,italy and ,spain at this period are purely derivative1 and ,french influence was extended still further on the continent as the result of the ,romantic movement4 ,since that impulse was exhausted1 literature everywhere has been in a state of flux3 it is less national1 and yet fails to be cosmopolitan4 ,all writers of importance1 and many of no importance1 are translated into other ,european languages2 the quick succession of diverse and violent impressions has confused the scheme of literature4 ,literature suffers likewise from the competition of the newspaper press1 and as the press has multiplied it has grown less literary4 ,the diversities of modern interests1 the want of leisure for concentrated thought1 suggest that literature may become once more the pleasure of a small caste4 ,but the desire for the one just form which always inspires the literary artist visits most men sometimes1 and it cannot be doubted that literature will continue to accommodate itself to new conditions4 7,j4 ,f4-,k47 ,,liternum1 an ancient town of ,campania1 ,italy1 on the low sandy coast between ,cumae and the mouth of the ,volturnus4 ,it was probably once dependent on ,cumae4 ,in #aid ,b4,c4 it became a ,roman colony4 ,it is mainly famous as the residence of the elder ,scipio1 who withdrew from ,rome and died here4 ,his tomb and villa are described by ,seneca4 ,augustus is said to have conducted here a colony of veterans1#a but the place never had any great importance1 and the lagoons behind it made it unhealthy1 though the construction of the ,via ,domitiana through it must have made it a posting station4 ,it ceased to exist in the #hth century4 ,no remains are visible4 ,see ,j4 ,beloch1 ,campanien1 ed4 ii4 7,breslau1 #ahij71 #cgg4 ,,footnote3 #a ,mommsen in ,c4,i4,l4 x4 #cdc does not accept this statement1 but an inscription found in #ahhe confirms it4 ,,lithgow1 ,,william 7#aehb-8 #afej71 ,scottish traveller and writer1 was born and educated in ,lanark4 ,he was caught in a love-adventure1 mutilated of his ears by the brothers of the lady 7hence the sobriquet ,cut-lugged ,willie71 and forced to leave ,scotland4 ,for nineteen years he travelled1 mostly on foot1 through ,europe1 the ,levant1 ,egypt and northern ,africa1 covering1 according to his estimate1 over #cf1jjj m4 ,the story of his adventures may be drawn from ,the ,totall ,discourse of the ,rare ,adventures and painfull ,peregrinations of long nineteene ,yeares 7,london1 #afad2 fuller edition1 #afcb1 c472 ,a ,true and ,experimentall ,discourse upon the last siege of ,breda 7,london1 #afcg72 and a similar book giving an account of the siege of ,newcastle and the battle of ,marston ,moor 7,edinburgh1 #afde74 ,he is the author of a ,present ,surveigh of ,london 7,london1 #afdc74 ,he left six poems1 written between #afah and #afdj 7reprinted by ,maidment1 ,edinburgh1 #ahfc74 ,of these ,scotland's ,welcome to ,king ,charles1 #afcc has considerable antiquarian interest4 ,his writing has no literary merit2 but its excessively aureate style deserves notice4 ,the best account of ,lithgow and his works is by ,f4 ,hindes ,groome in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 ,the piece entitled ,scotland's ,paraenesis to ,king ,charles ,,ii4 7#affj71 ascribed to him in the catalogue of the ,advocates' ,library1 ,edinburgh1 cannot1 from internal evidence1 be his4 ,,lithgow1 a town of ,cook county1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,australia1 #if m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,sydney by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ebfh4 ,the town is situated at an altitude of #cjjj ft41 in a valley of the ,blue ,mountains4 ,it has pottery and terra-cotta works1 breweries1 a tweed factory1 iron-works1 saw-mills1 soap-works and brickfields4 ,coal1 kerosene shale1 iron ore and building stone are found in the district4 ,,lithium symbol ,li1 atomic weight #g4jj 7,o #af71 an alkali metal1 discovered in #ahag by ,j4 ,a4 ,arfvedson 7,ann4 chim4 phys4 #aj1 p4 #hb74 ,it is only found in combination1 and is a constituent of the minerals petalite1 triphyline1 spodumene and lepidolite or lithia mica4 ,it occurs in small quantities in sea1 river and spring water1 and is also widely but very sparingly distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom4 ,it may be obtained 7in the form of its chloride7 by fusing lepidolite with a mixture of barium carbonate and sulphate1 and potassium sulphate 7,l4 ,troost1 ,comptes rendus1 #ahef1 #dc1 p4 #iba74 ,the fused mass separates into two layers1 the upper of which contains a mixture of potassium and lithium sulphates2 this is lixiviated with water and converted into the mixed chlorides by adding barium chloride1 the solution evaporated and the lithium chloride extracted by a mixture of dry alcohol and ether4 ,the metal may be obtained by heating dry lithium hydroxide with magnesium 7,h4 ,n4 ,warren1 ,chem4 ,news1 #ahif1 #gd1 p4 #f74 ,l4 ,kahlenberg 7,jour4 phys4 ,chem41 #c1 p4 #fja7 obtained it by electrolysing the chloride in pyridine solution1 a carbon anode and an iron or platinum cathode being used4 ,o4 ,ruff and ,o4 ,johannsen 7,zeit4 elektrochem41 #aijf1 #ee1 p4 #ecg7 electrolyse a mixture of bromide and chloride which melts at #ebj4 ,it is a soft1 silvery-white metal1 which readily tarnishes on exposure4 ,its specific gravity is #j4ei1 and it melts at #ahj ,c4 ,it burns on ignition in air1 and when strongly heated in an atmosphere of nitrogen it forms lithium nitride1 ,li#c,n4 ,it decomposes water at ordinary temperature1 liberating hydrogen and forming lithium hydroxide4 ,lithium hydride1 ,li,h1 obtained by heating the metal in a current of hydrogen at a red heat1 or by heating the metal with ethylene to #gjj ,c4 7,m4 ,guntz1 ,comptes rendus1 #ahif1 #abb1 p4 #bdd2 #abc1 p4 #abgc71 is a white solid which inflames when heated in chlorine4 ,with alcohol it forms lithium ethylate1 ,li,o,c#b;,h#e1 with liberation of hydrogen4 ,lithium oxide1 ,li#b,o1 is obtained by burning the metal in oxygen1 or by ignition of the nitrate4 ,it is a white powder which readily dissolves in water to form the hydroxide1 ,li,o,h1 which is also obtained by boiling the carbonate with milk of lime4 ,it forms a white caustic mass1 resembling sodium hydroxide in appearance4 ,it absorbs carbon dioxide1 but is not deliquescent4 ,lithium chloride ,li,cl1 prepared by heating the metal in chlorine1 or by dissolving the oxide or carbonate in hydrochloric acid1 is exceedingly deliquescent1 melts below a red heat1 and is very soluble in alcohol4 ,lithium carbonate1 ,li#b;,,co#c1 obtained as a white amorphous precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a solution of lithium chloride1 is sparingly soluble in water4 ,lithium phosphate1 ,li#c,,po#d1 obtained by the addition of sodium phosphate to a soluble lithium salt in the presence of sodium hydroxide1 is almost insoluble in water4 ,lithium ammonium1 ,li,n,h#c1 is obtained by passing ammonia gas over lithium1 the product being heated to #gj ,c4 in order to expel any excess of ammonia4 ,it turns brown-red on exposure to air1 and is inflammable4 ,it is decomposed by water evolving hydrogen1 and when heated in vacuo at #ej-fj ,c4 it gives lithium and ammonia4 ,with ammonia solution it gives hydrogen and lithiamide1 ,li,n,h#b 7,h4 ,moissan1 ibid41 #ahih1 #abg1 p4 #fhe74 ,lithium carbide1 ,li#b;,c#b1 obtained by heating lithium carbonate and carbon in the electric furnace1 forms a transparent crystalline mass of specific gravity #a4fe1 and is readily decomposed by cold water giving acetylene 7,h4 ,moissan1 ibid41 #ahif1 #abb1 p4 #cfb74 ,lithium is detected by the faint yellow line of wave-length #fajd1 and the bright red line of wave-length #fgjh1 shown in its flame spectrum4 ,it may be distinguished from sodium and potassium by the sparing solubility of its carbonate and phosphate4 ,the atomic weight of lithium was determined by ,j4 ,s4 ,stas from the analysis of the chloride1 and also by conversion of the chloride into the nitrate1 the value obtained being #g4jc 7,o #af74 ,the preparations of lithium used in medicine are3 ,lithii ,carbonis1 dose #b to #e grs42 ,lithii ,citras1 dose #e to #aj grs42 and ,lithii ,citras effervescens1 a mixture of citric acid1 lithium citrate1 tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate1 dose #fj to #abj grs4 ,lithium salts render the urine alkaline and are in virtue of their action diuretic4 ,they are much prescribed for acute or chronic gout1 and as a solvent to uric acid calculi or gravel1 but their action as a solvent of uric acid has been certainly overrated1 as it has been shown that the addition of medicinal doses of lithium to the blood serum does not increase the solubility of uric acid in it4 ,in concentrated or large doses lithium salts cause vomiting and diarrhoea1 due to a gastro-enteritis set up by their action4 ,in medicinal use they should therefore be always freely diluted4 ,,lithography 7,gr4 ,greek3 lithos1 a stone1 and ,greek3 graphein1 to write71 the process of drawing or laying down a design or transfer1 on a specially prepared stone or other suitable surface1 in such a way that impressions may be taken therefrom4 ,the principle on which lithography is based is the antagonism of grease and water4 ,a chemically pure surface having been secured on some substance that has an equal affinity for both grease and water1 in a method hereafter to be described1 the parts intended to print are covered with an unctuous composition and the rest of the surface is moistened1 so that when a greasy roller is applied1 the portion that is wet resists the grease and that in which an affinity for grease has been set up readily accepts it2 and from the surface thus treated it will be seen that it is an easy thing to secure an impression on paper or other material by applying suitable pressure4 ,the inventor of lithography was ,alois ,senefelder 7#agga-ahcd72 and it is remarkable what a grip he at once seemed to get of his invention1 for whereas the invention of printing seems almost a matter of evolution1 lithography seems to come upon the scene fully equipped for the battle of life1 so that it would be a bold craftsman at the present day who would affirm that he knew more of the principles underlying his trade than ,senefelder 7q4v47 did within thirty years of its invention4 ,of course practice has led to dexterity1 and the great volume of trade has induced many mechanical improvements and facilities1 but the principles have not been taken any further1 while some valuable methods have been allowed to fall into desuetude and would well repay some experimentally disposed person to revive4 ,lithography may be divided into two main branches--that which is drawn with a greasy crayon 7rather illogically called chalk7 on a grained stone1 and that which is drawn in ink on a polished stone4 ,whatever may be thought in regard to the original work of the artists of various countries who have used lithography as a means of expression1 there can be little doubt that in the former method the ,english professed lithographer has always held the pre-eminence1 while ,french1 ,german and ,american artists have surpassed them in the latter4 ,chalk lithography subdivides itself into work in which the black predominates1 although it may be supported by #e or #f shades of modified colour--this branch is known as black and tint work--and that in which the black is only used locally like any other colour4 ,frequently this latter class of work will require a dozen or more colours1 while some of the finest examples have had some twenty to thirty stones employed in them4 ,work of this description is known as chromo-lithography4 ,each colour requires a separate stone1 and work of the highest quality may want two or three blues with yellows1 reds1 greys and browns in proportion1 if it is desired to secure a result that is an approximate rendering of the original painting or drawing4 ,the question may perhaps be asked3 ,if the well-known three-colour process 7see ,,process7 can give the full result of the artist's palette1 why should it take so many more colours in lithography to secure the same result8 ,the answer is that the stone practically gives but three gradations--the solid1 the half tint and the quarter tint1 so that the combination of three very carefully prepared stones will give a very limited number of combinations1 while a moderate estimate of the shades on a toned block would be six2 so that a very simple mathematical problem will show the far greater number of combinations that the three blocks will give4 ,beyond this1 the chromo-lithographer has to exercise very great powers of colour analysis2 but the human mind is quite unable to settle offhand the exact proportion of red1 blue and yellow necessary to produce some particular class say of grey1 and this the camera with the aid of colour filters does with almost perfect precision4 ,notwithstanding these disadvantages1 lithography has these strong points3 7#a7 its utility for small editions on account of its1 at present1 smaller prime cost2 7#b7 its suitability for subjects of large size2 7#c7 its superiority for subjects with outlines1 for in such cases the outline can be done in one colour1 whereas to secure this effect by the admixture of the three colours requires marvellously good registration1 the absence of which would produce a very large proportion of waste or faulty copies2 7#d7 capacity for printing on almost any paper1 whereas1 at the time of writing1 the tri-colour process is almost entirely limited to printing on coated papers that are very heavy and not very enduring4 ,with regard to the two branches of chalk lithography1 the firms that maintained the ,english supremacy for black and tint work in the early days were ,hulemandel1 ,day and ,haghe and ,maclure1 while the best chromo-lithographic work in the same period was done by ,vincent ,brooks1 the brothers ,hanhart1 ,thomas ,kell and ,f4 ,kell4 ,in reference to the personal work of professed lithographers during the same period1 the names of ,louis ,haghe1 ,j4 ,d4 ,harding1 ,j4 ,needham1 ,c4 ,baugniet1 ,l4 ,ghemar1 ,william ,simpson1 ,r4 ,j4 ,lane1 ,j4 ,h4 ,lynch1 ,a4 ,maclure and ,rimanozcy stand for black and tint work2 while in chromo-lithography ,j4 ,m4 ,carrick1 ,c4 ,risdon1 ,william ,bunney1 ,w4 ,long1 ,samuel ,hodson1 ,edwin ,buckman and ,j4 ,lewis have been conspicuous among those who have maintained the standard of their craft4 ,in the foregoing list will be recognized the names of several who have had admirable works on the walls of the ,royal ,academy and other exhibitions2 ,mr ,lane1 who exhibited lithographs from #ahbd to #ahgb1 was for many years the doyen of lithographers1 and the only one of their number to attain academic rank1 but ,lynch and ,john ,cardwell ,bacon were his pupils1 and ,bacon's son1 the painter ,john ,h4 ,f4 ,bacon1 was elected to the ,royal ,academy in #aijc4 ,in the first decade of the #bjth century the number of firms doing high-class work1 and the artists who aided them in doing it1 were more numerous than ever1 and scarcely less able1 but it would be outside the present purpose to differentiate between them4 ,the raison d'tre of stipple work is its capacity for retransferring without serious loss of quality1 for it can scarcely be contended that it is as artistic as the methods just described4 ,retransferring is the process of pulling impressions from the original stones with a view to making up a large sheet of one or more small subjects1 or where it is desired to print a very large number without deterioration of the original or matrix stone4 ,the higher class work in this direction has been done in ,france1 ,germany and the ,united ,states1 where for many years superiority has been shown in regard to the excellence and rapidity of retransferring4 ,to this cause may be attributed the fact that the box tops and ,christmas cards on the ,english market were so largely done abroad until quite recent times4 ,the work of producing even a small face in the finest hand stipple is a lengthy and tedious affair1 and the ,english craftsman has seldom shown the patience necessary for this work2 but since the ,american invention known as ,ben ,day's shading medium was introduced into ,england the trade has largely taken it up1 and thereby much of the tedium has been avoided1 so that it has been found possible by its means to introduce a freedom into stipple work that had not before been found possible1 and a very much better class of work has since been produced in this department4 ,about the year #ahfh grained paper was invented by ,maclure1 ,macdonald ,co4 ,this method consists in impressing on ordinary ,scotch transfer or other suitable paper a grain closely allied to that of the lithographic stone4 ,it appears to have been rather an improvement than a new invention1 for drawing paper and even canvas had been coated previously with a material that adhered to a stone and left on the stone the greasy drawing that had been placed thereon2 but still from this to the beautifully prepared paper that was placed on the market by the firm of which the late ,andrew ,maclure was the head was a great advance1 and although the first use was by the ordinary craftsman it was not long before artists of eminence saw that a new and convenient mode of expression was opened up to them4 ,on the first introduction of lithography the artists of every nation hastened to avail themselves of it1 but soon the cumbrous character of the stone1 and the fact that their subjects had to be drawn backwards in order that they might appear correctly on the paper1 wore down their newly-born zeal1 and it was only when the grained paper system was perfected1 by which they could make their drawings in the comfort of their studios without reversing1 that any serious revival took place4 ,although excellent work on grained paper had been done by ,andrew ,maclure1 ,rimanozcy1 ,john ,cardwell ,bacon1 ,rudofsky and other craftsmen1 the credit for its furtherance among artists must be given to ,thomas ,way and his son ,t4 ,r4 ,way1 who did much valuable pioneer work in this direction4 ,the adhesion of such artists of eminence as ,whistler1 ,legros1 ,frank ,short1 ,charles ,shannon1 ,fantin ,latour1 ,william ,strang1 ,will ,rothenstein1 ,herbert ,railton and ,joseph ,pennell1 did not a little to aid lithography in resisting the encroachments of other methods into what may still be considered its sphere4 ,as a means of reproducing effects which an artist would otherwise get by pencil or crayon1 it remains entirely unequalled1 and it is of obvious advantage to art that twenty-five or fifty copies of an original work should exist1 which1 without the aid of lithography1 might have only been represented by a single sketch1 perhaps stowed away among the possessions of one private collector4 ,in regard to grained paper work1 undue stress has often been placed upon the rapid deterioration of the stone1 some contending that only a few dozen first-class proofs can be taken2 this has led to the feeling that it is unsuited to book illustration1 and damage has been done to the trade of lithography thereby4 ,it may be mentioned that quite recently about #ajj auto-lithographs in black and three colours1 the combined work of ,mr and ,mrs ,herbert ,railton1 have been treated by the ,eberle system of etching described below1 and although an infinitesimal loss of quality may have arisen1 such as occurs when a copper etching is steel faced1 some #bjjj to #cjjj copies were printed without further deterioration1 and an edition of vignetted sketches was secured1 far in advance of anything that could have been attained from the usual screen or half-toned blocks4 ,grained paper is much used in the ordinary lithographic studio for work such as the hill shading of maps that can be done without much working up1 but the velvety effects that in the hands of ,louis ,haghe and his contemporaries were so conspicuous1 cannot be secured by this method4 ,the effects referred to were obtained by much patient work of a tinter1 who practically laid a ground on which the more experienced and artistic craftsman did his work either by scraping or accentuation4 ,where fine rich blacks are needed1 artists will do well to read the notes on the aquatint and wash methods described by ,senefelder in his well-known treatise1 and afterwards practised with great skill by ,hulemandel4 ,lithography is of great service in educational matters1 as its use for diagrams1 wall pictures and maps is very general2 nor does the influence end with schooldays1 for in the form of pictures at a moderate price it brings art into homes and lives that need brightening1 and even in the form of posters on the much-abused hoardings does something for those who have to spend much of their time in the streets of great cities4 ,according to the census of #aija1 #ad1fhf people in the ,united ,kingdom found their occupation within the trade1 while according to a ,home ,office return 7#aijf71 #bj1cfg persons other than lithographic printers were employed by the firms carrying on the business4 ,as it may be assumed that an equal number are employed in ,france1 ,germany1 the ,united ,states of ,america and the world at large1 it is clear that a vast industrial army is employed in a trade that1 like letterpress printing1 has a very beneficial influence upon those engaged in it4 ,technical ,details4--,the following description of the various methods of lithography is such as may be considered of interest to the general reader1 but the serious student who will require formulas and more precise directions will do well to consult one of the numerous text-books on the subject4 ,stone and ,stone ,substitutes4--,the quality of stone first used by ,alois ,senefelder1 and discovered by him at the village of ,solenhofen in ,bavaria1 still remains unsurpassed4 ,this deposit1 which covers a very large area and underlies the villages of ,solenhofen1 ,moernsheim and ,langenaltheim1 has often been described1 sometimes for interested motives1 as nearly exhausted2 but a visit in #aijf revealed that the output--considerable as it had been during a period little short of a century--was very unimportant when compared to the great mass of carbonaceous limestone existing in the neighbourhood4 ,the strong point in favour of this source of supply1 in addition to its unrivalled quality1 is the evenness of its stratification1 and the fact that after the removal of the surface deposits1 which are very thin1 the stones come out of large size1 in thickness of #c to #e in41 and thus just suited for lithographic purposes and needing only to be wrought in the vertical direction4 ,other deposits of suitable stone have been found in ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy and ,greece1 but transit and the absence of suitable stratification have restricted them to little more than local use4 ,beyond this1 few of the deposits other than in the neighbourhood of ,solenhofen have been of the exact degree of density necessary1 and the heavier varieties do not receive the grease with sufficient readiness4 ,the desire to find other sources of supply has been stimulated by the social conditions existing in southern ,bavaria1 for the quarries are largely owned by peasant proprietors1 who have very well-defined business habits of their own which make transactions difficult4 ,among other things1 they will seldom supply the highest grades and the largest sizes to those who will not take their proportion of lower quality and smaller sizes2 and this1 in view of the very expensive transit down the ,rhine to ,rotterdam1 with a railway journey at one end and a sea journey at the other1 is a source of difficulty to the importer in other countries4 ,the earliest substitute for lithographic stone was zinc1 which has been used from early days and is now more in demand than ever2 it requires very careful printing as the grease only penetrates the material to a very slight extent1 and the same must be said in regard to the water4 ,from this cause1 when not in experienced hands1 trouble is likely to arise2 and when this has occurred1 remedial methods are much more difficult than with stones4 ,when put away for storage1 a dry place is very essential1 as corrosion is easily set up4 ,at first the plates were quite thick1 and almost invariably grained by a zinc muller and acid2 now a bath of acid is more generally used1 and the operation is known as passing1 while the plates are quite thin1 which renders them suitable for bending round the cylinders of rotary machines4 ,so far we have been dealing with plain zinc1 but variations are caused1 either by the oxidization of the surface or by coating the plate with a composition closely allied to lithographic stone and applied in a form of semi-solution4 ,this class of plate was first invented by ,messrs ,c4 ,e4 ,layton1 and a modification was invented by ,messrs ,wezel and ,naumann of ,leipzig1 who brought its use to a high pitch of perfection for transferred work such as ,christmas cards4 ,a treatment of iron plates by exposing them to a high temperature has recently been patented1 and has had some measure of success1 while the ,parker printing plate1 which is practically a sheet of zinc so treated as to secure greater porosity and freedom from oxidization1 is rapidly securing a good position as a stone substitute4 ,preparation of the ,stones4--,in this department the cleanliness so necessary right through the lithographic process must be carefully observed1 and a leading point is to secure a level surface and to ensure that the front and back of the stone are strictly parallel1 i4e4 that the stones stand the test of both the straight edge and the callipers4 ,a good plan to ensure evenness on the surface is to mark the front with two diagonal lines of some non-greasy substance till the top stone 7which should not be too small1 and should be constantly revolved on the larger one7 has entirely removed them4 ,the application of the straight edge from time to time will end in securing the desired flatness1 on which so much of the future printing quality depends4 ,the usual method is to rub out with sand1 and then rub with pumice and polish with water of ,ayr or snake stone4 ,for chalk work1 the further work of graining has to be done by revolving a small stone muller on the surface with exceedingly fine sand or powdered glass4 ,many appliances 7some very expensive7 have been devised for doing the principal part of this work by machine--none more effective than those methods by which a disk of about #ab in4 is kept revolving on a rod attached to the ceiling1 guided by hand over all parts of the stone2 but for large surfaces the ceiling needs to be rather high so as to allow of a long expanding rod reaching the surface at a moderate angle4 ,when this machine is fitted with friction disk driving1 very wide variations of speed are possible1 and the machine can be driven so slowly and evenly as to secure a very fair 7but not first class7 grain1 in addition to speedy rubbing out1 which is the chief aim of the apparatus4 ,preparing a ,subject in ,chalk or ,chalk and ,tints4--,this branch of work is much less in demand than formerly4 ,a grey stone having been selected and finely grained with sand or powdered glass passed through a sieve of #hj to #abj meshes to the lineal inch1 and the artist having made his tracing1 this tracing is reversed upon the stone with the interposition of a piece of paper coated with red chalk1 and the chalk side towards the surface2 the lines on the tracing are then gone over with a tracing point1 so that a reproduction in red chalk is left upon the stone4 ,it will then be desirable to secure a stock of pointed ,lemercier chalks of at least two grades1 hard and soft3 the pointing is a matter that requires experience1 and is done by the worker drawing a sharp pen-knife towards him in a slicing manner as though trying to put a point upon a piece of cheese4 ,care should be taken that the falling pieces are gathered into a box1 or they may do irreparable mischief to the work4 ,the work of outlining is done with ,no4 #a or hard chalk1 and until experience is gained it will be well to depend chiefly on this grade1 securing rich dark effects by tinting or going over the stone in various directions and then finishing with lithographic ink where absolute blacks are required4 ,this ink 7,vanhymbeck's or ,lemercier's are two good makes7 needs careful preparation1 the method being to warm a saucer and rub the ink dry upon it1 then add a little distilled water and incorporate with the finger4 ,it is of great importance not to use any ink left over for the next day1 but always to have a fresh daily supply4 ,when the drawing is thus completed1 it will require what is termed etching1 by which the parts intended to receive the printing ink1 and already protected by an acid-resisting grease1 will be left above the unprotected surface4 ,the acid and gum mixture varies in accordance with the quality of the work and the character of the stone4 ,a patiently executed specimen will1 for instance1 stand more etching than a hastily drawn one2 while a grey stone will require more of the nitric acid than a yellow one4 ,this is one of the most important tasks that a lithographer has to perform4 ,a proportion of #a4e parts of acid to #ajj parts of a strong solution of gum arabic will be found to be approximately what is required1 but the exact proportion must be settled by experience1 a safe course being to watch the action that occurs when a small quantity is placed on the unused margin of the stone4 ,many put the etching mixture on with a flat camel-hair brush1 which should be of good width to avoid streaks4 ,the present writer's own preference is to pour the mixture on to the stone when it is in a slanting position2 or it is perhaps better to have an etching trough1 a strong box lined with pitch1 with bearers at the bottom to prevent the stone coming in contact with it1 and a hole through which the diluted acid may pass away for subsequent use4 ,the etching is then done with acid and water poured over the stone while in a sloping position1 and the subsequent pouring of a solution of gum arabic completes the preparation4 ,the late ,mr ,william ,simpson1 whose ,crimean lithographs are well known1 once stated at the ,society of ,arts that in his opinion ,mr ,louis ,haghe's reproduction of ,david ,robert's great picture of ,the ,taking of ,jerusalem was the most important piece of chalk lithography ever executed1 and that he well remembered that it took two years to execute it1 and that all the combined talent of ,messrs ,day ,haghe's establishment was utilized in its etching4 ,he stated that1 notwithstanding every precaution1 it was under-etched1 and that after half a dozen impressions the great beauty and brilliancy of the work had departed4 ,this incident indicates sufficiently the serious nature of this part of the lithographer's work4 ,if the chalk drawing has to have tints1 it will be necessary to make as many dusted offsetts as there are colours to be used2 in this class of work there are generally only two1--one warm or sandy shade and the other a quiet blue--and these1 with the black and the neutral colour secured by the superposition of the two shades1 give an excellent result1 of which ,haghe's sketches in ,belgium may be taken as a leading example4 ,in making such subjects suitable for present-day printing in the machine1 the paper will require to be of a good rag quality1 free from size and damped before printing4 ,to secure accuracy of register the paper must be kept in a damp cloth to prevent the edges drying1 and other machines should be kept available for each of the tints so that all work printed in black in the morning may be completed the same night4 ,in this way large editions might be printed of either original or retransferred work at prices rendering the prints suitable for high-class magazines4 ,preparing a ,chromo ,lithograph4--,for this purpose the proceedings will be much the same as those suggested for the black and tint work1 but the preliminary tracing will be done in lithographic ink on tracing transfer paper or scratched on gelatine1 the lines being subsequently filled in with transfer ink1 and will be used as a key1 a guide stone that will not be printed2 and the number of stones necessary will probably be much more numerous4 ,the initial point will be to consider if the work is to have the edition printed from it1 or whether it has to be transferred after proving and before printing2 generally speaking1 large subjects such as diagrams or posters will be worked direct1 while ,christmas cards1 postcards1 handbills or labels1 will be repeated many times on larger stones4 ,for the former class a much wider range of methods is possible1 but many of these are difficult to transfer1 and the deterioration that arises makes it desirable to limit their use when transferring is contemplated4 ,therefore1 chalk-rubbed tints1 varnish tints1 stumping1 wash1 air brush1 are the methods for original work1 while work that has to be transferred is limited to ink work in line or stipple on a polished stone with the aid of mediums as before described1 and ink spluttered on to the stone from a tooth brush4 ,it should be mentioned that work done on grained paper is more suitable for retransfer than ordinary chalk work1 and so is often very useful when a chalk effect is desired from a polished stone4 ,in proving1 opaque colours will be got on first1 and it will often be found a good plan to put the black on early1 for it gives a good idea of how the work is proceeding1 and the strength of the touches 7for the black should generally be used sparingly7 is often pleasantly softened by the semi-opaque colours which should come on next4 ,it is desirable to pull impressions of each colour on thoroughly white paper1 and beyond this in important work there should be a progressive colour pattern that will show how the work looked when two1 three or more colours were on1 for this may at the finish be invaluable to show where error has crept in1 and is in any event an immense aid to the machine minder4 ,in regard to paper1 a description made of rag or rag and esparto is most desirable for all work on grained stones1 but for work in ink and consequently from polished stone a good coated paper with sufficient size in it is frequently desirable2 this paper is generally called chromo paper4 ,there is at the present time very little encouragement for the high class of chromo-lithography that was so much in evidence from #ahee to #ahge1 but there is little doubt that the work could be done equally well by the present-day craftsmen if the demand revived4 ,belonging to the period mentioned1 distinguished examples of chromo-lithography are ,blue ,lights1 after ,turner1 by ,carrick2 ,spanish ,peasants and the ,lumley portrait of ,shakespeare1 by ,risdon2 ,queen ,victoria receiving the ,guards1 by ,w4 ,bunney1 after ,john ,gilbert2 and the series of chromos after ,john ,leech1 produced under the general direction of ,vincent ,brooks4 ,a small proportion only of the ,arundel ,society's prints were executed in ,england1 but many reproductions of water-colours after ,birket ,foster1 ,richardson1 ,wainwright and others were executed by ,samuel ,hodson1 ,james ,lewis and others4 ,perhaps the most consistently good work of modern times has been the reproduction of ,pellegrini's and ,leslie ,ward's drawings for ,vanity ,fair1 which from #ahgj to #aijf were with very few exceptions executed by the firm of ,vincent ,brooks1 ,day ,son4 ,transfers4--,a very large proportion of work is got on to the stone by transfer1 and there is no more important part of the business perhaps at the present time4 ,when there is so much original lithography done on grained paper by artists of eminence1 the transferring of grained paper drawings is the most important4 ,the stone most desirable for this purpose will be neither a grey nor a light yellow1 but one that stands mid-way between the two2 it should be very carefully polished so as to be quite free from scratches1 and brought to blood-heat by being gradually heated in an iron cupboard prepared with the necessary apparatus4 ,the methods that sometimes prevail of pouring boiling water over the stone1 heating with the flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp1 or even heating the surface in front of a fire1 are ineffective substitutes1 for the surface may thus become unduly hot and spread the work1 and there is no increased tendency for the chalk to enter into the stone and thus give the work a long life4 ,if there are no colours or registration troubles to be considered1 it is well to place the transfer in a damping book till the composition adheres firmly to the finger1 before placing it on the stone2 it should then be pulled through twice1 after which it should be damped on the back and pulled through several times2 after this has again been well damped the paper will be found to peel easily off the stone1 leaving the work and nearly all the composition attached2 the latter should then be very gently washed away4 ,in cases where the work for some reason must not stretch1 such as the hills on a map1 it will be necessary to keep the transfer dry and put it on a wet stone1 but a piece of the margin of the paper should be tested to see that it is of a class that will adhere to the stone the first time it is pulled through4 ,unless the adhesion is very complete it may not be safe to pull it through more than once4 ,for a small number of copies a very moderate etch is desirable1 but for a long run1 where the object is to secure a good edition rather than a few good proofs1 the ,eberle system may be adopted4 ,this method consists in protecting the work with finely powdered resin and then applying the flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp2 this will melt the protecting medium round the base of each grain of work and allow of a very vigorous etch being applied4 ,as before stated it is not unusual to secure #bjjj to #cjjj good copies in the machine after this treatment2 but the rollers1 the ink and the superintendence must be of the best4 ,when the artist who is not a professed lithographer desires to make tints to his work1 a reversed offset on grained paper should be made for each colour2 this is done by pulling an impression in the usual way on a hard piece of paper1 and while it is yet wet this should be faced with a piece of grained paper and pulled through again1 when the grained paper will be found to have received the greater portion of the ink2 this should be immediately dusted with offset powder of a red shade to prevent the grease passing into the paper1 and the drawing of the tints should then be proceeded with in the usual way4 ,another method of transfer work is to pull impressions from copper or steel plates in transfer ink2 it is in such way that simple etchings like those of ,cruikshank1 ,phiz and others are produced1 and nearly all commercial work such as maps1 bill heads1 c41 are prepared in the same manner4 ,beyond this1 much work is done in lithographic ink on what is called writing transfer paper1 such as circulars1 law writing for abstracts1 specifications and plans4 ,machinery4--,the chief items are the hand presses and the machines1 whether flat bed or rotary1 the principal places of manufacture being ,leeds1 ,otley and ,edinburgh4 ,stimulated by ,american competition1 the standard of excellence in the ,united ,kingdom has been very considerably raised of late years4 ,the rotary machines have only been possible since the more frequent use of aluminium and zinc1 but these materials are more suitable to receive transfer than for the general use of an office1 the chief reason being that corrections on stone are more easily accomplished and more lasting when done4 ,preliminary work is therefore frequently done on the stone and transferred to plates for the machine4 ,the question is very frequently asked as to how the necessary registration of the colours is secured2 it may be stated for the benefit of the amateur that in hand printing this is generally done by pricking with a pair of needles through printed marks present on each stone2 but in the machine this has been done in different ways1 although in quite early days pointing or needling was done even on the machine4 ,on modern machines this registration depends on the accurate cutting of the edge of the paper1 of which at least one corner must be an absolute right angle4 ,the paper is then laid on a sloping board in such a way that the longest of the two true edges gravitates into the gripper of the machine1 the stops of which move slightly forward as the gripper closes2 simultaneously what is called the side lay moves forward automatically to a given extent1 and in this way at the critical moment the sheet is always in the same position in regard to the stone1 which has already been firmly secured in the bed of the machine4 ,quite recently a new method has come into use that is probably destined to be a great aid to the craft in its competition with other methods4 ,this is known as offset printing2 it is more a matter of evolution than invention1 and proceeds from the method adopted in tin-plate decoration so much used for box-making and lasting forms of advertisement4 ,it consists in bringing a sheet of rubber into contact with the charged stone and then setting-off the impression so obtained upon card1 paper1 pegamoid1 cloth or other material1 the elasticity of the rubber making it possible to print upon rough surfaces that have been previously unsuited to lithographic printing4 ,both flat bed and rotary machines are available for this system1 the latter being restricted to zinc or aluminium plates1 but giving a high speed1 while the former can use both stones and metal plates and may be more effective for the highest grade of colour work2 by both classes of machines the finest engraved note headings can be printed on rough paper1 and colour work that has for so long been confined to coated or burnished papers will be available on surfaces such as the artists themselves use4 ,the following treatises may be referred to with advantage by those in search of more detailed information3 ,a ,complete ,course of ,lithography1 by ,alois ,senefelder 7,r4 ,ackermann1 ,london1 #ahai72 ,the ,grammar of ,lithography1 by ,w4 ,d4 ,richmond 7#acth edition1 ,e4 ,menken1 ,london72 ,handbook of ,lithography1 by ,david ,cumming 7,london1 ,a4 ,c4 ,black74 ,the first of these will only be found in libraries of importance2 the others are present-day text-books4 7,f4 ,v4 ,b47 ,,lithosphere 7,gr4 ,greek3 lithos1 a stone1 and ,greek3 sphaira1 a sphere71 the crust of the earth surrounding the earth's nucleus4 ,the superficial soil1 a layer of loose earthy material from a few feet to a few hundreds of feet in thickness1 lies upon a zone of hard rock many thousands of feet in thickness but varying in character1 and composed mainly of sandstones1 shales1 clays1 limestones and metamorphic rocks4 ,these two layers form the lithosphere4 ,all the tectonic movements of the solid nucleus produce changes in the mobile lithosphere4 ,volcanic and seismic activity is manifested1 mountains are folded1 levels change1 fresh surfaces are exposed to denudation1 erosion and deposition4 ,the crust is thus subject to constant change while retaining its more or less permanent character4 ,,lithuanians and ,,letts1 two kindred peoples of ,indo-,european origin1 which inhabit several western provinces of ,russia and the north-eastern parts of ,poland and ,prussia1 on the shores of the ,baltic ,sea1 and in the basins of the ,niemen and of the ,duna4 ,large colonies of ,lithuanian and ,lettic emigrants have been established in the ,united ,states4 ,the two races number about #c1ejj1jjj1 of whom #a1cjj1jjj are ,letts4 ,little is known about their origin1 and nothing about the time of their appearance in the country they now inhabit4 ,ptolemy mentions 7iii4 #e7 two clans1 the ,galindae and ,sudeni1 who probably belonged to the western subdivision of this racial group1 the ,borussians4 ,in the #ajth century the ,lithuanians were already known under the name of ,litva1 and1 together with two other branches of the same stem--the ,borussians and the ,letts--they occupied the south-eastern coast of the ,baltic ,sea from the ,vistula to the ,duna1 extending north-east towards the ,lakes ,vierzi-jrvi and ,peipus1 south-east to the watershed between the affluents of the ,baltic and those of the ,black ,sea1 and south to the middle course of the ,vistula 7,brest ,litovsk7--a tract bounded by ,finnish tribes in the north1 and by ,slavs elsewhere4 ,inhabiting a forested1 marshy country the ,lithuanians have been able to maintain their national character1 notwithstanding the vicissitudes of their history4 ,their chief priest1 ,krive-,kriveyto 7the judge of the judges71 under whom were seventeen classes of priests and elders1 worshipped in the forests2 the ,waidelots brought their offerings to the divinities at the foot of oaks2 even now1 the veneration of great oaks is a widely spread custom in the villages of the ,lithuanians1 and even of the ,letts4 ,even in the #ajth century the ,lithuanian stem was divided into three main branches3--the ,borussians or ,prussians2 the ,letts 7who call themselves ,latvis1 whilst the name under which they are known in ,russian chronicles1 ,letygola1 is an abbreviation of ,latvin-galas1 the confines of ,lithuania72 and the ,lithuanians1 or rather ,lituanians1 ,litva or ,letuvininka1--these last being subdivided into ,lithuanians proper1 and ,zhmud' 7,zmudz1 ,samogitians or ,zemailey71 the ,lowlanders4 ,to these main branches must be added the ,yatvyags1 or ,yadzvings1 a warlike1 black-haired people who inhabited the forests at the upper tributaries of the ,niemen and ,bug1 and the survivors of whom are easily distinguishable as a mixture with ,white-,russians and ,mazurs in some parts of ,grodno1 ,plotsk1 ,lomza and ,warsaw4 ,nestor's chronicle distinguishes also the ,zhemgala1 who later became known under the name of ,semigallia1 and in the #ajth century inhabited the left bank of the ,duna4 ,several authors consider also as ,lithuanians the ,kors of ,russian chronicles1 or ,courons of ,western authors1 who inhabited the peninsula of ,courland1 and the ,golad1 a clan settled on the banks of the ,porotva1 tributary of the ,moskva river1 which seems to have been thrown far from the main stem during its migration to the north4 ,the ,krivichi1 who inhabited what is now the government of ,smolensk1 seem to belong to the same stem4 ,their name recalls the ,krive-,kriveyto1 and their ethnological features recall the ,lithuanians2 but they are now as much ,slavonic as ,lithuanian4 ,all these peoples are only ethnographical subdivisions1 and each of them was subdivided into numerous independent clans and villages1 separated from one another by forests and marshes2 they had no towns or fortified places4 ,the ,lithuanian territory thus lay open to foreign invasions1 and the ,russians as well as the ,german crusaders availed themselves of the opportunity4 ,the ,borussians soon fell under the dominion of ,germans1 and ceased to constitute a separate nationality1 leaving only their name to the state which later became ,prussia4 ,the ,letts were driven farther to the north1 mixing there with ,livs and ,ehsts1 and fell under the dominion of the ,livonian order4 ,only the ,lithuanians proper1 together with ,samogitians1 succeeded in forming an independent state4 ,the early history of this state is imperfectly known4 ,during the continuous petty war carried on against ,slavonic invasions1 the military chief of one of the clans1 ,ryngold1 acquired1 in the first half of the #acth century1 a certain preponderance over other clans of ,lithuania and ,black ,russia 7,yatvyags71 as well as over the republics of ,red ,russia4 ,at this time1 the invasions of the ,livonian order becoming more frequent1 and always extending southward1 there was a general feeling of the necessity of some organization to resist them1 and ,ryngold's son1 ,mendowg1 availed himself of this opportunity to pursue the policy of his father4 ,he made different concessions to the order1 ceded to it several parts of ,lithuania1 and even agreed to be baptized1 in #abej1 at ,novograd ,litovsk1 receiving in exchange a crown from ,innocent ,,iv41 with which he was crowned king of ,lithuanians4 ,he also ceded the whole of ,lithuania to the order in case he should die without leaving offspring4 ,but he had accepted ,christianity only to increase his influence among other clans2 and1 as soon as he had consolidated a union between ,lithuanians1 ,samogitians and ,cours1 he relapsed1 proclaiming1 in #abfj1 a general uprising of the ,lithuanian people against the ,livonian order4 ,the yoke was shaken off1 but internal wars followed1 and three years later ,mendowg was killed4 ,about the end of the #acth century a new dynasty of rulers of ,lithuania was founded by ,lutuwer1 whose second son1 ,gedymin 7#acaf-acda71 with the aid of fresh forces he organized through his relations with ,red ,russia1 established something like regular government2 he at the same time extended his dominions over ,russian countries--over ,black ,russia 7,novogrodok1 ,zditov1 ,grodno1 ,slonim and ,volkovysk7 and the principalities of ,polotsk1 ,tourovsk1 ,pinsk1 ,vitebsk and ,volhynia4 ,he named himself ,rex ,lethowinorum et multorum ,ruthenorum4 ,in #acbe he concluded a treaty with ,poland against the ,livonian order1 which treaty was the first step towards the union of both countries realized two centuries later4 ,the seven sons of ,gedymin considered themselves as quite independent2 but two of them1 ,olgierd and ,keistut1 soon became the more powerful4 ,they represented two different tendencies which existed at that time in ,lithuania4 ,olgierd1 whose family relations attracted him towards the south1 was the advocate of union with ,russia2 rather politician than warrior1 he increased his influence by diplomacy and by organization4 ,his wife and sons being ,christians1 he also soon agreed to be baptized in the ,greek ,church4 ,keistut represented the revival of the ,lithuanian nationality4 ,continually engaged in wars with ,livonia1 and remaining true to the national religion1 he became the national legendary hero4 ,in #acde both brothers agreed to re-establish the great principality of ,lithuania1 and1 after having taken ,vilna1 the old sanctuary of the country1 all the brothers recognized the supremacy of ,olgierd4 ,his son1 ,jagiello1 who married the queen of ,poland1 ,yadviga1 after having been baptized in the ,latin ,church1 was crowned1 on the #adth of ,february #achf1 king of ,poland4 ,at the beginning of the #aeth century ,lithuania extended her dominions as far east as ,vyazma on the banks of the ,moskva river1 the present government of ,kaluga1 and ,poutivl1 and south-east as far as ,poltava1 the shores of the ,sea of ,azov1 and ,haji-bey 7,odessa71 thus including ,kiev and ,lutsk4 ,the union with ,poland remained1 however1 but nominal until #aefi1 when ,sigismund ,augustus was king of ,poland4 ,in the #afth century ,lithuania did not extend its power so far east and south-east as two centuries before1 but it constituted a compact state1 including ,polotsk1 ,moghilev1 ,minsk1 ,grodno1 ,kovno1 ,vilna1 ,brest1 and reaching as far south-east as ,chernigov4 ,from the union with ,poland1 the history of ,lithuania becomes a part of ,poland's history1 ,lithuanians and ,white-,russians partaking of the fate of the ,polish kingdom 7see ,,poland3 ,history74 ,after its three partitions1 they fell under the dominion of the ,russian empire4 ,in #agib ,russia took the provinces of ,moghilev and ,polotsk1 and in #agic those of ,vilna1 ,troki1 ,novgorod-,syeversk1 ,brest and ,vitebsk4 ,in #agig all these provinces were united together1 constituting the ,lithuanian government 7,litovskaya ,gubernia74 ,but the name of ,lithuanian provinces was usually given only to the governments of ,vilna and ,kovno1 and1 though ,nicholas ,i4 prohibited the use of this name1 it is still used1 even in official documents4 ,in ,russia1 all the ,white-,russian population of the former ,polish ,lithuania are usually considered as ,lithuanians1 the name of ,zhmud being restricted to ,lithuanians proper4 ,the ethnographical limits of the ,lithuanians are undefined1 and their number is variously estimated4 ,the ,letts occupy a part of the ,courland peninsula of ,livonia and of ,vitebsk1 a few other settlements being spread also in the governments of ,kovno1 ,st ,petersburg and ,moghilev4 ,the ,lithuanians proper inhabit the governments of ,kovno1 ,vilna1 ,suvalki and ,grodno2 while the ,samogitians or ,zhmud inhabit the governments of ,kovno and ,suvalki4 ,to these must be added about #bjj1jjj ,borussians1 the whole number of ,lithuanians and ,letts in ,russia being1 according to the census of #ahig1 #c1jid1dfi4 ,they are slowly extending towards the south1 especially the ,letts2 numerous emigrants have penetrated into ,slavonic lands as far as the government of ,voronezh4 ,the ,lithuanians are well built2 the face is mostly elongated1 the features fine2 the very fair hair1 blue eyes and delicate skin distinguish them from ,poles and ,russians4 ,their dress is usually plain in comparison with that of ,poles1 and the predominance in it of greyish colours has been frequently noticed4 ,their chief occupation is agriculture4 ,the trades in towns are generally carried on by men of other races--mostly by ,germans1 ,jews or ,poles4 ,the only exception is afforded to some extent by the ,letts4 ,the ,samogitians are good hunters1 and all ,lithuanians are given to apiculture and cattle breeding4 ,but the ,lithuanians1 as well in the ,baltic provinces as in the central ones1 were not until the most recent time proprietors of the soil they tilled4 ,they have given a few families to the ,russian nobility1 but the great mass of the people became serfs of foreign landowners1 ,german and ,polish1 who reduced them to the greatest misery4 ,since the ,polish insurrection of #ahfc1 the ,russian government has given to the ,lithuanians the land of the ,polish proprietors on much easier terms than in central ,russia2 but the allotments of soil and the redemption taxes are very unequally distributed2 and a not insignificant number of peasants 7the chinsheviki7 were even deprived of the land they had for centuries considered their own4 ,the ,letts remain in the same state as before1 and are restrained from emigrating en masse only by coercive measures4 ,the ,letts of ,courland1 with the exception of about #ej1jjj who belong to the ,greek ,church1 are ,lutherans4 ,nearly all can read4 ,those of the government of ,vitebsk1 who were under ,polish dominion1 are ,roman ,catholics1 as well as the ,lithuanians proper1 a part of whom1 however1 have returned to the ,greek ,church1 in which they were before the union with ,poland4 ,the ,samogitians are ,roman ,catholics2 they more than other ,lithuanians have conserved their national features4 ,but all ,lithuanians have maintained much of their heathen practices and creed2 the names of pagan divinities1 very numerous in the former mythology1 are continually mentioned in songs1 and also in common speech4 ,,bibliography4--,schiemann1 ,russland1 ,polen und ,livland bis ins #agte ,jahrhundert 7#b vols41 ,berlin1 #ahhf-ahhg72 ,s4 ,daukantas1 ,lietuvos ,istorija 7,plymouth1 ,pa41 #ahic72 ,j4 de ,brye1 tude historique sur la ,lithuanie 7,paris1 #ahid72 ,p4 ,d4 ,bryantsev1 ,istorija ,litovskago ,gosudarstva 7,vilna1 #ahii74 7,p4 ,a4 ,k47 ,language and ,literature4--,the ,lithuanian1 ,lettic or ,lettish and ,borussian or ,old ,prussian languages together constitute a distinct linguistic subdivision1 commonly called the ,baltic subdivision1 within the ,indo-,european family4 ,they have many affinities to the ,slavonic languages1 and are sometimes included with them in a single linguistic group1 the ,balto-,slavic4 ,in their phonology1 however1 though not in their structure the ,baltic languages appear to be more primitive than the ,slavonic4 ,lithuanian1 for example1 retains the archaic diphthongs which disappear in ,slavonic--,lith4 vidas1 face1 ,gr4 ,greek3 eidos1 ,o4,s4 vidu4 ,among other noteworthy phonological characteristics of ,lithuanian are the conversion of k into a sibilant1 the loss of h and change of all aspirates into tenues and the retention of primitive consonantal noun-terminations1 e4g4 the final s in ,sans4 ,vrks1 ,lith4 vilkas1 ,o4,s4 vulku4 ,lettic is phonologically less archaic than ,lithuanian1 although in a few cases it has preserved ,indo-,european forms which have been changed in ,lithuanian1 e4g4 the s and z which have become ,lith4 sz 7sh7 and z 7zh74 ,the accent in ,lithuanian is free2 in ,lettic1 and apparently in ,old ,prussian1 it ultimately became fixed on the first syllable4 ,in its morphology ,lettic represents a later stage of development than ,lithuanian1 their mutual relationship being analogous to that between ,old ,high ,german and ,gothic4 ,both languages have preserved seven out of the eight ,indo-,european cases2 ,lithuanian has three numbers1 but ,lettic has lost the dual 7except in diwi1 two and abbi1 both72 the neuter gender1 which still appears in ,lithuanian pronouns1 has also been entirely lost in ,lettic2 in ,lithuanian there are four simple tenses 7present1 future1 imperfect1 preterite71 but in ,lettic the imperfect is wanting4 ,in both languages the number of periphrastic verb-forms and of diminutives is large2 in both there are traces of a suffix article2 and both have enriched their vocabularies with many words of foreign1 especially ,german1 ,russian and ,polish origin4 ,the numerous ,lithuanian dialects are commonly divided into ,high or ,southern1 which changes ty and dy into cz1 dz1 and ,low or ,northern1 which retains ty1 dy4 ,lettic is divided into ,high 7the eastern dialects71 ,low 7spoken in ,n4,w4 ,courland7 and ,middle 7the literary language74 ,old ,prussian ceased to be a spoken language in the #agth century2 its literary remains1 consisting chiefly of three catechisms and two brief vocabularies1 date almost entirely from the period #aeag-aefa and are insufficient to permit of any thorough reconstruction of the grammar4 ,the literary history of the ,lithuanians and ,letts dates from the ,reformation and comprises three clearly defined periods4 7#a7 ,up to #agjj the chief printed books were of a liturgical character4 7#b7 ,during the #ahth century a vigorous educational movement began2 dictionaries1 grammars and other instructive works were compiled1 and written poems began to take the place of songs preserved by oral tradition4 7#c7 ,the revival of national sentiment at the beginning of the #aith century resulted in the establishment of newspapers and the collection and publication of the national folk-poetry4 ,in both literatures1 works of a religious character predominate1 and both are rich in popular ballads1 folk-tales and fables4 ,the first book printed in ,lithuanian was a translation of ,luther's shorter ,catechism 7,knigsberg1 #aedg72 other translations of devotional or liturgical works followed1 and by #agja #ei ,lithuanian books had appeared1 the most noteworthy being those of the preacher ,j4 ,bretkun 7#aece-afjb74 ,the spread of ,calvinism led to the publication1 in #agja1 of a ,lithuanian ,new ,testament4 ,the first dictionary was printed in #agdi4 ,but perhaps the most remarkable work of the second period was ,the ,four ,seasons1 a pastoral poem in hexameters by ,christian ,donalitius 7#agad-aghj71 which was edited by ,nesselmann 7,knigsberg1 #ahfi7 with a ,german translation and notes4 ,in the #aith century various collections of fables and folk-tales were published1 and an epic1 the ,onikshta ,grove1 was written by ,bishop ,baranoski4 ,but it was in journalism that the chief original work of the third period was done4 ,f4 ,kelch 7#ahja-ahgg7 founded the first ,lithuanian newspaper1 and between #ahcd and #ahie no fewer than #cd ,lithuanian periodicals were published in the ,united ,states alone4 ,luther's ,catechism 7,knigsberg1 #aehf7 was the first book printed in ,lettic1 as in the sister speech4 ,in the #agth century various translations of psalms1 hymns and other religious works were published1 the majority being ,calvinistic in tone4 ,the educational movement of the #ahth century was inaugurated by ,g4 ,f4 ,stender 7#agad-agif71 author of a ,lettic dictionary and grammar1 of poems1 tales and of a ,book of ,wisdom which treats of elementary science and history4 ,much educational work was subsequently done by the ,lettic ,literary ,society1 which publishes a magazine 7,magazin1 ,mitau1 from #ahbg71 and by the ,young ,letts1 who published various periodicals and translations of foreign classics1 and endeavoured to free their language and thought from ,german influences4 ,somewhat similar tasks were undertaken by the ,young ,lithuanians1 whose first magazine the ,auszra 7,dawn7 was founded in #ahhc4 ,from #ahij to #aiaj the literature of both peoples was marked by an ever-increasing nationalism2 among the names most prominent during this period may be mentioned those of the dramatist ,steperman and the poet ,martin ,lap1 both of whom wrote in ,lettic4 ,,bibliography4--,lithuanian dictionaries3 ,nesselmann1 ,wrterbuch der litauischen ,sprache 7,knigsberg1 #ahea72 ,kurschat1 ,wrterbuch der litauischen ,sprache 7,halle1 #ahgj-ahhc72 ,a4 ,juszkiewicz1 ,litovskiy ,slovar 7,st ,petersburg1 #ahig1 c472 ,p4 ,saurusaitis1 ,an ,abridged ,dictionary of the ,english-,lithuanian ,languages1 #b pts4 7,waterbury1 ,conn41 #ahii-aijj72 ,a4 ,lalis1 ,dictionary of the ,lithuanian and ,english ,languages 7,chicago1 #aijc1 c474 ,grammar and ,linguistic3 ,schleicher1 ,handbuch der litauischen ,sprache 7,prague1 #ahef-aheg72 ,o4 ,wiedemann1 ,handbuch der litauischen ,sprache 7,strassburg1 #ahig72 ,a4 ,bezzenberger1 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der litauischen ,sprache 7,gttingen1 #ahgg72 ,j4 ,schiekopp1 ,gramatyka litewska poczatkowa 7,cracow1 #aijb74 ,literature3 ,nesselmann1 ,litauische ,volkslieder 7,berlin1 #ahec72 ,a4 ,juszkiewicz1 ,lietwiskos ,dajnos ,uzrasytos1 c4 7,kazan1 #ahha72 ,a4 ,leskien and ,c4 ,brugman1 ,litauische ,volkslieder 7,strassburg1 #ahhb72 ,c4 ,bartsch1 ,melodieen litauischer ,volkslieder 7,heidelberg1 #ahhf72 ,a4 ,juszkiewicz1 ,melodje ludowe litewskie 7,cracow1 #aijj1 c472 ,e4 ,a4 ,voi'ter1 ,litovskaya ,khrestomatiya 7,st ,petersburg1 #aija1 c474 ,lettic dictionaries and grammars3 ,bielenstein1 ,die ,lettische ,sprache 7,berlin1 #ahfc-ahfd72 id41 ,lettische ,grammatik 7,mitau1 #ahfc72 ,ulmann and ,brasche1 ,lettisches ,wrterbuch 7,riga1 #ahgb-ahhj72 ,a4 ,bezzenberger1 ber die ,sprache der preussischen ,letten and lettische ,dialekt-,studien 7,gttingen1 #ahhe72 ,bielenstein1 ,grenzen des lettischen ,volksstammes und der lettischen ,sprache 7,st ,petersburg1 #ahib72 ,literature3 ,bielenstein ,tausend lettische ,rthsel 7,mitau1 #ahha72 ,t4 ,treuland1 ,latyshskiya ,narodnyya ,skazki 7,moscow1 #ahhg1 c472 ,k4 ,baron and ,h4 ,wissendorff1 ,latwju dainas 7,mitau1 #ahid1 c472 ,v4 ,andreyanov1 ,lettische ,volkslieder und ,mythen 7,halle1 #ahif74 ,old ,prussian3 ,nesselmann1 ,die ,sprache der alten ,preussen 7,berlin1 #ahde72 id41 ,thesaurus linguae prussicae 7,berlin1 #ahgc72 ,berneker1 ,die preussische ,sprache 7,strassburg1 #ahif72 ,m4 ,schultze1 ,grammatik der altpreussischen ,sprache 7,leipzig1 #ahig74 ,,litmus 7apparently a corruption of lacmus1 ,dutch lacmoes1 lac1 lac1 and moes1 pulp1 due to association with lit1 an obsolete word for dye1 colour2 the ,ger4 equivalent is ,lackmus1 ,fr4 tournesol71 a colouring matter which occurs in commerce in the form of small blue tablets1 which1 however1 consist mostly1 not of the pigment proper1 but of calcium carbonate and sulphate and other matter devoid of tinctorial value4 ,litmus is extensively employed by chemists as an indicator for the detection of free acids and free alkalis4 ,an aqueous infusion of litmus1 when exactly neutralized by an acid1 exhibits a violet colour1 which by the least trace of free acid is changed to red1 while free alkali turns it to blue4 ,the reagent is generally used in the form of test paper--bibulous paper dyed red1 purple or blue by the respective kind of infusion4 ,litmus is manufactured in ,holland from the same kinds of lichens 7species of ,roccella and ,lecanora7 as are used for the preparation of archil 7q4v474 ,,litopterna1 a suborder of ,south ,american ,tertiary ungulate mammals typified by ,macrauchenia1 and taking their name 7smooth-heel7 from the presence of a flat facet on the heel-bone1 or calcaneum for the articulation of the fibula4 ,the more typical members of the group were digitigrade animals1 recalling in general build the llamas and horses2 they have small brains1 and a facet on the calcaneum for the fibula4 ,the cheek-dentition approximates more or less to the perissodactyle type4 ,both the terminal faces of the cervical vertebrae are flat1 the femur carries a third trochanter1 the bones of both the carpus and tarsus are arranged in linear series1 and the number of toes1 although commonly three1 varies between one and five1 the third or middle digit being invariably the largest4 ,of the two families1 the first is the ,proterotheriidae1 which exhibits1 in respect of the reduction of the digits1 a curious parallelism to the equine line among the ,perissodactyla2 in this feature1 as well as in the reduction of the teeth1 it is more specialized than the second family4 ,the molar teeth approximate to the ,palaeotherium type1 but have a more or less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft4 ,the three-toed type is represented by ,diadiaphorus1 in which the dental formula is i41 c47#j_/a71 p47#d_/e71 m47#c_/h71 and the feet are very like those of ,hipparion4 ,the cervical vertebrae are of normal form1 the orbit 7as in the second family7 is encircled by bone1 the last molar has a third lobe1 the single pair of upper incisors are somewhat elongated1 and have a gap between and behind them1 while the outer lower incisors are larger than the inner pair1 the canines being small4 ,the skull has a short muzzle1 with elongated nasals4 ,remains of this and the other representatives of the group are found in the ,patagonian ,miocene4 ,in ,proterotherium1 which includes smaller forms having the same1 or nearly the same1 dental formula1 the molar teeth differ from those of ,diadiaphorus by the deeper median longitudinal cleft1 which completely divides the crown into an inner and an outer moiety1 the two cones of the inner half being united4 ,according to the description given by ,argentine palaeontologists1 this genus is also three-toed1 the single-toed representative of the family being ,thoatherium1 in which the lateral metapodials1 or splint-bones1 are even more reduced than in the ,equidae4 ,in the second family--,macraucheniidae--the dentition is complete 7forty-four7 and without a gap1 the crowns of nearly all the teeth being of nearly uniform height1 while the upper molars are distinguished from those of the ,proterotheriidae by a peculiar arrangement of their two inner cones1 and the elevation of the antero-posterior portion of the cingulum so as to form an extra pit on the crown4 ,to describe this arrangement in detail is impossible here1 but it may be stated that the two inner cones are closely approximated1 and separated by a narrow ,v-shaped notch on the inner side of the crown4 ,the elongated cervical vertebrae are peculiar in that the arch is perforated by the artery in the same manner as in the llamas4 ,in the ,santa ,cruz beds of ,patagonia the family is represented by the generalized genus ,oxyodontotherium 7in which ,theosodon may apparently be included74 ,it comprises animals ranging up to the size of a tapir1 in which the nostrils were more or less in the normal anterior position1 and the cheek-teeth short-crowned1 with the inner cones of the upper molars well developed and separated by a notch1 and the pits of moderate depth4 ,the last upper premolar is simpler than the molars1 and the canine1 which may be double-rooted1 is like the earlier premolars4 ,the radius and ulna1 like the tibia and fibula1 are distinct1 and the metapodials rudimentary4 ,on the other hand1 in ,macrauchenia1 which was a much larger llama-like animal1 the skull is elongated and narrow1 with rudimentary nasals1 and the aperture of the nose placed nearly on the line of the eyes and directed upwards1 the muzzle not improbably terminating in a short trunk4 ,deep pits on the forehead probably served for the attachment of special muscles connected with the latter4 ,very curious is the structure of the cheek-teeth1 which are high-crowned1 with the two inner cones reduced to mere points1 and the pits on the crown-surface large and funnel-shaped4 ,in fact1 the perissodactyle type is almost lost4 ,the cervical vertebrae and limb-bones are very long1 the radius and ulna being completely1 and the tibia and fibula partially1 united4 ,the typical ,m4 patagonica is a ,pleistocene form as large as a camel1 ranging from ,patagonia to ,brazil1 but remains of smaller species have been found in the ,pliocene 787 of ,bolivia and ,argentina4 ,the imperfectly known ,scalabrinia of the ,argentine ,pliocene appears to occupy a position intermediate between ,oxyodontotherium and ,macrauchenia1 having the nasal aperture situated in the middle of the length of the skull1 and the crowns of the cheek-teeth nearly as tall as in the latter1 but the lower molars furnished with a projecting process in the hinder valley1 similar to one occurring in those of the former4 ,in this place may be mentioned another strange ungulate from the ,santa ,cruz beds of ,patagonia1 namely1 ,astrapotherium1 sometimes regarded as typifying a suborder by itself4 ,this huge ungulate had cheek-teeth singularly like those of a rhinoceros1 and an enormous pair of tusk-like upper incisors1 recalling the upper canines of ,machaerodus on an enlarged scale4 ,in the lower jaw are two large tusk-like canines between which are three pairs of curiously-formed spatulate incisors1 and in both jaws there is a long diastema4 ,the dental formula appears to be i47#a_/c71 c47#j_/a71 p47#b_/a71 m47#c_/c74 ,next ,astrapotherium may be provisionally placed the genus ,homalodontotherium1 of which the teeth have much lower crowns1 and are of a less decidedly rhinocerotic type than in ,astrapotherium1 and the whole dentition forms an even and unbroken series4 ,the bodies of the cervical vertebrae are short1 with flattened articular surfaces1 the humerus has an enormous deltoid crest1 suggestive of fossorial powers1 and the femur is flattened1 with a third trochanter4 ,according to the ,argentine palaeontologists1 the carpus is of the alternating type1 and the terminal phalanges of the pentedactyle feet are bifid1 and very like those of ,edentata4 ,indeed1 this type of foot shows many edentate resemblances4 ,the astragalus is square and flattened1 articulating directly with the navicular1 although not with the cuboid1 and having a slightly convex facet for the tibia4 ,from the structure of the above-mentioned type of foot1 which is stated to have been found in association with the skull1 it has been suggested that ,homalodontotherium should be placed in the ,ancylopoda 7q4v471 but1 to say nothing of the different form of the cheek-teeth1 all the other ,south ,american ,santa ,cruz ungulates are so distinct from those of other countries that this seems unlikely4 ,it may be suggested that we have rather to deal with an instance of parallelism--a view supported by the parallelism to the ,equidae presented by certain members of the ,proterotheriidae4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,litotes 7,gr4 ,greek3 litots1 plainness1 ,greek3 litos1 plain1 simple1 smooth71 a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a statement by turning it into a denial of the contrary1 e4g4 a citizen of no mean city1 i4e4 a citizen of a famous city1 ,a4 is not a man to be neglected4 ,litotes is sometimes used for what should be more strictly called meiosis 7,gr4 ,greek3 meisis1 lessening1 diminution1 ,greek3 mein1 lesser71 where the expressions used apparently are weak or understated1 but the effect is to intensify4 ,,litter 7through ,o4 ,fr4 litere or litiere1 mod4 litire from ,med4 ,lat4 lectaria1 classical lectica1 lectus1 bed1 couch71 a word used of a portable couch1 shut in by curtains and borne on poles by bearers1 and of a bed of straw or other suitable substance for animals2 hence applied to the number of young produced by an animal at one birth1 and also to any disordered heap of waste material1 rubbish1 c4 ,in ancient ,greece1 prior to the influence of ,asiatic luxury after the ,macedonian conquest1 the litter 7,greek3 phoreion7 was only used by invalids or by women4 ,the ,romans1 when the lectica was introduced1 probably about the latter half of the #bnd century ,b4,c4 7,gellius x4 #c71 used it only for travelling purposes4 ,like the ,greek or ,asiatic litter1 it had a roof of skin 7pellis7 and side curtains 7vela1 plagae74 ,juvenal 7iv4 #bj7 speaks of transparent sides 7latis specularibus74 ,the slaves who bore the litter on their shoulders 7succollare7 were termed lecticarii1 and it was a sign of luxury and wealth to employ six or even eight bearers4 ,under the ,empire the litter began to be used in the streets of ,rome1 and its use was restricted and granted as a privilege 7,suet4 ,claudius74 ,the travelling lectica must be distinguished from the much earlier lectica funebris or feretrum1 the funeral bier on which the dead were carried to their burial-place4 ,,little ,,falls1 a city and the county-seat of ,morrison county1 ,minnesota1 ,u4,s4,a41 on both banks of the ,mississippi river1 about #hh m4 ,n4,w4 of ,minneapolis4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #bced2 7#aijj7 #eggd1 of whom #aeei were foreign-born1 chiefly ,germans and ,swedes2 7#aije7 #ehef2 7#aiaj7 #fjgh4 ,it is served by the ,northern ,pacific railway4 ,the city is situated in a prosperous farming region1 and has excellent water-power and various manufactures4 ,little ,falls was settled about #ahej1 was chartered as a city in #ahhi and adopted a new charter in #aijb4 ,here was buried the ,chippewa chief1 ,hole-in-the-,day 7c4 #ahbg-ahfh71 or ,bagwunagijik1 who succeeded his father1 also named ,hole-in-the-,day1 as head chief of the ,chippewas in #ahdf4 ,like his father1 the younger ,hole-in-the-,day led his tribe against the ,sioux1 and he is said to have prevented the ,chippewas from joining the ,sioux rising in #ahfb4 ,his body was subsequently removed by his relatives4 ,,little ,,falls1 a city of ,herkimer county1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,mohawk river1 #ba m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,utica4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #hghc2 7#aijj7 #aj1cha1 of whom #aiae were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ab1bgc4 ,it is served by the ,new ,york ,central ,hudson ,river1 the ,west ,shore1 the ,utica ,mohawk ,valley 7electric71 and the ,little ,falls ,dolgeville railways 7the last named being #ac m4 long and running only to ,salisbury ,center and by the ,erie canal74 ,the ,mohawk river falls here by a series of rapids #de ft4 in less than a mile1 furnishing water power4 ,among the manufactures are cotton yarn1 hosiery and knit goods1 leather1 c4 ,in #aije the city's factory products were valued at #d1dga1jhj4 ,the city has one of the largest cheese-markets in the ,united ,states4 ,the manufacture of flour and grist-mill products was formerly an important industry2 a mill burned in #aghb by ,tories and ,indians had supplied almost the entire ,mohawk ,valley1 and particularly ,forts ,herkimer and ,dayton4 ,near the city is the grave of ,general ,nicholas ,herkimer1 to whom a monument was erected in #ahif4 ,little ,falls was settled by ,germans in #aghb1 and was almost immediately destroyed by ,indians and ,tories4 ,it was resettled in #agij1 and was incorporated as a village in #ahaa and as a city in #ahie4 ,see ,george ,a4 ,hardin1 ,history of ,herkimer ,county 7,syracuse1 #ahic74 ,,littlehampton1 a seaport and watering-place in the ,chichester parliamentary division of ,sussex1 ,england1 at the mouth of the ,arun1 #fb m4 ,s4 by ,w4 from ,london by the ,london1 ,brighton ,south ,coast railway4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #gcfc4 ,there is a beach of firm sand4 ,the harbour is easily accessible in all weathers1 and has a small general trade4 ,,little ,,rock1 the capital of ,arkansas1 ,u4,s4,a41 and the county-seat of ,pulaski county1 situated near the centre of the state and on the ,s4 bank of the ,arkansas river1 at the ,e4 edge of the ,ozark foothills4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #be1hgd2 7#aijj7 #ch1cjg1 of whom #ad1fid were of negro blood1 and #bjii were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #de1ida4 ,little ,rock is served by the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,pacific1 the ,st ,louis ,south ,western1 and the ,st ,louis1 ,iron ,mountain ,southern railways and by river boats4 ,it occupies a comparatively level site of #aa sq4 m4 at an altitude of #bej to #djj ft4 above sea-level and #ej ft4 or more above the river1 which is crossed here by three railway bridges and by a county bridge4 ,the city derived its name 7originally le ,petit ,roche and ,the ,little ,rock7 from a rocky peninsula in the ,arkansas1 distinguished from the ,big ,rock 7the site of the army post1 ,fort ,logan ,h4 ,roots71 #a m4 ,w4 of the city1 across the river4 ,the ,big ,rock is said to have been first discovered and named ,le ,rocher ,franais in #agbb by ,sieur ,bernard de la ,harpe1 who was in search of an emerald mountain2 the ,little ,rock is now used as an abutment for a railway bridge4 ,the state capitol1 the state insane asylum1 the state deaf mute institute1 the state school for the blind1 a state reform school1 the penitentiary1 the state library and the medical and law departments of the state university are at ,little ,rock2 and the city is also the seat of the ,united ,states court for the eastern district of ,arkansas1 of a ,united ,states land office1 of ,little ,rock ,college1 of the ,st ,mary's ,academy1 of a ,roman ,catholic orphanage and a ,roman ,catholic convent1 and of two schools for negroes--the ,philander ,smith ,college 7,methodist ,episcopal1 #ahgg71 co-educational1 and the ,arkansas ,baptist ,college4 ,the city is the seat of ,protestant ,episcopal and ,roman ,catholic bishops4 ,little ,rock has a ,carnegie library 7#aijh71 an old ladies' home1 a ,florence ,crittenton rescue home1 a children's home1 ,st ,vincent's infirmary1 a city hospital1 a ,catholic hospital1 a physicians' and surgeons' hospital and the ,arkansas hospital for nervous diseases4 ,a municipal park system includes ,city1 ,forest1 ,wonderland and ,west ,end parks4 ,immigration from the northern states has been encouraged1 and northern men control much of the business of the city4 ,in #aije the value of factory products was #d1fhi1ghg1 being #ch4h greater than the value in #aijj4 ,cotton and lumber industries are the leading interests2 the value of cotton-seed oil and cake manufactured in #aije was #ifg1jdc1 of planing mill products #hce1jdi1 and of lumber and timber products #cdb1acd4 ,printing and publishing and the manufacture of foundry and machine shop products and of furniture are other important industries4 ,valuable deposits of bauxite are found in ,pulaski county1 and the mines are the most important in the ,united ,states4 ,originally the site of the city was occupied by the ,quapaw ,indians4 ,the earliest permanent settlement by the whites was about #ahac-ahad2 the county was organized in #ahah while still a part of ,missouri ,territory2 ,little ,rock was surveyed in #ahba1 was incorporated as a town and became the capital of ,arkansas in #ahba1 and was chartered as a city in #ahcf4 ,in #ahej its population was only #bafg1 and in #ahfj #cgbg2 but in #ahgj it was #ab1chj4 ,little ,rock was enthusiastically anti-,union at the outbreak of the ,civil ,war4 ,in ,february #ahfa1 the ,united ,states ,arsenal was seized by the state authorities4 ,in ,september #ahfc the ,federal generals ,william ,steele 7#ahai-ahhe7 and ,john ,w4 ,davidson 7#ahbd-ahha71 operating against ,general ,sterling ,price1 captured the city1 and it remained throughout the rest of the war under ,federal control4 ,constitutional conventions met at ,little ,rock in #ahcf1 #ahfd1 #ahfh and #ahgd1 and also the ,secession ,convention of #ahfa4 ,the ,arkansas ,gazette1 established at ,arkansas ,post in #ahai and soon afterwards removed to the new capital1 was the first newspaper published in ,arkansas and one of the first published west of the ,mississippi4 ,,littleton 7or ,,lyttelton71 ,,edward1 ,,baron 7#aehi-afde71 son of ,sir ,edward ,littleton 7d4 #afba7 chief-justice of ,north ,wales1 was born at ,munslow in ,shropshire2 he was educated at ,oxford and became a lawyer1 succeeding his father as chief-justice of ,north ,wales4 ,in #afbe he became a member of parliament and acted in #afbh as chairman of the committee of grievances upon whose report the ,petition of ,right was based4 ,as a member of the party opposed to the arbitrary measures of ,charles ,i4 ,littleton had shown more moderation than some of his colleagues1 and in #afcd1 three years after he had been chosen recorder of ,london1 the king attached him to his own side by appointing him solicitor-general4 ,in the famous case about ship-money ,sir ,edward argued against ,hampden4 ,in #afdj he was made chief-justice of the common pleas and in #afda lord keeper of the great seal1 being created a peer as ,baron ,lyttelton4 ,about this time1 the lord keeper began to display a certain amount of indifference to the royal cause4 ,in ,january #afdb he refused to put the great seal to the proclamation for the arrest of the five members and he also incurred the displeasure of ,charles by voting for the militia ordinance4 ,however1 he assured his friend ,edward ,hyde1 afterwards earl of ,clarendon1 that he had only taken this step to allay the suspicions of the parliamentary party who contemplated depriving him of the seal1 and he undertook to send this to the king4 ,he fulfilled his promise1 and in ,may #afdb he himself joined ,charles at ,york1 but it was some time before he regained the favour of the king and the custody of the seal4 ,littleton died at ,oxford on the #bgth of ,august #afde2 he left no sons and his barony became extinct4 ,his only daughter1 ,anne1 married her cousin ,sir ,thomas ,littleton1 ,bart4 7d4 #afha71 and their son ,sir ,thomas ,littleton 7c4 #afdg-agaj71 was speaker of the ,house of ,commons from #afih to #agjj1 and treasurer of the navy from #agjj to #agaj4 ,macaulay thus sums up the character of ,speaker ,littleton and his relations to the ,whigs3 ,he was one of their ablest1 most zealous and most steadfast friends2 and had been1 both in the ,house of ,commons and at the board of treasury1 an invaluable second to ,montague 7the earl of ,halifax74 ,,littleton1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,de 7c4 #adjg-adha71 ,english judge and legal author1 was born1 it is supposed1 at ,frankley ,manor ,house1 ,worcestershire1 about #adjg4 ,littleton's surname was that of his mother1 who was the sole daughter and heiress of ,thomas de ,littleton1 lord of ,frankley4 ,she married one ,thomas ,westcote4 ,thomas was the eldest of four sons of the marriage1 and took the name of ,littleton1 or1 as it seems to have been more commonly spelt1 ,luttelton4 ,the date of his birth is uncertain2 a ,,ms4 pedigree gives #adbb1 but it was probably earlier than this4 ,if1 as is generally accepted1 he was born at ,frankley ,manor1 it could not have been before #adjg1 in which year ,littleton's grandfather recovered the manor from a distant branch of the family4 ,he is said by ,sir ,e4 ,coke to have attended one of the universities1 but there is no corroboration of this statement4 ,he was probably a member of the ,inner ,temple1 and lectured there on the statute of ,westminster ,,ii41 ,de ,donis ,conditionalibus4 ,his name occurs in the ,paston ,letters 7ed4 ,j4 ,gairdner1 i4 #fj7 about #adde as that of a well-known counsel and in #adha_/b he received a grant of the manor of ,sheriff ,hales1 ,shropshire1 from a ,sir ,william ,trussel as a reward for his services as counsel4 ,he appears to have been recorder of ,coventry in #adej2 he was made escheator of ,worcestershire1 and in #addg_/h was under-sheriff of the same county2 he became serjeant-at-law in #adec and was afterwards a justice of assize on the northern circuit4 ,in #adff he was made a judge of the common pleas1 and in #adge a knight of the ,bath4 ,he died1 according to the inscription on his tomb in ,worcester cathedral1 on the #bcrd of ,august #adha4 ,he married1 about #addd1 ,joan1 widow of ,sir ,philip ,chetwind of ,ingestrie in ,staffordshire1 and by her had three sons1 through whom he became ancestor of the families holding the peerages of ,cobham 7formerly ,lyttelton1 q4v47 and ,hatherton4 ,his ,treatise on ,tenures was probably written after he had been appointed to the bench4 ,it is addressed to his second son ,richard1 who went to the bar1 and whose name occurs in the year books of the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the book1 both historically and from its intrinsic merit1 may be characterized as the first text-book upon the ,english law of property4 ,the law of property in ,littleton's time was mainly concerned with rights over land1 and it was the law relating to this class of rights which ,littleton set himself to digest and classify4 ,the time was ripe for the task4 ,ever since the ,conquest regular courts of justice had been at work administering a law which had grown out of an admixture of ,teutonic custom and of ,norman feudalism4 ,under ,henry ,,ii4 the courts had been organized1 and the practice of keeping regular records of the proceedings had been carefully observed4 ,the centralizing influence of the royal courts and of the justices of assize1 working steadily through three centuries1 had made the rules governing the law of property uniform throughout the land2 local customs were confined within certain prescribed limits1 and were only recognized as giving rise to certain well-defined classes of rights1 such1 for instance1 as the security of tenure acquired by villeins by virtue of the custom of the manor1 and the rights of freeholders1 in some towns1 to dispose of their land by will4 ,thus1 by the time of ,littleton 7,henry ,,vi4 and ,edward ,,iv471 an immense mass of material had been acquired and preserved in the rolls of the various courts4 ,reports of important cases were published in the year books4 ,a glance at ,statham's ,abridgment1 the earliest digest of decided cases1 published nearly at the same time as ,littleton's ,tenures1 is sufficient to show the enormous bulk which reported cases had already attained as materials for the knowledge of ,english law4 ,littleton's treatise was written in that peculiar dialect compounded of ,norman-,french and ,english phrases called law ,french4 ,although it had been provided by a statute of #cf ,edward ,,iii4 that viva voce proceedings in court should no longer be conducted in the ,french tongue1 which was much unknown in the realm1 the practice of reporting proceedings in that language1 and of using it in legal treatises1 lingered till a much later period1 and was at length prohibited by a statute passed in the time of the ,commonwealth in #afej4 ,unlike the preceding writers on ,english law1 ,glanville1 ,bracton and the authors of the treatises known by the names of ,britton and ,fleta1 ,littleton borrows nothing from the sources of ,roman law or the commentators4 ,he deals exclusively with ,english law4 ,the book is written on a definite system1 and is the first attempt at a scientific classification of rights over land4 ,littleton's method is to begin with a definition1 usually clearly and briefly expressed1 of the class of rights with which he is dealing4 ,he then proceeds to illustrate the various characteristics and incidents of the class by stating particular instances1 some of which refer to decisions which had actually occurred1 but more commonly they are hypothetical cases put by way of illustration of his principles4 ,he occasionally refers to reported cases4 ,his book is thus much more than a mere digest of judicial decisions2 to some extent he pursues the method which gave to ,roman law its breadth and consistency of principle4 ,in ,roman law this result was attained through the practice of putting to jurisconsults hypothetical cases to be solved by them4 ,littleton1 in like manner1 is constantly stating and solving by reference to principles of law cases which may or may not have occurred in actual practice4 ,in dealing with freehold estates ,littleton adopts a classification which has been followed by all writers who have attempted to systematize the ,english law of land1 especially ,sir ,m4 ,hale and ,sir ,william ,blackstone4 ,it is indeed the only possible approach to a scientific arrangement of the intricate estates in land known to ,english law4 ,he classifies estates in land by reference to their duration1 or in other words by reference to the differences between the persons who are entitled to succeed upon the death of the person in possession or tenant4 ,first of all1 he describes the characteristics of tenancy in fee simple4 ,this is still as it was in ,littleton's time the largest interest in land known to the law4 ,next in order comes tenancy in fee tail1 the various classes of which are sketched by ,littleton with brevity and accuracy1 but he is silent as to the important practice1 which first received judicial recognition shortly before his death1 of suffering a recovery1 whereby through a series of judicial fictions a tenant in tail was enabled to convert his estate tail into a fee simple1 thus acquiring full power of alienation4 ,after discussing in their logical order other freehold interests in land1 he passes to interests in land called by later writers interests less than freehold1 namely1 tenancies for terms of years and tenancies at will4 ,with the exception of tenancy from year to year1 now so familiar to us1 but which was a judicial creation of a date later than the time of ,littleton1 the first book is a complete statement of the principles of the common law1 as they for the most part still exist1 governing and regulating interests in lands4 ,the first book concludes with a very interesting chapter on copyhold tenures1 which marks the exact point at which the tenant by copy of court roll1 the successor of the villein1 who in his turn represented the freeman reduced to villenage by the growth of the manorial system1 acquired security of tenure4 ,the second book relates to the reciprocal rights and duties of lord and tenant1 and is mainly of historical interest to the modern lawyer4 ,it contains a complete statement of the law as it stood in ,littleton's time relating to homage1 fealty and escuage1 the money compensation to be paid to the lord in lieu of military service to be rendered to the king1 a peculiar characteristic of ,english as distinguished from ,continental feudalism4 ,littleton then proceeds to notice the important features of tenure by knight's service with its distinguishing incidents of the right of wardship of the lands and person of the infant heir or heiress1 and the right of disposing of the ward in marriage4 ,the non-military freehold tenures are next dealt with2 we have an account of socage tenure1 into which all military tenures were subsequently commuted by a now unrecognized act of the ,long ,parliament in #afej1 afterwards re-enacted by the well-known statute of ,charles ,,ii4 7#affj71 and of frankalmoign1 or the spiritual tenure by which churchmen held4 ,in the description of burgage tenure and tenure in villenage1 the life of which consists in the validity of ancient customs recognized by law1 we recognize survivals of a time before the iron rule of feudalism had moulded the law of land in the interests of the king and the great lords4 ,finally he deals with the law of rents1 discussing the various kinds of rents which may be reserved to the grantor upon a grant of lands and the remedies for recovery of rent1 especially the remedy by distress4#a ,the third and concluding book of ,littleton's treatise deals mainly with the various ways in which rights over land can be acquired and terminated in the case of a single possessor or several possessors4 ,this leads him to discuss the various modes in which several persons may simultaneously have rights over the same land1 as parceners3--daughters who are co-heiresses1 or sons in gavelkind2 joint tenants and tenants in common4 ,next follows an elaborate discussion upon what are called estates upon condition--a class of interests which occupied a large space in the early common law1 giving rise on one side to estates tail1 on another to mortgages4 ,in ,littleton's time a mortgage1 which he carefully describes1 was merely a conveyance of land by the tenant to the mortgagee1 with a condition that1 if the tenant paid to the mortgagee a certain sum on a certain day1 he might re-enter and have the land again4 ,if the condition was not fulfilled1 the interest of the mortgagee became absolute1 and ,littleton gives no indication of any modification of this strict rule1 such as was introduced by courts of equity1 permitting the debtor to redeem his land by payment of all that was due to the mortgagee although the day of payment had passed1 and his interest had become at law indefeasible4 ,the remainder of the work is occupied with an exposition of a miscellaneous class of modes of acquiring rights of property1 the analysis of which would occupy too large a space4 ,the work is thus a complete summary of the common law as it stood at the time4 ,it is nearly silent as to the remarkable class of rights which had already assumed vast practical importance--equitable interests in lands4 ,these are only noticed incidentally in the chapter on ,releases4 ,but it was already clear in ,littleton's time that this class of rights would become the most important of all4 ,littleton's own will1 which has been preserved1 may be adduced in proof of this assertion4 ,although nothing was more opposed to the spirit of ,norman feudalism than that a tenant of lands should dispose of them by will1 we find ,littleton directing by his will the feoffees of certain manors to make estates to the persons named in his will4 ,in other words1 in order to acquire over lands powers unknown to the common law1 the lands had been conveyed to feoffees who had full right over them according to the common law1 but who were under a conscientious obligation to exercise those rights at the direction and for the exclusive benefit of the person to whose use the lands were held4 ,this conscientious obligation was recognized and enforced by the chancellor1 and thus arose the class of equitable interests in lands4 ,littleton is the first writer on ,english law after these rights had risen into a prominent position1 and it is curious to find to what extent they are ignored by him4 ,,bibliography4--,the work of ,littleton occupies a place in the history of typography as well as of law4 ,the earliest printed edition seems to be that by ,john ,lettou and ,william de ,machlinia1 two printers who probably came from the ,continent1 and carried on their business in partnership1 as their note to the edition of ,littleton states1 in civitate ,londoniarum1 juxta ecclesiam omnium sanctorum4 ,the date of this edition is uncertain1 but the most probable conjecture1 based on typographical grounds1 places it about the latter part of #adha4 ,the next edition is one by ,machlinia alone1 probably about two or three years later than the former4 ,machlinia was then in business alone juxta pontem quae vulgo dicitur ,fleta brigge4 ,next came the ,rohan or ,rouen edition1 erroneously stated by ,sir ,e4 ,coke to be the earliest1 and to have been printed about #aecc4 ,it was1 however1 of a much earlier date4 ,tomlins1 the latest editor of ,littleton1 gives reasons for thinking that it cannot have been later than #adij4 ,it is stated in a note to have been printed at ,rouen by ,william le ,tailleur ad instantiam ,richardi ,pynson4 ,copies of all these editions are in the ,british ,museum4 ,in all these editions the work is styled ,tenores ,novelli1 probably to distinguish it from the ,old ,tenures4 ,there are three early ,,mss4 of ,littleton in the ,university ,library at ,cambridge4 ,one of these formerly contained a note on its first page to the effect that it was bought in ,st ,paul's ,churchyard on ,july #bj1 #adhj4 ,it was therefore in circulation in ,littleton's lifetime4 ,the other two ,,mss4 are of a somewhat later date2 but one of them contains what seems to be the earliest ,english translation of the ,tenures1 and is probably not later than #aejj4 ,in the #afth century editions of ,littleton followed in rapid succession from the presses of ,pynson1 ,redmayne1 ,berthelet1 ,tottyl and others4 ,the practice of annotating the text caused several additions to be introduced1 which1 however1 are easily detected by comparison of the earlier copies4 ,in #aeha ,west divided the text into #gdf sections1 which have ever since been preserved4 ,many of these editions were printed with large margins for purposes of annotation1 specimens of which may be seen in ,lincoln's ,inn ,library4 ,the practice of annotating ,littleton was very general1 and was adopted by many eminent lawyers besides ,sir ,e4 ,coke1 amongst others by ,sir ,m4 ,hale4 ,one commentary of this kind1 by an unknown hand of earlier date than ,sir ,e4 ,coke's1 was edited by ,cary in #ahbi4 ,following the general practice of dealing with ,littleton as the great authority on the law of ,england1 the most perfect and absolute work that ever was written in any human science1 ,sir ,e4 ,coke made it in #afbh the text of that portion of his work which he calls the first part of the institutes of the law of ,england1 in other words1 the law of property4 ,the first printed ,english translation of ,littleton was by ,rastell1 who seems to have combined the professions of author1 printer and serjeant-at-law1 between #aead and #aecc4 ,many ,english editions by various editors followed1 the best of which is ,tottyl's in #aeef4 ,sir ,e4 ,coke adopted some translation earlier than this1 which has since gone by the name of ,sir ,e4 ,coke's translation4 ,he1 however1 throughout comments not on the translation but on the ,french text2 and the reputation of the commentary has to some extent obscured the intrinsic merit of the original4 ,see ,e4 ,wambaugh1 ,littleton's ,tenures in ,english 7,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aijc74 ,,footnote3 #a ,these two books are stated1 in a note to the table at the conclusion of the work1 to have been made for the better understanding of certain chapters of the ,antient ,book of ,tenures4 ,this refers to a tract called ,the ,old ,tenures1 said to have been written in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,by way of distinguishing it from this work1 ,littleton's book is called in all the early editions ,tenores ,novelli4 ,,littr1 ,,maximilien ,,paul ,,mile 7#ahja-ahha71 ,french lexicographer and philosopher1 was born in ,paris on the #ast of ,february #ahja4 ,his father had been a gunner1 and afterwards sergeant-major of marine artillery1 in the ,french navy1 and was deeply imbued with the revolutionary ideas of the day4 ,settling down as a collector of taxes1 he married ,sophie ,johannot1 a free-thinker like himself1 and devoted himself to the education of his son mile4 ,the boy was sent to the ,lyce ,louis-le-,grand1 where he had for friends ,hachette and ,eugne ,burnouf4 ,after he had completed his course at school1 he hesitated for a time as to what profession he should adopt1 and meanwhile made himself master1 not only of the ,english and ,german languages1 but of the classical and ,sanskrit literature and philology4 ,at last he determined to study medicine1 and in #ahbb entered his name as a student of medicine4 ,he passed all his examinations in due course1 and had only his thesis to prepare in order to obtain his degree as doctor when in #ahbg his father died1 leaving his mother absolutely without resources4 ,he at once renounced his degree1 and1 while attending the lectures of ,p4 ,f4 ,o4 ,rayer and taking a keen interest in medicine1 began teaching ,latin and ,greek for a livelihood4 ,he carried a musket on the popular side in the revolution of ,february #ahcj1 and was one of the national guards who followed ,charles ,x4 to ,rambouillet4 ,in #ahca he obtained an introduction to ,armand ,carrel1 the editor of the ,national1 who gave him the task of reading the ,english and ,german papers for excerpts4 ,carrel by chance1 in #ahce1 discovered the ability of his reader1 who from that time became a constant contributor1 and eventually director of the paper4 ,in #ahcf ,littr began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects to the ,revue des deux mondes2 in #ahcg he married2 and in #ahci appeared the first volume of his edition of the works of ,hippocrates4 ,the value of this work was recognized by his election the same year into the ,acadmie des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres4 ,at this epoch he came across the works of ,auguste ,comte1 the reading of which formed1 as he himself said1 the cardinal point of his life1 and from this time onward appears the influence of positivism on his own life1 and1 what is of more importance1 his influence on positivism1 for he gave as much to positivism as he received from it4 ,he soon became a friend of ,comte1 and popularized his ideas in numerous works on the positivist philosophy4 ,at the same time he continued his edition of ,hippocrates1 which was not completed till #ahfb1 published a similar edition of ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 and after #ahdd took ,fauriel's place on the committee engaged on the ,histoire littraire de la ,france1 where his knowledge of the early ,french language and literature was invaluable4 ,it was about #ahdd that he started working on his great ,dictionnaire de la langue franaise1 which was1 however1 not to be completed till thirty years after4 ,in the revolution of ,july #ahdh he took part in the repression of the extreme republican party in ,june #ahdi4 ,his essays1 contributed during this period to the ,national1 were collected together and published under the title of ,conservation1 rvolution et positivisme in #aheb1 and show a thorough acceptance of all the doctrines propounded by ,comte4 ,however1 during the later years of his master's life1 he began to perceive that he could not wholly accept all the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master1 but he concealed his differences of opinion1 and ,comte failed to perceive that his pupil had outgrown him1 as he himself had outgrown his master ,saint-,simon4 ,comte's death in #aheh freed ,littr from any fear of embittering his master's later years1 and he published his own ideas in his ,paroles de la philosophie positive in #ahej1 and at still greater length in his work in ,auguste ,comte et la philosophie positive in #ahfc4 ,in this book he traces the origin of ,comte's ideas through ,turgot1 ,kant and ,saint-,simon1 then eulogizes ,comte's own life1 his method of philosophy1 his great services to the cause and the effect of his works1 and finally proceeds to show where he himself differs from him4 ,he approved wholly of ,comte's philosophy1 his great laws of society and his philosophical method1 which indeed he defended warmly against ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 but declared that1 while he believed in a positivist philosophy1 he did not believe in a religion of humanity4 ,about #ahfc1 after completing his ,hippocrates and his ,pliny1 he set to work in earnest on his ,french dictionary4 ,in the same year he was proposed for the ,acadmie ,franaise1 but rejected1 owing to the opposition of ,mgr4 ,dupanloup1 bishop of ,orleans1 who denounced him in his ,avertissement aux pres de famille as the chief of the ,french materialists4 ,he also at this time started with ,g4 ,wyrouboff the ,philosophie ,positive1 a review which was to embody the views of modern positivists4 ,his life was thus absorbed in literary work till the overthrow of the empire called on him to take a part in politics4 ,he felt himself too old to undergo the privations of the siege of ,paris1 and retired with his family to ,britanny1 whence he was summoned by ,m4 ,gambetta to ,bordeaux1 to lecture on history1 and thence to ,versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he had been chosen by the department of the ,seine4 ,in ,december #ahga he was elected a member of the ,acadmie ,franaise in spite of the renewed opposition of ,mgr4 ,dupanloup1 who resigned his seat rather than receive him4 ,littr's ,dictionary was completed in #ahgc4 ,an authoritative interpretation is given of the use of each word1 based on the various meanings it had held in the past4 ,in #ahge ,littr was elected a life senator4 ,the most notable of his productions in these years were his political papers attacking and unveiling the confederacy of the ,orleanists and legitimists1 and in favour of the republic1 his republication of many of his old articles and books1 among others the ,conservation1 rvolution et positivisme of #aheb 7which he reprinted word for word1 appending a formal1 categorical renunciation of many of the ,comtist doctrines therein contained71 and a little tract ,pour la dernire fois1 in which he maintained his unalterable belief in materialism4 ,when it became obvious that the old man could not live much longer1 his wife and daughter1 who had always been fervent ,catholics1 strove to convert him to their religion4 ,he had long interviews with ,pre ,millriot1 a celebrated controversialist1 and was much grieved at his death2 but it is hardly probable he would have ever been really converted4 ,nevertheless1 when on the point of death1 his wife had him baptized1 and his funeral was conducted with the rites of the ,catholic ,church4 ,he died on the #bnd of ,june #ahha4 ,the following are his most important works3 his editions of ,hippocrates 7#ahci-ahfa71 and of ,pliny's ,natural ,history 7#ahdh-ahej72 his translation of ,strauss's ,vie de ,jsus 7#ahci-ahdj71 and ,mller's ,manuel de physiologie 7#ahea72 his edition of the works of ,armand ,carrel1 with notes 7#ahed-aheh72 the ,histoire de la langue franaise1 a collection of magazine articles 7#ahfb72 and his ,dictionnaire de la langue franaise 7#ahfc-ahgb74 ,in the domain of science must be noted his edition1 with ,charles ,robin1 of ,nysten's ,dictionnaire de mdicine1 de chirurgie1 c4 7#ahee72 in that of philosophy1 his ,analyse raisonne du cours de philosophie positive de ,m4 ,a4 ,comte 7#ahde72 ,application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement 7#ahdi72 ,conservation1 rvolution et positivisme 7#aheb1 #bnd ed41 with supplement1 #ahgi72 ,paroles de la philosophie positive 7#ahei72 ,auguste ,comte et la philosophie positive 7#ahfc72 ,la ,science au point de vue philosophique 7#ahgc72 ,fragments de philosophie et de sociologie contemporaine 7#ahgf72 and his most interesting miscellaneous works1 his tudes et glanures 7#ahhj72 ,la ,verit sur la mort d',alexandre le grand 7#ahfe72 tudes sur les barbares et le moyen ge 7#ahfg72 ,mdecine et mdecins 7#ahga72 ,littrature et histoire 7#ahge72 and ,discours de rception l',acadmie franaise 7#ahgc74 ,for his life consult ,c4 ,a4 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,notice sur ,m4 ,littr1 sa vie et ses travaux 7#ahfc72 and ,nouveaux ,lundis1 vol4 v42 also the notice by ,m4 ,durand-,grville in the ,nouvelle ,revue of ,august #ahha2 ,e4 ,caro1 ,littr et le positivisme 7#ahhc72 ,pasteur1 ,discours de rception at the ,academy1 where he succeeded ,littr1 and a reply by ,e4 ,renan4 7,h4 ,m4 ,s47 ,,liturgy 7,low ,lat4 liturgia2 ,gr4 ,greek3 leitos1 public1 and ,greek3 ergon1 work2 ,greek3 leitourgos1 a public servant71 in the technical language of the ,christian ,church1 the order for the celebration and administration of the ,eucharist4 ,in ,eastern ,christendom the ,greek word ,greek3 leitourgia is used in this sense exclusively4 ,but in ,english-speaking countries the word liturgy has come to be used in a more popular sense to denote any or all of the various services of the ,church1 whether contained in separate volumes or bound up together in the form of a ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,in this article the liturgy is treated in the former and stricter sense4 7,for the ancient ,athenian ,greek3 leitourgiai1 as forms of taxation1 see ,,finance47 ,in order to understand terms and references it will be convenient to give the tabular form the chief component parts of a liturgy1 selecting the ,liturgy of ,rome as characteristic of ,western1 and that of ,constantinople as characteristic of ,eastern1 ,christendom2 at the same time appending an explanation of some of the technical words which must be employed in enumerating those parts4 ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,liturgy ,ordinary of the ,mass4 #a4 ,introit1 or as it is always called in the ,sarum rite1 ,office1 a ,psalm or part of a ,psalm sung at the entry of the priest1 or clergy and choir4 #b4 ,kyrie eleison1 ninefold1 and sometimes lengthily farsed representing an older1 now obsolete1 litany4 #c4 ,collect1 i4e4 the collect for the day4 #d4 ,prophetic lection1 now obsolete1 except on the ,wednesday and ,saturday ,ember ,days1 ,good ,friday and ,easter ,even1 and ,wednesday after fourth and sixth ,sundays in ,lent4 #e4 ,epistle4 #f4 ,gradual4 ,a few verses from the ,psalms1 the shrunken remainder of a whole ,psalm4 #g4 ,sequence4 ,a hymn now obsolete except on ,feast of the ,seven ,dolours1 ,easter1 ,pentecost1 ,corpus ,christi and at ,masses for the dead4 #h4 ,gospel4 #i4 ,creed4 #aj4 ,collect1 now obsolete1 though the unanswered invitation1 ,let us pray1 still survives4 #aa4 ,offertory4 ,a verse or verses from the ,psalms sung at the offering of the elements4 #ab4 ,secret4 ,a prayer or prayers said at the conclusion of the ,offertory4 #ac4 ,sursum ,corda4 ,lift up your hearts1 with following versicles4 #ad4 ,preface4 ,there are now ten proper or special prefaces and one common preface4 ,in older missals they were extremely numerous1 almost every ,sunday and ,holy-day having one assigned to it4 ,many of them were very beautiful4 ,in older missals1 ,nos4 #ac1 #ad and #ae were sometimes arranged not as the concluding part of the ,ordinary1 but as the opening part of the ,canon of the mass4 #ae4 ,sanctus1 or ,tersanctus1 or ,triumphal ,hymn1 ,holy1 ,holy1 ,holy1 c41 ending with the ,benedictus1 ,blessed is he that cometh1 c4 ,canon of the ,mass4 #a4 ,introductory prayer for acceptance4 ,te igitur1 c4 #b4 ,intercession for the living4 ,memento1 ,domine famulorum1 c4 #c4 ,commemoration of apostles and martyrs4 ,communicantes et memoriam1 c4 #d4 ,prayer for acceptance and consecration of offering4 ,hanc igitur oblationem1 c4 #e4 ,recital of words of institution4 ,qui pridie quam pateretur1 c4 #f4 ,oblation4 ,unde et memores1 c4 #g4 ,invocation4 ,a passage difficult of interpretation1 but apparently meant to be equivalent to the ,eastern ,epiklesis or invocation of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,supplices te rogamus1 c4 #h4 ,intercession for the dead4 ,memento etiam1 ,domine1 famulorum1 c4 #i4 ,lord's ,prayer1 with a short introduction and the expansion of the last petition into a prayer known as the ,embolismus4 #aj4 ,fraction1 i4e4 breaking of the host into three parts1 to symbolize the death and passion of ,christ4 #aa4 ,commixture1 i4e4 placing a small portion of the consecrated bread into the chalice symbolizing the reunion of ,christ's body and soul at the resurrection4 #ab4 ,agnus ,dei1 i4e4 a three-fold petition to the ,lamb of ,god4 #ac4 ,pax1 i4e4 the kiss of peace4 ,the ancient ritual of the ,pax has become almost obsolete4 #ad4 ,three prayers1 accompanying the ,pax and preliminary to communion4 #ae4 ,communion of priest and people 7if any71 a short anthem called ,communio being sung meanwhile4 #af4 ,ablution of paten and chalice4 #ag4 ,post-communion1 i4e4 a concluding prayer4 #ah4 ,dismissal4 ,the ,canon of the ,mass strictly ends with ,no4 #i2 ,nos4 #aj-ah being an appendix to it4 ,,liturgy ,,of ,,constantinople ,mass of the ,catechumens4 ,after preparation and vesting4 #a4 ,the ,deacon's ,litany4 #b4 ,three ,anthems with accompanying prayers4 #c4 ,little ,entrance1 i4e4 ceremonial bringing in of the ,book of the ,gospels4 #d4 ,the ,trisagion1 i4e4 an anthem with an accompanying prayer different from the ,latin ,sanctus or ,tersanctus4 #e4 ,epistle4 #f4 ,gospel with a prayer preceding it4 #g4 ,bidding prayer4 #h4 ,prayer for catechumens4 #i4 ,dismissal of catechumens4 #aj4 ,spreading of the corporal4 ,mass of the ,faithful4 #aa4 ,prayers of the faithful4 #ab4 ,cherubic ,hymn1 ,let us who mystically represent the ,cherubim1 c4 not represented in the ,latin liturgy4 #ac4 ,great ,entrance1 i4e4 of the unconsecrated elements with incense and singing and intercessions4 #ad4 ,kiss of ,peace4 #ae4 ,creed4 #af4 ,the ,benediction1 i4e4 #b ,cor4 xiii4 #ad4 #ag4 ,sursum corda4 #ah4 ,preface4 #ai4 ,sanctus1 or ,tersanctus1 or ,triumphal ,hymn4 #bj4 ,recital of ,words of ,institution1 prefaced by recital of the ,redemption4 #ba4 ,the oblation4 #bb4 ,the invocation or ,epiklesis4 #bc4 ,intercession for the dead4 #bd4 ,intercession for the living4 #be4 ,the ,lord's ,prayer4 #bf4 ,prayer of humble access 7a7 for people 7b7 for priest4 #bg4 ,elevation with the invitation ,holy things to holy people4 #bh4 ,fraction4 #bi4 ,commixture4 #cj4 ,thanksgiving4 #ca4 ,benediction4 ,in both these lists many interesting features of ceremonial1 the use of incense1 the infusion of warm water 7,byzantine only71 c41 have not been referred to4 ,the lists must be regarded as skeletons only4 ,there are six main families or groups of liturgies1 four of them being of ,eastern and two of them of ,western origin and use4 ,they are known either by the names of the apostles with whom they are traditionally connected1 or by the names of the countries or cities in which they have been or are still in use4 ,group ,i4 ,the ,syrian ,rite 7,st ,james74--,the principal liturgies to be enumerated under this group are the ,clementine liturgy1 so called from being found in the eighth book of the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 which claim in their title1 though erroneously1 to have been compiled by ,st ,clement1 the #ast-century bishop of ,rome2 the ,greek liturgy of ,st ,james2 the ,syriac liturgy of ,st ,james4 ,sixty-four more liturgies of this group have existed1 the majority being still in existence4 ,their titles are given in ,f4 ,e4 ,brightman's ,liturgies1 ,eastern and ,western 7#ahif71 pp4 lviii4-lxi4 ,group ,,ii4 ,the ,egyptian ,rite 7,st ,mark74--,this group includes the ,greek liturgies of ,st ,mark1 ,st ,basil and ,st ,gregory1 and the ,coptic liturgies of ,st ,basil1 ,st ,gregory1 ,st ,cyril or ,st ,mark2 together with certain less known liturgies the titles of which are enumerated by ,brightman 7op4 cit4 pp4 lxxiii4 lxxiv474 ,the liturgy of the ,ethiopian church ordinances and the liturgy of the ,abyssinian ,jacobites1 known as that of the ,apostles1 fall under this group4 ,group ,,iii4 ,the ,persian ,rite 7,,ss4 ,adaeus and ,maris74--,this ,nestorian rite is represented by the liturgy which bears the names of ,,ss4 ,adaeus and ,maris together with two others named after ,theodore of ,mopsuestia and ,nestorius4 ,this group has sometimes been called ,east-,syrian4 ,the titles of three more of its now lost liturgies have been preserved1 namely those of ,narses1 ,barsumas and ,diodorus of ,tarsus4 ,the liturgy of the ,christians of ,st ,thomas1 on the ,malabar coast of ,india1 formerly belonged to this group1 but it was almost completely assimilated to the ,roman liturgy by ,portuguese ,jesuits at the synod of ,diamper in #aeii4 ,group ,,iv4 ,the ,byzantine ,rite4--,the ,greek liturgies of ,st ,chrysostom1 ,st ,basil and ,st ,gregory ,dialogus1 or ,the ,presanctified1 also extant in other languages1 are the living representatives of this rite4 ,the ,greek liturgy of ,st ,peter is classified under this group1 but it is merely the ,roman canon of the ,mass c41 inserted in a ,byzantine framework1 and seems to have been used at one time by some ,greek communities in ,italy4 ,to this group also belongs the ,armenian liturgy1 of which ten different forms have existed in addition to the liturgy now in general use named after ,st ,athanasius4 ,we now come to the two western groups of liturgies1 which more nearly concern the ,latin-speaking nations of ,europe1 and which1 therefore1 must be treated of more fully4 ,group ,v4 ,the ,hispano-,gallican ,rite 7,st ,john74--,this group of ,latin liturgies1 which once prevailed very widely in ,western ,europe1 has been almost universally superseded by the liturgy of the ,church of ,rome4 ,where it survives1 it has been more or less assimilated to the ,roman pattern4 ,it prevailed once throughout ,spain1 ,france1 northern ,italy1 ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the term ,ephesine has been applied to this group or family of liturgies1 chiefly by ,english liturgiologists1 and the names of ,st ,john and of ,ephesus1 his place of residence1 have been pressed into service in support of a theory of ,ephesine origin1 which1 however1 lacks proof and may now be regarded as a discarded hypothesis4 ,other theories represent the ,gallican to be a survival of the original ,roman liturgy1 or as an importation into ,western ,europe from the east through a ,milanese channel4 ,the latter is ,duchesne's theory 7,christian ,worship1 ,london1 #aijd1 #bnd ed41 p4 #id74 ,we must be content with mentioning these theories without attempting to discuss them4 ,the chief traces of oriental influence and affinity lie in the following points3--7#a7 various proclamations made by the deacon1 including that of ,silentium facite before the epistle 7,migne1 ,pat4 ,lat4 tom4 lxxxv4 col4 #ecd72 7#b7 the presence of a third lesson preceding the epistle1 taken from the ,old ,testament2 7#c7 the occasional presence of preces a series of short intercessions resembling the ,greek ,ekten or deacon's litany2 7#d7 the position of the kiss of peace at an early point in the service1 before the canon1 instead of the ,roman position after consecration2 7#e7 the exclamation ,sancta sanctis occurring in the ,mozarabic rite1 being the counterpart of the ,eastern ,greek3 ,ta hagia tois hagiois1 that is holy things to holy people2 7#f7 traces of the presence of the ,epiklesis1 that is to say1 the invocation of the ,holy ,spirit1 in its ,eastern position after the words of institution1 as in the prayer styled the ,post-pridie in the ,mozarabic service for the second ,sunday after the octave of the ,epiphany3 ,we beseech thee that thou wouldest sanctify this oblation with the permixture of thy ,spirit1 and conform it with full transformation into the body and blood of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 7,migne1 ,pat4 ,lat4 tom4 lxxxv4 col4 #bej74 ,on the other hand the great variableness of its parts1 and the immense number of its proper prefaces1 ally it to the ,western family of liturgies4 ,we proceed now to give a more detailed account of the chief liturgies of this group4 #a4 ,the ,mozarabic ,liturgy4--,this was the national liturgy of the ,spanish church till the close of the #aath century1 when the ,roman liturgy was forced upon it4 ,its use1 however1 lingered on1 till in the #afth century ,cardinal ,jimenes1 anxious to prevent its becoming quite obsolete1 had its books restored and printed1 and founded a college of priests at ,toledo to perpetuate its use4 ,it survives now only in several churches in ,toledo and in a chapel at ,salamanca1 and even there not without certain ,roman modifications of its original text and ritual4 ,its date and origin1 like the date and origin of all existing liturgies1 are uncertain1 and enveloped in the mists of antiquity4 ,it is not derived from the present ,roman liturgy4 ,its whole structure1 as well as separate details disprove such a parentage1 and therefore it is strange to find ,st ,isidore of ,seville 7,lib4 de ,eccles4 ,offic4 i4 #ae7 attributing it to ,st ,peter4 ,no proof is adduced1 and the only value which can be placed upon such an unsupported assertion is that it shows that a very high and even apostolic antiquity was claimed for it4 ,a theory1 originating with ,pinius1 that it may have been brought by the ,goths from ,constantinople when they invaded ,spain1 is as improbable as it is unproven4 ,it may have been derived from ,gaul4 ,the ,gallican sister stood to it in the relation of twin-sister1 if it could not claim that of mother4 ,the resemblance was so great that when ,charles the ,bald 7#hdc-hgg7 wished to get some idea of the character of the already obsolete ,gallican rite1 he sent to ,toledo for some ,spanish priests to perform ,mass according to the ,mozarabic rite in his presence4 ,but there is no record of the conversion of ,spain by ,gallican missionaries4 ,christianity existed in ,spain from the earliest times4 ,probably ,st ,paul travelled there 7,rom4 xv4 #bd74 ,it may be at least conjectured that its liturgy was ,pauline rather than ,petrine or ,johannine4 #b4 ,gallican ,liturgy4--,this was the ancient and national liturgy of the church in ,france till the commencement of the #ith century1 when it was suppressed by order of ,charlemagne1 who directed the ,roman missal to be everywhere substituted in its place4 ,all traces of it seemed for some time to have been lost until three ,gallican sacramentaries were discovered and published by ,thomasius in #afhj under the titles of ,missale ,gothicum1 ,missale ,gallicum and ,missale ,francorum1 and a fourth was discovered and published by ,mabillon in #afhg under the title of ,missale ,gallicanum4 ,fragmentary discoveries have been made since4 ,mone discovered fragments of eleven ,gallican masses and published them at ,carlsruhe in #ahej4 ,other fragments from the library at ,st ,gall have been published by ,bunsen 7,analecta ,ante-,nicaena1 iii4 #bfc-bff71 and from the ,ambrosian library at ,milan by ,cardinal ,mai 7,scriptt4 ,vet4 ,vat4 ,coll4 iii4 #b4 #bdg74 ,a single page was discovered in ,gonville and ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 published in ,zeitschrift fr ,kath4 ,theologie1 vi4 #cgj4 ,these documents1 illustrated by early ,gallican canons1 and by allusions in the writings of ,sulpicius ,severus1 ,caesarius of ,arles1 ,gregory of ,tours1 ,germanus of ,paris and other authors1 enable us to reconstruct the greater part of this liturgy4 ,the previously enumerated signs of ,eastern origin and influence are found here as well as in the ,mozarabic liturgy1 together with certain other more or less minute peculiarities1 which would be of interest to professed liturgiologists1 but which we must not pause to specify here4 ,they are the origin of the ,ephesine theory that the ,gallican liturgy was introduced into use by ,irenaeus1 bishop of ,lyons 7c4 #acj-bjj7 who had learned it in the ,east from ,st ,polycarp1 the disciple of the apostle ,st ,john4 #c4 ,ambrosian ,liturgy4--,considerable variety of opinion has existed among liturgical writers as to the proper classification of the ,ambrosian or ,milanese liturgy4 ,if we are to accept it in its present form and to make the present position of the great intercession for quick and dead the test of its genus1 then we must classify it as ,petrine and consider it as a branch of the ,roman family4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we consider the important variations from the ,roman liturgy which yet exist1 and the traces of still more marked variation which confront us in the older printed and ,,ms4 copies of the ,ambrosian rite1 we shall detect in it an original member of the ,hispano-,gallican group of liturgies1 which for centuries underwent a gradual but ever-increasing assimilation to ,rome4 ,we know this as a matter of history1 as well as a matter of inference from changes in the text itself4 ,charlemagne adopted the same policy towards the ,milanese as towards the ,gallican church4 ,he carried off all the ,ambrosian church books which he could obtain1 with the view of substituting ,roman books in their place1 but the completion of his intentions failed1 partly through the attachment of the ,lombards to their own rites1 partly through the intercession of a ,gallican bishop named ,eugenius 7,mabillon1 ,mus4 ,ital4 tom4 i4 ,pars4 ii4 p4 #ajf74 ,it has been asserted by ,joseph ,vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy drawn up by ,st ,barnabas1 who first preached the ,gospel at ,milan 7,de ,missae ,rit4 #a capp4 xi4 xii471 and this tradition is preserved in the title and proper preface for ,st ,barnabas ,day in the ,ambrosian missal 7,pamelius1 ,liturgicon1 i4 #che1 #chf71 but it has never been proved4 ,we can trace the following points in which the ,ambrosian differs from the ,roman liturgy1 many of them exhibiting traces of ,eastern influence4 ,some of them are no longer found in recent ,ambrosian missals and only survive in earlier ,,mss4 such as those published by ,pamelius 7,liturgicon1 tom4 i4 p4 #bic71 ,muratori 7,lit4 ,rom4 ,vet4 i4 #acb7 and ,ceriani 7in his edition1 #ahha1 of an ancient ,,ms4 at ,milan74 7a7 ,the prayer entitled oratio super sindonem corresponding to the prayer after the spreading of the corporal2 7b7 the proclamation of silence by the deacon before the epistle2 7c7 the litanies said after the ,ingressa 7,introit7 on ,sundays in ,lent1 closely resembling the ,greek ,ekten2 7d7 varying forms of introduction to the ,lord's ,prayer1 in ,coena ,domini 7,ceriani p4 #aaf7 in ,pascha 7,ib4 p4 #abi72 7e7 the presence of passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part of the ,roman canon and one of which at least corresponds in import and position though not in words to the ,greek ,invocation3 ,tuum vero1 est1 omnipotens ,pater1 mittere1 c4 7,ib4 p4 #aaf72 7f7 the survival of a distinctly ,gallican formula of consecration in the ,post-sanctus in ,sabbato ,sancto4 ,vere sanctus1 vere benedictus ,dominus noster1 c4 7,ib4 p4 #abe72 7g7 the varying nomenclature of the ,sundays after ,pentecost2 7h7 the position of the fraction or ritual breaking of bread before the ,lord's ,prayer2 7i7 the omission of the second oblation after the words of institution 7,muratori1 ,lit4 ,rom4 ,vet4 i4 #acc72 7k7 a third lection or ,prophetia from the ,old ,testament preceding the epistle and gospel2 7l7 the lay offering of the oblations and the formulae accompanying their reception 7,pamelius1 ,liturgicon1 i4 #big72 7m7 the position of the ablution of the hands in the middle of the canon just before the words of institution2 7n7 the position of the oratio super populum1 which corresponds in matter but not in name to the collect for the day1 before the ,gloria in ,excelsis4 #d4 ,celtic ,liturgy4--,we postpone the consideration of this liturgy till after we have treated of the next main group4 ,,vi4 ,the ,roman ,rite 7,st ,peter74--,there is only one liturgy to be enumerated under this group1 viz4 the present liturgy of the ,church of ,rome1 which1 though originally local in character and circumscribed in use1 has come to be nearly co-extensive with the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 sometimes superseding earlier national liturgies1 as in ,gaul and ,spain1 sometimes incorporating more or less of the ancient ritual of a country into itself and producing from such incorporation a sub-class of distinct ,uses1 as in ,england1 ,france and elsewhere4 ,even these subordinate ,uses have for the most part become1 or are rapidly becoming1 obsolete4 ,the date1 origin and early history of the ,roman liturgy are obscure4 ,the first ,christians at ,rome were a ,greek-speaking community1 and their liturgy must have been ,greek1 and is possibly represented in the so-called ,clementine liturgy4 ,but the date when such a state of things ceased1 when and by whom the present ,latin liturgy was composed1 whether it is an original composition1 or1 as its structure seems to imply1 a survival of some intermediate form of liturgy--all these are questions which are waiting for solution4 ,one ,,ms4 exists which has been claimed to represent the ,roman liturgy as it existed in the time of ,leo ,i41 #ddj-dfa4 ,it was discovered at ,verona by ,bianchini in #agce and assigned by him to the #hth century and published under the title of ,sacramentarium ,leonianum2 but this title was from the first conjectural1 and is in the teeth of the internal evidence which the ,,ms4 itself affords4 ,the question is discussed at some length by ,muratori 7,lit4 ,rom4 ,vet4 tom4 i4 cap4 i4 col4 #af74 ,assemani published it under the title of ,sacramentarium ,veronense in tom4 vi4 of his ,codex ,liturg4 ,eccles4 ,univ4 ,a ,,ms4 of the #gth or #hth century was found at ,rome by ,thomasius and published by him in #afhj under the title of ,sacramentarium ,gelasianum4 ,but it was written in ,france and is certainly not a pure ,gelasian codex2 and although there is historical evidence of ,pope ,gelasius ,i4 7#dib-dif7 having made some changes in the ,roman liturgy1 and although ,,mss4 have been published by ,gerbertus and others1 claiming the title of ,gelasian1 we neither have nor are likely to have genuine and contemporary ,,ms4 evidence of the real state of the liturgy in that pope's time4 ,the most modern and the best edition of the ,gelasian ,sacramentary is that by ,h4 ,a4 ,wilson 7,oxford1 #ahid74 ,the larger number of ,,mss4 of this group are copies of the ,gregorian ,sacramentary1 that is to say1 ,,mss4 representing or purporting to represent1 the state of ,roman liturgy in the days of ,pope ,gregory the ,great4 ,but they cannot be accepted as certain evidence for the following reasons3 not one of them was written earlier than the #ith century1 not one of them was written in ,italy1 but every one north of the ,alps2 every one contains internal evidence of a post-,gregorian date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the intercession of ,st ,gregory and in various other ways4 ,the ,roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into ,england in the #gth1 into ,france in the #ith and into ,spain in the #aath century1 though no doubt it was known in both ,france and ,spain to some extent before these dates4 ,in ,france certain features of the service and certain points in the ritual of the ancient national liturgy became interwoven with its text and formed those many varying medieval ,gallican ,uses which are associated with the names of different ,french sees4 ,the chief distinguishing characteristics of the ,roman rite are these3 7a7 the position of the great intercession for quick and dead within the canon1 the commemoration of the living being placed just before and the commemoration of the departed just after the words of institution2 7b7 the absence of an ,epiklesis or invocation of the ,holy ,ghost upon the elements2 7c7 the position of the ,pax or ,kiss of ,peace after the consecration and before the communion1 whereas in other liturgies it occurs at a much earlier point in the service4 ,liturgies of the ,british ,islands4 ,period ,i4 ,the ,celtic ,church4--,until recently almost nothing was known of the character of the liturgical service of the ,celtic church which existed in these islands before the ,anglo-,saxon ,conquest1 and continued to exist in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 ,wales and ,cornwall for considerable though varying periods of time after that event4 ,but in recent times a good deal of light has been thrown on the subject1 partly by the publication or republication of the few genuine works of ,patrick1 ,columba1 ,columbanus1 ,adamnan and other ,celtic saints2 partly by the discovery of liturgical remains in the ,scottish ,book of ,deer and in the ,irish ,books of ,dimma and ,mulling and the ,stowe ,missal1 c42 partly by the publication of medieval ,irish compilations1 such as the ,lebar ,brecc1 ,liber ,hymnorum1 ,martyrology of ,oengus1 c41 which contain ecclesiastical kalendars1 legends1 treatises1 c41 of considerable but very varying antiquity4 ,the evidence collected from these sources is sufficient to prove that the liturgy of the ,celtic church was of the ,gallican type4 ,in central ,england the churches1 with everything belonging to them1 were destroyed by the heathen invaders at the close of the #eth century2 but the ,celtic church in the remoter parts of ,england1 as well as in the neighbouring kingdoms of ,scotland and ,ireland1 retained its independence for centuries afterwards4 ,an examination of its few extant service-books and fragments of service-books yields the following evidence of the ,gallican origin and character of the ,celtic liturgy3 7a7 the presence of collects and anthems which occur in the ,gallican or ,mozarabic but not in the ,roman liturgy2 7b7 various formulae of thanksgiving after communion2 7c7 frequent biddings or addresses to the people in the form of ,gallican ,praefationes2 7d7 the ,gallican form of consecration1 being a prayer called ,post-,sanctus leading up to the words of institution2 7e7 the complicated rite of fraction or the breaking of bread1 as described in the ,irish treatise at the end of the ,stowe ,missal1 finds its only counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the ,mozarabic church2 7f7 the presence of the ,gallican ceremonial of ,pedilavium or ,washing of feet in the earliest ,irish baptismal office4 ,for a further description of these and other features which are characteristic of or peculiar to the ,celtic liturgy the reader is referred to ,f4 ,e4 ,warren's ,liturgy and ,ritual of the ,celtic ,church 7,oxford1 #ahha74 ,period ,,ii4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,church4--,we find ourselves here on firmer ground1 and can speak with certainty as to the nature of the liturgy of the ,english church after the beginning of the #gth century4 ,information is drawn from liturgical allusions in the extant canons of numerous councils1 from the voluminous writings of ,bede1 ,alcuin and many other ecclesiastical authors of the ,anglo-,saxon period1 and above all from a considerable number of service-books written in ,england before the ,norman ,conquest4 ,three of these books are missals of more or less completeness3 7#a7 the ,leofric ,missal1 a composite #ajth- to #aath-century ,,ms4 presented to the cathedral of ,exeter by ,leofric1 the first bishop of that see 7#ajdf-ajgb71 now in the ,bodleian library at ,oxford2 edited by ,f4 ,e4 ,warren 7,oxford1 #ahhc72 7#b7 the missal of ,robert of ,jumiges1 archbishop of ,canterbury 7#ajea-ajeb71 written probably at ,winchester and presented by ,archbishop ,robert to his old monastery of ,jumiges in the neighbourhood of ,rouen1 in the public library of which it now lies2 edited by ,h4 ,a4 ,wilson 7,london1 #ahif72 7#c7 the ,red ,book of ,derby1 a ,,ms4 missal of the second half of the #aath century1 now in the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,a perusal of these volumes proves what we should have expected a priori1 that the ,roman liturgy was in use in the ,anglo-,saxon church4 ,this was the case from the very first4 ,that church owed its foundation to a ,roman pontiff1 and to ,roman missionaries1 who brought1 as we are told by ,bede1 their native liturgical codices with them 7,hist4 ,eccles4 lib4 ii4 cap4 #bh74 ,accordingly1 when we speak of an ,anglo-,saxon missal1 we mean a ,roman missal only exhibiting one or more of the following features1 which would differentiate it from an ,italian missal of the same century4 7a7 ,rubrics and other entries of a miscellaneous character written in the vernacular language of the country4 7b7 ,the commemoration of national or local saints in the kalendar1 in the canon of the mass and in the litanies which occur for use on ,easter ,even and in the baptismal offices4 7c7 ,the presence of a few special masses in honour of those local saints1 together with a certain number of collects of a necessarily local character1 for the rulers of the country1 for its natural produce1 c4 7d7 ,the addition of certain peculiarities of liturgical structure and arrangement interpolated into the otherwise purely ,roman service from an extraneous source4 ,there are two noteworthy examples of this in ,anglo-,saxon service-books4 ,every ,sunday and festival and almost every votive mass has its proper preface1 although the number of such prefaces in the ,gregorian sacramentary of the same period had been reduced to eight4 ,there was a large but not quite equal number of triple episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop after the ,lord's ,prayer and before the communion4 ,this custom must either have been perpetuated from the old ,celtic liturgy or directly derived from a ,gallican source4 ,period ,,iii4 ,anglo-,norman ,church4--,the influx of numerous foreigners1 especially from ,normandy and ,lorraine1 which preceded1 accompanied and followed the ,conquest1 and the occupation by them of the highest posts in church as well as state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the ,english church4 ,these foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a preference for and a habit of using certain features of the ,gallican liturgy and ritual1 which they succeeded in incorporating into the service-books of the church of ,england4 ,one of the ,norman prelates1 ,osmund1 count of ,sez1 earl of ,dorset1 chancellor of ,england1 and bishop of ,salisbury 7#ajgh-ajii71 is credited with having undertaken the revision of the ,english service-books2 and the missal which we know as the ,sarum ,missal1 or the ,missal according to the ,use of ,sarum1 practically became the liturgy of the ,english church4 ,it was not only received into use in the province of ,canterbury1 but was largely adopted beyond those limits--in ,ireland in the #abth and in various ,scottish dioceses in the #abth and #acth centuries4 ,it would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of the numerous and frequently minute differences between a medieval ,sarum and the earlier ,anglo-,saxon or contemporaneous ,roman liturgy4 ,they lie mainly in differences of collects and lections1 variations of ritual on ,candlemass1 ,ash ,wednesday and throughout ,holy ,week2 the introduction into the canon of the mass of certain clauses and usages of ,gallican character or origin2 the wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or imperative tense2 the peculiar ,preces in prostratione2 the procession of ,corpus ,christi on ,palm ,sunday2 the forms of ejection and reconciliation of penitents1 c4 ,the varying episcopal benedictions as used in the ,anglo-,saxon church were retained1 but the numerous proper prefaces were discarded1 the number being reduced to ten4 ,besides the famous and far-spreading ,use of ,sarum1 other ,uses1 more local and less known1 grew up in various ,english dioceses4 ,in virtue of a recognized diocesan independence1 bishops were able to regulate or alter their ritual1 and to add special masses or commemorations for use within the limits of their jurisdiction4 ,the better known and the more distinctive of these ,uses were those of ,york and ,hereford1 but we also find traces of or allusions to the ,uses of ,bangor1 ,lichfield1 ,lincoln1 ,ripon1 ,st ,asaph1 ,st ,paul's1 ,wells and ,winchester4 ,service-books4--,the ,eucharistie service was contained in the volume called the ,missal 7q4v471 as the ordinary choir offices were contained in the volume known as the ,breviary 7q4v474 ,but besides these two volumes there were a large number of other service-books4 ,mr ,w4 ,maskell has enumerated and described ninety-one such volumes employed by the ,western ,church only4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that many of these ninety-one names are synonyms 7,mon4 ,rit4 ,eccles4 ,anglic4 #ahhb1 vol4 i4 p4 ccxxx474 ,the list might be increased1 but it will be possible here only to name and briefly describe a few of the more important of them4 7#a7 ,the ,agenda is the same as the ,manual1 for which see below4 7#b7 ,the ,antiphonary contained the antiphons or anthems1 sung at the canonical hours1 and certain other minor parts of the service4 7#c7 ,the ,benedictional contained those triple episcopal benedictions previously described as used on ,sundays and on the chief festivals throughout the year4 7#d7 ,the ,collectarium contained the collects for the season1 together with a few other parts of the day offices4 ,it was an inchoate breviary4 7#e7 ,the ,epistolarium contained the epistles1 and the ,evangelistarium the gospels for the year4 7#g7 ,the ,gradual contained the introit1 gradual1 sequences1 and the other portions of the communion service which were sung by the choir at nigh mass4 7#h7 ,the ,legenda contained the lections which were read at matins and at other times1 and may be taken as a generic term to include the ,homiliarium1 ,passional and other volumes4 7#i7 ,the ,manual was the name usually employed in ,england to denote the ,ritual1 which contained the baptismal1 matrimonial and other offices which might be performed by the parish priest4 7#aj7 ,the ,pontifical contained the orders of consecration1 ordination1 and such other rites as could1 ordinarily1 only be performed by a bishop4 ,to these we must add a book which was not strictly a church office book1 but a handy book for the use of the laity1 and which was in very popular use and often very highly embellished from the #adth to the #afth century1 the ,book of ,hours1 or ,horae ,beatae ,mariae ,virginis1 also known as the ,prymer or ,primer4 ,it contained portions of the canonical hours1 litanies1 the penitential ,psalms1 and other devotions of a miscellaneous and private character4 ,detailed information about all these and other books is to be found in ,c4 ,wordsworth and ,h4 ,littlehales'1 ,the ,old ,service ,books of the ,english ,church4 ,the ,eastern ,church too possessed and still possesses numerous and voluminous service-books1 of which the chief are the following3 7#a7 ,the ,euchologian1 containing the liturgy itself with the remaining sacramental offices bound up in the same volume4 7#b7 ,the ,horologion1 containing the unvarying portion of the ,breviary4 7#c7 ,the ,menaea1 being equivalent to a complete ,breviary4 7#d7 ,the ,menologion or ,martyrology4 7#e7 ,the ,octoechus and 7#f7 ,the ,paracletice1 containing ,troparia and answering to the ,western antiphonary4 7#g7 ,the ,pentecostarion1 containing the services from ,easter ,day to ,all ,saints' ,sunday4 7#h7 ,the ,triodion1 containing those from ,septuagesima ,sunday to ,easter ,even4 7#i7 ,the ,typicum is a general book of rubrics corresponding to the ,ordinale or the ,pie of ,western ,christendom4 ,period ,,iv4 ,the ,reformed ,church4--,the ,anglican liturgy of ,reformation and post-,reformation times is described under the heading of ,,prayer1 ,,book ,,of ,,common1 but a brief description may be added here of the liturgies of other reformed churches4 ,the ,liturgy of the ,scottish ,episcopal ,church4--,this liturgy in nearly its present form was compiled by ,scottish bishops in #afcf and imposed--or1 to speak more accurately1 attempted to be imposed--upon the ,scottish people by the royal authority of ,charles ,i4 in #afcg4 ,the prelates chiefly concerned in it were ,spottiswood1 bishop of ,glasgow2 ,maxwell1 bishop of ,ross2 ,wedderburn1 bishop of ,dunblane2 and ,forbes1 bishop of ,edinburgh4 ,their work was approved and revised by certain members of the ,english episcopate1 especially ,laud1 archbishop of ,canterbury2 ,juxon1 bishop of ,london2 and ,wren1 bishop of ,ely4 ,this liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed through several editions4 ,the present ,scottish office dates from #agfd4 ,it is now used as an alternative form with the ,english communion office in the ,scottish ,episcopal ,church4 ,the general arrangements of its parts approximates more closely to that of the first book of ,edward ,,vi4 than to the present ,anglican ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,among its noteworthy features are 7a7 the retention in its integrity and in its primitive position after the words of institution of the invocation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,that invocation runs thus3 ,and we most humbly beseech thee1 ,o merciful ,father1 to hear us and of thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy word and ,holy ,spirit these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine that they may become the body and blood of thy most dearly beloved ,son 7edit4 #agfd74 ,this kind of petition thus placed is found in the ,eastern but not in the ,roman or ,anglican liturgies4 7b7 ,the reservation of the sacrament is permitted1 by traditional usage1 for the purpose of communicating the absent or the sick4 7c7 ,the minimum number of communicants is fixed at one or two instead of three or four4 ,for fuller information see ,bishop ,j4 ,dowden1 ,the ,annotated ,scottish ,communion ,service 7,edinburgh1 #ahhd74 ,american ,liturgy4--,the ,prayer ,book of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church in ,america was adopted by the general convention of the ,american church in #aghi4 ,it is substantially the same as the ,english ,book of ,common ,prayer1 but among important variations we may name the following3 7a7 ,the arrangement and wording of the order for ,holy ,communion rather resembles that of the ,scottish than that of the ,english liturgy1 especially in the position of the oblation and invocation immediately after the words of institution4 7b7 ,the ,magnificat1 ,nunc dimittis and greater part of ,benedictus were disused2 but these were reinstated among the changes made in the ,prayer ,book in #ahib4 7c7 ,ten selections of ,psalms are appointed for use as alternatives for the ,psalms of the day4 7d7 ,gloria in excelsis is allowed as a substitute for ,gloria ,patri at the end of the ,psalms at morning and evening prayer4 ,in addition to these there are many more both important and unimportant variations from the ,english ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,the ,irish ,prayer ,book4--,the ,prayer ,book in use in the ,irish portion of the ,united ,church of ,england and ,ireland was the ,anglican ,book of ,common ,prayer1 but after the disestablishment of the ,irish church several changes were introduced into it by a synod held at ,dublin in #ahgj4 ,these changes included such important points as3 7a7 the excision of all lessons from the ,apocrypha1 7b7 of the rubric ordering the recitation of the ,athanasian ,creed1 7c7 of the rubric ordering the vestments of the second year of ,edward ,,vi41 7d7 of the form of absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick1 7e7 the addition to the ,catechism of a question and answer bringing out more clearly the spiritual character of the real presence4 ,the ,presbyterian ,church4--,the ,presbyterian churches of ,scotland at present possess no liturgy properly so called4 ,certain general rules for the conduct of divine service are contained in the ,directory for the ,public ,worship of ,god agreed upon by the assembly of divines at ,westminster1 with the assistance of commissioners from the ,church of ,scotland1 approved and established by an act of the general assembly1 and by an act of parliament1 both in #afde4 ,in #aeed ,john ,knox had drawn up an order of liturgy closely modelled on the ,genevan pattern for the use of the ,english congregation to which he was then ministering at ,frankfort4 ,on his return to ,scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by an act of the general assembly in #aefj and became the established form of worship in the ,presbyterian church until the year #afde1 when the ,directory of ,public ,worship took its place4 ,herein regulations are laid down for the conduct of public worship1 for the reading of ,scripture and for extempore prayer before and after the sermon1 and in the administration of the sacrament of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 for the solemnization of marriage1 visitation of the sick and burial of the dead1 for the observance of days of public fasting and public thanksgiving1 together with a form of ordination and a directory for family worship4 ,in all these cases1 though the general terms of the prayer are frequently indicated1 the wording of it is left to the discretion of the minister1 with these exceptions3 ,at the act of baptism this formula must be used--,i baptize thee in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost2 and for the ,lord's ,supper these forms are suggested1 but with liberty to the minister to use other the like1 used by ,christ or his apostles upon this occasion--,according to the holy institution1 command1 and example of our blessed ,saviour1 ,jesus ,christ1 ,i take this bread1 and having given thanks1 break it1 and give it unto you4 ,take ye1 eat ye2 this is the body of ,christ which is broken for you2 do this in remembrance of him4 ,and again ,according to the institution1 command and example of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 ,i take this cup and give it unto you2 this cup is the ,new ,testament in the blood of ,christ1 which is shed for the remission of the sins of many2 drink ye all of it4 ,there is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the minister by the man to the woman1 and by the woman to the man in the case of the solemnization of matrimony4 ,the form of words on all other occasions1 including ordination1 is left to the discretion of the officiating minister or of the presbytery4 ,european ,protestant ,churches4 ,the ,calvinistic ,churches4--,rather more of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters into the service of the ,french and ,german ,calvinistic ,protestants4 ,the ,sunday morning service as drawn up by ,calvin was to open with a portion of ,holy ,scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments4 ,afterwards the minister1 inviting the people to accompany him1 proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace4 ,then one of the ,psalms of ,david was sung4 ,then came the sermon1 prefaced by an extempore prayer and concluding with the ,lord's ,prayer1 creed and benediction4 ,the communion service began with an exhortation leading up to the apostles' creed2 then followed a long exhortation1 after which the bread and wine were distributed to the people1 who advanced in reverence and order1 while a ,psalm was being sung1 or a suitable passage of ,scripture was being read4 ,after all had communicated a set form of thanksgiving was said by the minister4 ,then the ,song of ,simeon was sung by the congregation1 who were then dismissed with the blessing4 ,this form of service has been modified in various ways from time to time1 but it remains substantially the type of service in use among the reformed ,calvinistic churches of ,germany1 ,switzerland and ,france4 ,the ,lutheran ,church4--,luther was far more conservative than the rest of the ,protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more than in the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church which bears his name4 ,in #aebc he published a treatise ,of the ,order of the ,service in the ,congregation and in #aebf he published the ,german ,mass4 ,except that the vernacular was substituted for the ,latin language1 the old framework and order of the ,roman missal were closely followed1 beginning with the ,confiteor1 ,introit1 ,kyrie eleison1 still always sung in ,greek1 ,gloria in excelsis1 c4 ,the text of this and other ,lutheran services is given in ,agende fr christliche ,gemeinden des ,lutherischen ,bekenntnisses 7,nrdlingen1 #ahec74 ,at the same time ,luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of the ,lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient4 ,the ,lutheran churches of northern ,europe have not been slow to avail themselves of this advice and permission4 ,most of them have drawn up liturgies for themselves1 sometimes following very closely1 sometimes differing considerably from the original service composed by ,luther himself4 ,in #ahbb1 on the union of the ,lutheran and ,reformed 7,calvinistic7 churches of ,prussia1 a new liturgy was published at ,berlin4 ,it is used in its entirety in the chapel royal1 but great liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy1 and considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of this service-book4 ,the ,church of the ,new ,jerusalem 7,swedenborgians7 and the ,catholic ,apostolic ,church 7,irvingites7 and other ,protestant bodies have drawn up liturgies for themselves1 but they are hardly of sufficient historical importance to be described at length here4 ,the ,old ,catholics1 lastly1 published a ,rituale in #ahge containing the occasional offices for baptism1 matrimony1 burial1 c41 and a form for reception of ,holy ,communion1 in the ,german language4 ,this latter is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass1 corresponding in purpose to the order of ,communion in ,english published the #hth of ,march #aedh and in use till ,whitsunday #aedi4 7,f4 ,e4 ,w47 ,,lituus1 the cavalry trumpet of the ,romans1 said by ,macrobius 7,saturn4 lib4 vi47 to have resembled the crooked staff borne by the ,augurs4 ,the lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube #d or #e ft4 long1 having a narrow bore1 and terminating in a conical bell joint turned up in such a manner as to give the instrument the outline of the letter ,j4 ,unlike the buccina1 cornu and tuba1 the other military service instruments of the ,romans1 the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages1 the medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the cromorne or tournebout1 which1 however1 had lateral holes and was played by means of a reed mouthpiece4 ,a lituus found in a ,roman warrior's tomb at ,cervetri 7,etruria7 in #ahbg is preserved in the ,vatican4 ,victor ,mahillon gives its length as #a m4 #fj1 and its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet in ,g 7,catalogue descriptif1 #ahif1 pp4 #bi-cj74 7,k4 ,s47 ,,liudprand 7,,liutprand1 ,,luitprand7 7c4 #ibb-igb71 ,italian historian and author1 bishop of ,cremona1 was born towards the beginning of the #ajth century1 of a good ,lombard family4 ,in #ica he entered the service of ,king ,hugo of ,italy as page2 he afterwards rose to a high position at the court of ,hugo's successor ,berengar1 having become chancellor1 and having been sent 7#idi7 on an embassy to the ,byzantine court4 ,falling into disgrace with ,berengar on his return1 he attached himself to the emperor ,otto ,i41 whom in #ifa he accompanied into ,italy1 and by whom in #ifb he was made bishop of ,cremona4 ,he was frequently employed in missions to the pope1 and in #ifh to ,constantinople to demand for the younger ,otto 7afterwards ,otto ,,ii47 the hand of ,theophano1 daughter of the emperor ,nicephorus ,phocas4 ,his account of this embassy in the ,relatio de ,legatione ,constantinopolitana is perhaps the most graphic and lively piece of writing which has come down to us from the #ajth century4 ,the detailed description of ,constantinople and the ,byzantine court is a document of rare value--though highly coloured by his ill reception and offended dignity4 ,whether he returned in #iga with the embassy to bring ,theophano or not is uncertain4 ,liudprand died in #igb4 ,he wrote 7#a7 ,antapodoseos1 seu rerum per ,europam gestarum1 ,libri ,,vi1 an historical narrative1 relating to the events from #hhg to #idi1 compiled with the object of avenging himself upon ,berengar and ,willa his queen2 7#b7 ,historia ,ottonis1 a work of greater impartiality and merit1 unfortunately covering only the years from #ifj to #ifd2 and 7#c7 the ,relatio de ,legatione ,constantinopolitana 7#ifh-ifi74 ,all are to be found in the ,monum4 ,germ4 ,hist4 of ,pertz1 and in the ,rer4 ,ital4 ,script4 of ,muratori2 there is an edition by ,e4 ,dmmler 7#ahgg71 and a partial translation into ,german1 with an introduction by ,w4 ,wattenbach1 is given in the second volume of the ,geschichtsschreiber der deutschen ,vorzeit 7#ahec74 ,compare ,wattenbach1 ,deutschlands ,geschichtsquellen im ,mittelalter4 ,three other works1 entitled ,adversaria1 ,chronicon1 #fjf-ifj1 and ,opusculum de vitis ,romanorum pontificum1 are usually1 but wrongly1 assigned to ,liudprand4 ,an ,english translation of the embassy to ,constantinople is in ,ernest ,henderson's ,select ,documents of the ,middle ,ages 7,bohn series1 #ahif74 ,a complete bibliography is in ,a4 ,potthast's ,bibl4 ,hist4 ,medii ,aevi 7,berlin1 #ahif74 ,,live ,,oak1 a city and the county-seat of ,suwannee county1 ,florida1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ha m4 by rail ,w4 of ,jacksonville4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #fhg2 7#aijj7 #afei2 7#aije7 #gbjj2 7#aiaj7 #cdej4 ,live ,oak is served by the ,atlantic ,coast ,line1 the ,seaboard ,air ,line1 the ,live ,oak1 ,perry ,gulf and the ,florida railways4 ,there are extensive areas of pine lands in the vicinity1 and large quantities of sea-island cotton are produced in the county4 ,lumber and naval stores are also important products4 ,the first settlement on the site of the city was made in #ahfe by ,john ,parshley1 of ,massachusetts1 who erected a large saw-mill here4 ,live ,oak was first incorporated as a town in #ahgd1 and in #aijc was chartered as a city4 ,,liver 7,o4 ,eng4 lifer2 cf4 cognate forms1 ,dutch lever1 ,ger4 ,leber1 ,swed4 lefver1 c42 the ,o4 ,h4 ,ger4 forms are libara1 lipora1 c42 the ,teut4 word has been connected with ,gr4 ,greek3 hpar and ,lat4 jecur71 in anatomy1 a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated in the upper and right part of the abdominal cavity4 ,when hardened in situ its shape is that of a right-angled1 triangular prism showing five surfaces--superior1 anterior1 inferior1 posterior and right lateral which represents the base of the prism4 ,it weighs about three pounds or one-fortieth of the body ,weight4 ,although the liver is a fairly solid organ1 it is plastic1 and moulds itself to even hollow neighbouring viscera rather than they to it4 ,the superior surface is in contact with the diaphragm1 but has peritoneum between 7see ,,coelom ,,and ,,serous ,,membranes74 ,at its posterior margin the peritoneum of the great sac is reflected on to the diaphragm to form the anterior layer of the coronary ligament4 ,near the mid line of the body1 and at right angles to the last1 another reflection1 the falciform ligament1 runs forward1 and the line of attachment of this indicates the junction of the right and left lobes of the liver4 ,the anterior surface is in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall4 ,the attachment of the falciform ligament is continued down it4 ,the posterior surface is more complicated 7see fig4 #a72 starting from the right and working toward the left1 a large triangular area1 uncovered by peritoneum and in direct contact with the diaphragm1 is seen4 ,this is bounded on the left by the inferior vena cava1 which is sunk into a deep groove in the liver1 and into the upper part of this the hepatic veins open4 ,just to the right of this and at the lower part of the bare area is a triangular depression for the right suprarenal body4 ,to the left of the vena cava is the ,spigelian lobe1 which lies in front of the bodies of the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae1 the lesser sac of peritoneum1 diaphragm and thoracic aorta intervening4 ,to the left of this is the fissure for the ductus venosus1 and to the left of this again1 the left lobe1 in which a broad shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen4 ,sometimes the left lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall1 but more often it ends below the apex of the heart1 which is #c in4 to the left of the mid line of the body4 ,the relations of the lower surface can only be understood if it is realized that it looks backward and to the left as well as downward 7see fig4 #a74 ,again starting from the right side1 two impressions are seen2 the anterior one is for the hepatic flexure of the colon1 and the posterior for the upper part of the right kidney4 ,to the left of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second part of the duodenum4 ,next comes the gall bladder1 a pear-shaped bag1 the fundus of which is in front and below1 the neck behind and above4 ,from the neck passes the cystic duct1 which is often twisted into the form of an ,s4 ,to the left of the gall bladder is the quadrate lobe1 which is in contact with the pylorus of the stomach4 ,to the left of this is the left lobe of the liver1 separated from the quadrate lobe by the umbilical fissure in which lies the round ligament of the liver1 the remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus4 ,sometimes this fissure is partly turned into a tunnel by a bridge of liver substance known as the pons hepatis4 ,the under surface of the left lobe is concave for the interior surface of the stomach 7see ,,alimentary ,,canal3 ,stomach ,chamber71 while a convexity1 known as the tuber omentale1 fits into the lesser curvature of that organ4 ,the posterior boundary of the quadrate lobe is the transverse fissure1 which is little more than an inch long and more than half an inch wide4 ,this fissure represents the hilum of the liver1 and contains the right and left hepatic ducts and the right and left branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein1 together with nerves and lymphatics1 the whole being enclosed in some condensed subperitoneal tissue known as ,glisson's capsule4 ,behind the transverse fissure the lower end of the ,spigelian lobe is seen as a knob called the tuber papillare1 and from the right of this a narrow bridge runs forward and to the right to join the ,spigelian lobe to the right lobe and to shut off the transverse fissure from that for the vena cava4 ,this is the caudate lobe4 ,the right surface of the liver is covered with peritoneum and is in contact with the diaphragm1 outside which are the pleura and lower ribs4 ,from its lower margin the right lateral ligament is reflected on to the diaphragm4 ,a similar fold passes from the tip of the left lobe as the left lateral ligament1 and both these are the lateral margins of the coronary ligament4 ,sometimes1 especially in women1 a tongue-shaped projection downward of the right lobe is found1 known as ,riedel's lobe2 it is of clinical interest as it may be mistaken for a tumour or floating kidney 7see ,c4 ,h4 ,leaf1 ,proc4 ,anat4 ,soc41 ,february #ahii2 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 vol4 #cc1 p4 ix474 ,the right and left hepatic ducts1 while still in the transverse fissure1 unite into a single duct which joins the cystic duct from the gall bladder at an acute angle4 ,when these have united the duct is known as the common bile duct1 and runs down to the second part of the duodenum 7see ,,alimentary ,,canal74 ,illustration3 ,from ,a4 ,birmingham ,cunningham's ,text-book of ,anatomy4 ,,fig4 #a4--,the ,liver from below and behind1 showing the whole of the visceral surface and the posterior area of the parietal surface4 ,the portal fissure has been slightly opened up to show the vessels passing through it2 the other fissures are represented in their natural condition--closed4 ,in this liver1 which was hardened in situ1 the impressions of the sacculations of the colon are distinctly visible at the colic impression4 ,the round ligament and the remains of the ductus venosus are hidden in the depths of their fissures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,transverse section through the hepatic lobules4 i1 i1 i1 ,interlobular veins ending in the intralobular capillaries4 c1 c1 ,central veins joined by the intralobular capillaries4 ,at a1 a the capillaries of one lobule communicate with those adjacent to it4 ,minute ,structure of the ,liver4--,the liver is made up of an enormous number of lobules of a conical form 7see fig4 #c74 ,if the portal vein is followed from the transverse fissure1 it will be seen to branch and rebranch until minute twigs called interlobular veins 7fig4 #b1 i7 ramify around the lobules4 ,from these intralobular capillaries run toward the centre of the lobule1 forming a network among the polygonal hepatic cells4 ,on reaching the core of the conical lobule they are collected into a central or intralobular vein 7fig4 #b1 c7 which unites with other similar ones to form a sublobular vein 7fig4 #c1 s74 ,these eventually reach the hepatic radicles1 and so the blood is conducted into the vena cava4 ,in man the lobules are not distinctly separated one from the other1 but in some animals1 e4g4 the pig1 each one has a fibrous sheath derived from ,glisson's capsule 7fig4 #c1 ct474 ,embryology4--,the liver first appears as an entodermal hollow longitudinal outgrowth from the duodenum into the ventral mesentery4 ,the upper part of this forms the future liver1 and grows up into the septum transversum from which the central part of the diaphragm is formed 7see ,,diaphragm74 ,from the cephalic part of this primary diverticulum solid rods of cells called the hepatic cylinders grow out1 and these branch again and again until a cellular network is formed surrounding and breaking up the umbilical and vitelline veins4 ,the liver cells1 therefore1 are entodermal1 but the supporting connective tissue mesodermal from the septum transversum4 ,the lower 7caudal7 part of the furrow-like outgrowth remains hollow and forms the gall bladder4 ,at first the liver is embedded in the septum transversum1 but later the diaphragm and it are constricted off one from the other1 and soon the liver becomes very large and fills the greater part of the abdomen4 ,at birth it is proportionately much larger than in the adult1 and forms one-eighteenth instead of one-fortieth of the body weight1 the right and left lobes being nearly equal in size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,vertical section through two hepatic lobules of a pig4 c1 c1 ,central veins receiving the intralobular capillaries4 s1 ,sublobular vein4 ct1 ,interlobular connective tissue forming the capsules of the lobules4 i1 i1 ,interlobular veins4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,in the ,acrania 7,amphioxus7 the liver is probably represented by a single ventral diverticulum from the anterior end of the intestine1 which has a hepatic portal circulation and secretes digestive fluid4 ,in all the ,craniata a solid liver is developed4 ,in the adult lamprey among the ,cyclostomata the liver undergoes retrogression1 and the bile ducts and gall bladder disappear1 though they are present in the larval form 7,ammocoetes74 ,in fishes and amphibians the organ consists of right and left lobes1 and a gall-bladder is present4 ,the same description applies to the reptiles1 but a curious network of cystic ducts is found in snakes and to a less extent in crocodiles4 ,in the ,varanidae 7,monitors7 the hepatic duct is also retiform 7see ,f4 ,e4 ,beddard1 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahhh1 p4 #aje74 ,in birds two lobes are also present1 but in some of them1 e4g4 the pigeon1 there is no gall-bladder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,diagrammatic ,plan of the ,inferior ,surface of a ,multi-lobed ,liver of a ,mammal4 ,the posterior or attached border is uppermost4 u1 ,umbilical vein of the foetus1 represented by the round ligament in the adult1 lying in the umbilical fissure4 dv1 ,the ductus venosus4 vc1 ,the inferior vena cava4 p1 ,the vena portae entering the transverse fissure4 llf1 ,the left lateral fissure4 rlf1 ,the right lateral fissure4 cf1 ,the cystic fissure4 ll1 ,the left lateral lobe4 lc1 ,the left central lobe4 rc1 ,the right central lobe4 rl1 ,the right lateral lobe4 s1 ,the ,spigelian lobe4 c1 ,the caudate lobe4 g1 ,the gall bladder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,human ,liver showing a reversion to the generalised mammalian type4 ,in mammals ,sir ,william ,flower pointed out that a generalized type of liver exists1 from which that of any mammal may be derived by suppression or fusion of lobes4 ,the accompanying diagram of ,flower 7fig4 #d7 represents an ideal mammalian liver4 ,it will be seen that the umbilical fissure 7u7 divides the organ into right and left halves1 as in the lower vertebrates1 but that the ventral part of each half is divided into a central and lateral lobe4 ,passing from right to left there are therefore3 right lateral 7rl71 right central 7rc71 left central 7lc71 and left lateral 7ll7 lobes4 ,the gall-bladder 7g71 when it is present1 is always situated on the caudal surface or in the substance of the right central lobe4 ,the ,spigelian 7s7 and caudate lobes 7c7 belong to the right half of the liver1 the latter being usually a leaf-shaped lobe attached by its stalk to the ,spigelian1 and having its blade flattened between the right lateral lobe and the right kidney4 ,the vena cava 7vc7 is always found to the right of the ,spigelian lobe and dorsal to the stalk of the caudate4 ,in tracing the lobulation of man's liver back to this generalized type1 it is evident at once that his quadrate lobe does not correspond to any one generalized lobe1 but is merely that part of the right central which lies between the gall bladder and the umbilical fissure4 ,from a careful study of human variations 7see ,a4 ,thomson1 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 vol4 #cc1 p4 #edf7 compared with an ,anthropoid liver1 such as that of the gorilla1 depicted by ,w4 ,h4 ,l4 ,duckworth 7,morphology and ,anthropology1 ,cambridge1 #aijd1 p4 #ih71 it is fairly clear that the human liver is formed1 not by a suppression of any of the lobes of the generalized type1 but by a fusion of those lobes and obliteration of certain fissures4 ,this fusion is1 probably correctly1 attributed by ,keith to the effect of pressure following the assumption of the erect position 7,keith1 ,proc4 ,anat4 ,soc4 of ,gt4 ,britain1 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 vol4 #cc1 p4 xii474 ,the accompanying diagram 7fig4 #e7 shows an abnormal human liver in the ,anatomical ,department of ,st ,thomas's ,hospital which reproduces the generalized type4 ,in its lobulation it is singularly like1 in many details1 that of the baboon 7,papio maimon7 figured by ,g4 ,ruge 7,morph4 ,jahrb41 ,bd4 #ce1 p4 #aig72 see ,f4 ,g4 ,parsons1 ,proc4 ,anat4 ,soc41 ,feb4 #aijd1 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 vol4 #cc1 p4 xxiii4 ,georg ,ruge ,die usseren ,formverhltnisse der ,leber bei den ,primaten1 7,morph4 ,jahrb41 ,bd4 #bi and #ce7 gives a critical study of the primate liver1 and among other things suggests the recognition of the ,spigelian and caudate lobes as parts of a single lobe1 for which he proposes the name of lobus venae cavae4 ,this doubtless would be an advantage morphologically1 though for human descriptive a natomy the present nomenclature is not likely to be altered4 ,the gall-bladder is usually present in mammals1 but is wanting in the odd-toed ungulates 7,perissodactyla7 and ,procavia 7,hyrax74 ,in the giraffe it may be absent or present4 ,the cetacea and a few rodents are also without it4 ,in the otter the same curious network of bile ducts already recorded in the reptiles is seen 7see ,p4 ,h4 ,burne1 ,proc4 ,anat4 ,soc41 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 vol4 #cc1 p4 xi474 7,f4 ,g4 ,p47 ,,surgery ,,of ,,liver ,,and ,,gall-,,bladder4--,exposed as it is in the upper part of the abdomen1 and being somewhat friable1 the human liver is often torn or ruptured by blows or kicks1 and1 the large blood-vessels being thus laid open1 fatal haemorrhage into the belly-cavity may take place4 ,the individual becomes faint1 and the faintness keeps on increasing2 and there are pain and tenderness in the liver-region4 ,the right thing to do is to open the belly in the middle line1 search for a wound in the liver and treat it by deep sutures1 or by plugging it with gauze4 ,cirrhosis of the ,liver4--,as the result of chronic irritation of the liver increased supplies of blood pass to it1 and if the irritation is unduly prolonged inflammation is the result4 ,the commonest causes of this chronic hepatitis are alcoholism and syphilis4 ,the new fibrous tissue which is developed throughout the liver1 as the result of the chronic inflammation1 causes general enlargement of the liver with1 perhaps1 nausea1 vomiting and jaundice4 ,later the new fibrous tissue undergoes contraction and the liver becomes smaller than natural4 ,blood then finds difficulty in passing through it1 and1 as a result1 dropsy occurs in the belly 7ascites74 ,this may be relieved by tapping the cavity with a small hollow needle 7,southey's trocar71 or by passing into it a large sharp-pointed tube4 ,this relieves the dropsy1 but it does not cure the condition on which the dropsy depends4 ,a surgical operation is sometimes undertaken with success for enabling the engorged veins to empty themselves into the blood-stream in a manner so as to avoid the liver-route4 ,inflammation of the ,liver 7hepatitis7 may also be caused by an attack of micro-organisms which have reached it through the veins coming from the large intestine1 or through the main arteries4 ,there are1 of course1 as the result1 pain and tenderness1 and there is often jaundice4 ,the case should be treated by rest in bed1 fomentations1 calomel and saline aperients4 ,but when the hepatitis is of septic origin1 suppuration is likely to occur1 the result being an hepatic abscess4 ,hepatic ,abscess is especially common in persons from the ,east who have recently undergone an attack of dysentery4 ,in addition to the local pain and tenderness1 there is a high temperature accompanied with shiverings or occasional rigors1 the patient becoming daily more thin and miserable4 ,sometimes the abscess declares itself by a bulging at the surface1 but if not an incision should be made through the belly-wall over the most tender spot1 and a direct examination of the surface of the liver made4 ,a bulging having been found1 that part of the liver which apparently overlies the abscess should be stitched up to the sides of the opening made in belly-wall1 and should then be explored by a hollow needle4 ,pus being found1 the abscess should be freely opened and drained4 ,it is inadvisable to explore for a suspected abscess with a hollow needle without first opening the abdomen1 as septic fluid might thus be enabled to leak out1 and infect the general peritoneal cavity4 ,if an hepatic abscess is injudiciously left to itself it may eventually discharge into the chest1 lungs or belly1 or it may establish a communication with a piece of intestine4 ,the only safe way for an abscess to evacuate itself is on to the surface of the body4 ,hydatic ,cysts are often met with in the liver4 ,they are due to a peculiar development of the eggs of the tape-worm of the dog1 which have been received into the alimentary canal with infected water or uncooked vegetables1 such as watercress4 ,the embryo of the taenia echinococcus finds its way from the stomach or intestine into a vein passing to the liver1 and1 settling itself in the liver1 causes so much disturbance there that a capsule of inflammatory material forms around it4 ,inside this wall is the special covering of the embryo which shortly becomes distended with clear hydatid fluid4 ,the cyst should be treated like a liver-abscess1 by incision through the abdominal or thoracic wall1 by circumferential suturing and by exploration and drainage4 ,tumours of the ,liver may be innocent or malignant4 ,the most important of the former is the gumma of tertiary syphilis2 this may steadily and completely disappear under the influence of iodide of potassium4 ,the commonest form of malignant tumour is the result of the growth of cancerous elements which have been brought to the liver by the veins coming up from a primary focus of the large intestine4 ,active surgical treatment of such a tumour is out of the question4 ,fortunately it is1 as a rule1 painless4 ,the ,gall-bladder may be ruptured by external violence1 and if bile escapes from the rent in considerable quantities peritonitis will be set up1 whether the bile contains septic germs or not4 ,if1 on opening the abdomen to find out what serious effects some severe injury has caused1 the gall-bladder be found torn1 the rent may be sewn up1 or1 if thought better1 the gall-bladder may be removed4 ,the peritoneal surfaces in the region of the liver should then be wiped clean1 and the abdominal wound closed1 except for the passage through it of a gauze drain4 ,biliary concretions1 known as gall stones1 are apt to form in the gall-bladder4 ,they are composed of crystals of bile-fat1 cholesterine4 ,sometimes in the course of a post-mortem examination a gall-bladder is found packed full of gall-stones which during life had caused no inconvenience and had given rise to no suspicion of their presence4 ,in other cases gall-stones set up irritation in the gall-bladder which runs on to inflammation1 and the gall-bladder being infected by septic germs from the intestine 7bacilli coli7 an abscess forms4 ,abscess of the ,gall-bladder gives rise to a painful1 tender swelling near the cartilage of the ninth rib of the right side4 ,if the abscess is allowed to take its course1 adhesions may form around it and it may burst into the intestine or on to the surface of the abdomen1 a biliary fistula remaining4 ,abscess in the gall-bladder being suspected1 an incision should be made down to it1 and1 its covering having been stitched to the abdominal wall1 the gall-bladder should be opened and drained4 ,the presence of concretions in the gall-bladder may not only lead to the formation of abscess but also to invasion of the gall-bladder by cancer4 ,stones in the gall-bladder should be removed by operation1 as1 if left1 there is a great risk of their trying to escape with the bile into the intestine and thus causing a blockage of the common bile-duct1 and perhaps a fatal leakage of bile into the peritoneum through a perforating ulcer of the duct4 ,if before opening the gall-bladder the surface is stitched to the deepest part of the abdominal wound1 the biliary fistula left as the result of the opening of the abscess will close in due course4 ,biliary colic is the name given to the distressing symptoms associated with the passage of a stone through the narrow bile-duct4 ,the individual is doubled up with acute pains which1 starting from the hepatic region1 spread through the abdomen and radiate to the right shoulder blade4 ,inasmuch as the stone is blocking the duct1 the bile is unable to flow into the intestine2 so1 being absorbed by the blood-vessels1 it gives rise to jaundice4 ,the distress is due to spasmodic muscular contraction1 and it comes on at intervals1 each attack increasing the patient's misery4 ,he breaks out into profuse sweats and may vomit4 ,if the stone happily finds its way into the intestine the distress suddenly ceases4 ,in the meanwhile relief may be afforded by fomentations1 and by morphia or chloroform1 but if no prospect of the stone escaping into the intestine appears likely1 the surgeon will be called upon to remove it by an incision through the gall-bladder1 or the bile-duct1 or through the intestine at the spot where it is trying to make its escape4 ,sometimes a gall-stone which has found its way into the intestine is large enough to block the bowel and give rise to intestinal obstruction which demands abdominal section4 ,a person who is of what used to be called a biliary nature should live sparingly and take plenty of exercise4 ,he should avoid fat and rich food1 butter1 pastry and sauces1 and should drink no beer or wine--unless it be some very light ,french wine or ,moselle4 ,he should keep his bowels regular1 or even loose1 taking every morning a dose of sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water4 ,a course at ,carlsbad1 ,vichy or ,contrexville1 may be helpful4 ,it is doubtful if drugs have any direct influence upon gall-stones1 such as sulphate of soda1 olive oil or oleate of soda4 ,no reliance can be placed upon massage in producing the onward passage of a gall-stone from the gall-bladder towards the intestine4 ,indeed this treatment might be not only distressing but harmful4 7,e4 ,o4997 ,,livermore1 ,,mary ,,ashton ,,rice 7#ahba-aije71 ,american reformer1 was born in ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 on the #aith of ,december #ahba4 ,she studied at the female seminary at ,charlestown1 ,mass42 taught ,french and ,latin there1 taught in a plantation school in southern ,virginia2 and for three years conducted a school of her own in ,duxbury1 ,mass4 ,upon returning from ,virginia she had joined the abolitionists1 and she took an active part in the ,washingtonian temperance movement4#a ,in #ahde she married ,daniel ,parker ,livermore 7#ahai-ahii71 a ,universalist clergyman4 ,in #aheg they removed to ,chicago1 ,illinois1 where she assisted her husband in editing the religious weekly1 ,the ,new ,covenant 7#aheg-ahfi74 ,during the ,civil ,war1 as an associate member of the ,united ,states ,sanitary ,commission1 and as an agent of its ,north-western branch1 she organized many aid societies1 contributed to the success of the ,north-western ,sanitary ,fair in ,chicago in #ahfc1 and visited army posts and hospitals4 ,after the war she devoted herself to the promotion of woman's suffrage and to temperance reform1 founding in ,chicago in #ahfi ,the ,agitator1 which in #ahgj was merged into the ,woman's ,journal 7,boston71 of which she was an associate editor until #ahgb4 ,she died in ,melrose1 ,mass4 on the #bcrd of ,may #aije4 ,she had been president of the ,illinois1 the ,massachusetts and the ,american woman's suffrage associations1 the ,massachusetts ,woman's ,christian ,temperance ,union and the ,woman's ,congress1 and a member of many other societies4 ,she lectured in the ,united ,states1 ,england and ,scotland1 contributed to magazines and wrote3 ,the ,children's ,army 7#ahdd71 temperance stories2 ,thirty ,years ,too ,late 7#ahdh71 a temperance story2 ,a ,mental ,transformation 7#ahdh72 ,pen ,pictures 7#ahfc71 short stories2 ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,with ,our ,daughters8 and ,other ,lectures 7#ahhc72 ,my ,story of the ,war 7#ahhh72 and ,the ,story of ,my ,life 7#ahig74 ,with ,frances ,e4 ,willard1 she edited ,a ,woman of the ,century3 ,biographical ,sketches of ,leading ,american ,women 7#ahic74 ,,footnote3 #a ,this movement was started in #ahdj by habitus of a ,baltimore 7,md47 tavern1 who then founded the ,washington ,temperance ,society 7named in honour of ,george ,washington74 ,the movement spread rapidly in #ahda-ahdc1 but by the close of #ahdc it had nearly spent its force4 ,the members of the ,society made a pledge not to drink spirituous or malt liquors1 wine or cider4 ,women organized ,martha ,washington ,societies as auxiliary organizations4 ,,liverpool1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,,charles ,,jenkinson1 #ast earl of ,liverpool 7#agbi-ahjh71 ,english statesman1 eldest son of ,colonel ,charles ,jenkinson 7d4 #agej7 and grandson of ,sir ,robert ,jenkinson1 ,bart41 of ,walcot1 ,oxfordshire1 was born at ,winchester on the #afth of ,may #agbi4 ,the family was descended from ,anthony ,jenkinson 7d4 #afaa71 sea-captain1 merchant and traveller1 the first ,englishman to penetrate into ,central ,asia4 ,charles was educated at ,charterhouse school and ,university ,college1 ,oxford1 where he graduated ,m4,a4 in #ageb4 ,in #agfa he entered parliament as member for ,cockermouth and was made under-secretary of state by ,lord ,bute2 he won the favour of ,george ,,iii41 and when ,bute retired ,jenkinson became the leader of the king's friends in the ,house of ,commons4 ,in #agfc ,george ,grenville appointed him joint secretary to the treasury2 in #agff1 after a short retirement1 he became a lord of the admiralty and then a lord of the treasury in the ,grafton administration2 and from #aggh until the close of ,lord ,north's ministry in #aghb he was secretary-at-war4 ,from #aghf to #ahja he was president of the board of trade and chancellor of the duchy of ,lancaster1 and he was popularly regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a special degree4 ,in #aggb ,jenkinson became a privy councillor and vice-treasurer of ,ireland1 and in #agge he purchased the lucrative sinecure of clerk of the pells in ,ireland and became master of the mint4 ,in #aghf he was created ,baron ,hawkesbury1 and ten years later earl of ,liverpool4 ,he died in ,london on the #agth of ,december #ahjh4 ,liverpool was twice married3 firstly to ,amelia 7d4 #aggj71 daughter of ,william ,watts1 governor of ,fort ,william1 ,bengal1 and secondly to ,catherine1 daughter of ,sir ,cecil ,bisshoff1 ,bart41 and widow of ,sir ,charles ,cope1 ,bart42 he had a son by each marriage4 ,he wrote several political works1 but except his ,treatise on the ,coins of the ,realm 7#ahje7 these are without striking merits4 ,they are1 ,dissertation on the establishment of a national and constitutional force in ,england independent of a standing army 7#agef72 ,discourse on the conduct of the government of ,great ,britain respecting neutral nations 7#ageh1 new ed41 #ahcg72 and ,collection of ,treaties between ,great ,britain and other ,powers #afdh-aghc 7#aghe74 ,his ,coins of the ,realm was reprinted by the ,bank of ,england in #ahhj4 ,his son1 ,,robert ,,banks ,,jenkinson1 #bnd earl 7#aggj-ahbh71 was educated at ,charterhouse and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 where he had ,george ,canning1 afterwards his close political associate1 for a contemporary4 ,in #agij he entered parliament as member for ,appleby2 he became master of the mint in #agii and foreign secretary in ,addington's administration in #ahja1 when he conducted the negotiations for the abortive treaty of ,amiens4 ,on the accession of ,pitt to power in #ahjd1 he obtained the home office1 having in the previous year been elevated as ,baron ,hawkesbury to the ,house of ,lords1 where he acted as leader of the government4 ,he declined the premiership on the death of ,pitt in #ahjf1 and remained out of office until ,portland became prime minister in #ahjg1 when he again became secretary of state for home affairs4 ,in #ahjh he succeeded his father as earl of ,liverpool4 ,in the ministry of ,spencer ,perceval 7#ahji-ahab7 he was secretary for war and the colonies4 ,after the assassination of ,perceval in ,may #ahab he became prime minister1 and retained office till compelled in ,february #ahbg to resign by the illness 7paralysis7 which terminated his life on the #dth of ,december #ahbh4 ,the political career of the #bnd ,lord ,liverpool was of a negative character so far as legislation was concerned2 but he held office in years of great danger and depression1 during which he kept order among his colleagues1 composed their quarrels1 and oiled the wheels to make it possible for the machinery of government to work 7,spencer ,walpole74 ,the energy of ,castlereagh and ,canning secured the success of the foreign policy of his cabinet1 but in his home policy he was always retrograde4 ,the introduction of the bill of pains and penalties against ,queen ,caroline greatly increased his unpopularity1 originated by the severe measures of repression employed to quell the general distress1 which had been created by the excessive taxation which followed the ,napoleonic wars4 ,lord ,liverpool was destitute of wide sympathies and of true political insight1 and his resignation of office was followed almost immediately by the complete and permanent reversal of his domestic policy4 ,he was twice married but had no children1 and he was succeeded by his half-brother ,,charles ,,cecil ,,cope ,,jenkinson1 #crd earl 7#aghd-ahea71 who left three daughters4 ,the baronetcy then passed to a cousin1 and the peerage became extinct4 ,but in #aije the earldom was revived in the person of the #crd earl's grandson1 ,,cecil ,,george ,,savile ,,foljambe 7#ahdf-aijg71 who had been a ,liberal member of parliament from #ahhj to #ahib1 and in #ahic was created ,baron ,hawkesbury4 ,he was succeeded in #aijg by his son1 ,arthur 7b4 #ahgj74 ,for the life of the #bnd earl see the anonymous ,memoirs of the ,public ,life and ,administration of ,liverpool 7#ahbg72 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,life and ,administration of the #bnd ,earl of ,liverpool 7#ahfh72 ,t4 ,e4 ,kebbel1 ,history of ,toryism 7#ahhf72 and ,sir ,s4 ,walpole1 ,history of ,england1 vol4 ii4 7#ahij74 ,,liverpool1 a city1 municipal1 county and parliamentary borough1 and seaport of ,lancashire1 ,england1 #bja m4 ,n4,w4 of ,london by rail1 situated on the right bank of the estuary of the ,mersey1 the centre of the city being about #c m4 from the open sea4 ,the form of the city is that of an irregular semicircle1 having the base line formed by the docks and quays extending about #i m4 along the east bank of the estuary1 which here runs nearly north and south1 and varies in breadth from #a to #b m4 ,on the north the city is partly bounded by the borough of ,bootle1 along the shore of which the line of docks is continued4 ,the area of the city is #af1fai acres exclusive of water area4 ,the population at the census of #aija was #fhd1ieh2 the estimated population in #aijh was #gec1bjc2 the birth-rate for #aijg was #ca4g and the death-rate #ah4c2 in #aijh the rateable value was #d1fgi1ebj4 ,illustration3 ,liverpool ,map4 ,the city lies on a continuous slope varying in gradient1 but in some districts very steep4 ,exposed to the western sea breezes1 with a dry subsoil and excellent natural drainage1 the site is naturally healthy4 ,the old borough1 lying between the pool1 now completely obliterated1 and the river1 was a conglomeration of narrow alleys without any regard to sanitary provisions2 and during the #afth and #agth centuries it was several times visited by plague4 ,when the town expanded beyond its original limits1 and spread up the slopes beyond the pool1 a better state of things began to exist4 ,the older parts of the town have at successive periods been entirely taken down and renovated4 ,the commercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial piles of offices1 built chiefly of stone1 among which the banks and insurance offices stand pre-eminent4 ,the demand for cottages about the beginning of the #aith century led to the construction of what are called courts1 being narrow culs de sac1 close packed1 with no through ventilation4 ,this resulted in a high rate of mortality1 to contend with which enormous sums have been expended in sanitary reforms of various kinds4 ,the more modern cottages and blocks of artisan dwellings have tended to reduce the rate of mortality4 ,parks4--,the earliest public park1 the ,prince's ,park1 was laid out in #ahdc by private enterprise1 and is owned by trustees1 but the reversion has been acquired by the corporation4 ,sefton ,park1 the most extensive1 containing #bfi acres1 was opened in #ahgb4 ,a large portion of the land round the margin has been leased for the erection of villas4 ,wavertree1 ,newsham1 ,sheil and ,stanley ,parks have also been constructed at the public expense4 ,connected with ,wavertree ,park are the botanic gardens4 ,a palm house in ,sefton ,park was opened in #ahif and a conservatory in ,stanley ,park in #aijj4 ,since #ahhb several of the city churchyards and burial grounds and many open spaces have been laid out as gardens and recreation grounds4 ,a playground containing #ajh acres in ,wavertree was presented to the city in #ahie by an anonymous donor1 and in #aijb the grounds of a private residence outside the city boundaries containing #id acres were acquired and are now known as ,calderstones ,park4 ,in #aijf about #ajj acres of land in ,roby1 also outside the boundaries1 was presented to the city4 ,the total area of the parks and gardens of the city1 not including the two last named1 is #hha acres4 ,a boulevard about #a m4 in length1 planted with trees in the centre1 leads to the entrance of ,prince's ,park4 ,public ,buildings4--,scarcely any of the public buildings date from an earlier period than the #aith century4 ,one of the earliest1 and in many respects the most interesting1 is the town-hall in ,castle ,street4 ,this was erected from the designs of ,john ,wood of ,bath1 and was opened in #aged4 ,the building has since undergone considerable alterations and extensions1 but the main features remain4 ,it is a rectangular stone building in the ,corinthian style1 with an advanced portico added to the original building in #ahaa1 and crowned with a lofty dome surmounted by a seated statue of ,britannia1 added in #ahjb4 ,the interior was destroyed by fire in #agie1 and was entirely remodelled in the restoration4 ,in #aijj considerable alterations in the internal structure were made1 and the council chamber extended so as to afford accommodation for the enlarged council4 ,it contains a splendid suite of apartments1 including a ball-room approached by a noble staircase4 ,the building is occupied by the mayor as the municipal mansion house4 ,a range of municipal offices was erected in ,dale ,street in #ahfj4 ,the building is in the ,palladian style1 with a dominating tower and square pyramidal spire4 ,the crowning architectural feature of ,liverpool is ,st ,george's ,hall1 completed in #ahed4 ,the original intention was to erect a hall suited for the triennial music festivals which had been held in the town4 ,about the same time the corporation proposed to erect law-courts for the assizes1 which had been transferred to ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,in the competitive designs1 the first prize was gained in both cases by ,harvey ,lonsdale ,elmes4 ,he was employed to combine the two objects in a new design1 of which the present building is the outcome4 ,it is fortunate in its situation1 occupying the most central position in the town1 and surrounded by an area sufficiently extensive to exhibit its proportions1 an advantage which was accentuated in #ahih by the removal of ,st ,john's church1 which previously prevented an uninterrupted view of the west side4 ,the plan is simple4 ,the centre is occupied by the great hall1 #afi ft4 in length1 and1 with the galleries1 #hg ft4 wide and #gd ft4 high1 covered with a solid vault in masonry4 ,attached to each end1 and opening therefrom1 are the law-courts4 ,a corridor runs round the hall and the courts1 communicating with the various accessory rooms4 ,externally the east front is faced with a fine portico of sixteen ,corinthian columns about #fj ft4 in height4 ,an advanced portico of similar columns fronts the south end crowned with a pediment filled with sculpture4 ,the style is ,roman1 but the refinement of the details is suggestive of the best period of ,grecian art4 ,the great hall is finished with polished granite columns1 marble balustrades and pavements1 polished brass doors with foliated tracery4 ,the fine organ was built by ,messrs ,willis of ,london1 from the specification of ,dr ,samuel ,wesley4 ,elmes having died in #ahdg during the progress of the work1 the building was completed by ,c4 ,r4 ,cockerell1 ,r4,a4 ,next to the public buildings belonging to the city1 the most important is the exchange1 forming three sides of a quadrangle on the north side of the town-hall4 ,the town-hall was originally built to combine a mercantile exchange with municipal offices1 but the merchants preferred to meet in the open street adjoining4 ,this1 with other circumstances1 led to the erection of a new exchange1 a building of considerable merit1 which was begun in #ahjc and opened in #ahjh4 ,it had scarcely been in use for more than fifty years when it was found that the wants of commerce had outstripped the accommodation1 and the structure was taken down to make room for the present building4 ,the revenue buildings1 begun in #ahbh on the site of the original ,liverpool dock1 formerly combined the customs1 inland revenue1 post-office and dock board departments but are now only used by the two first named4 ,it is a heavy structure1 with three advanced porticoes in the ,ilyssus ,ionic style4 ,near by stands the sailors' home1 a large building in the ,elizabethan style4 ,the ,philharmonic ,hall in ,hope ,street1 with not much pretension externally1 is one of the finest music rooms in the kingdom2 it accommodates an audience of about #bejj4 ,the group of buildings forming the county sessions house1 the free public library1 museum1 central technical school and gallery of art are finely situated on the slope to the north of ,st ,george's ,hall4 ,the library and gallery of art are separate buildings1 connected by the circular reading-room in the middle4 ,the latter possesses some features in construction worthy of note1 having a circular floor #ajj ft4 in diameter without columns or any intermediate support1 and a lecture-room underneath1 amphitheatrical in form1 with grades or benches hewn out of the solid rock4 ,in #ahhd the county sessions house just mentioned1 adjoining the art gallery was opened for public business4 ,in #ahii new post-office buildings in ,victoria ,street were completed4 ,in #aijg two important additions were made to the buildings of ,liverpool1 the new offices of the dock board1 built on the site of a portion of the ,old ,george's dock1 and the new cotton exchange in ,oldhall street4 ,the fine mass of buildings which constitute the university and the ,royal ,infirmary1 lying between ,brownlow ,hill and ,pembroke ,place1 both groups designed by ,alfred ,waterhouse1 was begun in #ahhe4 ,liverpool cathedral1 intended when completed to be the largest in the country1 from designs by ,g4 ,f4 ,bodley and ,g4 ,gilbert ,scott1 was begun in #aijd1 when the foundation stone was laid by ,king ,edward ,,vii4 ,the foundations were completed in #aijf and the superstructure begun4 ,the foundation of the chapter-house was laid in that year by the duke of ,connaught1 and work was then begun on the ,lady chapel1 the vestries and the choir4 ,railways4--,there are three terminal passenger stations in ,liverpool1 the ,london ,north ,western at ,lime ,street1 the ,lancashire ,yorkshire at ,exchange and the combined station of the ,midland1 ,great ,northern ,great ,central at ,central4 ,by the ,mersey tunnel 7opened in #ahhf7 connexion is made with the ,wirral railway1 the ,great ,central1 the ,great ,western and the ,london ,north ,western1 on the ,cheshire side of the river4 ,the ,liverpool electric overhead railway running along the line of docks from ,seaforth to ,dingle was opened in #ahic1 and in #aije a junction was made with the ,lancashire and ,yorkshire railway by which through passenger traffic between ,southport and the ,dingle has been established4 ,in #ahie the ,riverside station at the ,prince's dock was completed1 giving direct access from the landing stage to the ,london and ,north ,western system4 ,water ,supply4--,the original supply of water was from wells in the sandstone rock1 but in #ahdg an act was passed1 under which extensive works were constructed at ,rivington1 about #be m4 distant1 and a much larger supply was obtained4 ,the vast increase of population led to further requirements1 and in #ahhj another act gave power to impound the waters of the ,vyrnwy1 one of the affluents of the ,severn4 ,these works were completed in #ahib1 a temporary supply having been obtained a year earlier4 ,the corporation had also1 however1 obtained power to impound the waters of the ,conwy and ,marchnant rivers1 and to bring them into ,lake ,vyrnwy1 the main reservoir1 by means of tunnels4 ,this work was completed and opened by the prince of ,wales 7,george ,v47 in ,march #aiaj4 ,tramways4--,the corporation in #ahif purchased the property1 rights1 powers and privileges of the ,liverpool ,electric ,supply ,company1 and in the following year the undertaking of the ,liverpool ,tramway ,company1 which they formally took over in the autumn of the same year4 ,since that date a large and extended system of electric tramways has been laid down1 which has led to a very remarkable increase in the receipts and the number of passengers carried4 ,administration of ,justice4--,the city has quarter-sessions for criminal cases1 presided over by the recorder1 and held eight times in the year4 ,at least two police courts sit daily1 and more if required4 ,one is presided over by the stipendiary magistrate and the others by the lay magistrates and the coroner4 ,the court of passage is a very ancient institution1 possibly dating from the foundation of the borough by ,king ,john1 and intended for cases arising out of the imports and exports passing through the town4 ,its jurisdiction has been confirmed and settled by parliament and it is competent to try civil cases arising within the city to any amount4 ,the mayor is ex-officio the judge1 but the presiding judge is an assessor appointed by the crown and paid by the corporation4 ,the court sits about five times a year4 ,there is a ,liverpool district registry of the chancery of the ,county ,palatine of ,lancaster which has concurrent jurisdiction with the high court 7chancery division7 within the hundred of ,west ,derby4 ,the vice-chancellor holds sittings in ,liverpool4 ,there is a ,liverpool district registry of the high court of justice with common law1 chancery1 probate and admiralty jurisdiction1 under two district registrars4 ,the ,liverpool county court has the usual limited jurisdiction over a wide local area1 together with bankruptcy jurisdiction over the county court districts of ,st ,helens1 ,widnes1 ,ormskirk and ,southport1 and admiralty jurisdiction over the same districts with the addition of ,birkenhead1 ,chester1 ,runcorn and ,warrington4 ,there are two judges attached to the court4 ,ecclesiastical4--,the see of ,liverpool was created in #ahhj under the act of #ahgi1 by the authority of the ecclesiastical commissioners1 an endowment fund of about #ajj1jjj having been subscribed for the purpose4 ,the parish1 which was separated from ,walton-on-the-,hill in #afii1 contained two churches1 ,st ,nicholas1 the ancient chapel1 and ,st ,peter's1 then built4 ,there were two rectors1 the living being held in medieties4 ,of recent years changes have been sanctioned by parliament4 ,the living is now held by a single incumbent1 and a large number of the churches which have since been built have been formed into parishes by the ecclesiastical commissioners4 ,st ,peter's has been constituted the pro-cathedral1 pending the erection of the cathedral4 ,besides the two original parish churches1 there are #ajc others belonging to the establishment4 ,the ,roman ,catholics form a very numerous and powerful body in the city1 and it is estimated that from a third to a fourth of the entire population are ,roman ,catholics4 ,a large part of these are ,irish settlers or their descendants1 but this district of ,lancashire has always been a stronghold of ,roman ,catholicism1 many of the landed gentry belonging to old ,roman ,catholic families4 ,charities4--,the earliest charitable foundation is the ,blue ,coat hospital1 established in #agjh1 for orphans and fatherless children born within the borough4 ,the original building1 opened in #agah1 is a quaint and characteristic specimen of the architecture of the period4 ,it now maintains two hundred and fifty boys and one hundred girls4 ,in #aijf the school was removed to new buildings at ,wavertree4 ,there is an orphan asylum1 established in #ahdj1 for boys1 girls and infants1 and a seamen's orphan asylum1 begun in #ahfi1 for boys and girls4 ,the ,roman ,catholics have similar establishments4 ,the ,liverpool dispensaries founded in #aggh were among the pioneers of medical charity4 ,the ,royal ,infirmary 7opened in #agdi7 had a school of medicine attached1 which has been very successful1 and is now merged in the university4 ,the sailors' home1 opened in #aheb1 designed to provide board1 lodging and medical attendance at a moderate charge for the seamen frequenting the port1 is one of ,liverpool's best-known charities4 ,the ,david ,lewis ,workmen's ,hostel is an effort to solve the difficulty of providing accommodation for unmarried men of the artizan class4 ,literature1 ,art and ,science4--,the free library1 museum and gallery of arts1 established and managed by the city council1 was originated in #ahej4 ,the first library building was erected by ,sir ,william ,brown4 ,the ,derby museum1 containing the collections of ,edward1 the #acth earl1 was presented by his son4 ,the ,mayer museum of historical antiquities and art was contributed by ,mr ,joseph ,mayer1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,sir ,andrew ,walker 7d4 #ahic7 erected in #ahgg the art gallery which bears his name4 ,large additions were made in #ahhd1 the cost being again defrayed by ,sir ,andrew ,walker4 ,an annual exhibition of painting is held in the autumn and a permanent collection has been formed1 which was augmented in #ahid when the examples of early ,italian art numbering altogether about #ahj pictures1 collected at the beginning of the #aith century by ,william ,roscoe1 were deposited in the gallery4 ,the ,picton circular reading-room1 and the rotunda lecture-room were built by the corporation and opened in #ahgi4 ,alterations in the museum were completed in #aijb by which its size was practically doubled4 ,the literary and philosophical society was established in #ahab4 ,the ,royal ,institution1 established mainly through the efforts of ,roscoe in #ahag1 possessed a fine gallery of early art in the ,walker ,art ,gallery1 and is the centre of the literary institutions of the town4 ,education4--,sunday schools were founded for poor children in #aghd1 as the result of a town's meeting4 ,these were soon followed by day-schools supplied by the various denominations4 ,the first were the ,old ,church schools in ,moorfields 7#aghi71 the ,unitarian schools in ,mount ,pleasant 7#agij7 and ,manesty ,lane 7#agib7 and the ,wesleyan ,brunswick school 7#agij74 ,in #ahbf the corporation founded two elementary schools1 one of which1 the ,north ,corporation school1 was erected in part substitution for the grammar school founded by ,john ,crosse1 rector of ,st ,nicholas ,fleshshambles1 ,london1 a native of ,liverpool1 in #aeae1 and carried on by the ,corporation until #ahae4 ,from this date onward the number rapidly increased until the beginning of the ,school ,board in #ahgj1 and afterwards4 ,mention should be made of the training ship ,indefatigable moored in the ,mersey for the sons and orphans of sailors1 and the reformatory institution at ,heswall1 ,co4 ,chester1 which has recently replaced the training ship ,akbar formerly moored in the ,mersey4 ,semi-private schools were founded by public subscription--the ,royal ,institution school 7#ahai71 the ,liverpool ,institute 7#ahbe7 and the ,liverpool ,college 7#ahdj74 ,the first has ceased to exist4 ,the ,institute was a development of the ,mechanics' ,institute and was managed by a council of subscribers4 ,it was divided into a high school and a commercial school4 ,under a scheme of the ,board of ,education under the ,charitable ,trusts ,act this school1 together with the ,blackburne ,house high school for girls1 became a public secondary school and was handed over to the corporation in #aije4 ,liverpool ,college was formerly divided into three schools1 upper1 middle and lower1 for different classes of the community4 ,the middle and lower schools passed into the control of the corporation in #aijg4 ,the ,sefton ,park elementary school and the ,pupil ,teachers' ,college in ,clarence ,street were transformed into municipal secondary schools for boys and girls in #aijg2 the corporation has also a secondary school for girls at ,aigburth4 ,there are several schools maintained by the ,roman ,catholics1 two schools of the ,girls' ,public ,day ,school ,company and a large number of private schools4 ,a cadet ship1 the ,conway1 for the training of boys intending to become officers in the mercantile marine1 is moored in the ,mersey4 ,there are two training colleges for women1 one undenominational1 and the other conducted by the sisters of ,notre ,dame for ,roman ,catholic women4 ,the central municipal technical school is in the ,museum ,buildings1 and there are three branch technical schools4 ,there are also a nautical college1 a school of cookery and a school of art controlled by the ,education ,committee4 ,liverpool ,university1 as ,university ,college1 received its charter of incorporation in #ahha1 and in #ahhd was admitted as a college of the ,victoria ,university4 ,in the same year the medical school of the ,royal ,infirmary became part of the ,university ,college4 ,in #aijj a supplemental charter extended the powers of self-government and brought the college into closer relations with the authorities of the city and with local institutions by providing for their fuller representation on the court of governors4 ,in #aijc the charter of incorporation of the university of ,liverpool was received1 thus constituting it an independent university4 ,the university is governed by the king as visitor1 by a chancellor1 two pro-chancellors1 a vice-chancellor and a treasurer1 by a court of over #cjj members representing donors and public bodies1 a council1 senate1 faculties and convocation4 ,the fine group of buildings is situated on ,brownlow ,hill4 ,trade and ,commerce4--,in #ahjj the tonnage of ships entering the port was #dij1jfj2 in #aijh it reached #ag1aaa1had tons4 ,in #ahjj #dgdf vessels entered1 averaging #id tons2 in #aijh there were #be1gci1 averaging #ffe tons4 ,the commerce of ,liverpool extends to every part of the world1 but probably the intercourse with ,north ,america stands pre-eminent1 there being lines of steamers to ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,boston1 ,baltimore1 ,galveston1 ,new ,orleans and the ,canadian ports4 ,cotton is the great staple import4 ,grain comes next1 ,american 7,north and ,south7 and ,australian wheat and oats occupying a large proportion of the market4 ,an enormous trade in ,american provisions1 including live cattle1 is carried on4 ,tobacco has always been a leading article of import into ,liverpool1 along with the sugar and rum from the ,west ,indies4 ,timber forms an important part of the imports1 the stacking yards extending for miles along the northern docks4 ,in regard to exports1 ,liverpool possesses decided advantages2 lying so near the great manufacturing districts of ,lancashire and the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 this port is the natural channel of transmission for their goods1 although the ,manchester ship canal diverts a certain proportion of the traffic1 while coal and salt are also largely exported4 ,manufactures4--,the manufactures of ,liverpool are not extensive4 ,attempts have been repeatedly made to establish cotton mills in and near the city1 but have resulted in failure4 ,engineering works1 especially connected with marine navigation1 have grown up on a large scale4 ,shipbuilding1 in the early part of the #aith century1 was active and prosperous1 but has practically ceased4 ,during the latter half of the #ahth century and the beginning of the #aith1 pottery and china manufacture flourished in ,liverpool4 ,john ,sadler1 a ,liverpool manufacturer1 was the inventor of printing on pottery1 and during the early period of ,josiah ,wedgwood's career all his goods which required printing had to be sent to ,liverpool4 ,a large establishment1 called the ,herculaneum ,pottery1 was founded in a suburb on the bank of the ,mersey1 but the trade has long disappeared4 ,litherland1 the inventor of the lever watch1 was a ,liverpool manufacturer1 and ,liverpool-made watches have always been held in high estimation4 ,there are several extensive sugar refineries and corn mills4 ,the confectionery trade has developed during recent years1 several large works having been built1 induced by the prospect of obtaining cheap sugar directly from the ,liverpool quays4 ,the cutting1 blending and preparing of crude tobacco have led to the erection of factories employing some thousands of hands4 ,there are also large mills for oil-pressing and making cattle-cake4 ,docks4--,the docks of the port of ,liverpool on both sides of the ,mersey are owned and managed by the same public trust1 the ,mersey ,docks and ,harbour ,board4 ,on the ,liverpool side they extend along the margin of the estuary #f m41 of which #a m4 is in the borough of ,bootle4 ,the ,birkenhead docks have not such a frontage1 but they extend a long way backward4 ,the water area of the ,liverpool docks and basins is #dah acres1 with a lineal quayage of #bg m4 ,the ,birkenhead docks1 including the great float of #abj acres1 contain a water area of #afe acres1 with a lineal quayage of #i m4 ,the system of enclosed docks was begun by the corporation in #agji4 ,they constituted from the first a public trust1 the corporation never having derived any direct revenue from them1 though the common council of the borough were the trustees1 and in the first instance formed the committee of management4 ,gradually the payers of dock rates on ships and goods acquired influence1 and were introduced into the governing body1 and ultimately1 by an act of #aheg1 the corporation was superseded4 ,the management is vested in the ,mersey ,docks and ,harbour ,board1 consisting of twenty-eight members1 four of whom are nominated by the ,mersey ,conservancy commissioners1 who consist of the first lord of the ,admiralty1 the chancellor of the duchy of ,lancaster and the president of the ,board of ,trade1 and the rest elected by the payers of rates on ships and goods1 of whom a register is kept and annually revised4 ,the revenue is derived from tonnage rates on ships1 dock rates on goods1 town dues on goods1 with various minor sources of income4 ,down to #ahdc the docks were confined to the ,liverpool side of the ,mersey4 ,several attempts made to establish docks in ,cheshire had been frustrated by the ,liverpool corporation1 who bought up the land and kept it in their own hands4 ,in #ahdc1 however1 a scheme for docks in ,birkenhead was carried through which ultimately proved unsuccessful1 and the enterprise was acquired in #ahee by ,liverpool4 ,the ,birkenhead docks were for many years only partially used1 but are now an important centre for corn-milling1 the importation of foreign cattle and export trade to the ,east4 ,in addition to the wet docks1 there are in ,liverpool fourteen graving docks and three in ,birkenhead1 besides a gridiron on the ,liverpool side4 ,the first portion of the great landing stage1 known as the ,georges' stage1 was constructed in #ahdg1 from the plans of ,mr 7afterwards ,sir7 ,william ,cubitt1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,this was #ejj ft4 long4 ,in #aheg the ,prince's stage1 #ajjj ft4 long1 was built to the north of the ,georges' stage and distant from it #ejj ft4 ,in #ahgd the intervening space was filled up and the ,georges' stage reconstructed4 ,the fabric had just been completed1 and was waiting to be inaugurated1 when on the #bhth of ,july #ahgd it was destroyed by fire4 ,it was again constructed with improvements4 ,in #ahif it was farther extended to the north1 and its length is now #bdgh ft4 and its breadth #hj ft4 ,it is supported on floating pontoons about #bjj in number1 connected with the river wall by eight bridges1 besides a floating bridge for heavy traffic #eej ft4 in length and #ce ft4 in width4 ,the southern half is devoted to the traffic of the ,mersey ferries1 of which there are seven--,new ,brighton1 ,egremont1 ,seacombe1 ,birkenhead1 ,rock ,ferry1 ,new ,ferry and ,eastham4 ,the northern half is used by ocean-going steamers and their tenders4 ,the warehouses for storing produce form a prominent feature in the commercial part of the city4 ,down to #ahda these were entirely in private hands1 distributed as chance might direct1 but in that year a determined effort was made to construct docks with warehouses on the margin of the quays4 ,this met with considerable opposition from those interested1 and led to a municipal revolution1 but the project was ultimately carried out in the construction of the ,albert dock and warehouses1 which were opened by ,prince ,albert in #ahde4 ,for general produce these warehouses are falling somewhat into disuse1 but grain warehouses have been constructed by the dock board at ,liverpool and ,birkenhead1 with machinery for discharging1 elevating1 distributing1 drying and delivering4 ,warehouses for the storage of tobacco and wool have also been built by the board4 ,the ,stanley tobacco warehouse is the largest of its kind in the world1 the area of its fourteen floors being some #cf acres4 ,dredging operations at the bar of the ,queen's channel1 in the channel itself and at the landing stage enables the largest ocean liners to enter the river and approach the stage at practically all states of the tide4 ,the dredging at the bar was begun as an experiment in ,september #ahij by two of the board's ordinary hopper barges of #ejj tons capacity each fitted with centrifugal pumps4 ,the result was favourable1 and larger vessels have been introduced4 ,before dredging was begun the depth of water at dead low water of spring tides on the bar was only #aa ft42 now there is about #bh ft4 under the same conditions4 ,the space over which dredging has been carried on at the bar measures about #gjjj ft4 by #abej ft41 the latter being the average width of the buoyed cut or channel through the bar4 ,dredging has also taken place on shoals and projections of sand-banks in the main sea channels4 ,municipality4--,under the ,municipal ,reform ,act of #ahce1 the boundaries of the original borough were extended by the annexation of portions of the surrounding district1 while further additions were made in #ahie1 #aijb and #aije4 ,the city is divided into thirty-five wards with #ajc councillors and #cd aldermen4 ,in #ahic the title of mayor was raised to that of lord mayor4 ,in #ahhe the number of members of parliament was increased to nine by the creation of six new wards4 ,the corporation of ,liverpool has possessed from a very early period considerable landed property1 the first grant having been made by ,thomas1 earl of ,lancaster1 in #acji4 ,this land was originally of value only as a source of supply of turf for firing1 but in modern times its capacity as building land has been a fruitful source of profit to the town4 ,a large proportion of the southern district is held in freehold by the corporation and leased to tenants for terms of seventy-five years1 renewable from time to time on a fixed scale of fines4 ,there was formerly another source of income now cut off4 ,the fee farm rents and town dues originally belonging to the crown were purchased from the ,molyneux family in #afgb on a long lease1 and subsequently in #aggg converted into a perpetuity4 ,with the growth of the commerce of the port these dues enormously increased1 and became a cause of great complaint by the shipping interest4 ,in #ahef a bill was introduced into parliament1 and passed1 by which the town dues were transferred to the ,mersey ,docks and ,harbour ,board on payment of #a1ejj1jjj1 which was applied in part to the liquidation of the bonded debt of the corporation1 amounting to #a1aej1jjj4 ,history4--,during the ,norse irruption of the #hth century colonies of ,norsemen settled on both sides of the ,mersey1 as is indicated by some of the place-names4 ,after the ,conquest1 the site of ,liverpool formed part of the fief 7inter ,ripam et ,mersham7 granted by the ,conqueror to ,roger de ,poictou1 one of the great family of ,montgomery4 ,although ,liverpool is not named in ,domesday it is believed to have been one of the six berewicks dependent on the manor of ,west ,derby therein mentioned4 ,after various forfeitures and regrants from the crown1 it was handed over by ,henry ,,ii4 to his falconer ,warine4 ,in a deed executed by ,king ,john1 then earl of ,mortain1 about #aaia1 confirming the grant of this with other manors to ,henry ,fitzwarine1 son of the former grantee1 the name of ,liverpool first occurs4 ,probably its most plausible derivation is from the ,norse ,hlithar-pollr1 the pool of the slopes1 the pool or inlet at the mouth of which the village grew up being surrounded by gently rising slopes4 ,another possible derivation is from the ,prov4 ,e4 lever1 the yellow flag or rush1 ,a4,s4 laefer4 ,after the partial conquest of ,ireland by ,strongbow1 earl of ,pembroke1 under ,henry ,,ii41 the principal ports of communication were ,bristol for the south and ,chester for the north4 ,the gradual silting up of the river ,dee soon so obstructed the navigation as to render ,chester unsuitable4 ,a quay was then constructed at ,shotwick1 about #h m4 below ,chester1 with a castle to protect it from the incursions of the neighbouring ,welsh2 but a better site was sought and soon found4 ,into the tidal waters of the ,mersey a small stream1 fed by a peat moss on the elevated land to the eastward1 ran from north-east to south-west1 forming at its mouth an open pool or sea lake1 of which many existed on both sides of the river4 ,the triangular piece of land thus separated formed a promontory of red sandstone rock1 rising in the centre about #ej ft4 above the sea-level1 sloping on three sides to the water4 ,the pool was admirably adapted as a harbour for the vessels of that period1 being well protected1 and the tide rising from #ae to #ba ft4 ,king ,john repurchased the manor from ,henry ,fitzwarine1 giving him other lands in exchange4 ,here he founded a borough1 and by letters patent dated at ,winchester1 #bhth of ,august #abjg1 invited his subjects to take up burgages4 ,from the patent rolls and the sheriff's accounts it appears that considerable use was made of ,liverpool in the #acth century for shipping stores and reinforcements to ,ireland and ,wales4 ,in #abbi a charter was granted by ,henry ,,iii41 authorizing the formation of a merchants' gild1 with hanse and other liberties and free customs1 with freedom from toll throughout the kingdom4 ,charters were subsequently granted by successive monarchs down to the reign of ,william and ,mary1 which last was the governing charter to the date of the ,municipal ,reform ,act 7#ahce74 ,in #ahhj when the diocese of ,liverpool was created1 the borough was transformed into a city by royal charter4 ,the crown revenues from the burgage rents and the royal customs were leased in fee-farm from time to time1 sometimes to the corporation1 at other times to private persons4 ,the first lease was from ,henry ,,iii41 in #abbi1 at #aj per annum4 ,in the same year the borough1 with all its appurtenances1 was bestowed with other lands on ,ranulf1 earl of ,chester1 from whom it passed to his brother-in-law ,william de ,ferrers1 earl of ,derby1 who seems to have built ,liverpool castle between #abcb and #abcg4 ,his grandson1 ,robert de ,ferrers1 was implicated in the rising of ,simon de ,montfort and his lands were confiscated in #abff when ,liverpool passed into the hands of ,edmund1 earl of ,lancaster4 ,ultimately ,liverpool again became the property of the crown1 when ,henry ,,iv4 inherited it from his father ,john of ,gaunt1 duke of ,lancaster4 ,in #afbh ,charles ,i41 in great straits for means which were refused by parliament1 offered for sale about a thousand manors1 among which ,liverpool was included4 ,the portion containing ,liverpool was purchased by certain merchants of ,london1 who1 in #afce1 reconveyed the crown rights1 including the fee-farm rent of #ad1 #fs4 #h;d41 to ,sir ,richard ,molyneux1 then recently created ,viscount ,molyneux of ,maryborough1 for the sum of #dej4 ,in #afgb all these rights and interests were acquired by the corporation4 ,apart from the national objects for which ,liverpool was founded1 its trade developed slowly4 ,from #aj per annum1 in the beginning of the #acth century1 the crown revenues had increased towards the end of the #adth century1 to #ch2 but then they underwent a decline4 ,the black death passed over ,liverpool about #acfj1 and carried off a large part of the population4 ,the ,wars of the ,roses in the #aeth century unsettled the north-western districts and retarded progress for at least a century4 ,the crown revenues diminished from #ch to less than half that sum1 and were finally leased at #ad1 #fs4 #h;d41 at which they continued until the sale by ,charles ,i4 ,it is1 however1 not safe to conclude that the reduced fee-farm rent represents an equivalent decline in prosperity2 the privileges conferred by the various leases differed widely and may account for much of the apparent discrepancy4 ,liverpool sent no representatives to ,simon de ,montfort's parliament in #abfd1 but to the first royal parliament1 summoned in #abie1 the borough sent two members1 and again in #acjg4 ,the writs of summons were then suspended for two centuries and a half4 ,in #aedg ,liverpool resumed the privilege of returning members4 ,in #aehh the borough was represented by ,francis ,bacon1 the philosopher and statesman4 ,during the ,civil ,war the town was fortified and garrisoned by the parliament4 ,it sustained three sieges1 and in #afdd was escaladed and taken by ,prince ,rupert with considerable slaughter4 ,the true rise of the commerce of ,liverpool dates from the ,restoration4 ,down to that period its population had been either stationary or retrogressive1 probably never exceeding about #ajjj4 ,its trade was chiefly with ,ireland1 ,france and ,spain1 exporting fish and wool to the continent1 and importing wines1 iron and other commodities4 ,the rise of the manufacturing industry of south ,lancashire1 and the opening of the ,american and ,west ,indian trade1 gave the first impulse to the progress which has since continued4 ,by the end of the century the population had increased to #ejjj4 ,in #afii the borough was constituted a parish distinct from ,walton1 to which it had previously appertained4 ,in #agji1 the small existing harbour being found insufficient to accommodate the shipping1 several schemes were propounded for its enlargement1 which resulted in the construction of a wet dock closed with flood-gates impounding the water1 so as to keep the vessels floating during the recess of the tide4 ,this dock was the first of its kind4 ,the name of the engineer was ,thomas ,steers4 ,about this date the merchants of ,liverpool entered upon the slave trade1 into which they were led by their connexion with the ,west ,indies4 ,in #agji a single vessel of #cj tons burden made a venture from ,liverpool and carried fifteen slaves across the ,atlantic4 ,in #agcj1 encouraged by parliament1 ,liverpool went heartily into the new trade4 ,in #agea1 fifty-three ships sailed from ,liverpool for ,africa1 of #eccd tons in the aggregate4 ,the ships sailed first to the west coast of ,africa1 where they shipped the slaves1 and thence to the ,west ,india ,islands1 where the slaves were sold and the proceeds brought home in cargoes of sugar and rum4 ,in #agfe the number of ,liverpool slavers had increased to eighty-six1 carrying #bd1bjj slaves4 ,by the end of the century five-sixths of the ,african trade centred in ,liverpool4 ,just before its abolition in #ahjg the number of ,liverpool ships engaged in the traffic was #ahe1 carrying #di1bac slaves in the year4 ,another branch of maritime enterprise which attracted the attention of the merchants of ,liverpool was privateering1 which1 during the latter half of the #ahth century1 was a favourite investment4 ,after the outbreak of the ,seven ,years' ,war with ,france and ,spain1 in #agef1 the commerce of ,liverpool suffered severely1 the ,french having overrun the narrow seas with privateers1 and the premiums for insurance against sea risks rose to an amount almost prohibitive4 ,the ,liverpool merchants took a lesson from the enemy1 and armed and sent out their ships as privateers4 ,some of the early expeditions proving very successful1 almost the whole community rushed into privateering1 with results of a very chequered character4 ,when the ,war of ,independence broke out in #agge ,american privateers swarmed about the ,west ,india ,islands1 and crossing the ,atlantic intercepted ,british commerce in the narrow seas4 ,the ,liverpool merchants again turned their attention to retaliation4 ,between ,august #aggh and ,april #aggi1 #abj privateers were fitted out in ,liverpool1 carrying #aihf guns and #hgde men4 ,see ,w4 ,enfield1 ,hist4 of ,leverpool 7#aggc72 ,j4 ,aikin1 ,forty ,miles round ,manchester 7#agie72 ,t4 ,troughton1 ,hist4 of ,liverpool 7#ahaj72 ,m4 ,gregson1 ,portfolio of ,fragments relating to ,hist4 of ,lancashire 7#ahag72 ,h4 ,smithers1 ,liverpool1 its ,commerce1 c4 7#ahbe72 ,r4 ,syers1 ,hist4 of ,everton 7#ahcj72 ,e4 ,baines1 ,hist4 of ,county ,palatine of ,lancaster1 vol4 iv4 7#ahcf72 ,t4 ,baines1 ,hist4 of ,commerce and ,town of ,liverpool 7#aheb72 ,r4 ,brooke1 ,liverpool during the last quarter of #ahth ,century 7#ahec72 ,j4 ,a4 ,picton1 ,memorials of ,liverpool 7#b vols41 #ahgc72 ,ramsay ,muir and ,edith ,m4 ,platt1 ,a ,history of ,municipal ,government in ,liverpool 7#aijf72 ,ramsay ,muir1 ,a ,history of ,liverpool 7#aijg74 7,w4 ,f4 ,i47 ,,liversedge1 an urban district in the ,spen ,valley parliamentary division of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 #g m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,bradford1 on the ,lancashire ,yorkshire1 ,great ,northern1 and ,london ,north ,western railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ac1ihj4 ,the industries are chiefly the manufacture of woollen goods1 the making of machinery1 chemical manufactures and coal mining4 ,,livery1 originally the provision of food1 clothing1 c41 to household servants4 ,the word is an adaptation of the ,anglo-,french livre1 from livrer1 to deliver 7,late ,lat4 liberare1 to set free1 to serve1 to give freely71 in the special sense of distributing4 ,in the sense of a fixed allowance of provender for horses1 it survives now only in livery-stable1 i4e4 an establishment where horses and carriages are kept or let out for hire4 ,from the meaning of provision of food and clothing the word is applied to a uniform worn by the retainers and servants of a household4 ,in the #aeth century in ,england a badge1 collar or other insignia1 the livery1 was worn by all those who pledged themselves to support one of the great barons in return for his promise of maintenance1 i4e4 of protection against enemies2 thus arose the custom of livery and maintenance1 suppressed by ,henry ,,vii4 ,the members of the ,london city companies wore a distinctive costume or livery1 whence the term livery companies4 ,in law1 the term livery means delivery1 the legal handing of property into the possession of another2 for livery of seisin see ,,feoffment4 ,,livery ,,companies1 the name given to particular companies or societies in the city of ,london4 ,they belong to a class of institutions which at one time were universal in ,europe4 ,in most other countries they have disappeared2 in ,england1 while their functions have wholly changed1 the organization remains4 ,the origin of the city companies is to be found in the craftgilds of the middle ages4 ,the absence of a strong central authority accounts for the tendency of confederation in the beginning of modern societies4 ,artificial groups1 formed in imitation of the family1 discharged the duties which the family was no longer able1 and the state was not yet able1 to undertake4 ,the inhabitants of towns were forced into the societies known as gild-merchants1 which in course of time monopolized the municipal government1 became exclusive1 and so caused the growth of similar societies among excluded citizens4 ,the craftgilds were such societies1 composed of handicraftsmen1 which entered upon a struggle with the earlier gilds and finally defeated them4 ,the circumstances and results of the struggle were of much the same character in ,england and on the continent4 ,in ,london the victory of the crafts is decisively marked by the ordinance of the time of ,edward ,,ii41 which required every citizen to be a member of some trade or mystery1 and by another ordinance in #acge which transferred the right of election of corporate officers 7including members of parliament7 from the ward-representatives to the trading companies4 ,henceforward1 and for many years1 the companies engrossed political and municipal power in the city of ,london4 ,the trading fraternities assumed generally the character of corporations in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,many of them had been chartered before1 but their privileges1 hitherto exercised only on sufferance and by payment of their terms1 were now confirmed by letters patent4 ,edward ,,iii4 himself became a member of the fraternity of ,linen ,armourers1 or ,merchant ,taylors1 and other distinguished persons followed his example4 ,from this time they are called livery companies1 from now generally assuming a distinctive dress or livery4 ,the origin of the ,grocers' ,company is thus described3 ,twenty-two persons1 carrying on the business of pepperers in ,soper's ,lane1 ,cheapside1 agree to meet together1 to a dinner1 at the ,abbot of ,bury's1 ,st ,mary ,axe1 and commit the particulars of their formation into a trading society to writing4 ,they elect after dinner two persons of the company so assembled--,roger ,osekyn and ,lawrence de ,haliwell--as their first governors or wardens1 appointing1 at the same time1 in conformity with the pious custom of the age1 a priest or chaplain to celebrate divine offices for their souls 7,heath's ,account of the ,grocers' ,company1 quoted in ,herbert's ,twelve ,great ,livery ,companies1 #ahcf1 i4 #dc74 ,the religious observances and the common feasts were characteristic features of those institutions4 ,they were therefore not merely trade unions in the current meaning of that phrase1 but may rather be described as forms of industrial self-government1 the basis of union being the membership of a common trade1 and the authority of the society extending to the general welfare1 spiritual and temporal1 of its members4 ,it must be remembered that they flourished at a time when the separate interests of master and servant had not yet been created2 and1 indeed1 when that fundamental division of interests arose1 the companies gradually lost their functions in the regulation of industry4 ,the fact that the craftsmen were a homogeneous order will account for the wide authority claimed by their societies1 and the important public powers which were conceded to them4 ,in the regulation of trade they possessed extensive powers4 ,they required every one carrying on the trade to join the company4 ,in #acfc1 in answer to a remonstrance against the mischief caused by the merchants called grocers who engrossed all manner of merchandize vendable1 and who suddenly raised the prices of such merchandize within the realm1 it was enacted that all artificers and people of mysteries shall each choose his own mystery#a before next ,candlemas1 and that1 having so chosen it1 he shall henceforth use no other4 ,l4 ,brentano 7,on ,gilds7 holds that it is wrong to represent such regulations as monopolistic1 inasmuch as there was no question whatever of a monopoly in that time nor until the degeneration of the craftgilds into limited corporations of capitalists4 ,in the regulation of trade the right of search was an important instrument4 ,the wardens of the grocers are to assayen weights1 powders1 confeccions1 platers1 oyntments and all other things belonging to the same crafte4 ,the goldsmiths had the assay of metals1 the fishmongers the oversight of fish1 the vintners of the tasting of wine1 c4 ,the companies enforced their regulations on their members by force4 ,many of their ordinances looked to the domestic affairs and private conduct of the members4 ,the grocers ordain that no man of the fraternite take his neyghbor's house yt is of the same fraternite1 or enhaunce the rent against the will of the foresaid neyghbor4 ,perjury is to be punished by the wardens and society with such correction as that other men of the fellowship may be warned thereby4 ,members reduced to poverty by adventures on the sea1 increased price of goods1 borrowing and pledging1 or any other misfortune1 are to be assisted out of the common money1 according to his situation1 if he could not do without4 ,following what appears to be the natural law of their being1 the companies gradually lost their industrial character4 ,the course of decay would seem to have been the following4 ,the capitalists gradually assumed the lead in the various societies1 the richer members engrossed the power and the companies tended to become hereditary and exclusive4 ,persons might be members who had nothing to do with the craft1 and the rise of great capitalists and the development of competition in trade made the regulation of industry by means of companies no longer possible4 ,for an account of the degeneration of craftgilds a general reference may be made to ,brentano1 ,on ,gilds 7#ahgj71 and ,c4 ,gross1 ,the ,gild ,merchant 7#b vols41 #ahij74 ,the usurpation of power on the part of the richer members was not always effected without opposition4 ,brentano refers to a pamphlet on the ,clothworkers' ,company1 published in #afdi1 which asserts that the commonalty in the old charters meant1 not the whole gild1 but only the masters1 wardens and assistants4 ,herbert records a dispute in the ,goldsmiths' ,company in #aebi4 ,the mode of electing officers1 and the system of management generally1 was challenged by three members who called themselves artificers1 poor men of the craft of goldsmiths4 ,the company1 or rather1 the wardens1 the assistants and livery presented a petition to the lord mayor1 which was answered by the discontented craftsmen4 ,the dispute was carried into the court of chancery and the star chamber4 ,the artificers accused the company of subverting their grants1 misappropriating the funds and changing the constitution of the society1 and they complain of this being done by the usurpation of persons who were but merchant goldsmiths1 and had but little knowledge in the science4 ,in #aeca the three complainants were expelled from the company1 and then the dispute seems to have ended4 ,in the last stage of the companies the members have ceased to have any connexion with the trades1 and in most cases their regulative functions have disappeared4 ,the one characteristic which has clung to them throughout is that of owners of property and managers of charitable trusts4 ,the connexion between the companies and the municipality is shortly as follows4 ,the ordinance of ,edward ,,ii4 required freemen of the city to be members of one or other of the companies4 ,by the ordinance of #di ,edw4 ,,iii4 7#acge71 the trading companies were to nominate the members of common council1 and the persons so nominated alone were to attend both at common councils and at elections4 ,an ordinance in #g ,richard ,,ii4 7#achc7 restored the elections of common councilmen to the wards1 but corporate officers and representatives in parliament were elected by a convention summoned by the lord mayor from the nominees of the companies4 ,an act of common council in #g ,edw4 ,,iv4 7#adfg7 appointed the election of mayor1 sheriffs1 c41 to be in the common council1 together with the masters and wardens of the companies4 ,by #ae ,edw4 ,,iv4 masters and wardens were ordered to associate with themselves the honest men of their mysteries1 and come in their best liveries to the elections2 that is to say1 the franchise was restricted to the liverymen of the companies4 ,at this time the corporation exercised supreme control over the companies1 and the companies were still genuine associations of the traders and householders of the city4 ,the delegation of the franchise to the liverymen was thus1 in point of fact1 the selection of a superior class of householders to represent the rest4 ,when the corporation lost its control over the companies1 and the members of the companies ceased to be traders and householders1 the liverymen were no longer a representative class1 and some change in the system became necessary4 ,the ,reform ,acts of #ahcb and #ahfg reformed the representation in several particulars4 ,the liverymen of the companies1 being freemen of the city1 have still1 however1 the exclusive power of electing the lord mayor1 sheriffs1 chamberlain and other corporate officers4 ,the contributions made by the companies to the public purposes of the state and the city are interesting points in their early history4 ,their wealth and their representative character made them a most appropriate instrument for the enforcement of irregular taxation4 ,the loan of #ba1bfc1 #fs4 #h;d4 to ,henry ,,viii4 for his wars in ,scotland1 in #aedd1 is believed by ,herbert to be the first instance of a pecuniary grant to the crown1 but the practice rapidly gained ground4 ,the confiscation of ecclesiastical property at the time of the ,reformation affected many of the trusts of the companies2 and they were compelled to make returns of their property devoted to religious uses1 and to pay over the rents to the crown4 ,in course of time the taxation of the companies became a regular source of supply to government4 ,the historians of the city have for the most part described these as unjust and tyrannical exactions1 but1 looking at the representative and municipal character of the companies1 and the purposes to which their contributions were applied1 we may regard them as a rough but not unfair mode of taxation4 ,the government1 when money was wanted for public works1 informed the lord mayor1 who apportioned the sums required among the various societies1 and issued precepts for its payment4 ,contributions towards setting the poor to work1 erecting the ,royal ,exchange1 cleansing the city ditch1 discovering new countries1 furnishing military and naval armaments1 for men1 arms and ammunition for the defence of the city1 are among what ,herbert calls the sponging expedients of the government4 ,the crown occasionally interfered in a more unjustifiable manner with the companies in the exercise of their patronage4 ,the ,stuarts made strenuous efforts to get the control of the companies4 ,terrified by the proceedings in the quo warranto case1 most of the companies surrendered their charters to the crown1 but such surrenders were annulled by the act of #b ,william and ,mary 7#afij7 reserving the judgment in quo warranto against the city4 ,the livery companies now in existence are the following3 ,apothecaries4 ,fellowship ,porters4 ,needlemakers4 ,armourers and ,feltmakers4 ,painters4 ,brasiers4 ,fishmongers4 ,pattern ,makers4 ,bakers4 ,fletchers4 ,pewterers4 ,barbers4 ,founders4 ,plaisterers4 ,basket ,makers4 ,framework ,knitters4 ,playing ,card ,blacksmiths4 ,fruiterers4 ,makers4 ,bowyers4 ,girdlers4 ,plumbers4 ,brewers4 ,glass ,sellers4 ,poulters4 ,broderers4 ,glaziers4 ,saddlers4 ,butchers4 ,glovers4 ,salters4 ,carmen4 ,gold and ,silver ,scriveners4 ,carpenters ,wyre-drawers4 ,shipwrights4 ,clockmakers4 ,goldsmiths4 ,silkthrowsters4 ,clothworkers4 ,grocers4 ,skinners4 ,coach and ,gunmakers4 ,spectacle makers4 ,coach-,harness ,haberdashers ,stationers4 ,makers4 ,horners4 ,tallow ,chandlers4 ,cooks4 ,innholders4 ,tin ,plate ,workers4 ,coopers4 ,ironmongers4 ,turners4 ,cordwainers4 ,joiners4 ,tylers and ,curriers4 ,leathersellers4 ,bricklayers4 ,cutlers4 ,loriners4 ,upholders4 ,distillers4 ,masons4 ,wax ,chandlers4 ,drapers4 ,mercers4 ,weavers4 ,dyers4 ,merchant ,taylors4 ,wheelwrights4 ,fanmakers4 ,musicians4 ,woolmen4 ,farriers4 ,the following are the twelve great companies in order of civic precedence3 ,mercers1 ,grocers1 ,drapers1 ,fishmongers1 ,goldsmiths1 ,skinners1 ,merchant ,taylors1 ,haberdashers1 ,salters1 ,ironmongers1 ,vintners1 ,cloth-workers4 ,the ,irish ,society was incorporated in the #aa ,james ,i4 as the governor and assistants of the new plantation in ,ulster1 within the realm of ,ireland4 ,the twelve companies contributed in equal portions the sum of #fj1jjj for the new scheme1 by which it was intended to settle a ,protestant colony in the lands forfeited by the ,irish rebels4 ,the companies divided the settlement into twelve nearly equal parts1 assigning one to each1 but the separate estates are still held to be under the paramount jurisdiction of the ,irish ,society4 ,the charter of the society was revoked by the court of star chamber in the reign of ,charles ,i41 but a new one was granted by ,charles ,,ii41 under which the society still acts4 ,most of the companies administer charities of large value4 ,many of them are governors of important schools1 e4g4 the ,skinners have the ,tonbridge ,grammar ,school2 the ,mercers1 ,st ,paul's ,school2 the ,merchant ,taylors1 the school bearing their name1 c4 ,the constitution of the livery companies usually embraces 7a7 the court1 which includes the master and wardens1 and is the executive and administrative body2 7#b7 the livery or middle class1 being the body from which the court is recruited2 and 7#c7 the general body of freemen1 from which the livery is recruited4 ,some companies admit women as freemen4 ,the freedom is obtained either by patrimony 7by any person over twenty-one years of age born in lawful wedlock after the admission of his father to the freedom71 by servitude 7by being bound as an apprentice to a freeman of the company7 or by redemption4 ,admission to many of the companies is subject to the payment of considerable fees4 ,for example1 in the ,merchant ,taylors the fees are--upon taking up the freedom1 by patrimony or servitude1 #a1 #cs4 #d;d42 by redemption1 #hd2 on admission to the livery1 #hj1 #hs42 on election to the court of assistants1 #aae1 #ajs4 ,at one time the position of the livery companies was a subject of much political discussion4 ,two parties threatened to attack them--on one side those who were anxious for extensive reforms in the municipal organization of ,london2 on the other1 those who wished to carry forward the process of inspection and revision of endowments1 which had already overtaken the universities1 schools and other charities4 ,a ,royal ,commission was appointed in #ahhj to inquire into all the livery companies1 into the circumstances and dates of their foundation1 the objects for which they were founded1 and how far those objects were being carried into effect4 ,a very valuable ,report and ,appendix 7#d vols41 #ahhd7 was published1 containing1 inter alia1 information on the constitution and powers of the governing bodies1 the mode of admission of members of the companies1 the mode of appointment1 duties and salaries and other emoluments of the servants of the companies1 the property of1 or held in trust for1 the companies1 its value1 situation and description4 ,the companies very freely made returns to the commission1 the only ones not doing so being the ,broderers1 ,bowyers1 ,distillers1 ,glovers1 ,tin-,plate ,workers and ,weavers4 ,the ,commission estimated the annual income of the companies to be from #gej1jjj to #hjj1jjj1 about #bjj1jjj of that amount being trust income1 the balance corporate income4 ,,authorities4--,in addition to the ,report referred to above the following works may be consulted3 ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,memorials of ,london and ,london ,life 7#ahfh72 ,chronicle of ,london from #ajhi to #adhc 7ed4 by ,sir ,n4 ,h4 ,nicolas and ,e4 ,tyrrel1 #ahbg72 ,munimenta ,gildhallae ,londiniensis1 in ,rolls ,series1 ed4 by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley 7#d vols41 #ahei-ahfb72 ,j4 ,toulmin ,smith1 ,english ,gilds 7published by ,early ,english ,text ,society71 with essay by ,l4 ,brentano 7#ahgj72 ,w4 ,herbert1 ,history of the ,twelve ,great ,livery ,companies 7#ahcg72 ,c4 ,gross1 ,the ,gild ,merchant 7#b vols41 #ahij72 ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt1 ,the ,livery ,companies of the ,city of ,london 7#ahib71 contains a prcis of the ,royal ,commission2 ,p4 ,h4 ,ditchfield1 ,the ,city ,companies of ,london 7#aijd72 ,g4 ,unwin1 ,the ,gilds and ,companies of ,london 7#aijh74 7,t4 ,a4 ,i47 ,,footnote3 #a ,properly the word should be spelled1 as it was originally1 mistery2 it comes through the ,o4 ,fr4 mestier1 modern mtier1 from ,lat4 ministerium1 service1 employment1 and meant a trade or craft1 and hence the plays acted by craftsmen and members of gilds were called mystery plays 7see ,,drama74 ,for the word meaning a hidden or secret rite1 with which this has so often been confused1 see ,,mystery4 ,,livia ,,drusilla 7c4 #ee ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #bi71 ,roman empress1 was originally the wife of ,tiberius ,claudius ,nero1 by whom she had two sons1 ,drusus and ,tiberius 7afterwards emperor74 ,but she attracted the attention of the future emperor ,augustus1 who in #ch compelled her husband to divorce her and married her himself1 having first got rid of his own wife ,scribonia4 ,her two sons1 at their dying father's request1 were entrusted to the guardianship of ,augustus1 to whom she bore no children4 ,livia was suspected of committing various crimes to secure the throne for ,tiberius1 whereas ,augustus naturally favoured the claims of his blood-relatives4 ,the premature deaths of his nephew ,marcellus 7whom he had at first fixed upon as his successor7 and of his grandsons ,gaius and ,lucius ,caesar1 the banishment of his grandson ,agrippa ,postumus1 and even his own death1 were attributed to her4 ,but in any case ,augustus's affection for his wife appears to have suffered no diminution up to the last2 by his will he declared her and ,tiberius 7whom he had adopted in ,a4,d4 #d7 his heirs2 ,livia inherited a third of his property2 she was adopted into the ,julian gens1 and henceforth assumed the name of ,julia ,augusta4 ,the senate also elected her chief priestess of the college founded in honour of the deified ,augustus4 ,she had now reached the summit of her ambition1 and at first acted as joint-ruler with ,tiberius4 ,tiberius1 however1 soon became tired of the maternal yoke2 his retirement to ,capreae is said to have been caused by his desire to escape from her4 ,livia continued to live quietly at ,rome1 in the full enjoyment of authority1 until her death at an advanced age4 ,tiberius appears to have received the news with indifference1 if not with satisfaction2 he absented himself from the funeral1 and refused to allow her apotheosis2 her will was suppressed for a long time and only carried out1 and the legacies paid1 by ,caligula4 ,see ,tacitus1 ,annals1 i4 v42 ,dio ,cassius liii4 #cc1 lv4 #ad-bb1 lviii4 #b1 lix4 #b2 ,suetonius1 ,tiberius1 #ej1 #ea2 ,j4 ,aschbach1 ,livia1 ,gemahlin des ,kaisers ,augustus 7#ahfd72 ,v4 ,gardthausen1 ,augustus und seine ,zeit1 i4 #ajah foll41 ii4 #fca foll4 ,,livingston1 ,,edward 7#agfd-ahcf71 ,american jurist and statesman1 was born in ,clermont1 ,columbia county1 ,new ,york1 on the #bfth of ,may #agfd4 ,he was a great-grandson of ,robert ,livingston1 the first of the family to settle in ,america 7see ,,livingston1 ,,william1 below74 ,he graduated at ,princeton in #agha1 was admitted to the bar in #aghe1 and began to practise law in ,new ,york ,city1 rapidly rising to distinction4 ,in #agie-ahja he was a ,republican representative in ,congress1 where he was one of the leaders of the opposition to ,jay's treaty1 introduced the resolution calling upon ,president ,washington for all papers relating to the treaty1 and at the close of ,washington's administration voted with ,andrew ,jackson and other radicals against the address to the president4 ,he opposed the ,alien and ,sedition ,laws1 introduced legislation on behalf of ,american seamen1 and in #ahjj attacked the president for permitting the extradition by the ,british government of ,jonathan ,robbins1 who had committed murder on an ,english frigate1 and had then escaped to ,south ,carolina and falsely claimed to be an ,american citizen4 ,in the debate on this question ,livingston was opposed by ,john ,marshall4 ,in #ahja ,livingston was appointed ,u4,s4 district-attorney for the state of ,new ,york1 and while retaining that position was in the same year appointed mayor of ,new ,york ,city4 ,when1 in the summer of #ahjc1 the city was visited with yellow fever1 ,livingston displayed courage and energy in his endeavours to prevent the spread of the disease and relieve distress4 ,he suffered a violent attack of the fever1 during which the people gave many proofs of their attachment to him4 ,on his recovery he found his private affairs in some confusion1 and he was at the same time deeply indebted to the government for public funds which had been lost through the mismanagement or dishonesty of a confidential clerk1 and for which he was responsible as district-attorney4 ,he at once surrendered all his property1 resigned his two offices in #ahjc1 and removed early in #ahjd to ,louisiana4 ,he soon acquired a large law practice in ,new ,orleans1 and in #ahbf repaid the government in full1 including the interest1 which at that time amounted to more than the original principal4 ,almost immediately upon his arrival in ,louisiana1 where the legal system had previously been based on ,roman1 ,french and ,spanish law1 and where trial by jury and other peculiarities of ,english common law were now first introduced1 he was appointed by the legislature to prepare a provisional code of judicial procedure1 which 7in the form of an act passed in ,april #ahje7 was continued in force from #ahje to #ahbe4 ,in #ahjg1 after conducting a successful suit on behalf of a client's title to a part of the batture or alluvial land near ,new ,orleans1 ,livingston attempted to improve part of this land 7which he had received as his fee7 in the ,batture1 ,ste ,marie4 ,great popular excitement was aroused against him2 his workmen were mobbed2 and ,governor ,claiborne1 when appealed to for protection1 referred the question to the ,federal government4 ,livingston's case was damaged by ,president ,jefferson1 who believed that ,livingston had favoured ,burr in the presidential election of #ahjj1 and that he had afterwards been a party to ,burr's schemes4 ,jefferson made it impossible for ,livingston to secure his title1 and in #ahab published a pamphlet for the use of counsel in the case against ,livingston1 to which ,livingston published a crushing reply4 ,livingston's final victory in the courts brought him little financial profit because of the heavy expenses of the litigation4 ,during the war with ,england from #ahab to #ahae ,livingston was active in rousing the mixed population of ,new ,orleans to resistance4 ,he used his influence to secure amnesty for ,lafitte and his followers upon their offer to fight for the city1 and in #ahad-ahae acted as adviser and volunteer aide-de-camp to ,general ,jackson1 who was his personal friend4 ,in #ahba1 by appointment of the legislature1 of which he had become a member in the preceding year1 ,livingston began the preparation of a new code of criminal law and procedure1 afterwards known in ,europe and ,america as the ,livingston ,code4 ,it was prepared in both ,french and ,english1 as was required by the necessities of practice in ,louisiana1 and actually consisted of four codes--crimes and punishments1 procedure1 evidence in criminal cases1 reform and prison discipline4 ,though substantially completed in #ahbd1 when it was accidentally burned1 and again in #ahbf1 it was not printed entire until #ahcc4 ,it was never adopted by the state4 ,it was at once reprinted in ,england1 ,france and ,germany1 attracting wide praise by its remarkable simplicity and vigour1 and especially by reason of its philanthropic provisions in the code of reform and prison discipline1 which noticeably influenced the penal legislation of various countries4 ,in referring to this code1 ,sir ,henry ,maine spoke of ,livingston as the first legal genius of modern times 7,cambridge ,essays1 #ahef1 p4 #ag74 ,the spirit of ,livingston's code was remedial rather than vindictive2 it provided for the abolition of capital punishment and the making of penitentiary labour not a punishment forced on the prisoner1 but a matter of his choice and a reward for good behaviour1 bringing with it better accommodations4 ,his ,code of ,reform and ,prison ,discipline was adopted by ,guatemala4 ,livingston was the leading member of a commission appointed to prepare a new civil code1#a which for the most part the legislature adopted in #ahbe1 and the most important chapters of which1 including all those on contract1 were prepared by ,livingston alone4 ,livingston was again a representative in ,congress during #ahbc-ahbi1 a senator in #ahbi-ahca1 and for two years 7#ahca-ahcc7 secretary of state under ,president ,jackson4 ,in this last position he was one of the most trusted advisers of the president1 for whom he prepared a number of state papers1 the most important being the famous anti-nullification proclamation of the #ajth of ,december #ahcb4 ,from #ahcc to #ahce ,livingston was minister plenipotentiary to ,france1 charged with procuring the fulfilment by the ,french government of the treaty negotiated by ,w4 ,c4 ,rives in #ahca1 by which ,france had bound herself to pay an indemnity of twenty-five millions of francs for ,french spoliations of ,american shipping chiefly under the ,berlin and ,milan decrees1 and the ,united ,states in turn agreed to pay to ,france #a1ejj1jjj francs in satisfaction of ,french claims4 ,livingston's negotiations were conducted with excellent judgment1 but the ,french ,chamber of ,deputies refused to make an appropriation to pay the first instalment due under the treaty in #ahcc1 relations between the two governments became strained1 and ,livingston was finally instructed to close the legation and return to ,america4 ,he died on the #bcrd of ,may #ahcf at ,montgomery ,place1 ,dutchess county1 ,new ,york1 an estate left him by his sister1 to which he had removed in #ahca4 ,livingston was twice married4 ,his first wife1 ,mary ,mc,evers1 whom he married on the #ajth of ,april #aghh1 died on the #acth of ,march #ahja4 ,in ,june #ahje he married ,madame ,louise ,moreau de ,lassy 7d4 #ahfj71 a widow nineteen years of age1 whose maiden name was ,davezac de ,castera1 and who was a refugee in ,new ,orleans from the revolution in ,santo ,domingo4 ,she was a woman of extraordinary beauty and intellect1 and is said to have greatly influenced her husband's public career4 ,see ,c4 ,h4 ,hunt1 ,life of ,edward ,livingston 7,new ,york1 #ahfd72 ,livingston's ,works 7#b vols41 ,new ,york1 #ahgc72 and ,louise ,livingston ,hunt1 ,memoir of ,mrs ,edward ,livingston 7,new ,york1 #ahhf74 ,,footnote3 #a ,preliminary work in the preparation of a new civil code had been done by ,james ,brown and ,moreau ,lislet1 who in #ahjh reported a ,digest of the ,civil ,laws now in force in the ,territory of ,orleans with ,alterations and ,amendments adapted to the present ,form of ,government4 ,,livingston1 ,,robert ,r4 7#agdf-ahac71 ,american statesman1 son of ,robert ,r4 ,livingston 7#agah-agge2 a justice of the ,new ,york supreme court after #agfc7 and brother of ,edward ,livingston 7see above71 was born in ,new ,york ,city1 on the #bgth of ,november #agdf4 ,he graduated at ,king's ,college1 ,new ,york 7now ,columbia ,university71 in #agfe1 was admitted to the bar in #aggc1 and for a short time was a law partner of ,john ,jay4 ,in #aggc he became recorder of ,new ,york ,city1 but soon identified himself with the ,whig or ,patriot element there1 and was forced to give up this position in #agge4 ,he was a member of the second1 third and fourth ,provincial ,congresses of ,new ,york 7#agge-aggg71 was a delegate from ,new ,york to the ,continental ,congress in #agge-aggg and again in #aggi-aghj1 and was a member of the committee which drafted the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,he was prevented from signing that document by his absence at the time to attend a meeting of the fourth ,new ,york ,provincial ,congress1 which on the #ajth of ,july became the ,convention of the ,representatives of the state of ,new ,york1 and by which at ,kingston in #aggg the first state constitution was adopted1 ,livingston having been a member of the committee that drafted this instrument4 ,he was the first chancellor of the state1 from #aggg to ,february #ahja1 and is best known as ,chancellor ,livingston4 ,in this capacity he administered the oath of office to ,washington at his first inauguration to the presidency1 in ,new ,york1 on the #cjth of ,april #aghi4 ,previously1 from ,october #agha to ,june #aghc1 he had been the first secretary of foreign affairs under the ,confederation1 and his ,european correspondence1 especially with ,franklin1 was of the utmost value in accomplishing peace with ,great ,britain4 ,in #aghh he had been a member of the ,new ,york ,convention1 which ratified for that state the ,federal ,constitution4 ,he became an anti-,federalist and in #agih unsuccessfully opposed ,john ,jay in the ,new ,york gubernatorial campaign4 ,in #ahja1 having refused an appointment as secretary of the navy1 he became minister to ,france on ,president ,jefferson's appointment4 ,he had refused this post when ,washington offered it to him in #agid4 ,he arrived in ,france in ,november #ahja1 and in #ahjc1 in association with ,james ,monroe1 effected on behalf of his government the purchase from ,france of what was then known as ,louisiana1 the credit for this purchase being largely his 7see ,,louisiana ,,purchase74 ,in #ahjd ,livingston withdrew from public life1 and after a year of travel in ,europe returned to ,new ,york1 where he promoted various improvements in agriculture4 ,he did much to introduce the use of gypsum as a fertilizer1 and published an ,essay on ,sheep 7#ahji74 ,he was long interested in the problem of steam navigation2 before he went to ,france he received from the state of ,new ,york a monopoly of steam navigation on the waters of the state and assisted in the experiments of his brother-in-law1 ,john ,stevens2 in ,paris he met ,robert ,fulton1 and with him in #ahjb made successful trials on the ,seine of a paddle wheel steamboat2 in #ahjc ,livingston 7jointly with ,robert ,fulton7 received a renewal of his monopoly in ,new ,york1 and the first successful steam-vessel1 which operated on the ,hudson in #ahjg1 was named after ,livingston's home1 ,clermont 7,n4,y474 ,he died at ,clermont on the #bfth of ,february #ahac4 ,livingston and ,george ,clinton were chosen to represent ,new ,york state in ,statuary ,hall1 in the ,capitol1 at ,washington1 ,d4,c42 the statue of ,livingston is by ,e4 ,d4 ,palmer4 ,see ,frederick de ,peyster1 ,biographical ,sketch of ,robert ,r4 ,livingston 7,new ,york1 #ahgf72 ,robert ,k4 ,morton1 ,robert ,r4 ,livingston3 ,beginnings of ,american ,diplomacy1 in ,the ,john ,p4 ,branch ,historical ,papers of ,randolph-,macon ,college1 i4 #bii-cbd1 and ii4 #cd-df2 and ,j4 ,b4 ,moore1 ,robert ,r4 ,livingston and the ,louisiana ,purchase1 in ,columbia ,university ,quarterly1 v4 #f 7#aijd71 pp4 #bba-bbi4 ,,livingston1 ,,william 7#agbc-agij71 ,american political leader1 was born at ,albany1 ,new ,york1 probably on the #cjth of ,november #agbc4 ,he was the son of ,philip ,livingston 7#afhf-agdi71 and grandson of ,robert ,livingston 7#afed-agbe71 who was born at ,ancrum1 ,scotland1 emigrated to ,america about #afgc1 and received grants 7beginning in #afhf7 to ,livingston ,manor 7a tract of land on the ,hudson1 comprising the greater part of what are now ,dutchess and ,columbia counties74 ,this ,robert ,livingston1 founder of the ,american family1 became in #afge secretary of the important ,board of ,indian ,commissioners2 he was a member of the ,new ,york ,assembly in #agaa-agae and #agaf-agbg and its speaker in #agah-agbe1 and in #agja made the proposal that all the ,english colonies in ,america should be grouped for administrative purposes into three distinct governments4 ,william ,livingston graduated at ,yale ,college in #agda1 studied law in the city of ,new ,york1 and was admitted to the bar in #agdh4 ,he served in the ,new ,york legislature 7#agei-agfj71 but his political influence was long exerted chiefly through pamphlets and newspaper articles4 ,the ,livingston family then led the ,dissenters1 who later became ,whigs1 and the ,de ,lancey family represented the ,anglican ,tory interests4 ,through the columns of the ,independent ,reflector1 which he established in #ageb1 ,livingston fought the attempt of the ,anglican party to bring the projected ,king's ,college 7now ,columbia ,university7 under the control of the ,church of ,england4 ,after the suspension of the ,reflector in #agec1 he edited in the ,new ,york ,mercury the ,watch ,tower section 7#aged-agee71 which became the recognized organ of the ,presbyterian faction4 ,in opposition to the efforts of the ,anglicans to procure the establishment of an ,american episcopate1 he wrote an open ,letter to the ,right ,reverend ,father in ,god1 ,john ,lord1 ,bishop of ,llandaff 7#agfh71 and edited and in large measure wrote the ,american ,whig columns in the ,new ,york ,gazette 7#agfh-agfi74 ,in #aggb he removed to ,elizabeth1 ,new ,jersey1 where after #aggc he lived on his estate known as ,liberty ,hall4 ,he represented ,new ,jersey in the first and second ,continental ,congresses 7#aggd1agge-aggf71 but left ,philadelphia in ,june #aggf1 probably to avoid voting on the question of adopting the ,declaration of ,independence1 which he regarded as inexpedient4 ,he was chosen first governor of the state of ,new ,jersey in #aggf1 and was regularly re-elected until his death in #agij4 ,loyal to ,american interests and devoted to ,general ,washington1 he was one of the most useful of the state executives during the ,war of ,independence4 ,while governor he was a frequent contributor to the ,new ,jersey ,gazette1 and in this way he greatly aided the ,american cause during the war by his denunciation of the enemy and appeals to the patriotism of his countrymen4 ,he was a delegate to the ,federal ,constitutional ,convention of #aghg1 and supported the ,new ,jersey small-state plan4 ,in #aged he joined with his brother1 ,philip ,livingston1 his brother-in-law1 ,william ,alexander 7,lord ,stirling7 and others in founding what is now known as the ,society ,library of ,new ,york4 ,with the help of ,william ,smith 7#agbh-agic71 the ,new ,york historian1 ,william ,livingston prepared a digest of the laws of ,new ,york for the period #afia-agef1 which was published in two volumes 7#ageb and #agfb74 ,he died at ,elizabeth1 ,new ,jersey1 on the #beth of ,july #agij4 ,see ,theodore ,sedgwick1 ,jr41 ,life of ,william ,livingston 7,new ,york1 #ahcc72 and ,e4 ,b4 ,livingston1 ,the ,livingstons of ,livingston ,manor 7#aiaj74 ,his brother1 ,,peter ,,van ,,brugh ,,livingston 7#agaj-agib71 was a prominent merchant and a ,whig political leader in ,new ,york4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,college of ,new ,jersey 7now ,princeton ,university71 was a member of the ,new ,york ,council for some years before the ,war of ,independence1 a member and president of the ,first ,provincial ,congress of ,new ,york 7#agge71 and a member of the ,second ,provincial ,congress 7#agge-aggf74 ,another brother1 ,,philip ,,livingston 7#agaf-aggh71 was also prominent as a leader of the ,new ,york ,whigs or ,patriots4 ,he was a member of the ,new ,york ,assembly in #agei-agfi1 a delegate to the ,stamp ,act ,congress of #agfe1 a member of the ,continental ,congress from #aggd until his death and as such a signer of the ,declaration of ,independence1 and in #aggg-aggh was a member of the first state senate4 ,william's son1 7,,henry7 ,,brockholst ,,livingston 7#ageg-ahbc71 was an officer in the ,american ,war of ,independence1 and was an able lawyer and judge4 ,from #ahjg until his death he was an associate justice of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 and he wrote political pamphlets under the pen-name ,decius4 ,,livingstone1 ,,david 7#ahac-ahgc71 ,scottish missionary and explorer in ,africa1 was born on the #aith of ,march #ahac1 at the village of ,blantyre ,works1 in ,lanarkshire1 ,scotland4 ,david was the second child of his parents1 ,neil ,livingston 7for so he spelled his name1 as did his son for many years7 and ,agnes ,hunter4 ,his parents were typical examples of all that is best among the humbler families of ,scotland4 ,at the age of ten years ,david left the village school for the neighbouring cotton-mill1 and by strenuous efforts qualified himself at the age of twenty-three to undertake a college curriculum4 ,he attended for two sessions the medical and the ,greek classes in ,anderson's ,college1 ,glasgow1 and also a theological class4 ,in ,september #ahch he went up to ,london1 and was accepted by the ,london ,missionary ,society as a candidate4 ,he took his medical degree in the ,faculty of ,physicians and ,surgeons in ,glasgow in ,november #ahdj4 ,livingstone had set his heart on ,china1 and it was a great disappointment to him that the society finally decided to send him to ,africa4 ,to an exterior in these early years somewhat heavy and uncouth1 he united a manner which1 by universal testimony1 was irresistibly winning1 with a fund of genuine but simple humour and fun that would break out on the most unlikely occasions1 and in after years enabled him to overcome difficulties and mellow refractory chiefs when all other methods failed4 ,livingstone sailed from ,england on the #hth of ,december #ahdj4 ,from ,algoa ,bay he made direct for ,kuruman1 ,bechuanaland1 the mission station1 #gjj m4 north1 established by ,robert ,moffat twenty years before1 and there he arrived on the #cast of ,july #ahda4 ,the next two years ,livingstone spent in travelling about the country to the northwards1 in search of a suitable outpost for settlement4 ,during these two years he became convinced that the success of the white missionary in a field like ,africa was not to be reckoned by the tale of doubtful conversions he could send home each year--that the proper work for such men was that of pioneering1 opening up and starting new ground1 leaving native agents to work it out in detail4 ,the whole of his subsequent career was a development of this idea4 ,he selected the valley of ,mabotsa1 on one of the sources of the ,limpopo river1 #bjj m4 north-east of ,kuruman1 as his first station4 ,shortly after his settlement here he was attacked by a lion which crushed his left arm4 ,the arm was imperfectly set1 and it was a source of trouble to him at times throughout his life1 and was the means of identifying his body after his death4 ,to a house1 mainly built by himself at ,mabotsa1 ,livingstone in #ahdd brought home his wife1 ,mary ,moffat1 the daughter of ,moffat of ,kuruman4 ,here he laboured till #ahdf1 when he removed to ,chonuane1 #dj m4 farther north1 the chief place of the ,bakwain or ,bakwena tribe under ,sechele4 ,in #ahdg he again removed to ,kolobeng1 about #dj m4 westwards1 the whole tribe following their missionary4 ,with the aid and in the company of two ,english sportsmen1 ,william ,c4 ,oswell and ,mungo ,murray1 he was able to undertake a journey to ,lake ,ngami1 which had never yet been seen by a white man4 ,crossing the ,kalahari ,desert1 of which ,livingstone gave the first detailed account1 they reached the lake on the #ast of ,august #ahdi4 ,in ,april next year he made an attempt to reach ,sebituane1 who lived #bjj m4 beyond the lake1 this time in company with his wife and children1 but again got no farther than the lake1 as the children were seized with fever4 ,a year later1 ,april #ahea1 ,livingstone1 again accompanied by his family and ,oswell1 set out1 this time with the intention of settling among the ,makololo for a period4 ,at last he succeeded1 and reached the ,chobe 7,kwando71 a southern tributary of the ,zambezi1 and in the end of ,june reached the ,zambezi itself at the town of ,sesheke4 ,leaving the ,chobe on the #acth of ,august the party reached ,cape ,town in ,april #aheb4 ,livingstone may now be said to have completed the first period of his career in ,africa1 the period in which the work of the missionary had the greatest prominence4 ,henceforth he appears more in the character of an explorer1 but it must be remembered that he regarded himself to the last as a pioneer missionary1 whose work was to open up the country to others4 ,having seen his family off to ,england1 ,livingstone left ,cape ,town on the #hth of ,june #aheb1 and turning north again reached ,linyante1 the capital of the ,makololo1 on the ,chobe1 on the #bcrd of ,may #ahec1 being cordially received by ,sekeletu and his people4 ,his first object was to seek for some healthy high land in which to plant a station4 ,ascending the ,zambezi1 he1 however1 found no place free from the tsetse fly1 and therefore resolved to discover a route to the interior from either the west or east coast4 ,to accompany ,livingstone twenty-seven men were selected from the various tribes under ,sekeletu1 partly with a view to open up a trade route between their own country and the coast4 ,the start was made from ,linyante on the #aath of ,november #ahec1 and1 by ascending the ,liba1 ,lake ,dilolo was reached on the #bjth of ,february #ahed4 ,on the #dth of ,april the ,kwango was crossed1 and on the #cast of ,may the town of ,loanda was entered1 ,livingstone1 however1 being all but dead from fever1 semi-starvation and dysentery4 ,from ,loanda ,livingstone sent his astronomical observations to ,sir ,thomas ,maclear at the ,cape1 and an account of his journey to the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 which in ,may #ahee awarded him its patron's medal4 ,loanda was left on the #bjth of ,september #ahed1 but ,livingstone lingered long about the ,portuguese settlements4 ,making a slight dtour to the north to ,kabango1 the party reached ,lake ,dilolo on the #acth of ,june #ahee4 ,here ,livingstone made a careful study of the hydrography of the country4 ,he now for the first time apprehended the true form of the river systems and the continent1 and the conclusions he came to have been essentially confirmed by subsequent observations4 ,the return journey from ,lake ,dilolo was by the same route as that by which the party came1 ,linyante being reached in the beginning of ,september4 ,for ,livingstone's purposes the route to the west was unavailable1 and he decided to follow the ,zambezi to its mouth4 ,with a numerous following1 he left ,linyante on the #hth of ,november #ahee4 ,a fortnight afterwards he discovered the famous ,victoria falls of the ,zambezi4 ,he had already formed a true idea of the configuration of the continent as a great hollow or basin-shaped plateau1 surrounded by a ring of mountains4 ,livingstone reached the ,portuguese settlement of ,tete on the #bnd of ,march #ahef1 in a very emaciated condition4 ,here he left his men and proceeded to ,quilimane1 where he arrived on the #bjth of ,may1 thus having completed in two years and six months one of the most remarkable and fruitful journeys on record4 ,the results in geography and in natural science in all its departments were abundant and accurate2 his observations necessitated a reconstruction of the map of ,central ,africa4 ,when ,livingstone began his work in ,africa the map was virtually a blank from ,kuruman to ,timbuktu1 and nothing but envy or ignorance can throw any doubt on the originality of his discoveries4 ,on the #abth of ,december he arrived in ,england1 after an absence of sixteen years1 and met everywhere the welcome of a hero4 ,he told his story in his ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa 7#aheg7 with straightforward simplicity1 and with no effort after literary style1 and no apparent consciousness that he had done anything extraordinary4 ,its publication brought what he would have considered a competency had he felt himself at liberty to settle down for life4 ,in #aheg he severed his connexion with the ,london ,missionary ,society1 with whom1 however1 he always remained on the best of terms1 and in ,february #aheh he accepted the appointment of ,her ,majesty's consul at ,quilimane for the eastern coast and the independent districts in the interior1 and commander of an expedition for exploring eastern and central ,africa4 ,the ,zambezi expedition1 of which ,livingstone thus became commander1 sailed from ,liverpool in ,h4,m4,s4 ,pearl on the #ajth of ,march #aheh1 and reached the mouth of the ,zambezi on the #adth of ,may4 ,the party1 which included ,dr 7afterwards ,sir7 ,john ,kirk and ,livingstone's brother ,charles1 ascended the river from the ,kongone mouth in a steam launch1 the ,ma-,robert2 reaching ,tete on the #hth of ,september4 ,the remainder of the year was devoted to an examination of the river above ,tete1 and especially the ,kebrabasa rapids4 ,most of the year #ahei was spent in the exploration of the river ,shir and ,lake ,nyasa1 which was discovered in ,september2 and during a great part of the year #ahfj ,livingstone was engaged in fulfilling his promise to take such of the ,makololo home as cared to go4 ,in ,january of next year arrived ,bishop ,c4 ,f4 ,mackenzie and a party of missionaries sent out by the ,universities ,mission to establish a station on the upper ,shir4 ,after exploring the river ,rovuma for #cj m4 in his new vessel the ,pioneer1 ,livingstone and the missionaries proceeded up the ,shir to ,chibisa's2 there they found the slave trade rampant4 ,on the #aeth of ,july ,livingstone1 accompanied by several native carriers1 started to show the bishop the country4 ,several bands of slaves whom they met were liberated1 and after seeing the missionary party settled in the highlands to the south of ,lake ,chilwa 7,shirwa7 ,livingstone spent from ,august to ,november in exploring ,lake ,nyasa4 ,while the boat sailed up the west side of the lake to near the north end1 the explorer marched along the shore4 ,he returned more resolved than ever to do his utmost to rouse the civilized world to put down the desolating slave-trade4 ,on the #cjth of ,january #ahfb1 at the ,zambezi mouth1 ,livingstone welcomed his wife and the ladies of the mission1 with whom were the sections of the ,lady ,nyassa1 a river steamer which ,livingstone had had built at his own expense4 ,when the mission ladies reached the mouth of the ,ruo tributary of the ,shir1 they were stunned to hear of the death of the bishop and one of his companions4 ,this was a sad blow to ,livingstone1 seeming to have rendered all his efforts to establish a mission futile4 ,a still greater loss to him was that of his wife at ,shupanga1 on the #bgth of ,april #ahfb4 ,the ,lady ,nyassa was taken to the ,rovuma4 ,up this river ,livingstone managed to steam #aef m41 but farther progress was arrested by rocks4 ,returning to the ,zambezi in the beginning of #ahfc1 he found that the desolation caused by the slave trade was more horrible and widespread than ever4 ,it was clear that the ,portuguese officials were themselves at the bottom of the traffic4 ,kirk and ,charles ,livingstone being compelled to return to ,england on account of their health1 the doctor resolved once more to visit the lake1 and proceeded some distance up the west side and then north-west as far as the watershed that separates the ,loangwa from the rivers that run into the lake4 ,meanwhile a letter was received from ,earl ,russell recalling the expedition by the end of the year4 ,in the end of ,april #ahfd ,livingstone reached ,zanzibar in the ,lady ,nyassa1 and on the #bcrd of ,july ,livingstone arrived in ,england4 ,he was naturally disappointed with the comparative failure of this expedition4 ,still the geographical results1 though not in extent to be compared to those of his first and his final expeditions1 were of high importance1 as were those in various departments of science1 and he had unknowingly laid the foundations of the ,british protectorate of ,nyasaland4 ,details will be found in his ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi and its ,tributaries1 published in #ahfe4 ,by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison and his other staunch friends ,livingstone was as warmly welcomed as ever4 ,when ,murchison proposed to him that he should go out again1 although he seems to have had a desire to spend the remainder of his days at home1 the prospect was too tempting to be rejected4 ,he was appointed ,british consul to ,central ,africa without a salary1 and government contributed only #ejj to the expedition4 ,the chief help came from private friends4 ,during the latter part of the expedition government granted him #ajjj1 but that1 when he learned of it1 was devoted to his great undertaking4 ,the ,geographical ,society contributed #ejj4 ,the two main objects of the expedition were the suppression of slavery by means of civilizing influences1 and the ascertainment of the watershed in the region between ,nyasa and ,tanganyika4 ,at first ,livingstone thought the ,nile problem had been all but solved by ,speke1 ,baker and ,burton1 but the idea grew upon him that the ,nile sources must be sought farther south1 and his last journey became in the end a forlorn hope in search of the fountains of ,herodotus4 ,leaving ,england in the middle of ,august #ahfe1 via ,bombay1 ,livingstone arrived at ,zanzibar on the #bhth of ,january #ahff4 ,he was landed at the mouth of the ,rovuma on the #bbnd of ,march1 and started for the interior on the #dth of ,april4 ,his company consisted of thirteen sepoys1 ten ,johanna men1 nine ,african boys from ,nasik school1 ,bombay1 and four boys from the ,shir region1 besides camels1 buffaloes1 mules and donkeys4 ,this imposing outfit soon melted away to four or five boys4 ,rounding the south end of ,lake ,nyasa1 ,livingstone struck in a north-north-west direction for the south end of ,lake ,tanganyika1 over country much of which had not previously been explored4 ,the ,loangwa was crossed on the #aeth of ,december #ahff4 ,on ,christmas day ,livingstone lost his four goats1 a loss which he felt very keenly1 and the medicine chest was stolen in ,january #ahfg4 ,fever came upon him1 and for a time was his almost constant companion2 this1 with other serious ailments which subsequently attacked him1 and which he had no medicine to counteract1 told on even his iron frame4 ,the ,chambezi was crossed on the #bhth of ,january1 and the south end of ,tanganyika reached on the #cast of ,march4 ,here1 much to his vexation1 he got into the company of ,arab slave dealers 7among them being ,tippoo-,tib7 by whom his movements were hampered2 but he succeeded in reaching ,lake ,mweru 7,nov4 #ahfg74 ,after visiting ,lake ,mofwa and the ,lualaba1 which he believed was the upper part of the ,nile1 he1 on the #ahth of ,july #ahfh1 discovered ,lake ,bangweulu4 ,proceeding up the west coast of ,tanganyika1 he reached ,ujiji on the #adth of ,march #ahfi1 a ruckle of bones4 ,livingstone recrossed ,tanganyika in ,july1 and passed through the country of the ,manyema1 but baffled partly by the natives1 partly by the slave hunters1 and partly by his long illnesses it was not till the #bith of ,march #ahga that he succeeded in reaching the ,lualaba1 at the town of ,nyangwe1 where he stayed four months1 vainly trying to get a canoe to take him across4 ,it was here that a party of ,arab slavers1 without warning or provocation1 assembled one day when the market was busiest and commenced shooting the women1 hundreds being killed or drowned in trying to escape4 ,livingstone had the impression that he was in hell1 but was helpless1 though his first impulse was to pistol the murderers4 ,the account of this scene which he sent home roused indignation in ,england to such a degree as to lead to determined and to a considerable extent successful efforts to get the sultan of ,zanzibar to suppress the trade4 ,in sickened disgust the weary traveller made his way back to ,ujiji1 which he reached on the #acth of ,october4 ,five days after his arrival in ,ujiji he was inspired with new life by the timely arrival of ,h4 ,m4 ,stanley1 the richly laden almoner of ,mr ,gordon ,bennett1 of the ,new ,york ,herald4 ,with ,stanley ,livingstone explored the north end of ,tanganyika1 and proved conclusively that the ,rusizi runs into and not out of it4 ,in the end of the year the two started eastward for ,unyamwezi1 where ,stanley provided ,livingstone with an ample supply of goods1 and bade him farewell4 ,stanley left on the #aeth of ,march #ahgb1 and after ,livingstone had waited wearily in ,unyamwezi for five months1 a troop of fifty-seven men and boys arrived1 good and faithful fellows on the whole1 selected by ,stanley himself4 ,thus attended1 he started on the #aeth of ,august for ,lake ,bangweulu1 proceeding along the east side of ,tanganyika4 ,his old enemy dysentery soon found him out4 ,in ,january #ahgc the party got among the endless spongy jungle on the east of ,lake ,bangweulu1 ,livingstone's object being to go round by the south and away west to find the fountains4 ,the doctor got worse and worse1 and in the middle of ,april he had unwillingly to submit to be carried in a rude litter4 ,on the #bith of ,april ,chitambo's village on the ,lulimala1 in ,ilala1 on the south shore of the lake1 was reached4 ,the last entry in the journal is on the #bgth of ,april3 ,knocked up quite1 and remain--recover--sent to buy milch goats4 ,we are on the banks of the ,molilamo4 ,on the #cjth of ,april he with difficulty wound up his watch1 and early on the morning of the #ast of ,may the boys found the great master1 as they called him1 kneeling by the side of his bed1 dead4 ,his faithful men preserved the body in the sun as well as they could1 and1 wrapping it carefully up1 carried it and all his papers1 instruments and other things across ,africa to ,zanzibar4 ,it was borne to ,england with all honour1 and on the #ahth of ,april #ahgd1 was deposited in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,his faithfully kept journals during these seven years' wanderings were published under the title of the ,last ,journals of ,david ,livingstone in ,central ,africa1 in #ahgd1 edited by his old friend the ,rev4 ,horace ,waller4 ,in ,old ,chitambo's the time and place of his death are commemorated by a permanent monument1 which replaced in #aijb the tree on which his native followers had recorded the event4 ,in spite of his sufferings and the many compulsory delays1 ,livingstone's discoveries during these last years were both extensive and of prime importance as leading to a solution of ,african hydrography4 ,no single ,african explorer has ever done so much for ,african geography as ,livingstone during his thirty years' work4 ,his travels covered one-third of the continent1 extending from the ,cape to near the equator1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,livingstone was no hurried traveller2 he did his journeying leisurely1 carefully observing and recording all that was worthy of note1 with rare geographical instinct and the eye of a trained scientific observer1 studying the ways of the people1 eating their food1 living in their huts1 and sympathizing with their joys and sorrows4 ,in all the countries through which he travelled his memory is cherished by the native tribes who1 almost without exception1 treated ,livingstone as a superior being2 his treatment of them was always tender1 gentle and gentlemanly4 ,by the ,arab slavers whom he opposed he was also greatly admired1 and was by them styled the very great doctor4 ,in the annals of exploration of the ,dark ,continent1 wrote ,stanley many years after the death of the missionary explorer1 we look in vain among other nationalities for a name such as ,livingstone's4 ,he stands pre-eminent above all2 he unites in himself all the best qualities of other explorers4 444 ,britain 444 excelled herself even when she produced the strong and perseverant ,scotchman1 ,livingstone4 ,but the direct gains to geography and science are perhaps not the greatest results of ,livingstone's journeys4 ,his example and his death acted like an inspiration1 filling ,africa with an army of explorers and missionaries1 and raising in ,europe so powerful a feeling against the slave trade that through him it may be considered as having received its deathblow4 ,personally ,livingstone was a pure and tender-hearted man1 full of humanity and sympathy1 simple-minded as a child4 ,the motto of his life was the advice he gave to some school children in ,scotland--,fear ,god1 and work hard4 ,see1 besides his own narratives and ,w4 ,g4 ,blaikie's ,life 7#ahhj71 the publications of the ,london ,missionary ,society from #ahdj1 the ,journal and ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 the despatches to the ,foreign ,office sent home by ,livingstone during his last two expeditions1 and ,stanley's ,autobiography 7#aiji7 and ,how ,i ,found ,livingstone 7#ahgb74 7,j4 ,s4 ,k47 ,,livingstone ,,mountains1 a band of highlands in ,german ,east ,africa1 forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of ,lake ,nyasa1 at the northern end of the lake4 ,in parts these highlands1 known also under their native name of ,kinga1 present rather the character of a plateau than of a true mountain range1 but the latter name may be justified by the fact that they form a comparatively narrow belt of country1 which falls considerably to the east as well as to the west4 ,the northern end is well marked in #h #ej ,s4 by an escarpment falling to the ,ruaha valley1 which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main rift-valley4 ,southwards the ,livingstone range terminates in the deep valley of the ,ruhuhu in #aj #cj ,s41 the first decided break in the highlands that is reached from the north1 on the east coast of ,nyasa4 ,geologically the range is formed on the side of the lake by a zone of gneiss running in a series of ridges and valleys generally parallel to its axis4 ,the ridge nearest the lake 7which in ,mount ,jamimbi or ,chamembe1 #i #da ,s41 rises to an absolute height of #ghgj ft41 or #fbjj ft4 above ,nyasa7 falls almost sheer to the water1 the same steep slope being continued beneath the surface4 ,towards the south the range appears to have a width of some #bj m4 only1 but northwards it widens out to about #dj m41 though broken here by the depression1 drained towards the ,ruaha1 of ,buanyi1 on the south side of which is the highest known summit of the range 7#ifjj ft474 ,north and east of ,buanyi1 as in the eastern half of the range generally1 table-topped mountains occur1 composed above of horizontally bedded quartzites1 sandstones and conglomerates4 ,the uplands are generally clothed in rich grass1 forest occurring principally in the hollows1 while the slopes towards the lake are covered with poor scrub4 ,native settlements are scattered over the whole range1 and ,german mission stations have been established at ,bulongwa and ,mtandala1 a little north of the north end of ,nyasa4 ,the climate is here healthy1 and night frosts occur in the cold season4 ,european crops are raised with success4 ,at the foot of the mountains on ,lake ,nyasa are the ports of ,wiedhafen1 at the mouth of the ,ruhuhu1 and ,old ,langenburg1 at the north-east corner of the lake4 7,e4 ,he47 ,,livius ,,andronicus 7c4 #bhd-bjd ,b4,c471 the founder of ,roman epic poetry and drama4 ,his name1 in which the ,greek ,greek3 ,andronikos is combined with the gentile name of one of the great ,roman houses1 while indicative of his own position as a manumitted slave1 is also significant of the influences by which ,roman literature was fostered1 viz4 the culture of men who were either ,greeks or semi-,graeci by birth and education1 and the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more enlightened members of the ,roman aristocracy4 ,he is supposed to have been a native of ,tarentum1 and to have been brought1 while still a boy1 after the capture of that town in #bgb1 as a slave to ,rome4 ,he lived in the household of a member of the gens ,livia1 probably ,m4 ,livius ,salinator4 ,he determined the course which ,roman literature followed for more than a century after his time4 ,the imitation of ,greek comedy1 tragedy and epic poetry1 which produced great results in the hands of ,naevius1 ,plautus1 ,ennius and their successors1 received its first impulse from him4 ,to judge1 however1 from the insignificant remains of his writings1 and from the opinions of ,cicero and ,horace1 he can have had no pretension either to original genius or to artistic accomplishment4 ,his real claim to distinction was that he was the first great schoolmaster of the ,roman people4 ,we learn from ,suetonius that1 like ,ennius after him1 he obtained his living by teaching ,greek and ,latin2 and it was probably as a school-book1 rather than as a work of literary pretension1 that his translation of the ,odyssey into ,latin ,saturnian verse was executed4 ,this work was still used in schools in the time of ,horace 7,epp4 ii4 #a41 #fi71 and1 although faultily executed1 satisfied a real want by introducing the ,romans to a knowledge of ,greek4 ,such knowledge became essential to men in a high position as a means of intercourse with ,greeks1 while ,greek literature stimulated the minds of leading ,romans4 ,moreover1 southern ,italy and ,sicily afforded many opportunities for witnessing representations of ,greek comedies and tragedies4 ,the ,romans and ,italians had an indigenous drama of their own1 known by the name of ,satura1 which prepared them for the reception of the more regular ,greek drama4 ,the distinction between this ,satura and the plays of ,euripides or ,menander was that it had no regular plot4 ,this the ,latin drama first received from ,livius ,andronicus2 but it did so at the cost of its originality4 ,in #bdj1 the year after the end of the first ,punic ,war1 he produced at the ludi ,romani a translation of a ,greek play 7it is uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both71 and this representation marks the beginning of ,roman literature 7,livy vii4 #b74 ,livius himself took part in his plays1 and in order to spare his voice he introduced the custom of having the solos 7cantica7 sung by a boy1 while he himself represented the action of the song by dumb show4 ,in his translation he discarded the native ,saturnian metre1 and adopted the iambic1 trochaic and cretic metres1 to which ,latin more easily adapted itself than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a later time4 ,he continued to produce plays for more than thirty years after this time4 ,the titles of his tragedies--,achilles1 ,aegisthus1 ,equus ,trojanus1 ,hermione1 ,tereus--are all suggestive of subjects which were treated by the later tragic poets of ,rome4 ,in the year #bjg1 when he must have been of a great age1 he was appointed to compose a hymn of thanksgiving1 sung by maidens1 for the victory of the ,metaurus and an intercessory hymn to the ,aventine ,juno4 ,as a further tribute of national recognition the college or gild of poets and actors was granted a place of meeting in the temple of ,minerva on the ,aventine4 ,see fragments in ,l4 ,mller1 ,livi ,andronici et ,cn4 ,naevi ,fabularum ,reliquiae 7#ahhe72 also ,j4 ,wordsworth1 ,fragments and ,specimens of ,early ,latin 7#ahgd72 ,mommsen1 ,hist4 of ,rome1 bk4 iii4 ch4 #ad4 ,,livno1 a town of ,bosnia1 situated on the eastern side of the fertile plain of ,livno1 at the foot of ,mount ,krug 7#feha ft474 ,pop4 about #ejjj4 ,the ,dalmatian border is #g m4 ,w4 ,livno had a trade in grain1 live-stock and silver filigree-work up to #aijd1 when a fire swept away more than #ejj of the old ,turkish houses1 together with the ,roman citadel4 ,remains prove that ,livno occupies the site of a ,roman settlement1 the name of which is uncertain4 ,the ,roman ,catholic convent of ,gurici is #f m4 ,s4 ,,livonia1 or ,,livland 7,russian1 ,liflandia71 one of the three ,baltic provinces of ,russia1 bounded ,w4 by the ,gulf of ,riga1 ,n4 by ,esthonia1 ,e4 by the governments of ,st ,petersburg1 ,pskov and ,vitebsk1 and ,s4 by ,courland4 ,a group of islands 7#aaaj sq4 m47 at the entrance of the ,gulf of ,riga1 of which ,oesel1 ,mohn1 ,runo and ,paternoster are the largest1 belong to this government4 ,it covers an area of #ah1afj sq4 m41 but of this the part of ,lake ,peipus which belongs to it occupies #ajij4 ,its surface is diversified by several plateaus1 those of ,haanhof and of the ,livonian ,aa having an average elevation of #djj to #gjj ft41 while several summits reach #hjj to #ajjj ft4 or more4 ,the edges of the plateaus are gapped by deep valleys2 the hilly tract between the ,dvina and its tributary the ,livonian ,aa has received1 from its picturesque narrow valleys1 thick forests and numerous lakes1 the name of ,livonian ,switzerland4 ,the plateau of ,odenph1 drained by tributaries of the ,embach river1 which flows for #ic m4 from ,lake ,virz-yrvi into ,lake ,peipus1 occupies an area of #bhcj sq4 m41 and has an average elevation of #ejj ft4 ,more than a thousand lakes are scattered over ,livonia1 of which that of ,virz-yrvi1 having a surface of #ajf sq4 m4 7#aae ft4 above sea-level71 is the largest4 ,marshes and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of the province4 ,of the numerous rivers1 the ,dvina1 which flows for #ij m4 along its frontier1 the ,pernau1 ,salis1 ,livonian ,aa and ,embach are navigable4 ,the ,silurian formation which covers ,esthonia1 appears in the northern part of ,livonia1 the remainder of the province consisting of ,devonian strata4 ,the whole is overlaid with glacial deposits1 sometimes #djj ft4 thick4 ,the typical bottom moraine1 with erratics from ,finland1 extends all over the country4 ,glacial furrows1 striae and elongated troughs are met with everywhere1 running mostly from north-west to south-east1 as well as asar or eskrs1 which have the same direction4 ,sand-dunes cover large tracts on the shores of the ,baltic4 ,no traces of marine deposits are found higher than #ajj or #aej ft4 above the present sea-level4 ,the soil is not very fertile4 ,forests cover about two-fifths of the surface4 ,the climate is rather severe4 ,the mean temperatures are #dc ,f4 at ,riga 7winter #bc1 summer #fc7 and #dj at ,yuriev4 ,the winds are very variable2 the average number of rainy and snowy days is #adf at ,riga 7rainfall #bd4a in474 ,fogs are not uncommon4 ,the population of ,livonia1 which was #fba1fjj in #ahaf1 reached #a1jjj1hgf in #ahgj1 and #a1bie1bca in #ahig1 of whom #dc4d were ,letts1 #ci4i ,ehsts1 #g4f ,germans1 #e4d ,russians1 #b ,jews and #a4b ,poles4 ,the estimated pop4 in #aijf was #a1daa1jjj4 ,the ,livs1 who formerly extended east into the government of ,vitebsk1 have nearly all passed away4 ,their native language1 of ,finnish origin1 is rapidly disappearing1 their present language being a ,lettish patois4 ,in #ahdf a grammar and dictionary of it were made with difficulty from the mouths of old people4 ,the ,ehsts1 who resemble the ,finns of ,tavastland1 have maintained their ethnic features1 their customs1 national traditions1 songs and poetry1 and their harmonious language4 ,there is a marked revival of national feeling1 favoured by ,young ,esthonia4 ,the prevailing religion is the ,lutheran 7#gi4h72 #ad4c belong to the ,orthodox ,greek ,church2 of the ,russians1 however1 a considerable proportion are ,raskolniks 7,nonconformists72 the ,roman ,catholics amount to #b4c1 and the ,jews to #b4 ,the ,russian civil code was introduced in the ,baltic provinces in #ahce1 and the use of ,russian1 instead of ,german1 in official correspondence and in law courts was ordered in #ahfg1 but not generally brought into practice4 ,nearly all the soil belongs to the nobility1 the extent of the peasants' estates being only #ae of the entire area of the government4 ,serfdom was abolished in #ahai1 but the peasants remained under the jurisdiction of their landlords4 ,the class of peasant proprietors being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants1 the bulk have remained tenants at will2 they are very miserable1 and about one-fourth of them are continually wandering in search of work4 ,from time to time the emigration takes the shape of a mass movement1 which the government stops by forcible measures4 ,the average size of the landed estates is #iejj to #aa1jjj acres1 far above the general average for ,russia4 ,agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection on the estates of the landlords4 ,the principal crops are rye1 oats1 barley1 flax and potatoes1 with some wheat1 hemp and buckwheat4 ,dairy-farming and gardening are on the increase4 ,fishing in ,lake ,peipus gives occupation to nearly #ajj1jjj persons1 and is also carried on in the ,gulf of ,riga and in the rivers4 ,woollen1 cloth1 cotton and flax mills1 steam flour and saw mills1 distilleries and breweries1 machinery works1 paper mills1 furniture1 tobacco1 soap1 candle and hardware works are among the chief industrial establishments4 ,livonia carries on a large export trade1 especially through ,riga and ,pernau1 in petroleum1 wool1 oilcake1 flax1 linseed1 hemp1 grain1 timber and wooden wares2 the ,dvina is the chief channel for this trade4 ,education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in ,russia1 no less than #hg of the children receiving regular instruction4 ,the higher educational institutions include ,yuriev 7,dorpat7 ,university1 ,riga polytechnic and a high school for the clergy4 ,the government is divided into nine districts1 the chief towns of which1 with their populations in #ahig1 are3 ,riga1 capital of the government 7#bhb1idc72 ,arensburg1 in the island of ,oesel 7#dfba72 ,yuriev or ,dorpat 7#db1dba72 ,fellin 7#gfei72 ,pernau 7#ab1hef72 ,walk 7#aj1aci72 ,wenden 7#fcbg72 ,werro 7#daed72 and ,wolmar 7#eabd74 ,the capital of the government is ,riga4 ,coins of the time of ,alexander the ,great1 found on the island of ,oesel1 show that the coasts of the ,baltic were at an early period in commercial relation with the civilized world4 ,the chronicle of ,nestor mentions as inhabitants of the ,baltic coast the ,chudes1 the ,livs1 the ,narova1 ,letgola1 ,semigallians and ,kors4 ,it was probably about the #ith century that the ,chudes became tributary to the ,varangian-,russian states4 ,as they reacquired their independence1 ,yaroslav ,i4 undertook in #ajcj a campaign against them1 and founded ,yuriev 7,dorpat74 ,the ,germans first penetrated into ,livonia in the #aath century1 and in #aaeh several ,lbeck and ,visby merchants landed at the mouth of the ,dvina4 ,in #aahf the emissaries of the archbishop of ,bremen began to preach ,christianity among the ,ehsts and ,letts1 and in #abja the bishop of ,livonia established his residence at ,riga4 ,in #abjb or #abjd ,innocent ,,iii4 recognized the order of ,brothers of the ,sword1 the residence of its grand master being at ,wenden2 and the order1 spreading the ,christian religion by the sword among the natives1 carried on from that time a series of uninterrupted wars against the ,russian republics and ,lithuania1 as well as a struggle against the archbishop of ,riga1 ,riga having become a centre for trade1 intermediate between the ,hanseatic towns and those of ,novgorod1 ,pskov and ,polotsk4 ,the first active interference of ,lithuania in the affairs of ,livonia took place immediately after the great outbreak of the peasants on ,oesel2 ,olgierd then devastated all southern ,livonia4 ,the order1 having purchased the ,danish part of ,esthonia1 in #acdg1 began a war against the bishop of ,riga1 as well as against ,lithuania1 ,poland and ,russia4 ,the wars against those powers were terminated respectively in #adce1 #adff and #adhc4 ,about the end of the #aeth century the master of the order1 ,plettenberg1 acquired a position of great importance1 and in #aebg he was recognized as a prince of the empire by ,charles ,v4 ,on the other hand1 the authority of the bishops of ,riga was soon completely destroyed 7#aeff74 ,the war of the order with ,ivan ,,iv4 of ,russia in #aeeh led to a division of ,livonia1 its northern part1 ,dorpat included1 being taken by ,russia1 and the southern part falling under the dominion of ,poland4 ,from that time 7#aefa7 ,livonia formed a subject of dispute between ,poland and ,russia1 the latter only formally abdicating its rights to the country in #aehb4 ,in #afba it was the theatre of a war between ,poland and ,sweden1 and was conquered by the latter power1 enjoying thus for twenty-five years a milder rule4 ,in #afed1 and again at the beginning of the #ahth century1 it became the theatre of war between ,poland1 ,russia and ,sweden1 and was finally conquered by ,russia4 ,the official concession was confirmed by the treaty of ,nystad in #agba4 ,see ,e4 ,seraphim1 ,geschichte ,liv-1 ,esth-1 und ,kurlands 7#bnd ed41 ,revel1 #ahig-aijd7 and ,geschichte von ,livland 7,gotha1 #aije1 c474 7,p4 ,a4 ,k42 ,j4 ,t4 ,be47 ,,livy ,,titus ,,livius 7#ei ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #ag71 ,roman historian1 was born at ,patavium 7,padua74 ,the ancient connexion between his native city and ,rome helped to turn his attention to the study which became the work of his life4 ,for ,padua claimed1 like ,rome1 a ,trojan origin1 and ,livy is careful to place its founder ,antenor side by side with ,aeneas4 ,a more real bond of union was found in the dangers to which both had been exposed from the assaults of the ,celts 7,livy x4 #b71 and ,padua must have been drawn to ,rome as the conqueror of her hereditary foes4 ,moreover1 at the time of ,livy's birth1 ,padua had long been in possession of the full ,roman franchise1 and the historian's family name may have been taken by one of his ancestors out of compliment to the great ,livian gens at ,rome1 whose connexion with ,cisalpine ,gaul is well-established 7,suet4 ,tib4 #c71 and by one of whom his family may have been enfranchized4 ,livy's easy independent life at ,rome1 and his aristocratic leanings in politics seem to show that he was the son of well-born and opulent parents2 he was certainly well educated1 being widely read in ,greek literature1 and a student both of rhetoric and philosophy4 ,we have also evidence in his writings that he had prepared himself for his great work by researches into the history of his native town4 ,his youth and early manhood1 spent perhaps chiefly at ,padua1 were cast in stormy times1 and the impression which they left upon his mind was ineffaceable4 ,in the ,civil ,war his personal sympathies were with ,pompey and the republican party 7,tac4 ,ann4 iv4 #cd72 but far more lasting in its effects was his experience of the licence1 anarchy and confusion of these dark days4 ,the rule of ,augustus he seems to have accepted as a necessity1 but he could not1 like ,horace and ,virgil1 welcome it as inaugurating a new and glorious era4 ,he writes of it with despondency as a degenerate and declining age2 and1 instead of triumphant prophecies of world-wide rule1 such as we find in ,horace1 ,livy contents himself with pointing out the dangers which already threatened ,rome1 and exhorting his contemporaries to learn1 in good time1 the lessons which the past history of the state had to teach4 ,it was probably about the time of the battle of ,actium that ,livy established himself in ,rome1 and there he seems chiefly to have resided until his retirement to ,padua shortly before his death4 ,we have no evidence that he travelled much1 though he must have paid at least one visit to ,campania 7xxxviii4 #ef71 and he never1 so far as we know1 took any part in political life4 ,nor1 though he enjoyed the personal friendship and patronage of ,augustus 7,tac4 ,ann4 iv4 #cd7 and stimulated the historical zeal of the future emperor ,claudius 7,suet4 ,claud4 xli471 can we detect in him anything of the courtier4 ,there is not in his history a trace of that rather gross adulation in which even ,virgil does not disdain to indulge4 ,his republican sympathies were freely expressed1 and as freely pardoned by ,augustus4 ,we must imagine him devoted to the great task which he had set himself to perform1 with a mind free from all disturbing cares1 and in the enjoyment of all the facilities for study afforded by the ,rome of ,augustus1 with its liberal encouragement of letters1 its newly-founded libraries and its brilliant literary circles4 ,as his work went on1 the fame which he had never coveted came to him in ample measure4 ,he is said to have declared in one volume of his history that he had already won glory enough1 and the younger ,pliny 7,epist4 ii4 #c7 relates that a ,spaniard came all the way from ,gades merely to see him1 and1 this accomplished1 at once returned home satisfied4 ,the accession of ,tiberius 7,a4,d4 #ad7 materially altered for the worse the prospects of literature in ,rome1 and ,livy retired to ,padua1 where he died4 ,he had at least one son 7,quintil4 x4 #a4 #ci71 who also was possibly an author 7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 i4 #e4 #f71 and a daughter married to a certain ,l4 ,magius1 a rhetorician of no great merit 7,seneca1 ,controv4 x4 #bi4 #b74 ,nothing further is known of his personal history4 ,analysis of the ,history4--,for us the interest of ,livy's life centres in the work to which the greater part of it was devoted1 the history of ,rome from its foundation down to the death of ,drusus 7#i ,b4,c474 ,its proper title was ,ab urbe condita libri 7also called historiae and annales74 ,various indications point to the period from #bg to #bj ,b4,c41 as that during which the first decade was written4 ,in the first book 7#ai4 #c7 the emperor is called ,augustus1 a title which he assumed early in #bg ,b4,c41 and in ix4 #ah the omission of all reference to the restoration1 in #bj ,b4,c41 of the standards taken at ,carrhae seems to justify the inference that the passage was written before that date4 ,in the epitome of book lix4 there is a reference to a law of ,augustus which was passed in #ah ,b4,c4 ,the books dealing with the civil wars must have been written during ,augustus's lifetime1 as they were read by him 7,tac4 ,ann4 iv4 #cd71 while there is some evidence that the last part1 from book cxxi4 onwards1 was published after his death ,a4,d4 #ad4 ,the work begins with the landing of ,aeneas in ,italy1 and closes with the death of ,drusus1 #i ,b4,c41 though it is possible that the author intended to continue it as far as the death of ,augustus4 ,the division into decades is certainly not due to the author himself1 and is first heard of at the end of the #eth century2 on the other hand1 the division into libri or volumina seems to be original4 ,that the books were grouped and possibly published in sets is rendered probable both by the prefaces which introduce new divisions of the work 7vi4 #a1 xxi4 #a1 xxxi4 #a7 and by the description in one ,,ms4 of books cix4-cxvi4 as bellorum civilium libri octo4 ,such arrangement and publication in parts were1 moreover1 common with ancient authors1 and in the case of a lengthy work almost a necessity4 ,of the #adb libri composing the history1 the first #ae carry us down to the eve of the great struggle with ,carthage1 a period1 as ,livy reckons it1 of #dhh years 7xxxi4 #a72 #ae more 7xvi-xxx47 cover the #fc years of the two great ,punic wars4 ,with the close of book xlv4 we reach the conquest of ,macedonia in #afg ,b4,c4 ,book lviii4 described the tribunate of ,tiberius ,gracchus1 #acc ,b4,c4 ,in book lxxxix4 we have the dictatorship of ,sulla 7#ha ,b4,c471 in ciii4 ,caesar's first consulship 7#ei ,b4,c471 in cix4-cxvi4 the civil wars to the death of ,caesar 7#dd ,b4,c471 in cxxiv4 the defeat of ,brutus and ,cassius at ,philippi1 in cxxxiii4 and cxxxiv4 the battle of ,actium and the accession of ,augustus4 ,the remaining eight books give the history of the first twenty years of ,augustus's reign4 ,of this vast work only a small portion has come down to modern times2 only thirty-five books are now extant 7i4-x41 xxi4-xlv471 and of these xli4 and xliii4 are incomplete4 ,the lost books seem to have disappeared between the #gth century and the revival of letters in the #aeth--a fact sufficiently accounted for by the difficulty of transmitting so voluminous a work in times when printing was unknown1 for the story that ,pope ,gregory ,i4 burnt all the copies of ,livy he could lay his hands on rests on no good evidence4 ,only one important fragment has since been recovered--the portion of book xci4 discovered in the ,vatican in #aggb1 and edited by ,niebuhr in #ahbj4 ,very much no doubt of the substance of the lost books has been preserved both by such writers as ,plutarch and ,dio ,cassius1 and by epitomizers like ,florus and ,eutropius4 ,but our knowledge of their contents is chiefly derived from the so-called periochae or epitomes1 of which we have fortunately a nearly complete series1 the epitomes of books cxxxvi4 and cxxxvii4 being the only ones missing4#a ,these epitomes have been ascribed without sufficient reason to ,florus 7#bnd century72 but1 though they are probably of even later date1 and are disappointingly meagre1 they may be taken as giving1 so far as they go1 a fairly authentic description of the original4 ,they have been expanded with great ingenuity and learning by ,freinsheim in ,drakenborch's edition of ,livy4#b ,the ,prodigio of ,julius ,obsequens and the list of consuls in the ,chronica of ,cassiodorus are taken directly from ,livy1 and to that extent reproduce the contents of the lost books4 ,it is probable that ,obsequens1 ,cassiodorus and the compiler of the epitomes did not use the original work but an abridgment4 ,historical ,standpoint4--,if we are to form a correct judgment on the merits of ,livy's history1 we must1 above all things1 bear in mind what his aim was in writing it1 and this he has told us himself in the celebrated preface4 ,he set himself the task of recording the history of the ,roman people1 the first in the world1 from the beginning4 ,the task was a great one1 and the fame to be won by it uncertain1 yet it would be something to have made the attempt1 and the labour itself would bring a welcome relief from the contemplation of present evils2 for his readers1 too1 this record will1 he says1 be full of instruction2 they are invited to note especially the moral lessons taught by the story of ,rome1 to observe how ,rome rose to greatness by the simple virtues and unselfish devotion of her citizens1 and how on the decay of these qualities followed degeneracy and decline4 ,he does not1 therefore1 write1 as ,polybius wrote1 for students of history4 ,with ,polybius the greatness of ,rome is a phenomenon to be critically studied and scientifically explained2 the rise of ,rome forms an important chapter in universal history1 and must be dealt with1 not as an isolated fact1 but in connexion with the general march of events in the civilized world4 ,still less has ,livy anything in common with the nave anxiety of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus to make it clear to his fellow ,greeks that the irresistible people who had mastered them was in origin1 in race and in language ,hellenic like themselves4 ,livy writes as a ,roman1 to raise a monument worthy of the greatness of ,rome1 and to keep alive1 for the guidance and the warning of ,romans1 the recollection alike of the virtues which had made ,rome great and of the vices which had threatened her with destruction4 ,in so writing he was in close agreement with the traditions of ,roman literature1 as well as with the conception of the nature and objects of history current in his time4 ,to a large extent ,roman literature grew out of pride in ,rome1 for1 though her earliest authors took the form and often the language of their writings from ,greece1 it was the greatness of ,rome that inspired the best of them1 and it was from the annals of ,rome that their themes were taken4 ,and this is naturally true in an especial sense of the ,roman historians2 the long list of annalists begins at the moment when the great struggle with ,carthage had for the first time brought ,rome into direct connexion with the historic peoples of the ancient world1 and when ,romans themselves awoke to the importance of the part reserved for ,rome to play in universal history4 ,to write the annals of ,rome became at once a task worthy of the best of her citizens4 ,though other forms of literature might be thought unbecoming to the dignity of a free-born citizen1 this was never so with history4 ,on the contrary1 men of high rank and tried statesmanship were on that very account thought all the fitter to write the chronicles of the state they had served4 ,and history in ,rome never lost either its social prestige or its intimate and exclusive connexion with the fortunes of the ,roman people4 ,it was well enough for ,greeks to busy themselves with the manners1 institutions and deeds of the peoples outside4 ,the ,roman historians1 from ,fabius ,pictor to ,tacitus1 cared for none of these things4 ,this exclusive interest in ,rome was doubtless encouraged by the peculiar characteristics of the history of the state4 ,the ,roman annalist had not1 like the ,greek1 to deal with the varying fortunes and separate doings of a number of petty communities1 but with the continuous life of a single city4 ,nor was his attention drawn from the main lines of political history by the claims of art1 literature and philosophy1 for just as the tie which bound ,romans together was that of citizenship1 not of race or culture1 so the history of ,rome is that of the state1 of its political constitution1 its wars and conquests1 its military and administrative system4 ,livy's own circumstances were all such as to render these views natural to him4 ,he began to write at a time when1 after a century of disturbance1 the mass of men had been contented to purchase peace at the price of liberty4 ,the present was at least inglorious1 the future doubtful1 and many turned gladly to the past for consolation4 ,this retrospective tendency was favourably regarded by the government4 ,it was the policy of ,augustus to obliterate all traces of recent revolution1 and to connect the new imperial rgime as closely as possible with the ancient traditions and institutions of ,rome and ,italy4 ,the ,aeneid of ,virgil1 the ,fasti of ,ovid1 suited well with his own restoration of the ancient temples1 his revival of such ancient ceremonies as the ,ludi ,saeculares1 his efforts to check the un-,roman luxury of the day1 and his jealous regard for the purity of the ,roman stock4 ,and1 though we are nowhere told that ,livy undertook his history at the emperor's suggestion1 it is certain that ,augustus read parts of it with pleasure1 and even honoured the writer with his assistance and friendship4 ,livy was deeply penetrated with a sense of the greatness of ,rome4 ,from first to last its majesty and high destiny are present to his mind4 ,aeneas is led to ,italy by the ,fates that he may be the founder of ,rome4 ,romulus after his ascension declares it to be the will of heaven that ,rome should be mistress of the world2 and ,hannibal marches into ,italy1 that he may set free the world from ,roman rule4 ,but1 if this ever-present consciousness often gives dignity and elevation to his narrative1 it is also responsible for some of its defects4 ,it leads him occasionally into exaggerated language 7e4g4 xxii4 #cc1 nullius usquam terrarum rei cura ,romanos effugiebat71 or into such mis-statements as his explanation of the course taken by the ,romans in renewing war with ,carthage1 that it seemed more suitable to the dignity of the ,roman people4 ,often his jealousy for the honour of ,rome makes him unfair and one-sided4 ,in all her wars not only success but justice is with ,rome4 ,to the same general attitude is also due the omission by ,livy of all that has no direct bearing on the fortunes of the ,roman people4 ,i have resolved1 he says 7xxxix4 #dh71 only to touch on foreign affairs so far as they are bound up with those of ,rome4 ,as the result1 we get from ,livy very defective accounts even of the ,italic peoples most closely connected with ,rome4 ,of the past history and the internal condition of the more distant nations she encountered he tells us little or nothing1 even when he found such details carefully given by ,polybius4 ,scarcely less strong than his interest in ,rome is his interest in the moral lessons which her history seemed to him so well qualified to teach4 ,this didactic view of history was a prevalent one in antiquity1 and it was confirmed no doubt by those rhetorical studies which in ,rome as in ,greece formed the chief part of education1 and which taught men to look on history as little more than a storehouse of illustrations and themes for declamation4 ,but it suited also the practical bent of the ,roman mind1 with its comparative indifference to abstract speculation or purely scientific research4 ,it is in the highest degree natural that ,livy should have sought for the secret of the rise of ,rome1 not in any large historical causes1 but in the moral qualities of the people themselves1 and that he should have looked upon the contemplation of these as the best remedy for the vices of his own degenerate days4 ,he dwells with delight on the unselfish patriotism of the old heroes of the republic4 ,in those times children obeyed their parents1 the gods were still sincerely worshipped1 poverty was no disgrace1 sceptical philosophies and foreign fashions in religion and in daily life were unknown4 ,but this ethical interest is closely bound up with his ,roman sympathies4 ,his moral ideal is no abstract one1 and the virtues he praises are those which in his view made up the truly ,roman type of character4 ,the prominence thus given to the moral aspects of the history tends to obscure in some degree the true relations and real importance of the events narrated1 but it does so in ,livy to a far less extent than in some other writers4 ,he is much too skilful an artist either to resolve his history into a mere bundle of examples1 or to overload it1 as ,tacitus is sometimes inclined to do1 with reflections and axioms4 ,the moral he wishes to enforce is usually either conveyed by the story itself1 with the aid perhaps of a single sentence of comment1 or put as a speech into the mouth of one of his characters 7e4g4 xxiii4 #di2 the devotion of ,decius1 viii4 #aj1 cf4 vii4 #dj2 and the speech of ,camillus1 v4 #ed72 and what little his narrative thus loses in accuracy it gains in dignity and warmth of feeling4 ,in his portraits of the typical ,romans of the old style1 such as ,q4 ,fabius ,maximus1 in his descriptions of the unshaken firmness and calm courage shown by the fathers of the state in the hour of trial1 ,livy is at his best2 and he is so largely in virtue of his genuine appreciation of character as a powerful force in the affairs of men4 ,this enthusiasm for ,rome and for ,roman virtues is1 moreover1 saved from degenerating into gross partiality by the genuine candour of ,livy's mind and by his wide sympathies with every thing great and good4 ,seneca 7,suasoriae vi4 #bb7 and ,quintilian 7x4 #a4 #aja7 bear witness to his impartiality4 ,thus1 ,hasdrubal's devotion and valour at the battle on the ,metaurus are described in terms of eloquent praise2 and even in ,hannibal1 the lifelong enemy of ,rome1 he frankly recognizes the great qualities that balanced his faults4 ,nor1 though his sympathies are unmistakably with the aristocratic party1 does he scruple to censure the pride1 cruelty and selfishness which too often marked their conduct 7ii4 #ed2 the speech of ,canuleius1 iv4 #c2 of ,sextius and ,licinius1 vi4 #cf72 and1 though he feels acutely that the times are out of joint1 and has apparently little hope of the future1 he still believes in justice and goodness4 ,he is often righteously indignant1 but never satirical1 and such a pessimism as that of ,tacitus and ,juvenal is wholly foreign to his nature4 ,though he studied and even wrote on philosophy 7,seneca1 ,ep4 #ajj4 #i71 ,livy is by no means a philosophic historian4 ,we learn indeed from incidental notices that he inclined to ,stoicism and disliked the ,epicurean system4 ,with the scepticism that despised the gods 7x4 #dj7 and denied that they meddled with the affairs of men 7xliii4 #ac7 he has no sympathy4 ,the immortal gods are everywhere the same2 they govern the world 7xxxvii4 #de7 and reveal the future to men by signs and wonders 7xliii4 #ac71 but only a debased superstition will look for their hand in every petty incident1 or abandon itself to an indiscriminate belief in the portents and miracles in which popular credulity delights4 ,the ancient state religion of ,rome1 with its temples1 priests and auguries1 he not only reverences as an integral part of the ,roman constitution1 with a sympathy which grows as he studies it1 but1 like ,varro1 and in true ,stoic fashion1 he regards it as a valuable instrument of government 7i4 #ai4 #ba71 indispensable in a well-ordered community4 ,as distinctly ,stoical is the doctrine of a fate to which even the gods must yield 7ix4 #d71 which disposes the plans of men 7i4 #db7 and blinds their minds 7v4 #cg71 yet leaves their wills free 7xxxvii4 #de74 ,but we find no trace in ,livy of any systematic application of philosophy to the facts of history4 ,he is as innocent of the leading ideas which shaped the work of ,polybius as he is of the cheap theorizing which wearies us in the pages of ,dionysius4 ,the events are graphically1 if not always accurately1 described2 but of the larger causes at work in producing them1 of their subtle action and reaction upon each other1 and of the general conditions amid which the history worked itself out1 he takes no thought at all4 ,nor has ,livy much acquaintance with either the theory or the practice of politics4 ,he exhibits1 it is true1 political sympathies and antipathies4 ,he is on the whole for the nobles and against the commons2 and1 though the unfavourable colours in which he paints the leaders of the latter are possibly reflected from the authorities he followed1 it is evident that he despised and disliked the multitude4 ,of monarchy he speaks with a genuine ,roman hatred1 and we know that in the last days of the republic his sympathies were wholly with those who strove in vain to save it4 ,he betrays1 too1 an insight into the evils which were destined finally to undermine the imposing fabric of ,roman empire4 ,the decline of the free population1 the spread of slavery 7vi4 #ab1 vii4 #be71 the universal craving for wealth 7iii4 #bf71 the employment of foreign mercenaries 7xxv4 #cc71 the corruption of ,roman race and ,roman manners by mixture with aliens 7xxxix4 #c71 are all noticed in tones of solemn warning4 ,but his retired life had given him no wide experience of men and things4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find that he fails altogether to present a clear and coherent picture of the history and working of the ,roman constitution1 or that his handling of intricate questions of policy is weak and inadequate4 ,sources4--,if from the general aim and spirit of ,livy's history we pass to consider his method of workmanship1 we are struck at once by the very different measure of success attained by him in the two great departments of an historian's labour4 ,he is a consummate artist1 but an unskilled and often careless investigator and critic4 ,the materials which lay ready to his hand may be roughly classed under two heads3 7#a7 the original evidence of monuments1 inscriptions1 c41 7#b7 the written tradition as found in the works of previous authors4 ,it is on the second of these two kinds of evidence that ,livy almost exclusively relies4 ,yet that even for the very early times a certain amount of original evidence still existed is proved by the use which was made of it by ,dionysius1 who mentions at least three important inscriptions1 two dating from the regal period and one from the first years of the republic 7iv4 #bf1 iv4 #eh1 x4 #cb74 ,we know from ,livy himself 7iv4 #bj7 that the breastplate dedicated by ,aulus ,cornelius ,cossus 7#dbh ,b4,c47 was to be seen in his own day in the temple of ,jupiter ,feretrius1 nor is there any reason to suppose that the libri lintei1 quoted by ,licinius ,macer1 were not extant when ,livy wrote4 ,for more recent times the materials were plentiful1 and a rich field of research lay open to the student in the long series of laws1 decrees of the senate1 and official registers1 reaching back1 as it probably did1 at least to the beginning of the #crd century ,b4,c4 ,nevertheless it seems certain that ,livy never realized the duty of consulting these relics of the past1 even in order to verify the statements of his authorities4 ,many of them he never mentions2 the others 7e4g4 the libri lintei7 he evidently describes at second hand4 ,antiquarian studies were popular in his day1 but the instances are very few in which he has turned their results to account4 ,there is no sign that he had ever read ,varro2 and he never alludes to ,verrius ,flaccus4 ,the haziness and inaccuracy of his topography make it clear that he did not attempt to familiarize himself with the actual scenes of events even that took place in ,italy4 ,not only does he confuse ,thermon1 the capital of ,aetolia1 with ,thermopylae 7xxxiii4 #ce71 but his accounts of the ,roman campaigns against ,volsci1 ,aequi and ,samnites swarm with confusions and difficulties2 nor are even his descriptions of ,hannibal's movements free from an occasional vagueness which betrays the absence of an exact knowledge of localities4 ,the consequence of this indifference to original research and patient verification might have been less serious had the written tradition on which ,livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy4 ,but neither the materials out of which it was composed1 nor the manner in which it had been put together1 were such as to make it a safe guide4 ,it was indeed represented by a long line of respectable names4 ,the majority of the ,roman annalists were men of high birth and education1 with a long experience of affairs1 and their defects did not arise from seclusion of life or ignorance of letters4 ,it is rather in the conditions under which they wrote and in the rules and traditions of their craft that the causes of their shortcomings must be sought4 ,the ,annalists4 ,it was not until the #fth century from the foundation of the city that historical writing began in ,rome4 ,the father of ,roman history1 ,q4 ,fabius ,pictor1 a patrician and a senator1 can scarcely have published his annals before the close of the ,second ,punic ,war1 but these annals covered the whole period from the arrival of ,evander in ,italy down at least to the battle by ,lake ,trasimene 7#bag ,b4,c474 ,out of what materials1 then1 did he put together his account of the earlier history8 ,recent criticism has succeeded in answering this question with some degree of certainty4 ,a careful examination of the fragments of ,fabius 7see ,h4 ,peter1 ,historicorum ,romanorum ,relliquiae1 ,leipzig1 #ahgj2 and ,c4 ,w4 ,nitzsch1 ,rm4 ,annalistik1 ,berlin1 #ahgc7 reveals in the first place a marked difference between the kingly period and that which followed the establishment of the republic4 ,the history of the former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology4 ,it is little more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt at criticism1 and with no more regard to chronological sequence than was necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up such gaps as that between the flight of ,aeneas from ,troy and the supposed year of the foundation of ,rome4 ,but from its very commencement the history of the republic wears a different aspect4 ,the mass of floating tradition1 which had come down from early days1 with its tales of border raids and forays1 of valiant chiefs and deeds of patriotism1 is now rudely fitted into a framework of a wholly different kind4 ,this framework consists of short notices of important events1 wars1 prodigies1 consecration of temples1 c41 all recorded with extreme brevity1 precisely dated1 and couched in a somewhat archaic style4 ,they were taken probably from one or more of the state registers1 such as the annals of the pontiffs1 or those kept by the aediles in the temple of ,ceres4 ,this bare official outline of the past history of his city was by ,fabius filled in from the rich store of tradition that lay ready to his hand4 ,the manner and spirit in which he effected this combination were no doubt wholly uncritical4 ,usually he seems to have transferred both annalistic notices and popular traditions to his pages much in the shape in which he found them4 ,but he unquestionably gave undue prominence to the tales of the prowess and glory of the ,fabii1 and probably also allowed his own strong aristocratic sympathies to colour his version of the early political controversies4 ,this fault of partiality was1 according to ,polybius1 a conspicuous blot in ,fabius's account of his own times1 which was1 we are told1 full and in the main accurate1 and1 like the earlier portions1 consisted of official annalistic notices1 supplemented1 however1 not from tradition1 but from his own experience and from contemporary sources4 ,but even here ,polybius charges him with favouring ,rome at the expense of ,carthage1 and with the undue exaltation of the great head of his house1 ,q4 ,fabius ,cunctator4 ,nevertheless the comparative fidelity with which ,fabius seems to have reproduced his materials might have made his annals the starting point of a critical history4 ,but unfortunately intelligent criticism was exactly what they never received4 ,it is true that in some respects a decided advance upon ,fabius was made by subsequent annalists4 ,m4 ,porcius ,cato 7#bcd-adi ,b4,c47 widened the scope of ,roman history so as to include that of the chief ,italian cities1 and made the first serious attempt to settle the chronology4 ,in his history of the ,punic wars ,caelius ,antipater 7c4 #acj ,b4,c47 added fresh material1 drawn probably from the works of the ,sicilian ,greek ,silenus1 while ,licinius ,macer 7#gj ,b4,c47 distinguished himself by the use he made of the ancient linen books4 ,no doubt1 too1 the later annalists1 at any rate from ,caelius ,antipater onwards1 improved upon ,fabius in treatment and style4 ,but in more essential points we can discern no progress4 ,one annalist after another quietly adopted the established tradition1 as it had been left by his predecessors1 without any serious alterations of its main outlines4 ,of independent research and critical analysis we find no trace1 and the general agreement upon main facts is to be attributed simply to the regularity with which each writer copied the one before him4 ,but1 had the later annalists contented themselves with simply reproducing the earlier ones1 we should at least have had the old tradition before us in a simple and tolerably genuine form4 ,as it was1 while they slavishly clung to its substance1 they succeeded1 as a rule1 in destroying all traces of its original form and colouring4 ,l4 ,calpurnius ,piso1 tribune in #adi ,b4,c4 and consul in #acc ,b4,c41 prided himself on reducing the old legends to the level of common sense1 and importing into them valuable moral lessons for his own generation4 ,by ,caelius ,antipater the methods of rhetoric were first applied to history1 a disastrous precedent enough4 ,he inserted speeches1 enlivened his pages with chance tales1 and aimed1 as ,cicero tells us1 at not merely narrating facts but also at beautifying them4 ,his successors carried still farther the practice of dressing up the rather bald chronicles of earlier writers with all the ornaments of rhetoric4 ,the old traditions were altered1 almost beyond the possibility of recognition1 by exaggerations1 interpolations and additions4 ,fresh incidents were inserted1 new motives suggested and speeches composed in order to infuse the required life and freshness into these dry bones of history4 ,at the same time the political bias of the writers1 and the political ideas of their day were allowed1 in some cases perhaps half unconsciously1 to affect their representations of past events4 ,annalists of the ,gracchan age imported into the early struggles of patricians and plebeians the economic controversies of their own day1 and painted the first tribunes in the colours of the two ,gracchi or of ,saturninus4 ,in the next generation they dexterously forced the venerable records of the early republic to pronounce in favour of the ascendancy of the senate1 as established by ,sulla4 ,to political bias was added family pride1 for the gratification of which the archives of the great houses1 the funeral panegyrics1 or the imagination of the writer himself supplied an ample store of doubtful material4 ,pedigrees were invented1 imaginary consulships and fictitious triumphs inserted1 and family traditions and family honours were formally incorporated with the history of the state4 ,things were not much better even where the annalists were dealing with recent or contemporary events4 ,here1 indeed1 their materials were naturally fuller and more trustworthy1 and less room was left for fanciful decoration and capricious alteration of the facts4 ,but their methods are in the main unchanged4 ,what they found written they copied2 the gaps they supplied1 where personal experience failed1 by imagination4 ,no better proof of this can be given than a comparison of the annalist's version of history with that of ,polybius4 ,in the fourth and fifth decades of ,livy the two appear side by side1 and the contrast between them is striking4 ,polybius1 for instance1 gives the number of the slain at ,cynoscephalae as #hjjj2 the annalists raise it as high as #dj1jjj 7,livy xxxiii4 #aj74 ,in another case 7xxxii4 #f7 ,valerius ,antias1 the chief of sinners in this respect1 inserts a decisive ,roman victory over the ,macedonians1 in which #ab1jjj of the latter were slain and #bbjj taken prisoner1 an achievement recorded by no other authority4 ,such was the written tradition on which ,livy mainly relied4 ,we have next to examine the manner in which he used it1 and here we are met at the outset by the difficulty of determining with exactness what authorities he is following at any one time2 for of the importance of full and accurate references he has no idea1 and often for chapters together he gives us no clue at all4 ,more often still he contents himself with such vague phrases as they say1 the story goes1 some think1 or speaks in general terms of ancient writers or my authorities4 ,even where he mentions a writer by name1 it is frequently clear that the writer named is not the one whose lead he is following at the moment1 but that he is noticed incidentally as differing from ,livy's guide for the time being on some point of detail 7compare the references to ,piso in the first decade1 i4 #ee1 ii4 #cb1 c474 ,it is very rarely that ,livy explicitly tells us whom he has selected as his chief source 7e4g4 ,fabius xxii4 #g2 ,polybius xxxiii4 #aj74 ,by a careful analysis1 however1 of those portions of his work which admit of a comparison with the text of his acknowledged authorities 7e4g4 fourth and fifth decades1 see ,h4 ,nissen1 ,untersuchungen1 ,berlin1 #ahfc71 and elsewhere by comparing his version with the known fragments of the various annalists1 and with what we are told of their style and method of treatment1 we are able to form a general idea of his plan of procedure4 ,as to the first decade1 it is generally agreed that in the first and second books1 at any rate1 he follows such older and simpler writers as ,fabius ,pictor and ,calpurnius ,piso 7the only ones whom he there refers to by name71 to whom1 so far as the first book is concerned1 ,niebuhr 7,lectures1 p4 #cc7 would add the poet ,ennius4 ,with the close of the second book or the opening of the third we come upon the first traces of the use of later authors4 ,valerius ,antias#c is first quoted in iii4 #e1 and signs of his handiwork are visible here and there throughout the rest of the decade 7vii4 #cf1 ix4 #bg1 x4 #c-e74 ,in the fourth book the principal authority is apparently ,licinius ,macer1 and for the period following the sack of ,rome by the ,gauls ,q4 ,claudius ,quadrigarius1 whose annals began at this point in the history4 ,we have besides a single reference 7vii4 #c7 to the antiquarian ,cincius1 and two 7iv4 #bc1 x4 #i7 to ,q4 ,aelius ,tubero1 one of the last in the list of annalists4 ,passing to the third decade1 we find ourselves at once confronted by a question which has been long and fully discussed--the relation between ,livy and ,polybius4 ,did ,livy use ,polybius at all1 and1 if so1 to what extent8 ,polybius4 ,it is conceded on all hands that ,livy in this decade makes considerable use of other authorities than ,polybius 7e4g4 ,fabius xxii4 #g2 ,caelius ,antipater xxi4 #ch1 #df1 #dg1 xxii4 #ca1 c471 that he only once mentions ,polybius 7xxx4 #de71 and that1 if he used him1 he did so to a much less extent than in the fourth and fifth decades1 and in a very different manner4 ,it is also agreed that we can detect in ,livy's account of the ,hannibalic war two distinct elements1 derived originally1 the one from a ,roman1 the other from a non-,roman source4 ,but from these generally accepted premises two opposite conclusions have been drawn4 ,on the one hand1 it is maintained 7e4g4 by ,lachmann1 ,c4 ,peter1 ,h4 ,peter1 ,hist4 ,rom4 ,relliq47 that those parts of ,livy's narrative which point to a non-,roman authority 7e4g4 ,hannibal's movements prior to his invasion of ,italy7 are taken by ,livy directly from ,polybius1 with occasional reference of course to other writers1 and with the omission 7as in the later decades7 of all matters uninteresting to ,livy or his ,roman readers1 and the addition of rhetorical touches and occasional comments4 ,it is urged that ,livy1 who in the fourth and fifth decades shows himself so sensible of the great merits of ,polybius1 is not likely to have ignored him in the third1 and that his more limited use of him in the latter case is fully accounted for by the closer connexion of the history with ,rome and ,roman affairs1 and the comparative excellence of the available ,roman authorities1 and1 lastly1 that the points of agreement with ,polybius1 not only in matter but in expression1 can only be explained on the theory that ,livy is directly following the great ,greek historian4 ,on the other hand1 it is maintained 7especially by ,schwegler1 ,nitzsch1 and ,k4 ,bttcher7 that the extent and nature of ,livy's agreement with ,polybius in this part of his work point rather to the use by both of a common original authority4 ,it is argued that ,livy's mode of using his authorities is tolerably uniform1 and that his mode of using ,polybius in particular is known with certainty from the later decades4 ,consequently the theory that he used ,polybius in the third decade requires us to assume that in this one instance he departed widely1 and without sufficient reason1 from his usual course of procedure4 ,moreover1 even in the passages where the agreement with ,polybius is most apparent1 there are so many discrepancies and divergencies in detail1 and so many unaccountable omissions and additions1 as to render it inconceivable that he had the text of ,polybius before him4 ,but all these are made intelligible if we suppose ,livy to have been here following directly or indirectly the same original sources that were used by ,polybius4 ,the earliest of these original sources was probably ,silenus1 with whom may possibly be placed1 for books xxi4 xxii41 ,fabius ,pictor4 ,the latter ,livy certainly used directly for some parts of the decade4 ,the former he almost as certainly knew only at second hand1 the intermediate authority being probably ,caelius ,antipater4 ,this writer1 who confined himself to a history of the ,second ,punic ,war1 in seven books1 is expressly referred to by ,livy eleven times in the third decade2 and in other passages where his name is not mentioned ,livy can be shown to have followed him 7e4g4 xxii4 #e1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 xxiv4 #i74 ,in the latter books of the decade his chief authority is possibly ,valerius ,antias4 ,in the fourth and fifth decades the question of ,livy's authorities presents no great difficulties1 and the conclusions arrived at by ,nissen in his masterly ,untersuchungen have met with general acceptance4 ,these may be shortly stated as follows4 ,in the portions of the history which deal with ,greece and the ,east1 ,livy follows ,polybius1 and these portions are easily distinguishable from the rest by their superior clearness1 accuracy and fulness4 ,on the other hand1 for the history of ,italy and western ,europe he falls back on ,roman annalists1 especially1 it seems1 on ,claudius ,quadrigarius and ,valerius ,antias--a most unfortunate choice--and from them too he takes the annalistic mould into which his matter is cast4 ,critical method4 ,livy's general method of using these authorities was certainly not such as would be deemed satisfactory in a modern historian4 ,he is indeed free from the grosser faults of deliberate injustice and falsification1 and he resists that temptation to invent1 to which the minds of authors are only too much inclined 7xxii4 #g74 ,nor is he unconscious of the necessity for some kind of criticism4 ,he distinguishes between rumour and the precise statements of recognized authorities 7cf4 xxi4 #df1 v4 #ba1 vii4 #f74 ,the latter he reproduced in the main faithfully1 but with a certain exercise of discretion4 ,where they disagreed1 he calls attention to the fact1 occasionally pronouncing in favour of one version rather than another 7ii4 #da1 xxi4 #df7 though often on no adequate grounds1 or attempting to reconcile and explain discrepancies 7vi4 #ab1 #ch74 ,where he detects or suspects the insertion of fabulous matter he has no scruple in saying so4 ,gross exaggerations1 such as those in which ,valerius ,antias indulged1 he roundly denounces1 and with equal plainness of speech he condemns the family vanity which had so constantly corrupted and distorted the truth4 ,i suppose1 he says 7viii4 #dj71 that the record and memorial of these matters hath been depraved and corrupted by these funeral orations of praises1 444 while every house and family draweth to it the honour and renown of noble exploits1 martial feats and dignities by any untruth and lie1 so it be colourable4 ,the legendary character of the earliest traditions he frankly admits4 ,such things as are reported either before or at the foundation of the city1 more beautiful and set out with poets' fables than grounded upon pure and faithful records1 ,i mean neither to aver nor disprove 7,praef472 and of the whole history previous to the sack of ,rome by the ,gauls 7#cij ,b4,c47 he writes that it was obscure both in regard of exceeding antiquity1 and also for that in those days there were very few writings and monuments1 the only faithful safeguard and true remembrancers of deeds past2 and1 besides1 whatsoever was registered in the commentaries of the priests and in other public or private records1 the same for the most part1 when the city was burned1 perished withal4 ,further than this1 however1 ,livy's criticism does not go4 ,where his written authorities are not palpably inconsistent with each other or with probability he accepts and transcribes their record without any further inquiry1 nor does he ever attempt to get behind this record in order to discover the original evidence on which it rested4 ,his acceptance in any particular case of the version given by an annalist by no means implies that he has by careful inquiry satisfied himself of its truth4 ,at the most it only presupposes a comparison with other versions1 equally second-hand1 but either less generally accepted or less in harmony with his own views of the situation2 and in many cases the reasons he gives for his preference of one account over another are eminently unscientific4 ,livy's history1 then1 rests on no foundation of original research or even of careful verification4 ,it is a compilation1 and even as such it leaves much to be desired4 ,for we cannot credit ,livy with having made such a preliminary survey of his authorities as would enable him to determine their relations to each other1 and fuse their various narratives into a consistent whole4 ,it is clear1 on the contrary1 that his circle of authorities for any one decade was a comparatively small one1 that of these he selected one1 and transcribed him with the necessary embellishments and other slight modifications until impelled by various reasons to drop him4 ,he then1 without warning1 takes up another1 whom he follows in the same way4 ,the result is a curious mosaic1 in which pieces of all colours and dates are found side by side1 and in which even the great artistic skill displayed throughout fails to conceal the lack of internal unity4 ,thus many of ,livy's inconsistencies are due to his having pieced together two versions1 each of which gave a differently coloured account of the same event4 ,mommsen 7,rom4 ,forschungen1 ii47 has clearly shown that this is what has happened in his relation of the legal proceedings against the elder ,africanus in book xxxviii42 and in the story of the first secession1 as he tells it1 the older version which represented it as due to political and the later which explained it by economical grievances are found side by side4 ,similarly a change from one authority to another leads him not unfrequently to copy from the latter statements inconsistent with those he took from the former1 to forget what he has previously said1 or to treat as known a fact which has not been mentioned before 7cf4 ii4 #a1 xxxiv4 #f1 and ,weissenborn's ,introduction1 p4 #cg74 ,in other cases where the same event has been placed by different annalists in different years1 or where their versions of it varied1 it reappears in ,livy as two events4 ,thus the four campaigns against the ,volsci 7ii4 #ag seq47 are1 as ,schwegler 7,r4,g4 i4 #ac7 rightly says1 simply variations of one single expedition4 ,other instances of such doublettes are the two single combats described in xxiii4 #df and xxv4 #ah1 and the two battles at ,baecula in ,spain 7xxvii4 #ah and xxviii4 #ac74 ,without doubt1 too1 much of the chronological confusion observable throughout ,livy is due to the fact that he follows now one now another authority1 heedless of their differences on this head4 ,thus he vacillates between the ,catonian and ,varronian reckoning of the years of the city1 and between the chronologies of ,polybius and the ,roman annalists4 ,to these defects in his method must be added the fact that he does not always succeed even in accurately reproducing the authority he is for the time following4 ,in the case of ,polybius1 for instance1 he allows himself great freedom in omitting what strikes him as irrelevant1 or tedious1 or uninteresting to his ,roman readers1 a process in which much valuable matter disappears4 ,in other cases his desire to give a vividness and point to what he doubtless considered the rather bald and dry style of ,polybius leads him into absurdities and inaccuracies4 ,thus by the treaty with ,antiochus 7#ahh ,b4,c47 it was provided that the ,greek communities of ,asia ,minor shall settle their mutual differences by arbitration1 and so far ,livy correctly transcribes ,polybius1 but he adds with a rhetorical flourish1 or1 if both parties prefer it1 by war 7xxxviii4 #ch74 ,elsewhere his blunders are apparently due to haste1 or ignorance or sheer carelessness2 thus1 for instance1 when ,polybius speaks of the ,aetolians assembling at their capital ,thermon1 ,livy 7xxxiii4 #ce7 not only substitutes ,thermopylae but gratuitously informs his readers that here the ,pylaean assemblies were held4 ,thanks partly to carelessness1 partly to mistranslation1 he makes sad havoc 7xxxv4 #e seq47 of ,polybius's account of the battle of ,cynoscephalae4 ,finally1 ,livy cannot be altogether acquitted on the charge of having here and there modified ,polybius in the interests of ,rome4 ,speeches4 ,style4--,serious as these defects in ,livy's method appear if viewed in the light of modern criticism1 it is probable that they were easily pardoned1 if indeed they were ever discovered1 by his contemporaries4 ,for it was on the artistic rather than on the critical side of history that stress was almost universally laid in antiquity1 and the thing that above all others was expected from the historian was not so much a scientific investigation and accurate exposition of the truth1 as its skilful presentation in such a form as would charm and interest the reader4 ,tried by this standard1 ,livy deservedly won and held a place in the very first rank4 ,asinius ,pollio sneered at his ,patavinity1 and the emperor ,caligula denounced him as verbose1 but with these exceptions the opinion of antiquity was unanimous in pronouncing him a consummate literary workman4 ,the classical purity of his style1 the eloquence of his speeches1 the skill with which he depicted the play of emotion1 and his masterly portraiture of great men1 are all in turn warmly commended1 and in our own day we question if any ancient historian is either more readable or more widely read4 ,it is true that for us his artistic treatment of history is not without its drawbacks4 ,the more trained historical sense of modern times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth of his colouring1 especially in the earlier parts of his history1 by the palpable unreality of many of the speeches1 and by the navet with which he omits everything1 however important1 which he thinks will weary his readers4 ,but in spite of all this we are forced to acknowledge that1 as a master of what we may perhaps call narrative history1 he has no superior in antiquity2 for1 inferior as he is to ,thucydides1 to ,polybius1 and even to ,tacitus in philosophic power and breadth of view1 he is at least their equal in the skill with which he tells his story4 ,he is indeed the prince of chroniclers1 and in this respect not unworthy to be classed even with ,herodotus 7,quintilian1 x4 #a4 #aja74 ,nor is anything more remarkable than the way in which ,livy's fine taste and sense of proportion1 his true poetic feeling and genuine enthusiasm1 saved him from the besetting faults of the mode of treatment which he adopted4 ,the most superficial comparison of his account of the earliest days of ,rome with that given by ,dionysius shows from what depths of tediousness he was preserved by these qualities4 ,instead of the wearisome prolixity and the misplaced pedantry which make the latter almost unreadable1 we find the old tales briefly and simply told4 ,their primitive beauty is not marred by any attempt to force them into an historical mould1 or disguised beneath an accumulation of the insipid inventions of later times4 ,at the same time they are not treated as mere tales for children1 for ,livy never forgets the dignity that belongs to them as the prelude to the great epic of ,rome1 and as consecrated by the faith of generations4 ,perhaps an even stronger proof of the skill which enabled ,livy to avoid dangers which were fatal to weaker men is to be found in his speeches4 ,we cannot indeed regard them1 with the ancients1 as the best part of his history1 for the majority of them are obviously unhistorical1 and nearly all savour somewhat too much of the rhetorical schools to be perfectly agreeable to modern taste4 ,to appreciate them we must take them for what they are1 pieces of declamation1 intended either to enliven the course of the narrative1 to place vividly before the reader the feelings and aims of the chief actors1 or more frequently still to enforce some lesson which the author himself has at heart4 ,the substance1 no doubt1 of many of them ,livy took from his authorities1 but their form is his own1 and1 in throwing into them all his own eloquence and enthusiasm1 he not only acted in conformity with the established traditions of his art1 but found a welcome outlet for feelings and ideas which the fall of the republic had deprived of all other means of expression4 ,to us1 therefore1 they are valuable not only for their eloquence1 but still more as giving us our clearest insight into ,livy's own sentiments1 his lofty sense of the greatness of ,rome1 his appreciation of ,roman courage and firmness1 and his reverence for the simple virtues of older times4 ,but1 freely as ,livy uses this privilege of speechmaking1 his correct taste keeps his rhetoric within reasonable limits4 ,with a very few exceptions the speeches are dignified in tone1 full of life and have at least a dramatic propriety1 while of such incongruous and laboured absurdities as the speech which ,dionysius puts into the mouth of ,romulus1 after the rape of the ,sabine women1 there are no instances in ,livy4 ,but1 if our estimate of the merits of his speeches is moderated by doubts as to his right to introduce them at all1 no such scruples interfere with our admiration for the skill with which he has drawn the portraits of the great men who figure in his pages4 ,we may indeed doubt whether in all cases they are drawn with perfect accuracy and impartiality1 but of their life-like vigour and clearness there can be no question4 ,with ,livy this portrait-painting was a labour of love4 ,to all great men1 says ,seneca1 he gave their due ungrudgingly1 but he is at his best in dealing with those who1 like ,q4 ,fabius ,maximus1 the ,delayer1 were in his eyes the most perfect types of the true ,roman4 ,the general effect of ,livy's narrative is no doubt a little spoilt by the awkward arrangement1 adopted from his authorities1 which obliges him to group the events by years1 and thus to disturb their natural relations and continuity4 ,as the result his history has the appearance of being rather a series of brilliant pictures loosely strung together than a coherent narrative4 ,but it is impossible not to admire the copious variety of thought and language1 and the evenly flowing style which carried him safely through the dreariest periods of his history2 and still more remarkable is the dramatic power he displays when some great crisis or thrilling episode stirs his blood1 such as the sack of ,rome by the ,gauls1 the battle by the ,metaurus and the death of ,hasdrubal4 ,in style and language ,livy represents the best period of ,latin prose writing4 ,he has passed far beyond the bald and meagre diction of the early chroniclers4 ,in his hands ,latin acquired a flexibility and a richness of vocabulary unknown to it before4 ,if he writes with less finish and a less perfect rhythm than his favourite model ,cicero1 he excels him in the varied structure of his periods1 and their adaptation to the subject-matter4 ,it is true that here and there the creamy richness of his style becomes verbosity1 and that he occasionally draws too freely on his inexhaustible store of epithets1 metaphors and turns of speech2 but these faults1 which did not escape the censure even of friendly critics like ,quintilian1 are comparatively rare in the extant parts of his work4 ,from the tendency to use a poetic diction in prose1 which was so conspicuous a fault in the writers of the silver age1 ,livy is not wholly free4 ,in his earlier books especially there are numerous phrases and sentences which have an unmistakably poetic ring1 recalling sometimes ,ennius and more often his contemporary ,virgil4 ,but in ,livy this poetic element is kept within bounds1 and serves only to give warmth and vividness to the narrative4 ,similarly1 though the influence of rhetoric upon his language1 as well as upon his general treatment1 is clearly perceptible1 he has not the perverted love of antithesis1 paradox and laboured word-painting which offends us in ,tacitus2 and1 in spite of the ,venetian richness of his colouring1 and the copious flow of his words1 he is on the whole wonderfully natural and simple4 ,these merits1 not less than the high tone and easy grace of his narrative and the eloquence of his speeches1 gave ,livy a hold on ,roman readers such as only ,cicero and ,virgil besides him ever obtained4 ,his history formed the groundwork of nearly all that was afterwards written on the subject4 ,plutarch1 writers on rhetoric like the elder ,seneca1 moralists like ,valerius ,maximus1 went to ,livy for their stock examples4 ,florus and ,eutropius abridged him2 ,orosius extracted from him his proofs of the sinful blindness of the pagan world2 and in every school ,livy was firmly established as a text-book for the ,roman youth4 ,text4--,the received text of the extant thirty-five books of ,livy is taken from different sources1 and no one of our ,,mss4 contains them all4 ,the ,,mss4 of the first decade1 some thirty in number1 are with one exception derived1 more or less directly1 from a single archetype1 viz41 the recension made in the #dth century by the two ,nicomachi1 ,flavianus and ,dexter1 and by ,victorianus4 ,this is proved in the case of the older ,,mss4 by written subscriptions to that effect1 and in the case of the rest by internal evidence4 ,of all these descendants of the ,nicomachean recension1 the oldest is the ,codex ,parisinus of the #ajth century1 and the best the ,codex ,mediceus or ,florentinus of the #aath4 ,an independent value attaches to the ancient palimpsest of ,verona1 of which the first complete account was given by ,mommsen in ,abhandl4 der preussischen ,akad4 der ,wissenschaften 7#ahfh74 ,it contains the third1 fourth1 fifth and fragments of the sixth book1 and1 according to ,mommsen1 whose conclusions are accepted by ,madvig 7,emend4 ,livianae1 #bnd ed41 #ahgg1 p4 #cg71 it is derived1 not from the ,nicomachean recension1 but from an older archetype common to both4 ,for the third decade our chief authority is the ,codex ,puteanus1 an uncial ,,ms4 of the #eth century1 now at ,paris4 ,for the fourth we have two leading ,,mss4--,codex ,bambergensis1 #aath century1 and the slightly older ,codex ,moguntinus1 now lost and only known through the ,mainz edition of #aeah-aeai4 ,what remains of the fifth decade depends on the #eth century ,laurishamensis or ,vindobonensis from the monastery of ,lorsch1 edited at ,basel in #aeca4 ,a bibliography of the various editions of ,livy1 or of all that has been written upon him1 cannot be attempted here4 ,the following may be consulted for purposes of reference2 ,w4 ,engelmann1 ,scriptores ,latini 7#hth ed41 by ,e4 ,preuss1 #ahhb72 ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,mayor1 ,bibliographical ,clue to ,latin ,literature 7#ahge72 ,teuffel-,schwabe1 ,history of ,roman ,literature 7,eng4 trans471 #bef1 #beg2 ,m4 ,schanz1 ,geschichte der rmischen ,litteratur4 ii4 #a 7#bnd ed41 #ahii74 ,the best editions of the complete text are those of ,w4 ,weissenborn 7#aheh-ahfb1 containing an introductory essay on ,livy's life and writings2 new edition by ,m4 ,mller1 #aijb71 and ,j4 ,n4 ,madvig and ,j4 ,l4 ,ussing 7#ahfc-ahgc74 ,the only ,english translation of any merit is by ,philemon ,holland 7#afjj74 7,h4 ,f4 ,p42 ,x47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for the fragments of an epitome discovered at ,oxyrhynchus see ,j4 ,s4 ,reid in ,classical ,review 7,july1 #aijd72 ,e4 ,kornemann1 ,die neue ,livius-,epitome aus ,oxyrhynchus1 with text and commentary 7,leipzig1 #aijd72 ,c4 ,h4 ,moore1 ,the ,oxyrhynchus ,epitome of ,livy in relation to ,obsequens and ,cassiodorus1 in ,american ,journal of ,philology 7#aijd71 #bda4 #b ,the various rumours once current of complete copies of ,livy in ,constantinople1 ,chios and elsewhere1 are noticed by ,b4 ,g4 ,niebuhr1 ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome from the first ,punic ,war 7ed4 ,l4 ,schmitz1 #ahdd71 i4 #fe4 #c ,for ,livy's debt to ,valerius ,antias1 see ,a4 ,a4 ,howard in ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 xvii4 7#aijf71 pp4 #afa sqq4 ,,lizard 7,lat4 lacerta#a71 a name originally referred only to the small ,european species of four-legged reptiles1 but now applied to a whole order 7,lacertilia71 which is represented by numerous species in all temperate and tropical regions4 ,lizards are reptiles which have a transverse external anal opening 7instead of a longitudinal slit as in ,crocodilians and tortoises7 and which have the right and left halves of the mandibles connected by a sutural symphysis4 ,the majority are distinguished from snakes by the possession of two pairs of limbs1 of external ear-openings and movable eyelids1 but since in not a few of the burrowing1 snake-shaped lizards these characters give way entirely1 it is well-nigh impossible to find a diagnosis which should be absolutely sufficient for the distinction between lizards and snakes4 ,in such doubtful cases a number of characters have to be resorted to1 and1 while each of these may fail when taken singly1 their combination decides the question4 ,it is certain that the snakes have been evolved as a specialized branch from some ,lacertilian stock1 and that both orders are intimately related1 but it is significant that it is only through the degraded members of the lizards that recent representatives of the two great groups seem to run into each other4 ,such critical characters are3-- ,lizards4 ,snakes4 ,limbs #b pairs1 #a or #j4 #j or vestigial hind-limbs4 ,ear-opening ,usually present4 ,always absent4 ,eyelids ,mostly movable4 ,no movable lids4 ,tongue ,often not retractile4 ,always bifid and retractile into itself4 ,teeth ,pleuro- or acrodont1 ,acrodont1 anchylosed4 not anchylosed4 ,mandibles ,mostly firmly united ,never with suture1 suturally4 mostly ligamentous4 ,columella cranii ,mostly present4 ,absent4 ,mostly with bony arches across the temporal ,no bony arches4 region4 ,osteoderms common4 ,no bony arches4 ,no osteoderms4 ,the lizards and snakes are the two dominant reptilian orders which are still on the increase in species1 though certainly not in size4 ,as a moderate estimate1 the number of recent species of lizards is about #agjj4 ,as a group they are cosmopolitan1 their northern limit approaching that of the permanently frozen subsoil1 while in the southern hemisphere the southern point of ,patagonia forms the farthest limit4 ,as we approach the tropics1 the variety of forms and the number of individuals increase1 the most specialized and developed forms1 and also the most degraded1 being found in the tropics4 ,in the temperate regions they hibernate4 ,the majority live on broken ground1 with or without much vegetation2 many are arboreal and many are true desert animals1 while a few are more or less aquatic2 one1 the leguan of the ,galapagos1 ,amblyrhynchus1 even enters the sea4 ,some1 like the majority of the geckos1 are nocturnal4 ,in adaptation to these varied surroundings they exhibit great variety in shape1 size and structure4 ,most of these modifications are restricted to the skin1 limbs1 tail or tongue4 ,most lizards live on animal food1 varying from tiny insects and worms to lizards1 snakes1 birds and mammals1 while others prefer a mixed or an entirely vegetable diet4 ,accordingly1 the teeth and the whole digestive tract are modified4 ,but swiftness1 the apparatus necessary for climbing1 running and digging1 the mechanism of the tongue1 the muscles of the jaws 7hence modifications of the cranial arches7 stand also in correlation with the kind of food and with the way in which it has to be procured4 ,generally the teeth are conical or pointed1 more rarely blunt1 grooved or serrated4 ,they are inserted either on the inner side of the margin of the jaws 7pleurodonta7 or on the edge of the bones 7acrodonta74 ,the tongue is generally beset with more or less scaly or velvety papillae and has always a well-marked posterior margin1 while the anterior portion may or may not be more or less retractile into the posterior part4 ,in many lizards the muscles of the segments of the tail are so loosely connected and the vertebrae are so weak that the tail easily breaks off4 ,the severed part retains its muscular irritability for a short time1 wriggling as if it were a living creature4 ,a lizard thus mutilated does not seem to be much affected1 and the lost part is slowly reproduced4 ,this faculty is of advantage to those lizards which lack other means of escape when pursued by some other animal1 which is satisfied with capturing the detached member4 ,the motions of most lizards are executed with great but not enduring rapidity4 ,with the exception of the chameleon1 all drag their body over the ground1 the limbs being wide apart1 turned outwards and relatively to the bulk of the body generally weak4 ,but the limbs show with regard to development great variation1 and an uninterrupted transition from the most perfect condition of two pairs with five separate clawed toes to their total disappearance2 yet even limbless lizards retain bony vestiges beneath the skin4 ,the motions of these limbless lizards are similar to those of snakes1 which they resemble in their elongate body4 ,the eggs are elliptical in shape1 both poles being equal1 and are covered with a shell which may be thin and leathery or hard and calcareous4 ,the number of eggs laid is small in comparison with other reptiles1 rarely exceeding a score1 and some like the anolids and the geckos deposit only one or two4 ,the parents leave the eggs to hatch where they are deposited1 in sand or in mould4 ,many lizards1 however1 retain the eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is fully developed2 these species then bring forth living young and are called ovo-viviparous by purists4 ,some lizards possess a considerable amount of intelligence2 they play with each other1 become very tame1 and act deliberately according to circumstances4 ,as a rule the ,iguanids and ,varans are as bright as the ,agamas are dull4 ,many have the power of changing colour1 a faculty which they share only with various frogs1 toads and fishes4 ,lizards are not poisonous1 with the single exception of ,heloderma4 ,the ,lacertilia1 or lizards in the wider sense1 fall easily into three natural groups3 geckos 7q4v471 chameleons 7q4v47 and lizards4 ,i4 ,suborder1 ,,geckones4 ,pleurodont lizards with well-developed limbs2 without temporal bony arches2 postthoracic ribs united across the abdomen4 ,tongue1 thick and broad1 slightly nicked anteriorly4 ,with few exceptions they have amphicoelous vertebrae1 the parietal bones remain separate and they have no eyelids1 with very few exceptions4 #a4 ,family1 ,geckonidae4--,amphicoelous2 parietals separate2 clavicles dilated and with a perforation near the ventral end4 ,cosmopolitan1 although mainly tropical1 with about #bgj species 7see ,,gecko74 ,nearly all geckos are nocturnal and the pupil contracts into a vertical slit1 except in a few diurnal kinds1 e4g4 ,phelsuma of islands in the ,indian ,ocean1 and ,lygodactylus of ,africa4 ,aelurosaurus of ,borneo and ,australia1 and ,ptenopus of ,south ,africa1 have upper and lower movable eyelids4 ,whilst the skin is mostly soft on the back1 with little granular tubercles1 scales 7except on the belly7 are absent1 but they are present in ,homopholis1 in ,geckolepis of ,madagascar1 and most fully developed in ,teratoscincus scincus4 ,this peculiar little inhabitant of the steppes and desert regions of ,turkestan and ,persia1 by rubbing the imbricating scales upon each other1 produces a shrill cricket-like noise1 whilst sitting at night in front of its hole in the ground4 ,furthermore it is so thoroughly adapted to running upon the desert sand that its digits are devoid of adhesive lamellae4 ,the same beautiful adaptation to the surroundings exists also in ,ptenopus 7with fringed toes7 and ,stenodactylus1 which are likewise deserticolous4 ,aeluronyx of ,madagascar and ,seychelles has cat-like retractile claws4 ,naultinus elegans of ,new ,zealand is said to be viviparous2 the others lay but one rather large egg at a time4 ,many species have a feeble voice which resembles a repeated click of the tongue1 and their name gecko is supposed to be an ,indian imitation of the sound4 #b4 ,family1 ,uroplatidae4--,amphicoelous2 parietals separate2 but the nasal bones are fused together1 and the clavicles are not dilated4 ,genus ,uroplates1 with a few species1 e4g4 ,u4 fimbriatus in ,madagascar4 #c4 ,family1 ,eublepharidae4--,procoelous2 parietals united2 eyelids functional2 clavicles expanded as in the true geckos which they resemble in other respects4 ,the few genera and species are undoubtedly a heterogeneous assembly1 as indicated by their very scattered distribution1 but they all agree in their decidedly handsome colour pattern1 bands of dark brown to maroon upon a light ground4 ,eublepharis1 with one species each in ,panama1 ,mexico1 ,texas and ,california2 two in ,india4 ,coleonyx elegans in forests of ,central ,america and ,mexico4 ,psilodactylus in ,west ,africa4 ,,ii4 ,suborder1 ,,chamaeleontes4 ,acrodont1 ,old ,world lizards1 with laterally compressed body1 prehensile tail and well developed limbs with the digits arranged in opposing1 grasping bundles of two and three respectively4 ,the chameleons 7q4v47 have many structural peculiarities4 ,,iii4 ,suborder1 ,,lacertae4 ,procoelous vertebrae2 ventral portions of the clavicles not dilated2 parietal bones fused into one4 ,the general appearance is too misleading for the classification of the ,lacertae4 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope 7,proc4 ,ac4 ,philad41 #ahfd1 pp4 #bbd et seq4 and ,proc4 ,amer4 ,ass4 xix41 #ahga1 p4 #bcf1 c47 therefore relied upon more fundamental characters1 notably the presence or absence of osteoderms1 the formation of the skull1 the teeth and the tongue4 ,g4 ,a4 ,boulenger 7,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist4 #e1 xiv41 #ahhd1 p4 #aag1 c47 has further improved upon the then prevailing arrangements1 and has elaborated a classification which1 used by himself in the three volumes of the catalogue of lizards in the ,british ,museum1 is followed in the present article with slight alterations in the order of treatment of the families4 ,in the following diagnoses of the families preference is given to such characters as are most easily ascertained4 ,the #ag families fall into #d or #e main groups4 ,presumably the presence of osteoderms and of complete cranial arches are more archaic than their absence1 just as we conclude that limbless forms have been evolved from various groups possessed of fully developed limbs4 ,zonuridae and ,anguidae assume a central position1 with ,agamidae and ,iguanidae as two parallel families 7not very different from each other7 of highest development1 one in the ,old ,world1 the other in ,america4 ,xenosaurus seems to be an offshoot intermediate between the ,iguanidae and the ,anguidae2 a degraded form of latter is perhaps ,aniella of ,california1 whilst ,heloderma and ,lanthanotus are also specialized and isolated offshoots4 ,a second group is formed by the few ,american ,xantusiidae1 the numerous ,american ,tejidae1 and the burrowing1 degraded ,american and ,african ,amphisbaenidae4 ,a third group comprises the cosmopolitan ,scincidae1 the ,african and ,malagasy ,gerrhosauridae which in various features remind us of the ,anguidae1 and the ,african and ,eurasian ,lacertidae which are the highest members of this group4 ,anelytropidae and perhaps also ,dibamidae may be degraded ,scincoids4 ,the ,varanidae stand quite alone1 in many respects the highest of all lizards1 with some1 quite superficial1 ,crocodilian resemblances4 ,lastly there are the few ,pygopodidae of the ,australian region1 with still quite obscure relationship4 ,family #a4 ,agamidae4--,acrodont2 tongue broad and thick1 not protractile2 no osteoderms4 ,old ,world4 ,the agamas have always two pairs of well-developed limbs4 ,the teeth are usually differentiated into incisors1 canines and molars4 ,the skin is devoid of ossifications1 but large and numerous cutaneous spines are often present1 especially on the head and on the tail4 ,the family1 comprising some #bjj species1 with about #cj genera1 shows great diversity of form2 the terrestrial members are mostly flat-bodied1 the arboreal more laterally compressed and often with a very long tail4 ,most of them are insectivorous1 but a few are almost entirely vegetable feeders4 ,they are an exclusively ,old ,world family2 they are most numerous in ,australia 7except ,new ,zealand7 and the ,indian and ,malay countries2 comparatively few live in ,africa 7none in ,madagascar7 and in the countries from ,asia ,minor to ,india4 ,the majority of the ground-agamas1 and the most common species of the plains1 deserts or rocky districts of ,africa and ,asia1 belong to the genera ,stellio and ,agama4 ,their scales are mixed with larger prominent spines1 which in some species are particularly developed on the tail1 and disposed in whorls4 ,nearly all travellers in the north of ,africa mention the ,hardhn of the ,arabs 7,agama stellio71 which is extremely common1 and has drawn upon itself the hatred of the ,mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head1 which they interpret as a mockery of their own movements whilst engaged in prayer4 ,in some of the ,grecian islands they are still called korkordilos1 just as they were in the time of ,herodotus4 ,uromastix is one of the largest of ground-agamas1 and likewise found in ,africa and ,asia4 ,the body is uniformly covered with granular scales1 whilst the short1 strong tail is armed with powerful spines disposed in whorls4 ,the ,indian species 7,u4 hardwicki7 is mainly herbivorous2 the ,african ,u4 acanthinurus and ,u4 spinipes1 the ,dab of the ,arabs1 take mixed food4 ,phrynocephalus is typical of the steppes and deserts of ,asia4 ,ceratophora and ,lyriocephalus scutatus1 the latter remarkable for its chameleon-like appearance1 are ,ceylonese4 ,calotes1 peculiar to ,indian countries1 comprises many species1 e4g4 ,c4 ophiomachus1 generally known as the bloodsucker on account of the red colour on the head and neck displayed during excitement4 ,draco 7see ,,dragon7 is ,indo-,malayan4 ,physignathus is known from ,australia to ,cochin ,china4 ,of the ,australian agamas no other genus is so numerously represented and widely distributed as ,grammatophora1 the species of which grow to a length of from #h to #ah in4 ,their scales are generally rough and spinous2 but otherwise they possess no strikingly distinguishing peculiarity1 unless the loose skin of their throat1 which is transversely folded and capable of inflation1 be regarded as such4 ,on the other hand1 two other ,australian agamoids have attained some celebrity by their grotesque appearance1 due to the extraordinary development of their integuments4 ,one 7fig4 #a7 is the frilled lizard 7,chlamydosaurus kingi71 which is restricted to ,queensland and the north coast1 and grows to a length of #c ft41 including the long tapering tail4 ,it is provided with a frill-like fold of the skin round the neck1 which1 when erected1 resembles a broad collar4 ,this lizard when startled rises with the fore-legs off the ground and squats and runs on its hind-legs4 ,the other lizard is one which most appropriately has been called ,moloch horridus4 ,it is covered with large and small spine-bearing tubercules2 the head is small and the tail short4 ,it is sluggish in its movements1 and so harmless that its armature and 7to a casual observer7 repulsive appearance are its sole means of defence4 ,it grows only to a length of #aj in41 and is not uncommon in the flats of ,south and ,west ,australia4 ,family #b4 ,iguanidae4--,pleurodont2 tongue broad and thick1 not protractile2 no osteoderms4 ,america1 ,madagascar and ,fiji ,islands4 ,according to the very varied habits1 their external appearance varies within wide limits1 there being amongst the #cjj species1 with #ej genera1 arboreal1 terrestrial1 burrowing and semi-aquatic forms1 and even one semi-marine kind4 ,all have well-developed limbs4 ,in their general structure the ,iguanidae closely resemble the ,agamidae1 from which they differ mainly by the pleurodont dentition4 ,most of them are insectivorous4 ,some1 especially ,anolis and ,polychrus1 can change colour to a remarkable extent4 ,the family ranges all through the neotropical region1 inclusive of the ,galapagos and the ,antilles1 into the southern and western states of ,north ,america4 ,remarkable cases of discontinuous distribution are ,chalarodon and ,hoplodon in ,madagascar1 and ,brachylophus fasciatus in the ,fiji ,islands4 ,conolophus subcristatus and ,amblyrhynchus cristatus inhabit the ,galapagos2 the former feeds upon cactus and leaves1 the latter is semi-marine1 diving for the algae which grow below tide-marks4 ,for ,basiliscus see ,,basilisk2 ,,iguana is dealt with under its own heading2 allied is ,metopoceros cornutus of ,hayti4 ,polychrus1 the chameleon1 and ,liolaemus are ,south ,american2 ,ctenosaura of ,central ,america and ,mexico resembles the agamoid ,uromastix4 ,corythophanes and ,laemanctus1 with only a few species1 are rare inhabitants of the tropical forests of ,central ,america and ,mexico4 ,sauromalus1 ,crotaphytus1 ,callisaurus1 ,holbrookia1 ,uma1 ,uta are typical ,sonoran genera1 some ranging from ,oregon through ,mexico4 ,allied is ,sceloporus1 with about #cd species1 the most characteristic genus of ,mexican lizards2 only #d species live in the ,united ,states1 and only #c or #d are found south of the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec and are restricted to ,central ,america4 ,the majority are humivagous1 while others are truly arboreal1 e4g4 ,s4 microlepidotus1 a species which1 moreover1 has the greatest possible altitudinal range1 from the hot country of southern ,oaxaca to the upper tree-line of ,citlaltepetl1 about #ac1ejj ft4 elevation2 many species are viviparous4 ,phrynosoma1 with about a dozen species1 the horned toads of ,california to ,texas1 and through ,mexico4 ,some of these comical-looking little creatures are viviparous1 others deposit their eggs in the ground4 ,they are well concealed by the colour of their upper parts1 which in most cases agrees with the prevailing tone of their surroundings1 mostly arid1 stony or sandy localities2 the large spikes on the head protect them from being swallowed by snakes4 ,the enlarged spiny scales scattered over the back look as if it were sprinkled with the dried husks of seeds4 ,they are entirely insectivorous1 bask on the broiling hot sand and then can run fast enough2 otherwise they are sluggish1 dig themselves into the sand by a peculiar shuffling motion of the fringed edges of their flattened bodies1 and when surprised they feign death4 ,the statement1 persistently repeated 7,o4 ,p4 ,hay1 ,proc4 ,u4,s4 ,nat4 ,mus4 xv41 #ahib1 pp4 #cge-cgh71 that some1 e4g4 ,p4 blainvillei of ,california1 have the power of squirting a blood-red fluid from the corner of the eye1 still requires renewed investigation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,frilled ,lizard 7,chlamydosaurus kingi74 ,the smallest lizards of this family belong to the genus ,anolis1 extremely numerous as regards species 7more than #ajj7 and individuals on bushes and trees of tropical ,america1 and especially of the ,west ,indies4 ,they offer many points of analogy to the humming birds in their distribution1 colours and even disposition4 ,hundreds may be seen on a bright day1 disporting themselves on trees and fences1 and entering houses4 ,like the iguanas1 they 7at least the males7 are provided with a large1 expansible dewlap at the throat1 which is brilliantly coloured1 and which they display on the slightest provocation4 ,this appendage is merely a fold of the skin1 ornamental and sexual2 it has no cavity in its interior1 and has no communication with the mouth or with the respiratory organs2 it is supported by the posterior horns of the hyoid bone1 and can be erected and spread at the will of the animal4 ,the presence of such dewlaps in lizards is always a sign of an excitable temper4 ,many1 e4g4 ,a4 carolinensis1 the chameleon1 can change colour to an extraordinary degree4 ,they are much fed upon by birds and snakes1 and have a fragile tail1 easily reproduced4 ,they bring forth only one large egg at a time1 but probably breed several times during the season4 ,family #c4 ,xenosauridae4--,pleurodont2 solid teeth2 anterior part of tongue slightly emarginate and retractile1 and covered with flat papillae2 no osteoderms4 ,mexico4 ,the only representative of this family is ,xenosaurus grandis1 recorded from the mountains of ,orizaba1 ,cordoba and ,oaxaca4 ,the four-footed creature is less than #a ft4 in length2 the body is depressed1 covered above with minute granules and tubercles2 a distinct fold of skin extends from the axilla to the groin1 reminding of the similar fold of some ,anguidae1 to which this singular genus seems to be allied4 ,family #d4 ,anguidae4--,pleurodont2 teeth solid1 sometimes 7,ophiosaurus7 grooved2 anterior part of tongue emarginate and retractile into the posterior portion2 osteoderms on the body1 and especially on the head where they are roofing over the temporal fossa2 entirely zoophagous and ovo-viviparous4 ,america1 ,europe and ,india4 ,gerrhonotus1 #h species1 in mountainous countries1 from ,british ,columbia to ,costa ,rica2 like ,diploglossus s4 ,celestus of ,mexico1 the ,antilles and ,central ,america1 with well-developed limbs1 but with a lateral fold4 ,anguis fragilis and two species of ,ophiosaurus are the only members of this family which are not ,american1 and even the third species of ,ophiosaurus1 ,o4 ventralis1 lives in the ,united ,states4 ,ophiosaurus s4 ,pseudopus1 the glass-snake1 from ,morocco and the ,balkan peninsula to ,burma and ,fokien2 also in the ,u4,s4,a41 with the limbs reduced to a pair of tiny spikes near the vent1 and a lateral fold along the snake-like body4 ,anguis1 with its sole species fragilis1 the slow-worm or blind-worm1 is devoid of a lateral fold1 and the limbs are entirely absent4 ,europe1 ,algeria and western ,asia4 ,family #e4 ,helodermatidae1 with ,heloderma of ,arizona and ,mexico1 and ,lanthanotus of ,borneo4--,the teeth of ,heloderma are recurved1 with slightly swollen bases1 loosely attached to the inner edge of the jaws2 each tooth is grooved1 and those of the lower jaw are in close vicinity of the series of labial glands which secrete a poison2 the only instance among lizards4#b ,limbs well developed4 ,tongue resembling that of the ,anguidae4 ,the skin of the upper surface is granular1 with many irregular bony tubercles which give it an ugly warty look4 ,h4 horridum in ,mexico1 and ,h4 suspectum1 the gila monster1 in the hot and sandy lowlands of the ,gila basin4 ,the animal1 which reaches a length of more than #b ft41 is blackish-brown and yellow or orange1 and on the thick tail these warning colours are arranged in alternate rings4 ,small animals are probably paralyzed or killed by the bite1 the poison being effective enough to produce severe symptoms even in man4 ,the ,zapotecs1 who call the creature ,talachini1 and other tribes of ,mexico have endowed it with fabulous properties and fear it more than the most poisonous snakes4 ,lanthanotus corneensis1 of which only a few specimens are known1 is apparently closely allied to ,heloderma1 although the teeth are not grooved1 osteoderms are absent and probably also the poison glands4 ,family #f4 ,aniellidae4--,one genus1 ,aniella1 with a few worm- or snake-shaped species in ,california1 which seem to be degraded forms of ,anguidae4 ,the eyes and ears are concealed1 the limbs are entirely absent1 body and tail covered with soft1 imbricating scales4 ,the tongue is villose1 smooth1 bifid anteriorly4 ,the few teeth are recurved1 with swollen bases4 ,the skull is much reduced4 ,total length of ,a4 pulchra up to #h in4 ,family #g4 ,zonuridae4--,pleurodont2 tongue short1 villose1 scarcely protractile1 feebly nicked at the tip4 ,with osteoderms at least upon the skull1 where they roof in the temporal region4 ,africa and ,madagascar4 ,only #d genera1 with about #ae species4 ,zonurus of ,south ,africa and ,madagascar has the whole head1 neck1 back and tail covered with strong bony scales1 the horny covering of which forms sharp spikes1 especially on the tail4 ,they defend themselves by jerking head and tail sidewards4 ,z4 giganteus reaches #ae in4 in length1 and is1 like the other members of the family1 zoophagous4 ,the other genera live in southern and in tropical ,africa3 ,pseudocordylus1 ,platysaurus and ,chamaesaura2 the latter closely approaches the ,anguidae by its snake-shaped body1 very long tail and much reduced limbs1 which in ,c4 macrolepis are altogether absent4 ,family #h4 ,xantusiidae4--,pleurodont2 tongue very short and scaly2 no osteoderms2 supratemporal fossa roofed over by the cranial bones2 eyes devoid of movable lids2 tympanum exposed2 femoral pores present2 limbs and tail well developed4 ,american4 ,xantusia 7so named after ,xantus1 a ,hungarian collector71 e4g4 ,x4 vigilis and a few other species from the desert tracts of ,nevada and ,california to ,lower ,california4 ,lepidophyma flavomaculatum1 ,central ,america2 and ,cricosaura typica in ,cuba4 ,family #i4 ,tejidae4--,teeth solid1 almost acrodont2 tongue long and narrow1 deeply bifid1 beset with papillae2 no osteoderms2 scales of the back very small or quite granular2 limbs sometimes reduced4 ,america4 ,this large1 typically ,american family comprises more than #ajj species which have been arranged in many genera4 ,some are entirely arboreal1 dwellers in forests1 while others1 like ,cnemidophorus and ,ameiva1 are strictly terrestrial1 with great running powers2 a few dwell below the surface and are transformed into almost limbless worm-shaped creatures4 ,the family is essentially neotropical4 ,of its several dozen genera only two extend through and beyond ,central ,america3 ,ameiva into the eastern and western ,hot-lands of ,mexico1 ,cnemidophorus 7monographed by ,h4 ,gadow1 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #aijf1 pp4 #bgg-cge7 through ,mexico into the ,united ,states1 where ,c4 sexlineatus1 the swift1 has spread over most of the ,union4 ,tupinambis teguixin1 the teju of ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies1 is the largest member of the family2 it reaches a length of a yard1 most of which1 however1 belongs to the strong1 whip-like tail4 ,teguixin is taken from the ,aztec teco-ixin1 i4e4 rock-lizard1 the vernacular name of ,sceloporus torquatus which is one of the ,iguanidae misspelt and misapplied4 ,the tejus frequent forests and plantations and are carnivorous1 eating anything they can overpower4 ,they in turn are much hunted for the sake of their delicate flesh4 ,they defend themselves not only with their powerful jaws and sharp claws1 but also with lashing strokes of the long tail4 ,they also use this whip for killing snakes which they are said to eat4 ,their long-oval1 hard-shelled eggs are deposited in the ground4 ,they retire into self-dug burrows4 ,cophias and ,scolecosaurus have very much reduced limbs4 ,in the genus ,tejus the teeth of the adult become molar-like2 and in ,dracaena they are transformed into large1 oval crushers1 indicating strictly herbivorous habits1 while most members of the family live upon animal food4 ,family #aj4 ,amphisbaenidae4--,the body is covered with soft skin1 forming numerous rings with mere vestiges of scales4 ,worm-shaped1 without limbs1 except ,chirotes which has short1 clawed fore-limbs4 ,eyes and ears concealed4 ,tongue slightly elongated1 covered with scale-like papillae and bifurcating4 ,tail extremely short4 ,acrodont or pleurodont4 ,america1 ,mediterranean countries1 and ,africa with the exception of ,madagascar4 ,chirotes canaliculatus1 and two other species2 ,pacific side of ,mexico and ,lower ,california4 ,with five1 four or three claws on the stout little digging fore-limbs4 ,these pink1 worm-like creatures live in sandy1 moist localities1 burrowing little tunnels and never appearing on the surface4 ,amphisbaena 7q4v474 ,rhinura of ,florida1 and also known from the ,oligocene of ,south ,dakota2 ,lepidosternum of ,south ,america2 and ,anops in ,america and ,africa2 ,blanus cinereus1 ,mediterranean countries4 ,trogonophis1 ,pachycalamus and ,agamodon of ,africa are all acrodont2 the other genera are pleurodont4 ,in all about a dozen genera1 with some #fj1 mostly tropical species4 ,family #aa4 ,scincidae4--,pleurodont4 ,tongue scaly1 feebly nicked in front4 ,osteoderms on the head and body4 ,limbs often reduced4 ,cosmopolitan4 ,the temporal region is covered over1 as in the ,lacertidae and ,anguidae1 with strongly developed dermal ossifications4 ,similar osteoderms underlie the scales of the body and tail4 ,femoral pores are absent4 ,all the skinks seem to be viviparous1 and they prefer dry1 sandy ground1 in which they burrow and move quickly about in search of their animal food4 ,this partly subterranean life is correlated with the frequent reduction of the limbs which1 in closely allied forms1 show every stage from fully developed1 five-clawed limbs to complete absence4 ,some have functional fore-limbs but mere vestiges of hind-limbs2 in others this condition is reversed4 ,in some deserticolous kinds e4g4 ,ablepharus1 the lower eyelid is transformed into a transparent cover which is fused with the rim of the reduced upper lid4 ,the same applies to the limbless little ,ophiopsiseps nasutus of ,australia4 ,this large family contains about #djj species1 with numerous genera2 the greatest diversity in numbers and forms occurs in the tropical parts of the ,old ,world1 especially in the ,australian region1 inclusive of many of the ,pacific islands4 ,new ,zealand has at least #f species of ,lygosoma4 ,america1 notably ,south ,america1 has comparatively very few skinks4 ,the skink1 which has given the name to the whole family1 is a small lizard 7,scincus officinalis7 of #f or #h in4 in length1 common in arid districts of ,north ,africa and ,syria4 ,a peculiarly wedge-shaped snout1 and toes provided with strong fringes1 enable this animal to burrow rapidly in and under the sand of the desert4 ,in former times large quantities of it were imported in a dry state into ,europe for officinal purposes1 the drug having the reputation of being efficacious in diseases of the skin and lungs2 and even now it may be found in apothecaries' shops in the south of ,europe1 country people regarding it as a powerful aphrodisiac for cattle4 ,mabouia1 with many species1 in the whole of ,africa1 southern ,asia and in tropical ,america4 ,m4 7,euprepes7 vittata1 the poisson de sable of ,algeria1 is semi-aquatic4 ,chalcides s4 ,seps1 of the ,mediterranean countries and south-western ,asia1 has a transparent disk on the lower eyelid which is movable2 limbs very short or reduced to mere vestiges4 ,lygosoma circumtropical2 ,eumeces1 also with many small species1 in ,america1 ,africa and ,asia4 ,cyclodus s4 ,tiliqua of ,australia1 ,tasmania and ,malay ,islands1 has stout lateral teeth with rounded-off crowns2 ,c4 gigas of the ,moluccas and of ,new ,guinea is the largest member of the family1 reaching a length of nearly #b ft42 the limbs are well developed1 as in ,trachysaurus rugosus of ,australia1 which is easily recognized by the large and rough scales and the short1 broad1 stump-like tail4 ,family #ab4 ,anelytropidae4--,an artificial assembly of a few degraded ,scincoids4 ,the worm-shaped body is devoid of osteoderms4 ,the tongue is short1 covered with imbricating papillae and slightly nicked anteriorly4 ,teeth pleurodont4 ,anelytropsis papillosus1 of which only three specimens are known1 from the humus of forests in the state of ,vera ,cruz4 ,eyes concealed4 ,typhlosaurus and ,feylinia in tropical ,africa and ,madagascar4 ,family #ac4 ,dibamidae4--,dibamus novae-,guineae of ,new ,guinea1 the ,moluccas1 ,celebes and the ,nicobar ,islands4 ,tongue arrow-shaped1 covered with curved papillae4 ,the vermiform body is covered with cycloid imbricating scales1 devoid of osteoderms4 ,limbs and even their arches are absent1 excepting a pair of flaps which represent the hind-limbs in the males4 ,family #ad4 ,gerrhosauridae4--,pleurodont4 ,tongue long1 with papillae1 like that of the ,lacertidae but only feebly nicked anteriorly4 ,osteoderms on the head and body1 roofing over the temporal region4 ,femoral pores present1 also mostly a lateral fold4 ,limbs sometimes reduced to small stumps4 ,tail long and brittle4 ,the few genera and species of this family are restricted to ,africa1 south of the ,sahara and ,madagascar4 ,gerrhosaurus1 with lateral fold and complete limbs2 ,tetradactylus also with a fold1 but with very variable limbs2 ,condylosaurus2 all in ,africa4 ,zonosaurus and ,tracheloptychus in ,madagascar4 ,family #ae4 ,lacertidae4--,pleurodont4 ,tongue long and bifid1 with papillae or folds1 with osteoderms on the head but not on the body4 ,limbs always well developed4 ,palaearctic and palaeotropical with the exception of ,madagascar2 not in the ,australian region4 ,the ,lacertidae or true lizards comprise about #bj genera1 with some #ajj species1 most abundant in ,africa2 their northern limit coincides fairly with that of the permanently frozen subsoil4 ,they all are terrestrial and zoophagous4 ,the long1 pointed tail is brittle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,heads of ,british ,lizards4 a1 ,lacerta vivipara2 b1 ,l4 agilis2 c1 ,l4 viridis4 ,most of the ,european lizards with four well developed limbs belong to the genus ,lacerta4 ,only three species occur in ,great ,britain 7see fig4 #b74 ,the common lizard 7,lacerta vivipara7 frequents heaths and banks in ,england and ,scotland1 and is locally met with also in ,ireland2 it is viviparous4 ,much scarcer is the second species1 the sand-lizard 7,lacerta agilis71 which is confined to some localities in the south of ,england1 the ,new ,forest and its vicinity2 it does not appear to attain on ,english soil the same size as on the continent of ,europe where it abounds1 growing sometimes to a length of #i in4 ,singularly1 a snake 7,coronella laevis71 also common on the continent1 and feeding principally on this lizard1 has followed it across the ,british ,channel1 apparently existing in those localities only in which the sand-lizard has settled4 ,this lizard is oviparous4 ,the males differ by their brighter green ground colour from the females1 which are brown1 spotted with black4 ,the third ,british species1 the green lizard 7,lacerta viridis71 does not occur in ,england proper2 it has found a congenial home in the island of ,guernsey1 but is there much less developed as regards size and beauty than on the continent4 ,this species is larger than the two preceding2 it is green1 with minute blackish spots4 ,in ,germany and ,france one other species only 7,lacerta muralis7 appears2 but in the south of ,europe the species of ,lacerta are much more numerous1 the largest and finest1 being ,l4 ocellata1 which grows to a length of #ah or #bj in41 and is brilliantly green1 ornamented with blue eye-like spots on the sides4 ,even the small island-rocks of the ,mediterranean1 sometimes only a few hundred yards in diameter1 are occupied by peculiar races of lizards1 which have attracted much attention from the fact that they have assumed under such isolated conditions a more or less dark1 almost black1 coloration4 ,l4 muralis1 with its numerous varieties1 has been monographed by ,g4 ,a4 ,boulenger1 ,trans4 ,zool4 ,soc4 xvii4 7#aije71 pp4 #cea-dbb1 pl4 #bb-bi4 ,other genera are ,psammodromus and ,acanthodactylus in south-western ,europe and northern ,africa4 ,cabrita in ,india1 with transparent lower eyelids4 ,ophiops1 likewise with transparent but united lids1 from ,north ,africa to ,india4 ,family #af4 ,varanidae4--,pleurodont4 ,tongue very long1 smooth and bifid4 ,osteoderms absent4 ,limbs always well developed4 ,old ,world4 ,this family contains only one genus1 ,varanus1 with nearly #cj species1 in ,africa1 ,arabia and southern ,asia1 and ,australia1 but not in ,madagascar4 ,the generic term is derived from the ,arabic ,ouaran1 which means lizard4 ,owing to a ridiculous muddle1 this ,arabic word has been taken to mean warning lizard1 hence the ,latin ,monitor1 one of the many synonyms of this genus1 now often used as the vernacular4 ,many of the monitors are semi-aquatic1 e4g4 ,v4 niloticus1 and these have a laterally compressed tail2 others inhabit dry sandy districts1 e4g4 ,v4 scincus1 the ouaran el ard of ,north ,africa2 others prefer wooded localities4 ,v4 salvator is the largest species1 reaching a length of #g ft42 it ranges from ,nepal and southern ,china to ,cape ,york2 a smaller species1 common in ,new ,guinea and ,australia1 is ,v4 gouldi4 ,they all are predaceous1 powerful creatures1 with a partiality for eggs4 ,their own eggs are laid in hollow trees1 or buried in the sand4 ,the young are prettily spotted with white and black ocelli1 but the coloration of the adult is mostly very plain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,monitor of the ,nile 7,varanus niloticus74 ,the following families are much degraded in conformity with their1 in most cases1 subterranean life4 ,they are of doubtful relationships and contain each but a few species4 ,family #ag4 ,pygopodidae4--,pleurodont1 snake-shaped1 covered with roundish1 imbricating scales4 ,tail long and brittle4 ,fore-limbs absent2 hind-limbs transformed into a pair of scale-covered flaps4 ,tongue slightly forked4 ,eyes functional but devoid of movable lids4 ,australia1 ,tasmania and ,new ,guinea4 ,pygopus1 e4g4 ,p4 lepidopus1 about #b ft4 long1 two-thirds belonging to the tail1 distributed over the whole of ,australia4 ,lialis burtoni1 of similar size and distribution1 has the hind-limbs reduced to very small1 narrow appendages4 ,the members of this family seem to lead a snake-like life1 not subterranean1 and some are said to eat other lizards4 ,l4 jicari1 from the ,fly river1 has a very snake-like appearance1 with a long1 pointed snout like certain tree-snakes1 but with an easily visible ear-opening2 their eyelids are reduced to a ring which is composed of two or three rows of small scales4 7,h4 ,f4 ,g47 ,,footnote3 #a ,for the etymology of this word1 see ,,crocodile4 #b ,for anatomical detail and experiments1 see ,r4 ,w4 ,shufeldt1 ,p4 ,z4 ,s4 7#ahij71 p4 #agh2 ,g4 ,a4 ,boulenger1 ibid4 7#ahia71 p4 #aji1 and ,c4 ,stewart1 ibid4 7#ahia71 p4 #aai4 ,,lizard ,,point1 or ,,the ,,lizard1 the southernmost point of ,great ,britain1 in ,cornwall1 ,england1 in #di #eg #cj ,n41 #e #ab ,w4 ,it is generally the first ,british land sighted by ships bound up the ,english ,channel1 and there are two lighthouses on it4 ,the cliff scenery is magnificent1 and attracts many visitors4 ,the coast is fretted into several small bays1 such as ,housel and1 most famous of all1 ,kynance ,cove2 caves pierce the cliffs at many points1 and bold isolated rocks fringe the shore4 ,the coloured veining of the serpentine rock is a remarkable feature4 ,the ,lion's ,den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in #ahdg2 the ,stags is a dangerous reef stretching southward from the point1 and at ,asparagus ,island1 ,kynance ,cove1 is a natural funnel in which the air is compressed by the waves and causes a violent ejection of foam4 ,the principal village is ,lizard ,town1 #aj m4 from ,helston1 the nearest railway station4 ,,ljunggren1 ,,gustaf ,h,,kan ,,jordan 7#ahbc-aije71 ,swedish man of letters1 was born at ,lund on the #fth of ,march #ahbc4 ,he was educated at ,lund university1 where he was professor of ,german 7#ahej-ahei71 of aesthetics 7#ahei-ahhi7 and rector 7#ahge-ahhe74 ,he had been a member of the ,swedish ,academy for twenty years at the time of his death in ,september #aije4 ,his most important work1 ,svenska vitterhetens hfder efter ,gustav ,,iii4's dd 7#e vols41 ,lund41 #ahgc-ahie71 is a comprehensive study of ,swedish literature in the #aith century4 ,his other works include3 ,framstllning af de frnmste estetiska systemerna 7an exposition of the principal system of aesthetics2 #b vols41 #ahef-ahfj72 ,svenska dramat intill slutet af #ag rhundradet 7a history of the ,swedish drama down to the end of the #agth century1 ,lund1 #ahfd72 an edition 7#ahfd7 of the ,epistlar of ,bellman and ,fredman1 and a history of the ,swedish ,academy in the year of its centenary 7#ahhf74 ,his scattered writings were collected as ,smrre ,skrifter 7#c vols41 #ahgb-ahha74 ,,llama1 the ,spanish modification of the ,peruvian name of the larger of the two domesticated members of the camel-tribe indigenous to ,south ,america4 ,the llama 7,lama huanacus glama7 is a domesticated derivative of the wild guanaco1 which has been bred as a beast of burden4 ,chiefly found in southern ,peru1 it generally attains a larger size than the guanaco1 and is usually white or spotted with brown or black1 and sometimes altogether black4 ,the following account by ,augustin de ,zarate was given in #aedd3 ,illustration3 ,llama4 ,in places where there is no snow1 the natives want water1 and to supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make other living sheep carry them1 for1 it must be remarked1 these sheep of ,peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden4 ,they can carry about one hundred pounds or more1 and the ,spaniards used to ride them1 and they would go four or five leagues a day4 ,when they are weary they lie down upon the ground1 and as there are no means of making them get up1 either by beating or assisting them1 the load must of necessity be taken off4 ,when there is a man on one of them1 if the beast is tired and urged to go on1 he turns his head round1 and discharges his saliva1 which has an unpleasant odour1 into the rider's face4 ,these animals are of great use and profit to their masters1 for their wool is very good and fine1 particularly that of the species called pacas1 which have very long fleeces2 and the expense of their food is trifling1 as a handful of maize suffices them1 and they can go four or five days without water4 ,their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of ,castile4 ,there are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts of ,peru1 which was not the case when the ,spaniards came first2 for when one ,indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came and took what they wanted1 and then another ,indian killed a sheep in his turn4 ,the disagreeable habit of spitting is common to all the group4 ,in a wide sense the term llama is used to designate all the ,south ,american ,camelidae4 7,see ,,tylopoda47 ,,llanberis1 a town of ,carnarvonshire1 ,n4 ,wales1 #h m4 ,e4 by ,s4 of ,carnarvon1 by a branch of the ,london ,north-,western railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cjae4 ,it is finely situated in a valley near the foot of ,snowdon4 ,the valley has two lakes1 ,llyn ,peris and ,llyn ,padarn1 of over #a m4 and #b m4 long respectively1 about m4 apart4 ,from ,padarn rises the ,seint1 called ,rothell in its upper part4 ,dolbadarn ,castle is a circular tower near the foot of ,peris lake4 ,dolbadarn means the ,padarn meadow4 ,several ,welsh churches are dedicated to ,padarn4 ,in the castle ,owen ,goch 7,owen the ,red7 was imprisoned from #abed to #abgg1 by the last ,llewelyn1 whose brother ,dafydd held it for some time against ,edward ,i4 ,during the time of ,owen ,glendower 7temp4 ,henry ,,iv4 and ,henry ,v471 the castle often changed hands4 ,near is ,ceunantmawr waterfall4 ,the ,vaenol slate quarries are here1 and hence is the easiest ascent of ,snowdon1 with a railway to the summit4 ,from the road over the fine ,llanberis pass towards ,capel ,curig1 a turn to the right leads to ,beddgelert1 through ,nant ,gwynnant 7white or happy valley1 or stream71 where ,pembroke and ,ieuan ap ,robert 7for the ,lancastrians7 had many skirmishes in the time of ,edward ,,iv4 ,gwynnant ,lake is about #a m4 long1 by m4 broad1 and below it is the smaller ,llyn ,dinas4 ,,llandaff1 a city of ,glamorganshire1 ,wales1 on the ,taff ,vale railway1 #adi m4 from ,london4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #eggg4 ,it is almost entirely within the parliamentary borough of ,cardiff4 ,it is nobly situated on the heights which slope towards the southern bank of the ,taff4 ,formerly the see of ,llandaff was looked upon as the oldest in the kingdom2 but its origin is obscure1 although the first two bishops1 ,st ,dubricius and ,st ,teilo1 certainly flourished during the latter half of the #fth century4 ,by the #abth century1 when ,urban was bishop1 the see had acquired great wealth 7as may be seen from the ,book of ,llandaff1 a collection of its records and land-grants compiled probably by ,geoffrey of ,monmouth71 but after the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,llandaff1 largely through the alienations of its bishops and the depredations of the canons1 became impoverished1 and its cathedral was left for more than a century to decay4 ,in the #ahth century a new church1 in debased ,italian style1 was planted amid the ruins4 ,this was demolished and replaced 7#ahdd-ahfi7 by the present restored cathedral1 due chiefly to the energy of ,dean ,williams4 ,the oldest remaining portion is the chancel arch1 belonging to the ,norman cathedral built by ,bishop ,urban and opened in #aabj4 ,jasper ,tudor1 uncle of ,henry ,,vii41 was the architect of the north-west tower1 portions of which remain4 ,the cathedral is also the parish church4 ,the palace or castle built by ,urban was destroyed1 according to tradition1 by ,owen ,glendower in #adjd1 and only a gateway with flanking towers and some fragments of wall remain4 ,after this1 ,mathern near ,chepstow became the episcopal residence until about #afij1 when it fell into decay1 leaving the diocese without a residence until ,llandaff ,court was acquired during ,bishop ,ollivant's tenure of the see 7#ahdi-ahhb74 ,for over #abj years the bishops had been non-resident4 ,the ancient stone cross on the green 7restored in #ahig7 is said to mark the spot on which ,archbishop ,baldwin1 and his chaplain ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 preached the ,crusade in #aahg4 ,money bequeathed by ,thomas ,howell1 a merchant1 who died in ,spain in #aedj1 maintains an intermediate school for girls1 managed by the ,drapers' ,company1 ,howell's trustees4 ,there is an ,anglican theological college1 removed to ,llandaff from ,aberdare in #aijg4 ,the city is almost joined to ,cardiff1 owing to the expansion of that town4 ,llandaff ,court1 already mentioned1 was the ancient mansion of the ,mathew family1 from which ,henry ,matthews1 #ast ,viscount ,llandaff 7b4 #ahbf71 was descended4 ,another branch of this family formerly held the earldom of ,llandaff in the ,irish peerage4 ,henry ,matthews1 a barrister and ,conservative ,m4,p41 whose father was a judge in ,ceylon1 was home secretary #ahhf-ahib1 and was created viscount in #ahie4 ,,llandeilo ,,group1 in geology1 the middle subdivision of the ,british ,ordovician rocks4 ,it was first described and named by ,sir4 ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison from the neighbourhood of ,llandeilo in ,carmarthenshire4 ,in the type area it consists of a series of slaty rocks1 shales1 calcareous flagstones and sandstones2 the calcareous middle portion is sometimes termed the ,llandeilo limestone2 and in the upper portion volcanic rocks are intercalated4 ,a remarkable feature in the history of the ,llandeilo rocks in ,britain1 more especially in ,north ,wales and ,cumberland1 was the outbreak of volcanic action2 vast piles of ,llandeilo lava and ashes form such hills as ,cader ,idris1 and the ,arenigs in ,wales1 and ,helvellyn and ,scafell in ,westmorland and ,cumberland4 ,the series is also found at ,builth and in ,pembrokeshire4 ,the average thickness in ,wales is about #bjjj ft4 ,the group is usually divided in this area into three subdivisions4 ,in the ,corndon district of ,shropshire the ,middleton ,series represents the ,llandeilo group2 it includes1 in descending order1 the ,rorrington black shales1 the ,meadowtown limestones and flags1 and the western grits and shales4 ,in the ,lake ,district the great volcanic series of ,borrowdale1 green slates and porphyries1 #hjjj to #ijjj ft4 in thickness1 lies on this horizon2 and in the ,cross ,fell area the ,milburn beds of the ,skiddaw slates 7see ,,arenig7 appear to be of the same age4 ,in ,scotland the ,llandeilo group is represented by the ,glenkiln shales1 black shales and yellowish mudstones with radiolarian cherts and volcanic tuffs2 by the ,barr ,series1 including the ,benan conglomerates1 ,stinchar limestone and ,kirkland sandstones2 and by the ,glenapp conglomerates and ,tappins mudstones and grits south of ,stinchar4 ,graptolitic shales1 similar to those of southern ,scotland1 are traceable into the north-east of ,ireland4 ,the fossils of the ,llandeilo group include numerous graptolites1 ,coenograptus gracilis being taken as the zonal fossil of the upper portion1 ,didymograptus ,murchisoni of the lower4 ,other forms are ,climacograptus ,scharenbergi and ,diplograptus foliaceus4 ,many trilobites are found in these rocks1 e4g4 ,ogygia ,buchi1 ,asaphus tyrannus1 ,calymene cambrensis1 ,cheirurus ,sedgwickii4 ,among the brachiopods are ,crania1 ,leptaena1 ,lingula1 ,strophomena2 ,cardiola and ,modiolopsis occur among the ,pelecypods2 ,euomphalus1 ,bellerophon1 ,murchisonia among the ,gasteropods2 ,conularia and ,hyolithes among the ,pteropods2 the ,cephalopods are represented by ,orthoceras and ,cyrtoceras4 ,the green roofing slates and plumbago 7graphite7 of the ,lake ,district are obtained from this group of rocks1 7see ,,ordovician74 ,,llandilo1 or ,,llandeilo ,,fawr1 a market town and urban district of ,carmarthenshire1 ,wales1 picturesquely situated above the right bank of the river ,towy4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #agba4 ,llandilo is a station on the ,mid-,wales section of the ,london ,north-,western railway1 and a terminus of the ,llandilo-,llanelly branch line of the ,great ,western4 ,the large parish church of ,st ,teilo has a low embattled ,perpendicular tower4 ,adjoining the town is the beautiful park of ,lord ,dynevor1 which contains the ruined keep of ,dinefawr ,castle and the residence of the ,rices 7,lords ,dynevor71 erected early in the #agth century but modernized in #aheh4 ,some of the loveliest scenery of ,south ,wales lies within reach of ,llandilo1 which stands nearly in the centre of the ,vale of ,towy4 ,the name of ,llandilo implies the town's early foundation by ,st ,teilo1 the great ,celtic missionary of the #fth century1 the friend of ,st ,david and reputed founder of the see of ,llandaff4 ,the historical interest of the place centres in its proximity to the castle of ,dinefawr1 now commonly called ,dynevor1 which was originally erected by ,rhodri ,mawr or his son ,cadell about the year #hgf on the steep wooded slopes overhanging the ,towy4 ,from ,prince ,cadell's days to the death of the ,lord ,rhys1 last reigning prince of ,south ,wales1 in #aaif1 ,dinefawr continued to be the recognized abode of ,south ,welsh royalty4 ,the castle ruins remain in the possession of the ,rices1 ,lords ,dynevor1 heirs and descendants of ,prince ,cadell4 ,at one period residence and park became known as ,new-town1 a name now obsolete4 ,some personal relics of the celebrated ,sir ,rhys ap ,thomas1 ,k4,g4 7#adea-aebg71 are preserved in the modern house4 ,dinefawr ,castle and its estates were granted away by ,henry ,,viii4 on the execution for high treason of ,sir ,rhys's grandson1 ,rhys ap ,griffith1 but were restored to the family under ,queen ,mary4 ,,llandovery 7,llan-ym-ddyffri71 a market town and ancient municipal borough of ,carmarthenshire1 ,wales1 situated amid hills near the left bank of the ,towy4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ahji4 ,llandovery is a station on the ,mid-,wales section of the ,london ,north-,western railway4 ,the old-fashioned town lies in the parish of ,llandingat1 and contains the two churches of ,llandingat and ,llanfair-ar-y-bryn4 ,the slight remains of the castle stand on a hillock above the river ,brn4 ,the public school was founded here by ,sir ,thomas ,phillips in #ahdg4 ,the place probably owes its ,celtic name of ,llan-ym-ddyffri 7the church amid the waters7 to the proximity of ,llandingat church to the streams of the ,towy1 ,brn and ,gwydderig4 ,on account of its commanding position at the head of the fertile vale of ,towy1 ,llandovery was a strategic site of some importance in the middle ages4 ,the castle erected here by the ,normans early in the #abth century frequently changed owners during the course of the ,anglo-,welsh wars before #abhb4 ,in #adhe the borough of ,llandovery1 or ,llanymtheverye1 was incorporated by a charter from ,richard ,,iii41 and this king's privileges were subsequently confirmed by ,henry ,,viii4 in #aeba1 and by ,elizabeth in #aeij1 the ,tudor queen's original charter being still extant and in the possession of the corporation1 which is officially styled the bailiff and burgesses of the borough of ,llanymtheverye1 otherwise ,llandovery4 ,the bailiff likewise holds the office of recorder1 but has neither duties nor emoluments4 ,in the #agth century the vicarage of ,llandingat was held by the celebrated ,welsh poet and preacher1 ,rhys ,prichard1 commonly called the vicar of ,llandovery 7d4 #afdd74 ,in the middle of the #aith century ,william ,rees of ,tonn published at ,llandovery many important works dealing with early ,welsh history and archaeology4 ,,llandovery ,,group1 in geology1 the lowest division of the ,silurian 7,upper ,silurian7 in ,britain4 ,c4 ,lapworth in #ahgi proposed the name ,valentian 7from the ancient north ,british province of ,valentia7 for this group4 ,it includes in the type area the ,tarannon ,shales #ajjj-aejj ft41 ,upper ,llandovery and ,may ,hill ,sandstone #hjj ft41 ,lower ,llandovery1 #fjj-aejj ft4 ,the ,lower ,llandovery rocks consist of conglomerates1 sandstones and slaty beds4 ,at ,llandovery they rest unconformably upon ,ordovician rocks 7,bala71 but in many other places no unconformity is traceable4 ,these rocks occur with a narrow crop in ,pembrokeshire1 which curves round through ,llandovery1 and in the ,rhyader district they attain a considerable thickness4 ,northwards they thin out towards ,bala ,lake4 ,they occur also in ,cardiganshire and ,carmarthenshire in many places where they have not been clearly separated from the associated ,ordovician rocks4 ,there is a change in the fauna on leaving the ,ordovician and entering the ,llandovery4 ,among the graptolites the ,diplograptidae begin to be replaced by the ,monograptidae4 ,characteristic graptolite zones1 in descending order1 are3--,monograptus gregarius1 ,diplograptusvesiculosus1 ,d4 acuminatus4 ,common trilobites are3--,acidaspis1 ,encrinurus1 ,phacops1 ,protus2 among the brachiopods are ,orthis elegantula1 ,o4 testudinaria1 ,meristella crassa and ,pentamerus 7,stricklandinia7 lens 7,pentamerus is so characteristic that the ,llandovery rocks are frequently described as the ,pentamerus beds74 ,the ,upper ,llandovery1 including the ,may ,hill ,sandstone of ,may ,hill1 ,gloucestershire1 is an arenaceous series generally conglomeratic at the base1 with local lenticular developments of shelly limestone 7,norbury1 ,hollies and ,pentamerus limestones74 ,it occurs with a narrow outcrop in ,carmarthenshire at the base of the ,silurian1 disappearing beneath the ,old ,red ,sandstone westward to reappear in ,pembrokeshire2 north-eastward the outcrop extends to the ,longmynd1 which the conglomerate wraps round4 ,as it is followed along the crop it is found to rest unconformably upon the ,lower ,llandovery1 ,caradoc1 ,llandeilo1 ,cambrian and pre-,cambrian rocks4 ,the fossils include the trilobites ,phacops caudata1 ,encrinurus punctatus1 ,calymene ,blumenbachii2 the brachiopods ,pentamerus oblongus1 ,orthis calligramma1 ,atrypa reticularis2 the corals ,favosites1 ,lindostroemia1 c42 and the zonal graptolites ,rastrites maximus and ,monograptus spinigerus and others 7,monograptus ,sedgwicki1 ,m4 ,clingani1 ,m4 proteus1 ,diplograptus ,hughesii74 ,the ,tarannon shales1 grey and blue slates1 designated by ,a4 ,sedgwick the paste rock1 is traceable from ,conway into ,carmarthenshire2 in ,cardiganshire1 besides the slaty facies1 gritty beds make their appearance2 and in the neighbourhood of ,builth soft dark shales4 ,the group is poor in fossils with the exception of graptolites2 of these ,cyrtograptus grayae and ,monograptus exiguus are zonal forms4 ,the ,tarannon group is represented by the ,rhyader ,pale ,shales in ,radnorshire2 by the ,browgill beds1 with ,monograptus crispus and ,m4 turriculatus1 in the ,lake district2 in the ,moffat ,silurian belt in south ,scotland by a thick development1 including the ,hawick rocks and ,ardwell beds1 and the ,queensberry group or ,gala 7,grieston shales1 ,buckholm grits and ,abbotsford flags72 in the ,girvan area1 by the ,drumyork flags1 ,bargany group and ,penkill group2 and in ,ireland by the ,treveshilly shales of ,strangford ,lough1 and the shales of ,salterstown1 ,co4 ,louth4 ,the ,upper and ,lower ,llandovery rocks are represented in descending order by the ,pale shales1 ,graptolite shales1 ,grey slates and ,corwen grit of ,merionethshire and ,denbighshire4 ,in the ,rhyader district the ,caban group 7,gafalt beds1 shales and grits and ,caban conglomerate71 and the ,gwastaden group 7,gigrin mudstones1 ,ddol shales1 ,dyffryn flags1 ,cerig ,gwynion grits7 lie on this horizon2 at ,builth also there is a series of grits and shales4 ,in the ,lake district the lower part of the ,stockdale shales 7,skelgill beds7 is of ,llandovery age4 ,in south ,scotland in the central and southern belt of ,silurian rocks1 which extends across the country from ,luce ,bay to ,st ,abb's ,head1 the ,birkhill shales1 a highly crumpled series of graptolitic beds1 represent the ,llandovery horizon4 ,in the ,girvan area to the north their place is taken by the ,camregan1 ,shaugh ,hill and ,mullock ,hill groups4 ,in ,ireland the ,llandovery rocks are represented by the ,anascaul slates of the ,dingle promontory1 by the ,owenduff and ,gowlaun grits1 ,co4 ,galway1 by the ,upper ,pomeroy beds1 by the ,uggool and ,ballaghaderin beds1 ,co4 ,mayo1 and by rocks of this age in ,coalpit ,bay and ,slieve ,felim ,mountains4 ,economic deposits in ,llandovery rocks include slate pencils 7,teesdale71 building stone1 flag-stone1 road metal and lime4 ,lead ore occurs in ,wales4 7,see ,,silurian47 7,j4 ,a4 ,h47 ,,llandrindod1 or ,,llandrindod ,,wells1 a market town1 urban district and health-resort of ,radnorshire1 ,wales1 situated in a lofty and exposed district near the river ,ithon1 a tributary of the ,wye4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ahbg4 ,llandrindod is a station on the ,mid-,wales section of the ,london ,north-,western railway4 ,the town annually receives thousands of visitors1 and lies within easy reach of the beautiful ,wye ,valley and the wild district of ,radnor ,forest4 ,the saline1 sulphur and chalybeate springs of ,llandrindod have long been famous4 ,according to a treatise published by a ,german physician1 ,dr ,wessel ,linden1 in #aged1 the saline springs at ,ffynon-llwyn-y-gog 7the well in the cuckoos' grove7 in the present parish of ,llandrindod had acquired more than a local reputation as early as the year #afif4 ,in the #ahth century both saline and sulphur springs were largely patronized by numbers of visitors1 and about #agdi a ,mr ,grosvenor built a hydropathic establishment near the old church1 on a site now covered by a farm-house known as ,llandrindod ,hall4 ,,llandudno1 a seaside resort in the ,arfon parliamentary division of ,carnarvonshire1 ,north ,wales1 in a detached portion of the county east of the ,conwy1 on a strip of sandy soil terminating in the massive limestone of ,great ,orme's ,head4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #ibgi4 ,the town is reached by the ,london ,north-,western railway1 and lies #bbg m4 ,n4,w4 of ,london4 ,a village in #ahej1 ,llandudno is to-day one of the most flourishing watering-places in ,north ,wales4 ,sheltered by the ,great ,orme on the ,n4,w4 and by the ,little ,orme on the ,e41 it faces a wide bay of the ,irish ,sea1 and is backed by low sandhills4 ,a ,marine ,drive encircles the ,great ,orme4 ,the ,little ,orme has caverns and abounds in sea birds and rare plants4 ,close to the town are the ,gloddaeth woods1 open to visitors4 ,on the ,great ,orme are old circular buildings1 an ancient fortress1 a rocking-stone 7cryd ,tudno7 and the #gth-century church of ,st ,tudno1 restored in #ahhe4 ,druidical and other ,british antiquities are numerous in the district4 ,at ,deganwy1 or ,diganwy1 #b m4 from ,llandudno1 is a castle1 ,dinas ,gonwy 7,conwy fort71 known to ,english historians as ,gannoc1 dating from the #aath or 7according to the ,welsh7 earlier than the #ith century4 ,,llanelly1 a market town1 urban district1 and seaport of ,carmarthenshire1 ,wales1 situated on the north shore of the broad estuary of the river ,loughor 7,llwchwr71 known as ,burry river1 which forms an inlet of ,carmarthen ,bay4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #be1fag4 ,llanelly is a station on the ,south ,wales section of the ,great ,western railway4 ,the town is wholly of modern appearance4 ,the mother-church of ,st ,elliw1 or ,elli 7whence the town derives its name7 has been practically rebuilt 7#aijf71 but it retains its #acth-century tower and other ancient features of the original fabric4 ,its situation on a broad estuary and its central position with regard to a neighbourhood rich in coal1 iron and limestone1 have combined to make ,llanelly one of the many important industrial towns of ,south ,wales4 ,anthracite and steam-coal from the collieries of the coast and along the ,loughor ,valley are exported from the extensive docks2 and there are also large works for the smelting of copper and the manufacture of tin plates4 ,llanelly1 though an ancient parish and a borough by prescription under a portreeve and burgesses in the old lordship of ,kidwelly1 remained insignificant until the industrial development in ,south ,wales during the #aith century4 ,in #ahaj the combined population of ,llanelly1 with its four subsidiary hamlets of ,berwick1 ,glyn1 ,hencoed and ,westowe1 only amounted to #bigb2 in #ahdj the inhabitants of the borough hamlet alone had risen to #dagc4 ,llanelly is now the most populous town in ,wales outside the confines of ,glamorganshire4 ,in #ahcb ,llanelly was added as a contributory borough to the ,carmarthen parliamentary district4 ,,llanes1 a seaport of northern ,spain1 in the province of ,oviedo1 on the river ,carrocedo and the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ah1fhd4 ,the streets are mostly narrow and irregular1 and contain some curious old houses4 ,the principal buildings are a fine ,gothic church and an old ,augustinian monastery1 which has been converted into a school and meteorological station4 ,in summer the fine climate1 scenery and sea-bathing attract many visitors4 ,llanes is a second-class port for light-draught vessels2 but the entrance is narrow1 and rather difficult in rough weather4 ,the trade is chiefly in agricultural produce1 timber1 butter and fish4 ,,llangollen1 a picturesque market-town and summer resort of ,denbighshire1 ,n4 ,wales1 in the ,dee 7,dyfrdwy7 valley1 on a branch of the ,great ,western ,railway1 #i m4 ,s4,w4 of ,wrexham1 #bjb m4 from ,london by rail4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #ccjc4 ,the ,dee is here crossed by a #adth-century bridge of four arches1 one of the seven wonders of ,wales1 built by ,john ,trevor1 afterwards bishop of ,st ,asaph 7,llanelwy74 ,the ,anglican church of ,st ,collen1 ,norman and ,early ,english1 has a monument in the churchyard to the ,ladies of ,llangollen1 ,lady ,eleanor ,butler and ,hon4 ,sarah ,ponsonby1 of ,plas ,newydd1 7#aggh to #ahbi and #ahca respectively74 ,the house is now a museum4 ,castell ,dinas ,brn 7the castle of the town of ,brn2 the mountain stream below is also called ,brn71 the ruins of a fortress on a high conical hill about #a m4 from the town1 is supposedly ,british1 of unknown date4 ,an old ruynous thinge1 as the ,elizabethan poet ,churchyard calls it even in the #afth century1 it was inhabited1 apparently1 about #acij1 by ,myfanwy ,fechan of the ,tudor ,trevor family and beloved by the bard ,howel ab ,einion ,llygliw1 whose ode to her is still extant4 ,valle ,crucis ,abbey 7,llan ,egwest7 is a ,cistercian ruin at the foot of ,bronfawr hill1 some #b m4 ,n4,w4 of ,llangollen1 founded about #abjj by ,madoc ab ,gruffydd ,maelor1 lord of ,dinas ,brn and grandson of ,owen ,gwynedd1 prince of ,wales4 ,llan ,egwest1 dissolved in #aece1 was given by ,james ,i4 to ,lord ,edward ,wootton4 ,in the meadow adjoining1 still called ,llwyn y ,groes 7grove of the cross71 is ,eliseg's ,pillar4 ,eliseg was father of ,brochmael1 prince of ,powys1 and his grandson1 ,concen or ,congen1 appears to have erected the pillar1 which is now broken1 with an illegible inscription2 the modern inscription dates only from #aggi4 ,at ,llangollen are linen and woollen manufactures1 and near are collieries1 lime and iron works4 ,brewing1 malting and slate-quarrying are also carried on4 ,within the parish1 an aqueduct carries the ,ellesmere canal across the ,dee4 ,,llanquihue 7pron4 lan-k-wa71 a province of southern ,chile bordering on the northern shores of the ,gulf and ,straits of ,chacao1 and extending from the ,pacific to the ,argentine frontier4 ,the province of ,valdivia lies ,n4 and is separated from it in part by the ,bueno river4 ,pop4 7#ahie7 #gh1cae4 ,area #de1eae sq4 m4 ,it is a region of forests1 rivers and lakes1 and the greater part is mountainous4 ,the rainfall is excessive1 the average at ,puerto ,montt being #ajd in4 a year1 and the temperature is singularly uniform1 the average for the summer being #eh1 of the winter #dg1 and of the year #ec ,f4 ,there are several large lakes in the eastern part of the province--,puyehue1 on the northern frontier1 ,rupanco1 ,llanquihue and ,todos los ,santos4 ,lake ,llanquihue is the largest body of fresh water in ,chile1 having an extreme length from ,n4 to ,s41 or from ,octai to ,varas1 of about #cc m41 and extreme breadth of nearly the same4 ,there is a regular steamship service on the lake between ,octai and ,varas1 and its western shores are well settled4 ,the volcanoes of ,calbuco and ,osorno rise from near its eastern shores1 the latter to a height of #gchb ft4 ,the outlet of the lake is through ,maullin river1 the lower course of which is navigable4 ,the other large rivers of the province are the ,bueno1 which receives the waters of ,lakes ,puyehue and ,rupanco1 and the ,puelo1 which has its rise in a lake of the same name in the ,argentine territory of ,chubut4 ,a short tortuous river of this vicinity1 called the ,petrohue1 affords an outlet for the picturesque lake of ,todos los ,santos1 and enters the ,reloncavi ,inlet near the ,puelo4 ,the southern coast of the province is indented by a number of inlets and bays affording good fishing1 but the mouths of the rivers flowing into the ,pacific are more or less obstructed by sand-bars4 ,apart from the lumber industry1 which is the most important1 the productions of ,llanquihue include wheat1 barley1 potatoes and cattle4 ,the white population is composed in great part of ,germans1 who have turned large areas of forest lands in the northern districts into productive wheat fields4 ,the capital is ,puerto ,montt1 on a nearly land-locked bay called the ,reloncavi1 designed to be the southern terminus of the longitudinal railway from ,tacna1 a distance of #baeb m4 ,an important town in the northern part of the province is ,osorno1 on the ,rahue river1 which is chiefly inhabited by ,germans4 ,it exports wheat and other farm produce1 leather1 lumber and beer4 ,,llantrisant1 a small town and a contributory parliamentary borough of ,glamorganshire1 ,wales1 picturesquely situated with a southern aspect1 commanding a fine view of the vale of ,glamorgan1 in a pass on the mountain range which separates that vale from the valley of the ,taff4 ,the population of the parish in #aija was #aj1jia and of the contributory borough #bjeg4 ,a branch of the ,taff ,vale railway running from ,pontypridd to ,cowbridge and ,aberthaw has a station1 ,cross ,inn1 m4 below the town1 while nearly #b m4 farther south it passes 7near the village of ,pontyclun7 through ,llantrisant station on the ,great ,western railway main line1 which is #aef m4 by rail from ,london and #aa m4 ,n4,w4 from ,cardiff4 ,the castle1 which according to ,g4 ,t4 ,clark was second only to ,cardiff in military importance1 dates from the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 or ,edward ,i4 ,of the original building nothing remains1 and of a later building only a tall and slender fragment4 ,it was the head of the lordship of ,miskin1 a great part of which was in the hands of native owners1 until the last of them1 ,howel ap ,meredith1 was expelled by ,richard de ,clare 7#abbi-abfb74 ,since then it has always been in the hands of the lord of ,glamorgan4 ,it was in the near neighbourhood of the town that ,edward ,,ii4 was captured in #acbg4 ,in #adbf the then lord of ,glamorgan1 ,richard1 #eth earl of ,warwick1 granted to the residents a charter confirming grants made by his predecessors in #acdf1 #acig and #adbd4 ,the corporation was abolished in #ahhc1 and its property 7including #bhd acres of common land7 is administered by a town trust under a scheme of the charity commissioners4 ,the freemen of the borough1 however1 still hold a court leet in the town-hall4 ,the market formerly held here has been discontinued1 but there are four annual fairs4 ,the church was dedicated to three saints 7,illtyd1 ,gwyno and ,tyfodwg71 whence the name ,llantrisant4 ,originally a ,norman building1 most of the present fabric belongs to the #aeth century4 ,there are numerous chapels4 ,welsh is still the predominant language4 ,oliver ,cromwell's forbears were natives of this parish1 as also was ,sir ,leoline ,jenkins1 secretary of state under ,charles ,,ii4 ,there are tinplate works at ,pontyclun and numerous collieries in the district4 ,,llantwit ,,major 7,welsh ,llan-,illtyd-,fawr71 a small market town in the southern parliamentary division of ,glamorganshire1 ,south ,wales1 about #a m4 from the ,bristol ,channel1 with a station on the ,barry railway1 #e m4 ,s4 of ,cowbridge4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aaac4 ,about #a m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of the town there were discovered in #ahhh the remains of a large ,roman villa within a square enclosure of about #h acres1 which has been identified as part of the site of a ,roman settlement mentioned in ,welsh writings as ,caer ,wrgan4 ,the building seemed to have been the scene of a massacre1 possibly the work of ,irish pirates in the #eth century1 as some forty-three human skeletons and the remains of three horses were found within its enclosure4 ,etymological reasoning have led some to suggest that the ,roman station of ,bovium was at ,boverton1 #a m4 ,e4 of the town1 but it is more likely to have been at ,ewenny 7#b m4 ,s4,e4 of ,bridgend7 or perhaps at ,cowbridge4 ,on the sea coast are two camps1 one known as ,castle ,ditches1 commanding the entrance to the creek of ,colhugh1 once the port of ,llantwit4 ,in the time of ,henry ,i4 a small colony of ,flemings settled in the district4 ,the town and church derive their name from ,st ,illtyd or ,iltutus1 styled the knight1 a native of ,brittany and a great-nephew of ,germanus of ,auxerre4 ,having come under the influence of ,st ,cadoc1 abbot of ,llancarvan1 #f m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,llantwit1 ,illtyd established at the latter place1 about ,a4,d4 #ebj1 a monastic college which became famous as a seat of learning4 ,he attracted a number of scholars to him1 especially from ,brittany1 including ,samson1 archbishop of ,dol1 ,maglorius 7,samson's successor7 and ,paul de ,leon1 while his ,welsh students included ,david1 the patron saint of ,wales1 ,gildas the historian1 ,paulinus and ,teilo4 ,the college continued to flourish for several centuries1 sending forth a large number of missionaries until1 early in the #abth century1 its revenues were appropriated to the abbey of ,tewkesbury by ,fitzhamon1 the first ,norman lord of ,glamorgan4 ,a school seems1 however1 to have lingered on in the place until it lost all its emoluments in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the present church of ,st ,illtyd is the result of a sequence of churches which have sprung from a pre-,norman edifice1 almost entirely rebuilt and greatly extended in the #acth century and again partially rebuilt late in the #adth century4 ,it consists of an eastern church which 7according to ,professor ,freeman7 belonged probably to the monks1 and is the only part now used for worship1 a western one used as a parochial church before the dissolution1 but now disused1 and still farther west of this a chantry with sacristan's house1 now in ruins4 ,the western church consists of the nave of a once cruciform building1 while in continuation of it was built the eastern church1 consisting of chancel1 nave 7of great height and width but very short71 aisles and an embattled western tower built over the junction of the two naves4 ,a partial restoration was made in #ahhh1 and a careful and more complete one in #aijj-aije4 ,in the church and churchyard are preserved some early monumental remains of the ,british church1 dating from the #ith century1 and some possibly from an earlier date4 ,they include two cross-shafts and one cross with inscriptions in debased ,latin 7one being to the memory of ,st ,illtyd7 and two cylindrical pillars1 most of them being decorated with interlaced work4 ,there are some good specimens of domestic architecture of the #agth century4 ,the town is situated in a fertile district and the inhabitants depend almost entirely on agriculture4 ,its weekly market is mainly resorted to for its stock sales4 ,st ,donats castle1 #b m4 to the west1 was for nearly seven centuries the home of the ,stradling family4 ,as to the ,roman remains1 see the ,athenaeum for ,october #bj 7#ahhh71 and the ,antiquary for ,august 7#ahib74 ,as to the church1 see the ,archaeologia ,cambrensis1 #crd ser4 iv4 #ca 7an article by ,professor ,freeman71 #eth ser41 v4 #dji and xvii4 #abi1 and #fth ser41 iii4 #ef2 ,a4 ,c4 ,fryer1 ,llantwit-,major3 a ,fifth ,century ,university 7#ahic74 7,d4 ,ll4 ,t47 ,,llanwrtyd ,,wells1 an urban district of ,breconshire1 south ,wales1 with a station on the central ,wales section of the ,london ,north ,western railway1 #bca m4 from ,london4 ,it is situated in the midst of wild mountain scenery on the river ,irfon1 a right-bank tributary of the ,wye4 ,the place is chiefly noted for its sulphur and chalybeate springs1 the former being the strongest of the kind in ,wales4 ,the medicinal properties of the sulphur water were discovered1 or perhaps rediscovered1 in #agcb by a famous ,welsh writer1 the ,rev4 ,theophilus ,evans1 then vicar of ,llangammarch 7to which living ,llanwrtyd was a chapelry till #ahga74 ,saline water is obtained daily in the season from ,builth ,wells4 ,the ,irfon is celebrated as a trout-stream4 ,out of the civil parish1 which has an area of #aj1ghe acres and had in #aija a population of #hed1 there was formed in #aijg the urban district1 comprising #afaa acres1 and with an estimated population at the date of formation of #hab4 ,welsh is the predominant language of the district4 ,four miles lower down the ,irfon valley1 at the junction of the ,cammarch and ,irfon1 and with a station on the ,london ,north ,western railway1 is the village of ,llangammarch1 noted for its barium springs4 ,the ancient parish of ,llangammarch consists of the townships of ,penbuallt and ,treflis1 the wells being in the former1 which comprises #aa1aeb acres and had in #aija a population of only #dcc4 ,john ,penry1 the ,puritan martyr1 was born at ,cefn-brith in this parish4 ,charles ,wesley's wife1 ,sarah ,gwynne1 was of ,garth1 an old residence just outside the parish4 ,,llewelyn1 the name of two ,welsh princes4 ,,llewelyn ,i41 ,,ab ,,iorwerth 7d4 #abdj71 prince of ,north ,wales1 was born after the expulsion of his father1 ,iorwerth1 from the principality4 ,in #aaid1 while still a youth1 ,llewelyn recovered the paternal inheritance4 ,in #abja he was the greatest prince in ,wales4 ,at first he was a friend of ,king ,john1 whose illegitimate daughter1 ,joanna1 he took to wife 7#abja72 but the alliance soon fell through1 and in #abaa ,john reduced ,llewelyn to submission4 ,in the next year ,llewelyn recovered all his losses in ,north ,wales4 ,in #abae he took ,shrewsbury4 ,his rising had been encouraged by the pope1 by ,france1 and by the ,english barons4 ,his rights were secured by special clauses in ,magna ,carta4 ,but he never desisted from his wars with the ,marchers of ,south ,wales1 and in the early years of ,henry ,,iii4 he was several times attacked by ,english armies4 ,in #abci he was struck with paralysis and retired from the active work of government in favour of his son ,david4 ,he retired into a ,cistercian monastery4 ,see the lists of ,english chronicles for the reigns of ,john and ,henry ,,iii42 also the ,welsh chronicle ,brut y ,tywysogion 7ed4 ,rolls ,series72 ,o4 ,m4 ,edwards1 ,history of ,wales 7#aija72 ,t4 ,f4 ,tout in the ,political ,history of ,england1 iii4 7#aije74 ,,llewelyn ,,ii41 ,,ab ,,gruffydd 7d4 #abhb71 prince of ,north ,wales1 succeeded his uncle ,david in #abdf1 but was compelled by ,henry ,,iii4 to confine himself to ,snowdon and ,anglesey4 ,in #abed ,henry granted ,prince ,edward the royal lands in ,wales4 ,the steady encroachment of royal officers on ,llewelyn's land began immediately1 and in #abef ,llewelyn declared war4 ,the ,barons' ,war engaged all the forces of ,england1 and he was able to make himself lord of south and north ,wales4 ,llewelyn also assisted the barons4 ,by the treaty of ,shrewsbury 7#abfe7 he was recognized as overlord of ,wales2 and in return ,simon de ,montfort was supplied with ,welsh troops for his last campaign4 ,llewelyn refused to do homage to ,edward ,i41 who therefore attacked him in #abgf4 ,he was besieged in the ,snowdon mountains till hunger made him surrender1 and conclude the humiliating treaty of ,conway 7#abgg74 ,he was released1 but in #abhb he revolted again1 and was killed in a skirmish with the ,mortimers1 near ,builth in central ,wales4 ,see ,c4 ,bmont1 ,simon de ,montfort 7,paris1 #ahhd72 ,t4 ,f4 ,tout in the ,political ,history of ,england1 iii4 7#aije72 ,j4 ,e4 ,morris in ,the ,welsh ,wars of ,edward ,i4 7#aija74 ,,llorente1 ,,juan ,,antonio 7#agef-ahbc71 ,spanish historian1 was born on the #cjth of ,march #agef at ,rincon de ,soto in ,aragon4 ,he studied at the university of ,saragossa1 and1 having been ordained priest1 became vicar-general to the bishop of ,calahorra in #aghb4 ,in #aghe he became commissary of the ,holy ,office at ,logroo1 and in #aghi its general secretary at ,madrid4 ,in the crisis of #ahjh ,llorente identified himself with the ,bonapartists1 and was engaged for a few years in superintending the execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders1 and in examining the archives of the ,inquisition4 ,on the return of ,king ,ferdinand ,,vii4 to ,spain in #ahad he withdrew to ,france1 where he published his great work1 ,historia critica de la inquisicion de ,espaa 7,paris1 #ahae-ahag74 ,translated into ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,dutch and ,italian1 it attracted much attention in ,europe1 and involved its author in considerable persecution1 which1 on the publication of his ,portraits politiques des papes in #ahbb1 culminated in a peremptory order to quit ,france4 ,he died at ,madrid on the #eth of ,february #ahbc4 ,both the personal character and the literary accuracy of ,llorente have been assailed1 but although he was not an exact historian there is no doubt that he made an honest use of documents relating to the ,inquisition which are no longer extant4 ,the ,english translation of the ,historia 7,london1 #ahbf7 is abridged4 ,llorente also wrote ,memorias para la historia de la revolucion espaola 7,paris1 #ahad-ahaf71 translated into ,french 7,paris1 #ahae-ahai72 ,noticias historicas sobre las tres provincias vacongadas 7,madrid1 #ahjf-ahjh72 an autobiography1 ,noticia biografica 7,paris1 #ahah71 and other works4 ,,lloyd1 ,,edward 7#ahde- 71 ,english tenor vocalist1 was born in ,london on the #gth of ,march #ahde1 his father1 ,richard ,lloyd1 being vicar choralist at ,westminster ,abbey4 ,from #aheb to #ahfj he sang in the abbey choir1 and was thoroughly trained in music1 eventually becoming solo tenor at the ,chapel ,royal4 ,he began singing at concerts in #ahfg1 and in #ahga appeared at the ,gloucester ,musical ,festival4 ,his fine evenly-produced voice and pure style at once brought him into notice1 and he gradually took the place of ,sims ,reeves as the leading ,english tenor of the day1 his singing of classical music1 and especially of ,handel1 being particularly admired4 ,at the ,handel ,festivals after #ahhh he was the principal tenor1 and even in the vast auditorium at the ,crystal ,palace he triumphed over acoustic difficulties4 ,in #ahhh1 #ahij and #ahib he paid successful visits to the ,united ,states2 but by degrees he appeared less frequently in public1 and in #aijj he formally retired from the platform4 ,,lloyd1 ,,william 7#afbg-agag71 ,english divine1 successively bishop of ,st ,asaph1 of ,lichfield and ,coventry1 and of ,worcester1 was born at ,tilehurst1 ,berkshire1 in #afbg1 and was educated at ,oriel and ,jesus ,colleges1 ,oxford4 ,he graduated ,m4,a4 in #afdf4 ,in #affc he was prebendary of ,ripon1 in #affg prebendary of ,salisbury1 in #affh archdeacon of ,merioneth1 in #afgb dean of ,bangor and prebendary of ,st ,paul's1 ,london1 in #afhj bishop of ,st ,asaph1 in #afhi lord-almoner1 in #afib bishop of ,lichfield and ,coventry1 and in #afii bishop of ,worcester4 ,lloyd was an indefatigable opponent of the ,roman ,catholic tendencies of ,james ,,ii41 and was one of the seven bishops who for refusing to have the ,declaration of ,indulgence read in his diocese was charged with publishing a seditious libel against the king and acquitted 7#afhh74 ,he engaged ,gilbert ,burnet to write ,the ,history of the ,reformation of the ,church of ,england and provided him with much material4 ,he was a good scholar and a keen student of biblical apocalyptic literature and himself prophesied to ,queen ,anne1 ,robert ,harley1 earl of ,oxford1 ,william ,whiston1 and ,john ,evelyn the diarist4 ,lloyd was a stanch supporter of the revolution4 ,his chief publication was ,an ,historical ,account of ,church ,government as it was in ,great ,britain and ,ireland when they first received the ,christian ,religion 7,london1 #afhd1 reprinted ,oxford1 #ahdb74 ,he died at ,hartlebury castle on the #cjth of ,august #agag4 ,,lloyd1 ,,william ,,watkiss 7#ahac-ahic71 ,english man of letters1 was born at ,homerton1 ,middlesex1 on the #aath of ,march #ahac4 ,he received his early education at ,newcastle-under-,lyme grammar school1 and at the age of fifteen entered a family business in ,london1 with which he was connected for thirty-five years4 ,he devoted his leisure to the study of art1 architecture1 archaeology1 ,shakespeare1 classical and modern languages and literature4 ,he died in ,london on the #bbnd of ,december #ahic4 ,the work by which he is best known is ,the ,age of ,pericles 7#ahge71 characterized by soundness of scholarship1 great learning1 and a thorough appreciation of the period with which it deals1 but rendered unattractive by a difficult and at times obscure style4 ,he wrote also3 ,xanthian ,marbles 7#ahde72 ,critical ,essays upon ,shakespeare's ,plays 7#ahge72 ,christianity in the ,cartoons of ,raphael 7#ahfe71 which excited considerable attention from the manner in which theological questions were discussed2 ,the ,history of ,sicily to the ,athenian ,war 7#ahgb72 ,panics and their ,panaceas 7#ahfi72 an edition of ,much ,ado about ,nothing1 now first published in fully recovered metrical form 7#ahhd2 the author held that all the plays were originally written in blank verse74 ,a number of manuscripts still remain unpublished1 the most important of which have been bequeathed to the ,british ,museum1 amongst them being3 ,a ,further ,history of ,greece2 ,the ,century of ,michael ,angelo2 ,the ,neo-,platonists4 ,see ,memoir by ,sophia ,beale prefixed to ,lloyd's 7posthumously published7 ,elijah ,fenton3 his ,poetry and ,friends 7#ahid71 containing a list of published and unpublished works4 ,,lloyd ,,george1 ,,david 7#ahfc- 71 ,british statesman1 was born at ,manchester on the #agth of ,january #ahfc4 ,his father1 ,william ,george1 a ,welshman of yeoman stock1 had left ,pembrokeshire for ,london at an early age and became a school teacher there1 and afterwards in ,liverpool and ,haverfordwest1 and then headmaster of an elementary school at ,pwllheli1 ,carnarvonshire1 where he married the daughter of ,david ,lloyd1 a neighbouring ,baptist minister4 ,soon afterwards ,william ,george became headmaster of an elementary school in ,manchester1 but after the birth of his eldest son ,david his health failed1 and he gave up his post and took a small farm near ,haverfordwest4 ,two years later he died1 leaving his widow in poor circumstances2 a second child1 another son1 was posthumously born4 ,mrs ,george's brother1 ,richard ,lloyd1 a shoemaker at ,llanystumdwy1 and pastor of the ,campbellite ,baptists there1 now became her chief support2 it was from him that young ,david obtained his earliest views of practical and political life1 and also the means of starting1 at the age of fourteen1 on the career of a solicitor4 ,having passed his law preliminary1 he was articled to a firm in ,portmadoc1 and in #ahhd obtained his final qualifications4 ,in #ahhh he married ,margaret1 daughter of ,richard ,owen of ,criccieth4 ,from the first he managed to combine his solicitor's work with politics1 becoming secretary of the ,south ,carnarvonshire ,anti-tithe ,league2 and his local reputation was made by a successful fight1 carried to the ,high ,court1 in defence of the right of ,nonconformists to burial in the parish churchyard4 ,in the first county council elections for ,carnarvonshire he played a strenuous part on the ,radical side1 and was chosen an alderman2 and in #ahij1 at a by-election for ,carnarvon ,boroughs1 he was returned to parliament by a majority of #ah over a strong ,conservative opponent4 ,he held his seat successfully at the contests in #ahib1 #ahie and #aijj1 his reputation as a champion of ,welsh nationalism1 ,welsh nonconformity and extreme ,radicalism becoming thoroughly established both in parliament and in the country4 ,in the ,house of ,commons he was one of the most prominent guerrilla fighters1 conspicuous for his audacity and pungency of utterance1 and his capacity for obstruction while the ,conservatives were in office4 ,during the ,south ,african crisis of #ahii-aijb he was specially vehement in opposition to ,mr ,chamberlain1 and took the pro-,boer side so bitterly that he was mobbed in ,birmingham during the #aijj election when he attempted to address a meeting at the ,town ,hall4 ,but he was again returned for ,carnarvon ,boroughs2 and in the ensuing parliament he came still more to the front by his resistance to the ,education ,act of #aijb4 ,as the leader of the ,welsh party1 and one of the most dashing parliamentarians on the ,radical side1 his appointment to office when ,sir ,h4 ,campbell-,bannerman became premier at the end of #aije was generally expected2 but his elevation direct to the cabinet as president of the ,board of ,trade was somewhat of a surprise4 ,the responsibilities of administration have1 however1 often converted a political free-lance into a steady-going official1 and the ,unionist press did its best to encourage such a tendency by continual praise of the departmental action of the new minister4 ,his settlement of the railway dispute in #aijf was universally applauded2 and the bills he introduced and passed for reorganizing the port of ,london1 dealing with ,merchant ,shipping1 and enforcing the working in ,england of patents granted there1 and so increasing the employment of ,british labour1 were greeted with satisfaction by the tariff-reformers1 who congratulated themselves that a ,radical free-trader should thus throw over the policy of laisser faire4 ,the president of the ,board of ,trade was the chief success of the ministry1 and when ,mr ,asquith became premier in #aijh and promoted ,mr ,lloyd ,george to the chancellorship of the exchequer1 the appointment was well received even in the ,city of ,london4 ,for that year the budget was already settled1 and it was introduced by ,mr ,asquith himself1 the ex-chancellor2 but ,mr ,lloyd ,george earned golden opinions1 both at the ,treasury and in parliament1 by his industry and his handling of the ,finance ,bill1 especially important for its inclusion of ,old ,age ,pensions1 in the later stages4 ,it was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of the budget for #aiji-aiaj that opinion in financial circles showed the change which was afterwards to become so marked4 ,a considerable deficit1 of about #af1jjj1jjj1 was in prospect1 and the chancellor of the exchequer aroused misgivings by alluding in a speech to the difficulty he had in deciding what hen roost to rob4 ,the government had been losing ground in the country1 and ,mr ,lloyd ,george and ,mr ,winston ,churchill were conspicuously in alliance in advocating the use of the budget for introducing drastic reforms in regard to licensing and land1 which the resistance of the ,house of ,lords prevented the ,radical party from effecting by ordinary legislation4 ,the well-established doctrine that the ,house of ,lords could not amend1 though it might reject1 a money-bill1 coupled with the fact that it never had gone so far as to reject a budget1 was relied on by the extremists as dictating the obvious party tactics2 and before the year #aiji opened1 the possibility of the ,lords being driven to compel a dissolution by standing on their extreme rights as regards the financial provision for the year was already canvassed in political circles1 though it was hardly credited that the government would precipitate a constitutional crisis of such magnitude4 ,when ,mr ,lloyd ,george1 on the #bith of ,april1 introduced his budget1 its revolutionary character1 however1 created widespread dismay in the ,city and among the propertied classes4 ,in a very lengthy speech1 which had to be interrupted for half an hour while he recovered his voice1 he ended by describing it as a war budget against poverty1 which he hoped1 in the result1 would become as remote to the people of this country as the wolves which once infested its forests4 ,some of the original proposals1 which were much criticized1 were subsequently dropped1 including the permanent diversion of the ,old ,sinking ,fund to a ,national ,development ,fund 7created by a separate bill71 and a tax on ungotten minerals1 for which was substituted a tax on mineral rights4 ,but the main features of the budget were adhered to1 and eventually passed the ,house of ,commons on the #dth of ,november1 in spite of the persistent opposition of the scanty ,unionist minority4 ,apart from certain non-contentious provisions1 such as a tax on motorcars1 the main features of the measure were large increases in the spirit and tobacco duties1 license duties1 estate1 legacy and succession duties1 and income tax1 and an elaborate and novel system of duties on land-values 7increment duty1 reversion duty1 undeveloped land duty71 depending on the setting up of arrangements for valuation of a highly complicated kind4 ,the discussions on the budget entirely monopolized public attention for the year1 and while the measure was defended by ,mr ,lloyd ,george in parliament with much suavity1 and by ,mr ,asquith1 ,sir ,edward ,grey and ,mr ,haldane outside the ,house of ,commons with tact and moderation1 the feelings of its opponents were exasperated by a series of inflammatory public speeches at ,limehouse and elsewhere from the chancellor of the exchequer1 who took these opportunities to rouse the passions of the working-classes against the landed classes and the peers4 ,when the ,finance ,bill went up to the ,house of ,lords1 ,lord ,lansdowne gave notice that on the second reading he would move that this ,house is not justified in giving its consent to this bill until it has been submitted to the judgment of the country1 and on the last day of ,november this motion was carried by an overwhelming majority of peers4 ,the government passed a solemn resolution of protest in the ,house of ,commons and appealed to the country2 and the general election of ,january #aiaj took place amid unexampled excitement4 ,the ,unionists gained a hundred seats over their previous numbers1 but the constitutional issue undoubtedly helped the government to win a victory1 depending indeed solely on the votes of the ,labour members and ,irish ,nationalists1 which a year before had seemed improbable4 ,events had now made ,mr ,lloyd ,george and his financial policy the centre of the ,liberal party programme2 but party tactics for the moment prevented the ministry1 who remained in office1 from simply sending the budget up again to the ,lords and allowing them to pass it4 ,there was no majority in the ,commons for the budget as such1 since the ,irish ,nationalists only supported it as an engine for destroying the veto of the ,lords and thus preparing the way for ,irish ,home ,rule4 ,instead1 therefore1 of proceeding with the budget1 the government allowed the financial year to end without one1 and brought forward resolutions for curtailing the powers of the ,lords1 on which1 if rejected by them1 another appeal could be made to the people 7see ,,parliament74 ,hardly1 however1 had the battle been arrayed when the ,king's death in ,may upset all calculations4 ,an immediate continuance of hostilities between the two ,houses was impossible4 ,a truce was called1 and a conference arranged between four leaders from each side--,mr ,lloyd ,george being one--to consider whether compromise on the constitutional question was not feasible4 ,the budget for #aiji-aj went quietly through1 and before the ,august adjournment the chancellor introduced his budget for #aiaj-aa1 discussion being postponed till the autumn4 ,it imposed no new taxation1 and left matters precisely as they were4 7,h4 ,ch47 ,,lloyd',s1 an association of merchants1 shipowners1 underwriters1 and ship and insurance brokers1 having its headquarters in a suite of rooms in the north-east corner of the ,royal ,exchange1 ,london4 ,originally a mere gathering of merchants for business or gossip in a coffee-house kept by one ,edward ,lloyd in ,tower ,street1 ,london1 the earliest notice of which occurs in the ,london ,gazette of the #ahth of ,february #afhh1 this institution has gradually become one of the greatest organizations in the world in connexion with commerce4 ,the establishment existed in ,tower ,street up to #afib1 in which year it was removed by the proprietor to ,lombard ,street1 in the centre of that portion of the city most frequented by merchants of the highest class4 ,shortly after this event ,mr ,lloyd established a weekly newspaper furnishing commercial and shipping news1 in those days an undertaking of no small difficulty4 ,this paper took the name of ,lloyd's ,news1 and1 though its life was not long1 it was the precursor of the now ubiquitous ,lloyd's ,list1 the oldest existing paper1 the ,london ,gazette excepted4 ,in ,lombard ,street the business transacted at ,lloyd's coffee-house steadily grew1 but it does not appear that throughout the greater part of the #ahth century the merchants and underwriters frequenting the rooms were bound together by any rules1 or acted under any organization4 ,by and by1 however1 the increase of marine insurance business made a change of system and improved accommodation necessary1 and after finding a temporary resting-place in ,pope's ,head ,alley1 the underwriters and brokers settled in the ,royal ,exchange in ,march #aggd4 ,one of the first improvements in the mode of effecting marine insurance was the introduction of a printed form of policy4 ,hitherto various forms had been in use2 and1 to avoid numerous disputes the committee of ,lloyd's proposed a general form1 which was adopted by the members on the #abth of ,january #aggi1 and remains in use1 with a few slight alterations1 to this day4 ,the two most important events in the history of ,lloyd's during the #aith century were the reorganization of the association in #ahaa1 and the passing of an act in #ahga granting to ,lloyd's all the rights and privileges of a corporation sanctioned by parliament4 ,according to this act of incorporation1 the three main objects for which the society exists are--first1 the carrying out of the business of marine insurance2 secondly1 the protection of the interests of the members of the association2 and thirdly1 the collection1 publication and diffusion of intelligence and information with respect to shipping4 ,in the promotion of the last-named object an intelligence department has been developed which for wideness of range and efficient working has no parallel among private enterprises4 ,by ,lloyd's ,signal ,station ,act #ahhh1 powers were conferred on ,lloyd's to establish signal stations with telegraphic communications1 and by the ,derelict ,vessels 7,report7 ,act #ahif1 masters of ,british ships are required to give notice to ,lloyd's agents of derelict vessels1 which information is published by ,lloyd's4 ,the rooms at ,lloyd's are available only to subscribers and members4 ,the former pay an annual subscription of five guineas without entrance fee1 but have no voice in the management of the institution4 ,the latter consist of non-underwriting members1 who pay an entrance fee of twelve guineas1 and of underwriting members who pay a fee of #ajj4 ,underwriting members are also required to deposit securities to the value of #ejjj to #aj1jjj1 according to circumstances1 as a guarantee for their engagements4 ,the management of the establishment is delegated by the members to certain of their number selected as a committee for managing the affairs of ,lloyd's4 ,with this body lies the appointment of all the officials and agents of the institution1 the daily routine of duty being entrusted to a secretary and a large staff of clerks and other assistants4 ,the mode employed in effecting an insurance at ,lloyd's is simple4 ,the business is done entirely by brokers1 who write upon a slip of paper the name of the ship and shipmaster1 the nature of the voyage1 the subject to be insured1 and the amount at which it is valued4 ,if the risk is accepted1 each underwriter subscribes his name and the amount he agrees to take or underwrite1 the insurance being effected as soon as the total value is made up4 ,see ,f4 ,martin1 ,history of ,lloyd's and of ,marine ,insurance in ,great ,britain 7#ahgf74 ,,llwyd1 ,,edward 7#affj-agji71 ,british naturalist and antiquary1 was born in ,cardiganshire in #affj4 ,he was educated at ,jesus ,college1 ,oxford1 but did not graduate2 he received the degree of ,m4,a4 however in #agja4 ,in #afij1 after serving for six years as assistant1 he succeeded ,r4 ,plot as keeper of the ,ashmolean museum1 a position which he retained until #agji4 ,in #afii he published ,lithophylacii ,britannici ,ichnographia1 in which he described and figured various fossils1 personally collected or received from his friends1 and these were arranged in cabinets in the museum4 ,they were obtained from many parts of ,england1 but mostly from the neighbourhood of ,oxford4 ,a second edition was prepared by ,llwyd1 but not published until #agfj4 ,he issued in #agjg the first volume of ,archaeologia ,britannica 7afterwards discontinued74 ,he was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #agjh4 ,he died at ,oxford on the #cjth of ,june #agji4 ,,loach4 ,the fish known as loaches 7,cobitinae7 form a very distinct subfamily of the ,cyprinidae1 and are even regarded by some authors as constituting a family4 ,characters3 ,barbels1 three to six pairs2 pharyngeal teeth in one row1 in moderate number2 anterior part of the air-bladder divided into a right and left chamber1 separated by a constriction1 and enclosed in a bony capsule1 the posterior part free or absent4 ,they are more or less elongate in form1 often eel-shaped1 and naked or covered with minute scales4 ,most of the species are small1 the largest known measuring #ab 7the ,european ,misgurnus fossilis71 #ac 7the ,chinese ,botia variegata71 or #ad in4 7the ,central ,asian ,nemachilus siluroides74 ,they mostly live in small streams and ponds1 and many are mountain forms4 ,they are almost entirely confined to ,europe and ,asia1 but one species 7,nemachilus abyssinicus7 has recently been discovered in ,abyssinia4 ,about #abj species are known1 mostly from ,central and ,south-,eastern ,asia4 ,only two species occur in ,great ,britain3 the common ,nemachilus barbatulus and the rarer and more local ,cobitis taenia4 ,the latter extends across ,europe and ,asia to ,japan4 ,many of these fishes delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds1 in which they move like eels4 ,in some cases the branchial respiration appears to be insufficient1 and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing organ4 ,the air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydrostatic function and become subservient to a sensory organ1 its outer exposed surface being connected with the skin by a meatus between the bands of muscle1 and conveying the thermo-barometrical impressions to the auditory nerves4 ,loaches are known in some parts of ,germany as ,wetterfisch4 ,,load2 ,,lode4 ,the ,o4,e4 ld1 from which both these words are derived1 meant way1 journey1 conveyance1 and is cognate with ,ger4 ,leite4 ,the ,teutonic root is also seen in the ,o4 ,teut4 laidjan1 ,ger4 leiten1 from which comes to lead4 ,the meanings of the word have been influenced by a supposed connexion with lade1 ,o4,e4 hladan1 a word common to many old branches of ,teutonic languages in the sense of to place1 but used in ,english principally of the placing of cargo in a ship1 hence bill of lading1 and of emptying liquor or fluid out of one vessel into another2 it is from the word in this sense that is derived ladle1 a large spoon or cup-like pan with a long handle4 ,the two words1 though etymologically one1 have been differentiated in meaning1 the influence of the connexion with lade being more marked in load than in lode1 a vein of metal ore1 in which the original meaning of way is clearly marked4 ,a load was originally a carriage1 and its ,latin equivalent in the ,promptorium ,parvulorum is vectura4 ,from that it passed to that which is laid on an animal or vehicle1 and so1 as an amount usually carried1 the word was used of a specific quantity of anything1 a unit of weight1 varying with the locality and the commodity4 ,a load of wheat #dj bushels1 of hay #cf trusses4 ,other meanings of load are3 in electricity1 the power which an engine or dynamo has to furnish2 and in engineering1 the weight to be supported by a structure1 the permanent load being the weight of the structure itself1 the external load that of anything which may be placed upon it4 ,,loaf1 properly the mass of bread made at one baking1 hence the smaller portions into which the bread is divided for retailing4 ,these are of uniform size 7see ,,baking7 and are named according to shape 7tin loaf1 cottage loaf1 c471 weight 7quartern loaf1 c471 or quality of flour 7brown loaf1 c474 ,loaf1 ,o4,e4 hlf1 is a word common to ,teutonic languages2 cf4 ,ger4 ,laib1 or ,leib1 ,dan4 lev1 ,goth1 hlaifs2 similar words with the same meaning are found in ,russian1 ,finnish and ,lettish1 but these may have been adapted from ,teutonic4 ,the ultimate origin is unknown1 and it is uncertain whether bread 7q4v47 or loaf is the earlier in usage4 ,the ,o4,e4 hlf is seen in ,lammas and in lord1 i4e4 hlaford for hlafweard1 the loaf-keeper1 or bread-warder2 cf4 the ,o4,e4 word for a household servant hlf-ta1 loaf-eater4 ,the ,late ,lat4 companio1 one who shares1 panis1 bread1 ,eng4 companion1 was probably an adaptation of the ,goth1 gahlaiba1 ,o4,h4 ,ger4 gileipo1 messmate1 comrade4 ,the word loaf is also used in sugar manufacture1 and is applied to sugar shaped in a mass like a cone1 a sugar-loaf1 and to the small knobs into which refined sugar is cut1 or loaf-sugar4 ,the etymology of the verb to loaf1 i4e4 to idle1 lounge about1 and the substantive loafer1 an idler1 a lazy vagabond1 has been much discussed4 ,r4 ,h4 ,dana 7,two ,years before the ,mast1 #ahdj7 called the word a newly invented ,yankee word4 ,j4 ,r4 ,lowell 7,biglow ,papers1 #bnd series1 ,introd47 explains it as ,german in origin1 and connects it with laufen1 to run1 and states that the dialectical form lofen is used in the sense of saunter up and down4 ,this explanation has been generally accepted4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary rejects it1 however1 and states that laufen is not used in this sense1 but points out that the ,german ,landlufer1 the ,english obsolete word landlouper1 or landloper1 one who wanders about the country1 a vagrant or vagabond1 has a resemblance in meaning4 ,j4 ,s4 ,farmer and ,w4 ,e4 ,henley's ,dictionary of ,slang and its ,analogues gives as ,french synonyms of loafer1 chevalier de la loupe and loupeur4 ,,loam 7,o4,e4 lm2 the word appears in ,dut4 leem and ,ger4 ,lehm2 the ultimate origin is the root lai-1 meaning to be sticky1 which is seen in the cognate lime1 ,lat4 limus1 mud1 clay71 a fertile soil composed of a mixture of sand1 clay1 and decomposed vegetable matter1 the quantity of sand being sufficient to prevent the clay massing together4 ,the word is also used of a mixture of sand1 clay and straw1 used for making casting-moulds and bricks1 and for plastering walls1 c4 7see ,,soil74 ,,loan 7adapted from the ,scandinavian form of a word common to ,teutonic languages1 cf4 ,swed4 ln1 ,icel4 ln1 ,dut4 leen2 the ,o4,e4 lan appears in lend1 the ultimate source is seen in the root of ,gr4 ,greek3 leipein and ,lat4 linquere1 to leave71 that which is lent2 a sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or indefinite period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned1 usually at a specified rate of interest 7see ,,usury and ,,money-,,lending74 ,for public loans see ,,finance1 ,,national ,,debt1 and the various sections on finance under the names of the various countries4 ,,loanda 7,so ,paulo de ,loanda71 a seaport of ,west ,africa1 capital of the ,portuguese province of ,angola1 situated in #h #dh ,s41 #ac #g ,e41 on a bay between the rivers ,bango and ,kwanza4 ,the bay1 protected from the surf by a long narrow island of sand1 is backed by a low sandy cliff which at its southern end sweeps out with a sharp curve and terminates in a bold point crowned by ,fort ,san ,miguel4 ,the depth of water at the entrance to the bay is #bj fathoms or more4 ,the bay has silted up considerably1 but there is a good anchorage about #a m4 from the shore in #g to #ad fathoms1 besides cranage accommodation and a floating dock4 ,vessels discharge into lighters1 and are rarely delayed on account of the weather4 ,a part of the town lies on the foreshore1 but the more important buildings--the government offices1 the governor's residence1 the palace of the bishop of ,angola1 and the hospital--are situated on higher ground4 ,most of the ,european houses are large stone buildings of one storey with red tile roofs4 ,loanda possesses a meteorological observatory1 public garden1 tramways1 gas-works1 statues to ,salvador ,correia de ,s1 who wrested ,angola from the ,dutch1 and to ,pedro ,alexandrino1 a former governor1 and is the starting-point of the railway to ,ambaca and ,malanje4 ,loanda was founded in #aegf1 and except between #afdj and #afdh1 when it was occupied by the ,dutch1 has always been in ,portuguese possession4 ,it was for over two centuries the chief centre of the slave trade between ,portuguese ,west ,africa and ,brazil4 ,during that time the traffic of the port was of no small account1 and after a period of great depression consequent on the suppression of that trade1 more legitimate commerce was developed4 ,there is a regular service of steamers between the port and ,lisbon1 ,liverpool and ,hamburg4 ,the town has some #ae1jjj inhabitants1 including a larger ,european population than any other place on the west coast of ,africa4 ,it is connected by submarine cables with ,europe and ,south ,africa4 ,fully half the imports and export trade of ,angola 7q4v47 passes through ,loanda4 ,,loango1 a region on the west coast of ,africa1 extending from the mouth of the ,congo river in #f ,s4 northwards through about two degrees4 ,at one time included in the kingdom of ,congo 7see ,,angola1 ,history71 ,loango became independent about the close of the #afth century1 and was still of considerable importance in the middle of the #ahth century4 ,buali1 the capital1 was situated on the banks of a small river not far from the port of ,loango1 where were several ,european factories4 ,the country afterwards became divided into a large number of petty states1 while ,portugal and ,france exercised an intermittent sovereignty over the coast4 ,here the slave trade was longer maintained than anywhere else on the ,west ,african seaboard2 since its extirpation1 palm oil and india-rubber have been the main objects of commerce4 ,the ,loango coast is now divided between ,french ,congo and the ,portuguese district of ,kabinda 7see those articles74 ,the natives1 mainly members of the ,ba-,kongo group of ,bantu negroes1 and often called ,ba-,fiot1 are in general well-built1 strongly dolichocephalous and very thick of skull1 the skin of various shades of warm brown with the faintest suggestion of purple4 ,baldness is unknown1 and many of the men wear beards4 ,physical deformity is extremely rare4 ,in religious beliefs and in the use of fetishes they resemble the negroes of ,upper ,guinea4 ,,lobachevskiy1 ,,nicolas ,,ivanovich 7#agic-ahef71 ,russian mathematician1 was born at ,makariev1 ,nizhniy-,novgorod1 on the #bnd of ,november 7,n4,s47 #agic4 ,his father died about #ahjj1 and his mother1 who was left in poor circumstances1 removed to ,kazan with her three sons4 ,in #ahjg ,nicolas1 the second boy1 entered as a student in the ,university of ,kazan1 then recently established4 ,five years later1 having completed the curriculum1 he began to take part in the teaching1 becoming assistant professor in #ahad and extraordinary professor two years afterwards4 ,in #ahbc he succeeded to the ordinary professorship of mathematics1 and retained the chair until about #ahdf1 when he seems to have fallen into official disfavour4 ,at that time his connexion with the university to which he had devoted his life practically came to an end1 except that in #ahee1 at the celebration of his jubilee1 he brought it as a last tribute his ,pangomtrie1 in which he summarized the results of his geometrical studies4 ,this work was translated into ,german by ,h4 ,liebmann in #aijb4 ,he died at ,kazan on the #bdth of ,february 7,n4,s47 #ahef4 ,lobachevskiy was one of the first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the fundamental axioms of geometry1 and he thus became a pioneer of the modern geometries which deal with space other than as treated by ,euclid4 ,his first contribution to non-,euclidian geometry is believed to have been given in a lecture at ,kazan in #ahbf1 but the subject is treated in many of his subsequent memoirs1 among which may be mentioned the ,geometrische ,untersuchungen zur ,theorie der ,parallellinien 7,berlin1 #ahdj1 and a new edition in #ahhg71 and the ,pangomtrie already referred to1 which in the subtitle is described as a prcis of geometry founded on a general and rigorous theory of parallels4 7,see ,,geometry1 ,non-,euclidean1 and ,,geometry1 ,axioms of47 ,in addition to his geometrical studies1 he made various contributions to other branches of mathematical science1 among them being an elaborate treatise on algebra 7,kazan1 #ahcd74 ,besides being a geometer of power and originality1 ,lobachevskiy was an excellent man of business4 ,under his administration the ,university of ,kazan prospered as it had never done before2 and he not only organized the teaching staff to a high degree of efficiency1 but arranged and enriched its library1 furnished instruments for its observatory1 collected specimens for its museums and provided it with proper buildings4 ,in order to be able to supervise the erection of the last1 he studied architecture1 with such effect1 it is said1 that he was able to carry out the plans at a cost considerably below the original estimates4 ,see ,f4 ,engel1 ,n4 ,i4 ,lobatchewsky 7,leipzig1 #ahii74 ,,lobanov-,,rostovski1 ,,alexis ,,borisovich1 ,,prince 7#ahbd-ahif71 ,russian statesman1 was born on the #cjth of ,december #ahbd1 and educated1 like ,prince ,gorchakov and so many other eminent ,russians1 at the lyceum of ,tsarskoe ,selo4 ,at the age of twenty he entered the diplomatic service1 and became minister at ,constantinople in #ahei4 ,in #ahfc a regrettable incident in his private life made him retire temporarily from the public service1 but four years later he re-entered it and served for ten years as adlatus to the minister of the interior4 ,at the close of the ,russo-,turkish war in #ahgh he was selected by the emperor to fill the post of ambassador at ,constantinople1 and for more than a year he carried out with great ability the policy of his government1 which aimed at re-establishing tranquillity in the ,eastern ,question1 after the disturbances produced by the reckless action of his predecessor1 ,count ,ignatiev4 ,in #ahgi he was transferred to ,london1 and in #ahhb to ,vienna2 and in ,march #ahie he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to ,m4 de ,giers4 ,in this position he displayed much of the caution of his predecessor1 but adopted a more energetic policy in ,european affairs generally and especially in the ,balkan ,peninsula4 ,at the time of his appointment the attitude of the ,russian government towards the ,slav nationalities had been for several years one of extreme reserve1 and he had seemed as ambassador to sympathize with this attitude4 ,but as soon as he became minister of foreign affairs1 ,russian influence in the ,balkan ,peninsula suddenly revived4 ,servia received financial assistance2 a large consignment of arms was sent openly from ,st ,petersburg to the prince of ,montenegro2 ,prince ,ferdinand of ,bulgaria became ostensibly reconciled with the ,russian emperor1 and his son ,boris was received into the ,eastern ,orthodox ,church2 the ,russian embassy at ,constantinople tried to bring about a reconciliation between the ,bulgarian exarch and the oecumenical patriarch2 ,bulgarians and ,servians professed1 at the bidding of ,russia1 to lay aside their mutual hostility4 ,all this seemed to foreshadow the creation of a ,balkan confederation hostile to ,turkey1 and the sultan had reason to feel alarmed4 ,in reality ,prince ,lobanov was merely trying to establish a strong ,russian hegemony among these nationalities1 and he had not the slightest intention of provoking a new crisis in the ,eastern ,question so long as the general ,european situation did not afford ,russia a convenient opportunity for solving it in her own interest without serious intervention from other powers4 ,meanwhile he considered that the integrity and independence of the ,ottoman empire must be maintained so far as these other powers were concerned4 ,accordingly1 when ,lord ,salisbury proposed energetic action to protect the ,armenians1 the cabinet of ,st ,petersburg suddenly assumed the rle of protector of the sultan and vetoed the proposal4 ,at the same time efforts were made to weaken the ,triple ,alliance1 the principal instrument employed being the entente with ,france1 which ,prince ,lobanov helped to convert into a formal alliance between the two powers4 ,in the ,far ,east he was not less active1 and became the protector of ,china in the same sense as he had shown himself the protector of ,turkey4 ,japan was compelled to give up her conquests on the ,chinese mainland1 so as not to interfere with the future action of ,russia in ,manchuria1 and the financial and other schemes for increasing ,russian influence in that part of the world were vigorously supported4 ,all this activity1 though combined with a haughty tone towards foreign governments and diplomatists1 did not produce much general apprehension1 probably because there was a widespread conviction that he desired to maintain peace1 and that his great ability and strength of character would enable him to control the dangerous forces which he boldly set in motion4 ,however this may be1 before he had time to mature his schemes1 and when he had been the director of ,russian policy for only eighteen months1 he died suddenly of heart disease when travelling with the emperor on the #cjth of ,august #ahif4 ,personally ,prince ,lobanov was a grand seigneur of the ,russian type1 proud of being descended from the independent princes of ,rostov1 and at the same time an amiable man of wide culture1 deeply versed in ,russian history and genealogy1 and perhaps the first authority of his time in all that related to the reign of the emperor ,paul4 7,d4 ,m4 ,w47 ,l,,bau1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,saxony1 on the ,lbau water1 #ab m4 ,s4,e4 of the town of ,bautzen1 on the ,dresden-,grlitz railway4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #aj1fhc4 ,there is a spa1 ,knig ,albert-,bad1 largely frequented during the summer season4 ,the town has agricultural implement1 pianoforte1 sugar1 machine-building and button works1 and trade in grain1 yarn1 linen and stockings4 ,other industries are spinning1 weaving1 dyeing1 bleaching and brewing4 ,lbau is first mentioned as a town in #abba2 it received civic rights early in the #adth century and1 in #acdf1 became one of the six allied towns of ,lusatia4 ,it suffered severely during the ,hussite war and was deprived of its rights in #aedg4 ,see ,bergmann1 ,geschichte der ,oberlausitzer ,sechsstadt ,lbau 7,bischofswerda1 #ahif72 and ,kretschmer1 ,die ,stadl ,lbau 7,chemnitz1 #aijd74 ,,lobby1 a corridor or passage1 also any apartment serving as an ante-room1 waiting room or entrance hall in a building4 ,the ,med4 ,lat4 lobia1 laubia or lobium1 from which the word was directly adapted1 was used in the sense of a cloister1 gallery or covered place for walking attached to a house1 as defined by ,du ,cange 7,gloss4 ,med4 et ,inf4 ,lat41 s4v4 ,lobia71 porticus operta ad spatiandum idonea1 aedibus adjuncta4 ,the ,french form of lobia was loge1 cf4 ,ital4 loggia1 and this gave the ,eng4 lodge1 which is thus a doublet of lobby4 ,the ultimate derivation is given under ,,lodge4 ,other familiar uses of the term lobby are its application 7#a7 to the entrance hall of a parliament house1 and 7#b7 to the two corridors known as division-lobbies1 into which the members of the ,house of ,commons and other legislative bodies pass on a division1 their votes being recorded according to which lobby1 aye or no1 they enter4 ,the entrance lobby to a legislative building is open to the public1 and thus is a convenient place for interviews between members and their constituents or with representatives of public bodies1 associations and interests1 and the press4 ,the influence and pressure thus brought to bear upon members of legislative bodies has given rise to the use of to lobby1 lobbying1 lobbyist1 c41 with this special significance4 ,the practice1 though not unknown in the ,british parliament1 is most prevalent in the ,united ,states of ,america1 where the use of the term first arose 7see below74 ,,lobbying1 in ,america1 a general term used to designate the efforts of persons who are not members of a legislative body to influence the course of legislation4 ,in addition to the large number of ,american private bills which are constantly being introduced in ,congress and the various state legislatures1 there are many general measures1 such as proposed changes in the tariff or in the railway or banking laws1 which seriously affect special interests4 ,the people who are most intimately concerned naturally have a right to appear before the legislature or its representative1 the committee in charge of the bill1 and present their side of the case4 ,lobbying in this sense is legitimate1 and may almost be regarded as a necessity4 ,unfortunately1 however1 all lobbying is not of this innocent character4 ,the great industrial corporations1 insurance companies1 and railway and traction monopolies which have developed in comparatively recent years are constantly in need of legislative favours2 they are also compelled to protect themselves against legislation which is unreasonably severe1 and against what are known in the slang of politics as strikes or hold-ups4#a ,in order that these objects may be accomplished there are kept at ,washington and at the various state capitals paid agents whose influence is so well recognized that they are popularly called the third house4 ,methods of the most reprehensible kind have often been employed by them4 ,attempts have been made to remedy the evil by constitutional prohibition1 by statute law and by the action of the governor of the state supported by public opinion4 ,improper lobbying has been declared a felony in ,california1 ,georgia1 ,utah1 ,tennessee1 ,oregon1 ,montana and ,arizona1 and the constitutions of practically all of the states impose restrictions upon the enactment of special and private legislation4 ,the ,massachusetts anti-lobbying act of #ahij1 which has served as a model for the legislation of ,maryland 7#aijj71 ,wisconsin 7#aije7 and a few of the other states1 is based upon the publicity principle4 ,counsel and other legislative agents must register with the sergeant-at-arms giving the names and addresses of their employers and the date1 term and character of their employment4 ,in #aijg alone laws regulating lobbying were passed in nine states--,alabama1 ,connecticut1 ,florida1 ,idaho1 ,missouri1 ,nebraska1 ,north ,dakota1 ,south ,dakota and ,texas4 ,see ,james ,bryce1 ,american ,commonwealth 7,new ,york1 ed4 #ahhi71 i4 #fgc-fgh2 ,paul ,s4 ,reinsch1 ,american ,legislatures and ,legislative ,methods 7,new ,york1 #aijg71 chaps4 viii41 ix42 ,margaret ,a4 ,schaffner1 ,lobbying1 in ,wisconsin ,comparative ,legislation ,bulletins1 ,no4 #b2 and ,g4 ,m4 ,gregory1 ,the ,corrupt ,use of ,money in ,politics and ,laws for its ,prevention 7,madison1 ,wis41 #ahic74 ,,footnote3 #a ,bills introduced for purposes of blackmail4 ,,lobe1 any round projecting part1 specifically the lower part of the external ear1 one of the parts into which the liver is divided1 also one of several parts of the brain1 divided by marked fissures 7see ,,liver and ,,brain74 ,the ,greek ,greek3 lobos1 from which lobe is derived1 was applied to the lobe of the ear and of the liver1 and to the pod of a leguminous plant4 ,,lobeck1 ,,christian ,,august 7#agha-ahfj71 ,german classical scholar1 was born at ,naumburg on the #eth of ,june #agha4 ,after having studied at ,jena and ,leipzig1 he settled at ,wittenberg in #ahjb as privat-docent1 and in #ahaj was appointed to a professorship in the university4 ,four years later1 he accepted the chair of rhetoric and ancient literature at ,knigsberg1 which he occupied till within two years of his death 7#beth of ,august #ahfj74 ,his literary activities were devoted to the history of ,greek religion and to the ,greek language and literature4 ,his greatest work1 ,aglaophamus 7#ahbi71 is still valuable to students4 ,in this he maintains1 against the views put forward by ,g4 ,f4 ,creuzer in his ,symbolik 7#ahaj-ahbc71 that the religion of the ,greek mysteries 7especially those of ,eleusis7 did not essentially differ from the national religion2 that it was not esoteric2 that the priests as such neither taught nor possessed any higher knowledge of ,god2 that the ,oriental elements were a later importation4 ,his edition of the ,ajax of ,sophocles 7#ahji7 had gained him the reputation of a sound scholar and critic2 his ,phrynichus 7#ahbj7 and ,paralipomena grammaticae graecae 7#ahcg7 exhibit the widest acquaintance with ,greek literature4 ,he had little sympathy with comparative philology1 holding that it needed a lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language4 ,see the article by ,l4 ,friedlnder in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie2 ,c4 ,bursian's ,geschichte der klassischen ,philologie in ,deutschland 7#ahhc72 ,lehrs1 ,populre ,aufstze aus dem ,altertum 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahge72 ,ludwich1 ,ausgewhlte ,briefe von und an ,chr4 ,aug4 ,lobeck und ,k4 ,lehrs 7#ahid72 also ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys1 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 i4 7#aijh71 #ajc4 ,,lobeira1 ,,jo,o 7c4 #abcc-abhe71 a ,portuguese troubadour of the time of ,king ,alphonso ,,iii41 who is supposed to have been the first to reduce into prose the story of ,amadis de ,gaula 7q4v474 ,d4 ,carolina ,michaelis de ,vasconcellos1 in her masterly edition of the ,cancioneiro de ,ajuda 7,halle1 #aijd1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ebc-ebd71 gives some biographical notes on ,joo ,lobeira1 who is represented in the ,colocci ,brancuti ,canzoniere 7,halle1 #ahhj7 by five poems 7,nos4 #bcj-bce74 ,in number #bcj1 ,joo ,lobeira uses the same ritournelle that ,oriana sings in ,amadis de ,gaula1 and this has led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of the ,portuguese case to have been the author of the romance1 in preference to ,vasco de ,lobeira1 to whom the prose original was formerly ascribed4 ,the folklorist ,a4 ,thomas ,pires 7in his ,vasco de ,lobeira1 ,elvas1 #aije71 following the old tradition1 would identify the novelist with a man of that name who flourished in ,elvas at the close of the #adth and beginning of the #aeth century1 but the documents he publishes contain no reference to this ,lobeira being a man of letters4 ,,lobelia1 the typical genus of the tribe ,lobelieae1 of the order ,campanulaceae1 named after ,matthias de ,lobel1 a native of ,lille1 botanist and physician to ,james ,i4 ,it numbers about two hundred species1 natives of nearly all the temperate and warmer regions of the world1 excepting central and eastern ,europe as well as western ,asia4 ,they are annual or perennial herbs or under-shrubs1 rarely shrubby2 remarkable arborescent forms are the tree-lobelias found at high elevations on the mountains of tropical ,africa4 ,two species are ,british1 ,l4 ,dortmanna 7named by ,linnaeus after ,dortmann1 a ,dutch druggist71 which occurs in gravelly mountain lakes2 and ,l4 urens1 which is only found on heaths1 c41 in ,dorset and ,cornwall4 ,the genus is distinguished from ,campanula by the irregular corona and completely united anthers1 and by the excessive acridity of the milky juice4 ,the species earliest described and figured appears to be ,l4 cardinalis1 under the name ,trachelium americanum sive cardinalis planta1 the rich crimson cardinal's flower2 ,parkinson 7,paradisus1 #afbi1 p4 #ceg7 says1 it groweth neere the riuer of ,canada1 where the ,french plantation in ,america is seated4 ,it is a native of the eastern ,united ,states4 ,this and several other species are in cultivation as ornamental garden plants1 e4g4 the dwarf blue ,l4 ,erinus1 from the ,cape1 which1 with its numerous varieties1 forms a familiar bedding plant4 ,l4 splendens and ,l4 fulgens1 growing from #a to #b ft4 high1 from ,mexico1 have scarlet flowers2 ,l4 ,tupa1 a ,chilean perennial #f to #h ft4 high1 has reddish or scarlet flowers2 ,l4 tenuior with blue flowers is a recent acquisition to the greenhouse section1 while ,l4 amaena1 from ,north ,america1 as well as ,l4 syphilitica and its hybrids1 from ,virginia1 have also blue flowers4 ,the last-named was introduced in #affe4 ,the hybrids raised by crossing cardinalis1 fulgens1 splendens and syphilitica1 constitute a fine group of fairly hardy and showy garden plants4 ,queen ,victoria is a well-known variety1 but there are now many others4 ,the ,lobelia is familiar in gardens under two very different forms1 that of the dwarf-tufted plants used for summer bedding1 and that of the tall showy perennials4 ,of the former the best type is ,l4 ,erinus1 growing from #d to #f in4 high1 with many slender stems1 bearing through a long period a profusion of small but bright blue two-lipped flowers4 ,the variety speciosa offers the best strain of the dwarf lobelias2 but the varieties are being constantly superseded by new sorts4 ,a good variety will reproduce itself sufficiently true from seed for ordinary flower borders1 but to secure exact uniformity it is necessary to propagate from cuttings4 ,the herbaceous lobelias1 of which ,l4 fulgens may be taken as the type1 may be called hardy except in so far as they suffer from damp in winter2 they throw up a series of short rosette-like suckers round the base of the old flowering stem1 and these sometimes1 despite all the care taken of them1 rot off during winter4 ,the roots should either be taken up in autumn1 and planted closely side by side in boxes of dry earth or ashes1 these being set for the time they are dormant either in a cold frame or in any airy place in the greenhouse2 or they may be left in the ground1 in which case a brick or two should be put beside the plants1 some coal ashes being first placed round them1 and slates to protect the plants being laid over the bricks1 one end resting on the earth beyond4 ,about ,february they should be placed in a warm pit1 and after a few days shaken out and the suckers parted1 and potted singly into small pots of light rich earth4 ,after being kept in the forcing pit until well established1 they should be moved to a more airy greenhouse pit1 and eventually to a cold frame preparatory to planting out4 ,in the more favoured parts of the ,united ,kingdom it is unnecessary to go to this trouble1 as the plants are perfectly hardy2 even in the suburbs of ,london they live for several years without protection except in very severe winters4 ,they should have a loamy soil1 well enriched with manure2 and require copious waterings when they start into free growth4 ,they may be raised from seeds1 which1 being very fine1 require to be sown carefully2 but they do not flower usually till the second year unless they are sown very early in heat4 ,the species ,lobelia inflata1 the ,indian tobacco of ,north ,america1 is used in medicine1 the entire herb1 dried and in flower1 being employed4 ,the species derives its specific name from its characteristic inflated capsules4 ,it is somewhat irritant to the nostrils1 and is possessed of a burning1 acrid taste4 ,the chief constituent is a volatile liquid alkaloid 7cf4 nicotine7 named lobeline1 which occurs to the extent of about #cj 4 ,this is a very pungent body1 with a tobacco-like odour4 ,it occurs in combination with lobelic acid and forms solid crystalline salts4 ,the single preparation of this plant in the ,british ,pharmacopeia is the ,tinctura ,lobeliae ,ethereae1 composed of five parts of spirits of ether to one of lobelia4 ,the dose is #e to #ae minims4 ,the ether is employed in order to add to the efficacy of the drug in asthma1 but a simple alcoholic tincture would be really preferable4 ,lobelia has certain pharmacological resemblances to tobacco4 ,it has no action upon the unbroken skin1 but may be absorbed by it under suitable conditions4 ,taken internally in small doses1 e4g4 #e minims of the tincture1 it stimulates the peristaltic movements of the coecum and colon4 ,in large doses it is a powerful gastrointestinal irritant1 closely resembling tobacco1 and causing giddiness1 headache1 nausea1 vomiting1 purging and extreme prostration1 with clammy sweats and faltering rapid pulse4 ,its action on the circulation is very decided4 ,the cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves are paralysed1 the pulse being thus accelerated by loss of the normal inhibitory influence1 and the blood-vessels being relaxed owing to paresis of the vasomotor centre4 ,the blood-pressure thus falls very markedly4 ,the respiratory centre is similarly depressed1 death ensuing from this action4 ,lobelia is thus a typical respiratory poison4 ,in less than toxic doses the motor terminals of the vagi in the bronchi and bronchioles are paralysed1 thus causing relaxation of the bronchial muscles4 ,it is doubtful whether lobelia affects the cerebrum directly4 ,it is excreted by the kidneys and the skin1 both of which it stimulates in its passage4 ,in general terms the drug may be said to stimulate non-striped muscular fibres in small1 and paralyse them in toxic doses4 ,five minims of the tincture may be usefully prescribed to be taken night and morning in chronic constipation due to inertia of the lower part of the alimentary canal4 ,in spasmodic 7neurotic7 asthma1 and also in bronchitis accompanied by asthmatic spasm of the bronchioles1 the tincture may be given in comparatively large doses 7e4g4 one drachm7 every fifteen minutes until nausea is produced4 ,thereafter1 whether successful or not in relieving the spasm1 the administration of the drug must be stopped4 ,,lobenstein1 a town of ,germany1 in the principality of ,reuss1 on the ,lemnitz1 situated in a pleasant and fertile country1 #be m4 ,n4,w4 from ,hof by railway4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #biij4 ,the town1 grouped round a rock1 upon which stand the ruins of the old castle1 is exceedingly picturesque4 ,it contains a spacious parish church1 a palace1 until #ahbd the residence of the princes of ,reuss-,lobenstein-,elersdorf1 and a hydropathic establishment4 ,the manufactures include dyeing1 brewing and cigar-making4 ,see ,zedler and ,schott1 ,fhrer durch ,lobenstein und ,umgebung 7#bnd ed41 ,lobenstein1 #aijc74 ,,lobo1 ,,francisco ,,rodrigues 78#aege-8afbg71 ,portuguese bucolic writer1 a lineal descendant in the family of letters of ,bernardim ,ribeiro and ,christovam ,falco4 ,all we know of his life is that he was born of rich and noble parents at ,leiria1 and lived at ease in its picturesque neighbourhood1 reading philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds and shepherdesses by the rivers ,liz and ,lena4 ,he studied at the university of ,coimbra and took the degree of licentiate about #afjj4 ,he visited ,lisbon from time to time1 and tradition has it that he died by drowning on his way thither as he was descending the ,tagus from ,santarem4 ,though his first book1 a little volume of verses 7,romances7 published in #aeif1 and his last1 a rhymed welcome to ,king ,philip ,,iii41 published in #afbc1 are written in ,spanish1 he composed his eclogues and prose pastorals entirely in ,portuguese1 and thereby did a rare service to his country at a time when1 owing to the ,spanish domination1 ,castilian was the language preferred by polite society and by men of letters4 ,his ,primavera1 a book that may be compared to the ,diana of ,jorge de ,montemr 7,montemayor71 appeared in #afja1 its second part1 the ,pastor ,peregrino1 in #afjh1 and its third1 the ,desenganado1 in #afad4 ,the dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes without plan1 thread or ideas1 is relieved by charming and ingenious pastoral songs named serranilhas4 ,his eclogues in endecasyllables are an echo of those of ,camoens1 but like his other verses they are inferior to his redondilhas1 which show the traditional fount of his inspiration4 ,in his ,corte na ,aldeia 7#afai71 a man of letters1 a young nobleman1 a student and an old man of easy means1 beguile the winter evenings at ,cintra by a series of philosophic and literary discussions in dialogue which may still be read with pleasure4 ,lobo is also the author of an insipid epic in twenty cantos in ottava rima on the ,constable ,d4 ,nuno ,alvares ,pereira1 the hero of the war of independence against ,spain at the end of the #adth century4 ,the characteristics of his prose style are harmony1 purity and elegance1 and he ranks as one of ,portugal's leading writers4 ,a disciple of the ,italian school1 his verses are yet free from imitations of classical models1 his descriptions of natural scenery are unsurpassed in the ,portuguese language1 and generally his writings strike a true note and show a sincerity that was rare at the time4 ,their popularity may be seen by the fact that the ,primavera went through seven editions in the #agth century and nine in all1 a large number for so limited a market as that of ,portugal1 while six editions exist of the ,pastor ,peregrino and four of the epic poem4 ,an edition of his collected works was published in one volume in ,lisbon in #agbc1 and another in four volumes1 but less complete1 appeared there in #aggd4 ,see ,costa e ,silva1 ,ensaio biographico critico1 v4 #e-aab1 for a critical examination of ,lobo's writings2 also ,bouterwek's ,history of ,portuguese ,literature4 7,e4 ,pr47 ,,lobo1 ,,jeronimo 7#aeic-afgh71 ,jesuit missionary1 was born in ,lisbon1 and entered the ,order of ,jesus at the age of sixteen4 ,in #afba he was ordered as a missionary to ,india1 and in #afbb he arrived at ,goa4 ,with the intention of proceeding to ,abyssinia1 whose ,negus 7emperor7 ,segued had been converted to ,roman ,catholicism by ,pedro ,paez1 he left ,india in #afbd4 ,he disembarked on the coast of ,mombasa1 and attempted to reach his destination through the ,galla country1 but was forced to return4 ,in #afbe he set out again1 accompanied by ,mendez1 the patriarch of ,ethiopia1 and eight missionaries4 ,the party landed on the coast of the ,red ,sea1 and ,lobo settled in ,abyssinia as superintendent of the missions in ,tigr4 ,he remained there until death deprived the ,catholics of their protector1 the emperor ,segued4 ,forced by persecution to leave the kingdom1 in #afcd ,lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the ,turks at ,massawa1 who sent him to ,india to procure a ransom for his imprisoned fellow-missionaries4 ,in this he was successful1 but could not induce the ,portuguese viceroy to send an armament against ,abyssinia4 ,intent upon accomplishing this cherished project1 he embarked for ,portugal1 and after he had been shipwrecked on the coast of ,natal1 and captured by pirates1 arrived at ,lisbon4 ,neither at this city1 however1 nor at ,madrid and ,rome1 was any countenance given to ,lobo's plan4 ,he accordingly returned to ,india in #afdj1 and was elected rector1 and afterwards provincial1 of the ,jesuits at ,goa4 ,after some years he returned to his native city1 and died there on the #bith of ,january #afgh4 ,lobo wrote an account of his travels in ,portuguese1 which appears never to have been printed1 but is deposited in the monastery of ,st ,roque1 ,lisbon4 ,balthazar ,telles made large use of the information therein in his ,historia geral da ,ethiopia a ,alta 7,coimbra1 #affj71 often erroneously attributed to ,lobo 7see ,machado's ,bibliotheca ,lusitana74 ,lobo's own narrative was translated from a ,,ms4 copy into ,french in #agbh by the ,abb ,joachim le ,grand1 under the title of ,voyage historique d',abissinie4 ,in #affi a translation by ,sir ,peter ,wyche of several passages from a ,,ms4 account of ,lobo's travels was published by the ,royal ,society 7translated in ,m4 ,thvenot's ,relation des voyages in #afgc74 ,an ,english abridgment of ,le ,grand's edition by ,dr ,johnson was published in #agce 7reprinted #aghi74 ,in a ,mmoire justificatif en rhabilitation des pres ,pierre ,paez et ,jrme ,lobo1 ,dr ,c4 ,t4 ,beke maintains against ,bruce the accuracy of ,lobo's statements as to the source of the ,abai branch of the ,nile4 ,see ,a4 de ,backer1 ,bibliothque de la ,compagnie de ,jsus 7ed4 ,c4 ,sommervogel1 iv41 #ahic74 ,,lobster 7,o4,e4 lopustre1 lopystre1 a corruption of ,lat4 locusta1 lobster or other marine shell-fish2 also a locust71 an edible crustacean found on the coasts of the ,north ,atlantic and ,mediterranean4 ,the name is sometimes loosely applied to any of the larger ,crustacea of the order ,macrura1 especially to such as are used for food4 ,the true lobsters1 forming the family ,homaridae1 are distinguished from the other ,macrura by having the first three pairs of legs terminating in chelae or pincers4 ,the first pair are large and massive and are composed of six segments1 while the remaining legs are each composed of seven segments4 ,the sternum of the last thoracic somite is immovably united with the preceding4 ,this last character1 together with some peculiarities of the branchial system1 distinguish the lobsters from the freshwater crayfishes4 ,the common lobster 7,homarus gammarus or vulgaris7 is found on the ,european coasts from ,norway to the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,american lobster 7,homarus americanus71 which should perhaps be ranked as a variety rather than as a distinct species1 is found on the ,atlantic coast of ,north ,america from ,labrador to ,cape ,hatteras4 ,a third species1 found at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 is of small size and of no economic importance4 ,both in ,europe and in ,america the lobster is the object of an important fishery4 ,it lives in shallow water1 in rocky places1 and is usually captured in traps known as lobster-pots1 or creels1 made of wickerwork or of hoops covered with netting1 and having funnel-shaped openings permitting entrance but preventing escape4 ,these traps are baited with pieces of fish1 preferably stale1 and are sunk on ground frequented by lobsters1 the place of each being marked by a buoy4 ,in ,europe the lobsters are generally sent to market in the fresh state1 but in ,america1 especially in the northern ,new ,england states and in the maritime provinces of ,canada1 the canning of lobsters is an important industry4 ,the ,european lobster rarely reaches #aj pounds in weight1 though individuals of #ad pounds have been found1 and in ,america there are authentic records of lobsters weighing #bj to #bc pounds4 ,the effects of over-fishing have become apparent1 especially in ,america1 rather in the reduced average size of the lobsters caught than in any diminution of the total yield4 ,the imposition of a close time to protect the spawning lobsters has been often tried1 but as the female carries the spawn attached to her body for nearly twelve months after spawning it is impossible to give any effective protection by this means4 ,the prohibition of the capture of females carrying spawn1 or1 as it is termed1 in berry1 is difficult to enforce4 ,a minimum size1 below which it is illegal to sell lobsters1 is fixed by law in most lobster-fishing districts1 but the value of the protection so given has also been questioned4 ,the ,norway lobster 7,nephrops norvegicus7 is found1 like the common lobster1 from ,norway to the ,mediterranean4 ,it is a smaller species1 with long and slender claws and is of an orange colour1 often beautifully marked with red and blue4 ,it is found in deeper water and is generally captured by trawling4 ,it is a curious and unexplained fact that nearly all the individuals so captured are males4 ,it is less esteemed for food than the common species4 ,in ,london it is sold under the name of ,dublin prawn4 ,the rock lobster1 spiny lobster1 or sea-crawfish 7,palinurus vulgaris7 belongs to the family ,palinuridae1 distinguished from the ,homaridae by the fact that the first legs are not provided with chelae or pincers1 and that all the legs possess only six segments4 ,the antennae are very long and thick4 ,it is found on the southern and western coasts of the ,british1 ,islands and extends to the ,mediterranean4 ,it is highly esteemed for the table1 especially in ,france1 where it goes by the name of ,langouste4 ,other species of the same family are used for food in various parts of the world1 especially on the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america and in ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,in ,melbourne and ,sydney the name of ,murray lobster is given to a large species of crayfish 7,astacopsis spinifer1 formerly known as ,astacus1 or ,potamobius serratus7 which is much used for food4 7,w4 ,t4 ,ca47 ,,local ,,government1 a phrase specially adopted in ,english usage for the decentralized or deconcentrated administration1 within a state or national and central government1 of local affairs by local authorities4 ,it is restricted not only in respect of area but also in respect of the character and extent of the duties assigned to them4 ,it is not to be confused with local self-government in the wider sense in which the words are sometimes employed1 e4g4 for the granting by the crown of self-government to a colony2 the expression1 in a general way1 may mean this1 but local government as technically used in ,england refers more narrowly to the system of county or municipal administration1 and ,english usage transfers it to denote the similar institutions in other countries4 ,the growth and persistence of this kind of subordinate government is due practically to the need of relieving the central authority in the state1 and to experience of the failure of a completely centralized bureaucracy4 ,the degree to which local government is adopted varies considerably in different countries1 and those which are the best examples of it in modern times--the ,united ,kingdom1 the ,united ,states1 ,france and ,germany--differ very much in their local institutions1 partly through historical1 partly through temperamental1 causes4 ,a certain shifting of ideas from time to time1 as to what is local and what is central1 is inevitable1 and the same view is not possible in countries of different configuration1 history or political system4 ,the history and present state of the local government in the various countries are dealt with in the separate articles on them 7,,england1 ,,germany1 c471 in the sections dealing with government and administration1 or political institutions4 ,the best recent comparative study of local government is ,percy ,ashley's ,local and ,central ,government 7,murray1 #aijf71 an admirable account of the evolution and working of the systems in ,england1 ,france1 ,prussia and ,united ,states4 ,other important works1 in addition to general works on constitutional law1 are ,j4 ,a4 ,fairlie's ,municipal ,administration1 ,shaw's ,municipal ,government in ,continental ,europe1 ,redlich and ,hirst's ,local ,government in ,england1 ,mr and ,mrs ,sidney ,webb's elaborate historical inquiry into ,english local government 7#aijf71 and for ,germany1 ,bornhak's ,geschichte des preussischen ,verwaltungsrechts4 ,,local ,,government ,,board1 a department of the administration of the ,united ,kingdom1 constituted in #ahga4 ,it is the successor of the ,general ,board of ,health1 established in #ahdh pursuant to the ,public ,health ,act of that year4 ,the ,general ,board of ,health continued in existence until #ahed1 when it was reconstituted4 ,its existence under its new constitution was originally limited to one year1 but was extended from year to year until #aheh1 when it was allowed to expire1 its powers under the various acts for the prevention of diseases being transferred to the privy council1 while those which related to the control of local authorities passed to the secretary of state for the home department1 to whose department the staff of officers and clerks belonging to the board was transferred4 ,this state of affairs continued until #ahga1 when the ,local ,government ,board was created by the ,local ,government ,board ,act #ahga4 ,it consists of the lord president of the council1 the five principal secretaries of state1 the lord privy seal1 the chancellor of the exchequer and a president appointed by the sovereign4 ,the board itself seldom meets1 and the duties of the department are discharged by the president assisted by a parliamentary and a permanent secretary and a permanent staff4 ,the president and one of the secretaries usually have seats in parliament1 and the president is generally a member of the cabinet4 ,the salary of the president1 formerly #bjjj1 was raised in #aiaj to #ejjj a year4 ,the board has all the powers of the secretary of state under the ,public ,health ,act #ahdh1 and the numerous subsequent acts relating to sanitary matters and the government of sanitary districts2 together with all the powers and duties of the privy council under the acts relating to the prevention of epidemic disease and to vaccination4 ,the powers and duties of the board have been largely added to by legislation since its creation2 it may be said that the board exercises a general supervision over the numerous authorities to whom local government has been entrusted 7see ,,england3 ,local ,government74 ,a committee presided over by ,lord ,jersey in #aijd inquired into the constitution and duties of the board1 but made no recommendation as to any change therein4 ,it recommended1 however1 an increase in the salaries of the president and of the parliamentary and permanent secretaries4 ,,locarno 7,ger4 ,luggarus71 a small town of ,italian appearance in the ,swiss canton of ,tessin or ,ticino1 of which till #ahha it was one of the three capitals 7the others being ,bellinzona1 q4v41 and ,lugano1 q4v474 ,it is built at the north or ,swiss end of the ,lago ,maggiore1 not far from the point at which the ,maggia enters that lake1 and is by rail #ad m4 ,s4,w4 of ,bellinzona4 ,its height above the sea-level is only #fhb ft41 so that it is said to be the lowest spot in ,switzerland4 ,in #aijj its population was #cfjc1 mainly ,italian-speaking and ,romanists4 ,it was taken from the ,milanese in #aeab by the ,swiss who ruled it till #agih1 when it became part of the canton of ,lugano in the ,helvetic ,republic1 and in #ahjc part of that of ,tessin or ,ticino1 then first erected4 ,in #aeee a number of ,protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious reasons1 and going to ,zrich founded the silk industry there4 ,above ,locarno is the romantically situated sanctuary of the ,madonna del ,sasso 7now rendered easily accessible by a funicular railway7 that commands a glorious view over the lake and the surrounding country4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,loch1 ,,henry ,,brougham ,,loch1 #a,,st ,,baron 7#ahbg-aijj71 ,british colonial administrator1 son of ,james ,loch1 ,m4,p41 of ,drylaw1 ,midlothian1 was born on the #bcrd of ,may #ahbg4 ,he entered the navy1 but at the end of two years quitted it for the ,east ,india ,company's military service1 and in #ahdb obtained a commission in the ,bengal ,light ,cavalry4 ,in the ,sikh war in #ahde he was given an appointment on the staff of ,sir ,hugh ,gough1 and served throughout the ,sutlej campaign4 ,in #aheb he became second in command of ,skinner's ,horse4 ,at the outbreak of the ,crimean war in #ahed1 ,loch severed his connexion with ,india1 and obtained leave to raise a body of irregular ,bulgarian cavalry1 which he commanded throughout the war4 ,in #aheg he was appointed attach to ,lord ,elgin's mission to the ,east1 was present at the taking of ,canton1 and in #aheh brought home the treaty of ,yedo4 ,in ,april #ahfj he again accompanied ,lord ,elgin to ,china1 as secretary of the new embassy sent to secure the execution by ,china of her treaty engagements4 ,the embassy was backed up by an allied ,anglo-,french force4 ,with ,harry ,s4 ,parkes he negotiated the surrender of the ,taku forts4 ,during the advance on ,peking ,loch was chosen with ,parkes to complete the preliminary negotiations for peace at ,tungchow4 ,they were accompanied by a small party of officers and ,sikhs4 ,it having been discovered that the ,chinese were planning a treacherous attack on the ,british force1 ,loch rode back and warned the outposts4 ,he then returned to ,parkes and his party under a flag of truce hoping to secure their safety4 ,they were all1 however1 made prisoners and taken to ,peking1 where the majority died from torture or disease4 ,parkes and ,loch1 after enduring irons and all the horrors of a ,chinese prison1 were afterwards more leniently treated4 ,after three weeks' time the negotiations for their release were successful1 but they had only been liberated ten minutes when orders were received from the ,chinese emperor1 then a fugitive in ,mongolia1 for their immediate execution4 ,loch never entirely recovered his health after this experience in a ,chinese dungeon4 ,returning home he was made ,c4,b41 and for a while was private secretary to ,sir ,george ,grey1 then at the ,home ,office4 ,in #ahfc he was appointed lieutenant-governor of the ,isle of ,man4 ,during his governorship the ,house of ,keys was transformed into an elective assembly1 the first line of railway was opened1 and the influx of tourists began to bring fresh prosperity to the island4 ,in #ahhb ,loch1 who had become ,k4,c4,b4 in #ahhj1 accepted a commissionership of woods and forests1 and two years later was made governor of ,victoria1 where he won the esteem of all classes4 ,in ,june #ahhi he succeeded ,sir ,hercules ,robinson as governor of ,cape ,colony and high commissioner of ,south ,africa4 ,as high commissioner his duties called for the exercise of great judgment and firmness4 ,the ,boers were at the same time striving to frustrate ,cecil ,rhodes's schemes of northern expansion and planning to occupy ,mashonaland1 to secure control of ,swaziland and ,zululand and to acquire the adjacent lands up to the ocean4 ,loch firmly supported ,rhodes1 and1 by informing ,president ,kruger that troops would be sent to prevent any invasion of territory under ,british protection1 he effectually crushed the ,banyailand trek across the ,limpopo 7#ahij-ia74 ,loch1 however1 with the approval of the imperial government1 concluded in ,july-,august #ahij a convention with ,president ,kruger respecting ,swaziland1 by which1 while the ,boers withdrew all claims to territory north of the ,transvaal1 they were granted an outlet to the sea at ,kosi ,bay on condition that the republic entered the ,south ,african ,customs ,union4 ,this convention was concluded after negotiations conducted with ,president ,kruger by ,j4 ,h4 ,hofmeyr on behalf of the high commissioner1 and was made at a time when the ,british and ,bond parties in ,cape ,colony were working in harmony4 ,the ,transvaal did not1 however1 fulfil the necessary condition1 and in view of the increasingly hostile attitude of the ,pretoria administration to ,great ,britain ,loch became a strong advocate of the annexation by ,britain of the territory east of ,swaziland1 through which the ,boer railway to the sea would have passed4 ,he at length induced the ,british government to adopt his view and on the #aeth of ,march #ahie it was announced that these territories 7,amatongaland1 c471 would be annexed by ,britain1 an announcement received by ,mr ,kruger with the greatest astonishment and regret4 ,meantime ,loch had been forced to intervene in another matter4 ,when the commandeering difficulty of #ahid had roused the ,uitlanders in the ,transvaal to a dangerous pitch of excitement1 he travelled to ,pretoria to use his personal influence with ,president ,kruger1 and obtained the withdrawal of the obnoxious commandeering regulations4 ,in the following year he entered a strong protest against the new ,transvaal franchise law4 ,meanwhile1 however1 the general situation in ,south ,africa was assuming year by year a more threatening aspect4 ,cecil ,rhodes1 then prime minister of ,cape ,colony1 was strongly in favour of a more energetic policy than was supported by the ,imperial government1 and at the end of ,march #ahie the high commissioner1 finding himself1 it is believed1 out of touch with his ministers1 returned home a few months before the expiry of his term of office4 ,in the same year he was raised to the peerage4 ,when the ,anglo-,boer war broke out in #ahii ,loch took a leading part in raising and equipping a body of mounted men1 named after him ,loch's ,horse4 ,he died in ,london on the #bjth of ,june #aijj1 and was succeeded as #bnd baron by his son ,edward 7b4 #ahgc74 ,,lochaber1 a district of southern ,inverness-shire1 ,scotland1 bounded ,w4 by ,loch ,linnhe1 the river and loch ,lochy1 ,n4 by the ,corryarrick range and adjoining hills1 ,n4,e4 and ,e4 by the district of ,badenoch1 ,s4,e4 by the district of ,rannoch and ,s4 by the river and loch ,leven4 ,it measures #cb m4 from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 and #be m4 from ,e4 to ,w41 and is remarkable for wild and romantic scenery1 ,ben ,nevis being the chief mountain4 ,the district has given its name to a celebrated type of axe1 consisting of a long shaft with a blade like a scythe and a large hook behind it1 which1 according to ,sir ,walter ,scott1 was introduced into the ,highlands and ,ireland from ,scandinavia4 ,it was the weapon of the old ,city ,guard of ,edinburgh4 ,the pathetic song of ,lochaber no more was written by ,allan ,ramsay4 ,,loches1 a town in ,france1 capital of an arrondissement in the department of ,indre-et-,loire1 #bi m4 ,s4,e4 of ,tours by rail1 on the left bank of the ,indre4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #cgea4 ,the town1 one of the most picturesque in central ,france1 lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands the castle of the ,anjou family1 surrounded by an outer wall #a m4 in circumference1 and consisting of the old collegiate church of ,st ,ours1 the royal lodge and the donjon4 ,the church of ,st ,ours dates from the #ajth to the #abth centuries2 among its distinguishing features are the huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful carving of the west door4 ,the royal lodge1 built by ,charles ,,vii4 and used as the subprefecture1 contains the tomb of ,agnes ,sorel and the oratory of ,anne of ,brittany4 ,the donjon includes1 besides the ruined keep 7#abth century71 the ,martelet1 celebrated as the prison of ,lodovico ,sforza1 duke of ,milan1 who died there in #aejh1 and the ,tour ,ronde1 built by ,louis ,,xi4 and containing the famous iron cages in which state prisoners1 including--according to a story now discredited--their inventor ,cardinal ,balue1 were confined4 ,loches has an htel-de-ville and several houses of the ,renaissance period4 ,it has a tribunal of first instance1 a communal college and a training college4 ,liqueur-distilling and tanning are carried on together with trade in farm-produce1 wine1 wood and live-stock4 ,on the right bank of the ,loire1 opposite the town and practically its suburb1 is the village of ,beaulieu-ls-,loches1 once the seat of a barony4 ,besides the parish church of ,st ,laurent1 a beautiful specimen of #abth-century architecture1 it contains the remains of the great abbey church of the ,holy ,sepulchre founded in the #aath century by ,fulk ,nerra1 count of ,anjou1 who is buried in the chancel4 ,this chancel1 which with one of the older transepts now constitutes the church1 dates from the #aeth century4 ,the ,romanesque nave is in ruins1 but of the two towers one survives intact2 it is square1 crowned with an octagonal steeple of stone1 and is one of the finest extant monuments of ,romanesque architecture4 ,loches 7the ,roman ,leucae7 grew up round a monastery founded about #ejj by ,st ,ours and belonged to the counts of ,anjou from #hhf till #abje4 ,in the latter year it was seized from ,king ,john of ,england by ,philip ,augustus1 and from the middle of the #acth century till after the time of ,charles ,,ix4 the castle was a residence of the kings of ,france4 ,,lochgelly1 a police burgh of ,fifeshire1 ,scotland1 #g m4 ,n4,e4 of ,dunfermline by the ,north ,british railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #edgb4 ,the town is modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-works and collieries in its immediate vicinity4 ,loch ,gelly1 from which the town takes its name1 situated m4 ,s4,e41 measures m4 in length by m4 in breadth1 contains some trout and pike1 and has on its west banks ,lochgelly ,house1 a seat of the earl of ,minto4 ,the ,romans are said to have had a station at ,loch ,ore in the parish of ,ballingry1 #b m4 ,n4 by ,w41 which was drained about the end of the #ahth century and then cultivated4 ,to the ,n4,e4 rises the hill of ,benarty 7#aaca ft474 ,hallyards1 about #b m4 ,s4,e4 of ,lochgelly1 is a ruined house that once belonged to ,sir ,william ,kirkaldy of ,grange1 who held ,edinburgh ,castle for ,queen ,mary4 ,here ,james ,v4 was received after his defeat at ,solway ,moss in #aedb1 and here a few ,jacobites used to meet in #agae4 ,,lochgilphead1 a municipal and police burgh of ,argyllshire1 ,scotland1 at the head of ,loch ,gilp1 a small arm on the western side of ,loch ,fyne4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #acac4 ,the herring-fishery is the chief industry1 but there is some weaving of woollens and1 in summer1 a considerable influx of visitors4 ,ardrishaig 7pop4 #abhe71 a seaport on the west of the mouth of ,loch ,gilp1 is the east terminus of the ,crinan ,canal4 ,it is the place of transhipment from the large ,glasgow passenger steamers to the small craft built for the navigation of the canal4 ,it is an important harbour in connexion with the ,loch ,fyne herring-fishery1 and there is also a distillery4 ,during the summer there is a coach service to ,ford at the lower end of ,loch ,awe4 ,,lochmaben1 a royal and police burgh of ,dumfriesshire1 ,scotland1 #h m4 ,n4,e4 of ,dumfries1 with a station on the ,caledonian railway company's branch from ,dumfries to ,locherbie4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #acbh4 ,it is delightfully situated1 there being eight lakes in the immediate neighbourhood1 while the river ,annan1 and the ,waters of ,ae1 ,kinnel and ,dryfe are in the vicinity4 ,the town hall is a handsome edifice with clock tower4 ,at the south end of ,castle ,loch1 the chief lake1 stand the ruins1 a mere shell1 of ,lochmaben ,castle1 dating from the #acth century1 where local tradition declares that ,robert ,bruce was born--an honour which is also claimed1 however1 for ,turnberry ,castle on the coast of ,ayrshire4 ,in the parish church is a bell said to have been presented to ,king ,robert by the pope after reconciliation with him4 ,a statue of the king stands in front of the town hall4 ,whether it were his birthplace or not1 the associations of ,bruce with ,lochmaben were intimate4 ,he exempted his followers in the district from feudal service and their descendants--the kindly tenants of ,lochmaben--were confirmed in their tenure by the court of session in #ahbd4 ,the ,castle ,loch is the only fresh water in ,scotland1 and possibly in the ,british ,isles1 where the vendace 7coregonus vandesius7 occurs4 ,this fish1 which is believed to be growing scarcer1 is alleged on doubtful authority to have been introduced by ,queen ,mary4 ,it is captured by the sweep-net in ,august1 and is esteemed as a delicacy4 ,the lakes adjoining the town afford the inhabitants exceptional advantages for the game of curling4 ,there was once a team of ,lochmaben ,curlers entirely composed of shoemakers 7souters7 who held their own against all comers1 and their prowess added the phrase to souter to the vocabulary of the sport1 the word indicating a match in which the winners scored game to their opponents' love4 ,lochmaben unites with ,annan1 ,dumfries1 ,kirkcudbright and ,sanquhar 7the ,dumfries burghs7 in returning one member to parliament4 ,,lock1 ,,matthias1 ,english #ahth-century furniture designer and cabinet-maker4 ,the dates of his birth and death are unknown2 but he was a disciple of ,chippendale1 and subsequently of the ,adams1 and was possibly in partnership with ,henry ,copeland 7q4v474 ,during the greater part of his life he belonged to that flamboyant school which derived its inspiration from ,louis ,,xv4 models2 but when he fell under the influence of ,robert ,adam he absorbed his manner so completely that it is often difficult to distinguish between them1 just as it is sometimes easy to confound ,lock's work with the weaker efforts of ,chippendale4 ,thus from being extravagantly rococo he progressed to a simple ordered classicism4 ,his published designs are not equal to his original drawings1 many of which are preserved in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 while the pieces themselves are often bolder and more solid than is suggested by the author's representations of them4 ,he was a clever craftsman and holds a distinct place among the minor furniture designers of the second half of the #ahth century4 ,among his works1 some of which were issued in conjunction with ,copeland1 are3 ,a ,new ,drawing ,book of ,ornaments 7n4 d472 ,a ,new ,book of ,ornaments 7#agfh72 ,a ,new ,book of ,pier ,frames1 ,ovals1 ,girandoles1 ,tables1 c4 7#agfi72 and ,a ,new ,book of ,foliage 7#agfi74 ,,lock 7from the ,o4 ,eng4 loc42 the word appears1 in different forms1 in many ,teutonic languages1 but with such various meanings as hole1 ,ger4 ,loch1 lid1 ,swed4 lock1 c42 probably the original was a root meaning to enclose71 a fastening1 particularly one which consists of a bolt held in a certain position by one or more movable parts which require to be placed in definite positions by the aid of a key or of a secret arrangement of letters1 figures or signs1 before the bolt can be moved4 ,it is with such fastenings that the present article chiefly deals4 ,the word is also used1 in the original sense of an enclosure or barrier1 for a length of water in a river or canal1 or at the entrance of a dock1 enclosed at both ends by gates1 the lock-gates1 and fitted with sluices1 to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a higher level or vice versa 7see ,,canal and ,,dock74 ,in guns and rifles the lock is the mechanism which effects the firing of the charge2 it thus appears in the names of old types of weapons1 such as wheel-lock1 match-lock1 flint-lock 7see ,,arms ,,and ,,armour1 ,firearms2 also ,,gun and ,,rifle74 ,lock 7,ger4 ,locke7 in the sense of a curl or tuft of hair1 the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows1 may be1 in ultimate origin1 connected with the root of the main word4 ,lockjaw is the popular name of the disease known as tetanus 7q4v474 ,the name ,lock ,hospital is frequently used in ,english for a hospital for patients suffering from venereal diseases4 ,according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary there was in ,southwark as early as #adec a leper-hospital1 known as the ,lock ,lazar ,house1 which later was used for the treatment of venereal diseases4 ,the name appears to have become used in the present sense as early as the end of the #agth century4 ,lock hospitals were established in ,london in #agde-agdg and in ,dublin in #aged-agee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the forms in which locks are manufactured1 such as padlock1 rim-lock1 mortise-lock1 one-sided or two-sided1 c41 are necessarily extremely numerous2 and the variations in the details of construction of any one of these forms are still more numerous1 so that it is impossible to do more here than describe the main types which have been or are in common use4 ,probably the earliest locks were of ,chinese origin4 ,specimens of these still extant are quite as secure as any locks manufactured in ,europe up to the #ahth century1 but it is impossible to ascertain the date of their manufacture4 ,with the exception1 in all probability1 of these ,chinese examples1 the earliest lock of which the construction is known is the ,egyptian1 which was used four thousand years ago4 ,in fig4 #a1 aa is the body of the lock1 bb the bolt and cc the key4 ,the three pins p1 p1 p drop into three holes in the bolt when it is pushed in1 and so hold it fast2 and they are raised again by putting in the key through the large hole in the bolt and raising it a little1 so that the pins in the key push the locking pins up out of the way of the bolt4 ,it was evidently to locks and keys of this nature that the prophet alluded3 ,and the key of the house of ,david will ,i lay upon his shoulder 7,isaiah xxii4 #bb71 the word muftah used in this passage being the common word for key to this day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,in the #ahth century the ,european lock was nothing better than a mere bolt1 held in its place1 either shut or open1 by a spring b 7fig4 #b71 which pressed it down1 and so held it at either one end or the other of the convex notch aa2 and the only impediment to opening it was the wards which the key had to pass before it could turn in the keyhole4 ,but it was always possible to find the shape of the wards by merely putting in a blank key covered with wax1 and pressing it against them2 and when this had been done it was unnecessary to cut out the key into the complicated form of the wards 7such as fig4 #c71 because no part of that key does any work except the edge bc farthest from the pipe a2 and so a key of the form fig4 #d would do just as well4 ,thus a small collection of skeleton keys1 as they are called1 of a few different patterns1 was all the stock in trade that a lock-picker required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,lever locks4 ,the common single-tumbler lock 7fig4 #e7 requires two operations instead of one to open it4 ,the tumbler at turns on a pivot at t1 and has a square pin at a1 which drops into a notch in the bolt bb1 when it is either quite open or quite shut1 and the tumbler must be lifted by the key before the bolt can be moved again4 ,the tumbler offered little resistance to picking1 as the height to which it might be lifted was not limited and the bolt would operate provided only that this height was sufficient2 the improvement which formed the foundation of the modern key lock was the substitution of what is known as the lever for the tumbler1 the difference being that the lever must be lifted to exactly the right height to allow the bolt to pass4 ,this improvement1 together with the obvious one of using more than one lever1 was introduced in #aggh by ,robert ,barron1 and is illustrated in figs4 #f and #g4 ,unless the square pin a 7fig4 #f7 is lifted by the key to the proper height and no higher1 the bolt cannot move4 ,fig4 #h illustrates the key of such a lock with four levers1 the different distances between the centre of the key barrel and the edge of the bit being adapted to lift the levers to the respective heights required4 ,this lock differs from the modern lever lock only in the fact that ,barron made his gating in the bolt and carried stumps on his levers1 instead of having the main stump riveted into the bolt and the gatings in the levers as is the modern practice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,a lock operating on exactly the same principle but entirely different in construction 7fig4 #i7 was invented by ,joseph ,bramah in #aghd4 ,it consists of an outer barrel aaaa1 within which is a revolving barrel1 cccc1 held in place by a steel disk1 dd1 and provided with a pin b fixed eccentrically for operating the bolt2 the barrel is prevented from turning by sheet metal sliders ss1 which slide axially in radial grooves in the barrel and project into slots cut into the steel disk which is fastened to the case of the lock4 ,each slider has a gating cut in its outer edge sufficiently deep to allow it to embrace the inwardly projecting steel plate and turn on it with the barrel4 ,the key is of tubular form having slots cut in its end1 each of a depth corresponding to the position of the gating in one of the sliders2 so that1 on inserting the key1 each slider is pushed in--against a spring--exactly far enough to bring its slot opposite the steel disk2 in this position the barrel carrying the sliders is turned by the key and actuates the bolt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,up to #ahea it was generally believed that well-made lever locks of all types were practically unpickable1 but at this time ,alfred ,charles ,hobbs--an ,american--demonstrated1 by picking the locks of ,barron1 ,chubb1 ,bramah and others1 that this belief was a fallacy4 ,the method of ,hobbs became widely known as the tickling or tentative method4 ,in the modern lever lock the bolt carries a projecting piece--the main stump--which1 when the levers are all raised to the proper height1 enters the slots--gatings--in their faces4 ,if1 when the levers are not in this position1 pressure is applied to the bolt1 the main stump will press against the face of the levers2 but owing to inaccuracies of workmanship and other causes the pressure will not be equal on all the levers4 ,if now1 the pressure on the bolt being maintained1 each lever in turn is carefully raised a little1 one will be found on which the pressure of the stump is greatest2 this one is lifted till it becomes easy and then carefully lowered till it is sustained by the pressure of the stump in a new position4 ,another lever now bears the greatest pressure1 and this in its turn is similarly treated4 ,by this gradual or tentative process the levers will in time all be raised to the correct height and the bolt will slip back without1 if sufficient care has been exercised1 any of the levers having been raised above its correct position4 ,although this method of picking only became generally known in #ahea1 it is evident that it was not novel1 since in #ahag one of ,bramah's workmen1 named ,russell1 invented the use of false notches or gatings1 which were slots similar to the true gating but of small depth cut in the face of the levers4 ,similar false gatings were used in ,anthony ,radford ,strutt's lock in #ahai4 ,the only possible object of these gatings--two of which are shown in each of the sliders of ,bramah's lock--was to prevent the tentative method of picking4 ,they are1 however1 not efficient for their purpose although they render the operation more difficult and tedious4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the best-known locks up to #ahea were those of ,jeremiah ,chubb1 their popularity being due to their superior workmanship and probably still more to their title detector4 ,his lock1 patented in #ahah1 contained a device intended to frustrate attempts at picking1 and further to detect if such an attempt had been made4 ,this device1 at any rate as far as detecting was concerned1 had been anticipated by the patent of ,thomas ,ruxton in #ahaf4 ,since the device only comes into operation when any lever is raised too high1 it is not effective against a skilful application of the tentative method4 ,the original form of this lock is shown in fig4 #aj1 when the lever ,,dt1 which turns on a pin in the middle1 is acted upon at its end ,t by a spring ,s1 which will evidently allow some play to the lever on either side of the corner ,x2 but the moment it is pushed past that point the spring will carry it farther in the same direction1 like what is called in clock-work a jumper4 ,in its proper position that end always remains above the turning-point2 but1 if any one of the tumblers is raised too high1 the other end ,d of the detector1 which reaches over all the levers1 is lifted so far that the end ,t is sent down below the corner1 and the tooth ,t then falls into a notch in the bolt1 and so prevents it from being drawn back1 even though all the levers are raised properly by the right key4 ,it thus at once becomes obvious that somebody has been trying to pick the lock4 ,the way to open it1 then1 is to turn the key the other way1 as if to overlock the bolt2 a short piece of gating near the end of the levers allows the bolt to advance just far enough to push the tooth of the detector up again by means of its inclination there1 and then the lock can be opened as usual4 ,to render the mechanism of locks more inaccessible for picking purposes1 two devices1 the curtain and the barrel1 were in use2 these devices were simply the one a disk and the other a cylinder carrying a keyhole which revolved with the key and so closed the fixed keyhole in the case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,it is to ,hobbs himself that we are indebted for the invention of the movable stump1 since called the safety lever1 the only device introduced rendering the tentative method of picking inoperative4 ,this invention was incorporated in the protector locks of ,hobbs1 ,hart ,co42 it consists in the employment of a movable main stump which is not riveted into the bolt as usual1 but is set on the end b of a bent lever abc 7fig4 #aa7 which lies in a hollow of the bolt ,a behind it1 turning on a pivot in the bolt itself1 and kept steady by a small friction-spring e4 ,the stump comes through a hole in the bolt large enough to let it have a little play2 and the long end a of the lever stands just above the edge of a square pin d1 which is fixed in the back plate of the lock4 ,when the lock is locked1 if the bolt be pushed back1 no sensible pressure on the levers is produced1 but only just enough to turn this protector lever1 as ,hobbs called it1 on its pivot c1 and so bring down its end a in front of the square pin1 and then the bolt can no more be pushed back than when held by ,chubb's detector4 ,the protector is set free again by merely pushing the bolt forward with the key1 without reference to the levers4 ,however1 the protector could be prevented from acting by a method used by the inventor himself for another purpose1 viz41 by pushing a piece of watch-spring through the keyhole1 and up behind the bolt1 so as to reach the protector at a1 and keep it up while the bolt was pushed back1 or1 again1 by pushing up the watch-spring between any two of the levers1 and holding the end b of the protector with it1 so as to press the stump against the levers4 ,both these devices1 however1 are prevented now by letting in a feather ,,ff in a groove between the bolt and the back of the lock1 which no watch-spring can pass1 and also bringing a piece of the feather forward through the front gating of the levers just under the stump4 ,in this form the lock is safe against any mode of picking known4 ,a lock possessing valuable features was invented in #aheb by ,sir ,edmund ,beckett--afterwards ,lord ,grimthorpe--but did not come into general use for commercial reasons4 ,all the locks containing many levers so far described have a common defect in that the levers are moved in one direction by the key and in the other by springs4 ,but it not infrequently happens that dirt or grease gets between the levers and causes two or more to stick together1 in which case one of them is lifted too high and the bolt is prevented from operating4 ,to overcome this difficulty locks1 especially those intended for safes1 have been made so that alternate levers move in opposite directions1 the key having two bits on opposite sides4 ,this construction entails that the key enter the body of the levers instead of passing below them1 an arrangement that had previously been in use to reduce the space into which gunpowder could be packed through the keyhole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,key locks4 ,the key locks chiefly used in ,english safes have been the ordinary lever lock with #f-h or #aj levers1 ,chubb's detector1 ,hobbs's protector or variants of these4 ,in the ,yale lock1 which reverts in some degree to the idea of the ancient ,egyptian lock1 ,america has produced one key lock which has come into almost universal use in that country and is certainly worthy of note4 ,the key of this lock1 shown full size at ka in fig4 #ab1 is remarkably small1 being stamped from a piece of flat steel and weighing only a small fraction of an ounce4 ,the barrel abc has to turn1 as in the ,bramah lock1 in order to move the bolt1 which is not shown in the figure4 ,that may be done either as in ,bramah locks or by a tongue or bit attached to the end ab of the barrel as in several other locks4 ,the barrel is prevented from being turned1 except by the proper key1 thus4 ,the 7apparently7 five plugs with spiral springs over them in fig4 #ab are really all divided at the cross line bc1 being all now lifted to the proper height by the key4 ,consequently the barrel abc can turn round1 as there is no plug either projecting from it or projecting into it4 ,but when the key is out1 all the plugs are pushed down by the springs1 and so the upper ones descend into the barrel and hold it fast4 ,and again1 if any of the steps of a false key are too high1 some of the lower plugs will be pushed up beyond the barrel into the holes above them1 and so the barrel cannot turn4 ,the bevelled end of the key near a enables it to be pushed in under the plugs1 though with some friction and resistance4 ,it is frequently convenient to have a number of different locks so arranged that1 whilst each has its own individual key1 yet one special or master key will operate any of the series4 ,in warded locks this is done by differing the wards of the individual locks so that each key will only pass its own lock1 and then filing away the bit of an extra key so that it will pass all the wards2 the objection to this method is that any of the individual keys can easily be filed away and so form a master key4 ,a better method1 which meets this objection1 consists in making all the levers except one--or if need be two--of each lock alike and cutting another gating or widening the gating in the differing levers1 so as to pass the master key which has one--or two--special steps4 ,the growth of safe deposits has called for special locks so that when a box changes tenants the outgoing tenant's key shall be useless4 ,in some cases the lock has been taken off and another substituted1 but this is a clumsy makeshift now rarely employed1 and has been superseded by the use of changeable key locks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the first of these1 invented by ,robert ,newell in #ahda1 was introduced into ,great ,britain from ,america by ,hobbs in #ahea4 ,a simpler form1 the construction of which is clearly shown by fig4 #ac1 was brought out by ,hobbs1 ,hart ,co4 ,the bolt of this lock1 instead of the ordinary main stump1 carries a set of sliders1 ,,pps1 one corresponding to each lever and each carrying a projection ,s corresponding to a portion of the main stump4 ,it will be seen that if any key having steps of certain lengths is inserted when the lock is unlocked and the bolt ,b thrown thereby1 each slider will be raised to a height corresponding to that to which its lever is raised by the key1 and the two fixed teeth ,,cc will engage two of the teeth in the front of each slider1 so that they will be held in place ready to enter the lever gatings when the same key is inserted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,a changeable key lock introduced by the ,chatwood ,safe ,co4 has no gatings in the levers1 whose fronts are cut with teeth gearing into similar teeth cut in a set of disks carrying the gatings4 ,the disks are mounted on a stud which can be moved by a key from the back of the lock in such a way that while the main stump is in the gatings--keeping the disks in position--the disks are carried forward out of gear with the levers2 the key can then be removed and another having steps of suitable length inserted and turned so as to raise the levers1 the disks being then brought back into gear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,both the above locks require that the key steps should have certain definite lengths corresponding to the teeth1 but a later lock resembling to some extent that brought out by ,hobbs1 ,hart ,co4 has been introduced by the ,chatwood ,co41 in which it is sufficient after unlocking the lock to file any of the key steps and so alter the pattern of the key in any way4 ,in this lock1 which is illustrated in fig4 #ad1 unlike all those that have been described1 the levers are not pivoted but slide upon guide stumps2 the main stump is divided as in ,hobbs ,hart's lock1 the various pieces being clamped together by a screw to form a solid stump4 ,the sliders composing the main stump are not provided with teeth1 the changing being effected as follows3 when the bolt is partly shot by the correct key1 the screw which binds the sliders together as it comes opposite an opening in the back of the case is loosened1 the key is removed and altered--or a fresh key substituted--and is inserted so as to lift the levers to their correct height and expose the clamping screw at the back1 which is then tightened4 ,this lock is now commonly used for safe deposits1 combined with a small lever lock of which the custodian carries the key1 and which either blocks the bolt of the main lock or covers the keyhole4 ,in connexion with changeable key locks requiring key steps of definite lengths1 much ingenuity has been displayed in designing keys with movable bits or steps1 as fig4 #ae1 which are useful chiefly as duplicates1 being built up to match the key from time to time in use1 and then deposited in some bank or other secure place to be used in case of emergency4 ,combination locks4 ,from the very earliest times secret devices1 either to hide keyholes or to take the place of locks proper1 have been in use2 these are to-day only seriously represented by combination locks which1 whilst following the same general principles as key locks1 differ entirely in construction4 ,locks in which the arranging of the internal parts in their proper positions was secured by the manipulation of external parts marked with letters or numbers were common in ,china in very early times1 but their history is unfortunately lost4 ,this form of lock has been developed to a very high degree of perfection and is1 for safes1 in almost universal use to-day in ,america4 ,the ,american lock consists of a series of disks mounted upon one spindle1 only one1 however--the bolt disk--being fixed thereto1 and provided each with a gating into which a stump connected with the bolt can drop when all the gatings lie upon a given line parallel to the axis of the spindle4 ,each disk is provided with a driving pin so arranged that it can impinge on and drive a similar pin in its next neighbour2 the gating in the bolt disk and the portion of the stump which enters it are so formed that the disk can draw the bolt back4 ,the spindle is provided on the outside with a knob and graduated disk--usually with #ajj divisions--surrounded by an annulus on which a fixed position is denoted4 ,each disk1 including the bolt disk1 is provided with a pin projecting from its surface in such a way that the pin of one disk comes into contact with that of the next disk and drives it round4 ,if1 then1 the bolt disk being at the back1 there are three letter disks and the spindle is rotated to the left1 the bolt disk will in the course of one revolution pick up letter disk ,no4 #a--;counting from the bolt disk--in the second revolution it will pick up ,no4 #b1 and in the third ,no4 #c1 the revolution being continued for part of a turn till the number corresponding to the correct position of ,no4 #c is reached4 ,the revolution of the spindle is now reversed4 ,the bolt disk leaves ,no4 #a in the first revolution and picks it up again1 and the second revolution picks up ,no4 #b4 ,the motion is continued for part of a revolution till ,no4 #b is brought to the correct position 7,no4 #c obviously not being disturbed7 and is then reversed4 ,no4 #a is again left behind and picked up in the first revolution to the left1 the motion being continued till the correct position of ,no4 #a is reached1 when1 on reversal1 the gating in the bolt disk comes into the correct position1 the stump falls and a continuance of the motion to the right draws back the bolt4 ,a lock constructed in this way would be of little utility1 as the combination would have to be determined once for all by the maker4 ,the difficulty is got over by making the letter disks in two parts1 the inner part carrying the driving pin and the outer the gating2 these two parts are locked together by small cams or other devices which come into such a position that they can be released with the help of a square key when the lock is unlocked4 ,the combination is set by altering the position of the inner disks with the driving pins in relation to the outer part carrying the gatings which are meanwhile held steady by the square key4 ,time locks4 ,one advantage of the combination lock is that there is no key to be lost or stolen1 but the means adopted by burglars1 especially in ,america1 are such that even this is not a perfect protection1 cases having occurred in which a person has been compelled to disclose the combination4 ,with key locks the keyhole through the safe door forms a distinct point of danger1 and with combination locks the spindle passing through the door may be attacked by explosives4 ,to obviate these two risks time locks were introduced in ,america and have been used in ,europe4 ,essentially the time lock consists of a high-class chronometer or watch movement1 little liable to get out of order1 driving a disk provided with a gating such that the bolt can only enter the gating during certain hours2 as a rule two1 three or four chronometers are used1 any one of which can release the lock4 ,the ,yale time lock contains two chronometer movements which revolve two dial plates studded with twenty-four pins to represent the twenty-four hours of the day4 ,these pins1 when pushed in1 form a track on which run rollers supporting the lever which secures the bolt or locking agency1 but when they are drawn out the track is broken1 the rollers fall down and the bolt is released4 ,by pulling out the day pins1 say from #i till #d1 the door is automatically prepared for opening between these hours1 and at #d it again of itself locks up4 ,for keeping the repository closed over ,sundays and holidays1 a subsidiary segment or track is brought into play by which a period of twenty-four hours is added to the locked interval4 ,careful provision is made against the eventuality of running down or accidental stoppage of the clock motion1 by which the rightful owner might be as seriously incommoded as the burglar4 ,in the ,yale lock1 just before the chronometers run out1 a trigger is released which depresses the lever by which the bolt is held in position4 7,a4 ,b4 ,ch47 ,,locke1 ,,john 7#afcb-agjd71 ,english philosopher1 was born at ,wrington1 #aj m4 ,w4 of ,belluton1 in ,somersetshire1 on the #bith of ,august #afcb1 six years after the death of ,bacon1 and three months before the birth of ,spinoza4 ,his father was a small landowner and attorney at ,pensford1 near the northern boundary of the county1 to which neighbourhood the family had migrated from ,dorsetshire early in that century4 ,the elder ,locke1 a strict but genial ,puritan1 by whom the son was carefully educated at home1 was engaged in the military service of the parliamentary party4 ,from the time that ,i knew anything1 ,locke wrote in #affj1 ,i found myself in a storm1 which has continued to this time4 ,for fourteen years his education1 more or less interrupted1 went on in the rural home at ,belluton1 on his father's little estate1 half a mile from ,pensford1 and #f m4 from ,bristol4 ,in #afdf he entered ,westminster ,school and remained there for six years4 ,westminster was uncongenial to him4 ,its memories perhaps encouraged the bias against public schools which afterwards disturbed his philosophic calm in his ,thoughts on ,education4 ,in #afeb he entered ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 then under ,john ,owen1 the ,puritan dean and vice-chancellor of the university4 ,christ ,church was ,locke's occasional home for thirty years4 ,for some years after he entered1 ,oxford was ruled by the ,independents1 who1 largely through ,owen1 unlike the ,presbyterians1 were among the first in ,england to advocate genuine religious toleration4 ,but ,locke's hereditary sympathy with the ,puritans was gradually lessened by the intolerance of the ,presbyterians and the fanaticism of the ,independents4 ,he had found in his youth1 he says1 that what was called general freedom was general bondage1 and that the popular assertors of liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too1 and not unfitly called its keepers4 ,and the influence of the liberal divines of the ,church of ,england afterwards showed itself in his spiritual development4 ,under ,owen scholastic studies were maintained with a formality and dogmatism unsuited to ,locke's free inquisitive temper4 ,the aversion to them which he expressed showed thus early an innate disposition to rebel against empty verbal reasoning4 ,he was not1 according to his own account of himself to ,lady ,masham1 a hard student at first4 ,he sought the company of pleasant and witty men1 and thus gained knowledge of life4 ,he took the ordinary bachelor's degree in #afef1 and the master's in #afeh4 ,in ,december #affj he was serving as tutor of ,christ ,church1 lecturing in ,greek1 rhetoric and philosophy4 ,at ,oxford ,locke was nevertheless within reach of liberal intellectual influence tending to promote self-education and strong individuality4 ,the metaphysical works of ,descartes had appeared a few years before he went to ,oxford1 and the ,human ,nature and ,leviathan of ,hobbes during his undergraduate years4 ,it does not seem that ,locke read extensively1 but he was attracted by ,descartes4 ,the first books1 he told ,lady ,masham1 which gave him a relish for philosophy1 were those of this philosopher1 although he very often differed from him4 ,at the ,restoration potent influences were drawing ,oxford and ,england into experimental inquiries4 ,experiment in physics became the fashion4 ,the ,royal ,society was then founded1 and we find ,locke experimenting in chemistry in #affc1 also in meteorology1 in which he was particularly interested all his life4 ,the restraints of a professional career were not suited to ,locke4 ,there is a surmise that early in his ,oxford career he contemplated taking orders in the ,church of ,england4 ,his religious disposition attracted him to theology4 ,revulsion from the dogmatic temper of the ,presbyterians1 and the unreasoning enthusiasm of the ,independents favoured sympathy afterwards with ,cambridge ,platonists and other liberal ,anglican churchmen4 ,whichcote was his favourite preacher1 and close intimacy with the ,cudworth family cheered his later years4 ,but1 though he has a place among lay theologians1 dread of ecclesiastical impediment to free inquiry1 added to strong inclination for scientific investigation1 made him look to medicine as his profession1 and before #afff we find him practising as a physician in ,oxford4 ,nevertheless1 although known among his friends as ,doctor ,locke1 he never graduated in medicine4 ,his health was uncertain1 for he suffered through life from chronic consumption and asthma4 ,a fortunate event soon withdrew him from the medical profession4 ,locke early showed an inclination to politics1 as well as to theology and medicine4 ,as early as #affe he diverged for a short time from medical pursuits at ,oxford1 and was engaged as secretary to ,sir ,walter ,vane on his mission to the ,elector of ,brandenburg4 ,soon after his return in #afff the incident occurred which determined his career4 ,lord ,ashley1 afterwards first earl of ,shaftesbury1 had come to ,oxford for his health4 ,locke was introduced to him by his physician1 ,dr ,thomas4 ,this was the beginning of a lasting friendship1 sustained by common sympathy with liberty--civil1 religious and philosophical4 ,in #affg ,locke moved from ,christ ,church to ,exeter ,house1 ,lord ,ashley's ,london residence1 to become his confidential secretary4 ,although he retained his studentship at ,christ ,church1 and occasionally visited ,oxford1 as well as his patrimony at ,belluton1 he found a home and shared fortune with ,shaftesbury for fifteen years4 ,locke's commonplace books throw welcome light on the history of his mind in early life4 ,a paper on the ,roman ,commonwealth which belongs to this period1 expresses convictions about religious liberty and the relations of religion to the state that were modified and deepened afterwards2 objections to the sacerdotal conception of ,christianity appear in another article2 short work is made of ecclesiastical claims to infallibility in the interpretation of ,scripture in a third2 a scheme of utilitarian ethics1 wider than that of ,hobbes1 is suggested in a fourth4 ,the most significant of those early revelations is the ,essay concerning ,toleration 7#afff71 which anticipates conclusions more fully argued nearly thirty years later4 ,the ,shaftesbury connexion must have helped to save ,locke from those idols of the ,den to which professional life and narrow experience is exposed4 ,it brought him into contact with public men1 the springs of political action and the duties of high office4 ,the place he held as ,shaftesbury's adviser is indeed the outstanding circumstance in his middle life4 ,exeter ,house afforded every opportunity for society4 ,he became intimate among others with the illustrious ,sydenham2 he joined the ,royal ,society and served on its council4 ,the foundation of the monumental work of his life was laid when he was at ,exeter ,house4 ,he was led to it in this way4 ,it was his habit to encourage informal reunions of his intimates1 to discuss debatable questions in science and theology4 ,one of these1 in the winter of #afgj1 is historically memorable4 ,five or six friends1 he says1 met in his rooms and were discussing principles of morality and religion4 ,they found themselves quickly at a stand by the difficulties that arose on every side4 ,locke proposed some criticism of the necessary limits of human understanding as likely to open a way out of their difficulties4 ,he undertook to attempt this1 and fancied that what he had to say might find sufficient space on one sheet of paper4 ,what was thus begun by chance1 was continued by entreaty1 written by incoherent parcels1 and after long intervals of neglect resumed again as humour and occasions permitted4 ,at the end of nearly twenty years the issue was given to the world as ,locke's now famous ,essay ,concerning ,human ,understanding4 ,the fall of ,shaftesbury in #afge enabled ,locke to escape from ,english politics4 ,he found a retreat in ,france1 where he could unite calm reflection upon the legitimate operations of human understanding with attention to his health4 ,he spent three years partly at ,montpellier and partly in ,paris4 ,his journals and commonplace books in these years show the ,essay in preparation4 ,at ,paris he met men of science and letters--,peter ,guenellon1 the well-known ,amsterdam physician2 ,ole ,rmer1 the ,danish astronomer2 ,thoynard1 the critic2 ,melchisdech ,thvenot1 the traveller2 ,henri ,justel1 the jurist2 and ,franois ,bernier1 the expositor of ,gassendi4 ,but there is no mention of ,malebranche1 whose ,recherche de la vrit had appeared three years before1 nor of ,arnauld1 the illustrious rival of ,malebranche4 ,locke returned to ,london in #afgi4 ,reaction against the court party had restored ,shaftesbury to power4 ,locke resumed his old confidential relations1 now at ,thanet ,house in ,aldersgate4 ,a period of often interrupted leisure for study followed4 ,it was a time of plots and counterplots1 when ,england seemed on the brink of another civil war4 ,in the end ,shaftesbury was committed to the ,tower1 tried and acquitted4 ,more insurrectionary plots followed in the summer of #afhb1 after which1 suspected at home1 the versatile statesman escaped to ,holland1 and died at ,amsterdam in ,january #afhc4 ,in these two years ,locke was much at ,oxford and in ,somerset1 for the later movements of ,shaftesbury did not commend themselves to him4 ,yet the government had their eyes upon him4 ,john ,locke lives a very cunning unintelligible life here1 ,prideaux reported from ,oxford in #afhb4 ,i may confidently affirm1 wrote ,john ,fell1 the dean of ,christ ,church1 to ,lord ,sunderland1 there is not any one in the college who has heard him speak a word against1 or so much as censuring1 the government2 and1 although very frequently1 both in public and private1 discourses have been purposely introduced to the disparagement of his master1 the earl of ,shaftesbury1 he could never be provoked to take any notice1 or discover in word or look the least concern2 so that ,i believe there is not in the world such a master of taciturnity and passion4 ,unpublished correspondence with his ,somerset friend1 ,edward ,clarke of ,chipley1 describes ,locke's life in those troubled years4 ,it also reveals the opening of his intimate intercourse with the ,cudworth family1 who were friends of the ,clarkes1 and connected by birth with ,somerset4 ,the letters allude to toleration in the state and comprehension in the church1 while they show an indifference to theological dogma hardly consistent with an exclusive connexion with any sect4 ,in his fifty-second year1 in the gloomy autumn of #afhc1 ,locke retired to ,holland1 then the asylum of eminent persons who were elsewhere denied liberty of thought4 ,descartes and ,spinoza had speculated there2 it had been the home of ,erasmus and ,grotius2 it was now the refuge of ,bayle4 ,locke spent more than five years there2 but his 7unpublished7 letters show that exile sat heavily upon him4 ,amsterdam was his first ,dutch home1 where he lived in the house of ,dr ,keen1 under the assumed name of ,dr ,van der ,linden4 ,for a time he was in danger of arrest at the instance of the ,english government4 ,after months of concealment he escaped2 but he was deprived of his studentship at ,christ ,church by order of the king1 and ,oxford was thus closed against him4 ,holland introduced him to new friends4 ,the chief of these was ,limborch1 the successor of ,episcopius as ,remonstrant professor of theology1 lucid1 learned and tolerant1 the friend of ,cudworth1 ,whichcote and ,more4 ,by ,limborch he was introduced to ,le ,clerc1 the youthful representative of letters and philosophy in ,limborch's college1 who had escaped from ,geneva and ,calvinism to the milder atmosphere of ,holland and the ,remonstrants4 ,the ,bibliothque universelle of ,le ,clerc was then the chief organ in ,europe of men of letters4 ,locke contributed several articles4 ,it was his first appearance as an author1 although he was now fifty-four years of age4 ,this tardiness in authorship is a significant fact in his life1 in harmony with his tempered wisdom4 ,in the next fourteen years the world received through his books the thoughts which had been gradually forming1 and were taking final shape while he was in ,holland4 ,the ,essay was finished there1 and a ,french epitome appeared in #afhh in ,le ,clerc's journal1 the forecast of the larger work4 ,locke was then at ,rotterdam1 where he lived for a year in the house of a ,quaker friend1 ,benjamin ,furley1 or ,furly1 a wealthy merchant and lover of books4 ,at ,rotterdam he was a confidant of political exiles1 including ,burnet and the famous earl of ,peterborough1 and he became known to ,william1 prince of ,orange4 ,william landed in ,england in ,november #afhh2 ,locke followed in ,february #afhi1 in the ship which carried the princess ,mary4 ,after his return to ,england in #afhi ,locke emerged through authorship into ,european fame4 ,within a month after he reached ,london he had declined an offer of the embassy to ,brandenburg1 and accepted the modest office of commissioner of appeals4 ,the two following years1 during which he lived at ,dorset ,court in ,london1 were memorable for the publication of his two chief works on social polity1 and of the epoch-making book on modern philosophy which reveals the main principles of his life4 ,the earliest of these to appear was his defence of religious liberty1 in the ,epistola de ,tolerantia1 addressed to ,limborch1 published at ,gouda in the spring of #afhi1 and translated into ,english in autumn by ,william ,popple1 a ,unitarian merchant in ,london4 ,two ,treatises on ,government1 in defence of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people1 followed a few months later4 ,the famous ,essay concerning ,human ,understanding saw the light in the spring of #afij4 ,he received #cj for the copyright1 nearly the same as ,kant got in #agha for his ,kritik der reinen ,vernunft4 ,in the ,essay ,locke was the critic of the empirical data of human experience3 ,kant1 as the critic of the intellectual and moral presuppositions of experience1 supplied the complement to the incomplete and ambiguous answer to its own leading question that was given in ,locke's ,essay4 ,the ,essay was the first book in which its author's name appeared1 for the ,epistola de ,tolerantia and the ,treatises on ,government were anonymous4 ,locke's asthma was aggravated by the air of ,london2 and the course of public affairs disappointed him1 for the settlement at the ,revolution fell short of his ideal4 ,in spring1 #afia1 he took up his residence in the manor house of ,otes in ,essex1 the country seat of ,sir ,francis ,masham1 between ,ongar and ,harlow4 ,lady ,masham was the accomplished daughter of ,ralph ,cudworth1 and was his friend before he went to ,holland4 ,she told ,le ,clerc that after ,locke's return from exile1 by some considerably long visits1 he had made trial of the air of ,otes1 which is some #bj m4 from ,london1 and he thought that none would be so suitable for him4 ,his company1 she adds1 could not but be very desirable for us1 and he had all the assurances we could give him of being always welcome2 but1 to make him easy in living with us1 it was necessary he should do so on his own terms1 which ,sir ,francis at last assenting to1 he then believed himself at home with us1 and resolved1 if it pleased ,god1 here to end his days as he did4 ,at ,otes he enjoyed for fourteen years as much domestic peace and literary leisure as was consistent with broken health1 and sometimes anxious visits to ,london on public affairs1 in which he was still an active adviser4 ,otes was in every way his home4 ,in his letters and otherwise we have pleasant pictures of its inmates and domestic life and the occasional visits of his friends1 among others ,lord ,peterborough1 ,lord ,shaftesbury of the ,characteristics1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,william ,molyneux and ,anthony ,collins4 ,at ,otes he was busy with his pen4 ,the ,letter on ,toleration involved him in controversy4 ,an ,answer by ,jonas ,proast of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1 had drawn forth in #afij a ,second ,letter4 ,a rejoinder in #afia was followed by ,locke's elaborate ,third ,letter on ,toleration in the summer of the following year4 ,in #afia currency and finance were much in his thoughts1 and in the following year he addressed an important letter to ,sir ,john ,somers on the ,consequences of the ,lowering of ,interest and ,raising the ,value of ,money4 ,when he was in ,holland he had written letters to his friend ,clarke of ,chipley about the education of his children4 ,these letters formed the substance of the little volume entitled ,thoughts on ,education 7#afic71 which still holds its place among classics in that department4 ,nor were the principles of revealed religion forgotten4 ,the subtle theological controversies of the #agth century made him anxious to show how simple after all fundamental ,christianity is4 ,in the ,reasonableness of ,christianity as delivered in the ,scriptures 7anonymous1 #afie71 ,locke sought to separate the divine essence of ,christ's religion from later accretions of dogma1 and from reasonings due to oversight of the necessary limits of human thought4 ,this intended ,eirenicon involved him in controversies that lasted for years4 ,angry polemics assailed the book4 ,a certain ,john ,edwards was conspicuous4 ,locke's ,vindication1 followed by a ,second ,vindication in #afig1 added fuel to this fire4 ,above all1 the great ,essay was assailed and often misinterpreted by philosophers and divines4 ,notes of opposition had been heard almost as soon as it appeared4 ,john ,norris1 the metaphysical rector of ,bemerton and ,english disciple of ,malebranche1 criticized it in #afij4 ,locke took no notice at the time1 but his second winter at ,otes was partly employed in ,an ,examination of ,malebranche's ,opinion of ,seeing all ,things in ,god1 and in ,remarks upon some of ,mr ,norris's ,books1 tracts which throw light upon his own ambiguous theory of perception through the senses4 ,these were published after his death4 ,a second edition of the ,essay1 with a chapter added on ,personal ,identity1 and numerous alterations in the chapter on ,power1 appeared in #afid4 ,the third1 which was only a reprint1 was published in #afie4 ,wynne's well-known abridgment helped to make the book known in ,oxford1 and his friend ,william ,molyneux introduced it in ,dublin4 ,in #afie a revival of controversy about the currency diverted ,locke's attention4 ,events in that year occasioned his ,observations on ,silver ,money and ,further ,considerations on ,raising the ,value of ,money4 ,in #afif ,locke was induced to accept a commissionership on the ,board of ,trade4 ,this required frequent visits to ,london4 ,meantime the ,essay on ,human ,understanding and the ,reasonableness of ,christianity were becoming more involved in a wordy warfare between dogmatists and latitudinarians1 trinitarians and unitarians4 ,the controversy with ,edwards was followed by a more memorable one with ,stillingfleet1 bishop of ,worcester4 ,john ,toland1 in his ,christianity not ,mysterious1 had exaggerated doctrines in the ,essay1 and then adopted them as his own4 ,in the autumn of #afif1 ,stillingfleet1 an argumentative ecclesiastic more than a religious philosopher1 in his ,vindication of the ,doctrine of the ,trinity1 charged ,locke with disallowing mystery in human knowledge1 especially in his account of the metaphysical idea of substance4 ,locke replied in ,january #afig4 ,stillingfleet's rejoinder appeared in ,may1 followed by a ,second ,letter from ,locke in ,august1 to which the bishop replied in the following year4 ,locke's ,third ,letter1 in which the ramifications of this controversy are pursued with a copious expenditure of acute reasoning and polished irony1 was delayed till #afii1 in which year ,stillingfleet died4 ,other critics of the ,essay entered the lists4 ,one of the ablest was ,john ,sergeant1 a priest of the ,roman ,church1 in ,solid ,philosophy ,asserted ,against the ,fancies of the ,ideists 7#afig74 ,he was followed by ,thomas ,burnet and ,dean ,sherlock4 ,henry ,lee1 rector of ,tichmarch1 criticized the ,essay1 chapter by chapter in a folio volume entitled ,anti-,scepticism 7#agjb72 ,john ,broughton dealt another blow in his ,psychologia 7#agjc72 and ,john ,norris returned to the attack1 in his ,theory of the ,ideal or ,intelligible ,world 7#agja-agjd74 ,on the other hand ,locke was defended with vigour by ,samuel ,bolde1 a ,dorsetshire clergyman4 ,the ,essay itself was meanwhile spreading over ,europe1 impelled by the name of its author as the chief philosophical defender of civil and religious liberty4 ,the fourth edition 7the last while ,locke was alive7 appeared in #agjj1 with important additional chapters on ,association of ,ideas and ,enthusiasm4 ,what was originally meant to form another chapter was withheld4 ,it appeared among ,locke's posthumous writings as ,the ,conduct of the ,understanding1 one of the most characteristic of his works4 ,the ,french translation of the ,essay by ,pierre ,coste1 ,locke's amanuensis at ,otes1 was issued almost simultaneously with the fourth edition4 ,the ,latin version by ,richard ,burridge of ,dublin followed a year after1 reprinted in due time at ,amsterdam and at ,leipzig4 ,in #agjj ,locke resigned his commission at the ,board of ,trade1 and devoted himself to ,biblical studies and religious meditation4 ,the ,gospels had been carefully studied when he was preparing his ,reasonableness of ,christianity4 ,he now turned to the ,epistles of ,st ,paul1 and applied the spirit of the ,essay and the ordinary rules of critical interpretation to a literature which he venerated as infallible1 like the pious ,puritans who surrounded his youth4 ,the work was ready when he died1 and was published two years after4 ,a tract on ,miracles1 written in #agjb1 also appeared posthumously4 ,fresh adverse criticism of the ,essay was reported to him in his last year1 and the book was formally condemned by the authorities at ,oxford4 ,i take what has been done rather as a recommendation of the book1 he wrote to his young friend ,anthony ,collins1 and when you and ,i next meet we shall be merry on the subject4 ,one attack only moved him4 ,in #agjd his adversary1 ,jonas ,proast1 revived their old controversy4 ,locke in consequence began a ,fourth ,letter on ,toleration4 ,a few pages1 ending in an unfinished paragraph1 exhausted his remaining strength2 but the theme which had employed him at ,oxford more than forty years before1 and had been a ruling idea throughout the long interval1 was still dominant in the last days of his life4 ,all the summer of #agjd he continued to decline1 tenderly nursed by ,lady ,masham and her step-daughter ,esther4 ,on the #bhth of ,october he died1 according to his last recorded words1 in perfect charity with all men1 and in sincere communion with the whole church of ,christ1 by whatever names ,christ's followers call themselves4 ,his grave is on the south side of the parish church of ,high ,laver1 in which he often worshipped1 near the tombs of the ,mashams1 and of ,damaris1 the widow of ,cudworth4 ,at the distance of #a m4 are the garden and park where the manor house of ,otes once stood4 ,locke's writings have made his intellectual and moral features familiar4 ,the reasonableness of taking probability as our guide in life was in the essence of his philosophy4 ,the desire to see for himself what is true in the light of reasonable evidence1 and that others should do the same1 was his ruling passion1 if the term can be applied to one so calm and judicial4 ,i can no more know anything by another man's understanding1 he would say1 than ,i can see by another man's eyes4 ,this repugnance to believe blindly what rested on arbitrary authority1 as distinguished from what was seen to be sustained by self-evident reason1 or by demonstration1 or by good probable evidence1 runs through his life4 ,he is typically ,english in his reverence for facts1 whether facts of sense or of living consciousness1 in his aversion from abstract speculation and verbal reasoning1 in his suspicion of mysticism1 in his calm reasonableness1 and in his ready submission to truth1 even when truth was incapable of being fully reduced to system by man4 ,the delight he took in exercising reason in regard to everything he did was what his friend ,pierre ,coste remarked in ,locke's daily life at ,otes4 ,he went about the most trifling things always with some good reason4 ,above all things he loved order2 and he had got the way of observing it in everything with wonderful exactness4 ,as he always kept the useful in his eye in all his disquisitions1 he esteemed the employments of men only in proportion to the good they were capable of producing2 for which cause he had no great value for the critics who waste their lives in composing words and phrases in coming to the choice of a various reading1 in a passage that has after all nothing important in it4 ,he cared yet less for those professed disputants1 who1 being taken up with the desire of coming off with victory1 justify themselves behind the ambiguity of a word1 to give their adversaries the more trouble4 ,and whenever he had to deal with this sort of folks1 if he did not beforehand take a strong resolution of keeping his temper1 he quickly fell into a passion2 for he was naturally choleric1 but his anger never lasted long4 ,if he retained any resentment it was against himself1 for having given way to so ridiculous a passion2 which1 as he used to say1 may do a great deal of harm1 but never yet did anyone the least good4 ,large1 round-about common sense1 intellectual strength directed by a virtuous purpose1 not subtle or daring speculation sustained by an idealizing faculty1 in which he was deficient1 is what we find in ,locke4 ,defect in speculative imagination appears when he encounters the vast and complex final problem of the universe in its organic unity4 ,locke is apt to be forgotten now1 because in his own generation he so well discharged the intellectual mission of initiating criticism of human knowledge1 and of diffusing the spirit of free inquiry and universal toleration which has since profoundly affected the civilized world4 ,he has not bequeathed an imposing system1 hardly even a striking discovery in metaphysics1 but he is a signal example in the ,anglo-,saxon world of the love of attainable truth for the sake of truth and goodness4 ,if ,locke made few discoveries1 ,socrates made none4 ,but both are memorable in the record of human progress4 ,in the inscription on his tomb1 prepared by himself1 ,locke refers to his books as a true representation of what he was4 ,they are concerned with ,social ,economy1 ,christianity1 ,education and ,philosophy1 besides ,miscellaneous writings4 ,i4 ,,social ,,economy4--7#a7 ,epistola de ,tolerantia 7#afhi1 translated into ,english in the same year74 7#b7 ,two ,treatises on ,government 7#afij7 7the ,patriarcha of ,filmer1 to which the ,first ,treatise was a reply1 appeared in #afhj74 7#c7 ,a ,second ,letter concerning ,toleration 7#afij74 7#d7 ,some ,considerations on the ,consequence of ,lowering the ,rate of ,interest and ,raising the ,value of ,money 7#afia74 7#e7 ,a ,third ,letter for ,toleration 7#afib74 7#f7 ,short ,observations on a printed paper entitled1 ,for encouraging the ,coining of ,silver ,money in ,england1 and after for ,keeping it here 7#afie74 7#g7 ,further ,considerations concerning ,raising the ,value of ,money 7#afie7 7occasioned by a ,report containing an ,essay for the ,amendment of ,silver ,coins1 published that year by ,william ,lowndes1 secretary for the ,treasury74 7#h7 ,a ,fourth ,letter for ,toleration 7#agjf1 posthumous74 ,,ii4 ,,christianity4--7#a7 ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity as delivered in the ,scriptures 7#afie74 7#b7 ,a ,vindication of the ,reasonableness of ,christianity from ,mr ,edwards's ,reflections 7#afie74 7#c7 ,a ,second ,vindication of the ,reasonableness of ,christianity 7#afig74 7#d7 ,a ,paraphrase and ,notes on the ,epistles of ,st ,paul to the ,galatians1 ,first and ,second ,corinthians1 ,romans and ,ephesians4 ,to which is prefixed an ,essay for the understanding of ,st ,paul's ,epistles by consulting ,st ,paul himself 7#agje-agjg1 posthumous74 7#e7 ,a ,discourse of ,miracles 7#agaf1 posthumous74 ,,iii4 ,,education4--7#a7 ,some ,thoughts concerning ,education 7#afic74 7#b7 ,the ,conduct of the ,understanding 7#agjf1 posthumous74 7#c7 ,some ,thoughts concerning ,reading and ,study for a ,gentleman 7#agjf1 posthumous74 7#d7 ,instructions for the ,conduct of a ,young ,gentleman 7#agjf1 posthumous74 7#e7 ,of ,study 7written in ,france in ,locke's journal1 and published in ,l4 ,king's ,life of ,locke in #ahcj74 ,,iv4 ,,philosophy4--7#a7 ,an ,essay concerning ,human ,understanding1 in four books 7#afij74 7#b7 ,a ,letter to the ,bishop of ,worcester concerning some passages relating to ,mr ,locke's ,essay of ,human ,understanding in a late ,discourse of his ,lordship's in ,vindication of the ,trinity 7#afig74 7#c7 ,mr ,locke's ,reply to the ,bishop of ,worcester's ,answer to his ,letter 7#afig74 7#d7 ,mr ,locke's ,reply to the ,bishop of ,worcester's ,answer to his ,second ,letter 7#afii74 7#e7 ,an ,examination of ,father ,malebranche's ,opinion of ,seeing all ,things in ,god 7#agjf1 posthumous74 7#f7 ,remarks upon ,some of ,mr ,norris's ,books1 wherein he asserts ,father ,malebranche's ,opinion of ,seeing all ,things in ,god 7#agbj1 posthumous74 ,,miscellaneous4--7#a7 ,a ,new ,method of a ,common ,place ,book 7#afhf74 ,this was ,locke's first article in the ,bibliothque of ,le ,clerc2 his other contributions to it are uncertain1 except the ,epitome of the ,essay1 7in #afhh74 7#b7 ,the ,fundamental ,constitutions of ,carolina 7prepared in #afgc when ,locke was ,lord ,shaftesbury's secretary at ,exeter ,house1 remarkable for recognition of the principle of toleration1 published in #agjf1 in the posthumous collection74 7#c7 ,memoirs relating to the ,life of ,anthony1 ,first ,earl of ,shaftesbury 7#agjf74 7#d7 ,elements of ,natural ,philosophy 7#agjf74 7#e7 ,observations upon the ,growth and ,culture of ,vines and ,olives 7#agjf74 7#f7 ,rules of a ,society which met once a ,week1 for their improvement in ,useful ,knowledge1 and for the ,promotion of ,truth and ,christian ,charity 7#agjf74 7#g7 ,a ,letter from a ,person of ,quality to his ,friend in the ,country1 published in #ahge 7included by ,des ,maizeaux in his ,collection of ,several ,pieces of ,mr ,john ,locke's1 #agbj71 and soon afterwards burned by the common hangman by orders from the ,house of ,lords1 was disavowed by ,locke himself4 ,it may have been dictated by ,shaftesbury4 ,there are also miscellaneous writings of ,locke first published in the biographies of ,lord ,king 7#ahcj7 and of ,mr ,fox ,bourne 7#ahgf74 ,letters from ,locke to ,thoynard1 ,limborch1 ,le ,clerc1 ,guenellon1 ,molyneux1 ,collins1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 the first and the third ,lord ,shaftesbury1 ,lords ,peterborough and ,pembroke1 ,clarke of ,chipley and others are preserved1 many of them unpublished1 most of them in the keeping of ,lord ,lovelace at ,horseley ,towers1 and of ,mr ,sanford at ,nynehead in ,somerset1 or in the ,british ,museum4 ,they express the gracious courtesy and playful humour which were natural to him1 and his varied interests in human life4 ,i4 ,social ,economy4--,it has been truly said that all ,locke's writings1 even the ,essay on ,human ,understanding itself1 were occasional1 and intended directly to counteract the enemies of reason and freedom in his own age4 ,this appears in his works on social polity1 written at a time when the principles of democracy and toleration were struggling with divine right of kings1 and when the popular assertors of public liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too4 ,the state with ,locke was the deliberate outcome of free contract rather than a natural growth or organism4 ,that the people1 in the exercise of their sovereignty1 have the right to govern themselves in the way they judge to be for the common good2 and that civil government1 whatever form it assumes1 has no right to interfere with religious beliefs that are not inconsistent with civil society1 is at the foundation of his political philosophy4 ,he rested this sovereignty on virtual mutual contract on the part of the people themselves to be so governed4 ,but the terms of the contract might be modified by the sovereign people themselves1 from time to time1 in accommodation to changing circumstances4 ,he saw that things in this world were in a constant flux1 so that no society could remain long in the same state1 and that the grossest absurdities must be the issue of following custom when reason has left the custom4 ,he was always disposed to liberal ecclesiastical concessions for the sake of peace1 and he recommended harmonious co-operation with the civil magistrate in all matters of worship and government that were not expressly determined by ,scripture4 ,the social contract4 ,the attack on ,sir ,robert ,filmer in ,locke's ,first ,treatise on ,government was an anachronism4 ,the democratic principle argued for in the ,second ,treatise1 while in advance of the practice of his age1 was in parts anticipated by ,aquinas and ,bodin1 as well as by ,grotius and ,hooker4 ,its guiding principle is1 that civil rulers hold their power not absolutely but conditionally1 government being essentially a moral trust1 forfeited if the conditions are not fulfilled by the trustees4 ,this presupposes an original and necessary law of nature or reason1 as insisted on by ,hooker4 ,but it points to the constitution of civil society in the abstract rather than to the actual origin of government as a matter of fact and past history4 ,there is no historical proof that power was formally entrusted to rulers by the conscious and deliberate action of the ruled4 ,indeed ,locke seems to allow that the consent was at first tacit1 and by anterior law of nature conditional on the beneficial purpose of the trust being realized4 ,his ,treatises on ,government were meant to vindicate the ,convention parliament and the ,english revolution1 as well as to refute the ideas of absolute monarchy held by ,hobbes and ,filmer4 ,they are classics in the library of ,english constitutional law and polity4 ,religious ,toleration4 ,locke's philosophical defence of religious liberty in the four ,letters of ,toleration is the most far-reaching of his contributions to social polity4 ,he had a more modest estimate of human resources for forming true judgments in religion1 and a less pronounced opinion of the immorality of religious error1 than either the ,catholic or the ,puritan4 ,the toleration which he spent his life in arguing for involved a change from the authoritative and absolute to the relative point of view1 as regards man's means of knowledge and belief4 ,it was a protest against those who in theology peremptorily require demonstration and demand certainty where probability only is to be had4 ,the practice of universal toleration amidst increasing religious differences was an application of the conception of human understanding which governs his ,essay4 ,once a paradox it is now commonplace1 and the superabundant argument in the ,letters on ,toleration fatigues the modern reader4 ,the change is due more to ,locke himself than to anyone else4 ,free thought and liberty of conscience had indeed been pleaded for1 on various grounds1 in the century in which he lived4 ,chillingworth1 ,jeremy ,taylor1 ,glanvill and other philosophical thinkers in the ,church of ,england urged toleration in the state1 in conjunction with wide comprehension in the church1 on the ground of our necessary intellectual limitation and inability to reach demonstration in theological debates4 ,puritans like ,owen and ,goodwin1 whose idea of ecclesiastical comprehension was dogmatic and narrow1 were ready to accept sectarian variety1 because it was their duty to allow many religions in the nation1 but only one form of theology within their own sect4 ,the existence of separate nationalities1 on the other hand1 was the justification of national churches according to the latitudinarian churchmen with whom ,locke associated3 a national church comprehensive in creed1 and thus co-extensive with the nation was their ideal4 ,locke went far to unite in a higher principle elements in the broad ,anglican and the ,puritan theories1 while he recognized the individual liberty of thought which distinguishes the national church of ,england4 ,a constant sense of the limits of human understanding was at the bottom of his arguments for tolerance4 ,he had no objection to a national establishment of religion1 provided that it was comprehensive enough1 and was really the nation organized to promote goodness2 not to protect the metaphysical subtleties of sectarian theologians4 ,the recall of the national religion to the simplicity of the gospels would1 he hoped1 make toleration of nonconformists unnecessary1 as few would then remain4 ,to the atheist alone ,locke refuses full toleration1 on the ground that social obligation can have no hold over him1 for the taking away of ,god dissolves all4 ,he argued1 too1 against full toleration of the ,church of ,rome in ,england1 on the ground of its unnational allegiance to a foreign sovereign4 ,the unfitness of persecution as a means of propagating truth is copiously insisted on by ,locke4 ,persecution can only transform a man into a hypocrite2 belief is legitimately formed only by discernment of sufficient evidence2 apart from evidence1 a man has no right to control the understanding2 he cannot determine arbitrarily what his neighbours must believe4 ,thus ,locke's pleas for religious toleration resolve at last into his philosophical view of the foundation and limits of human knowledge4 ,,ii4 ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity4--,the principles that governed ,locke's social polity largely determined his attitude to ,christianity4 ,his latitudinarianism was the result of extraordinary reverence for truth1 and a perception that knowledge may be sufficient for the purposes of human life while it falls infinitely short of speculative completeness4 ,he never loses sight of essential reasonableness as the only ground on which ,christian faith can ultimately rest4 ,but ,locke accepted ,holy ,scripture as infallible with the reverence of a ,puritan4 ,it has ,god for its author1 salvation for its end1 and truth without any mixture of error for its matter4 ,yet he did not1 like many ,puritans1 mean ,scripture as interpreted by himself or by his sect4 ,and faith in its infallibility was combined in ,locke with deep distrust in enthusiasm4 ,this predisposed him to regard physical miracles as the solid criterion for distinguishing reasonable religious conviction from inclinations1 fancies and strong assurances4 ,assent in religion as in everything else he could justify only on the ground of its harmony with reason2 professed illumination without search1 and certainty without proof was to him a sign of absence of the divine spirit in the professor4 ,confidence that we are right1 he would say1 is in itself no proof that we are right3 when ,god asks assent to the truth of a proposition in religion1 he either shows us its intrinsic rationality by ordinary means1 or he offers miraculous proof of the reality of which we need reasonable evidence4 ,but we must know what we mean by miracle4 ,reasonableness1 in short1 must always at last be our guide4 ,his own faith in ,christianity rested on its moral excellence when it is received in its primitive simplicity1 combined with the miracles which accompanied its original promulgation4 ,but even for those books which have the attestation of miracles to confirm their being from ,god1 the miracles1 he says1 are to be judged by the doctrine1 and not the doctrine by the miracles4 ,miracles alone cannot vindicate the divinity of immoral doctrine4 ,locke's ,reasonableness of ,christianity was an attempt to recall religion from the crude speculations of theological sects1 destructive of peace among ,christians1 to its original simplicity2 but this is apt to conceal its transcendent mystery4 ,those who practically acknowledge the supremacy of ,jesus as ,messiah accept all that is essential to the ,christianity of ,locke4 ,his own ,christian belief1 sincere and earnest1 was more the outcome of the common sense which1 largely through him1 moulded the prudential theology of ,england in the #ahth century1 than of the nobler elements present in ,more1 ,cudworth and other religious thinkers of the preceding age1 or afterwards in ,law and ,berkeley1 ,coleridge and ,schleiermacher4 ,,iii4 ,education4--,locke has his place among classic writers on the theory and art of ,education4 ,his contribution may be taken as either an introduction to or an application of the ,essay on ,human ,understanding4 ,in the ,thoughts on ,education imaginative sentiment is never allowed to weigh against utility2 information is subordinate to the formation of useful character2 the part which habit plays in individuals is always kept in view2 the dependence of intelligence and character1 which it is the purpose of education to improve1 upon health of body is steadily inculcated2 to make children happy in undergoing education is a favourite precept2 accumulating facts without exercising thought1 and without accustoming the youthful mind to look for evidence1 is always referred to as a cardinal vice4 ,wisdom more than much learning is what he requires in the teacher4 ,in instruction he gives the first place to that which may direct us to heaven1 and the second to the study of prudence1 or discreet conduct1 and management of ourselves in the several occurrences of our lives1 which most assists our quiet prosperous passage through this present life4 ,the infinity of real existence1 in contrast with the necessary finitude of human understanding and experience1 is always in his thoughts4 ,this disproportionateness between the human mind and the universe of reality imposes deliberation in the selection of studies1 and disregard for those which lie out of the way of a wise man4 ,knowledge of what other men have thought is perhaps of too little account with ,locke4 ,it is an idle and useless thing to make it one's business to study what have been other men's sentiments in matters where only reason is to be judge4 ,in his ,conduct of the ,understanding the pupil is invited to occupy the point at which a full view of all that relates to a question is to be had1 and at which alone a rational discernment of truth is possible4 ,the uneducated mass of mankind1 he complains1 either seldom reason at all1 or put passion in the place of reason1 or for want of large1 sound1 round-about sense they direct their minds only to one part of the evidence1 converse with one sort of men1 read but one sort of books1 and will not come in the hearing of but one sort of notions1 and so carve out to themselves a little ,goshen in the intellectual world1 where light shines1 and1 as they conclude1 day blesses them2 but the rest of the vast expansion they give up to night and darkness1 and avoid coming near it4 ,hasty judgment1 bias1 absence of an a priori indifference to what the evidence may in the end require us to conclude1 undue regard for authority1 excessive love for custom and antiquity1 indolence and sceptical despair are among the states of mind marked by him as most apt to interfere with the formation of beliefs in harmony with the ,universal ,reason that is active in the universe4 ,,iv4 ,philosophy4--,the ,essay ,concerning ,human ,understanding embodies ,locke's philosophy4 ,it was the first attempt on a great scale1 and in the ,baconian spirit1 to estimate critically the certainty and the adequacy of human knowledge1 when confronted with ,god and the universe4 ,the ,introduction to the ,essay is the keynote to the whole4 ,the ill-fortune of men in their past endeavours to comprehend themselves and their environment is attributed in a great measure to their disposition to extend their inquiries into matters beyond the reach of human understanding4 ,to inquire with critical care into the original1 certainty and extent of human knowledge1 together with the grounds and degrees of belief1 opinion and assent1 is accordingly ,locke's design in this ,essay4 ,excluding from his enquiry the physical consideration of the mind1 he sought to make a faithful report1 based on an introspective study of consciousness1 as to how far a human understanding of the universe can reach4 ,although his report might show that our knowledge at its highest must be far short of a universal or perfect comprehension of whatsoever is1 it might still be sufficient for us1 because suited to our individual state4 ,the light of reason1 the candle of the ,lord1 that is set up in us may be found to shine bright enough for all our purposes4 ,if human understanding cannot fully solve the infinite problem of the universe1 man may at least see that at no stage of his finite experience is he necessarily the sport of chance1 and that he can practically secure his own wellbeing4 ,the last book of the ,essay1 which treats of ,knowledge and ,probability1 is concerned more directly than the three preceding ones with ,locke's professed design4 ,it has been suggested that ,locke may have begun with this book4 ,it contains few references to the foregoing parts of the ,essay1 and it might have appeared separately without being much less intelligible than it is4 ,the other books1 concerned chiefly with ideas and words1 are more abstract1 and may have opened gradually on his mind as he studied more closely the subject treated in the fourth book4 ,for ,locke saw that the ultimate questions about our knowledge and its extent presuppose questions about ideas4 ,without ideas knowledge is impossible4 ,idea is thus a leading term in the ,essay4 ,it is used in a way peculiar to himself--the term which1 ,i think1 stands best for whatsoever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks or whatever it is which the mind can be employed about4 ,but ideas themselves are1 he reminds us1 neither true nor false1 being nothing but bare appearances1 phenomena as we might call them4 ,truth and falsehood belong only to assertions or denials concerning ideas1 that is1 to our interpretations of our ideas according to their mutual relations4 ,innate ideas4 ,that none of our ideas are innate is the argument contained in the first book4 ,this means that the human mind1 before any ideas are present to it1 is a tabula rasa3 it needs the quickening of ideas to become intellectually alive4 ,the inward purpose of this famous argument is apt to be overlooked4 ,it has been criticized as if it was a speculative controversy between empiricism and intellectualism4 ,for this ,locke himself is partly to blame4 ,it is not easy to determine the antagonist he had in view4 ,lord ,herbert is referred to as a defender of innateness4 ,locke was perhaps too little read in the literature of philosophy to do full justice to those more subtle thinkers who1 from ,plato downwards1 have recognized the need for categories of the understanding and presuppositions of reason in the constitution of knowledge4 ,innate1 ,lord ,shaftesbury says1 is a word ,mr ,locke poorly plays on4 ,for the real question is not about the time when ideas entered the mind1 but whether the constitution of man be such that1 being adult and grown up1 the ideas of order and administration of a ,god will not infallibly and necessarily spring up in him4 ,this ,locke himself sometimes seems to allow4 ,that there are certain propositions1 we find him saying1 which1 though the soul from the beginning1 or when a man is born1 does not know1 yet1 by assistance from the outward senses1 and the help of some previous cultivation1 it may afterwards come certainly to know the truth of1 is no more than what ,i have affirmed in my first book 7,epistle to ,reader1 in second edition74 ,and much of our knowledge1 as he shows in the fourth book1 is rational insight1 immediate or else demonstrable1 and thus intellectually necessary in its constitution4 ,what ,locke really objects to is1 that any of our supposed knowledge should claim immunity from free criticism4 ,he argues in the first book against the innateness of our knowledge of ,god and of morality2 yet in the fourth book he finds that the existence of ,god is demonstrable1 being supported by causal necessity1 without which there can be no knowledge2 and he also maintains that morality is as demonstrable as pure mathematics4 ,the positions are not inconsistent4 ,the demonstrable rational necessity1 instead of being innate1 or conscious from our birth1 may lie latent or subconscious in the individual mind2 but for all that1 when we gradually become more awake intellectually1 such truths are seen to carry their own evidence along with them4 ,even in the first book he appeals to the common reason1 which he calls common sense4 ,he would be thought void of common sense who asked1 on the one side1 or1 on the other1 went to give a reason1 why 'it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be4' ,it carries its own light and evidence with it1 and needs no other proof3 he that understands the terms assents to it for its own sake1 or else nothing else will ever be able to prevail with him to do it 7bk4 i4 chap4 #c1 #d74 ,the truth is that neither ,locke1 on the one hand1 nor the intellectualists of the #agth century1 on the other1 expressed their meaning with enough of precision2 if they had1 ,locke's argument would probably have taken a form less open to the charge of mere empiricism4 ,locke believed that in attacking innate principles he was pleading for universal reasonableness instead of blind reliance on authority1 and was thus1 as he says1 not pulling up the foundations of knowledge1 but laying those foundations surer4 ,when men heard that there were propositions that could not be doubted1 it was a short and easy way to assume that what are only arbitrary prejudices are innate certainties1 and therefore must be accepted unconditionally4 ,this eased the lazy from the pains of search1 stopped the inquiry of the doubtful1 concerning all that was once styled innate4 ,it was no small advantage to those who affected to be masters and teachers to make this the principle of principles--that principles must not be questioned4 ,the assumption that they were innate was enough to take men off the use of their own reason and judgment1 and to put them upon believing and taking upon trust without further examination4444 ,nor is it a small power it gives one man over another to have the authority to make a man swallow that for an innate principle which may serve his purpose who teacheth them 7bk4 i4 chap4 #d1 #bd74 ,genesis of ideas4 ,the second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis of our ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it4 ,the hypothesis is1 that all human ideas1 even the most complex and abstract and sublime1 ultimately depend upon experience4 ,otherwise1 what we take to be ideas are only empty words4 ,here the important point is what human experience involves4 ,locke says that our ideas all come1 either from the five senses or from reflective consciousness2 and he proposes to show that even those concerned with the ,infinite depend at last on one or other of these two sources3 our complex ideas are all made up of simple ideas1 either from without or from within4 ,the verification of this hypothesis1 offered in the thirteenth and following chapters of the second book1 goes to show in detail that even those ideas which are most abstruse1 how remote soever they may seem from original data of outward sense1 or of inner consciousness1 are only such as the understanding frames to itself by repeating and joining together simple ideas that it had at first1 either from perceiving objects of sense1 or from reflection upon its own operations4 ,to prove this1 our thoughts of space1 time1 infinity1 power1 substance1 personal identity1 causality1 and others which seem most remote from the supposed original are examined in a plain historical method1 and shown to depend either on 7a7 perception of things external1 through the five senses1 or on 7b7 reflection upon operations of the mind within4 ,reflection1 though it be not sense1 as having nothing to do with external objects1 is yet1 he says1 very like it1 and might properly enough be called internal sense4 ,but the suggestion that sense might designate both the springs of experience is misleading1 when we find in the sequel how much ,locke tacitly credits reflection with4 ,the ambiguity of his language makes opposite interpretations of this cardinal part of the ,essay possible2 the best we can do is to compare one part with another1 and in doubtful cases to give him the benefit of the doubt4 ,although the second book is a sort of inventory of our ideas1 as distinguished from the certainty and boundaries of our knowledge1 ,locke even here makes the assumption that the simple ideas of the five senses are practically qualities of things which exist without us1 and that the mental operations discovered by reflection are those of a person continuously existing4 ,he thus relieves himself of the difficulty of having at the outset to explain how the immediate data of outward sense and reflection are accepted as qualities of things and persons4 ,he takes this as a fact4 ,such1 according to ,locke1 are the only simple ideas which can appear even in the sublimest human speculations4 ,but the mind1 in becoming gradually stored with its simple ideas is able to elaborate them in numberless modes and relations2 although it is not in the power of the most exalted wit or enlarged understanding to invent or frame any new simple idea1 not taken in in one or the other of these two ways4 ,all that man can imagine about the universe or about ,god is necessarily confined to them4 ,for proof of this ,locke would have any one try to fancy a taste which had never affected his palate1 or to frame the idea of a scent he had never felt1 or an operation of mind1 divine or human1 foreign to all human consciousness4 ,qualities of matter4 ,the contrast and correlation of these two data of experience is suggested in the chapter on the qualities of matter in which we are introduced to a noteworthy vein of speculation 7bk4 ii4 chap4 #h74 ,this chapter1 on things and their qualities1 looks like an interpolation in an analysis of mere ideas4 ,locke here treats simple ideas of the five senses as qualities of outward things4 ,and the sense data are1 he finds1 partly 7a7 revelations of external things themselves in their mathematical relations1 and partly 7b7 sensations1 boundless in variety1 which are somehow awakened in us through contact and collision with things relatively to their mathematical relations4 ,locke calls the former sort primary1 original or essential qualities of matter1 and the others secondary or derived qualities4 ,the primary1 which are quantities rather than qualities1 are inseparable from matter1 and virtually identical with the ideas we have of them4 ,on the other hand1 there is nothing perceived in the mathematical relations of bodies which in the least resembles their secondary qualities4 ,if there were no sentient beings in existence1 the secondary qualities would cease to exist1 except perhaps as unknown modes of the primary1 or1 if not1 as something still more obscure4 ,on the other hand1 solidity1 extension1 figure and motion would1 he assumes1 be really in the world as they are1 whether there were any sensible being to perceive them or not4 ,matter4 ,thus far the outcome of what ,locke teaches about matter is1 that it is ,something capable of being expressed in terms of mathematical quantity1 and also in terms of our own sensations4 ,a further step was to suggest the ultimate dependence of the secondary qualities of bodies upon the bulk1 figures1 number1 situation and motions of the solid parts of which the bodies consist1 these mathematical or primary qualities existing as we think of them whether or not they are perceived4 ,this ,locke proposes in a hesitating way4 ,for we1 not knowing what particular size1 figure and texture of parts they are on which depend1 and from which result1 those qualities which make our complex idea1 for example1 of gold1 it is impossible we should know what other qualities result from1 or are incompatible with1 the same constitution of the insensible parts of gold2 and so consequently must always coexist with that complex idea we have of it1 or else are inconsistent with it4 ,some of the most remarkable chapters in the second book concern what may be called crucial instances in verification of its fundamental hypothesis of the dependence of human knowledge upon the simple ideas presented in our dual experience 7bk4 ii4 ch4 #ac-bh74 ,they carry us towards the ultimate mysteries which attract meditative minds4 ,the hypothesis1 that even our most profound and sublime speculations are all limited to data of the senses and of reflection1 is crucially tested by the modes and substances and relations under which1 in various degrees of complexity1 we somehow find ourselves obliged to conceive those simple phenomena4 ,such are modes of quantity in space1 and time and number1 under which ,locke reports that we find ourselves mentally impelled towards immensity1 eternity and the innumerable--in a word1 towards ,infinity which seems to transcend quantity2 then there is the complex thought of ,substance1 to which we find ourselves mysteriously impelled1 when the simple phenomena of the senses come to be regarded as qualities of something2 again there is the obscure idea of the identity of persons1 notwithstanding their constant changes of state2 and there is1 above all1 the inevitable tendency we somehow have to refund a change into what we call its ,cause1 with the associated idea of active power4 ,locke begins with our complex ideas of ,space1 ,succession or ,time1 and ,number4 ,immensity and endlessness and infinity4 ,space1 he says1 appears when we use our senses of sight and touch2 succession he finds suggested by all the changing phenomena of sense1 and by what passes in our minds2 number is suggested by every object of our senses1 and every thought of our minds1 by everything that either doth exist or can be imagined4 ,the modifications of which these are susceptible he reports to be inexhaustible and truly infinite1 extension alone affording a boundless field to the mathematicians4 ,but the mystery latent in our ideas of space and time is1 that something in the mind irresistibly hinders us from allowing the possibility of any limit to either4 ,we find ourselves1 when we try1 compelled to lose our positive ideas of finite spaces in the negative idea of ,immensity or ,boundlessness1 and our positive ideas of finite times in the negative thought of ,endlessness4 ,we have never seen1 and we cannot imagine1 an object whose extent is boundless4 ,yet we find when we reflect that something forces us to think that space and time must be unlimited4 ,thus ,locke seems by implication to acknowledge something added by the mind to the original simple ideas of extension and succession2 though he finds that what is added is not positively conceivable4 ,when we reflect on immensity and eternity1 we find them negations of all that is imaginable2 and that whether we try infinite addition or infinite subdivision4 ,he accepts this fact2 he does not inquire why mind finds itself obliged to add without limit and to divide without limit4 ,he simply reports that immensity and eternity are inevitable negative ideas1 and also that every endeavour to realize them in positive images must be an attempt to represent as quantity what is beyond quantity4 ,after all our additions we are as far from the infinite idea as we were at the beginning4 ,substance and personality4 ,locke is too faithful to facts to overlook the ultimate mysteries in human experience4 ,this is further illustrated in his acknowledgment of the inconceivable that is at the root of our idea of ,substance4 ,he tries to phenomenalize it1 and thus resolve it into simple ideas2 but he finds that it cannot be phenomenalized1 and yet that we cannot dispense with it4 ,an unsubstantiated succession of phenomena1 without a centre of unity to which they are referable as qualities1 is unintelligible3 we cannot have a language of adjectives without nouns4 ,locke had some apprehension of this transcendent intellectual obligation4 ,according to his report1 the mind always obliges us to suppose ,something beyond positive phenomena to which the phenomena must be attributed2 but he was perplexed by this confused negative idea4 ,so for him the word substance means only an uncertain supposition of we know not what4 ,if one were to ask him what the substance is in which this colour and that taste or smell inhere1 he would find himself in a difficulty like that of the ,indian1 who1 after saying that the world rested on an elephant1 and the elephant on a broad-backed tortoise1 could only suppose the tortoise to rest on ',something1 ,i know not what4' ,the attempt to conceive it is like the attempt positively to conceive immensity or eternity3 we are involved in an endless1 ultimately incomprehensible1 regress4 ,we fail when we try either positively to phenomenalize substance or to dispense with the superphenomenal abstraction4 ,our only positive idea is of an aggregate of phenomena4 ,and it is only thus1 he says1 that we can approach a positive conception of ,god1 namely by enlarging indefinitely some of the simple ideas we received from reflection4 ,why man must remain in this mental predicament1 ,locke did not inquire4 ,he only reported the fact4 ,he likewise struggled bravely to be faithful to fact in his report of the state in which we find ourselves when we try to conceive continued personal identity4 ,the paradoxes in which he here gets involved illustrate this 7bk4 ii4 ch4 #bg74 ,causality4 ,locke's thoughts about ,causality and ,active ,power are especially noteworthy1 for he rests our knowledge of ,god and of the external universe on those ultimate ideas4 ,the intellectual demand for the cause of an event is what we find we cannot help having2 yet it is a demand for what in the end the mind cannot fully grasp4 ,locke is content to trace the idea of cause and effect1 as far as mere natural science goes1 to our constant observation that qualities and finite substances begin to exist1 and receive their existence from other beings which produce them4 ,we find that this connexion is what gives intelligibility to ceaseless and what seemed chaotic changes1 converting them into the divinely concatenated system which we call the universe4 ,locke seems hardly to realize all that is implied in scientific prevision or expectation of change4 ,anything1 as far as constant observation tells us1 might a priori have been the natural cause of anything2 and no finite number of observed sequences1 per se1 can guarantee universality and necessity4 ,the idea of power1 or active causation1 on the other hand1 is got1 he acknowledges1 not through the senses1 but through our consciousness of our own voluntary agency1 and therefore through reflection 7bk4 ii4 ch4 #ba74 ,in bodies we observe no active agency1 only a sustained natural order in the succession of passive sensuous phenomena4 ,the true source of change in the material world must be analogous to what we are conscious of when we exert volition4 ,locke here unconsciously approaches the spiritual view of active power in the physical universe afterwards taken by ,berkeley1 forming the constructive principle of his philosophy4 ,ideas and words4 ,locke's book about ,ideas leads naturally to his ,third ,book which is concerned with ,words1 or the sensible signs of ideas4 ,here he analyses abstract ideas1 and instructively illustrates the confusion apt to be produced in them by the inevitable imperfection of words4 ,he unfolds the relations between verbal signs and the several sorts of ideas2 words being the means for enabling us to treat ideas as typical1 abstract and general4 ,some parts of this third book1 concerning ,words1 ,locke tells his friend ,molyneux1 though the thoughts were easy and clear enough1 yet cost me more pains to express than all the rest of my ,essay4 ,and therefore ,i should not much wonder1 if there be in some places of it obscurity and doubtfulness4 ,theory of knowledge4 ,the ,fourth ,book1 about ,knowledge proper and ,probability1 closes the ,essay4 ,knowledge1 he says1 is perception of relations among ideas2 it is expressed in our affirmations and negations2 and real knowledge is discernment of the relations of ideas to what is real4 ,in the foregoing part of the ,essay he had dealt with ideas and simple apprehension1 here he is concerned with intuitive judgment and demonstrative reasoning1 also with judgments and reasonings about matters of fact4 ,at the end of this patient search among our ideas1 he supposes the reader apt to complain that he has been all this while only building a castle in the air1 and to ask what the purpose of all this stir is1 if we are not thereby carried beyond mere ideas4 ,if it be true that knowledge lies only in the agreement or disagreement of ideas1 the visions of an enthusiast and the reasonings of a sober man will be equally certain4 ,it is no matter how things themselves are 7bk4 iv4 #d74 ,this gives the keynote to the fourth book4 ,it does not1 however1 carry him into a critical analysis of the rational constitution of knowledge1 like ,kant4 ,hume had not yet shown the sceptical objections against conclusions which ,locke accepted without criticism4 ,the subtle agnostic1 who doubted reason because reason could not be supported in the end by empirical evidence1 was less in his view than persons blindly resting on authority or prejudice4 ,total scepticism he would probably have regarded as unworthy of the serious attention of a wise man4 ,where we perceive the agreement or disagreement of any of our ideas there is certain knowledge2 and wherever we are sure these ideas agree with the reality of things1 there is certain real knowledge 7bk4 iv4 ch4 #d74 ,four sorts of knowable relations4 ,locke's report about human knowledge and its narrow extent forms the first thirteen chapters of the fourth book4 ,the remainder of the book is concerned for the most part with the probabilities on which human life practically turns1 as he and ,butler are fond of reminding us4 ,as regards kinds of knowledge1 he finds that all knowledge we are capable of must be assertion or denial of some one of three sorts of relation among our ideas themselves1 or else of relations between our ideas and reality that exists independently of us and our ideas4 ,accordingly1 knowledge is concerned either with 7a7 relations of identity and difference among ideas1 as when we say that blue is not yellow2 or 7b7 with mathematical relations1 as that two triangles upon equal bases between two parallels must be equal2 or 7c7 in assertions that one quality does or does not coexist with another in the same substance1 as that iron is susceptible of magnetical impressions1 or that ice is not hot2 or 7d7 with ontological reality1 independent of our perceptions1 as that ,god exists or ,i exist or the universe exists4 ,the first sort is analytical2 mathematical and ethical knowledge represents the second2 physical science forms the third2 real knowledge of self1 ,god and the world constitutes the fourth4 ,intuition and demonstration4 ,locke found important differences in the way in which knowledge of any sort is reached4 ,in some instances the known relation is self-evident1 as when we judge intuitively that a circle cannot be a triangle1 or that three must be more than two4 ,in other cases the known relation is perceived to be intellectually necessary through the medium of premisses1 as in a mathematical demonstration4 ,all that is strictly knowledge is reached in these two ways4 ,but there is a third sort1 namely sense-perception1 which hardly deserves the name4 ,for our perceptions of the particular existence of finite beings without us go beyond mere probability1 yet they are not purely rational4 ,there is nothing self-contradictory in the supposition that our perceptions of things external are illusions1 although we are somehow unable to doubt them4 ,we find ourselves inevitably conscious of a different sort of perception1 when we actually see the sun by day and when we only imagine the sun at night4 ,locke next inquired to what extent knowledge--in the way either of intuitive certainty1 demonstrative certainty1 or sense perception--is possible1 in regard to each of the four 7already mentioned7 sorts of knowable relation4 ,there is only one of the four in which our knowledge is co-extensive with our ideas4 ,it is that of identity and diversity3 we cannot be conscious at all without distinguishing1 and every affirmation necessarily implies negation4 ,the second sort of knowable relation is sometimes intuitively and sometimes demonstrably discernible4 ,morality1 ,locke thinks1 as well as mathematical quantity1 is capable of being demonstrated4 ,where there is no property there is no injustice1 is an example of a proposition as certain as any demonstration in ,euclid4 ,only we are more apt to be biassed1 and thus to leave reason in abeyance1 in dealing with questions of morality than in dealing with problems in mathematics4 ,turning from abstract mathematical and moral relations to concrete relations of coexistence and succession among phenomena--the third sort of knowable relation--,locke finds the light of pure reason disappear2 although these relations form the greatest and most important part of what we desire to know4 ,of these1 including as they do all inductive science1 he reports that demonstrable knowledge is very short1 if indeed we have any at all2 and are not thrown wholly on presumptions of probability1 or else left in ignorance4 ,man cannot attain perfect and infallible science of bodies4 ,for natural science depends1 he thinks1 on knowledge of the relations between their secondary qualities on the one hand1 and the mathematical qualities of their atoms on the other1 or else on something yet more remote from our comprehension4 ,now1 as perception of these atoms and their relations is beyond us1 we must be satisfied with inductive presumptions1 for which experimental verification affords1 after all1 only conclusions that wider experience may prove to be inadequate4 ,but this moral venture ,locke accepts as sufficient for our purposes4 ,real existence4 ,our knowledge under ,locke's fourth category of relations--real existence--includes 7a7 intuitive perceptions of our own existence2 7b7 demonstrable certainty of the existence of ,god2 and 7c7 actual perception of the existence of surrounding things1 as long as1 but only as long as the things are present to sense4 ,if ,i doubt all other things1 that very doubt makes me perceive my own existence1 and will not suffer me to doubt of that 7iv4 #i4 #c74 ,faith in the existence of ,god is virtually with ,locke an expression of faith in the principle of active causality in its ultimate universality4 ,each person knows that he now exists1 and is convinced that he had a beginning2 with not less intuitive certainty he knows that nothing can no more produce any real being than it can be equal to two right angles4 ,his final conclusion is that there must be eternally a most powerful and most knowing ,being1 in which1 as the origin of all1 must be contained all the perfections that can ever after exist1 and out of which can come only what it has already in itself2 so that as the cause of my mind1 it must be ,mind4 ,there is thus causal necessity for ,eternal ,mind1 or what we call ,god4 ,this is cautiously qualified thus in a letter to ,anthony ,collins1 written by ,locke a few months before he died3 ,though ,i call the thinking faculty in me 'mind1' yet ,i cannot1 because of that name1 equal it in anything to that infinite and incomprehensible ,being1 which1 for want of right and distinct conceptions1 is called ',mind' also4 ,but the immanence of ,god in the things and persons that compose the universal order1 with what this implies1 is a conception foreign to ,locke1 whose habitual conception was of an extra-mundane deity1 the dominant conception in the #ahth century4 ,knowledge of the external world4 ,turning from our knowledge of ,spirit to our knowledge of ,matter1 nearly all that one can affirm or deny about things external is1 according to ,locke1 not knowledge but venture or presumptive trust4 ,we have1 strictly speaking1 no knowledge of real beings beyond our own self-conscious existence1 the existence of ,god1 and the existence of objects of sense as long as they are actually present to sense4 ,when ,i see an external object at a distance1 a man for instance1 ,i cannot but be satisfied of his existence while ,i am looking at him4 7,locke might have added that when one only 'sees a man' it is merely his visible qualities that are perceived2 his other qualities are as little 'actual present sensations' as if he were out of the range of sense47 ,but when the man leaves me alone1 ,i cannot be certain that he still exists4 ,there is no necessary connexion between his existence a minute since 7when he was present to any sense of sight7 and his existence now 7when he is absent from all my senses72 by a thousand ways he may have ceased to be4 ,i have not that certainty of his continued existence which we call knowledge2 though the great likelihood of it puts it past doubt4 ,but this is but probability and not knowledge 7chap4 #aa1 #i74 ,accordingly1 purely rational science of external ,nature is1 according to ,locke1 impossible4 ,all our interpretations of nature are inadequate2 only reasonable probabilities1 not final rational certainties4 ,this boundless region affords at the best probabilities1 ultimately grounded on moral faith1 all beyond lies within the veil4 ,such is ,locke's plain1 matter-of-fact account of the knowledge of the ,real that is open to man4 ,the rationale of probability4 ,we learn little from ,locke as to the rationale of the probabilities on which man thus depends when he deals with the past1 the distant or the future4 ,the concluding chapters of the fourth book contain wise advice to those whose lives are passed in an ever-changing environment1 for avoiding the frequent risk of error in their conclusions1 with or without the help of syllogism1 the office of which1 as a means of discovery1 is here critically considered4 ,locke and ,hume4 ,investigation of the foundation of inductive inference was resumed by ,hume where ,locke left it4 ,with a still humbler view of human reason than ,locke's1 ,hume proposed as a subject worthy of curiosity1 to inquire into the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter of fact1 beyond the present testimony of our senses and the records of our memory2 a part of philosophy that has been little cultivated either by the ancients or the moderns4 ,hume argues that custom is a sufficient practical explanation of this gradual enlargement of our objective experience1 and that no deeper explanation is open to man4 ,all beyond each present transitory impression and the stores of memory is therefore reached blindly1 through custom or habitual association4 ,associative tendency1 individual or inherited1 has since been the favourite constructive factor of human experience in ,empirical ,philosophy4 ,this factor is not prominent in ,locke's ,essay4 ,a short chapter on association of ideas was added to the second book in the fourth edition4 ,and the tendency to associate is there presented1 not as the fundamental factor of human knowledge1 but as a chief cause of human error4 ,locke and ,kant4 ,kant's critical analysis of pure reason is more foreign to ,locke than the attempts of #ahth- and #aith-century associationists and evolutionists to explain experience and science4 ,kant's aim was to show the necessary rational constitution of experience4 ,locke's design was less profound4 ,it was his distinction to present to the modern world1 in his own historical plain method1 perhaps the largest assortment ever made by any individual of facts characteristic of human understanding4 ,criticism of the presuppositions implied in those facts--by ,kant and his successors1 and in ,britain more unpretentiously by ,reid1 all under the stimulus of ,hume's sceptical criticism--has employed philosophers since the author of the ,essay on ,human ,understanding collected materials that raised deeper philosophical problems than he tried to solve4 ,locke's mission was to initiate modern criticism of the foundation and limits of our knowledge4 ,hume negatively1 and the ,german and ,scottish schools constructively1 continued what it was ,locke's glory to have begun4 ,,bibliography4--,the ,essay concerning ,human ,understanding has passed through more editions than any classic in modern philosophical literature4 ,before the middle of the #ahth century it had reached thirteen1 and it has now passed through some forty editions1 besides being translated into ,latin1 ,french1 ,dutch1 ,german and modern ,greek4 ,there are also several abridgments4 ,in addition to those criticisms which appeared when ,locke was alive1 among the most important are ,leibnitz's ,nouveaux ,essais sur l'entendement humain--written about #agjj and published in #agfe1 in which each chapter of the ,essay of ,locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by ,leibnitz2 ,cousin's cole sensualiste3 systme de ,locke1 in his ,histoire de la philosophie au ,,xviiie sicle 7#ahbi72 and the criticisms in ,t4 ,h4 ,green's ,introduction to the ,philosophical ,works of ,hume 7#ahgd74 ,the ,essay1 with ,prolegomena1 biographical1 critical and historical1 edited by ,professor ,campbell ,fraser and published by the ,oxford ,clarendon ,press in #ahid1 is the only annotated edition1 unless the ,nouveaux ,essais of ,leibnitz may be reduced to this category4 ,the ,letters on ,toleration1 ,thoughts on ,education and ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity have also gone through many editions1 and been translated into different languages4 ,the first collected edition of ,locke's ,works was in #agad1 in three folio volumes4 ,the best is that by ,bishop ,law1 in four quartos 7#aggg74 ,the one most commonly known is in ten volumes 7#ahab74 ,the loge of ,jean le ,clerc 7,bibliothque choisie1 #agje7 has been the basis of the memoirs of ,locke prefixed to the successive editions of his ,works1 or contained in biographical dictionaries4 ,in #ahbi a ,life of ,locke 7#bnd ed4 in two volumes1 with considerable additions1 #ahcj71 was produced by ,peter1 #gth ,baron ,king1 a descendant of ,locke's cousin1 ,anne ,locke4 ,this adds a good deal to what was previously known1 as ,lord ,king was able to draw from the mass of correspondence1 journals and commonplace books of ,locke in his possession4 ,in the same year ,dr ,thomas ,foster published some interesting letters from ,locke to ,benjamin ,furly4 ,the most copious account of the life is contained in the two volumes by ,h4 ,r4 ,fox-,bourne 7#ahgf71 the results of laborious research among the ,shaftesbury ,papers1 ,locke ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum1 the ,public ,record ,office1 the ,lambeth1 ,christ ,church and ,bodleian libraries1 and in the ,remonstrants' library at ,amsterdam4 ,monographs on ,locke by ,t4 ,h4 ,fowler in #ahhj1 in ,english ,men of ,letters1 and by ,fraser1 in #ahij1 in ,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics may be mentioned2 also addresses by ,sir ,f4 ,pollock and ,fraser at the bicentenary commemoration by the ,british ,academy of ,locke's death1 published in the ,proceedings of the ,academy 7#aijd74 ,see also ,c4 ,bastide1 ,john ,locke2 ses thories politiques et leur influence en ,angleterre 7,paris1 #aijg72 ,h4 ,ollion1 ,la ,philosophie gnrale de ,j4 ,l4 7#aiji74 7,a4 ,c4 ,f47 ,,locke1 ,,matthew 7c4 #afcj-afgg71 ,english musician1 perhaps the earliest ,english writer for the stage1 was born at ,exeter1 where he became a chorister in the cathedral4 ,his music1 written with ,christopher ,gibbons 7son of ,orlando ,gibbons71 for ,shirley's masque ,cupid and ,death1 was performed in ,london in #afec4 ,he wrote some music for ,davenant's ,siege of ,rhodes in #afef2 and in #affa was appointed composer in ordinary to ,charles ,,ii4 ,during the following years he wrote a number of anthems for the ,chapel ,royal1 and excited some criticism on the score of novelty1 to which he replied with considerable heat 7,modern ,church ,music2 pre-accused1 censured and obstructed in its ,performance before ,his ,majesty1 ,april #ast1 #afff1 c42 copies in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge1 and the ,royal ,college of ,music74 ,a good deal of music for the theatre followed1 the most important being for ,davenant's productions of ,the ,tempest 7#affg7 and of ,macbeth 7#afgb71 but some doubt as to this latter has arisen1 ,purcell1 ,eccles or ,leveridge1 being also credited with it4 ,he also composed various songs and instrumental pieces1 and published some curious works on musical theory4 ,he died in ,august #afgg1 an elegy being written by ,purcell4 ,,lockerbie1 a municipal and police burgh of ,dumfriesshire1 ,scotland1 in the district of ,annandale1 #ad m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,dumfries by the ,caledonian railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bceh4 ,it has long been famous for its cattle and sheep sales1 but more particularly for the great ,august lamb fair1 the largest in ,scotland1 at which as many as #abf1jjj lambs have been sold4 ,the town hall and ,easton institute are in the ,scottish ,baronial style4 ,the police station is partly accommodated in an ancient square tower1 once the stronghold of the ,johnstones1 for a long period the ruling family under whose protection the town gradually grew up4 ,at ,dryfe ,sands1 about #b m4 to the ,w41 a bloody encounter took place in #aeic between the ,johnstones and ,maxwells4 ,the ,maxwells were pursued into ,lockerbie and almost exterminated2 hence ,lockerbie ,lick became a proverbial expression1 signifying an overwhelming defeat4 ,,locker-,,lampson1 ,,frederick 7#ahba-ahie71 ,english man of letters1 was born1 on the #bith of ,may #ahba1 at ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,his father1 who was ,civil ,commissioner of the ,hospital1 was ,edward ,hawke ,locker1 youngest son of that ,captain ,william ,locker who gave ,nelson the memorable advice to lay a ,frenchman close1 and beat him4 ,his mother1 ,eleanor ,mary ,elizabeth ,boucher1 was a daughter of the ,rev4 ,jonathan ,boucher1 vicar of ,epsom and friend of ,george ,washington4 ,after a desultory education1 ,frederick ,locker began life in a colonial broker's office4 ,soon deserting this uncongenial calling1 he obtained a clerkship in ,somerset ,house1 whence he was transferred to ,lord ,haddington's private office at the ,admiralty4 ,here he became deputy-reader and prcis writer4 ,in #ahej he married ,lady ,charlotte ,bruce1 daughter of the ,lord ,elgin who brought the famous marbles to ,england1 and sister of ,lady ,augusta ,stanley4 ,after his marriage he left the ,civil ,service1 in consequence of ill-health4 ,in #aheg he published ,london ,lyrics1 a slender volume of #ij pages1 which1 with subsequent extensions1 constitutes his poetical legacy4 ,lyra ,elegantiarum 7#ahfg71 an anthology of light and familiar verse1 and ,patchwork 7#ahgi71 a book of extracts1 were his only other publications4 ,in #ahgb ,lady ,charlotte ,locker died4 ,two years later ,locker married ,miss ,hannah ,jane ,lampson1 the only daughter of ,sir ,curtis ,miranda ,lampson1 ,bart41 of ,rowfant1 ,sussex1 and in #ahhe took his wife's surname4 ,at ,rowfant he died on the #cjth of ,may #ahie4 ,chronic ill-health debarred ,locker from any active part in life1 but it did not prevent his delighting a wide circle of friends by his gifts as a host and raconteur1 and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur4 ,his books are catalogued in the volume called the ,rowfant ,library 7#ahhf71 to which an appendix 7#aijj7 was added1 after his death1 under the superintendence of his eldest son4 ,as a poet1 ,locker belongs to the choir who deal with the gay rather than the grave in verse--with the polished and witty rather than the lofty or emotional4 ,his good taste kept him as far from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart saved him from the purely cynical on the other4 ,to something of ,prior1 of ,praed and of ,hood he added qualities of his own which lent his work distinction--a distinction in no wise diminished by his unwearied endeavour after directness and simplicity4 ,a posthumous volume of ,memoirs1 entitled ,my ,confidences 7#ahif71 and edited by his son-in-law1 ,mr ,augustine ,birrell1 gives an interesting idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as a poet4 7,a4 ,d47 ,,lockhart1 ,,george 7#afgc-agca71 of ,carnwath1 ,scottish writer and politician1 was a member of a ,lanarkshire family tracing descent from ,sir ,simon ,locard 7the name being originally territorial1 de ,loch ,ard71 who is said to have accompanied ,sir ,james ,douglas on his expedition to the ,east with the heart of ,bruce1 which relic1 according to ,froissart1 ,locard brought home from ,spain when ,douglas fell in battle against the ,moors1 and buried in ,melrose ,abbey2 this incident was the origin of the man's heart within a fetterlock borne on the ,lockhart shield1 which in turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of the surname4 ,george ,lockhart's grandfather was ,sir ,james ,lockhart of ,lee 7d4 #afgd71 a lord of the court of session with the title of ,lord ,lee1 who commanded a regiment at the battle of ,preston4 ,lord ,lee's eldest son1 ,sir ,william ,lockhart of ,lee 7#afba-afge71 after fighting on the king's side in the ,civil ,war1 attached himself to ,oliver ,cromwell1 whose niece he married1 and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administration of justice in ,scotland in #afeb1 and ,english ambassador at the ,french court in #afef1 where he greatly distinguished himself by his successful diplomacy4 ,lord ,lee's second son1 ,sir ,george ,lockhart 7c4 #afcj-afhi71 was lord-advocate in ,cromwell's time1 and was celebrated for his persuasive eloquence2 in #afgd1 when he was disbarred for alleged disrespect to the court of session in advising an appeal to parliament1 fifty barristers showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing from practice4 ,lockhart was readmitted in #afgf1 and became the leading advocate in political trials1 in which he usually appeared for the defence4 ,he was appointed lord-president of the court of session in #afhe2 and was shot in the streets of ,edinburgh on the #cast of ,march #afhi by ,john ,chiesley1 against whom the lord-president had adjudicated a cause4 ,sir ,george ,lockhart purchased the extensive estates of the earls of ,carnwath in ,lanarkshire1 which were inherited by his eldest son1 ,george1 whose mother was ,philadelphia1 daughter of ,lord ,wharton4 ,george ,lockhart1 who was member for the city of ,edinburgh in the ,scottish parliament1 was appointed a commissioner for arranging the union with ,england in #agje4 ,after the union he continued to represent ,edinburgh1 and later the ,wigton burghs4 ,his sympathies were with the ,jacobites1 whom he kept informed of all the negotiations for the union2 in #agac he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of the union4 ,he was deeply implicated in the rising of #agae1 the preparations for which he assisted at ,carnwath and at ,dryden1 his ,edinburgh residence4 ,he was imprisoned in ,edinburgh castle1 but probably1 through the favour of the duke of ,argyll1 he was released without being brought to trial2 but his brother ,philip was taken prisoner at the battle of ,preston and condemned to be shot1 the sentence being executed on the #bnd of ,december #agae4 ,after his liberation ,lockhart became a secret agent of the ,pretender2 but his correspondence with the prince fell into the hands of the government in #agbg1 compelling him to go into concealment at ,durham until he was able to escape abroad4 ,argyll's influence was again exerted in ,lockhart's behalf1 and in #agbh he was permitted to return to ,scotland1 where he lived in retirement till his death in a duel on the #agth of ,december #agca4 ,lockhart was the author of ,memoirs of the ,affairs of ,scotland1 dealing with the reign of ,queen ,anne till the union with ,england1 first published in #agad4 ,these ,memoirs1 together with ,lockhart's correspondence with the ,pretender1 and one or two papers of minor importance1 were published in two volumes in #ahag1 forming the well-known ,lockhart ,papers1 which are a valuable authority for the history of the ,jacobites4 ,lockhart married ,eupheme ,montgomerie1 daughter of ,alexander1 #ith earl of ,eglinton1 by whom he had a large family4 ,his grandson ,james1 who assumed his mother's name of ,wishart in addition to that of ,lockhart1 was in the ,austrian service during the ,seven ,years' ,war1 and was created a baron and count of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,he succeeded to the estates of ,lee as well as of ,carnwath1 both of which properties passed1 on the death of his son ,charles without issue in #ahjb1 to his nephew ,alexander1 who was created a baronet in #ahjf4 ,see ,the ,lockhart ,papers 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahag72 ,andrew ,lang1 ,history of ,scotland 7#d vols41 ,london1 #aijj74 ,for the story of ,sir ,simon ,lockhart's adventures with the heart of the ,bruce1 see ,sir ,walter ,scott's ,the ,talisman4 7,r4 ,j4 ,m47 ,,lockhart1 ,,john ,,gibson 7#agid-ahed71 ,scottish writer and editor1 was born on the #adth of ,july #agid in the manse of ,cambusnethan in ,lanarkshire1 where his father1 ,dr ,john ,lockhart1 transferred in #agif to ,glasgow1 was minister4 ,his mother1 who was the daughter of the ,rev4 ,john ,gibson1 of ,edinburgh1 was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts4 ,he was sent to the ,glasgow high school1 where he showed himself clever rather than industrious4 ,he fell into ill-health1 and had to be removed from school before he was twelve2 but on his recovery he was sent at this early age to ,glasgow ,university1 and displayed so much precocious learning1 especially in ,greek1 that he was offered a ,snell exhibition at ,oxford4 ,he was not fourteen when he entered ,balliol ,college1 where he acquired a great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum4 ,he read ,french1 ,italian1 ,german and ,spanish1 was interested in classical and ,british antiquities1 and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore4 ,in #ahac he took a first class in classics in the final schools4 ,for two years after leaving ,oxford he lived chiefly in ,glasgow before settling to the study of ,scottish law in ,edinburgh1 where he was called to the bar in #ahaf4 ,a tour on the continent in #ahag1 when he visited ,goethe at ,weimar1 was made possible by the kindness of the publisher ,blackwood1 who advanced money for a promised translation of ,schlegel's ,lectures on the ,history of ,literature1 which was not published until #ahch4 ,edinburgh was then the stronghold of the ,whig party1 whose organ was the ,edinburgh ,review1 and it was not till #ahag that the ,scottish ,tories found a means of expression in ,blackwood's ,magazine4 ,after a somewhat hum-drum opening1 ,blackwood suddenly electrified the ,edinburgh world by an outburst of brilliant criticism4 ,john ,wilson 7,christopher ,north7 and ,lockhart had joined its staff in #ahag4 ,lockhart no doubt took his share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the early years of ,blackwood2 but his biographer1 ,mr ,andrew ,lang1 brings evidence to show that he was not responsible for the virulent articles on ,coleridge and on ,the ,cockney ,school of ,poetry1 that is on ,leigh ,hunt1 ,keats and their friends4 ,he has been persistently accused of the later ,blackwood article 7,august #ahah7 on ,keats1 but he showed at any rate a real appreciation of ,coleridge and ,wordsworth4 ,he contributed to ,blackwood many spirited translations of ,spanish ballads1 which in #ahbc were published separately4 ,in #ahah the brilliant and handsome young man attracted the notice of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 and the acquaintance soon ripened into an intimacy which resulted in a marriage between ,lockhart and ,scott's eldest daughter ,sophia1 in ,april #ahbj4 ,five years of domestic happiness followed1 with winters spent in ,edinburgh and summers at a cottage at ,chiefswood1 near ,abbotsford1 where ,lockhart's two eldest children1 ,john ,hugh and ,charlotte1 were born2 a second son1 ,walter1 was born later at ,brighton4 ,in #ahbj ,john ,scott1 the editor of the ,london ,magazine1 wrote a series of articles attacking the conduct of ,blackwood's ,magazine1 and making ,lockhart chiefly responsible for its extravagances4 ,a correspondence followed1 in which a meeting between ,lockhart and ,john ,scott was proposed1 with ,jonathan ,henry ,christie and ,horace ,smith as seconds4 ,a series of delays and complicated negotiations resulted early in #ahba in a duel between ,christie and ,john ,scott1 in which ,scott was killed4 ,this unhappy affair1 which has been the subject of much misrepresentation1 is fully discussed in ,mr ,lang's book on ,lockhart4 ,between #ahah and #ahbe ,lockhart worked indefatigably4 ,in #ahai ,peter's ,letters to his ,kinsfolk appeared1 and in #ahbb he edited ,peter ,motteux's edition of ,don ,quixote1 to which he prefixed a life of ,cervantes4 ,four novels followed3 ,valerius in #ahba1 ,some ,passages in the ,life of ,adam ,blair1 ,minister of ,gospel at ,cross ,meikle in #ahbb1 ,reginald ,dalton in #ahbc and ,matthew ,wald in #ahbd4 ,but his strength did not lie in novel writing1 although the vigorous quality of ,adam ,blair has been recognized by modern critics4 ,in #ahbe ,lockhart accepted the editorship of the ,quarterly ,review1 which had been in the hands of ,sir ,john ,taylor ,coleridge since ,gifford's resignation in #ahbd4 ,he had now established his literary position1 and1 as the next heir to his unmarried half-brother's property in ,scotland1 ,milton ,lockhart1 he was sufficiently independent1 though he had abandoned the legal profession4 ,in ,london he had great social success1 and was recognized as a brilliant editor4 ,he contributed largely to the ,quarterly ,review himself1 his biographical articles being especially admirable4 ,he showed the old railing spirit in an amusing but violent article in the ,quarterly on ,tennyson's ,poems of #ahcc1 in which he failed to discover the mark of genius4 ,he continued to write for ,blackwood2 he produced for ,constable's ,miscellany in #ahbh what remains the most charming of the biographies of ,burns2 and he undertook the superintendence of the series called ,murray's ,family ,library1 which he opened in #ahbi with a ,history of ,napoleon4 ,but his chief work was the ,life of ,sir ,walter ,scott 7#g vols41 #ahcg-ahch2 #bnd ed41 #aj vols41 #ahci74 ,there were not wanting those in ,scotland who taxed ,lockhart with ungenerous exposure of his subject1 but to most healthy minds the impression conveyed by the biography was1 and is1 quite the opposite4 ,carlyle did justice to many of its excellencies in a criticism contributed to the ,london and ,westminster ,review 7#ahcg74 ,lockhart's account of the transactions between ,scott and the ,ballantynes and ,constable caused great outcry2 and in the discussion that followed he showed unfortunate bitterness by his pamphlet1 ,the ,ballantyne ,humbug handled4 ,the ,life of ,scott has been called1 after ,boswell's ,johnson1 the most admirable biography in the ,english language4 ,the proceeds1 which were considerable1 ,lockhart resigned for the benefit of ,scott's creditors4 ,the close of ,lockhart's life was saddened by family bereavement1 resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits4 ,his eldest boy 7the suffering ,hugh ,littlejohn of ,scott's ,tales of a ,grandfather7 died in #ahca2 ,scott himself in #ahcb2 ,mrs ,lockhart in #ahcg2 and the surviving son1 ,walter ,lockhart1 in #aheb4 ,resigning the editorship of the ,quarterly ,review in #ahec1 he spent the next winter in ,rome1 but returned to ,england without recovering his health2 and being taken to ,abbotsford by his daughter ,charlotte1 who had become ,mrs ,james ,robert ,hope-,scott1 he died there on the #beth of ,november #ahed4 ,he was buried in ,dryburgh ,abbey1 near ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,lockhart's ,life 7#b vols41 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahig7 was written by ,andrew ,lang4 ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard's edition of the ,life of ,scott 7#aijj7 is the best4 ,,lockhart1 ,,sir ,,william ,,stephen ,,alexander 7#ahda-aijj71 ,british general1 was born in ,scotland on the #bnd of ,september #ahda1 his father being a ,lanarkshire clergyman4 ,he entered the ,indian army in #aheh1 in the ,bengal native infantry4 ,he served in the ,indian ,mutiny1 the ,bhutan campaign 7#ahfd-ff71 the ,abyssinian expedition 7#ahfg-fh2 mentioned in despatches71 the ,hazara ,black ,mountain expedition 7#ahfh-fi2 mentioned in despatches74 ,from #ahfi to #ahgi he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant quartermaster-general in ,bengal4 ,in #ahgg he was military attach with the ,dutch army in ,acheen4 ,he served in the ,afghan ,war of #ahgh-hj1 was mentioned in despatches and made a ,c4,b41 and from #ahhj to #ahhe was ,d4,q4,g4 in the intelligence branch at headquarters4 ,he commanded a brigade in the ,third ,burmese ,war 7#ahhf-hg71 and was made ,k4,c4,b41 ,c4,s4,i41 and received the thanks of the government4 ,an attack of fever brought him to ,england1 where he was employed as assistant military secretary for ,indian affairs2 but in #ahij he returned to ,india to take command of the ,punjab frontier force1 and for five years was engaged in various expeditions against the hill tribes4 ,after the ,waziristan campaign in #ahid-ie he was made ,k4,c4,s4,i4 ,he became full general in #ahif1 and in #ahig he was given the command against the ,afridis and ,mohmands1 and conducted the difficult ,tirah campaign with great skill4 ,he was made ,g4,c4,b41 and in #ahih became commander-in-chief in ,india4 ,he died on the #ahth of ,march #aijj4 ,sir ,william ,lockhart was not only a first-rate soldier1 but also had a great gift for dealing with the native tribesmen4 ,among the latter he had the sobriquet of ,amir ,sahib1 on account of their respect and affection for him4 ,,lock ,,haven1 a city and the county-seat of ,clinton county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the west branch of the ,susquehanna river1 near the mouth of ,bald ,eagle ,creek1 about #gj m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,harrisburg4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #gbaj 7#fah foreign-born and #abb negroes72 7#aiaj7 #gggb4 ,it is served by branches of the ,pennsylvania and the ,new ,york ,central ,hudson ,river railways and by electric interurban railways4 ,the city is pleasantly situated in an agricultural region1 and there are large deposits of cement and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity4 ,lock ,haven is the seat of the ,central ,state ,normal ,school 7opened #ahgg71 and has a public library and a hospital4 ,there are various manufactures4 ,the municipality owns and operates the water-works4 ,the locality was settled in #agfi4 ,a town was founded in #ahcc1 the ,pennsylvania ,canal 7no longer in use here7 was completed to this point in #ahcd1 and the name of the place was suggested by two canal locks and the harbour1 or haven1 for rafts in the river4 ,lock ,haven was made the county-seat immediately after the erection of ,clinton county in #ahci1 was incorporated as a borough in #ahdj1 and first chartered as a city in #ahgj4 ,,lockport1 a city of ,will county1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,des ,plaines river and the ,illinois ,michigan ,canal1 and the terminus of the ,chicago ,sanitary ,district ,drainage ,canal1 about #cc m4 ,s4,w4 of ,chicago and #d m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,joliet4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bfei 7#eeb being foreign-born and #acj negroes72 7#aiaj7 #beee4 ,lockport is served by the ,chicago ,alton1 and the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,f railways1 and by the ,chicago ,joliet ,electric railway4 ,it is in a picturesque farming country1 and there are good limestone quarries in the valley of the ,des ,plaines river4 ,it has manufactures and a considerable trade1 especially in grain4 ,a settlement was made here about #ahbg2 in #ahcg the site was chosen as headquarters for the ,illinois ,michigan ,canal and a village was laid out2 it was incorporated in #ahec1 and was chartered as a city in #aijd4 ,in #ahib work was begun on the ,chicago ,drainage ,canal1 whose controlling works are here and whose plant1 developing #dj1jjj h4p4 from the #dj ft4 fall between ,joliet and ,lockport1 supplies ,lockport with cheap power and has made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city4 ,,lockport1 a city and the county-seat of ,niagara county1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,erie ,canal1 #bf m4 by rail ,n4 by ,e4 of ,buffalo and #ef m4 ,w4 of ,rochester4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #af1eha1 of whom #bjcf were foreign-born and #afj were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #ag1igj4 ,it is served by the ,new ,york ,central ,hudson ,river and the ,erie railways1 by the ,international railway 7electric interurban71 and by the ,erie ,canal4 ,the city owes its name to the five double locks of the canal1 which here falls #ff ft4 7over a continuation of the ,niagara escarpment locally known as ,mountain ,ridge7 from the level of ,lake ,erie to that of the ,genesee river4 ,in #aiji a scheme was on foot to replace these five locks by a huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour immediately ,w4 of the city4 ,the surplus water from ,tonawanda ,creek1 long claimed both by the ,canal and by the ,lockport manufacturers1 after supplying the canal furnishes water-power1 and electric power is derived from ,niagara4 ,the factory products1 mostly paper and wood-pulp1 flour and cereal foods1 and foundry and machine-shop products1 were valued in #aije at #e1hjg1ihj4 ,lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit 7especially apple and pear7 country1 containing extensive sandstone and ,niagara limestone quarries1 and is a shipping point for the fruits and grains and the limestone and sandstone of the surrounding country4 ,many buildings in the business part of the city are heated by the ,holly distributing system1 which pipes steam from a central station or plant1 and originated in ,lockport4 ,the city owns and operates the water-works1 long operated under the ,holly system1 which1 as well as the ,holly distributing system1 was devised by ,birdsill ,holly1 a civil engineer of ,lockport4 ,in #aiji a new system was virtually completed1 water being taken from the ,niagara river at ,tonawanda and pumped thence to a stand-pipe in ,lockport4 ,the site1 that of the most easterly village in ,new ,york state held by the ,neutral ,nation of ,indians1 was part of the tract bought by the ,holland ,company in #agib-agic4 ,subsequently most of the land on which the city stands was bought from the ,holland ,company by ,esek ,brown1 the proprietor of a local tavern1 and fourteen others1 but there were few settlers until after #ahbj4 ,in #ahbb the place was made the county-seat1 and in #ahbc it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen on the ,erie ,canal1 and was the headquarters for a time of the canal contractors4 ,it was incorporated as a village in #ahbi1 was reached by the ,erie railway in #aheb1 and in #ahfe was chartered as a city4 ,,lockroy1 ,,douard 7#ahch- 71 ,french politician1 son of ,joseph ,philippe ,simon 7#ahjc-ahia71 an actor and dramatist who took the name of ,lockroy1 was born in ,paris on the #ahth of ,july #ahch4 ,he had begun by studying art1 but in #ahfj enlisted as a volunteer under ,garibaldi4 ,the next three years were spent in ,syria as secretary to ,ernest ,renan1 and on his return to ,paris he embarked in militant journalism against the second empire in the ,figaro1 the ,diable quatre1 and eventually in the ,rappel1 with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected4 ,he commanded a battalion during the siege of ,paris1 and in ,february #ahga was elected deputy to the ,national ,assembly where he sat on the extreme left and protested against the preliminaries of peace4 ,in ,march he signed the proclamation for the election of the ,commune1 and resigned his seat as deputy4 ,arrested at ,vanves he remained a prisoner at ,versailles and ,chartres until ,june when he was released without being tried4 ,he was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the press1 and in #ahgb for a duel with ,paul de ,cassagnac4 ,he was returned to the ,chamber in #ahgc as ,radical deputy for ,bouches-du-,rhne in #ahgf1 #ahgg and #ahha for ,aix1 and in #ahha he was also elected in the #aath arrondissement of ,paris4 ,he elected to sit for ,paris1 and was repeatedly re-elected4 ,during the elections of #ahic he was shot at by a cab-driver poet named ,moore1 but was not seriously injured4 ,for the first ten years of his parliamentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left1 but then adopted a more opportunist policy1 and gave his unreserved support to the ,brisson ministry of #ahhe4 ,in the new ,freycinet cabinet formed in ,january he held the portfolio of commerce and industry1 which he retained in the ,goblet ministry of #ahhf-ahhg4 ,in #ahhe he had been returned at the head of the poll for ,paris1 and his inclusion in the ,freycinet ministry was taken to indicate a prospect of reconciliation between ,parisian ,radicalism and official ,republicanism4 ,during his tenure of the portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary arrangements for the ,exposition of #ahhi1 and in a witty letter he defended the erection of the ,tour ,eiffel against artistic ,paris4 ,after the ,panama and ,boulangist scandals he became one of the leading politicians of the ,radical party4 ,he was vice-president of the ,chamber in #ahid and in #ahie1 when he became minister of marine under ,lon ,bourgeois4 ,his drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians1 but he had the confidence of the country1 and held the same portfolio under ,henri ,brisson 7#ahih7 and ,charles ,dupuy 7#ahih-ahii74 ,he gave his support to the ,waldeck-,rousseau ,administration1 but actively criticized the marine policy of ,camille ,pelletan in the ,combes ministry of #aijb-aije1 during which period he was again vice-president of the ,chamber4 ,m4 ,lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong naval policy1 in defence of which he published ,la ,marine de ,guerre 7#ahij71 ,six mois rue ,royale 7#ahig71 ,la ,dfense navale 7#aijj71 ,du ,weser la ,vistula 7#aija71 ,les ,marines franaise et allemande 7#aijd71 ,le ,programme naval 7#aijf74 ,his other works include ,m4 de ,moltke et la guerre future 7#ahia7 and ,journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la ,rvolution 7#ahha7 derived from the letters of his great-grandmother4 ,m4 ,lockroy married in #ahgg ,madame ,charles ,hugo1 the daughter-in-law of the poet4 ,,lockwood1 ,,sir ,,frank 7#ahdf-ahig71 ,english lawyer1 was born at ,doncaster4 ,his grandfather and great-grandfather were mayors of ,doncaster1 and the former for some years filled the office of judge on the racecourse4 ,he was educated at a private school1 at ,manchester grammar school1 and ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,called to the bar at ,lincoln's ,inn in #ahgb1 he joined the old midland circuit1 afterwards going to the north-eastern1 making in his first year #abj guineas and in the next #bfe guineas4 ,from that time he had a career of uninterrupted success4 ,in #ahhb he was made a queen's counsel1 in #ahhd he was made recorder of ,sheffield1 and in #ahid he became solicitor-general in ,lord ,rosebery's ministry1 and was knighted1 having first entered parliament as ,liberal member for ,york in #ahhe1 after two unsuccessful attempts1 the one at ,king's ,lynn in #ahhj1 the other at ,york in #ahhc4 ,he was solicitor-general for less than a year4 ,in #ahif ,lord ,chief ,justice ,coleridge1 ,mr ,montague ,crackanthorpe and ,sir ,frank ,lockwood went to the ,united ,states to attend1 as specially invited representatives of the ,english bar1 the nineteenth meeting of the ,american ,bar ,association4 ,on this trip ,sir ,frank ,lockwood sustained the reputation which he enjoyed in ,england as a humorous after-dinner speaker1 and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which unites the bench and bar of the ,united ,states with the bench and bar of ,england4 ,he died in ,london on the #ahth of ,december #ahig4 ,lockwood had considerable talent for drawing1 inherited from his father1 which he employed1 chiefly for the amusement of himself and his friends1 in the making of admirable caricatures in pen and ink1 and of sketches of humorous incidents1 real or imaginary1 relating to the topic nearest at hand4 ,an exhibition of them was held soon after his death4 ,see ,augustine ,birrell's biography of ,lockwood and ,the ,frank ,lockwood ,sketch-,book 7#ahih74 ,,lockwood1 ,,wilton 7#ahfa- 71 ,american artist1 was born at ,wilton1 ,connecticut1 on the #abth of ,september #ahfa4 ,he was a pupil and an assistant of ,john ,la ,farge1 and also studied in ,paris1 becoming a well-known portrait and flower painter4 ,he became a member of the ,society of ,american ,artists 7#ahih71 and of the ,copley ,society1 ,boston1 and an associate of the ,national ,academy of ,design1 ,new ,york4 ,,lockyer1 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,norman 7#ahcf- 71 ,english astronomer1 was born at ,rugby on the #agth of ,may #ahcf4 ,after completing his education on the ,continent of ,europe1 he obtained a clerkship in the ,war ,office in #aheg4 ,his leisure was devoted to the study of astronomy1 and he was appointed in #ahgj secretary to the duke of ,devonshire's royal commission on science4 ,in #ahge he was transferred to the ,science and ,art ,department at ,south ,kensington1 and on the foundation of the ,royal ,college of ,science he became director of the solar physics observatory and professor of astronomical physics4 ,eight ,british government expeditions for observing total solar eclipses were conducted by him between #ahgj and #aije4 ,on the #bfth of ,october #ahfh he communicated to the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences1 almost simultaneously with ,dr ,p4 ,j4 ,c4 ,janssen1 a spectroscopic method for observing the solar prominences in daylight1 and the names of both astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the ,french government in #ahgb to commemorate the discovery4 ,lockyer was elected a fellow of the ,royal ,society in #ahfi1 and received the ,rumford medal in #ahgd4 ,he initiated in #ahff the spectroscopic observation of sunspots2 applied ,doppler's principle in #ahfi to determine the radial velocities of the chromospheric gases2 and successfully investigated the chemistry of the sun from #ahgb onward4 ,besides numerous contributions to the ,proceedings of the ,royal and the ,royal ,astronomical ,societies1 he published several books1 both explanatory and speculative4 ,the ,chemistry of the ,sun 7#ahhg7 is an elaborate treatise on solar spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation through the intensity of solar heat4 ,the ,meteoritic ,hypothesis 7#ahij7 propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution1 which has evoked more dissent than approval1 while the ,sun's ,place in ,nature 7#ahig7 lays down the lines of a classification of the stars1 depending upon their supposed temperature-relations4 ,among ,lockyer's other works are--,the ,dawn of ,astronomy 7#ahid71 to which ,stonehenge and other ,british ,stone ,monuments astronomically considered 7#aijf7 may be considered a sequel2 ,recent and coming ,eclipses 7#ahig72 and ,inorganic ,evolution 7#aijj74 ,he was created ,k4,c4,b4 in #ahig1 and acted as president of the ,british ,association in #aijc-aijd4 ,his fifth son1 ,,william ,,james ,,stewart ,,lockyer 7b4 #ahfh71 devoted himself to solar research1 and became chief assistant in the ,solar ,physics ,observatory1 ,south ,kensington4 ,,locle1 ,,le1 a town in the ,swiss canton of ,neuchtel1 #bd m4 by rail ,n4 of ,neuchtel1 and #e m4 ,s4,w4 of ,la ,chaux de ,fonds4 ,it is built 7#cjce ft4 above the sea-level7 on the ,bied stream in a valley of the ,jura1 and is about #a m4 from the ,french frontier4 ,in #afha ,daniel ,jean ,richard introduced watch-making here1 which soon drove out all other industries4 ,in #aijj the population was #ab1eei1 mainly ,protestants and ,french-speaking4 ,the church tower dates from #aeba1 but the old town was destroyed by fire in #ahcc4 ,the valley in which the town is situated used to be subject to inundations1 but in #ahje a tunnel was constructed by means of which the surplus waters of the ,bied are carried into the ,doubs4 ,about #a m4 ,w4 of the town the ,bied plunged into a deep chasm1 on the steep rock face of which were formerly the subterranean mills of the ,col des ,roches1 situated one above another2 but the stream is now diverted by the above-mentioned tunnel1 while another serves the railway line from ,le ,locle to ,morteau in ,france 7#h m474 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,locmariaquer1 a village of western ,france1 on the ,w4 shore of the ,gulf of ,morbihan1 in the department of ,morbihan1 #h m4 ,s4 of ,auray by road4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #gef4 ,locmariaquer has a small port1 and oyster culture is carried on close to it4 ,roman remains are to be seen1 but the place owes its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity1 some of which are among the largest extant4 ,the menhir of ,men-er-,h'roeck 7,fairy stone71 which was broken into four pieces by lightning in the #ahth century1 previously measured about #fg ft4 in height1 and from #i to #ac ft4 in thickness4 ,,locomotor ,,ataxia 7,gr4 ,greek3 ha1 priv41 and ,greek3 taxis1 order2 synonyms1 ,tabes dorsalis1 posterior spinal sclerosis71 a progressive degeneration of the nervous system1 involving the posterior columns of the spinal cord with other structures1 and causing muscular incoordination and disorder of gait and station4 ,the essential symptoms of the disease--stamping gait1 and swaying with the eyes shut1 the occurrence of blindness and of small fixed pupils--were recognized by ,romberg 7#ahea71 but it was the clinical genius of ,duchenne and his masterly description of the symptoms which led to its acceptance as a definite disease 7#aheh71 and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most striking symptom4 ,in #ahfi ,argyll ,robertson discovered that the eye-pupil is inactive to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority of cases4 ,this most important sign is named the ,argyll ,robertson pupil4 ,with an ever-increasing knowledge of the widespread character of this disease and its manifold variations in the complex of symptoms1 the tendency among neurologists is to revert to the term employed by ,romberg--tabes dorsalis4 ,locomotor ataxia1 although it expresses a very characteristic feature of the disease1 has this objection3 it is a symptom which does not occur in the first 7preataxic7 stage of the disease2 indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes on1 and sometimes the patient1 after suffering a very long time from the disease1 may die from some intercurrent complication1 having never been ataxic4 ,it is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are not the subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer from this disease2 and the average time of onset after infection is ten years 7see ,,neuropathology74 ,there are three stages3 7#a7 ,the preataxic1 7#b7 the ataxic1 7#c7 the bed-ridden paralytic4 ,the duration of the first stage may be from one or two years1 up to twenty years or even longer4 ,in this stage various symptoms may arise4 ,the patient usually complains of shooting1 lightning-like pains in the legs1 which he may attribute to rheumatism4 ,if a physician examines him he will almost certainly find the knee-jerks absent and ,argyll ,robertson pupils present2 probably on inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some difficulty in starting urination1 or that he is unable to retain his water or to empty his bladder completely4 ,in other cases1 temporary or permanent paralysis of one or more muscles of the eyeball 7which causes squint and double vision71 a failure of sight ending in blindness1 attacks of vomiting 7or gastric crises71 painless spontaneous fractures of bones and dislocations of joints1 failing sexual power and impotence1 may lead the patient to consult a physician1 when this disease will be diagnosed1 although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy4 ,all cases1 however1 if they live long enough1 pass into the second ataxic stage4 ,the sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking in the dark2 he sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would fall 7,romberg's symptom72 he has the sensation of walking on wool1 numbness and formication of the skin1 and many sensory disturbances in the form of partial or complete loss of sensibility to pain1 touch and temperature4 ,these disturbances affect especially the feet and legs1 and around the trunk at the level of the fourth to the seventh ribs1 giving rise to a girdle sensation4 ,there may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of the arm1 and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb as well as the lower1 although there is no wasting or any electrical change4 ,the ataxic gait is very characteristic1 owing to the loss of reflex tonus in the muscles1 and the absence of guiding sensations from all the deep structures of the limbs1 muscles1 joints1 bones1 tendons and ligaments1 as well as from the skin of the soles of the feet2 therefore the sufferer has to be guided by vision as to where and how to place his feet4 ,this necessitates the bending forward of the body1 extension of the knees and broadening of the basis of support2 he generally uses a walking stick or even two1 and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on wires1 bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide stamping action4 ,if the arm be affected1 he is unable to touch the tip of his nose with the eyes shut4 ,sooner or later he passes into the third bed-ridden stage1 with muscles wasted and their tonus so much lost that he is in a perfectly helpless condition4 ,the complications which may arise in this disease are intercurrent affections due to septic conditions of the bladder1 bedsores1 pneumonia1 vascular and heart affections4 ,about #aj of the cases1 at least1 develop general paralysis of the insane4 ,this is not surprising seeing that it is due to the same cause1 and the etiology of the two diseases is such as to lead many neurologists to consider them one and the same disease affecting different parts of the nervous system4 ,tabes dorsalis occurs with much greater frequency in men than in women 7see ,,neuropathology74 ,the avoidance of all stress of the nervous system1 whether physical1 emotional or intellectual1 is indicated1 and a simple regular life1 without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual passion1 is the best means of delaying the progress of the disease4 ,great attention should be paid to micturition1 so as to avoid retention and infection of the bladder4 ,drugs1 even anti-syphilitic remedies1 appear to have but little influence upon the course of the disease4 ,,loco-,,weeds1 or ,,crazy-,,weeds1 leguminous plants1 chiefly species of ,astragalus and ,lupinus1 which produce a disease in cattle known as loco-disease4 ,the name is apparently taken from the ,spanish loco1 mad4 ,the disease affects the nervous system of the animals eating the plants1 and is accompanied by exhaustion and wasting4 ,,locri1 a people of ancient ,greece1 inhabiting two distinct districts1 one extending from the north-east of ,parnassus to the northern half of the ,euboean channel1 between ,boeotia and ,malis1 the other south-west of ,parnassus1 on the north shore of the ,corinthian ,gulf1 between ,phocis and ,aetolia4 ,the former were divided into the northern ,locri ,epicnemidii1 situated on the spurs of ,mount ,cnemis1 and the southern ,locri ,opuntii1 so named from their chief town ,opus 7q4v473 and the name ,opuntia is often applied to the whole of this easterly district4 ,homer mentions only these eastern ,locrians3 their national hero in the ,trojan war is ,ajax ,oileus1 who often appears afterwards on ,locrian coins4 ,from ,hesiod's time onwards1 the ,opuntians were thought by some to be of ,lelegian origin 7see ,,leleges71 but they were ,hellenized early 7though matriarchal customs survived among them7--1 and ,deucalion1 the father of ,hellen himself1 is described as the first king of ,opus4 ,the westerly ,locri in ,ozolae on the ,corinthian ,gulf1 a rude and barbarous people1 make no appearance in ,greek history till the ,peloponnesian war4 ,it was believed that they had separated from the eastern ,locrians four generations before the ,trojan war2 yet ,homer has no hint of their existence4 ,probably the ,locrians were once a single people1 extending from sea to sea1 till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two separate districts4 ,the ,locrian dialect of ,greek is little known1 but resembles that of ,elis3 it has ,greek3 st for ,greek3 sth2 uses alpha2 and has ,greek3 ois in dat4 plur4 #crd decl4 ,a colony of ,locrians 7whether from ,opus or ,ozolae was disputed in antiquity7 settled1 about the end of the #hth century ,b4,c41 at the south-west extremity of ,italy4 ,they are often called ,locri ,epizephyrii from ,cape ,zephyrion #ae m4 ,s4 of the city4 ,their founder's name was ,euanthes4 ,their social organization resembled that of the ,opuntian ,locri1 and like them they venerated ,ajax ,oileus and ,persephone4 ,aristotle 7ap4 ,polyb4 xii4 #e sqq47 records a tradition that these western ,locrians were base-born1 like the ,parthenians of ,tarentum2 but this was disputed by his contemporary ,timaeus4 ,see ,,locri 7town7 below4 7,j4 ,l4 ,m47 ,,locri1 an ancient city of ,magna ,graecia1 ,italy4 ,the original settlers took possession of the ,zephyrian promontory 7,capo ,bruzzano some #ab m4 ,n4 of ,capo ,spartivento71 and though after three or four years they transplanted themselves to a site #ab m4 farther north1 still near the coast1 #b m4 ,s4 of ,gerace ,marina below the modern ,gerace1 they still retained the name of ,locri ,epizephyrii 7,greek3 ,lokroi hoi epizephurioi71 which served to distinguish them from the ,ozolian and ,opuntian ,locri of ,greece itself 7see preceding article74 ,the foundation of ,locri goes back to about #fhc ,b4,c4 ,it was the first of all ,greek communities to have a written code of laws given by ,zaleucus in #ffd ,b4,c4 ,from ,locri were founded the colonies of ,meisma and ,heiponium 7,hipponium74 ,it succeeded in repelling the attacks of ,croton 7battle on the river ,sagras1 perhaps sometime in the #fth century71 and found in ,syracuse a support against ,rhegium3 it was thus an active adversary of ,athenian aggrandisement in the west4 ,pindar extolls its uprightness and love of the heroic muse of beauty1 of wisdom1 and of war1 in the #ajth and #aath ,olympian ,odes4 ,stesichorus 7q4v47 was indeed of ,locrian origin4 ,but it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that ,dionysius ,i4 of ,syracuse selected his wife from ,locri3 its territory was then increased1 and the circuit of its walls was doubled1 but it lost its freedom4 ,in #cef ,b4,c4 it was ruled by ,dionysius ,,ii4 ,from the battle of ,heraclea to the year #bje 7when it was captured by ,p4 ,cornelius ,scipio ,africanus ,maior1 and placed under the control of his legate ,q4 ,pleminius71 ,locri was continually changing its allegiance between ,rome and her enemies2 but it remained an ally1 and was only obliged like other ,greek coast towns to furnish ships4 ,in later ,roman times it is often mentioned1 but was apparently of no great importance4 ,it is mentioned incidentally until the #fth century ,a4,d41 but was destroyed by the ,saracens in #iae4 ,excavations in #ahhi-ahij led to the discovery of an ,ionic temple 7the ,doric style being usual in ,magna ,graecia7 at the north-west angle of the town--originally a cella with two naves1 a closed pronaos on the ,e4 and an adytum at the back 7,w471 later converted into a hexastyle peripheral temple with #cd painted terra-cotta columns4 ,this was then destroyed about #djj ,b4,c4 and a new temple built on the ruins1 heptastyle peripteral1 with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos1 and with #dd columns in all4 ,the figures from the pediment of the twin ,dioscuri1 who according to the legend assisted ,locri against ,crotona1 are in the ,naples museum 7see ,r4 ,koldewey and ,o4 ,puchstein1 ,griechische ,tempel in ,unteritalien und ,sicilien1 ,berlin1 #ahii1 pp4 l sqq474 ,subsequent excavations in #ahij-ahia were of the greatest importance1 but the results remained unpublished up to #aijh4 ,from a short account by ,p4 ,orsi in ,atti del ,congresso ,storico1 vol4 v4 7,archeologia7 ,rome1 #aijd1 p4 #bja1 we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas1 and of some large trenches1 covered with tiles1 containing some #ad1jjj scyphoi arranged in rows4 ,the plan of the city was also traced2 the walls1 the length of which was nearly #e m41 consisted of three parts--the fortified castles 7,greek3 phrouria7 with large towers1 on three different hills1 the city proper1 and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls running down to the sea4 ,in the ,roman period the city was restricted to the plain near the sea4 ,since these excavations1 a certain amount of unauthorized work has gone on1 and some of the remains have been destroyed4 ,in the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects have been discovered1 which confirm the accounts of ,thucydides and ,polybius that the ,greek settlers found the ,siculi here before them4 7,t4 ,as47 ,l,,cse 7,ger4 ,leutschau71 the capital of the county of ,szepes1 in ,hungary1 #bcj m4 ,n4,e4 of ,budapest by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #fhde1 mostly ,germans and ,slovaks4 ,the county of ,szepes is the highest part of ,hungary1 and its north-western portion is occupied by the ,ttra ,mountains4 ,lcse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains1 and is one of the oldest towns of ,hungary4 ,the church of ,st ,james is a ,gothic structure of the #acth century1 with richly carved altar1 several monuments1 and a celebrated organ erected in #afbc1 and long reputed the largest in ,hungary4 ,the old town-hall1 restored in #ahid1 contains a ,protestant upper gymnasium1 founded in #aedd1 and one of the oldest printing establishments in ,hungary1 founded in #aehe4 ,bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce are the chief industries4 ,founded by ,saxon colonists in #abde1 ,lcse had by the early part of the #afth century attained a position of great relative importance4 ,in #aeii a fire destroyed the greater part of the town1 and during the #agth century it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the ,transylvanian princes and leaders4 ,,locus 7,lat4 for place2 in ,gr4 ,greek3 topos71 a geometrical term1 the invention of the notion of which is attributed to ,plato4 ,it occurs in such statements as these3 the locus of the points which are at the same distance from a fixed point1 or of a point which moves so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point1 is a circle2 conversely a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed point1 or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point2 and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which satisfy1 or of a point moving so as always to satisfy1 a given condition4 ,the theory of loci is thus identical with that of curves 7see ,,curve and ,,geometry3 ,analytical74 ,the notion of a locus applies also to solid geometry4 ,here the locus of the points satisfying a single 7or onefold7 condition is a surface2 the locus of the points satisfying two conditions 7or a twofold condition7 is a curve in space1 which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double curvature4 ,,locust4#a ,in its general acceptation this term is applied only to certain insects of the order ,orthoptera1 family ,acridiidae4 ,the family ,locustidae is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not admit of the species best known as locusts being included therein4 ,the idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the term2 therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true locusts have been so-called2 in ,north ,america it has even embraced certain ,hemiptera-,homoptera1 belonging to the ,cicadidae1 and in some parts of ,england cockchafers are so designated4 ,in a more narrow definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive propensities1 and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust should be a migratory species of the family ,acridiidae4 ,moreover1 the term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the ,old or ,new ,world4 ,in ,europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size1 the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as grasshoppers1 hence the ,rocky ,mountain locust of ,north ,america is to ,eastern ideas rather a grasshopper than a locust4 ,in ,europe1 and a greater part of the ,old ,world1 the best known migratory locust is that which is scientifically termed ,pachytylus cinerascens with which an allied species ,p4 migratorius has been often confounded4 ,another locust found in ,europe and neighbouring districts is ,caloptenus italicus1 and still another1 ,acridium peregrinum1 has once or twice occurred in ,europe1 though its home 7even in a migratory sense7 is more properly ,africa and ,asia4 ,these practically include all the locusts of the ,old ,world1 though a migratory species of ,south ,africa known as ,pachytylus pardalinus 7presumed to be distinct from ,p4 migratorius7 should be mentioned4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain locust of ,north ,america is ,caloptenus spretus1 and in that continent there occurs an ,acridium 7,a4 americanum7 so closely allied to ,a4 peregrinum as to be scarcely distinct therefrom1 though there it does not manifest migratory tendencies4 ,in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america ,a4 peregrinum is also reported to occur4 ,the females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion4 ,the young larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career4 ,as these insects are hemimetabolic there is no quiescent stage2 they go on increasing rapidly in size1 and as they approach the perfect state the rudiments of the wings begin to appear4 ,even in this stage their locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great4 ,once winged and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous1 redoubled by the development of the migratory instinct4 ,the laws regulating this instinct are not perfectly understood4 ,food and temperature have a great deal to do with it1 and there is a tendency for the flights to take a particular direction1 varied by the physical circumstances of the breeding districts4 ,so likewise each species has its area of constant location1 and its area of extraordinary migration4 ,perhaps the most feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is scarce1 and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life2 but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the barren home of their ancestors4 ,another ingenious suggestion is that migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the atmosphere1 urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or procreative purposes4 ,swarms travel considerable distances1 though probably generally fewer than #ajjj m41 though sometimes very much more4 ,as a rule the progress is only gradual1 and this adds vastly to the devastating effects4 ,when an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a district1 all vegetation rapidly disappears1 and then hunger urges it on another stage4 ,the large ,old ,world species1 although undoubtedly phytophagous1 when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry animal substances1 and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome of the failure of all other kinds of food4 ,the length of a single flight must depend upon circumstances4 ,from peculiarities in the examples of ,acridium peregrinum taken in ,england in #ahfi1 it has been asserted that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of ,africa2 and what is probably the same species has been seen in the ,atlantic at least #abjj m4 from land1 in swarms completely covering the ship2 thus1 in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights together4 ,the height at which swarms fly1 when their horizontal course is not liable to be altered by mountains1 has been very variously estimated at from #dj to #bjj ft41 or even in a particular case to #ejj ft4 ,the extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be accurately ascertained4 ,they come sometimes in such numbers as to completely obscure the sun1 when the noise made by the rustling of the wings is deafening4 ,nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed from the ascertained fact that in ,cyprus in #ahha1 at the close of the season1 #a1fjj1jjj1jjj egg-cases1 each containing a considerable number of eggs1 had been destroyed2 the estimated weight exceeding #acjj tons4 ,yet two years later1 it is believed that not fewer than #e1jgf1jjj1jjj egg-cases were again deposited in the island4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,pachytylus migratorius4 ,this and the other figures are all natural size4 ,in ,europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is ,pachytylus cinerascens1 and it is to it that most of the numerous records of devastations in ,europe mainly refer1 but it is probably not less destructive in many parts of ,africa and ,asia4 ,that the arid steppes of central ,asia are the home of this insect appears probable2 still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty4 ,in any case the area of permanent distribution is enormous1 and that of occasional distribution is still greater4 ,the former area extends from the parallel of #dj ,n4 in ,portugal1 rising to #dh in ,france and ,switzerland1 and passing into ,russia at #ee1 thence continuing across the middle of ,siberia1 north of ,china to ,japan2 thence south to the ,fiji ,islands1 to ,new ,zealand and ,north ,australia2 thence again to ,mauritius and over all ,africa to ,madeira4 ,the southern distribution is uncertain and obscure4 ,taking exceptional distribution1 it is well known that it occasionally appears in the ,british ,isles1 and has in them apparently been noticed as far north as ,edinburgh2 so also does it occasionally appear in ,scandinavia1 and it has probably been seen up to #fc ,n4 in ,finland4 ,looking at this vast area1 it is easy to conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard to the exact determination of the species1 and in ,europe especially is this the case1 because there exists a distinct species1 known as ,p4 migratorius1 the migratory area of which appears to be confined to ,turkestan and eastern ,europe4 ,p4 cinerascens is certainly the most common of the locusts occasionally found in the ,british ,isles1 and ,e4 de ,selys-,longchamps is of opinion that it breeds regularly in ,belgium1 whereas the true ,p4 migratorius is only accidental in that country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,acridium peregrinum4 ,a ,south ,african species allied to the preceding and provisionally identified as ,pachytylus salcicollis is noteworthy from the manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless individuals4 ,the families of young1 after destroying the vegetation of a district1 unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh pastures1 devastating the country as they go and proceeding of necessity on foot1 hence they are known to the ,dutch as voetgangers4 ,travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent1 the home of their parents before migration1 they are diverted from their course by no obstacles4 ,upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for a likely spot to cross1 then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water where they form floating islands of insects1 most of which usually succeed in gaining the opposite bank1 though many perish in the attempt4 ,acridium peregrinum 7fig4 #b7 can scarcely be considered even an accidental visitor to ,europe2 yet it has been seen in the south of ,spain1 and in many examples spread over a large part of ,england in the year #ahfi4 ,it is a larger insect than ,p4 migratorius4 ,there is every reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout ,africa and in ,india and other parts of tropical ,asia1 and its ravages are as great as those of ,p4 migratorius4 ,presumably it is the species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the ,atlantic1 very far from land1 and presumably also it occurs in the ,west ,indies and some parts of ,central ,america4 ,in the ,argentine ,republic a 7possibly7 distinct species 7,a4 paranense7 is the migratory locust4 ,caloptenus italicus 7fig4 #c7 is a smaller insect1 with a less extended area of migration2 the destruction occasioned in the districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its more terrible allies4 ,it is essentially a species of the ,mediterranean district1 and especially of the ,european side of that sea1 yet it is also found in ,north ,africa1 and appears to extend far into southern ,russia4 ,caloptenus spretus 7fig4 #d7 is the ,rocky ,mountain locust or hateful grasshopper of the ,north ,american continent4 ,though a comparatively small insect1 not so large as some of the grasshoppers of ,english fields1 its destructiveness has procured for it great notoriety4 ,by early travellers and settlers the species was not recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners4 ,but in #ahgg1 ,congress appointed a ,united ,states ,entomological ,commission to investigate the subject4 ,the report of the commissioners 7,c4 ,v4 ,riley1 ,a4 ,s4 ,packard and ,c4 ,thomas7 deals with the whole subject of locusts both in ,america and the ,old world4 ,c4 spretus has its home or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 extending slightly into the southern portion of ,canada2 outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent is applied1 and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional distribution1 the whole occupying a large portion of the ,north ,american continent2 but it is not known to have crossed the ,rocky ,mountains westward1 or to have extended into the eastern states4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,caloptenus italicus4 ,as to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of locusts1 little unfortunately can be said2 but anything that will apply to one species may be used with practically all4 ,something can be done 7as is now done in ,cyprus7 by offering a price for all the egg-tubes collected1 which is the most direct manner of attacking them4 ,some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an unwinged condition1 and by digging trenches in the line of march into which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to4 ,little can be done with the winged hordes2 starvation1 the outcome of their own work1 probably here does much4 ,in ,south ,africa some success has attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic4 ,it has been shown that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places1 or true homes1 are comparatively barren districts 7mostly elevated plateaus72 hence the progress of colonization1 and the conversion of those heretofore barren plains into areas of fertility1 may 7and probably will7 gradually lessen the evil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,rocky ,mountain ,locust 7,caloptenus spretus74 7,after ,riley47 a1 a1 a1 ,female in different positions1 ovipositing4 b1 ,egg-pod extracted from ground1 with the end broken open4 c1 ,a few eggs lying loose on the ground4 d1 e show the earth partially removed1 to illustrate an egg-mass already in place1 and one being placed4 f1 shows where such a mass has been covered up4 ,locusts have many enemies besides man4 ,many birds greedily devour them1 and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the insects were closely followed by myriads of birds4 ,predatory insects of other orders also attack them1 especially when they are in the unwinged condition4 ,moreover1 they have still more deadly insect foes as parasites4 ,some attack the fully developed winged insect4 ,but the greater part attack the eggs4 ,to such belong certain beetles1 chiefly of the family ,cantharidae1 and especially certain two-winged flies of the family ,bombyliidae4 ,these latter1 both in the ,old and ,new ,world1 must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae4 ,the larger ,old ,world species form articles of food with certain semi-civilized and savage races1 by whom they are considered as delicacies1 or as part of ordinary diet1 according to the race and the method of preparation4 7,r4 ,m',l42 ,r4 ,i4 ,p47 ,,footnote3 #a ,the ,lat4 locusta was first applied to a lobster or other marine shell-fish and then1 from its resemblance1 to the insect4 ,,locust-,,tree1 or ,,carob-,,tree 7,ceratonia siliqua71 a member of the tribe ,cassieae of the order ,leguminosae1 the sole species of its genus1 and widely diffused spontaneously and by cultivation from ,spain to the eastern ,mediterranean regions4 ,the name of the genus is derived from the often curved pod 7,gr4 ,greek3 keration1 a little horn74 ,the flowers have no petals and are polygamous or dioecious 7male1 female and hermaphrodite flowers occur74 ,the seed-pod is compressed1 often curved1 indehiscent and coriaceous1 but with sweet pulpy divisions between the seeds1 which1 as in other genera of the ,cassieae1 are albuminous4 ,the pods are eaten by men and animals1 and in ,sicily a spirit and a syrup are made from them4 ,these husks being often used for swine are called swine's bread1 and are probably referred to in the parable of the ,prodigal ,son4 ,it is also called ,st ,john's bread1 from a misunderstanding of ,matt4 iii4 #d4 ,the carob-tree was regarded by ,sprengel as the tree with which ,moses sweetened the bitter waters of ,marah 7,exod4 xv4 #be71 as the kharrb1 according to ,avicenna 7p4 #bje71 has the property of sweetening salt and bitter waters4 ,gerard 7,herball1 p4 #abda7 cultivated it in #aeig1 it having been introduced in #aegj4 ,,lod,,ve1 a town of southern ,france1 capital of an arrondissement of the department of ,hrault1 #cf m4 ,w4,n4,w4 of ,montpellier by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 #fadb4 ,it is situated in the southern ,cvennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the ,soulondres joins the ,lergue1 a tributary of the ,hrault4 ,two bridges over the ,lergue connect the town with the faubourg of ,carmes on the left bank of the river1 and two others over the ,soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the chteau de ,montbrun 7#acth century74 ,the old fortified cathedral of ,st ,fulcran1 founded by him in #iej1 dates in its present condition from the #acth1 #adth and #afth centuries2 the cloister1 dating from the #aeth and #agth centuries1 is in ruins4 ,in the picturesque environs of the town stands the well-preserved monastery of ,st ,michel de ,grammont1 dating from the #abth century and now used as farm buildings4 ,in the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens4 ,the manufacture of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry4 ,wool is imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments1 and from ,morocco2 the exports are cloth to ,italy and the ,levant1 wine1 brandy and wood4 ,the town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce1 a board of trade-arbitrators1 a chamber of arts and manufactures1 and a communal college4 ,lodve 7,luteva7 existed before the invasion of the ,romans1 who for some time called it ,forum ,neronis4 ,the inhabitants were converted to ,christianity by ,st ,flour1 first bishop of the city1 about #cbc4 ,after passing successively into the hands of the ,visigoths1 the ,franks1 the ,ostrogoths1 the ,arabs and the ,carolingians1 it became in the #ith century a separate countship1 and afterwards the domain of its bishops4 ,during the religious wars it suffered much1 especially in #aegc1 when it was sacked4 ,it ceased to be an episcopal see at the ,revolution4 ,,lodge1 ,,edmund 7#agef-ahci71 ,english writer on heraldry1 was born in ,london on the #acth of ,june #agef1 son of ,edmund ,lodge1 rector of ,carshalton1 ,surrey4 ,he held a cornet's commission in the army1 which he resigned in #aggc4 ,in #aghb he became ,bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the ,college of ,arms4 ,he subsequently became ,lancaster herald1 ,norroy king-at-arms1 ,clarencieux king-at-arms1 and1 in #ahcb1 knight of the order of the ,guelphs of ,hanover4 ,he died in ,london on the #afth of ,january #ahci4 ,he wrote ,illustrations of ,british ,history1 ,biography and ,manners in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii41 ,edward ,,vi41 ,mary1 ,elizabeth and ,james ,i4 444 7#c vols41 #agia71 consisting of selections from the ,,mss4 of the ,howard1 ,talbot and ,cecil families preserved at the ,college of ,arms2 ,life of ,sir ,julius ,caesar 444 7#bnd ed41 #ahbg74 ,he contributed the literary matter to ,portraits of ,illustrious ,personages of ,great ,britain 7#ahad1 c471 an elaborate work of which a popular edition is included in ,bohn's ,illustrated ,library4 ,his most important work on heraldry was ,the ,genealogy of the existing ,british ,peerage 444 7#ahcb2 enlarged edition1 #ahei74 ,in ,the ,annual ,peerage and ,baronetage 7#ahbg-ahbi71 reissued after #ahcb as ,peerage of the ,british ,empire1 and generally known as ,lodge's ,peerage1 his share did not go beyond the title-page4 ,,lodge1 ,,henry ,,cabot 7#ahej- 71 ,american political leader and author1 was born in ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 on the #abth of ,may #ahej4 ,he graduated at ,harvard ,college in #ahga and at the ,harvard ,law ,school in #ahge2 was admitted to the ,suffolk 7,massachusetts7 bar in #ahgf2 and in #ahgf-ahgi was instructor in ,american history at ,harvard4 ,he was a member of the ,massachusetts ,house of ,representatives in #ahhj-ahha1 and of the ,national ,house of ,representatives in #ahhg-ahic2 succeeded ,henry ,l4 ,dawes as ,united ,states ,senator from ,massachusetts in #ahic2 and in #ahii and in #aije was re-elected to the ,senate1 where he became one of the most prominent of the ,republican leaders1 and an influential supporter of ,president ,roosevelt4 ,he was a member of the ,alaskan ,boundary ,commission of #aijc1 and of the ,united ,states ,immigration ,commission of #aijg4 ,in the ,national ,republican ,convention of #ahif his influence did much to secure the adoption of the gold standard plank of the party's platform4 ,he was the permanent chairman of the ,national ,republican ,convention of #aijj1 and of that of #aijh4 ,in #ahgd-ahgf he edited the ,north ,american ,review with ,henry ,adams2 and in #ahgi-ahhb1 with ,john ,t4 ,morse1 ,jr41 he edited the ,international ,review4 ,in #ahhd-ahij he was an overseer of ,harvard ,college4 ,his doctoral thesis at ,harvard was published with essays by ,henry ,adams1 ,j4 ,l4 ,laughlin and ,ernest ,young1 under the title ,essays on ,anglo-,saxon ,land ,law 7#ahgf74 ,he wrote3 ,life and ,letters of ,george ,cabot 7#ahgg72 ,alexander ,hamilton 7#ahhb71 ,daniel ,webster 7#ahhc7 and ,george ,washington 7#b vols41 #ahhi71 in the ,american ,statesmen series2 ,a ,short ,history of the ,english ,colonies in ,america 7#ahha72 ,studies in ,history 7#ahhd72 ,boston 7#ahia71 in the ,historic ,towns series2 ,historical and ,political ,essays 7#ahib72 with ,theodore ,roosevelt1 ,hero ,tales from ,american ,history 7#ahie72 ,certain ,accepted ,heroes 7#ahig72 ,the ,story of the ,american ,revolution 7#b vols41 #ahih72 ,the ,war with ,spain 7#ahii72 ,a ,fighting ,frigate 7#aijb72 ,a ,frontier ,town 7#aijf72 and1 with ,j4 ,w4 ,garner1 ,a ,history of the ,united ,states 7#d vols41 #aijf74 ,he edited ,the ,works of ,alexander ,hamilton 7#i vols41 #ahhe-ahhf7 and ,the ,federalist 7#ahia74 ,his son1 ,,george ,,cabot ,,lodge 7#ahgc-aiji71 also became known as an author1 with ,the ,song of the ,wave 7#ahih71 ,poems1 #ahii-aijb 7#aijb71 ,the ,great ,adventure 7#aije71 ,cain3 a ,drama 7#aijd71 ,herakles 7#aijh7 and other verse4 ,,lodge1 ,,sir ,,oliver ,,joseph 7#ahea- 71 ,english physicist1 was born at ,penkhull1 ,staffordshire1 on the #abth of ,june #ahea1 and was educated at ,newport 7,salop7 grammar school4 ,he was intended for a business career1 but being attracted to science he entered ,university ,college1 ,london1 in #ahgb1 graduating ,d4,sc4 at ,london ,university in #ahgg4 ,in #ahge he was appointed reader in natural philosophy at ,bedford ,college for ,women1 and in #ahgi he became assistant professor of applied mathematics at ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,two years later he was called to the chair of physics in ,university ,college1 ,liverpool1 where he remained till in #aijj he was chosen first principal of the new ,birmingham ,university4 ,he was knighted in #aijb4 ,his original work includes investigations on lightning1 the seat of the electromotive force in the voltaic cell1 the phenomena of electrolysis and the speed of the ion1 electromagnetic waves and wireless telegraphy1 the motion of the aether near the earth1 and the application of electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke4 ,he presided over the mathematical and physical section of the ,british ,association in #ahia1 and served as president of the ,physical ,society in #ahii-aijj and of the ,society for ,psychical ,research in #aija-aijd4 ,in addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote1 among other works1 ,lightning ,conductors and ,lightning ,guards1 ,signalling without ,wires1 ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 ,electrons and ,the ,ether of ,space1 together with various books and papers of a metaphysical and theological character4 ,,lodge1 ,,thomas 7c4 #aeeh-afbe71 ,english dramatist and miscellaneous writer1 was born about #aeeh at ,west ,ham4 ,he was the second son of ,sir ,thomas ,lodge1 who was lord mayor of ,london in #aefb-aefc4 ,he was educated at ,merchant ,taylors' ,school and ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford2 taking his ,b4,a4 degree in #aegg and that of ,m4,a4 in #aeha4 ,in #aegh he entered ,lincoln's ,inn1 where1 as in the other ,inns of ,court1 a love of letters and a crop of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a kindly soil4 ,lodge1 apparently in disregard of the wishes of his family1 speedily showed his inclination towards the looser ways of life and the lighter aspects of literature4 ,when the penitent ,stephen ,gosson had 7in #aegi7 published his ,schoole of ,abuse1 ,lodge took up the glove in his ,defence of ,poetry1 ,music and ,stage ,plays 7#aegi or #aehj2 reprinted for the ,shakespeare ,society1 #ahec71 which shows a certain restraint1 though neither deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of erudition4 ,the pamphlet was prohibited1 but appears to have been circulated privately4 ,it was answered by ,gosson in his ,playes ,confuted in ,five ,actions2 and ,lodge retorted with his ,alarum ,against ,usurers 7#aehd1 reprinted ib47--a tract for the times which no doubt was in some measure indebted to the author's personal experience4 ,in the same year he produced the first tale written by him on his own account in prose and verse1 ,the ,delectable ,history of ,forbonius and ,prisceria1 both published and reprinted with the ,alarum4 ,from #aehg onwards he seems to have made a series of attempts as a playwright1 though most of those attributed to him are mainly conjectural4 ,that he ever became an actor is improbable in itself1 and ,collier's conclusion to that effect rested on the two assumptions that the ,lodge of ,henslowe's ,m4,s4 was a player and that his name was ,thomas1 neither of which is supported by the text 7see ,c4 ,m4 ,ingleby1 ,was ,thomas ,lodge an ,actor8 #ahfh74 ,having1 in the spirit of his age1 tried the waves with ,captain ,clarke in his expedition to ,terceira and the ,canaries1 ,lodge in #aeia made a voyage with ,thomas ,cavendish to ,brazil and the ,straits of ,magellan1 returning home by #aeic4 ,during the ,canaries expedition1 to beguile the tedium of his voyage1 he composed his prose tale of ,rosalynde1 ,euphues' ,golden ,legacie1 which1 printed in #aeij1 afterwards furnished the story of ,shakespeare's ,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,the novel1 which in its turn owes some1 though no very considerable1 debt to the medieval ,tale of ,gamelyn 7unwarrantably appended to the fragmentary ,cookes ,tale in certain ,,mss4 of ,chaucer's works71 is written in the euphuistic manner1 but decidedly attractive both by its plot and by the situations arising from it4 ,it has been frequently reprinted4 ,before starting on his second expedition he had published an historical romance1 ,the ,history of ,robert1 ,second ,duke of ,normandy1 surnamed ,robert the ,divell2 and he left behind him for publication ,catharos1 ,diogenes in his ,singularity1 a discourse on the immorality of ,athens 7,london74 ,both appeared in #aeia4 ,another romance in the manner of ,lyly1 ,euphues ,shadow1 the ,battaile of the ,sences 7#aeib71 appeared while ,lodge was still on his travels4 ,his second historical romance1 the ,life and ,death of ,william ,longbeard 7#aeic71 was more successful than the first4 ,lodge also brought back with him from the new world ,a ,margarite of ,america 7published #aeif71 a romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics4 ,already in #aehi ,lodge had given to the world a volume of poems bearing the title of the chief among them1 ,scillaes ,metamorphosis1 ,enterlaced with the ,unfortunate ,love of ,glaucus1 more briefly known as ,glaucus and ,scilla 7reprinted with preface by ,s4 ,w4 ,singer in #ahai74 ,to this tale ,shakespeare was possibly indebted for the idea of ,venus and ,adonis4 ,some readers would perhaps be prepared to give up this and much else of ,lodge's sugared verse1 fine though much of it is in quality1 largely borrowed from other writers1 ,french and ,italian in particular1 in exchange for the lost ,sailor's ,kalendar1 in which he must in one way or another have recounted his sea adventures4 ,if ,lodge1 as has been supposed1 was the ,alcon in ,colin ,clout's come ,home ,again1 it may have been the influence of ,spenser which led to the composition of ,phillis1 a volume of sonnets1 in which the voice of nature seems only now and then to become audible1 published with the narrative poem1 ,the ,complaynte of ,elstred1 in #aeic4 ,a ,fig for ,momus1 on the strength of which he has been called the earliest ,english satirist1 and which contains eclogues addressed to ,daniel and others1 an epistle addressed to ,drayton1 and other pieces1 appeared in #aeie4 ,lodge's ascertained dramatic work is small in quantity4 ,in conjunction with ,greene he1 probably in #aeij1 produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble play of ,a ,looking ,glasse for ,london and ,england 7printed in #aeid74 ,he had already written ,the ,wounds of ,civile ,war4 ,lively set forth in the ,tragedies of ,marius and ,scilla 7produced perhaps as early as #aehg1 and published in #aeid71 a good second-rate piece in the half-chronicle fashion of its age4 ,mr ,f4 ,g4 ,fleay thinks there were grounds for assigning to ,lodge ,mucedorus and ,amadine1 played by the ,queen's ,men about #aehh1 a share with ,robert ,greene in ,george a ,greene1 the ,pinner of ,wakefield1 and in ,shakespeare's #bnd part of ,henry ,,vi42 he also regards him as at least part-author of ,the ,true ,chronicle of ,king ,leir and his three ,daughters 7#aeid72 and ,the ,troublesome ,raigne of ,john1 ,king of ,england 7c4 #aehh72 in the case of two other plays he allowed the assignation to ,lodge to be purely conjectural4 ,that ,lodge is the ,young ,juvenal of ,greene's ,groatsworth of ,wit is no longer a generally accepted hypothesis4 ,in the latter part of his life--possibly about #aeif1 when he published his ,wits ,miserie and the ,world's ,madnesse1 which is dated from ,low ,leyton in ,essex1 and the religious tract ,prosopopeia 7if1 as seems probable1 it was his71 in which he repents him of his lewd lines of other days--he became a ,catholic and engaged in the practice of medicine1 for which ,wood says he qualified himself by a degree at ,avignon in #afjj4 ,two years afterwards he received the degree of ,m4,d4 from ,oxford ,university4 ,his works henceforth have a sober cast1 comprising translations of ,josephus 7#afjb71 of ,seneca 7#afad71 a ,learned ,summary of ,du ,bartas's ,divine ,sepmaine 7#afbe and #afcg71 besides a ,treatise of the ,plague 7#afjc71 and a popular manual1 which remained unpublished1 on ,domestic ,medicine4 ,early in #afjf he seems to have left ,england1 to escape the persecution then directed against the ,catholics2 and a letter from him dated #afaj thanks the ,english ambassador in ,paris for enabling him to return in safety4 ,he was abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and another in #afaf4 ,from this time to his death in #afbe nothing further concerning him remains to be noted4 ,lodge's works1 with the exception of his translations1 have been reprinted for the ,hunterian ,club with an introductory essay by ,mr ,edmund ,gosse4 ,this preface was reprinted in ,mr ,gosse's ,seventeenth ,century ,studies 7#ahhc74 ,of ,rosalynde there are numerous modern editions4 ,see also ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,english ,novel in the ,time of ,shakespeare 7,eng4 trans41 #ahij72 ,f4 ,g4 ,fleay1 ,biographical ,chronicle of the ,english ,drama 7vol4 ii41 #ahia74 7,a4 ,w4 ,w47 ,,lodge1 a dwelling-place1 small and usually temporary1 a hut1 booth or tent4 ,the word was in ,m4 ,eng4 logge1 from ,fr4 loge1 arbour1 in modern ,french a hut2 also box in a theatre2 the ,french word1 like the ,italian loggia1 came from the ,med4 ,lat4 laubia or lobia1 the sheltered promenade in a cloister1 from which ,english lobby is derived4 ,the ,latin is of ,teutonic origin from the word which survives in the ,mod4 ,ger4 ,laube1 an arbour1 but which earlier was used for any hut1 booth1 c4 ,the word is probably ultimately from the root which appears in leaf1 meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs4 ,the word is especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from habitation1 where people stay for the purpose of sport1 as a hunting lodge1 shooting lodge1 c4 ,the most frequent use of the word is of a small building1 usually placed at the entrance to an estate or park and inhabited by a dependant of the owner4 ,in the same sense the word means the room or box inhabited by the porter of a college1 factory or public institution4 ,among ,freemasons and other societies the lodge is the name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch or district1 and is applied to the members collectively as a meeting of the lodge4 ,the governing body of the ,freemasons presided over by the grand master is called the ,grand ,lodge4 ,at the university of ,cambridge the house where the head of a college lives is called the lodge4 ,formerly the word was used of the den or lair of an animal1 but is now only applied to that of the beaver and the otter4 ,it is also applied to the tent of a ,north ,american ,indian1 a wigwam or tepee1 and to the number of inhabitants of such a tent4 ,in mining the term is used of a subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit1 or at different levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine4 ,it is used also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft1 for discharging ore1 c4 ,,lodger ,,and ,,lodgings4 ,the term lodger 7,fr4 loger1 to lodge7 is used in ,english law in several slightly different senses4 ,it is applied 7i47 most frequently and properly to a person who takes furnished rooms in a house1 the landlord also residing on the premises1 and supplying him with attendance2 7ii47 sometimes to a person1 who takes unfurnished rooms in a house finding his own attendance2 7iii47 to a boarder in a boarding-house 7q4v474 ,it is with 7i47 and 7ii47 alone that this article is concerned4 ,where furnished apartments are let for immediate use1 the law implies an undertaking on the part of the landlord that they are fit for habitation1 and1 if this condition is broken1 the tenant may refuse to occupy the premises or to pay any rent4 ,but there is no implied contract that the apartments shall continue fit for habitation2 and the rule has no application in the case of unfurnished lodgings4 ,in the absence of express agreement to the contrary1 a lodger has a right to the use of everything necessary to the enjoyment of the premises1 such as the door bell and knocker and the skylight of a staircase1 whether the rent of apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord where he resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a question the answer to which is involved in some uncertainty4 ,the weight of authority seems to support the negative view 7see ,foa1 ,landlord and ,tenant1 #crd ed4 p4 #dcd74 ,to make good a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the terms of the letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a mere licence1 where the owner1 although residing on the premises1 does not supply attendance1 the question depends on whether there is a real tenancy1 giving the lodger an exclusive right of occupation as against the owner4 ,the ordinary test is whether the lodger has the control of the outer door4 ,but the whole circumstances of each case have to be taken account of4 ,a lodger is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in exclusive occupation of the apartments let to him1 and the landlord does not retain the control and dominion of the whole structure4 ,as to distress on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior landlord1 see ,,rent4 ,as to the termination of short tenancies1 as of apartments1 see ,,landlord ,,and ,,tenant4 ,the landlord has no lien on the goods of the lodger for rent or charges4 ,overcrowding lodging-houses may be dealt with as a nuisance under the ,public ,health ,acts #ahge and #ahia and the ,housing of the ,working ,classes ,acts4 ,as to the lodger franchise1 see ,,registration ,,of ,,voters4 ,it has been held in ,england that keepers of lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons 7see ,,carrier2 ,,innkeeper7 who hold themselves out to the public generally as trustworthy in certain employments2 but that they are under an obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their lodgers' goods2 see ,scarborough v4 ,cosgrove1 #aije1 #b ,k4,b4 #hje4 ,as to ,scots ,law see ,bell's ,prin4 s4 #bcf 7#d74 ,in the ,united ,states1 the ,english doctrine of an implied warranty of fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished apartments has only met with partial acceptance2 it was repudiated1 e4g4 in the ,district of ,columbia1 but has been accepted in ,massachusetts4 ,in the ,french ,code ,civil1 there are some special rules with regard to furnished apartments4 ,the letting is reputed to be made for a year1 a month or a day1 according as the rent is so much per year1 per month or per day2 if that test is inapplicable1 the letting is deemed to be made according to the custom of the place 7art4 #ageh74 ,there are similar provisions in the ,civil ,codes of ,belgium 7art4 #ageh71 ,holland 7art4 #afbb7 and ,spain 7,civil ,code1 art4 #aeha74 ,see also the articles1 ,,boarding ,,house1 and ,,flat2 and the bibliographies to ,,flat and ,,landlord ,,and ,,tenant4 7,a4 ,w4 ,r47 ,,lodi1 a town and episcopal see of ,piedmont1 ,italy1 in the province of ,milan1 #bj m4 by rail ,s4,e4 of that city1 on a hill above the right bank of the ,adda1 #bcj ft4 above sea-level4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ai1igj 7town71 #bf1hbg 7commune74 ,the site of the city is an eminence rising very gradually from the ,lombard plain1 and the surrounding country is one of the richest dairy districts in ,italy4 ,the cathedral 7#aaeh71 with a ,gothic faade and a #afth-century lateral tower1 has a restored interior4 ,the church of the ,incoronata was erected by ,battaggio 7#adhh7 in the ,bramantesque style4 ,it is an elegant octagonal domed structure1 and is decorated with frescoes by the ,piazza family1 natives of the town1 and four large altar-pieces by ,calisto ,piazza 7died after #aefa74 ,there is a fine organ of #aejg4 ,the #acth-century ,gothic church of ,san ,francesco1 restored in #ahhi1 with #adth-century paintings1 is also noticeable4 ,the ,palazzo ,modegnani has a fine gateway in the style of ,bramante1 and the hospital a cloistered quadrangle4 ,in the ,via ,pompeia is an early ,renaissance house with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta4 ,besides an extensive trade in cheese 7,lodi producing more ,parmesan than ,parma itself7 and other dairy produce1 there are manufactures of linen1 silk1 majolica and chemicals4 ,the ancient ,laus ,pompeia lay #c m4 ,w4 of the present city1 and the site is still occupied by a considerable village1 ,lodi ,vecchio1 with the old cathedral of ,s4 ,bassiano1 now a brick building1 which contains #aeth-century frescoes4 ,it was the point where the roads from ,mediolanum to ,placentia and ,cremona diverged1 and there was also a road to ,ticinum turning off from the former1 but it is hardly mentioned by classical writers4 ,it appears to have been a municipium4 ,no ruins exist above ground1 but various antiquities have been found here4 ,from which ,pompeius1 whether ,cn4 ,pompeius ,strabo1 who gave citizenship to the ,transpadani1 or his son1 the more famous ,pompey1 it took its name is not certain4 ,in the middle ages ,lodi was second to ,milan among the cities of northern ,italy4 ,a dispute with the archbishop of ,milan about the investiture of the bishop of ,lodi 7#ajbd7 proved the beginning of a protracted feud between the two cities4 ,in #aaaa the ,milanese laid the whole place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had destroyed1 and in #aaeh1 when in spite of this prohibition a fairly flourishing settlement had again been formed1 they repeated their work in a more thorough manner4 ,a number of the ,lodigians had settled on ,colle ,eghezzone2 and their village1 the ,borgo d',isella1 on the site of a temple of ,hercules1 soon grew up under the patronage of ,frederick ,barbarossa into a new city of ,lodi 7#aafb74 ,at first subservient to the emperor1 ,lodi was before long compelled to enter the ,lombard ,league1 and in #aaih it formed alliance offensive and defensive with ,milan4 ,the strife between the ,sommariva or aristocratic party and the ,overgnaghi or democratic party was so severe that the city divided into two distinct communes4 ,the ,overgnaghi1 expelled in #abcf1 were restored by ,frederick ,,ii4 who took the city after three months' siege4 ,lodi was actively concerned in the rest of the ,guelph and ,ghibelline struggle4 ,in #adaf its ruler1 ,giovanni ,vignati1 was treacherously taken prisoner by ,filippo ,maria ,visconti1 and after that time it became dependent on ,milan4 ,the duke of ,brunswick captured it in #afbe1 in the interests of ,spain2 and it was occupied by the ,french 7#agja71 by the ,austrians 7#agjf71 by the king of ,sardinia 7#agcc71 by the ,austrians 7#agcf71 by the ,spaniards 7#agde71 and again by the ,austrians 7#agdf74 ,on the #ajth of ,may #agif was fought the battle of ,lodi between the ,austrians and ,napoleon1 which made the latter master of ,lombardy4 ,,lodz 7,ldz2 more correctly ,lodzia71 a town of ,russian ,poland1 in the government of ,piotrkw1 #hb m4 by rail ,s4,w4 of ,warsaw4 ,it is situated on the ,lodz plateau1 which at the beginning of the #aith century was covered with impenetrable forests4 ,now it is the centre of a group of industrial towns--,zgerz1 ,leczyca1 ,pabianice1 ,konstantinov and ,aleksandrov4 ,chiefly owing to a considerable immigration of ,german capitalists and workers1 ,lodz has grown with ,american-like rapidity4 ,it consists principally of one main street1 #g m4 long1 and is a sort of ,polish ,manchester1 manufacturing cottons1 woollens and mixed stuffs1 with chemicals1 beer1 machinery and silk4 ,one of the very few educational institutions is a professional industrial school4 ,the population1 which was only #ej1jjj in #ahgb1 reached #cea1egj in #aijj2 the ,poles numbering about #cg1 ,germans #dj and ,jews #bb4 ,,loess 7,ger4 ,lss71 in geology1 a variety of loam4 ,typical loess is a soft1 porous rock1 pale yellowish or buff in colour2 one characteristic property is its capacity to retain vertical1 or even over-hanging1 walls in the banks of streams4 ,these vertical walls have been well described by von ,richthofen 7,fhrer fr ,forschungsreisende1 ,berlin1 #ahhf7 in ,china1 where they stand in some places #ejj ft4 high and contain innumerable cave dwellings2 ancient roads too have worn their way vertically downwards deep into the deposit1 forming trench-like ways4 ,this character in the loess of the ,mississippi region gave rise to the name ,bluff formation4 ,a coarse columnar structure is often exhibited on the vertical weathered faces of the rock4 ,another characteristic is the presence throughout the rock of small capillary tubules1 which appear to have been occupied by rootlets2 these are often lined with calcite4 ,typical loess is usually calcareous2 some geologists regard this as an essential property1 and when the rock has become decalcified1 as it frequently is on the surface by weathering1 they call it loess-loam 7lsslehm74 ,in the lower portions of a loess deposit the calcium carbonate tends to form concretions1 which on account of their mimetic forms have received such names as lsskindchen1 lsspuppen1 poupes du loess1 loess dolls4 ,in deposits of this nature in ,south ,america these concretionary masses form distinct beds4 ,bedding is absent from typical loess4 ,the mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in different regions1 but the particles are always small2 they consist of angular grains of quartz1 fine particles of hydrated silicates of alumina1 mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar1 hornblende and other rock-forming silicates4 ,in ,europe and ,america loess deposits are associated with the margins of the great ice sheets of the glacial period2 thus in ,europe they stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west of ,france1 and are not found north of the #egth parallel4 ,in both regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits4 ,for this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the ,pleistocene period2 but some of the loess deposits of northern ,europe have been in process of formation intermittently from the ,miocene period onward1 and in ,south ,america the great loess formations known as the ,pampean or ,patagonian belong to the ,eocene1 ,oligocene and ,pleistocene periods4 ,most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne rock1 formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe conditions4 ,the capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface even while the deposit was slowly increasing4 ,others contend that loess is of the nature of alluvial loam2 this may be true of certain deposits classed as loess1 but it cannot be true of most of the typical loess formations1 for they lie upon older rocks quite independently of altitude1 from near sea level up to #ejjj ft4 in ,europe and to #aa1ejj ft4 in ,china2 they are often developed on one side of a mountain range and not upon the other1 and in a series of approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying upon one side and that the same in each case1 facts pointing to the agency of prevalent winds4 ,the thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than #cc ft41 but in ,china it reaches #ajjj ft4 or more2 it also attains a great thickness in ,south ,america4 ,numerous proboscidian and other mammalian fossils have been found in the loess of ,europe2 the tapir1 mastodon and giant sloths occur in ,south ,america1 but the most common fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as ,succinea4 ,certain loess deposits in ,turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash1 this is the so-called lake-loess 7see-lss72 according to ,tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is porous1 dry and pervious1 while the latter is laminated1 plastic and impervious4 ,two types of loess have been recognized in ,russia1 the ,hill- or ,terrace-loess and the ,low-level-loess1 a product of the weathering of underlying rocks4 ,in ,south ,germany the following order has been recognized3 7#a7 an upper unbedded1 non-calcareous loess1 7#b7 the gehanglss1 mixed with subsoil rocks1 and 7#c7 the sand or thal-lss1 with some gravel4 ,the effect of vegetation on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility1 such as the black earth 7,tschernozom7 of southern ,russia1 the dark ,bordelss of the ,magdeburg district1 and the black cotton soil 7regur7 of the ,deccan4 ,,lofft1 ,,capel 7#agea-ahbd71 ,english miscellaneous writer1 was born in ,london on the #adth of ,november #agea4 ,he was educated at ,eton1 and ,peterhouse1 ,cambridge1 which he left to become a member of ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,he was called to the bar in #agge1 and left by his father's and uncle's deaths with a handsome property and the family estates4 ,he was a prolific writer on a variety of topics1 and a vigorous contentious advocate of parliamentary and other reforms1 and carried on a voluminous correspondence with all the literary men of his time4 ,he became the patron of ,robert ,bloomfield1 the author of ,the ,farmer's ,boy1 and secured for him the very successful publication of that work4 ,byron1 in a note to his ,english ,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers1 ridiculed ,lofft as the ,maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed versemen2 a kind of gratis accoucheur to those who wish to be delivered of rhyme1 but do not know how to bring forth4 ,he died at ,montcalieri1 near ,turin1 on the #bfth of ,may #ahbd4 ,his fourth son ,capel ,lofft1 the younger 7#ahjf-ahgc71 also a writer on various topics1 inherited his father's liberal ideas and principles1 and carried them in youth to greater extremes4 ,in his old age he abandoned these theories1 which had brought him into the company of some of the leading political agitators of the day4 ,he died in ,america1 where he had a ,virginia estate4 ,,lofoten ,,and ,,vesteraalen1 a large and picturesque group of islands lying ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w4 off the ,n4,w4 coast of ,norway1 between #fg #cj and #fi #bj ,n41 and between #ab and #af #ce ,e4 forming part of the amt 7county7 of ,nordland4 ,the extreme length of the group from ,andenaes1 at the north of ,and1 to ,rst1 is about #aej m42 the aggregate area about #aefj sq4 m4 ,it is separated from the mainland by the ,vestfjord1 ,tjaeldsund and ,vaagsfjord1 and is divided into two sections by the ,raftsund between ,hind and st-,vaag4 ,to the ,w4 and ,s4 of the ,raftsund lie the ,lofoten ,islands proper1 of which the most important are st-,vaag1 ,gims1 ,vest-,vaag1 ,flakstad1 ,moskenaes1 ,mosken1 ,vr and ,rst2 ,e4 and ,n4 of the ,raftsund are the islands of ,vesteraalen1 the chief being ,hind1 ,ulv1 ,lang1 ,skogs and ,and4 ,the islands1 which are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss1 are precipitous and lofty4 ,the highest points and finest scenery are found on st-,vaag1 in the neighbourhood of the narrow1 cliff-bound ,raftsund and ,troldfjord4 ,the principal peaks are ,higrafstind 7#chaa ft471 ,gjeitgaljartind 7#ceee71 ,rulten 7#cdhc71 the ,noldtinder 7#cdfg71 ,svartsundtind 7#cejf74 ,the long line of jagged and fantastic peaks seen from the ,vestfjord forms one of the most striking prospects on the ,norwegian coast1 but still finer is the panorama from the ,digermuler 7#aaej ft471 embracing the islands1 the ,vestfjord1 and the mountains of the mainland4 ,the channels which separate the islands are narrow and tortuous1 and generally of great depth2 they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents1 particularly the ,raftsund and the famous ,maelstrm or ,moskenstrm between ,moskenaes and ,mosken4 ,the violent tempests which sweep over the ,vestfjord1 which is exposed to the ,s4,w41 are graphically described in ,jonas ,lie's ,den ,fremsynte 7#ahgj7 and in ,h4 ,schultze's ,udvalgte ,skrifter 7#ahhc71 as the ,maelstrm is imaginatively by ,edgar ,allan ,poe4 ,though situated wholly within the ,arctic circle1 the climate of the ,lofoten and ,vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of the rest of ,norway4 ,the isothermal line which marks a mean ,january temperature of #cb ,f4 runs south from the ,lofotens1 passing a little to the east of ,bergen onward to ,gothenburg and ,copenhagen4 ,the prevailing winds are from the ,s4 and ,w41 the mean temperature for the year is #ch4e ,f41 and the annual rainfall is #dc4cd in4 ,in summer the hills have only patches of snow1 the snow limit being about #cjjj ft4 ,the natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits the rearing of cattle to some extent2 but the growth of cereals 7chiefly barley1 which here matures in ninety days7 is insignificant4 ,the islands yield no wood4 ,the characteristic industry1 and an important source of the national wealth1 is the cod fishery carried on along the east coast of the ,lofotens in the ,vestfjord in spring4 ,this employs about #dj1jjj men during the season from all parts of ,norway1 the population being then about doubled1 and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts4 ,the average yield is valued at about #ce1jjj4 ,the fish are taken in nets let down during the night1 or on lines upwards of a mile in length1 or on ordinary hand-lines4 ,the fishermen are paid in cash1 and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the ,norwegian banks each ,february4 ,great loss of life is frequent during the sudden local storms4 ,the fish1 which is dried during early summer1 is exported to ,spain 7where it is known as bacalao71 ,holland1 ,great ,britain1 ,belgium1 c4 ,industries arising out of the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial manure4 ,the summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable4 ,the herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of ,vesteraalen1 but is a somewhat capricious visitant4 ,the islands contain no towns properly so called1 but ,kabelvaag on st-,vaag and ,svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and 7in the fishing season7 of population2 ,ldingen also1 at the head of the ,vestfjord on ,hind1 is much frequented as a port of call4 ,a church existed at ,vaagen 7,kabelvaag7 in the #abth century1 and here ,hans ,egede1 the missionary of ,greenland1 was pastor4 ,there are factories for fish guano at ,henningvaer 7st-,vaag71 ,kabelvaag1 ,svolvaer1 ,ldingen1 and at ,bretesns on ,store ,molla4 ,regular means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between ,hamburg or ,christiania and ,hammerfest1 and also by local vessels2 less accessible spots can be visited by small boats1 in the management of which the natives are adepts4 ,there are some roads on ,hind1 ,lang1 and ,and4 ,the largest island in the group1 and indeed in ,norway1 is ,hind1 with an area of #hfj sq4 m4 ,the south-eastern portion of it belongs to the amt of ,troms4 ,in the island of ,and there is a bed of coal at the mouth of ,ramsaa4 ,,loft 7connected with lift1 i4e4 raised in the air2 ,o4 ,eng4 lyft2 cf4 ,ger4 ,luft2 the ,french term is grenier and ,ger4 ,boden71 the term given in architecture to an upper room in the roof1 sometimes called cockloft2 when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft2 the gallery over a chancel screen1 carrying a cross1 is called a rood-loft 7see ,,rood74 ,the term is also given to a gallery provided in the choir-aisle of a cathedral or church1 and used as a watching-loft at night4 ,,loftus1 ,,adam 7c4 #aecc-afje71 archbishop of ,armagh and ,dublin1 and lord chancellor of ,ireland1 the son of a ,yorkshire gentleman1 was educated at ,cambridge4 ,he accompanied the earl of ,sussex to ,ireland as his chaplain in #aefj1 and three years later was consecrated archbishop of ,armagh by ,hugh ,curwen1 archbishop of ,dublin4 ,in #aefe ,queen ,elizabeth1 to supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing to the disturbed state of the country1 appointed ,loftus temporarily to the deanery of ,st ,patrick's2 and in the same year he became president of the new commission for ecclesiastical causes4 ,in #aefg he was translated to the archbishopric of ,dublin1 where the queen looked to him to carry out reforms in the ,church4 ,on several occasions he temporarily executed the functions of lord keeper1 and in ,august #aeha he was appointed lord chancellor of ,ireland4 ,loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment4 ,he had been obliged to resign the deanery of ,st ,patrick's in #aefg1 and twenty years later he quarrelled violently with ,sir ,john ,perrot1 the lord deputy1 over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the cathedral to the foundation of a university4 ,loftus1 however1 favoured the project of founding a university in ,dublin1 though on lines different from ,perrot's proposal1 and it was largely through his influence that the corporation of ,dublin granted the lands of the priory of ,all ,hallows as a beginning of the endowment of ,trinity ,college1 of which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation in #aeia4 ,loftus1 who had an important share in the administration of ,ireland under successive lords deputy1 and whose zeal and efficiency were commended by ,james ,i4 on his accession1 died in ,dublin on the #eth of ,april #afje4 ,by his wife1 ,jane ,purdon1 he had twenty children4 ,his brother ,robert was father of ,,adam ,,loftus 7c4 #aefh-afdc71 who became lord chancellor of ,ireland in #afai1 and in #afbb was created ,viscount ,loftus of ,ely1 ,king's county1 in the peerage of ,ireland4 ,lord ,loftus came into violent conflict with the lord deputy1 ,viscount ,falkland1 in #afbd2 and at a later date his quarrel with ,strafford was still more fierce4 ,one of the articles in ,strafford's impeachment was based on his dealings with ,loftus4 ,the title1 which became extinct on the death of his grandson1 the #crd viscount1 in #agbe 7when the family estate of ,monasterevan1 re-named ,moore ,abbey1 passed to his daughter's son ,henry1 #dth earl of ,drogheda71 was re-granted in #agef to his cousin ,nicholas ,loftus1 a lineal descendant of the archbishop4 ,it again became extinct more than once afterwards1 but was on each occasion revived in favour of a descendant through the female line2 and it is now held by the marquis of ,ely in conjunction with other family titles4 ,see ,richard ,mant1 ,history of the ,church of ,ireland 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahdj72 ,j4 ,r4 ,o',flanagan1 ,lives of the ,lord ,chancellors of ,ireland 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahgj72 ,john ,d',alton1 ,memoirs of the ,archbishops of ,dublin 7,dublin1 #ahch72 ,henry ,cotton1 ,fasti ,ecclesiae ,hibernicae 7#e vols41 ,dublin1 #ahdh-ahgh72 ,william ,monck ,mason1 ,history and ,antiquities of the ,college and ,cathedral ,church of ,st ,patrick1 near ,dublin 7,dublin1 #ahai72 ,g4 ,e4 ,c41 ,complete ,peerage vol4 iii41 sub4 ,ely 7,london1 #ahij74 ,,log 7a word of uncertain etymological origin1 possibly onomatopoeic2 the ,new ,english ,dictionary rejects the derivation from ,norwegian lg1 a fallen tree71 a large piece of generally unhewn1 wood4 ,the word is also used in various figurative senses1 and more particularly for the nautical log1 an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships4 ,its employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed position1 motionless1 the vessel's speed being calculated by observing what length of line ran out in a given time 7common log72 and the word has been retained for the modern patent or continuous log1 though it works in an entirely different manner4 ,the origin of the common log is obscure1 but the beginnings of the continuous log may be traced back to the #afth century4 ,by an invention probably due to ,humfray ,cole and published in #aegh by ,william ,bourne in his ,inventions and ,devices1 it was proposed to register a ship's speed by means of a little small close boat1 with a wheel1 or wheels1 and an axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat1 with dials and pointers indicating fathoms1 leagues1 scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues4 ,about #affh ,dr ,r4 ,hooke showed some members of the ,royal ,society an instrument for the same purpose1 depending on a vane or fly which rotated as the vessel progressed 7,birch1 ,history of the ,royal ,society1 iv4 #bca71 and ,sir ,isaac ,newton in #agae reported unfavourably on the marine surveyor of ,henry de ,saumarez1 which also depended on a rotator4 ,conradus ,mel in his ,antiquarius ,sacer 7#agai7 described a pantometron nauticum which he claimed would show without calculation the distance sailed by the ship2 and ,j4 ,smeaton in #aged published improvements on the apparatus of ,saumarez4 ,william ,foxon of ,deptford in #aggb1 ,james ,guerimand of ,middlesex in #aggf 7by his marine perambulator71 and ,r4 ,h4 ,gower in #aggb1 practically demonstrated the registration of a vessel's speed by mechanical means4 ,viscount de ,vaux in #ahjg made use of water-pressure1 as did the ,rev4 ,e4 ,l4 ,berthon in #ahdi1 and ,c4 ,e4 ,kelway invented an electrical log in #ahgf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,common ,log4--,to ascertain the ship's speed by the common log four articles are necessary--a log-ship or log-chip1 log-reel1 log-line and log-glass4 ,the log-ship 7fig4 #a7 is a wooden quadrant in4 thick1 with a radius of #e or #f in41 the circumference of which is weighted with lead to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water4 ,two holes are made near its lower angles4 ,one end of a short piece of thin line is passed through one of these holes1 and knotted2 the other end has spliced to it a hard bone peg which is inserted in the other hole4 ,the holes are so placed that the log-ship will hang square from the span thus formed4 ,the log-line is secured to this span and consists of two parts4 ,the portion nearest the log-ship is known as the stray line2 its length varies from #aj to #bj fathoms1 but should be sufficient to ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the disturbing element of the ship's wake4 ,the point where it joins the other part is marked by a piece of bunting1 and the line from this point towards its other end is marked at known intervals with knots1 which consist of pieces of cord worked in between its strands4 ,a mean degree of the meridian being assumed to be #fi4ji statute miles of #ebhj ft41 the nautical mile 7#a_/fj degree7 is taken as #fjhj ft41 which is a sufficiently close approximation for practical purposes1 and the distances between the knots are made to bear the same relation to #fjhj ft4 as #bh seconds to an hour 7#cfjj seconds72 that is1 they are placed at intervals of #dg ft4 #c in4 ,the end of the first interval of this length 7counting from the piece of bunting7 is marked by a bit of leather1 the second by a cord with two knots1 the third by one with three knots1 and so on2 the middle of each of these lengths 7half-knot7 is also marked by a cord with one knot4 ,it follows that1 if1 say1 five knots of the line run out in #bh seconds1 the ship has gone #e #dg ft4 in that time1 or is moving at the rate of #e #fjhj ft4 7 five nautical miles7 an hour2 hence the common use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile4 ,in the log-glass the time is measured by running sand1 which1 however1 is apt to be affected by the humidity of the atmosphere4 ,sometimes a #cj-second glass is used instead of a #bh-second one1 and the intervals between the knots on the log-line are then made #ej ft4 #g in4 instead of #dg ft4 #c in4 ,for speeds over six knots a #ad-second glass is employed1 and the speed indicated by the log-line is doubled4 ,the log-line1 after being well soaked1 stretched and marked with knots1 is wound uniformly on the log-reel1 to which its inner end is securely fastened4 ,to heave the log1 a man holds the log-reel over his head 7at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake71 and the officer places the peg in the log-ship1 which he then throws clear and to windward of the ship1 allowing the line to run freely out4 ,when the bunting at the end of the stray line passes his hand1 he calls to his assistant to turn the glass1 and allows the line to pay out freely4 ,when all the sand has run through1 the assistant calls ,stop6 when the log-line is quickly nipped1 the knots counted1 and the intermediate portion estimated4 ,the strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped1 causes the peg to be withdrawn from it1 and the log-ship is readily hauled in4 ,in normal circumstances1 the log is hove every hour4 ,in a steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route1 with engines working smoothly and uniformly1 a careful officer with correct line and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log4 ,ground ,log4--,in the deltas of shoal rivers1 with a strong tide or current and no land visible1 a #e lb4 lead is substituted for the log-ship2 the lead rests on the bottom1 and the speed is obtained in a manner similar to that previously described4 ,such a ground-log indicates the actual speed over the ground1 and in addition1 when the log-line is being hauled in1 it will show the real course the ship is making over the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the ,a#a ,harpoon ,ship ,log4 ,patent ,log4--,the screw or rotatory log of ,edward ,massey1 invented in #ahjb1 came into general use in #ahcf and continued until #ahfa4 ,the registering wheelwork was contained in a shallow rectangular box 7fig4 #b71 with a float plate on its upper side1 carrying three indicating dials1 recording respectively fractions1 units and tens of miles 7up to a hundred74 ,the rotator was connected to the log by a rope #f ft4 in length1 actuating a universal joint on the first spindle of the register2 it consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned fore-end1 carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle4 ,alexander ,bain in #ahdf suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator4 ,in ,thomas ,walker's harpoon or frictionless log1 introduced in #ahfa1 the wheelwork was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same diameter as the body of the rotator or fan1 and the latter was brought close up to the register1 forming a compact machine and avoiding the use of the #f-;ft4 line4 ,two years later a heart-shaped float plate was attached to the case1 and the log called the ,a#a ,harpoon ship log 7fig4 #c74 ,the log should be washed in fresh water when practicable1 to prevent oxidization of the wheels1 and be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,the ,cherub ,log4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,neptune ,pattern for securing ,rotator4 ,these logs were towed from the ship1 but with quick passages and well surveyed coasts1 the need arose for a patent log which could be readily consulted from the deck1 and from which the distance run under varying speeds could be quickly ascertained4 ,to meet this requirement1 ,walker in #ahgh introduced the ,cherub log 7fig4 #d71 a taffrail one1 which1 however1 is not as a rule used for speeds over #ah knots4 ,owing to the increased friction produced by a rotator making approximately #ijj revolutions per mile1 towed at the end of a line varying from #dj fathoms for a #ab-knot speed to #fj fathoms for #bj knots1 the pull of the line and rotator is borne by coned rollers1 having their outlines tapering to a common point in their rotation1 thus giving a broad rolling surface4 ,strong worms and wheels are substituted for the light clockwork4 ,in fig4 #d the shoe ,h is secured to the taffrail1 and the rotator in the water is hooked to the eye of the spindle ,m by the hook ,d4 ,the case ,a contains the registering wheelwork and a sounding bell4 ,the half gimbal ,b pivoting in the socket of the base ,c allows the register to receive the strain in the direct line4 ,the bearings and rollers are lubricated with castor oil every twelve hours through holes in the sliding case ,e1 and can be examined by unscrewing the case ,e and the eye ,m4 ,when not in use1 the register is removed from the shoe by lifting a small screw button near ,c4 ,the tow line is usually plaited1 and to avoid a knot close to the rotator1 the latter is secured to the former by a knot inside an egg-shaped shell 7fig4 #e1 ,neptune pattern74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,walker's ,neptune ,log4 ,walker's ,neptune log 7fig4 #f7 is used for vessels of high speed4 ,case ,a contains the wheelwork1 and case ,e the spindle and steel ball bearings2 in each case are openings1 closed by sliding tubes1 for examination and lubrication4 ,in fig4 #f the cases ,a and ,e are shown open4 ,fig4 #g shows the dial plate4 ,in fig4 #h the ball bearings are shown unscrewed from the body of the log1 with eye1 cap and spindle4 ,they consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of ,v races or grooves4 ,the outer pair receive the strain of the rotator1 and the inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement4 ,the balls and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage 7fig4 #i7 unscrewing from the cap ,f 7fig4 #f7 for cleaning or renewal2 the adjustment of the bearings is made by screwing up the cage cap b1 locked by a special washer and the two screws a1 a 7figs4 #h1 #i74 ,if the outer races become worn1 the complete cage and bearings are reversed2 the strain of the line is then transferred to what had previously been the inner with practically unworn balls and races4 ,it is for this purpose that the skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends1 fitting a screwed ring inside the cap ,f 7fig4 #f74 ,to enable the indications of the log register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other part of the vessel as desired1 a chart room electric register has been introduced4 ,by means of an electric installation between the log register aft and the electric register in the chart room1 every tenth of a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,dial-plate of ,neptune ,log4 ,walker's ,rocket log 7fig4 #aj7 is a taffrail one1 with bearings of hardened steel1 and is intended to be slung or secured to the taffrail by a line2 the gimbal pattern has a fitting for the deck4 ,in taffrail logs1 the movement of the line owing to its length becomes spasmodic and jerky1 increasing the vibration and friction2 to obviate this a governor or fly-wheel is introduced1 the hook of the tow line ,k 7fig4 #aa7 and the eye of the register ,m being attached to the governor4 ,fig4 #aa represents the arrangement fitted to the ,neptune log2 with the ,cherub log1 a small piece of line is introduced between the governor and the eye of the register4 ,the two principal ,american taffrail logs are the ,negus and ,bliss 7,messrs ,norie and ,wilson74 ,the former bears a general resemblance to the ,cherub log1 but the dial plate is horizontal and the faces turn upwards4 ,the main shaft bearings are in two sets and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups2 the governor is an iron rod about #af in4 long1 with #a in4 balls at the extremities4 ,the ,bliss resembles the ,rocket log in shape1 and is secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling4 ,a governor is not employed4 ,the blades of the rotator are adjustable1 being fitted into its tube or body by slits and holes and then soldered4 ,the outer ends of the blades are slit 7fig4 #ab7 to form two tongues1 and with the wrench 7fig4 #ab7 the angle of the pitch can be altered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,ball ,bearings of ,neptune ,log4 ,all patent logs have errors1 the amounts of which should be ascertained by shore observations when passing a well surveyed coast in tideless waters on a calm day4 ,constant use1 increased friction 7more especially at high speeds71 and damage to the rotator will alter an ascertained log error2 head or following seas1 strong winds1 currents and tidal streams also affect the correctness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,ball ,bearings of ,neptune ,log in ,skeleton ,case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,rocket ,log4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,neptune ,log fitted with ,governor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,bliss ,log4 ,a ,log ,book is a marine or sea journal1 containing1 in the ,british navy1 the speed1 course1 leeway1 direction and force of the wind1 state of the weather1 and barometric and thermometric observations4 ,under the heading ,remarks are noted 7for vessels with sail power7 making1 shortening and trimming sails2 and 7for all ships7 employment of crew1 times of passing prominent landmarks1 altering of course1 and any subject of interest and importance4 ,the deck log book1 kept by the officers of the watch1 is copied into the ship's log book by the navigating officer1 and the latter is an official journal4 ,in steam vessels a rough and fair engine room register are kept1 giving information with regard to the engines and boilers4 ,in the ,british mercantile marine all ships 7except those employed exclusively in trading between ports on the coasts of ,scotland7 are compelled to keep an official log book in a form approved by the ,board of ,trade4 ,a mate's log book and engine room register are not compulsory1 but are usually kept4 7,j4 ,w4 ,d47 ,,logan1 ,,john 7c4 #agbe-aghj71 also known as ,,tahgahjut1 ,american ,indian chief1 a ,cayuga by birth1 was the son of ,shikellamy1 a white man who had been captured when a child by the ,indians1 had been reared among them1 and had become chief of the ,indians living on the ,shamokin ,creek in what is now ,northumberland county1 ,pennsylvania4 ,the name ,logan was given to the son in honour of ,james ,logan 7#afgd-agea71 secretary of ,william ,penn and a steadfast friend of the ,indians4 ,john ,logan lived for some time near ,reedsville1 ,penn41 and removed to the banks of the ,ohio river about #aggj4 ,he was not technically a chief1 but acquired great influence among the ,shawnees1 into which tribe he married4 ,he was on good terms with the whites until ,april #aggd1 when1 friction having arisen between the ,indians and the whites1 a band of marauders1 led by one ,greathouse1 attacked and murdered several ,indians1 including1 it appears1 ,logan's sister and possibly one or more other relatives4 ,believing that ,captain ,michael ,cresap was responsible for this murder1 ,logan sent him a declaration of hostilities1 the result of which was the bloody conflict known as ,lord ,dunmore's war4 ,logan refused to join the ,shawnee chief1 ,cornstalk1 in meeting ,governor ,dunmore in a peace council after the battle of ,point ,pleasant1 but sent him a message which has become famous as an example of ,indian eloquence4 ,the message seems to have been given by ,logan to ,colonel ,john ,gibson1 by whom it was delivered to ,lord ,dunmore4 ,thomas ,jefferson first called general attention to it in his ,notes on ,virginia 7#aghg71 where he quoted it and added3 ,i may challenge the whole orations of ,demosthenes and ,cicero1 and of any more eminent orator1 if ,europe has furnished more eminent1 to produce a single passage superior to it4 ,logan became a victim of drink1 and in #aghj was killed near ,lake ,erie by his nephew whom he had attacked4 ,there is a monument to him in ,fair ,hill ,cemetery1 near ,auburn1 ,new ,york4 ,brantz ,mayer's ,tahgahjut1 or ,logan the ,indian and ,captain ,michael ,cresap 7,baltimore1 #ahea1 #bnd ed41 ,albany1 #ahfg7 defends ,captain ,cresap against ,jefferson's charges1 and also questions the authenticity of ,logan's message1 about which there has been considerable controversy1 though its actual wording seems to be that of ,gibson rather than of ,logan4 ,,logan1 ,,john 7#agdh-aghh71 ,scottish poet1 was born at ,soutra1 ,midlothian1 in #agdh4 ,his father1 ,george ,logan1 was a farmer and a member of the ,burgher sect of the ,secession church4 ,john ,logan was sent to ,musselburgh grammar school1 and in #agfb to the university of ,edinburgh4 ,in #agfh-agfi he was tutor to ,john1 afterwards ,sir ,john1 ,sinclair1 at ,ulbster1 ,caithness1 and in #aggj1 having left the ,secession church1 he was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of ,haddington4 ,in #agga he was presented to the charge of ,south ,leith1 but was not ordained till two years later4 ,on the death of ,michael ,bruce 7q4v47 he obtained that poet's ,,mss4 with a view to publication4 ,in #aggj he published ,poems on ,several ,occasions1 by ,michael ,bruce with a preface1 in which1 after eulogizing ,bruce1 who had been a fellow student of his1 he remarked that to make up a miscellany some poems wrote by different authors are inserted1 all of them originals1 and none of them destitute of merit4 ,the reader of taste will easily distinguish them from those of ,mr ,bruce1 without their being particularized by any mark4 ,logan was an active member of the committee of the ,general ,assembly of the ,church of ,scotland which worked from #agge to #agha at revising the ,translations and ,paraphrases for public worship1 in which many of his hymns are printed4 ,in #aggi-agha he delivered a course of lectures on the philosophy of history at ,st ,mary's ,chapel1 ,edinburgh4 ,an analysis of these lectures1 ,elements of the ,philosophy of ,history 7#agha71 bears striking resemblance to ,a ,view of ,ancient ,history 7#aghg71 printed as the work of ,dr ,w4 ,rutherford1 but thought by ,logan's friends to be his4 ,in #agha he published his own ,poems1 including the ,ode to the ,cuckoo and some other poems which had appeared in his volume of ,michael ,bruce's poems1 and also his own contributions to the ,paraphrases4 ,his other publications were ,an ,essay on the ,manners and ,governments of ,asia 7#aghb71 ,runnamede1 a tragedy 7#aghc71 and ,a ,review of the ,principal ,charges against ,warren ,hastings 7#aghh74 ,his connexion with the theatre gave offence to his congregation at ,south ,leith2 he was intemperate in his habits1 and there was some local scandal attached to his name4 ,he resigned his charge in #aghf1 retaining part of his stipend1 and proceeded to ,london1 where he became a writer for the ,english ,review4 ,he died on the #bhth of ,december #aghh4 ,two posthumous volumes of sermons appeared in #agij and #agia4 ,they were very popular1 and were reprinted in #ahaj4 ,his ,poetical ,works were printed in ,dr ,robert ,anderson's ,british ,poets 7vol4 xi41 #agie71 with a life of the author4 ,they were reprinted in similar collections1 and separately in #ahje4 ,logan was accused of having appropriated in his ,poems 7#agha7 verses written by ,michael ,bruce4 ,the statements of ,john ,birrell and ,david ,pearson on behalf of ,bruce were included in ,dr ,anderson's ,life of ,logan4 ,the charge of plagiarism has been revived from time to time1 notably by ,dr ,w4 ,mackelvie 7#ahcg7 and ,mr ,james ,mackenzie 7#aije74 ,the whole controversy has been marked by strong partisanship4 ,the chief points against ,logan are the suppression of the major portion of ,bruce's ,,mss4 and some proved cases of plagiarism in his sermons and hymns4 ,even in the beautiful ,braes of ,yarrow one of the verses is borrowed direct from an old border ballad4 ,the traditional evidence in favour of ,bruce's authorship of the ,ode to the ,cuckoo can hardly be set aside1 but ,dr ,robertson of ,dalmeny1 who was ,logan's literary executor1 stated that he had gone over the ,,mss4 procured at ,kinnesswood with ,logan4 ,logan's authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by ,david ,laing1 ,ode to the ,cuckoo with remarks on its authorship1 in a letter to ,j4 ,c4 ,shairp1 ,,ll4,d4 7#ahgc72 by ,john ,small in the ,british and ,foreign ,evangelical ,review 7,july1 #ahgg1 ,april and ,october1 #ahgi72 and by ,r4 ,small in two papers 7ibid41 #ahgh74 ,see also ,,bruce1 ,,michael4 ,,logan1 ,,john ,,alexander 7#ahbf-ahhf71 ,american soldier and political leader1 was born in what is now ,murphysborough1 ,jackson county1 ,illinois1 on the #ith of ,february #ahbf4 ,he had no schooling until he was fourteen2 he then studied for three years in ,shiloh ,college1 served in the ,mexican war as a lieutenant of volunteers1 studied law in the office of an uncle1 graduated from the ,law ,department of ,louisville ,university in #ahea1 and practised law with success4 ,he entered politics as a ,douglas ,democrat1 was elected county clerk in #ahdi1 served in the ,state ,house of ,representatives in #ahec-ahed and in #aheg1 and for a time1 during the interval1 was prosecuting attorney of the ,third ,judicial ,district of ,illinois4 ,in #aheh and #ahfj he was elected as a ,democrat to the ,national ,house of ,representatives4 ,though unattached and unenlisted1 he fought at ,bull ,run1 and then returned to ,washington1 resigned his seat1 and entered the ,union army as colonel of the #cast ,illinois ,volunteers1 which he organized4 ,he was regarded as one of the ablest officers who entered the army from civil life4 ,in ,grant's campaigns terminating in the capture of ,vicksburg1 which city ,logan's division was the first to enter and of which he was military governor1 he rose to the rank of major-general of volunteers2 in ,november #ahfc he succeeded ,sherman in command of the ,,xv4 ,army ,corps2 and after the death of ,mc,pherson he was in command of the ,army of the ,tennessee at the battle of ,atlanta4 ,when the war closed1 ,logan resumed his political career as a ,republican1 and was a member of the ,national ,house of ,representatives from #ahfg to #ahga1 and of the ,united ,states ,senate from #ahga until #ahgg and again from #ahgi until his death1 which took place at ,washington1 ,d4,c41 on the #bfth of ,december #ahhf4 ,he was always a violent partisan1 and was identified with the radical wing of the ,republican party4 ,in #ahfh he was one of the managers in the impeachment of ,president ,johnson4 ,his war record and his great personal following1 especially in the ,grand ,army of the ,republic1 contributed to his nomination for ,vice-,president in #ahhd on the ticket with ,james ,g4 ,blaine1 but he was not elected4 ,his impetuous oratory1 popular on the platform1 was less adapted to the halls of legislation4 ,he was commander-in-chief of the ,grand ,army of the ,republic from #ahfh to #ahga1 and in this position successfully urged the observance of ,memorial or ,decoration ,day1 an idea which probably originated with him4 ,he was the author of ,the ,great ,conspiracy3 ,its ,origin and ,history 7#ahhf71 a partisan account of the ,civil war1 and of ,the ,volunteer ,soldier of ,america 7#ahhg74 ,there is a fine statue of him by ,st ,gaudens in ,chicago4 ,the best biography is that by ,george ,f4 ,dawson1 ,the ,life and ,services of ,gen4 ,john ,a4 ,logan1 as ,soldier and ,statesman 7,chicago and ,new ,york1 #ahhg74 ,,logan1 ,,sir ,,william ,,edmond 7#agih-ahge71 ,british geologist1 was born in ,montreal on the #bjth of ,april #agih1 of ,scottish parents4 ,he was educated partly in ,montreal1 and subsequently at the ,high ,school and university of ,edinburgh1 where ,robert ,jameson did much to excite his interest in geology4 ,he was in a business house in ,london from #ahag to #ahcj4 ,in #ahca he settled in ,swansea to take charge of a colliery and some copper-smelting works1 and here his interest in geology found abundant scope4 ,he collected a great amount of information respecting the ,south ,wales coal-field2 and his data1 which he had depicted on the #a-;in4 ordnance survey map1 were generously placed at the disposal of the geological survey under ,sir ,h4 ,t4 de la ,beche and fully utilized4 ,in #ahdj ,logan brought before the ,geological ,society of ,london his celebrated paper ,on the character of the beds of clay lying immediately below the coal-seams of ,south ,wales1 and on the occurrence of coal-boulders in the ,pennant ,grit of that district4 ,he then pointed out that each coal-seam rests on an under-clay with rootlets of ,stigmaria1 and he expressed his opinion that the under-clay was the old soil in which grew the plants from which the coal was formed4 ,to confirm this observation he visited ,america in #ahda and examined the coal-fields of ,pennsylvania and ,nova ,scotia1 where he found the under-clay almost invariably present beneath the seams of coal4 ,in #ahdb he was appointed to take charge of the newly established geological survey in ,canada1 and he continued as director until #ahfi4 ,during the earlier years of the survey he had many difficulties to surmount and privations to undergo1 but the work was carried on with great tact and energy1 and he spared no pains to make his reports trustworthy4 ,he described the ,laurentian rocks of the ,laurentian mountains in ,canada and of the ,adirondacks in the state of ,new ,york1 pointing out that they comprised an immense series of crystalline rocks1 gneiss1 mica-schist1 quartzite and limestone1 more than #cj1jjj ft4 in thickness4 ,the series was rightly recognized as representing the oldest type of rocks on the globe1 but it is now known to be a complex of highly altered sedimentary and intrusive rocks2 and the supposed oldest known fossil1 the ,eozoon described by ,sir ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson1 is now regarded as a mineral structure4 ,logan was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahea1 and in #ahef was knighted4 ,in the same year he was awarded the ,wollaston medal by the ,geological ,society of ,london for his researches on the coal-strata1 and for his excellent geological map of ,canada4 ,after his retirement in #ahfi1 he returned to ,england1 and eventually settled in ,south ,wales4 ,he died at ,castle ,malgwyn in ,pembrokeshire1 on the #bbnd of ,june #ahge4 ,see the ,life1 by ,b4 ,j4 ,harrington 7#ahhc74 7,h4 ,b4 ,wo47 ,,logan1 a city and the county-seat of ,cache county1 ,utah1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,logan river1 about #gj m4 ,n4 of ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #edea 7#addj foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #gebb4 ,it is served by the ,oregon ,short ,line railroad4 ,it lies at the mouth of ,logan ,caon1 about #dejj ft4 above the sea1 and commands magnificent views of the ,wasatch ,mountains and the fertile ,cache ,valley4 ,at ,logan is a temple of the ,latter-,day ,saints 7or ,mormons71 built in #ahhc1 and the city is the seat of the ,agricultural ,college of ,utah1 of ,brigham ,young ,college1 and of ,new ,jersey ,academy 7#ahgh71 erected by the women of the ,synod of ,new ,jersey and managed by the ,woman's ,board of ,home ,missions of the ,presbyterian ,church4 ,the ,agricultural ,college was founded in #ahhh and opened in #ahij2 an agricultural experiment station is connected with it and the institution comprises schools of agriculture1 domestic science and arts1 commerce1 mechanic arts and general science4 ,six experiment stations in different parts of the state and a central experimental farm near ,st ,george1 ,washington county1 were in #aijh under the direction of the experiment station in ,logan4 ,brigham ,young ,college was endowed by ,brigham ,young in #ahgg and was opened in #ahgh2 it offers courses in the arts1 theology1 civil engineering1 music1 physical culture1 domestic science1 nurse training and manual training4 ,logan has various manufactures1 and is the trade centre for a fertile farming region4 ,the municipality owns and operates its water works and its electric lighting plant4 ,logan was settled in #ahei and first incorporated in #ahff4 ,,logansport1 a city and the county-seat of ,cass county1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,wabash river1 at the mouth of the ,eel river1 about #fg m4 ,n4 by ,w4 of ,indianapolis and #aag m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #af1bjd1 of whom #adcb were foreign-born1 7#aiaj census7 #ai1jej4 ,it is served by six divisions of the ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago ,st ,louis1 two divisions of the ,vandalia 7,pennsylvania ,lines71 and the ,wabash railways1 and by electric interurban lines4 ,the city is the seat of the ,northern ,indiana ,hospital for the ,insane 7#ahhh71 and has a public library1 and a hospital 7conducted by the ,sisters of ,st ,joseph74 ,among the principal buildings are the court house1 a ,masonic temple1 an ,odd ,fellows' temple1 and buildings of the ,order of ,elks1 of the ,knights of ,pythias1 and of the fraternal order of ,eagles4 ,situated in the centre of a rich agricultural region1 ,logansport is one of the most important grain and produce markets in the state4 ,the ,wabash and the ,eel rivers provide good water power1 and the city has various manufactures1 besides the railway repair shops of the ,vandalia and of the ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago ,st ,louis railways4 ,the value of the city's factory product increased from #b1ajj1cid in #aijj to #b1iee1iba in #aije1 or #dj4g4 ,limestone1 for use in the manufacture of iron1 is quarried in the vicinity4 ,the city owns and operates the water works and the electric-lighting plant4 ,logansport was platted in #ahbh1 was probably named in honour of a ,shawnee chief1 ,captain ,logan 7d4 #ahab71 became the county-seat of ,cass county in #ahbi1 and was chartered as a city in #ahch4 ,,logar1 a river and valley of ,afghanistan4 ,the ,logar river drains a wide tract of country1 rising in the southern slopes of the ,sanglakh range and receiving affluents from the ,kharwar hills1 ,n4,e4 of ,ghazni4 ,it joins the ,kabul river a few miles below the city of ,kabul4 ,the ,logar valley1 which is watered by its southern affluents1 is rich and beautiful1 about #dj m4 long by #ab wide1 and highly irrigated throughout4 ,lying in the vicinity of the capital1 the district contributes largely to its food-supply4 ,the valley was traversed in #ahgi by a brigade under ,sir ,f4 7afterwards ,lord7 ,roberts4