,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,the following transcriptions have been used3 ,italic text in the original work have been transcribed between underscores as in text4 ,small capitals in theoriginal work have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,letters with a dot below them have been transcribed as t41 h4 and g44 ,letters that are intended to describe a shape have been transcribed between square brackets1 as in ,s or ,x for ,s- and ,x-shaped4 ,depending on the software used and its settings not all used symbols and characters may display correctly4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration3 ,,every ,,boy',s ,,book ,,george ,,routledge ,,sons ,,london ,,and ,,new ,,york4 ,,every ,,boy',s ,,book3 ,a ,,complete ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,sports ,,and ,,amusements4 ,,edited ,,by ,,edmund ,,routledge4 ,with more than ,six ,hundred ,illustrations ,,from ,,original ,,designs4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,routledge ,,and ,,sons1 ,,the ,,broadway1 ,,ludgate4 ,,new ,,york3 #daf1 ,,broome ,,street4 #ahfi4 ,r4 ,clay1 ,son1 and ,taylor1 ,printers1 ,bread ,street ,hill1 ,london4 ,,editors ,,preface4 ,the twelve years that have passed since the first edition of ,,every ,,boy',s ,,book was published1 have brought so many changes in our national sports and pastimes1 and have seen the introduction of so many new games1 that it has been thought desirable to remodel this work1 in order to bring it down to the requirements of the present time4 ,in carrying out this plan effectually1 ,,every ,,boy',s ,,book has been almost entirely rewritten2 and scarcely anything now remains of the old work except the title4 ,all the articles that were in the former edition have been thoroughly revised1 and papers on ,boxing1 ,canoeing1 ,croquet1 ,fives1 ,golf1 ,rackets1 ,sliding1 ,billiards1 ,bagatelle1 ,dominoes1 ,spectrum ,analysis1 ,canaries1 ,hedgehogs1 ,jackdaws1 ,jays1 ,magpies1 ,owls1 ,parrots1 ,ravens1 ,boats1 ,cryptography1 ,deaf and ,dumb ,alphabet1 ,dominoes1 ,mimicry and ,ventriloquism1 ,shows1 ,stamp ,collecting1 and ,tinselling1 appear now for the first time4 ,in carrying out this work much valuable assistance has been given by ,professor ,pepper1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 ,clement ,scott1 ,sidney ,daryl1 ,j4 ,t4 ,burgess1 ,dr4 ,viner1 ,thomas ,archer1 ,w4 ,robinson of the ,field1 ,cholmondeley ,pennell1 and other well-known writers on sports4 ,the articles at the end of this work on ,american ,billiards1 ,base ,ball1 and the ,canadian sport of ,la ,crosse1 have been contributed by ,henry ,chadwick1 the leading authority on these games in ,america4 ,,christmas1 #ahfh4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,original ,,edition4 ,it would be impossible for a single author to produce a book of this description with a fair prospect of success1 because it necessarily treats of many subjects2 and a perfect acquaintance with some of the more important would occupy a lifetime4 ,the reading and researches of one man would not be sufficiently extensive to embrace the rich variety of the materials required4 ,being fully convinced of this fact1 the ,publishers have endeavoured to obtain the aid of the most distinguished writers in the various departments of knowledge which the following pages are intended to illustrate4 ,thus each contributor1 in furnishing his quota of information for the work1 has been engaged in a congenial task1 one best suited to his peculiar turn of mind1 as well as to his individual acquirements1 and one upon which he could1 therefore1 with the greatest ease and accuracy dilate4 ,this brief explanation will show in what spirit the ,publishers embarked in the undertaking2 and the accompanying list of the writers may be received as a proof that they have succeeded in securing the services of the most competent authorities4 ,with that portion of the book with which he was practically acquainted each of the following gentlemen has dealt3 ,w4 ,martin1 ,esq41 ,c4 ,baker1 ,esq41 ,r4 ,b4 ,wormald1 ,esq41 ,j4 ,f4 ,wood1 ,esq41 ,a4 ,mc,laren1 ,esq41 ,stonehenge1 author of 8,rural ,sports10 and the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 author of several works on ,natural ,history1 who also furnished some of the designs4 ,the remaining illustrations are by ,william ,harvey and ,harrison ,weir2 and the credit for the able manner in which they have been engraved is due to the brothers ,dalziel4 #b1 ,,farringdon ,,street1 ,february1 #ahef4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,easy ,,games ,,without ,,toys4 ,,outdoor4 ,,page ,hop1 ,step1 and ,jump #a ,hopping on the ,bottle #b ,hop-,scotch #b ,french and ,english #c ,drawing the ,oven #d ,i ,spy #d ,pitch-,stone #c ,duck-,stone #e ,prisoner's ,base1 or ,prison ,bars #e ,fox #g ,baste the ,bear #g ,leap-,frog #h ,fly the ,garter #h ,spanish ,fly #i ,touch #aj ,touch-,wood and ,touch-,iron #aj ,buck1 ,buck1 how many ,horns do ,i hold up8 #aj ,warning #aj ,follow my ,leader #aa ,the ,fugleman #aa ,hare and ,hounds #aa ,steeple ,chase #ac ,duck and ,drake #ac ,simon ,says #ad ,king of the ,castle #ad ,battle for the ,banner #ad ,snow-,balls #ae ,snow ,castle #af ,snow ,giant #ag ,jack6 ,jack6 show a ,light6 #ah ,jingling #ai ,jump little ,nag-tail6 #ai ,jumping ,rope #bj ,my ,grandmother's ,clock #bj ,rushing ,bases #ba ,see-saw #ba ,thread the ,needle #bb ,tom ,tiddler's ,ground #bb ,two to ,one #bb ,walk1 ,moon1 ,walk6 #bb ,want a day's work8 #bc ,will you ,list8 #bc ,whoop6 #bd ,high ,barbaree6 #bd ,bull in the ,ring #bd ,cock ,fight #be ,dropping the ,handkerchief #be ,,indoor4 ,blind ,man's ,buff #bf ,bob-,cherry #bf ,buff #bg ,concert #bg ,consequences #bh ,cross ,questions ,crooked ,answers #bh ,dumb ,motions #bi ,family ,coach #bi ,frog in the ,middle #cj ,the ,four ,elements #ca ,hand #ca ,hot ,boiled ,beans #cb ,hot ,cockles #cb ,how8 ,where8 and ,when8 #cb ,hunt the ,slipper #cc ,hunt the ,ring #cc ,hunt the ,whistle #cc ,magic ,music #cd ,post #cd ,proverbs #ce ,puss in the ,corner #cf ,red-,cap and ,black-,cap #cf ,shadow ,buff #cg ,slate ,games #cg ,trades #dj ,trussed ,fowls #dj ,the ,two ,hats #dj ,what is my ,thought like8 #da ,,easy ,,games ,,with ,,toys4 ,,outdoor4 ,,balls #dc ,catch ,ball #dc ,doutee-,stool #dc ,egg-,hat #dd ,feeder #dd ,monday1 ,tuesday #de ,nine-,holes #df ,northern ,spell #df ,rounders #df ,sevens #dh ,stool-,ball #dh ,trap1 ,bat1 and ,ball #dh ,,hoops #di ,the ,hoop #ej ,encounters #ej ,hoop ,race #ea ,posting #ea ,tournament #eb ,turnpike #eb ,,kites #ec ,how to make a ,kite #ec ,flying the ,kite #ed ,messengers #ee ,calico ,kites #ee ,fancy ,kites #ee ,,marbles #eg ,bounce ,eye #eh ,conqueror #eh ,die ,shot #eh ,eggs in the ,bush #ei ,increase ,pound #ei ,knock out1 or ,lag out #ei ,long ,taw #fj ,nine-,holes1 or ,bridge ,board #fj ,odd or ,even #fa ,picking the ,plums #fa ,the ,pyramid #fa ,ring ,taw #fa ,spans and ,snops1 and ,bounce ,about #fb ,teetotum ,shot #fb ,three-,holes #fb ,tipshares1 or ,handers #fc ,,tops #fd ,the ,humming-top #fd ,peg-top #fe ,spanish ,peg-top #fe ,the ,whip-top #fe ,chip-stone #ff ,peg-in-the-,ring #ff ,,miscellaneous ,,toys #fh ,the ,apple ,mill #fh ,aunt ,sally #fh ,baton #fi ,cat #fi ,cat and ,mouse #gj ,knock-'em-down #ga ,pea-shooters #ga ,quoits #ga ,nine-pins #gb ,skittles #gb ,dutch-pins #gc ,throwing the ,hammer #gc ,the ,boomerang #gd ,the ,skip-jack1 or ,jump-jack #gd ,the ,sling #gd ,walking on ,stilts #gf ,the ,sucker #gf ,,indoor4 ,battledore and ,shuttlecock #gh ,bandilor #gi ,cup and ,ball #gi ,the ,cutwater #gi ,fox and ,geese #hj ,goose #ha ,head1 ,body1 and ,legs #ha ,knuckle-bones #hb ,merelles1 or ,nine ,men's ,morris #hc ,paper ,dart #hc ,the ,popgun #hd ,push-pin #hd ,schimmel #hd ,spelicans #hf ,,part ,,ii4 ,,athletic ,,sports ,,and ,,manly ,,exercises4 ,,angling #hi ,a ,word about ,fish #ij ,about the ,rod #ia ,choosing the ,rod #ia ,lines or ,bottoms #ib ,shotting the ,line #ic ,the ,float #ic ,reels or ,winches #id ,reel ,lines #id ,hooks #id ,how to bait a ,hook #ie ,baits #ie ,to ,bait with ,greaves #ig ,to ,scour and ,preserve ,worms #ig ,the ,plummet #ig ,plumbing the ,depth #ig ,landing-hook and ,landing-net #ih ,clearing ,ring and ,line #ih ,drag-hook #ih ,bank ,runner #ih ,live-bait ,kettle #ii ,disgorger #ii ,angling ,axioms #ii ,salmon #ajj ,trout #ajj ,jack or ,pike #aja ,gudgeon #ajc ,roach #ajd ,dace #aje ,perch #ajf ,grayling #ajg ,chub #ajh ,carp #aji ,tench #aaj ,pope1 or ,ruff #aaj ,bream #aaa ,flounder #aaa ,eels #aab ,stickleback and ,minnow #aac ,barbel #aad ,natural ,fly-fishing1 or ,dipping #aae ,fly-fishing and ,artificial ,flies #aae ,materials for making ,flies #aae ,,archery #aba ,the ,long-bow #abb ,the ,cross-bow #abb ,feats of the ,bow #abc ,length of ,bows and ,arrows1 and how used in ,ancient ,times #abd ,marks for ,shooting at #abd ,equipment for ,archery #abe ,ancient ,directions for ,archery #abe ,decline of ,archery #abe ,modern ,archery #abf ,the ,bow #abf ,the ,string #abf ,stringing the ,bow #abg ,the ,arrows #abg ,the ,quiver #abh ,the ,tassel1 ,brace1 ,belt1 and ,pouch #abh ,shooting ,glove1 and ,grease ,pot #abi ,the ,target #abi ,butts #acj ,how to draw the ,bow #acj ,flight ,shooting #aca ,clout ,shooting #aca ,roving #aca ,general ,hints for ,archers #acb ,,boxing #acc ,,canoes ,,and ,,canoeing #adj ,,cricket #adc ,the ,bat #ade ,the ,ball #ade ,the ,stumps #ade ,pads or ,guards #adf ,batting ,gloves #adg ,wicket-keeping ,gloves #adh ,the ,laws of ,cricket #adh ,the ,laws of ,single ,wicket #aeb ,the ,batsman4--,hints to ,young ,players #aec ,fielding #aei ,bowling #afb ,the ,wicket-keeper #afe ,long-stop #aff ,point #aff ,short-slip #aff ,cover-point #afg ,long-slip #afg ,long-on #afg ,long-off #afg ,leg #afg ,mid-wicket on and off #afg ,third ,man up #afg ,diagram ,i4--,fast ,round-arm ,bowling #afh ,diagram ,,ii4--,medium ,pace ,round-arm ,bowling #afi ,diagram ,,iii4--,slow ,under-hand ,bowling #afi ,,croquet4--,materials of the ,game #agj ,the ,mallets #agj ,the ,balls #aga ,the ,hoops #aga ,the ,posts #agb ,clips #agb ,marking ,board #agc ,tunnel #agc ,the ,cage #agc ,a ,croquet ,stand #agd ,how the ,game is played #agd ,diagram1 ,no4 ,i4 #agg ,,ii4 #agh ,,iii4 #agi ,,iv4 #ahj ,rules #aha ,striking #aha ,order of ,playing #aha ,the ,croquet #ahb ,the ,posts #ahe ,the ,rover #ahe ,hints to ,young ,players #ahf ,,driving #aib ,introduction #aib ,the ,horse in ,harness #aic ,the ,horse #aid ,the ,harness #aid ,the ,carriage #aie ,putting to #aif ,directions for ,driving #aif ,,fencing #aih ,the ,guard #aii ,advance #bjj ,retreat #bja ,the ,longe #bja ,the ,recover #bja ,the ,engage #bjb ,parades #bjb ,quarte #bjc ,tierce #bjc ,seconde #bje ,demi-,cercle #bje ,octave #bjf ,contre-,parades #bjf ,attacks #bjg ,the ,straight ,thrust #bjg ,the ,disengagement #bjg ,the ,one-,two #bjh ,the ,beat and ,thrust #bjh ,the ,beat and ,disengagement #bjh ,cut over the ,point #bjh ,cut over the ,disengagement #bjh ,double #bji ,all ,feints #bji ,the ,assault #bji ,general ,advice #baj ,broadswords #baj ,positions #baa ,target #bab ,cuts and ,guards #bac ,cuts #bac ,points #bad ,guards #bae ,parry #bae ,hanging ,guard #baf ,inside ,guard #baf ,outside ,guard #bag ,attack and ,defence #bag ,draw ,swords #bah ,recover ,swords #bai ,carry ,swords #bai ,slope ,swords #bai ,return ,swords #bai ,practices #bbj ,second ,practice #bbj ,third ,practice #bbj ,fourth ,practice #bba ,fifth ,practice #bba ,fort and ,feeble #bbb ,drawing ,cut #bbb ,general ,advice #bbb ,,fives #bbc ,,foot-,,ball #bbd ,,golfing #bbf ,,gymnastics #bbh ,introduction #bbh ,historical ,memoranda #bbi ,modern ,gymnastics #bcj ,walking #bcj ,the ,tip-toe ,march #bca ,running #bcb ,jumping #bcb ,leaping #bcc ,to climb up a ,board #bcd ,climbing the ,pole #bcd ,rope #bce ,trees #bce ,the ,giant ,stride1 or ,flying ,steps1 and its capabilities #bce ,parallel ,bars #bda ,the ,horizontal ,bar #bdc ,the ,horse #bdf ,the ,swing #bdi ,throwing the ,javelin #bec ,the ,trapeze1 ,single and ,double #bed ,tricks and ,feats of ,gymnastics #bfb ,,hockey #bfe ,,rackets #bfh ,,riding #bgj ,the ,horse #bga ,the ,marks of ,age in the ,horse #bga ,the ,paces of the ,horse #bgb ,terms used by ,horsemen #bgd ,form of the ,horse #bgd ,varieties of the ,horse suitable for ,boys #bgd ,the ,accoutrements and ,aids #bge ,mounting #bgg ,dismounting #bgh ,the ,management of the ,reins #bgh ,the ,seat #bgi ,the ,control of the ,horse #bhj ,management of the ,walk #bhj ,the ,trot and ,canter #bha ,the ,management of the ,gallop #bhb ,leaping #bhb ,treatment of ,vices #bhd ,,rowing #bhh ,historical ,memoranda #bhh ,construction of ,ancient ,ships and ,galleys #bhi ,roman ,galleys1 ,ships1 c4 #bij ,of ,boats #bia ,the ,component ,parts of ,boats #bib ,the ,oars and ,sculls #bic ,sea ,rowing #bic ,river ,rowing #bic ,management of the ,oar #bid ,the ,essential ,points in ,rowing #bie ,management of the ,boat #bie ,rowing together #bif ,caution to ,young ,rowers #bif ,,sailing #big ,characters of a ,yacht #cja ,various kinds of ,yachts #cjb ,description of the ,cutter ,yacht #cjc ,construction of the ,hull #cjc ,something about the ,masts1 ,spars1 ,ropes1 c4 #cjf ,sailing a ,yacht #cjh ,bringing up #caj ,making ,snug #caj ,going back #caj ,jibing #caj ,bringing up at ,moorings #caj ,of the ,mariners' ,compass1 and various ,nautical ,terms #caa ,cautions and ,directions #cab ,nautical ,terms #cab ,,skating #caf ,the ,skate #cag ,putting on the ,skates #cah ,how to start upon the ,inside ,edge #cai ,movement on the ,outside ,edge #cai ,forward ,roll #cbj ,the ,dutch ,roll #cbj ,the ,figure of ,eight #cba ,the ,figure of ,three #cba ,the ,back ,roll #cba ,general ,directions to be followed by ,persons learning to ,skate #cbb ,,sliding #cbc ,,swimming #cbe ,places and ,times for ,bathing and ,swimming #cbg ,entering the ,water #cbh ,aids to ,swimming #cbh ,striking off and ,swimming #cbi ,how to manage the ,legs #ccj ,plunging and ,diving #ccj ,swimming under ,water #cca ,swimming on the ,side #ccb ,swimming on the ,back without employing the ,feet #ccb ,floating #ccc ,treading ,water #ccc ,the ,fling #ccc ,swimming on the ,back #ccd ,thrusting #ccd ,the ,double ,thrust #cce ,to ,swim like a ,dog #cce ,the ,mill #cce ,the ,wheel backwards and forwards #cce ,to ,swim with one ,hand #ccf ,hand over ,hand ,swimming #ccf ,balancing #ccf ,the ,cramp #ccg ,saving from ,danger #ccg ,sports and ,feats in ,swimming #cch ,bernardi's system of ,upright ,swimming #cch ,the ,prussian ,system of ,pfuel #cci ,,training #cdb ,,part ,,iii4 ,,scientific ,,pursuits4 ,,acoustics #cdg ,difference between ,sound and ,noise #cdg ,sounds1 how propagated #cdg ,to show how ,sound travels through a ,solid #cdg ,to show that ,sound depends on ,vibration #cdg ,musical ,figures resulting from ,sound #cdg ,to make an olian ,harp #cdh ,the ,invisible ,girl #cdh ,ventriloquism #cdi ,,aeronautics #cej ,balloons #cej ,how to make an ,air-balloon #cea ,how to ,fill a ,balloon #ceb ,to make ,fire-,balloons #ceb ,parachutes #ceb ,,chemistry #cec ,gases #ceg ,oxygen ,gas #ceh ,experiments #cei ,nitrogen #cfj ,experiments #cfa ,atmospheric ,air #cfb ,hydrogen #cfd ,experiments #cfd ,water #cfe ,experiment #cff ,chlorine #cfg ,experiments #cfh ,muriatic ,acid ,gas1 or ,hydric ,chloride #cfi ,experiments #cgj ,iodine #cga ,experiments #cga ,bromine #cga ,experiments #cga ,fluorine #cgb ,experiment #cgb ,carbon #cgb ,experiments #cgc ,carbon and ,hydrogen #cgd ,experiment #cge ,coal ,gas #cgf ,experiment #cgf ,phosphorus #cgg ,experiments #cgg ,sulphur #cgh ,metals #cgi ,potassium #cha ,experiments #cha1 #chb1 #chc ,crystallization of ,metals #chc ,experiment #chc ,to form a ,solid from two ,liquids #chd ,to form a ,liquid from two ,solids #chd ,experiments #chd ,changes of ,colour produced by ,colourless ,liquids #che ,,electricity #chf ,simple ,means of producing ,electricity #chf ,attraction and ,repulsion exhibited #chg ,how to make an ,electrical ,machine #chh ,the ,conductor #chi ,the ,plate ,electrical ,machine #chi ,how to draw ,sparks from the tip of the ,nose #chi ,how to charge a ,leyden ,jar #cij ,the ,electrical ,battery #cij ,dancing ,balls and ,dolls #cia ,the ,electrical ,kiss #cia ,ringing ,bells #cia ,working ,power of ,electricity #cib ,the ,electrified ,wig #cib ,imitation ,thunder ,clouds #cic ,the ,lightning ,stroke imitated #cic ,the ,sportsman #cid ,,galvanism1 ,,or ,,voltaic ,,electricity #cie ,origin of ,galvanism #cie ,simple ,experiment to excite ,galvanic ,action #cif ,with ,metal ,plates in ,water #cif ,to make a ,magnet by the ,voltaic ,current #cig ,effects of ,galvanism on a ,magnet #cig ,change of ,colour by ,galvanism #cig ,the ,galvanic ,shock #cih ,the ,electrotype #cih ,how to make an ,electrotype ,apparatus #cih ,to obtain the ,copy of a ,coin or ,medal #cii ,,heat #cii ,heat or ,caloric #cii ,expansion #djb ,,hydraulics #djd ,the ,syphon #dje ,the ,pump #dje ,the ,hydraulic ,dancer #djf ,the ,water ,snail or ,archimedean ,screw #djg ,,magnetism #djh ,relation of ,magnetism to ,electricity #djh ,to make ,artificial ,magnets #dji ,how to ,magnetise a ,poker #dji ,to show ,magnetic ,repulsion and ,attraction #dji ,north and ,south ,poles of the ,magnet #daj ,polarity of the ,magnet #daj ,the ,magnetic ,fish #daj ,swan #daa ,to suspend a ,needle in the ,air by ,magnetism #daa ,to make ,artificial ,magnets without the aid either of ,natural ,loadstones or ,artificial ,magnets #daa ,horse-shoe ,magnets #dab ,experiment to show that soft ,iron possesses ,magnetic ,properties while it remains in the vicinity of a ,magnet #dab ,electro-,magnetism #dac ,power of the ,electro-,magnet #dac ,the ,mariner's ,compass1 and ,experiments with a ,pocket ,compass #dac ,variation of the ,needle #dad ,dip of the ,needle #dad ,useful ,amusement with the ,pocket ,compass #dad ,interesting ,particulars concerning the ,magnet #dae ,,mechanics #dag ,experiment of the ,law of ,motion #dag ,balancing #dah ,the ,prancing ,horse #dah ,to construct a ,figure1 which being placed upon a curved surface and inclined in any position1 shall1 when left to itself1 return to its former position #dah ,to make a ,carriage run in an inverted position without falling #dah ,to cause a ,cylinder to roll by its own weight up-hill #dah ,the ,balanced ,stick #dai ,the ,chinese ,mandarin #dai ,to make a ,shilling turn on its edge on the point of a ,needle #dai ,the ,dancing ,pea #dbj ,obliquity of ,motion #dbj ,the ,bridge of ,knives #dba ,the ,toper's ,tripod #dba ,,the ,,microscope #dbb ,the ,compound ,microscope #dcb ,,optics ,,and ,,optical ,,amusements #dee ,light as an ,effect #dee ,refraction #def ,the ,invisible ,coin made ,visible #def ,the ,multiplying ,glass #deg ,transparent ,bodies #deg ,the ,prism #deg ,composition of ,light #deg ,a ,natural ,camera ,obscura #deh ,bullock's-eye ,experiment #deh ,the ,camera ,obscura #deh ,the ,camera ,lucida #dei ,the ,magic ,lantern #dfj ,painting the ,slides #dfj ,to exhibit the ,magic ,lantern #dfa ,effects of the ,magic ,lantern #dfa ,tempest at ,sea #dfa ,the ,phantasmagoria #dfb ,dissolving ,views #dfb ,how to raise a ,ghost #dfb ,the ,thaumatrope #dfc ,the ,bird in the ,cage #dfc ,construction of the ,phantasmacope #dfd ,curious ,optical ,illusions #dfd1 #dfe ,the ,picture in the ,air #dfe ,breathing ,light and ,darkness #dff ,to show that ,rays of ,light do not obstruct each other #dff ,optics of a ,soap-bubble #dfg ,the ,kaleidoscope #dfg ,simple ,solar ,microscope #dfh ,anamorphoses #dfh ,the ,cosmorama #dgj ,distorted ,landscapes #dgj ,,photography #dgb ,how to make the ,negative on ,glass1 using ,collodion bromoiodized for ,iron development #dgb ,,pneumatics #dgg ,weight of the ,air ,proved by a pair of ,bellows #dgg ,the ,pressure of the ,air shown by a ,wine-glass #dgh ,another ,experiment #dgh ,elasticity of the ,air #dgh ,reason for this #dgi ,the ,air-,pump #dgi ,to prove that ,air has ,weight #dgi ,to prove ,air elastic #dhj ,sovereign and ,feather #dhj ,air in the ,egg #dhj ,the ,descending ,smoke #dhj ,the ,soundless ,bell #dha ,the ,floating ,fish #dha ,the ,diving ,bell #dhb ,experiments #dhb1 #dhd1 #dhe ,with ,ice or ,snow #dhe ,without ,snow or ,ice #dhe ,,spectrum ,,analysis #dhf ,how to use the ,spectroscope #dhh ,to obtain the ,bright ,lines in the ,spectrum given by any ,substance #dhh ,professor ,stokes' ,absorption ,bands #dhi ,to ,map out any ,spectrum #dhi ,,part ,,iv4 ,,domestic ,,pets4 ,,bees ,,and ,,bee-,,keeping #dic ,,the ,,canary #dig ,,dogs #ejf ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,fish #eaf ,glasses #eag ,feeding #eag ,diseases #eag ,,the ,,guinea ,,pig #eah ,,the ,,hedgehog #ebj ,,the ,,jackdaw #eba ,,the ,,jay #ebc ,,the ,,magpie #ebd ,,owls #ebf ,,the ,,parrot #ecb ,,pigeons #eda ,varieties of ,pigeons #ede ,blue ,rock ,dove #ede ,the ,antwerp1 or ,smerle #edf ,the ,pouter #edg ,the ,carrier #edh ,the ,dragon #edi ,the ,tumbler #edi ,the ,barb #eej ,the ,owl #eea ,the ,turbit #eea ,the ,fantail #eea ,the ,trumpeter #eeb ,the ,jacobin #eec ,,poultry #eed ,fowls #eed ,fattening #eee ,laying #eee ,hatching #eee ,rearing of ,chickens #eef ,the ,pintado1 or ,guinea ,fowl #eeg ,ducks #eeh ,,the ,,rabbit #efj ,,the ,,raven #egj ,,silkworms #egd ,food of the ,silkworm #egf ,hatching1 ,feeding1 and ,temperature #egf ,moultings #egg ,the ,cocoon #egg ,the ,aurelia #egh ,winding the ,silk #egh ,the ,moth #egh ,general ,remarks #egi ,,the ,,squirrel #ehj ,,white ,,mice #ehg ,,part ,v4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,,bagatelle #eia ,english ,bagatelle #eia ,the ,french ,game #eia ,sans ,egal #eia ,the ,cannon ,game #eib ,mississippi #eib ,,billiards #eic ,the ,angles of the ,table #eig ,the ,american ,game #fjb ,pyramids1 or ,pyramid ,pool #fjb ,winning and ,losing ,carambole ,game #fjb ,pool #fjc ,italian ,skittle ,pool #fjd ,,boat-,,building #fje ,cutter #fjf ,smack #fjg ,schooner #fjg ,lugger #fjh ,,carpentering #fji ,the ,shop and ,bench #fji ,of ,planes #faj ,saws #faa ,the ,spoke ,shave #fac ,stock and ,bits #fac ,how to make a ,wheelbarrow #fac ,the ,way to make a ,box #fae ,to cut the ,dovetails #fae ,the ,bottom of the ,box #faf ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,chess #fag ,the ,laws of the ,game #fah ,the ,king's ,knight's opening #fbj ,game ,i4--,philidor's ,defence #fba ,,ii4--,petroff's #fbb ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #eth ,move #fbb ,game ,,iii4--,the ,giuoco ,piano #fbb ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #fth ,move #fbb ,game ,,iv4--,the ,evans' ,gambit #fbc ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #ith ,move #fbc ,b4 #fbd ,a4 on ,black's #ajth ,move #fbd ,the ,gambit declined #fbe ,game ,v4--,ruy ,lopez ,knight's ,game #fbf ,variation ,b4 on ,black's #crd ,move #fbg ,c4 #fbg ,game ,,vi4--,the ,scotch ,gambit #fbg ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move #fbh ,the ,king's ,bishop's ,opening #fcj ,game ,i4--,the ,lopez ,gambit #fcj ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #dth ,move #fca ,game ,,ii4--,the ,double ,gambit #fca ,game ,,iii4 #fca ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move #fcb ,the ,king's ,gambit #fcb ,game ,i4 #fcb ,the ,salvio ,gambit #fcc ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move #fcc ,game ,,ii4--,the ,muzio ,gambit #fcc ,game ,i4--,the ,allgaier ,gambit #fce ,game ,,ii4 #fce ,game ,i4--,the ,bishop's ,gambit #fcf ,game ,,ii4 #fcf ,the ,gambit refused #fch ,game ,i4 #fch ,game ,,ii4 #fci ,the ,centre ,gambit #fci ,game ,i4 #fci ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #crd ,move #fdj ,game ,,ii4 #fdj ,the ,queen's ,gambit #fda ,game ,i4 #fda ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #crd ,move #fda ,game ,,ii4 #fdb ,,the ,,young ,,conjurer #fdc ,sleight of ,hand #fde ,the ,flying ,shilling #fde ,another ,method #fdf ,the ,beads and ,strings #fdf ,to get a ,ring out of a ,handkerchief #fdg ,to tie a ,knot in a ,handkerchief which cannot be drawn tight #fdg ,the ,three ,cups #fdh ,to tie a ,handkerchief round your ,leg1 and get it off without untying the ,knot #fdh ,the ,magic ,bond #fdi ,the ,old ,man and his ,chair #fdi ,to tie a ,knot on the ,left ,wrist without letting the ,right ,hand approach it #fea ,the ,handcuffs #fea ,to pull a ,string through your ,button-hole #feb ,the ,cut ,string restored #feb ,the ,gordian ,knot #fec ,the ,knot loosened #fec ,to put ,nuts into your ,ear #fed ,to crack ,walnuts in your ,elbow #fed ,to take ,feathers out of an empty ,handkerchief #fed ,tricks requiring ,special ,apparatus #fed ,the ,die ,trick #fee ,the ,penetrative ,pence #fef ,the ,doll ,trick #feg ,the ,flying ,coins #feg ,the ,vanished ,groat #feh ,the ,restored ,document #feh ,the ,magic ,rings #feh ,the ,fish and ,ink ,trick #fei ,the ,cannon ,balls #fei ,the ,shilling in the ,ball of ,cotton #ffj ,the ,egg and ,bag ,trick #ffj ,the ,dancing ,egg #ffa ,bell and ,shot #ffa ,the ,burned ,handkerchief restored #ffb ,the ,fire-,eater #ffb ,tricks with ,cards #ffc ,to make the ,pass #ffc ,to tell a ,card by its ,back #ffd ,the ,card named without being ,seen #ffd ,the ,card told by the ,opera ,glass #ffd ,the ,four ,kings #fff ,audacity #fff ,the ,card found at the ,second ,guess #fff ,the ,card found under the ,hat #ffg ,to call the ,cards out of the ,pack #ffg ,heads and ,tails #ffg ,the ,surprise #ffh ,the ,revolution #ffh ,the ,slipped ,card #ffh ,the ,nailed ,card #ffh ,to ascertain the ,number of ,points on three ,unseen ,cards #ffi ,to tell the ,numbers on two ,unseen ,cards #ffi ,the ,pairs repaired #ffi ,the ,queen digging for ,diamonds #fgj ,the ,triple ,deal #fgj ,the ,quadruple ,deal #fga ,tricks with ,cards that require ,apparatus #fga ,the ,cards in the ,vase #fga ,the ,metamorphosis #fgb ,to change a ,card in a ,person's ,hand #fgc ,,cryptography #fgd ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet #fhb ,the ,alphabet #fhb ,the ,numbers #fhe ,,dominoes #fhe ,the ordinary ,boy's ,game #fhf ,all ,fives #fhg ,the ,matadore ,game #fhg ,all ,threes #fhg ,tidley-,wink #fhh ,the ,fortress #fhh ,whist ,dominoes #fhh ,,draughts #fhi ,how to play the ,game #fij ,the ,moves #fij ,laws of the ,game #fij ,games for ,practice #fia ,game ,i4 #fia ,game ,,ii4 #fib ,,fireworks #fic ,gunpowder #fic ,how to make ,touch-paper #fid ,cases for ,squibs1 ,flower-pots1 ,rockets1 ,roman ,candles1 c4 #fid ,to choke the ,cases #fid ,composition for ,squibs1 c4 #fid ,how to fill the ,cases #fie ,to make ,crackers #fie ,roman ,candles and ,stars #fie ,rockets #fif ,rains #fif ,catherine ,wheels #fif ,various ,coloured ,fires #fif ,crimson ,fire #fif ,blue #fig ,green #fig ,purple #fig ,white #fig ,spur #fig ,blue ,lights #fig ,port or ,wild ,fires #fig ,slow ,fire for ,wheels #fig ,dead ,fire for ,wheels #fig ,cautions #fig ,to make an ,illuminated ,spiral ,wheel #fih ,the ,grand ,volute #fih ,a brilliant ,yew-tree #fii ,,gardening #gjj ,on ,laying out a ,small ,garden #gjb ,planting the ,ground with ,trees1 ,flowers1 c4 #gjc ,the ,noblest ,kind of ,gardening for ,boys #gjc ,the ,boy's ,flower ,garden #gaj ,fruit ,garden #gag ,cropping the ,ground #gai ,digging #gai ,hoeing #gbj ,raking #gbj ,weeding #gbj ,sowing ,seeds #gba ,transplanting #gba ,watering #gbb ,various ,modes of ,propagation #gbc ,layers #gbc ,pipings #gbc ,grafting #gbd ,tongue-,grafting #gbd ,budding #gbe ,inarching #gbe ,grafting ,clay #gbf ,pruning #gbf ,training #gbf ,insects and ,depredators #gbg ,protection from ,frost #gbg ,the ,young ,gardener's ,calendar for the ,work to be done in all the ,months of the ,year #gbh ,january #gbh ,february #gbi ,march #gbi ,april #gbi ,may #gcj ,june #gcj ,july #gca ,august #gca ,september #gca ,october #gcb ,november #gcb ,december #gcb ,,mimicry ,,and ,,ventriloquism #gcc ,,puzzles #gcf ,the ,divided ,garden #gcf ,the ,vertical ,line ,puzzle #gcf ,the ,cardboard ,puzzle #gcf ,the ,button ,puzzle #gcf ,the ,circle ,puzzle #gcg ,the ,cross ,puzzle #gcg ,three-,square ,puzzle #gcg ,cylinder ,puzzle #gcg ,the ,nuns #gch ,the ,dog ,puzzle #gch ,cutting out a ,cross #gch ,another ,cross ,puzzle #gch ,the ,fountain ,puzzle #gch ,the ,cabinet-maker's ,puzzle #gci ,the ,string and ,balls ,puzzle #gci ,the ,double-headed ,puzzle #gci ,the ,row of ,halfpence #gdj ,typographical ,advice #gdj ,the ,landlord made to ,pay #gdj ,father and ,son #gdj ,,answers ,,to ,,puzzles #gda ,the ,divided ,garden #gda ,vertical ,line ,puzzle #gda ,cut ,card ,puzzle #gda ,button ,puzzle #gda ,circle ,puzzle #gda ,the ,cross ,puzzle #gdb ,three-,square ,puzzle #gdb ,cylinder ,puzzle #gdb ,the ,nuns' ,puzzle #gdb ,the ,dog's ,puzzle #gdb ,cutting out a ,cross ,puzzle #gdc ,another ,cross ,puzzle #gdc ,the ,fountain ,puzzle #gdc ,the ,cabinet-maker's ,puzzle #gdc ,string and ,balls ,puzzle #gdd ,double-,headed ,puzzle #gdd ,the ,row of ,halfpence #gdd ,typographical ,puzzle #gde ,the ,landlord made to ,pay #gde ,father and ,son #gde ,,shows #gdf ,punch and ,judy #gdf ,fantoccini #gdi ,the ,sailor #gea ,the ,juggler #gea ,the ,headless ,man #gea ,the ,milkwoman #gea ,,postage-,,stamp ,,collecting1 ,,or ,,philately #geb ,,tinselling #gfh ,,the ,,american ,,game ,,of ,,base-,,ball #gfi ,american ,billiards #gig ,la ,crosse #hab ,,part ,i4 ,,easy ,,games ,,without ,,toys4 ,,outdoor4 ,illustration ,,hop1 ,,step ,,and ,,jump4 ,make a mark on the ground at a place called the 8starting point40 ,at ten yards' distance from this make another1 called the 8spring40 ,then let the players arrange themselves at the starting point1 and in succession run to the second mark called the spring4 ,from the spring make first a hop on one leg1 from this make a long step1 and from the step a long jump4 ,those who go over the greatest space of ground are of course the victors4 ,,hopping ,,on ,,the ,,bottle4 ,various games are in vogue among boys1 in which hopping on one foot is the principal object4 ,among these is one which not only assists in strengthening the limbs1 but also teaches the performers the useful art of balancing themselves upon a movable substance4 ,a wooden bottle1 a round wooden log1 or something of that description1 is laid upon the ground1 a mark is made at a certain distance1 and the players have to hop from the mark upon the bottle1 and retain their possession while they count a number agreed upon4 ,in the olden times of ,greece1 this was considered an exercise of sufficient importance to give it a place at the public games4 ,the performer in this case had to hop upon inflated leather bags1 carefully greased1 and of course1 by their inevitable upsettings and floundering1 caused great amusement to the spectators4 ,the sports took place on the ,dionysia1 or festivals of ,bacchus1 when the vintage was gathered in1 and the victor was appropriately rewarded with a cask of wine4 ,the rustics in many parts of ,england introduce a modification of this game in their rural festivals4 ,two men place themselves opposite to each other1 the right knee of each being supported on a wooden cylinder1 while the remaining foot is totally unsupported4 ,when they are fairly balanced1 they grasp each other by the shoulders1 and endeavour to cast their opponent to the ground1 while themselves retain their position upon their fickle support4 ,,hop-,,scotch4 ,this is a game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an oyster-shell or piece of tile from one compartment to the other1 without halting the lifted foot1 except in one case1 to the ground1 and without suffering the shell or tile to rest on any of the lines4 ,a diagram is first drawn similar to the subjoined4 ,it consists of twelve compartments1 each being numbered1 and at its further end the pleasant and inviting picture of a plum pudding with knife and fork therein stuck4 ,in commencing the game1 the players take their stand at the place marked by a star1 and 8quoit0 for innings4 ,the object is1 that of doing what every boy is supposed to like above all things to do1 i4 e4 8pitch into the pudding10 and he who can do this1 and go nearest to the plum in the centre1 plays first4 ,illustration ,method of ,playing4--,the winner begins by throwing his shell into ,no4 #a2 he then hops into the space1 and kicks the tile out to the star 992 he next throws the tile into ,no4 #b1 kicks it from ,no4 #b to ,no4 #a1 and thence out4 ,he then throws it into ,no4 #c1 kicks it from #c to #b1 from #b to #a1 and out4 ,he next throws it into ,no4 #d1 kicks it from #d to #c1 from #c to #b1 from #b to #a1 and out2 and so he proceeds till he has passed the cross and comes to ,no4 #g1 when he is permitted to rest himself1 by standing with one foot in ,no4 #f and the other in ,no4 #g2 but he must resume hopping before he kicks the tile home4 ,he then passes through the beds #h1 #i1 #aj and #aa1 as he did those of #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 c41 and so on1 till he gets to plum pudding1 when he may rest1 and placing his tile on the plum1 he is required1 while standing on one foot1 to kick it with such force as to send it through all the other beds to 99 at one kick4 ,if one player throws his tile into the wrong compartment1 or when he is kicking it out1 he loses his innings1 as he does also if the tile or his foot at any time rests on a line1 or if he kicks his tile out of the diagram4 ,,french ,,and ,,english4 ,this is an old ,greek game1 and1 like very many simple boys' games1 has retained its popularity to the present day4 ,its ,greek name was rather a jaw-cracking one1 but may be literally translated by 8,pully-haully40 ,it consists of two parties of boys1 who are chosen on different sides by lots4 ,one party takes hold of one end of a strong rope1 and the other party of the other end4 ,a mark being made midway between the parties1 each strives to pull the other over it1 and those who are so pulled over1 lose the game4 ,in this game1 two leaders should be appointed1 who must calculate the powers of their own side1 and concert plans accordingly4 ,the leader of either side should have a code of signals1 in order to communicate with his own friends1 that he may direct them when to stop1 when to slacken1 or when to pull hard4 ,so important is the leader's office1 that a side with a good leader will always vanquish a much superior force which has no commander to guide it4 ,for example1 when all the boys are pulling furiously at the rope1 the leader of one side sees that his opponents are leaning back too much1 depending on their weight more than on their strength4 ,he immediately gives the signal to slacken1 when down go half the enemy on their backs1 and are run away with merrily by the successful party1 who drag them over the mark with the greatest ease4 ,or if the enemy begins to be wearied with hard pulling1 an unanimous tug will often bring them upright1 while they are off their guard1 and once moved1 the victory is easily gained4 ,we have seen1 assisted1 and led this game hundreds of times1 and never failed to find it productive of very great amusement4 ,no knots are to be permitted on the rope1 nor is the game to be considered as won1 unless the entire side has been dragged over the line4 ,,drawing ,,the ,,oven4 ,this is a game not very dissimilar to the preceding1 but not so much to be recommended1 as the clothes are very apt to be torn1 and if the players engage too roughly1 the wrists are not unfrequently injured4 ,the method of playing the game is as follows3--,several boys seat themselves in a row1 clasping each other round the waist1 thus fantastically representing a batch of loaves4 ,two other players then approach1 representing the baker's men1 who have to detach the players from each other's hold4 ,to attain this object1 they grasp the wrists of the second boy1 and endeavour to pull him away from the boy in front of him4 ,if they succeed1 they pass to the third1 and so on until they have drawn the entire batch4 ,as sometimes an obstinate loaf sticks so tight to its companion1 that it is not torn away without bringing with it a handful of jacket or other part of the clothing1 the game ought not to be played by any but little boys4 ,i ,,spy4 ,this is a capital game for the summer months4 ,the players divide themselves into two parties1 one party remaining at a spot called 8,bounds10 and concealing their faces1 while the other party goes out and hides4 ,after waiting for a few minutes1 the home party shouts1 8,coming1 coming1 coming40 ,after a short pause they repeat the cry1 and after another short interval they again shout1 8,coming40 ,if any out-player is not concealed1 he may cry1 8,no10 and a few minutes more are allowed4 ,at the last shout1 the home players1 leaving one to guard bounds1 sally forth in search of their hidden companions4 ,directly one of the seekers sees one of the hiders1 he shouts1 8,i ,spy10 and runs home as fast as he can1 pursued by the one he has found1 who tries to touch him before he can reach bounds4 ,if he succeeds1 the one so touched is considered taken1 and stands aside4 ,if the hiding party can touch three1 or more1 if especially agreed upon1 they get their hide over again4 ,the object of the hiders is to intercept the seekers1 and prevent them from reaching bounds without being touched4 ,the worst player is left at the bounds1 in order to warn his companions1 which he does by the word 8,home10 as any hider may touch any seeker4 ,,pitch-,,stone4 ,this game is played by two boys1 each of whom takes a smooth round pebble4 ,one player then throws his pebble about twenty feet before him1 and the next tries to strike it with his stone1 each time of striking counting as one4 ,if the two pebbles are near enough for the player to place one upon the other with his hand1 he is at perfect liberty to do so4 ,it is easy enough to play at this game when the pebbles are at some distance apart2 but when they lie near each other1 it is very difficult to take a good aim1 and yet send one's own pebble beyond the reach of the adversary's aim4 ,two four-pound cannon balls are the best objects to pitch1 as they roll evenly1 and do not split1 as pebbles always do when they get a hard knock4 ,,duck-,,stone4 ,this game may be played by any number of players4 ,a large stone is selected1 and placed on a particular spot1 and the players first 8,pink for ,duck10 that is1 they each throw their stones up to the mark1 and the one who is farthest from it becomes 8,duck40 ,the ,duck places his stone on the other1 while the rest of the players return to the bounds1 and in succession pitch their stones at his with the endeavour to knock it off4 ,if this is accomplished1 ,duck must immediately replace it1 and the throwers must pick up their stones and run to the bounds4 ,as soon as ,duck has replaced his stone1 he runs after any of the other players1 and if he can succeed in catching or merely touching any one of them1 the player so touched becomes ,duck4 ,illustration ,,prisoner',s ,,base1 ,,or ,,prison ,,bars4 ,this is a most delightful game1 and is a very great favourite among boys of all classes4 ,it is commenced by choosing ,captains1 which is either done by lot or by the 8sweet voices0 of the youths4 ,if by lot1 a number of straws of different lengths are put in a bunch1 and those who draw from one end1 the other being hidden1 the two longest straws1 are the two 8,captains20 each of which has the privilege of choosing his men3 the drawer of the longest of the two straws has the first choice4 ,when this has been arranged each ,captain selects1 alternately1 a boy till the whole are drawn out4 ,this method is1 however1 often attended with considerable inconvenience1 as it is not impossible that the lots may fall on the two worst players4 ,it is very much better to let the boys choose the two ,captains1 as the two best players will then assuredly be elected1 and most of the success of the game depends on the ,captains4 ,the leaders being thus chosen1 the next point is to mark out the homes and prisons4 ,first1 two semicircles are drawn1 large enough to hold the two parties1 the distance between the semicircles being about twenty paces4 ,these are the 8homes10 or 8bounds40 ,twenty paces in front of these1 two other semicircles1 of a rather larger size1 are marked out4 ,these are the prisons2 the prison of each party being in a line with the enemy's home4 ,these preliminaries being settled1 the sides draw lots2 the side drawing the longest straw having to commence the game4 ,the ,captain of side ,a orders out one of his own side1 usually a poor player1 who is bound to run at least beyond the prisons before he returns4 ,directly he has started1 the ,captain of side ,b sends out one of his men to pursue1 and1 if possible1 to touch him before he can regain his own home4 ,if this is accomplished1 the successful runner is permitted to return home scathless1 while the vanquished party must go to the prison belonging to his side2 from which he cannot stir1 until some one from his own side releases him1 by touching him in spite of the enemy4 ,this is not an easy task2 as1 in order to reach the prison1 the player must cross the enemy's home4 ,it is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his hand as far towards his rescuer as possible1 but he must keep some part of his body within the bounds2 and if several prisoners are taken1 it is sufficient for one to remain within the prison1 while the rest1 by joining hands1 make a chain towards the boy who is trying to release them4 ,when this is accomplished1 both the prisoner and his rescuer return home1 no one being able to touch them until they have reached their home and again started off4 ,but the game is not only restricted to the two originally sent out4 ,directly ,captain ,a sees his man pressed by his opponent1 he sends out a third1 who is in his turn pursued by another from side ,b2 each being able to touch any who have preceded1 but none who have left their home after him4 ,the game soon becomes spirited2 prisoners are made and released1 the two ,captains watching the game1 and rarely exposing themselves1 except in cases of emergency1 but directing the whole proceedings4 ,the game is considered won1 when one party has succeeded in imprisoning the whole of the other side4 ,much depends upon the ,captains1 who sometimes1 by a bold dash1 rescue the most important of their prisoners1 and thereby turn the fate of the battle2 or1 when the attention of the opposite side is occupied by some hardly-contested struggle1 send some insignificant player to the rescue2 who walks quietly up to the prison1 and unsuspectedly lets out the prisoners one by one4 ,no player is permitted to touch more than one person until he has returned to his home2 when he can sally out again armed with fresh strength1 like ,antus of old1 who could not be conquered at wrestling1 because whenever he touched the ground his strength was renewed by his mother ,earth4 ,,fox4 ,this game was extensively played at the school where our boyhood was passed2 but we never saw it elsewhere4 ,it used to afford us such amusement in the long summer evenings1 that it deserves a place in this collection of sports4 ,one player is termed ,fox1 and is furnished with a den1 where none of the players may molest him4 ,the other players arm themselves with twisted or knotted handkerchiefs1 7one end to be tied in knots of almost incredible hardness17 and range themselves round the den waiting for the appearance of the ,fox4 ,he being also armed with a knotted handkerchief1 hops out of his den4 ,when he is fairly out1 the other players attack him with their handkerchiefs1 while he endeavours to strike one of them without putting down his other foot4 ,if he does so he has to run back as fast as he can1 without the power of striking the other players1 who baste him the whole way4 ,if1 however1 he succeeds in striking one without losing his balance1 the one so struck becomes ,fox2 and1 as he has both feet down1 is accordingly basted to his den4 ,the den is useful as a resting-place for the ,fox1 who is often sorely wearied by futile attempts to catch his foes4 ,illustration ,,baste ,,the ,,bear4 ,this is a funny game4 ,the players generally draw lots for the first ,bear1 who selects his own ,keeper4 ,the ,bear kneels on the ground1 and his ,keeper holds him with a rope about four feet long1 within a circle of about five feet in diameter4 ,the other players tie knots in their handkerchiefs1 and begin to strike or baste the ,bear1 by running close to1 or into the ring4 ,should the ,keeper touch any of the boys while they are at this sport without dragging the ,bear out of the ring1 or should the ,bear catch hold of any player's leg1 so as to hold him fast1 the player so touched or caught becomes ,bear4 ,the second ,bear may select his ,keeper as before1 and the play continues4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,instrument ,,of ,,torture4 ,,leap-,,frog4 ,this is an excellent game of agility1 and very simple4 ,it consists of any number of players2 but from six to eight is the most convenient number4 ,having by agreement or lots determined who shall give the first 8back10 one player so selected places himself in position1 with his head inclined and his shoulders elevated1 and his hands resting on his knees1 at ten yards' distance from the other players2 one of whom immediately runs and leaps over him1--having made his leap1 he sets a back at the same distance forward from the boy over whom he has just leaped4 ,the third boy leaps over the first and second boy1 and sets a 8back0 beyond the second2 and the fourth boy leaps over the first1 second1 and third1 and sets a 8back0 beyond the third1 and so on till the players are out4 ,the game may continue for any length of time1 and generally lasts till the players are tired2 but the proper rule should be1 that all who do not go clean over should be out4 ,those who 8make backs0 should stand perfectly stiff and firm2 and those who 8make leaps0 should not rest in their flight heavily upon the shoulders of their playmates1 so as to throw them down1 which is not fair play4 ,,fly ,,the ,,garter4 ,chalk or make a line1 or1 as it is usually termed1 8a garter10 on the ground2 on this line one of the players must place himself and bend down as in leap-frog1 while the other players in rotation leap over him1 the last one as he flies over calling out 8,foot it40 ,if he should fail in giving this notice1 he is out1 and must take the other boy's place at the garter4 ,the boy1 immediately the word is given1 rises1 and places his right heel close to the middle of the left foot2 he next moves the left forwards and places that heel close up to the toes of his right foot1 and bends down as before4 ,this movement is called a 8step10 and is repeated three times4 ,the other players should fly from the garter each time a step is made1 and the last player must invariably call out 8,foot it0 as he leaps over4 ,after making the three 8steps10 the player giving the back takes a short run1 and1 from the spot where he made his last step to1 jumps as far forwards as he possibly can1 and bends down again2 the others jump from the garter and then fly over4 ,should any of the players be unable to jump easily over the one giving the back1 but rather slide down upon1 or ride on him1 the player so failing must take the other's place at the garter1 and the game be begun again2 if1 also1 through the impetus acquired in taking the jump from the garter1 a player should happen to place his hands on the back of the player bending down1 and then withdraw them in order to take the spring over1 he is out1 and must take his turn at the garter4 ,it is usual1 in some places1 for the boy giving the back to take a hop1 step1 and a jump after he has footed it three times1 the other players doing the same1 and then flying over4 ,,spanish ,,fly4 ,this game is capable of being varied to any extent by an ingenious boy1 but it is generally played in the following way3--,one boy1 selected by chance1 sets a back1 as in 8fly the garter10 and another is chosen leader4 ,the game is commenced by the leader leaping over the one who gives the back1 and the other players follow in succession2 the leader then leaps back1 and the others follow2 then they all go over in a cross direction1 and return1 making1 in all1 four different ways4 ,the leader then takes his cap in both hands1 and leaves it on the boy's back while he is 8overing10 and his followers perform the same trick2 in returning1 the last man takes the lead1 and removes his cap without disturbing the others1 and each boy does the same3 this trick is repeated in a cross direction4 ,the next trick is throwing up the cap just before overing1 and catching it before it falls2 the next1 reversing the cap on the head1 and so balancing it while overing1 without ever touching it with the hands2 both tricks must be performed while leaping the four different ways4 ,the leader1 with his cap still balanced1 now overs1 and allows his cap to drop on the opposite side2 the others do likewise1 but they must be careful not to let their caps touch the others1 nor to let their feet touch any of the caps in alighting2 the leader now stoops down1 picks up his cap with his teeth1 and throws it over his head and the boy's back2 he then leaps after his cap1 but avoids touching it with his feet4 ,the other players follow him as before4 ,the next trick is 8knuckling10--that is to say1 overing with the hands clenched2 the next1 8slapping10 which is performed by placing one hand on the boy's back1 and hitting him with the other1 while overing2 the last1 8spurring10 or touching him up with the heel4 ,all these tricks must be performed in the four different directions1 and any boy failing to do them properly goes down1 and the game begins afresh4 ,,touch4 ,this is a brisk game1 and may be played by any number of boys4 ,one of the players being chosen as ,touch1 it is his business to run about in all directions after the other players1 till he can touch one1 who immediately becomes ,touch in his turn4 ,sometimes when the game is played it is held as a law that ,touch shall have no power over those boys who can touch iron and wood4 ,the players then1 when out of breath1 rush to the nearest iron or wood they can find1 to render themselves secure4 ,cross-touch is sometimes played1 in which1 whenever another player runs between ,touch and the pursued1 ,touch must immediately leave the one he is after to follow him4 ,but this rather confuses1 and spoils the game4 ,,touch-,,wood ,,and ,,touch-,,iron4 ,these games are founded on the above4 ,when the boys pursued by ,touch can touch either wood or iron they are safe1 the rule being that he must touch them as they run from one piece of wood or iron to another4 ,,buck1 ,,buck1 ,,how ,,many ,,horns ,,do ,i ,,hold ,,up8 ,this is a very good game for three boys4 ,the first is called the ,buck1 the second the ,frog1 and the third the ,umpire4 ,the boy who plays the ,buck gives a back with his head down1 and rests his hands on some wall or paling in front of him4 ,the ,frog now leaps on his back1 and the ,umpire stands by his side3 the ,frog now holds up one1 two1 three1 five1 or any number of fingers1 and cries1 8,buck6 ,buck6 how many horns do ,i hold up80 ,the ,buck then endeavours to guess the right number2 if he succeeds1 the ,frog then becomes ,buck1 and in turn jumps on his back4 ,the ,umpire determines whether ,buck has guessed the numbers rightly or not4 ,in some places it is the custom to blindfold the ,buck1 in order to prevent him seeing4 ,this plan1 however1 is scarcely necessary4 ,,warning4 ,this is an excellent game for cold weather4 ,it may be played by any number of boys4 ,in playing it 8loose bounds0 are made near a wall or fence1 about four feet wide and twelve long4 ,one of the boys is selected1 who is called the ,cock1 who takes his place within the bounds2 the other players are called the ,chickens1 who distribute themselves in various parts of the playground4 ,the ,cock now clasps his hands together1 and cries1 8,warning once1 warning twice1 a bushel of wheat1 and a bushel of rye1 when the ,cock crows out jump ,i40 ,he then1 keeping his hands still clasped before him1 runs after the other players2 when he touches one1 he and the player so touched immediately make for the bounds2 the other players immediately try to capture them before they get there2 if they succeed1 they are privileged to get upon their backs and ride them home4 ,the ,cock and his ,chick now come out of the bounds hand-in-hand1 and try to touch some other of the players2 the moment they do this they break hands1 and they and the player now touched run to the bounds as before1 while the other players try to overtake them1 so as to secure the ride4 ,the three now come from the bounds in the same manner1 capture or touch a boy1 and return4 ,if1 while trying to touch the other boys1 the players when sallying from the grounds break hands before they touch any one1 they may immediately be ridden1 if they can be caught before they reach the bounds4 ,sometimes when three players have been touched the ,cock is allowed to join the out party1 but this is of no advantage in playing the game4 ,,follow ,,my ,,leader4 ,this may be played by any number of boys3 one being selected as the ,leader1 and the others are the ,followers4 ,the ,followers arrange themselves in a line behind the ,leader1 who immediately begins to progress1 and the others are bound to follow him4 ,the fun of this sport is in the ,leader carrying his ,followers into 8uncouth places10 over various 8obstacles10 such as hedges1 stiles1 gate-posts1 c41 through 8extraordinary difficulties10 as ditches and quagmires1--every player being expected to perform his feats of agility2 and those who fail are obliged to go last1 and bear the emphatic name of the 8,ass40 ,the game lasts till the ,leader gives up1 or the boys are all tired out4 ,,the ,,fugleman4 ,this is a game something like the above4 ,it consists of the ,fugleman and his ,squad4 ,the ,fugleman places himself in a central spot1 and arranges his ,squad before him in a line4 ,he then commences with various odd gestures1 which all the ,squad are bound to imitate4 ,he moves his head1 arms1 legs1 hands1 feet1 in various directions1 sometimes sneezes1 coughs1 weeps1 laughs1 and bellows1 all of which the ,squad are to imitate4 ,sometimes this is a most amusing scene1 and provokes great laughter4 ,those who are observed to laugh1 however1 are immediately ordered to stand out of the line1 and when half the number of players are so put out1 the others are allowed to ride them three times round the playground1 while the ,fugleman with a knotted handkerchief accelerates their motions4 ,,hare ,,and ,,hounds4 ,illustration ,this is perhaps the very best game that can be introduced into a school4 ,the principle of it is very simple1 that one boy represents the ,hare and runs away1 while the others represent the ,hounds and pursue him4 ,the proper management of the game1 however1 requires some skill4 ,when we were at school in the north1 this game was extensively played2 and in more recent times1 when we ourselves were masters instead of scholars1 we reduced the game to a complete system4 ,the first thing to be done is to choose a ,hare1 or if the chase is to be a long one1 two ,hares are required4 ,the ,hare should not be the best runner1 but should be daring1 and at the same time prudent1 or he may trespass into forbidden lands1 and thereby cause great mischief4 ,a ,huntsman and ,whipper-in are then chosen4 ,the ,huntsman should be the best player1 and the ,whipper-in second best4 ,things having advanced so far1 the whole party sally forth4 ,the ,hare is furnished with a large bag of white paper torn into small squares1 which he scatters on the ground as he goes4 ,an arrangement is made that the ,hare shall not cross his path1 nor return home until a certain time2 in either of which cases he is considered caught4 ,the ,hounds also are bound to follow the track or 8scent0 implicitly1 and not to make short cuts if they see the ,hare4 ,the ,hare then starts1 and has about seven minutes' grace1 at the expiration of which time the ,huntsman blows a horn with which he is furnished1 and sets off1 the ,hounds keeping nearly in ,indian file1 the ,whipper-in bringing up the rear4 ,the ,huntsman is also furnished with a white flag1 the ,whipper-in with a red one1 the staves being pointed and shod with metal4 ,off they go merrily enough1 until at last the ,huntsman loses the scent4 ,he immediately shouts 8,lost60 on which the ,whipper-in sticks his flag in the ground where the scent was last seen1 and the entire line walks or runs round it in a circle1 within which they are tolerably sure to find the track4 ,the ,huntsman in the meanwhile has stuck his flag in the ground1 and examines the country to see in what direction the ,hare is likely to have gone4 ,when the track is found1 the player who discovers it shouts ,tally ho6 the ,huntsman takes up his flag1 and ascertains whether it is really the track or not4 ,if so1 he blows his horn again1 the ,hounds form in line between the two flags1 and off they go again4 ,it is incredible how useful the two flags are4 ,many a ,hare has been lost because the ,hounds forgot where the last track was seen1 and wasted time in searching for it again4 ,moreover1 they seem to encourage the players wonderfully4 ,we used often to make our chases fourteen or fifteen miles in length2 but before such an undertaking is commenced1 it is necessary to prepare by a series of shorter chases1 which should however be given in an opposite direction to the course fixed upon for the grand chase1 as otherwise the tracks are apt to get mixed1 and the ,hounds are thrown out4 ,the ,hare should always carefully survey his intended course a day or two previously1 and then he will avoid getting himself into quagmires1 or imprisoned in the bend of a river4 ,a pocket compass is a most useful auxiliary1 and prevents all chance of losing the way1 a misfortune which is not at all unlikely to happen upon the ,wiltshire downs or among the ,derbyshire hills4 ,,steeple ,,chase4 ,this is a trial of speed and agility1 and may be played by any number of boys4 ,it consists in the boys agreeing upon some distant object for a mark1 such as a conspicuous tree1 or house1 or steeple4 ,the players then start off in whatever direction they please1 each one being at liberty to choose his own course4 ,in a long run of a mile or so it very often happens that hedges1 ditches1 and other obstructions1 have to be got over1 which adds great interest to the play1 and the best climbers and jumpers are the most likely to come in victors4 ,he who comes in first to the appointed object is called the ,king1 the second the ,duke1 the third the ,marquis1 the fourth the ,viscount1 the fifth the ,earl1 the sixth the ,knight4 ,the last receives the dignified appellation of the ,snail1 and the last but one the ,tortoise4 ,at ,oxford there were in our undergraduate days two clubs for the purpose of ,steeple-chasing1 one named the ,kangaroo ,club1 and the other the ,charitable ,grinders1 whose performances over hedges and ditches were really astonishing4 ,there was also a club which kept a set of beagles1 and used to hunt a red herring with intense perseverance4 ,,duck ,,and ,,drake4 ,this is a very simple sport1 but necessarily restricted to those spots where there is a river1 or a pond of some magnitude4 ,it consists in throwing oyster-shells1 flat stones1 or broken tiles along the water1 so as to make them hop as often as possible4 ,one hop is called ,dick1 the second ,duck1 and the third ,drake4 ,the sea-shore is a capital place for this sport1 as1 if the player can only succeed in making the stone touch the top of a wave1 it is tolerably certain to make a succession of hops from wave to wave4 ,if a rifle-bullet is shot along the water1 it will go a great distance1 making very long hops1 and splashing up the water at every bound4 ,in war1 this method of firing at an enemy that lies low is extensively made use of1 and is called 8ricochet practice40 ,it is also much used in naval warfare4 ,,simon ,,says4 ,this1 if well managed1 is a very comical game4 ,the players are arranged as in ,fugleman1 the player who enacts ,simon standing in front4 ,he and all the other players clench their fists1 keeping the thumb pointed upwards4 ,no player is to obey his commands unless prefaced with the words1 8,simon says40 ,simon is himself subjected to the same rules4 ,the game commences by ,simon commanding1--8,simon says1 turn down30 on which he turns his thumbs downwards1 followed by the other players4 ,he then says1 8,simon says1 turn up10 and brings his hands back again4 ,when he has done so several times1 and thinks that the players are off their guard1 he merely gives the word1 8,turn up10 or 8,turn down10 without moving his hands4 ,some one1 if not all1 is sure to obey the command1 and is subject to a forfeit4 ,simon is also subject to a forfeit1 if he tells his companions to turn down while the thumbs are already down1 or vice vers4 ,with a sharp player enacting ,simon1 the game is very spirited4 ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,castle4 ,this is a very good game1 and to play it properly there must be in the centre of the playground a small hill or hillock4 ,one player1 selected by choice or lot1 ascends this hill1 and is called the ,king2 and the object of the other players is to pull or push him from his elevation1 while he uses his endeavours to keep his 8pride of place40 ,fair pulls and fair pushes are only allowed at this game2 the players must not take hold of any part of the clothes of the ,king1 and must confine their grasps to the hand1 the leg1 or the arm4 ,if a player violates these rules1 he is to sit down upon the ground1 and is called 8,dummy40 ,the player who succeeds in dethroning the ,king1 takes his place1 and is subjected to the like attacks4 ,,battle ,,for ,,the ,,banner4 ,this game is to be played from a mound1 the same as the above1 and it may consist of any number of players4 ,each party selects a ,captain1 and having done this1 divide themselves into ,attackers and ,defenders4 ,the defending party provide themselves with a small flag1 which is fixed on a staff on the top of the mound1 and then arrange themselves on its side and at its base1 so as to defend it from the attacks of their opponents1 who advance towards the hillock1 and endeavour to throw down those that oppose them4 ,those that are so thrown on either side1 are called 8dead men10 and must lie quiet till the game is finished1 which is concluded either when all the attacking party are dead1 or the banner is carried off by one of them4 ,the player who carries off the banner is called the ,knight1 and is chosen ,captain for the next game4 ,illustration ,,snow-,,balls4 ,every boy has played at snow-balls1 from the time that his little fingers were first able to grasp and mould a handful of snow4 ,elderly gentlemen know to their cost how apt the youthful friend is to hurl very hard snow-balls1 which appear to pick out the tenderest parts of his person1 generally contriving to lodge just at the juncture of the chin and the comforter1 or coming with a deafening squash in the very centre of his ear4 ,even the dread policeman does not always escape2 and when he turns round1 indignant at the temporary loss of his shiny hat1 he cannot recognise his assailant in the boy who is calmly whistling the last new nigger-song1 as he saunters along1 with both his hands in his pockets4 ,the prudent schoolmaster will also not venture too near the playground1 unless he has provided himself with an umbrella4 ,it is rather a remarkable fact1 that whenever a ,grammar-school and a ,national-school are within a reasonable distance of each other1 they are always at deadly feud4 ,so it was at the school where our youthful days were passed4 ,one winter's morning1 just after school had opened1 the door was flung violently open1 and a party of ,national-school boys hurled a volley of snow-balls at the head-master4 ,he1 after the door had been secured1 remarked in a particularly mild voice1--8,now1 boys1 if ,i had been at school1 and my schoolmaster had been assaulted by ,national-school boys1 ,i should have gone out and given them a thrashing4 ,remember1 ,i do not at all advise you to do so1 but merely mention the course that ,i should have adopted under such circumstances4 ,we will resume lessons at three40 ,so saying1 he took off his gown1 put on his hat and gloves1 and walked out to see the fun4 ,now1 the prospect of a morning's holiday would have made us attack a force of twenty times our number1 but as they only out-numbered us threefold1 we commenced a pursuit without hesitation4 ,after a sharp engagement1 we drove them back to their own schoolroom4 ,the cause of their yielding was1 that they threw at random among us1 whereas each of our balls was aimed at the face of an opponent1 and we very seldom missed4 ,when they had reached their school1 they closed and barred their door2 at which we made such a battering1 that their master1 a large negro1 rushed out upon us1 vowing vengeance1 and flourishing a great cane4 ,he was allowed to proceed a few yards from the door1 when one snow-ball took off his hat1 and two more lodged in his face4 ,he immediately went to the right-about1 and made for the school1 which he reached under an avalanche of snow4 ,we pursued1 but he had succeeded in fastening the door1 and we could not open it for some time4 ,when we did1 the school was deserted2 not a boy was to be seen4 ,there was no back entrance to account for their disappearance1 and we were completely puzzled4 ,at last1 when we had quieted down a little1 a murmuring was heard apparently below our feet1 and on examination we found that the entire school had taken shelter in the coal-cellar4 ,we made a dash at the door 7a trap-door71 and in spite of the showers of coal that came from below1 fastened and padlocked the door1 carefully throwing the key among a clump of fir-trees1 where it was not likely to be found4 ,having achieved this victory1 we had a snow-ball match among ourselves1 and then returned to school4 ,about five o'clock1 in rushed the black schoolmaster1 who had only just been liberated by the blacksmith1 and who came to complain of our conduct4 ,so far1 however1 from obtaining any satisfaction1 he was forced to apologise for the conduct of his boys4 ,,snow ,,castle4 ,the object of this game is1 that a castle of snow is built1 which is attacked by one party and defended by the other4 ,the method of building the castle is as follows3--,a square place is cleared in the snow1 the size of the projected castle4 ,as many boys as possible then go to some distance from the cleared square1 and commence making snow-balls1 rolling them towards the castle4 ,by the time that they have reached it1 each ball is large enough to form a foundation-stone4 ,by continuing this plan1 the walls are built about five feet six inches high1 a raised step running round the interior1 on which1 the defenders stand while hurling the balls against their opponents4 ,in the centre are deposited innumerable snow-balls1 ready made2 and a small boy is usually pressed into the service1 to make snow-balls as fast as they are wanted4 ,if the weather is very cold1 some water splashed over the castle hardens and strengthens it considerably4 ,the architect of the castle must not forget to leave space for a door4 ,illustration ,,snow ,,giant4 ,this is made in the same way as the snow castle1 that is1 by rolling large snow-balls to the place where the giant is to be erected1 and then piled up and carved into form4 ,he is not considered completed until two coals are inserted for eyes1 and until he is further decorated with a pipe and an old hat4 ,when he is quite finished1 the juvenile sculptors retire to a distance1 and with snow-balls endeavour to knock down their giant1 with as much zest as they exhibited in building him4 ,if a snow giant is well made1 he will last until the leaves are out1 the sun having but little power on so large a mass of hard snow4 ,there is a legend extant respecting the preservation of snow through the warmer parts of the year4 ,a certain ,scotch laird had for a tenant a certain farmer4 ,the laird had been requested by influential personages to transfer the farm to another man directly the lease was run out4 ,the farmer's wife1 hearing of this from some gossip of hers1 went to her landlord1 and besought him to grant a renewal of the lease4 ,when she called1 he was at dinner with a numerous party of friends1 and replied in a mocking tone1 that the lease should be renewed when she brought him a snow-ball in ,july4 ,she immediately called upon the guests to bear witness to the offer1 and went home4 ,in due time the winter came1 and with it the snow4 ,one day1 her husband1 an excellent labourer1 but not over bright1 asked her why she was wasting so much meal4 ,at that time1 she had taken a large vessel of meal to a valley1 and was pouring it into the space between two great stones4 ,upon the meal she placed a large quantity of snow1 which she stamped down until it was hard4 ,upon this she poured more meal1 and placed upon the meal a layer of straw4 ,the whole affair was then thickly covered over with straw and reeds4 ,to her husband1 who thought she had fairly lost her senses1 she deigned no reply1 except that the meal would repay itself4 ,so affairs went on until ,july1 when the good dame1 hearing that her landlord had invited a large party to dine with him1 many of whom had been at the party when the promise was made1 proceeded to the store of snow1 which she found about half diminished4 ,the remainder she kneaded hard1 and put it in a wheelbarrow1 well covered with straw1 which she rolled up to the laird's own house4 ,when once there1 she took out her snow-ball1 and presenting it to her landlord1 before all his guests1 demanded the renewal of her lease4 ,it may be satisfactory to know1 that the laird1 struck with her ingenuity and perseverance1 at once granted her request4 ,illustration ,,jack6 ,,jack6 ,,show ,a ,,light6 ,this game can only be played in the dusk of evening1 when all the surrounding objects are lost in the deepening gloom4 ,the players divide into two parties1 and toss up for innings1 which being gained1 the winners start off to hide themselves1 or get so far away that the others cannot see them2 the losers remaining at the home4 ,one of the hiding party is provided with a flint and steel1 which1 as soon as they are all ready1 he strikes together2 the sparks emitted guide the seekers as to what direction they must proceed in1 and they must endeavour to capture the others ere they reach home2 if they cannot touch more than two of the boys1 the hiders resume their innings1 and the game continues as before4 ,it is most usual1 however1 for the boys at the home to call out1 8,jack1 ,jack6 show a light60 before the possessor of the flint and steel does so4 ,when one party is captured1 the flint and steel must be given up to the captors1 that they may carry on the game as before4 ,,jingling4 ,the jingling match is a common diversion at country wakes and fairs1 and is often played by schoolboys4 ,the match should be played on a soft grass-plot within a large circle1 enclosed with ropes4 ,the players rarely exceed nine or ten4 ,all of these1 except one of the most active1 who is the 8jingler10 have their eyes blindfolded with handkerchiefs4 ,the jingler holds a small bell in his hand1 which he is obliged to keep ringing incessantly so long as the play continues1 which is commonly about twenty minutes4 ,the business of the jingler is to elude the pursuit of his blindfolded companions1 who follow him by the sound of the bell in all directions1 and sometimes oblige him to exert his utmost abilities to effect his escape1 which must be done within the boundaries of the rope1 for the laws of the sport forbid him to pass beyond it4 ,if he be caught in the time allotted for the continuance of the game1 the person who caught him wins the match2 if1 on the contrary1 they are not able to take him1 he is proclaimed the winner4 ,illustration ,,jump ,,little ,,nag-,,tail6 ,in this game1 six or eight players on each side is the best number4 ,the two leaders should toss up for choice of partners1 and after selecting them1 toss again for innings4 ,the loser must then place himself quite upright1 with his face to a wall1 against which he rests his hands2 and one of his partners should next stoop down1 and put his head against his leader's skirts1 as shown in the annexed illustration2 another partner also bends1 and places his head against the skirts of the second player1 and the rest of the partners must take their places in the same manner1 one behind the other3 when thus arranged1 they are called 8nags40 ,one of the winning party next takes a run1 and placing his hands on the back of the last player or 8nag10 endeavours to spring on to the back of the first1 or at least to clear as many 8nags0 as he possibly can1 in order to allow room for those following him to leap on the backs of the other 8nags10 which they should do in succession1 until they are all fairly astride4 ,if any of the 8nags0 sink under the weight1 or in trying to support themselves touch the ground either with their hands or knees1 or if the riders can keep their seats without touching the ground1 whilst their leader counts twenty1 or repeats the words1 8,jump little nag-tail one1 two1 three60 three times1 concluding with 8off1 off1 off60 the riders resume their innings1 and begin again2 on the contrary1 should there not be sufficient space for all to leap on1 or they are unable to keep their seats on the backs of the 8nags10 they lose their innings1 and become 8nags0 in their turn4 ,the 8nags0 must1 while in the line1 hold either by the trousers of the player before them1 or else lean their hands on their knees1 or cross their arms on their breasts4 ,each rider must call out 8,warning0 before he leaps on the back of one of the 8nags40 ,,jumping ,,rope4 ,two players swing round a long rope1 and when the revolutions become tolerably regular1 one1 two1 or even more boys step forwards1 and allowing it to swing over their heads1 jump up as it descends1 so as to let it pass under their feet as in the case of the common skipping-rope4 ,the leapers must step forwards the moment the rope is at its highest1 in order to be ready to skip over as it swings close to the ground2 and they should be careful to keep the same time with the motions of the boys holding the rope1 so as not to be struck by it in its circuit4 ,another game may be played with a long skipping-rope1 by the player at one end holding the rope in his outside hand1 making a step or two towards the other player1 and with his help swinging it round1 and then skipping over it4 ,,my ,,grandmother',s ,,clock4 ,in this amusing sport the players join hands1 and extend their arms to their full extent4 ,one of the outside players remains stationary1 and the others run round him as fast as they can1 which proceeding is called 8winding the clock40 ,in this manner the straight line becomes a confused spiral1 and all the players get huddled together in a most laughable manner4 ,the winding of the clock usually leads to such disorder that it is next to impossible to unwind it without breaking the line of boys4 ,,rushing ,,bases4 ,two bases having been made1 one at each end of the playground1 all the players take up their position in one of them1 except one1 who is generally elected by counting out2 this player1 who is called 8the ,king10 stations himself midway between the bases1 and endeavours to catch the others as they rush through his territory from base to base4 ,should the king succeed in catching one of the trespassers1 he raps him on the head1 saying1 8,i crown thee king60 and the one so crowned joins the first king between the bases1 and helps to catch the other players4 ,when the out-players considerably outnumber those remaining in the bases1 they may enter the bases1 and1 if they are strong enough1 pull the others out and crown them4 ,in this lively game the rule is1 that a player must run to the opposite base if he puts both feet outside his own4 ,in some parts of ,england this game is known by the name of 8,king ,csar40 ,illustration ,,see-,,saw4 ,for this amusement a stout plank should be laid across a felled tree or a low wall2 it must be very nicely balanced if the players are of the same weight2 but if one is heavier than the other1 the end on which he intends to sit should be the shortest4 ,two players then take their seats on the plank1 one at each end1 whilst a third stations himself on the middle of it1 as represented in the illustration2 the name of this player is in some places ,jack o' both ,sides1 and in others ,pudding4 ,as the players by turns make slight springs from their toes1 they are each alternately elevated and depressed1 and it is the duty of ,pudding to assist these movements by bearing all his weight on the foot1 on the highest end of the plank1 beyond the centre of the tree or wall on which it rests4 ,this will be best understood by referring to the illustration3 thus1 ,a is the trunk of a tree2 across it a plank is laid1 on which two players1 ,b1 ,c1 take their seats2 ,d is 8,pudding20 it will be seen that his left foot is beyond the centre of the trunk ,a1 on the highest end of the board1 and consequently his weight being added to that of ,b will depress that end of the plank1 and the end on which ,c sits must1 of course1 rise2 ,pudding then bears on his right foot1 and ,c in turn descends2 and thus the game continues during pleasure1 ,pudding bearing alternately on each side4 ,,thread ,,the ,,needle4 ,this game can be played by any number of boys1 who must all join hands2 the game is begun by the outside players at each end of the line holding the following dialogue3 8,how many miles to ,babylon80 8,threescore and ten40 8,can ,i get there by candle-light80 8,yes1 and back again40 8,then open the gates without more ado1 and let the king and his men pass through40 ,the player and the one next to him at the end of the line opposite the last speaker then elevate their joined hands as high as they can1 to allow the speaker to run under1 and the whole line follows him1 still holding hands4 ,this should be done1 if possible1 without breaking the line by letting the hands go1 and is styled 8threading the needle40 ,when all the boys have passed through1 the same conversation begins again1 excepting that the respondent in his turn becomes the inquirer1 and runs between the opposite players1 the others following as before4 ,,tom ,,tiddler',s ,,ground4 ,this is a very favourite game with little boys1 and may be considered as a modification of rushing bases4 ,a large base is formed by drawing a line across the playground1 and one boy1 called 8,tom ,tiddler10 takes his station within it1 while the others run in crying out1 8,here am ,i on ,tom ,tiddler's ground1 picking up gold and silver40 ,if ,tom ,tiddler can touch any boy while he is on his ground1 the boy so touched takes his place as the guardian of the imaginary gold and silver4 ,,two ,,to ,,one4 ,two to one is a very capital exercise with a common skipping-rope4 ,it is done by skipping in the usual way for a short time1 and then increasing the rapidity of your movements1 and leaping tolerably high1 endeavouring to swing the rope round so quickly that you can pass it twice under your feet while you are taking the leap2 practise this till you are quite proficient1 and then try to pass the rope three times under your foot instead of twice4 ,,walk1 ,,moon1 ,,walk6 ,this may be played by any number of boys1 who all tie large knots in one corner of their pocket-handkerchiefs1 and then toss up to see who shall be 8,moon20 the loser is the one to whom the part falls1 and he must be blindfolded4 8,moon0 now stands with his legs stretched apart1 while his playmates go behind him in succession1 and jerk their handkerchiefs between his legs1 as far as they can and in whatsoever direction they please4 ,when all the boys have done this1 one of them cries 8,walk1 ,moon1 walk60 which is a signal for the blindfolded player to walk forwards until he treads upon one of the handkerchiefs1 when in an instant the other players pick up their knotted handkerchiefs1 with which they belabour the unlucky owner of the one trodden upon by ,moon1 as he runs to a distant base and back2 after which he becomes ,moon1 and the game continues as before4 ,,want ,a ,,day',s ,,work8 ,this is a capital game when well played1 and the antics and grimaces of boys who are mimics cause great merriment4 ,it also gives a boy a good notion of how mechanical labour is done1 as no boy will ask for work unless he understands something of the nature of the business he solicits to be employed upon4 ,the game begins thus1 and it matters not how many boys are engaged in it3--,a line is drawn2 within that line is the shop1 and when a bad workman is discharged he is pushed across the line4 ,the employer1 or master1 should be a very sharp lad4 ,a boy comes up1 and the master asks him if he wants a day's work2 the boy says he does4 ,he is then asked what trade he is2 if he says a tailor1 a coat is supposed to be given to him to make2 if a shoemaker1 a pair of shoes2 if a tinker1 a saucepan to bottom2 if a stonemason1 a stone to cut or saw1 and every boy must imitate the actions of the tailor1 shoemaker1 c41 while at work1 whatever the trades may be4 ,then the master looks over the work1 finds fault1 gets in a rage1 discharges the workman1 and1 if he can1 turns him out of the shop4 ,but if in the struggle the boy turns the employer out1 he then becomes master1 and the other is set to work4 ,so that1 after a few good-natured trials of strength1 each boy in turn generally becomes master4 ,,will ,,you ,,list8 ,this is a very old game1 and in some places is called 8playing at soldiers20 the whole ceremony of enlisting is gone through1 taking the shilling and swearing to serve the ,queen1 c4 ,but there ought to be two parties of boys1 of not less than a dozen1 with a commanding officer on each side4 ,after learning their exercise1 such as shouldering arms and marching1 war breaks out2 then one party is ,english and the other the enemy4 ,their weapons ought to be bulrushes1 or stout reeds1 such as are used in building1 or something that will not do any injury when the charge commences4 ,the side that breaks or takes away the most weapons is the conqueror1 and much skill may be displayed in capturing the arms of others1 and retaining your own4 ,if boys can get some old soldier to drill them a few times1 this may be made as good a game as they can play at4 ,we have too few military amusements in our ,english games4 ,,whoop6 ,one player takes his station at a spot called the 8home10 while the others go to seek out various hiding-places in which to ensconce themselves2 when all are ready1 one of them calls out 8,whoop60 on which the player at the 8home0 instantly goes in search of the hiders1 and endeavours to touch one of them as they run back to 8home20 if he can do so1 the one caught takes his place at the 8home10 while he joins the out players4 ,illustration ,,high ,,barbaree6 ,in this game sides are chosen1 and one party remains 8at home10 while the other hides4 ,when the hiders are all ready1 one of them calls out 8,high ,barbaree60 upon which the seekers sally forth to look for them1 as in 8,whoop60 ,if the seekers can succeed in touching a certain number of the hiders before they can get to 8home10 they take their turn at hiding4 ,the number to be caught must be agreed upon beforehand1 and of course depends upon the number of players4 ,it is usual to mention this number in the cry--thus1 8,high barbaree6 three caught he60--8four caught he60 and so forth4 ,as a general rule1 the number to be caught should exceed half the number of the hiders4 ,,bull ,,in ,,the ,,ring4 ,this active1 merry1 noisy game can be played by any number of boys1 and commences by their joining hands and forming a ring1 having enclosed some boy in the middle1 who is the ,bull4 ,it is the ,bull's part to make a rush1 break through the ring1 and escape1 and the part of the boys who form the ring to hold their hands so fast together that he cannot break their hold4 ,before making a rush the ,bull must cry 8boo0 to give warning1 so that the boys may grasp their hands more tightly4 ,the whole ring generally replies to the ,bull's challenge by crying 8boo0 all together1 and a pretty noise they make4 ,when the ,bull breaks through the ring he is pursued until captured1 and the boy who seizes him first is 8,bull0 when they return4 ,a good 8,bull0 will lead them a pretty dance1 clearing hedges and ditches2 and if he gets back and touches some mark agreed upon1 near to where he broke through the ring1 he is 8,bull0 again4 ,,cock ,,fight4 ,this humorous sport must not be confounded with the cruel battles between game-cocks once so popular in ,england4 ,two boys represent the feathered combatants2 each hops upon one leg1 with his arms folded1 and bumps against the other1 endeavouring to compel him to put both feet to the ground4 ,the boy who keeps up longest wins the game4 ,,dropping ,,the ,,handkerchief4 ,a tolerably large ring should be formed by several boys standing in a circle and joining hands2 another boy1 who stands out1 when all are ready walks round outside the ring1 drops a handkerchief behind one of the players1 and immediately runs off2 he is instantly followed by the one behind whom he dropped the handkerchief1 and who must track him in all his windings in and out under the arms of the boys in the ring1 who elevate them for the purpose1 and indeed wherever he runs to2 should the pursuer be able to touch the pursued1 the former takes the handkerchief in his turn1 and the latter joins hands in the circle4 ,if the boy who dropped the handkerchief is enabled to elude his follower by passing through and about the ring1 he walks again round and drops the handkerchief behind some other player4 ,,easy ,,games ,,without ,,toys ,,indoor4 ,,blind ,,man',s ,,buff ,illustration3 8,,seeing',s ,,believing40 ,consists in one person having a handkerchief bound over his eyes1 so as to completely blind him1 and thus blindfolded trying to chase the other players1 either by the sound of their footsteps1 or their subdued merriment1 as they scramble away in all directions1 endeavouring to avoid being caught by him2 when he can manage to catch one1 the player caught must in turn be blinded1 and the game be begun again4 ,in some places it is customary for one of the players to inquire of ,buff 7before the game begins71 8,how many horses has your father got80 to which inquiry he responds1 8,three40 8,what colours are they80 8,black1 white1 and grey40 ,the questioner then desires ,buff to 8turn round three times1 and catch whom you may10 which request he complies with1 and then tries to capture one of the players4 ,it is often played by merely turning the blindfold hero round and round without questioning him1 and then beginning4 ,the handkerchief must be tied on fairly1 so as to allow no little holes for ,buffy to see through4 ,blind ,man's ,buff is a very ancient pastime1 having been known to the ,grecian youths4 ,in ,england it formerly went ,by the name of ,hoodman ,blind1 because it was customary to blind ,buff with his hood4 ,,bob-,,cherry4 ,attach a cherry to a piece of string1 and then fasten it to a door1 sufficiently high to compel the player to jump a little in order to catch the cherry in his mouth4 ,the cherry is then set swinging2 and the players1 ranging themselves in line1 jump at the cherry1 one after the other4 ,this game is productive of much amusement1 and may be kept up for a long time4 ,,buff4 ,in this game one of the players enters the room1 armed with a poker1 with which he taps on the floor4 8,where do you come from80 inquires one of the company4 8,alas6 from poor ,buff1 who is full of grief40 8,and what did he say to you80 8,he spoke thus10 is the reply-- 8,buff said #8,baff1' ,and gave me this staff1 ,and bade me not laugh ,till ,i came to his house again40 ,having thus spoken1 the messenger leaves the room4 ,while he has been delivering his speech1 the company1 however1 endeavour to make him laugh1 by asking him any absurd questions that may present themselves to their imagination4 ,if they do not succeed in this1 the emissary of the great ,buff delivers himself of a more lengthy address3-- 8,buff says #8,baff' to all his men1 ,and ,i say #8,baff' to you again2 ,but he neither laughs nor smiles ,in spite of all your cunning wiles1 ,but keeps his face with a very good grace1 ,and carries his staff to the very next place40 ,,concert4 ,a noisier game than this could scarcely be desired by the most boisterous of our young friends4 ,the players having selected a 8conductor10 seat themselves round him in a circle4 ,the conductor now assigns to each a musical instrument1 and shows how it is to be played4 ,when all are provided with their imaginary instruments1 the conductor orders them to tune1 and by so doing1 he gives each musician a capital opportunity for making all sorts of discordant noises4 ,when the different instruments have been tuned1 the conductor waves an unseen bton1 and commences humming a lively air1 in which he is accompanied by the whole of his band1 each player endeavouring to imitate with his hands the different movements made in performing on a real instrument4 ,every now and then the conductor pretends to play on a certain instrument1 and the player to whom it belongs must instantly alter his movements for those of the conductor1 and continue to wield the bton until the chief player abandons his instrument4 ,should a player omit to take the conductor's office at the proper time1 he must pay a forfeit4 ,the fun of this game greatly depends upon the humour of the conductor1 and the adroitness with which he relinquishes his bton and takes up the instruments of the other players4 ,,consequences4 ,the first player writes an adjective on the upper part of a slip of paper1 and then folds the slip so that the written word cannot be seen by the next player1 who writes the name of a gentleman1 real or imaginary1 on the paper1 which he passes to another after having folded it over again4 ,the third player writes an adjective2 the fourth1 a lady's name2 the fifth1 the name of a place2 the sixth1 what the gentleman said to the lady2 the seventh1 the lady's reply2 the eighth1 the consequences2 and the ninth1 what the world said about the whole affair4 ,one of the players now unfolds the slip and reads what has been written by the different persons engaged in the game1 adding a few words to unite the disjointed members of the little narrative4 ,as a specimen of the ludicrous result which arises from each player's ignorance of what has been written by his companions1 we give the following pathetic tale1 in which the words and phrases printed in italics represent those written on the slip of paper3--8,the ill-favoured ,peter ,wilkins met the adorable ,jenny ,jones in the silver mine of ,potosi4 ,he said to her1 #8,will you love me then as now8' and she replied1 #8,when did ,i refuse you anything8' ,the consequences were1 he drowned himself in the water-butt and she married the baker1 and the world said1 #8,served them right6'0 ,when there are only three or four players1 the slip of paper is to be passed round from one to another until it is filled up4 ,when the players are numerous1 three or four slips may be commenced simultaneously by different persons4 ,,cross ,,questions ,,and ,,crooked ,,answers4 ,this game will be best described by a short dialogue4 ,harry4--,i am going to put a question in a whisper to ,tom1 who is seated on my right hand1 to which he will reply in the same tone4 ,he will then put a question to his next neighbour1 and receive his answer4 ,when the tour of the circle is made1 ,i shall commence by stating aloud the question put to me by my left-hand neighbour1 answering it by the reply received in answer to my own from ,tom4 ,he will then do the same1 giving my question and his next neighbour's reply4--7,whispers to ,tom47 ,of what use are the bellows8 ,tom4--,to blow up the fire4--7,to ,charles7 ,of what use is a fire-engine8 ,charles4--,to put out a fire4--7,to ,john7 ,of what use is a plough8 ,john4--,to plough up the ground4--7,to ,james7 ,of what use is a cap8 ,james4--,to cover the head4--7,to ,edward7 ,of what use is a shoe8 ,edward4--,to protect your foot4--7,to ,william7 ,of what use is a black pin8 ,william4--,to fasten your collar with4--7,to ,harry7 ,of what use is a barometer8 ,harry4--,to tell the weather4--7,aloud7 ,william has just asked me the use of a barometer8 ,tom replies1 8,to blow up the fire60 ,tom4--,harry has asked me the use of the bellows2 and ,charles replies1 8,to put out the fire60 ,charles4--,tom wishes to know the use of the fire-engine1 and ,john tells him1 8,to plough up the ground10 c4 ,any mistake is punished by a forfeit4 ,,dumb ,,motions4 ,the players form sides1 and decide who shall be masters and who men4 ,the principal aim of the men is to keep working as long as possible1 and to prevent the masters taking their places4 ,the men consult secretly among themselves1 and decide upon some trade or profession1 the practice of which may be certain movements of the arms1 hands1 or legs4 ,they now range themselves opposite the masters1 and the foreman tells them the first and last letters of the trade they are about to exercise2 as for example1 ,c--r for carpenter1 ,d--t for druggist1 ,b--h for blacksmith1 and so on4 ,the men now set to work and express in dumb motions the various labours belonging to the craft they have chosen4 ,let us suppose that they have selected the trade of blacksmith3 one of the players will appear to be blowing the forge bellows1 another will seem to be filing something in a vice1 while others will be violently exerting themselves by wielding imaginary sledge-hammers round an unseen anvil4 ,if any of the men speak at their work1 or make use of inappropriate gestures1 the whole side is out4 ,the masters are allowed one guess each1 and if none of them can hit upon the right trade1 the men tell them their occupation1 and then fix upon another4 ,if the masters can guess the name of the trade1 the men are out and become masters4 ,the men need not continue their labours until all the masters have guessed1 but may stop working1 and demand their wages1 after having plied their craft for a reasonable time4 ,when the name of a trade consists of two words1 the men must tell the first and last letter of each word1 as ,c--h ,b--r1 for coach builder4 ,,family ,,coach4 ,the chief player in this amusing game must possess the faculty of inventing a long story1 as well as a tolerably good memory4 ,this player gives to each of the others the name of some person or thing to be mentioned in the story he is about to relate4 ,for example1 he may call one 8the coachman10 another 8the whip10 another 8the inn10 another the 8old gentleman10 another the 8footman10 another 8the luggage10 and so on1 until he has named all the persons engaged in the game4 ,the story-teller now takes his stand in the centre of the room1 and commences his narrative2 in the course of which he takes care to mention all the names given to the players4 ,when the name of a player is mentioned1 he must immediately rise from his seat1 turn round1 and sit down again1 or else pay a forfeit for his inattention2 and whenever 8the family coach0 is named1 all the players must rise simultaneously4 ,in the following example of a story1 the names given to the different players are printed in italics3 8,an old gentleman1 dreading an attack of the gout1 resolved to pay a visit to the hot wells of ,bath2 he therefore summoned his coachman1 and ordered him to prepare ,,the ,,family ,,coach 7all the players rise1 turn round1 and sit down again74 ,the coachman1 not liking the prospect of so long a journey1 tried to persuade the old gentleman that ,,the ,,family ,,coach was out of repair1 that the leader was almost blind1 and that he 7the coachman7 could not drive without a new whip4 ,the old gentleman stormed and swore upon hearing these paltry excuses1 and ordered the coachman out of the room1 while the little dog sprang from under his master's chair and flew at the calves of the offender1 who was forced to make a precipitate exit4 ,early the next morning1 ,,the ,,family ,,coach belonging to the old gentleman stopped at an inn on the ,bath road1 much to the surprise of the landlord1 who had never seen such a lumbering conveyance before4 ,,the ,,family ,,coach contained the old gentleman1 the old lady 7his wife71 and the little dog that had made such a furious attack on the poor coachman's legs4 ,the landlord called the landlady1 who came bustling out of the inn to welcome the old gentleman and old lady4 ,the footman jumped down from behind ,,the ,,family ,,coach1 and helped the old gentleman and the old lady to alight1 while the boots and chambermaid belonging to the inn busied themselves with the luggage4 ,the little dog trotted after the old lady1 but just as it was going into the inn1 the coachman gave it a cut with his whip4 ,the little dog howled1 upon which the old gentleman turned round1 and seeing the coachman with his whip raised1 he seized him by the throat4 ,the footman came to the assistance of his friend the coachman1 and the ostler belonging to the inn took the side of the old gentleman4 ,the landlord1 landlady1 chambermaid1 boots1 cook1 stable-boy1 barmaid1 and all the other inmates of the inn1 rushed into the road to see what was the matter1 and their cries1 joined to the yells of the little dog and the screams of the old lady1 so frightened the leader1 the white horse1 and the brown mare1 that they ran away with ,,the ,,family ,,coach40 ,of course this tale might have been continued to any length1 but the specimen we have given will be sufficient to give the story-teller some idea of what is expected from him to keep up the fun of the game4 ,,frog ,,in ,,the ,,middle4 ,this is a highly amusing1 though very simple game4 ,one player seated on the ground is surrounded by his comrades1 who pull and buffet him till he can catch one of them1 when the person so caught takes his place1 and is buffeted in like manner4 ,as the players sport round the ,frog1 they usually cry1 8,frog in the middle--can't catch me60 but they frequently find that this is vain boasting1 as ,froggy does catch them now and then4 ,,the ,,four ,,elements4 ,the party being seated in a circle1 the player who has been chosen to commence the game takes a knotted handkerchief1 and throws it suddenly into another's lap1 calling out at the same time either 8,earth60 8,water60 8,air60 or 8,fire60 ,if 8,earth0 be called out1 the player into whose lap the handkerchief has fallen must name some quadruped before the other can count ten2 if 8,water60 he must name a fish2 if 8,air60 a bird2 and if 8,fire60 he must remain silent4 ,should the player name a wrong animal1 or speak when he ought to be silent1 he must pay a forfeit and take a turn at throwing the handkerchief2 but should he perform his task properly1 he must throw the handkerchief back to the first player4 ,those who have never joined in this simple game can have no idea of the absurd errors into which the different players fall when summoned unawares to name a particular kind of animal4 ,,hand4 ,the game of ,hand is of great antiquity1 and is common to almost every nation1 whether savage or civilized4 ,in many of the rural districts of ,england this universal pastime is known by the name of 8,coddem40 ,to play at ,hand1 sides must be formed1 and the players of each side must seat themselves at a table opposite their antagonists4 ,chance decides which of the sides shall first hide the piece2 which may be any small object that can be easily held in the closed hand of one of the players4 ,one of the fortunate players now exhibits the piece to his opponents2 having done which1 he cries out1 8,hands down60 at which signal he and his comrades put their hands out of sight1 and in the language of the game1 commence 8working the piece10 which operation is performed by shifting the piece from hand to hand1 so as to deceive the opposite players as to its whereabouts4 ,when the piece has been properly worked1 the chief player calls out1 8,hands up10 and he and all his comrades simultaneously place their closed fists on the table4 ,the top player on the opposite side has now to fix upon the hand in which the piece is concealed4 ,there are two ways of guessing1 either of which he may adopt2 the first is to point at once to the hand supposed to contain the piece1 and cry out1 8,hand60 ,the second mode of guessing is to point to those hands which appear to be empty1 saying with each guess1 8,take that hand away60 and when most of the hands have been removed from the table1 to fix upon the most likely-looking one among those that remain4 ,if the guesser can find the piece without making a mistake1 he claims it for his party1 and is entitled to guess again when the opposite side regains it2 but if he makes a mistake1 either by ordering the hand that holds the piece to be removed1 or by 8handing0 an empty fist1 his antagonists retain the piece1 and having concealed it1 the second player attempts to discover its whereabouts4 ,from our description1 the reader will probably regard ,hand as a mere frivolous game of chance2 but we can assure him that chance has little to do with the discovery of the piece4 ,a good ,hand player watches the faces of his opponents while their hands are engaged in working the piece under the table2 he scrutinises the different hands1 and does not allow himself to be misled by any of the cunning devices which the hiders employ to throw him off the right scent2 again1 when he has the piece in his possession1 he takes care not to let a tightly-clenched fist1 a guilty smile1 or an anxious expression1 betray the fact to his wary antagonist4 ,,hot ,,boiled ,,beans4 ,in this game1 one of the players is sent out of the room1 while the others hide a handkerchief or any small article that can be easily secreted4 ,when the article has been concealed1 the door is opened1 and the seeker is invited to enter in these words3 8,hot boiled beans and butter2 walk in and find your supper40 ,the seeker now sets to work to look for the hidden article4 ,when he approaches the place of concealment1 his playmates must give him notice of it1 by telling him that he is 8rather warm10 8very hot10 or1 if he gets very near it1 that he 8burns40 ,when he wanders away from the object of his search1 he is told that he is 8cold20 and if he persists in his mistaken course1 he is informed that he 8freezes40 ,should the seeker succeed in finding the hidden article1 another player goes out of the room in his stead4 ,,hot ,,cockles4 ,one player with his eyes bandaged lays his head on a chair1 or in another player's lap1 while the others strike him on his back with their open hands4 ,in this unenviable position he remains until he can guess who strikes him1 when the striker takes his place4 ,the poet ,gay describes this pastime in the following lines3-- 8,as at ,hot ,cockles once ,i laid me down1 ,and felt the weighty hand of many a clown1 ,buxoma gave a gentle tap1 and ,i ,quick rose1 and read soft mischief in her eye40 ,,how8 ,,where8 ,,and ,,when8 ,one of the players is sent out of the room1 while the others fix upon a subject1 which may be anything to which the three questions1 8,how do you like it80 8,where do you like it80 and 8,when do you like it80 will apply4 ,when the subject has been decided upon1 the out-player is summoned4 ,he now puts the first question to the nearest player1 who returns him a puzzling answer2 he then passes to the next1 and repeats the same question2 then to the next1 and so on1 until he has made the round of the room4 ,if none of the answers enable him to guess the subject1 he tries each player with the second question1 and if the answers to this leave him still in the dark1 he solicits a reply from each to the third and last question4 ,should the player fail to guess the subject after asking the three questions1 he pays a forfeit and takes another turn outside2 but should he succeed in guessing it during his rounds1 the player last questioned must pay a forfeit1 and go out of the room in his place4 ,the in-players should always endeavour to hit upon some word that has two or three meanings for a subject1 as such a word renders the answers extremely confusing4 ,for instance1 if ,jack be the subject decided on1 one of the players may say1 in answer to the first query1 that he likes it 8fried10 referring to fish called the ,jack2 in answer to the second1 that he likes it 8before the kitchen fire10 referring now to a roasting-jack2 and in answer to the third1 that he likes it when he is 8dressing10 now regarding the subject as a boot-jack4 ,,hunt ,,the ,,slipper4 ,this old-fashioned pastime is so generally known that it is scarcely necessary to describe it2 however1 as it forms one of the merriest indoor sports for the long winter evenings1 it would be absurd to omit it in this work4 ,several boys seat themselves in a circle on the ground1 and another1 taking his place inside the ring1 gives a slipper to one of them1 by whom it is immediately and secretly handed to one of his neighbours2 it is now passed round from one sitter to another1 with as much dexterity as possible1 so as to completely perplex the 8hunter0 7or player standing in the middle7 in his endeavours to 8chase the slipper by its sound10 and who must continue his search until successful4 ,the player in whose possession it is found must in his turn 8hunt the slipper10 whilst the former hunter joins the sitters4 ,,hunt ,,the ,,ring4 ,a game almost similar to the former4 ,a piece of tape1 on which a ring is fastened1 is held by the players as they stand in a circle1 with one in the middle4 ,the ring is passed from hand to hand1 and the hunter's business is to find out in whose hand the ring is4 ,,hunt ,,the ,,whistle4 ,a boy who has never seen the game played is elected hunter2 the others seat themselves on the ground1 as in ,hunt the ,slipper4 ,the hunter1 having been shown the whistle1 kneels in the centre of the circle1 and lays his head in the lap of one of the players until the whistle is concealed4 ,while he is in this posture1 the whistle is to be secretly attached to the back part of his jacket or coat1 by means of a piece of string and a bent pin4 ,one of the players now blows the whistle and drops it1 and the hunter1 being released1 is told to find it2 but this is no easy task1 as he carries the object of his search about his own person4 ,as the hunter kneels in the centre of the group1 the different players blow through the whistle and drop it1 as the opportunities occur4 ,the puzzled hunter is sometimes fairly tired out before he discovers the trick that is played upon him4 ,we need scarcely say that the whistle should be very small and light4 ,,magic ,,music4 ,this is a very similar game to ,hot ,boiled ,beans4 ,one player having been sent out of the room1 the others arrange some simple task for him to perform on his return4 ,when this has been done1 he is summoned by the magic music1 which is played by one of his comrades1 either by tapping a tea-tray with a key1 or by rattling the poker and tongs together4 ,the boy who has been sent out of the room must perform his appointed task under the guidance of the musician1 who so regulates his performance on the rude instruments that the music gets loud and noisy when the puzzled player does what he ought not to do1 and grows soft and quiet when he does anything towards the performance of his task4 ,to render this game more intelligible1 we will suppose the task to be the removal of a certain chair from one room to another4 ,the player having entered the room is saluted by the magic music1 the unmeaning clatter of which only confuses him at first4 ,he walks towards the side of the room where the chair is stationed1 and as he approaches it the clatter grows fainter2 this informs him that he is in the right path4 ,he touches the table1 but removes his hand at the sound of the music1 which suddenly gets terribly noisy4 ,he touches the chair2 the music ceases4 ,he now knows that he is expected to do something with this particular chair1 so he very naturally sits down upon it2 but he jumps up directly he hears the 8clatter1 clatter1 clatter0 of the music4 ,he lifts the chair1 and as he does so the music grows soft again4 ,he now turns the chair upside down2 carries it into the middle of the room2 places it on the sofa2 but all to no purpose1 as he cannot stop the continual clatter of the magic music4 ,at last he carries the chair into the adjoining room2 the music ceases1 and his troublesome task is accomplished4 ,in this noisy but amusing game the players go out of the room1 and have tasks set them in turns4 ,the musician generally retains his office throughout the game4 ,,post4 ,this exciting game may be played by an unlimited number1 and is particularly adapted for a large party4 ,one of the players1 called 8the postman10 has his eyes bandaged as in ,blind ,man's ,buff2 another volunteers to fill the office of 8postmaster-general10 and all the rest seat themselves round the room4 ,at the commencement of the game the postmaster assigns to each player the name of a town1 and1 if the players are numerous1 he writes the names given to them on a slip of paper1 in case his memory should fail him4 ,these preliminaries having been arranged1 the blind postman is placed in the centre of the room1 and the postmaster-general retires to some snug corner1 whence he can overlook the other players4 ,when this important functionary calls out the names of two towns1--thus1 8,london to ,halifax10--the players who bear these names must immediately change seats1 and as they run from one side of the room to another1 the postman tries to capture them4 ,if the postman can succeed in catching one of the players1 or if he can manage to sit down on an empty chair1 the player that is caught1 or excluded from his place1 becomes postman4 ,the postmaster-general is not changed throughout the game unless he gets tired of his office4 ,when a player remains seated after his name has been called he must pay a forfeit1 or if the game is played without forfeits he must go to the bottom of the class1 which is represented by a particular chair1 and to make room for him all the players who were formerly below him shift their places4 ,,proverbs4 ,one player leaves the room1 and while he is absent the rest fix upon some proverb4 ,the words are then distributed among them1 and each player1 in reply to a question asked by the guesser1 has to introduce his particular word4 ,when all the words have been introduced1 the guesser has to guess the name of the proverb1 and another player takes his place4 ,if1 however1 he cannot make it out1 he has to leave the room again4 ,,list ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,a false friend is worse than a bitter enemy4 ,a penny saved is a penny gained4 ,a man is known by the company he keeps4 ,a bad workman quarrels with his tools4 ,all is not gold that glitters4 ,a friend in need is a friend indeed4 ,a good name is better than wealth4 ,a good word costs nothing4 ,a little rain lays much dust4 ,a little spark makes a great flame4 ,a bird in hand is worth two in a bush4 ,better late than never4 ,barking dogs seldom bite4 ,cut your coat according to your cloth4 ,empty vessels make the most sound4 ,example is better than precept4 ,evil beginnings have bad endings4 ,friends are plenty when the purse is full4 ,good ware makes quick markets4 ,great cry and little wool4 ,gather thistles1 expect prickles4 ,half a loaf is better than no bread4 ,hear twice before you speak once4 ,in a calm sea every man is a pilot4 ,idle folks have the least leisure4 ,it's an ill wind that blows nobody good4 ,if a thing is worth doing1 it is worth doing well4 ,it's a sad heart that never rejoices ,least said is soonest mended4 ,let them laugh that win4 ,look before you leap4 ,long looked for comes at last4 ,make hay while the sun shines4 ,many a slip between the cup and the lip4 ,make the best of a bad bargain4 ,marry in haste1 repent at leisure4 ,of two evils choose the least4 ,one good turn deserves another4 ,opportunity makes the thief4 ,out of sight out of mind4 ,penny wise and pound foolish4 ,prevention is better than cure4 ,pride will have a fall4 ,short reckonings make long friends4 ,strike while the iron's hot4 ,still waters run deep4 ,safe bind1 safe find4 ,the best part of valour is discretion4 ,waste not1 want not4 ,where there's a will there's always a way4 ,wilful waste makes woful want4 ,,puss ,,in ,,the ,,corner4 ,four players take their stations in the four corners of a room1 and a fifth1 called 8,puss10 places himself in the middle of it2 the players in the corners then change places by running to the opposite ends1 and ,puss must endeavour to get into one of the vacant places before the opposite player is able to reach it2 if he can do so1 the player left out becomes ,puss4 ,,red-,,cap ,,and ,,black-,,cap4 ,the players sit round in a circle1 each taking a colour4 ,thus one is red-cap1 another black-cap1 and so on4 ,one of them1 who takes the place of master1 and has no colour1 taking up a cap says3 8,hullo1 here's a false stitch4 ,who made it1 blue-cap80 ,blue-cap then answers1 8,who1 sir8 ,i1 sir80 8,yes1 you1 sir60 8,not ,i1 sir40 8,who then1 sir80 8,yellow-cap1 sir40 ,yellow-cap then starts up and says1 8,who1 sir8 ,i1 sir80 and goes through the dialogues1 giving another colour4 ,the player who neglects to start up when his colour is mentioned1 or who does not repeat the question correctly1 pays a forfeit4 ,,shadow ,,buff4 ,shadow ,buff differs very materially from ,blind ,man's ,buff1 but it is equally amusing4 ,a large piece of white linen should be fastened neatly up at one end of room1 so that it hangs quite smooth2 ,buff 7not blinded7 seats himself on a low stool with his face to the linen1 and a table1 on which is a lighted candle1 should be placed about four or five feet behind him1 and the rest of the lights in the room extinguished4 ,buffy's playfellows next pass in succession1 between the candle and him1 distorting their features in as grotesque a manner as possible--hopping1 limping1 and performing various odd antics1 so as to make their shadows very unlike their usual looks4 ,buffy must then try to guess to whom the shadows belong1 and if he guesses correctly1 the player whose shadow he recognises takes his place4 ,buff is allowed only one guess for each person1 and must not turn his head either to the right or left to see who passes4 ,,slate ,,games4 ,birds1 ,beasts1 and ,fishes4--8,now1 ,tom10 said ,harry1 8get your slate and pencil1 and ,i'll show you such a jolly game4 ,well now1 look here1 ,i have put down h a4 ,now that stands for a beast's name1 the first and last letters of which are h and a1 with three letters between1 represented by the crosses40 8,let's see10 replied ,tom1 scratching his head1 8,i know--,hare40 8,you muff6 ,there are only four letters in #8hare1' and five in my word4 ,try again--mind you have only three guesses2 so look out40 ,tom wondered again for a minute1 and then suddenly blurted out1 8,i know--,horse40 8,wrong again10 replied ,harry2 8the last letter of ,horse is e and not a4 ,now be careful1 ,tom1 for this is your last turn40 ,again ,tom scratched his head1 bit his fingers1 and after meditating for at least two minutes and a half1 shouted out in a moment of inspiration--8,hyena60 ,as he was right1 it now became his turn to put down a name4 ,so he wrote on the slate s w1 at the same time telling ,harry it was a bird2 for according to the rules of this game you must say whether this name represents a beast1 a fish1 a bird1 an insect1 or a reptile4 ,harry in a minute shouted 8,sparrow60 and so the game went on2 and such a capital game did ,tom and ,harry have1 that they sent this account of it to us in the hope that we would make it known to the world in 8,every ,boy's ,book40 ,french and ,english4--,on the slate should be drawn a plan somewhat like the following4 ,the dots represent soldiers1 one side being termed ,french and the other ,english4 ,each player is provided with a sharply pointed pencil1 and the game is played as follows3--,english1 keeping the point of his pencil on a spot denoted by a cannon1 draws it quickly across the slate in the direction of the other army4 ,the pencil naturally leaves a line to mark his track1 and if this mark passes through any of the men belonging to the other side1 they are considered dead4 ,the game is over as soon as all the men on one side are dead4 ,each player has a certain space on the slate allotted to him1 and he may dispose his men in whatever part of it he pleases4 ,the track of the pencil must be straight or curved2 any shot in which there is an angle does not count4 ,in p4 #ch we give a battle-field where the strife is ended4 ,in this the ,english side has killed all the opposite side in eight shots1 while the ,french in eight have only been able to kill nine men4 ,illustration ,illustration ,noughts and ,crosses4--,this is a capital game1 and one which every school-boy truly enjoys4 ,a figure is drawn as follows1 and the object of the one player is to draw three crosses in a line before the other can draw three noughts4 ,thus ,a begins by drawing a in the centre division2 ,b follows with a nought in the top right-hand corner4 ,a then draws a in the bottom right-hand corner1 because by this means he gets two crosses in a line1 and spoils one of ,b's chances4 ,b in a hurry instantly places a #j in the top left-hand corner1 and ,a follows by placing his between the two #j's4 ,b then1 seeing that in the centre line ,a already has two crosses1 places a #j in the third vacant space of the line2 while ,a1 as a last resource1 plants his in the second space of the left-hand line4 ,then when ,b puts a #j in the centre space at the left-hand1 ,a places a in the bottom left-hand corner1 and the game is drawn1 the plan standing as above4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,trades4 ,every player1 except one who holds the office of reader1 selects a trade or profession1 which he must retain throughout the game4 ,when all have chosen their trades1 the reader opens a book at random1 and reads a passage from it aloud2 but when he comes to any common noun1 he looks at one of the tradesmen1 who must instantly name some article that he is supposed to have for sale1 or some implement connected with the exercise of his craft4 ,by this substitution of one noun for another1 the most pathetic passage is converted into an indescribable jumble of absurdities4 ,in the following burlesqued extract from an ,eastern tale1 the words in italics are supposed to be supplied by the different tradesmen1 in place of the nouns omitted by the reader3-- 8,one offered the prince a bucket of the most precious mutton chops of ,golconda2 another a curious piece of a ,wellington boot1 made by a ,european artist2 another a piece of the richest plum-pudding from the looms of ,china2 another a gridiron1 said to be a sovereign remedy against all poisons and infectious diseases2 another a choice piece of the most fragrant ,turkey rhubarb1 in a warming-pan1 inlaid with acid drops2 another a coffin full of genuine treacle2 another a rocking-horse of the purest breed of ,arabia2 and another a ,flanders brick of exquisite beauty4 ,the whole court of the palace was overspread with gingerbread-nuts2 and long rows of slaves were continually passing loaded with corn-plasters1 tenpenny-nails1 bees'-wax1 and other articles of high price40 ,,trussed ,,fowls4 ,two boys having seated themselves on the floor1 are trussed by their playmates2 that is to say1 each boy has his wrists tied together with a handkerchief1 and his legs secured just above the ancles with another2 his arms are then passed over his knees1 and a broomstick is pushed over one arm1 under both knees1 and out again over the other arm4 ,the 8trussed fowls0 are now carried into the centre of room and placed opposite each other1 with their toes just touching4 ,the fun now begins2 as each fowl endeavours1 with the aid of his toes1 to turn his antagonist over on his back or side1 and the one who can succeed in doing this wins the game4 ,it frequently happens that both players turn over together1 to the great amusement of the spectators4 ,on board ship these comical encounters frequently take place between the boys1 who are trussed by their elder shipmates4 ,,the ,,two ,,hats4 ,this game1 although only two persons are engaged in it at a time1 furnishes much amusement1 from the contradictory nature of its words and actions4 ,the rules relative to it are as follow3--,if three mistakes are made by the person who responds to the inquiries of the player who brings the hats round1 and whom for distinction's sake we will call the questioner1 he must pay three forfeits1 and is out of the game2 when the questioner desires the respondent to be seated1 the latter must stand up2 when he begs him to put his hat on1 he must take it off2 when he requests him to stand1 he must sit2 and in every point1 the respondent must take special care to do always the very reverse of what the questioner wishes him4 ,the questioner may sit down1 stand up1 put his hat on1 or take it off1 without desiring the respondent to do so1 or giving him the least intimation of his intention2 the latter must1 therefore1 be always on his guard1 so as to act in a contrary way in an instant1 else he incurs a forfeit4 ,these rules being settled1 the game is simply this3 one player places a hat on his head1 takes another in his hand1 and gives it to one of the company2 he then begins conversing with him1 endeavouring both by words and actions to puzzle him as much as he can1 so as to cause him to pay a forfeit4 ,we will give a slight specimen of a dialogue1 describing the accompanying movements of the hats1 in which ,a is the questioner1 ,b the respondent3 ,a4 7taking his hat off47 ,a very beautiful evening1 sir4 ,b4 7putting his hat on47 ,yes1 indeed1 a most lovely one4 ,a4 7putting his hat on1 and sitting down1 ,b4 instantly taking his off and getting up47 ,pray be seated1 sir2 ,i really cannot think of sitting while you stand 7gets up1 and ,b4 sits down74 ,have you been out of town this year8 7takes off his hat47 ,b4 7putting his on47 ,i have not yet1 but ,i think ,i shall1 before 7,a4 sits down1 ,b4 gets up7 the beauty of the season has entirely passed away1 venture a few miles out of town4 ,a4 7putting his hat on47 ,i beg ten thousand pardons1 you are standing while ,i am sitting2 pardon me1 your hat is on--you must pay a forfeit4 ,it generally happens1 that before the dialogue has been carried thus far the respondent has incurred three forfeits1 and is1 of course1 out2 the questioner then goes in succession to the others1 and the same scene is repeated by each3 the conversation1 it is almost needless to add1 should be varied as much as possible1 and the more nonsensical it is the better4 ,,what ,,is ,,my ,,thought ,,like8 ,the leader of the game commences it by asking each of his companions in turn1 8,what is my thought like80 to which they reply at hazard1 by mentioning anything that first comes into their thoughts1 of course avoiding naming the same thing twice over1 as that incurs the penalty of a forfeit4 ,the leader carefully notes down all the answers he receives1 and then revealing his thought1 desires to know what the thing thought of resembles in what it has been compared to4 ,john4--,charles1 what is my thought like8 ,charles4--,a young girl4 ,john4--,james8 ,james4--,a queen4 ,john4--,now1 ,harry8 ,harry4--,a lion4 ,john4--,tom8 ,tom4--,beauty4 ,john4--,you1 ,william8 ,william4--,an oak-tree4 ,john4--,alfred1 it is your turn4 ,alfred4--,a beautiful woman4 ,john4--,andrew8 ,andrew4--,hope4 ,john4--,arthur8 ,arthur4--,a hedgehog4 ,john4--,ben8 ,ben4--,a rose4 ,john4--,and you1 ,cecil8 ,cecil4--,a vine4 ,john4--,my thought was a rose2 so now1 ,charles1 tell me why a rose is like a young girl4 ,charles4--,because it is loveliest when only half-blown4 ,john4--,and why a queen8 ,james4--,because the rose is the queen of all flowers4 ,john4--,harry1 why is a rose like a lion8 ,harry4--,because it is one of the emblems of ,england4 ,john4--,and why1 ,tom1 is it like beauty8 ,tom4--,because it soon fades4 ,john4--,william1 why is it like an oak8 ,william4--,because both spring from the earth4 ,john4--,and you1 ,alfred2 why is a rose like a beautiful woman8 ,alfred4--,because its fragrance often remains after the charms are faded4 ,john4--,andrew1 why is a rose like hope8 ,andrew4--,because in returning sunshine it forgets the past storm4 ,john4--,arthur1 why is a rose like a hedgehog8 ,arthur4--,because its thorns defend it from a rough grasp4 ,john4--,you1 ,ben1 having fixed upon the same thing as myself1 must pay a forfeit4 ,cecil1 why is a rose like a vine8 ,cecil4--,because in old times they were both considered essential to a banquet4 ,i can think of nothing better4 ,illustration3 ,,easy ,,games ,,with ,,toys1 ,,outdoor4 ,,easy ,,games ,,with ,,toys4 ,,outdoor4 ,illustration3 ,,balls ,,catch ,,ball4 ,this is very simple play4 ,the ball is thrown into the air by one player1 the others standing round him4 ,he calls out the name of the player1 for whom the ball is thrown4 ,if it be caught by the player so called1 before the ball reaches the ground twice1 he scores a point2 if any of the other players catch it1 they score a point1 and the other loses one4 ,,doutee-,,stool4 ,this is a variety of the above game4 ,a certain number of stools are set up in a circular form1 and at a distance from each other1 and every one is occupied by a single player2 when the ball is struck1 which is done1 as before1 by the hand1 every one of them is obliged to alter his situation1 running in succession from stool to stool2 and if he who threw the ball can regain it in time to strike any of the players before he reaches the stool to which he is running1 he takes his place1 and the person touched must throw the ball1 until he can in like manner return to the circle4 ,,egg-,,hat4 ,illustration ,all the players engaged in this favourite pastime must place their caps on the ground1 close to the wall1 in such a manner that a ball may be easily pitched into them4 ,a line being marked on the ground about fifteen feet from the wall1 one of the players takes his station at it1 and begins the game by throwing the ball into one of the caps2 the moment this is done all the boys run away1 excepting the one into whose cap the ball is thrown1 who immediately runs to take it out1 and endeavours to strike one of the fugitives by throwing the ball at him2 if he can do so1 the one struck has a small stone1 called 8an egg10 placed in his cap1 and has to take his turn at pitching the ball4 ,should the thrower fail to hit one of the boys as they are running away1 an 8egg0 is put into his cap1 and he has to pitch the ball into the caps again4 ,if a player fails to throw the ball into a cap1 he earns an 8egg10 but continues throwing until he succeeds4 ,when a player gets three 8eggs0 in his cap1 he is out4 ,when all the players but one have been struck out1 he is considered the winner1 and the punishment of the losers then commences2 one of them standing near the wall bounces the ball at it with all his force1 and next stands with his back to the wall1 stretching out his right arm1 and placing the back of his hand quite close to the wall1 while the winner1 standing where the ball fell1 takes aim1 and throws the ball at the said loser's hand three times3 each of the losers likewise receives the same punishment from him4 ,in some places it is usual1 when one boy gets out1 for him to bounce the ball against the wall1 and all the other players1 standing at the spot where the ball first touched the ground1 to have their three balls at his back1 as he stands with his face to the wall4 ,should the ball in rebounding swerve either to the right or left1 a line must be drawn1 from the spot where it falls1 to a place directly in a straight line from the boy at the wall2 thus1 suppose ,a is the boy who has just bounced the ball1 which instead of going direct to ,b1 has deviated from the straight line ,a ,b to ,c1 a line should be drawn from ,c to ,b1 and the winner should stand at the latter4 ,,feeder4 ,illustration ,in this game four or five stones or marks must be placed on the ground1 as in the annexed figure1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 about twelve or fifteen yards asunder2 these marks are called bases1 and one of them1 as ,a1 is styled 8home40 ,the players next toss up for the office of 8feeder10 who takes his place about two yards in front of 8home10 as at ,f1 and the rest of the players stand at and round the home4 ,the feeder then calls out 8,play60 and pitches the ball to the first player1 who endeavours to strike it with a bat1 as far as he possibly can2 should he succeed in hitting the ball1 he immediately drops the bat1 and runs to the first base on his right hand1 as ,e1 while the feeder is going after the ball3 but if he can run all the bases and then home1 before the ball is in hand1 so much the better4 ,if1 however1 the feeder obtains the ball soon enough to throw it at1 and strike him with it as he is running from base to base1 the player is out2 he is also out if the feeder catches the ball3 in either case the player becomes feeder1 and the latter runs home to join his playmates4 ,should any of the other players be out at the bases1 when one is caught or struck out1 they also must run home4 ,if the first player could only reach the base ,e1 after striking the ball1 he should1 when the second player strikes it1 run to the base ,d1 as it is not allowable for two persons to be at one base at one and the same minute2 he proceeds in the same manner to the third and fourth bases1 until he arrives home again1 thus enabling the others to get to their bases and home in their respective turns4 ,the player with the bat is not obliged to take every ball the feeder chooses to give him2 if he does not like a throw1 he catches the ball and throws it back again4 ,he is not allowed to make more than three 8offers0 at the ball2 if he does so he is out1 and must be feeder4 ,illustration ,,monday1 ,,tuesday4 ,this game1 which takes its title from the names assumed by the players1 is played by seven boys1 each of whom calls himself after one of the days of the week4 ,to show the manner of playing the game1 we will suppose that some boys are playing at it1 and that the ball is taken by 8,wednesday20 he throws it up against a wall1 calling out at the same time the assumed name of any one of the other players1 who should be standing around--we will suppose1 for instance1 8,friday60 ,all the boys but ,friday run away1 and he endeavours to catch it ere it falls to the ground2 if he can do so1 he throws it up again1 calling out another boy's name--say 8,sunday60 ,should the ball touch the ground before he can catch it1 he must pick it up and throw it at the retreating party2 and if he succeeds in hitting one of them1 the boy struck has to throw the ball up the next time2 but if he cannot strike one he loses a point1 as in ,egg-hat2 indeed1 in the rules respecting the punishment of the losers1 and the number of points each player is restricted to1 it resembles that game4 ,,nine-,,holes4 ,dig near a wall nine holes1 of about six inches in diameter1 and three deep4 ,let each player have one of these1 according to his number1 which must be determined by lot4 ,at about six yards from the holes draw a line1 and from this1 as a fielding place1 one player pitches the ball into one of the holes4 ,the boy to whom this hole is assigned immediately runs to it1 while all the other players run off in different directions4 ,the player snatches the ball from the hole1 and throws it at one of the 8runners20 if he hits him1 the one so hit becomes 8pitcher10 and the one that struck him marks one4 ,should he not hit him1 the player who throws the ball loses a point1 and bowls4 ,the player who misses his aim at throwing the ball at his partners a second time becomes a 8,tenner40 ,if he loses a third hit1 he is a 8,fifteener20 if the fourth1 he stands out and can play no more4 ,when all the players are thus out1 the last player remaining in wins the game1 and he can compel each of the losers to stand with their hands open against the wall1 for him to throw at1 and give what is called the 8,brandy ,ball40 ,if the ball be a soft one1 this conclusion of the game is all very well2 but if a hard ball be used1 it ought to be omitted1 or the 8,brandy0 may be too strong4 ,,northern ,,spell4 ,this game is played with a trap and ball1 which is struck with a bat or bludgeon at the pleasure of the players2 but the latter is most commonly used4 ,the performance of this game does not require the attendance of either of the parties in the field to catch or stop the ball1 for the contest between them is simply who shall strike it the greatest distance in a given number of strokes2 the length of each stroke is measured before the ball is returned1 by means of a cord made fast at one end near the trap1 the other being stretched into the field by a person stationed there for that purpose1 who adjusts it to the ball1 wherever it may be4 ,the cord is divided into yards1 which are properly numbered upon in it in succession1 so that the person at the bottom of the ground can easily ascertain the distance of each stroke by the number of the yards1 which he calls to the players to place to their account1 and the ball is thrown back4 ,,rounders4 ,this is a most excellent game1 and very popular in some of our ,english counties4 ,it is played with a moderate-sized ball and a hand-bat1 i4 e4 a bat that can be held in one hand1 and which is about two feet in length1 smooth1 and round4 ,two parties play at the game1 and there ought not to be less than five on a side2 and the first innings is decided by throwing up the ball1 the party catching it being allowed to go in first4 ,illustration ,in playing the game1 five stones1 or stakes 7called bases71 or1 if these be not convenient1 as many holes may be made1 at about sixteen yards apart1 forming the five parts of a pentagon1 as in the diagram4 ,at the centre of this figure is a station called the feeder's place1 being the spot at which one of the out party stands to give the ball to the batsman1 or to 8feed0 him1 as it is technically termed4 ,the out party are distributed over the field1 except the feeder1 who takes his station at ,f to deliver the balls1 while one of the in party takes the bat and places himself at ,fig4 #a1 which is enclosed within a circle1 and called the ,home1 and where all the rest of the in party stand4 ,the feeder then says 8,play10 and delivers his ball to the batsman1 who immediately strikes it as far as he can4 ,as soon as he has done so1 he drops his bat1 and runs to as many of the stations as he can2 but he must touch at all1 or he will be out4 ,if while he is running to the second1 or between any of the bases1 the returned ball is sent up and strikes him1 he is out1 and the next of the in party takes up the bat4 ,if he is not struck while he runs1 as soon as he reaches one of the stations the next of the in party takes up the bat1 another ball is given by the feeder1 and he runs to the first1 or as many other of the stations as he can2 the first batsman does the same1 so as to go the whole round of the bases to the home at ,no4 #a4 ,the in player is also out if he tips the ball behind him1 or if he misses striking it when delivered4 ,the in players as they arrive at home take the bat again1 till they are got out1 according to the rules of the game just given4 ,when it happens that all are out but two1 the best of the two may1 with the consent of the other1 call for 8three fair hits for the rounder40 ,standing at the home1 the feeder then gives him in succession three balls4 ,he may decline as many balls as he pleases1 if they do not suit him2 but if he strikes at the ball1 he is only allowed to do so twice without running4 ,on the delivery of the third ball1 he must run the entire course1 touching with his bat at every one of the five points4 ,if1 during his progress1 he be touched by the ball1 or it be grounded at the home while he is absent1 he is declared out1 and the opposite side go in and take their places4 ,if1 on the contrary1 he reaches home without being struck or the ball grounded1 his side go in again1 and continue the game as before4 ,should he miss the ball when striking at it the third time1 the rounder is lost4 ,in the play the feeder is allowed to make feint or pretence of throwing the ball1 in order to tempt a player to run from his base1 so as to get a chance of hitting him4 ,it is usual also for the out party to place a player behind the home1 so that when a batsman makes a tip on the side of the home1 he may seize the ball and strike him out before he reaches the first base4 ,,sevens4 ,this game is very like ,catch-ball4 ,the object is to catch a ball seven times in a particular fashion2 hence the name4 ,the player begins by throwing the ball in the air and catching it seven times with both hands4 ,then he catches it seven times with the right hand1 next seven times with the left4 ,then he throws the ball up1 claps his hand while it is in the air1 and catches it seven times with both hands1 then with the right1 and then with the left4 ,the players are allowed to make as many more variations as they please2 and he who goes through the series first wins the game4 ,,stool-,,ball4 ,this is an old ,english sport1 mentioned by ,gower and ,chaucer1 and was at one period common to women as well as men4 ,in the northern parts of ,england1 particularly in ,yorkshire1 it is practised in the following manner3--,a stool being set upon the ground1 one of the players takes his place before it1 while his antagonist1 standing at a distance1 tosses a ball1 with the intention of striking the stool4 ,it is the former player's business to prevent this1 by breaking it away with the hand1 reckoning one to the game for every stroke of the ball2 if1 on the contrary1 it should be missed by the hand1 and touch the stool1 the players change places4 ,the conqueror of the game is he who strikes the ball most times before it touches the stool4 ,illustration ,,trap1 ,,bat1 ,,and ,,ball4 ,this game is so called from the trap used to elevate the ball when it is to be struck by the batsman4 ,it is one of the earliest games played with the trap and ball1 and we can trace it to the commencement of the fourteenth century4 ,the manner in which it was then played was somewhat different to the style at the present day4 ,as now played1 the trap is no longer elevated1 but set on the ground1 and is generally made in the form of a shoe1 the heel part being hollowed out for the reception of the ball3 but some boys1 when they cannot get a trap1 make a hole in the ground1 and having obtained the crochet bone of an ox1 place it in a slanting position1 one end being in the hole and the other out of it4 ,the elevated end is then sharply struck with the bat1 which causes the ball to rise to a considerable height1 and then all the purposes of a trap are answered1 especially if the ground be hard and dry4 ,it is usual in the present game of ,trap and ,ball to place two boundaries1 at a given distance from the trap1 between which it is necessary for the ball to fall when struck by the batsman1 for if it falls outside of either1 he gives up his bat and is out4 ,he is also out if he strikes the ball into the air1 so that it is caught by an opposite player2 and1 again1 if the ball when returned by an adversary touches the trap1 or rests within one bat's length of it4 ,every stroke tells for one towards the striker's game4 ,there are some variations in the play of the game in different counties4 ,in ,essex and ,suffolk1 for instance1 the game is played with a cudgel instead of a bat1 which would seem to be a preferable weapon1 as those who strike with it rarely miss their blow1 but frequently send it to an astonishing distance1 no boundaries being set4 ,the ball being stopped by one of the opposing party1 the striker forms his judgment of the ability of the person who is to throw it back1 and calls in consequence for any number of scores towards the game that he thinks proper4 ,it is then returned1 and if it appears to his antagonist to rest at a sufficient distance to justify the striker's call1 he obtains his number2 but when a contrary opinion is held1 a measurement takes place1 and if the scores demanded exceed in number the length of the cudgel from the trap to the ball1 he loses the whole1 and is out2 while1 on the other hand1 if the lengths of the bat are more than the scores called for1 the matter terminates in the striker's favour1 and they are set up to his account4 ,illustration3 ,,hoops ,trundling the hoop is a pastime of uncertain origin1 but it has long contributed to the health and amusement of the youth of ,great ,britain4 ,iron hoops have almost superseded the old-fashioned wooden ones1 and instead of being trundled with a stick1 they are usually guided by an iron hook shaped like the annexed figure4 ,on a cold frosty morning the hoop is an invaluable companion to a boy1 as he is enabled by its aid to defy the weather1 and dispense with overcoats1 comforters1 and all such devices for keeping out the wintry wind4 ,often have we envied our juvenile friends1 as they have rushed past us with their hoops1 and lamented that custom should prevent grown-up people indulging in the same healthful recreation4 ,illustration ,,the ,,hoop4 ,the proper and legitimate hoop1 however1 should be made of a stout ashen lath1 round on the outside and flat on the inside1 and should be well fastened at its point of juncture2 it should be in height so as to reach midway between the youngster's elbow and shoulder1 so that he may not have to stoop while striking it4 ,the stick should be about sixteen inches long1 and made of tough ash2 and1 in bowling the hoop1 the bowler should strike it vigorously in the centre1 and in a direction horizontal with the ground4 ,such hoop exercise is exceedingly good1 and a good run with such a hoop will warm the youth in the very coldest weather4 ,the games1 properly so called1 that can be played with the hoop are very few1 and not generally known4 ,,encounters4 ,two boys start at different ends of the playground with their hoops1 and1 meeting in the middle1 each endeavours to knock down the hoop of his antagonist1 while his own remains upright4 ,there is no small skill required in this game1 for it is not always easy to make the hoops touch each other at all4 ,then a light hoop has little chance against a heavy one1 unless it can strike it sideways1 for if it were struck directly in front1 it would be certainly upset4 ,also1 a ready hand at recovering a falling or tottering hoop wins many a game that appears to be hopelessly lost4 ,wooden hoops1 also1 give due exercise to the arm2 and there is some tact required in knowing exactly where to strike a hoop1 so as to propel it with the greatest force4 ,this cannot well be done with iron hoops1 and forms one of the objections to them4 ,moreover1 boys always complain that they soon lose their round form1 and are awkward to bowl4 ,still1 there is something cheering in the ringing sound of an iron hoop1 as it rushes along under the pressure of the curved iron rod that is used instead of a hoop-stick2 and as long as boys don't drive them against the legs of unwary passengers1 they are very well in their way4 ,illustration ,,hoop ,,race4 ,any number of boys can join in this exciting sport1 but they ought all to be provided with hoops as nearly equal in size as possible4 ,at a given signal the players all start together1 and each endeavours to reach the winning post 7which may be any distant object7 before his companions4 ,he who arrives at the winning-post last is generally received with groans1 hisses1 and other vocal signs of disapprobation4 ,,posting4 ,bases1 called posting-stations1 are formed at regular distances1 in a large circle or ellipse1 and at each base a player is stationed4 ,every player1 except the hoop-driver1 has charge of a base4 ,let us suppose that there are seven players--,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 and ,g1 and that the latter holds the hoop3 the other six players having taken possession of their stations1 ,g now starts from the station belonging to ,f1 and drives the hoop towards ,a1 who waits1 with hoop-stick in hand1 ready to relieve ,g of his charge4 ,g stops at the posting-station1 while ,a trundles the hoop to ,b1 who takes charge of it1 and delivers it to ,c4 ,c trundles the hoop to ,d2 ,d transfers it to ,e2 ,e delivers it to ,f2 and ,f conveys it in safety to the first player1 ,g4 ,in this way the game continues1 until all the players have worked round the circle five or six times4 ,it is considered very disgraceful to touch the hoop with the hand1 or to allow it to fall after it has been started on its journey4 ,the game is rendered much more lively by increasing the number of players1 and having two or three hoop-drivers to follow each other from base to base4 ,,tournament4 ,this game is almost the same as ,encounters4 ,two boys drive their hoops one against the other1 and he whose hoop falls in the encounter is conquered4 ,with eight players this game may be rendered very exciting4 ,four of the players stand in a row1 about six feet apart1 and1 at a considerable distance1 the other four take their stand1 facing them4 ,at a given signal each player dashes towards his opponent1 and strives to overturn his hoop4 ,the four victors now pair off1 and charge two against two4 ,the conquerors then urge their hoops one against the other1 and he who succeeds in overturning the hoop of his antagonist wins the game4 ,wooden hoops are more suitable for ,tournament than iron ones1 though the game is usually played with the latter4 ,,turnpike4 ,five or six boys can play at this game1 though only one hoop is required4 ,chance decides which of the players shall first take the hoop4 ,the other players become turnpike-keepers4 ,each turnpike is formed of two bricks or stones1 placed on the ground1 and separated by about three fingers' breadths4 ,these turnpikes are fixed at regular distances1 and their number is regulated by the number of keepers4 ,when all is ready1 the first player starts his hoop1 and endeavours to drive it through all the turnpikes2 should he succeed in this1 he turns the hoop1 drives it back again1 and retains it until it touches one of the turnpikes1 the keeper of which now becomes hoop-driver4 ,when a player touches the hoop with his hand1 or allows it to fall1 he must deliver it up to the nearest turnpike-keeper4 ,each keeper must stand on that side of his turnpike which is towards the right hand of the hoop-driver1 and it therefore follows that he must alter his position when the hoop-driver returns4 ,should a keeper stand on his wrong side1 the driver need not send the hoop through his turnpike4 ,when the players are numerous1 there may be two or more hoops driven at once4 ,illustration3 ,,hoop ,,sticks4 ,illustration3 ,,kites ,the form of the kite and manner of flying it must be familiar to all our readers4 ,this favourite toy probably received its denomination from having originally been made in the shape of the bird called the kite4 ,the flying of paper kites is a favourite pastime among the ,chinese4 ,on a certain day they hold a sort of kite festival1 and then people of all ages hasten to the hills to fly their kites1 the fantastic shapes and gaudy colours of which produce an extraordinary effect4 ,philosophers have occasionally taken the kite out of the hands of the schoolboy1 and have applied it to useful and curious purposes4 ,by means of a kite formed of a silk handkerchief stretched over a wooden frame1 ,dr4 ,franklin drew down lightning from the clouds1 and demonstrated its identity with electricity4 ,many years ago ,mr4 ,pocock1 of ,bristol1 travelled on the road between ,bath and ,london in a carriage drawn by two paper kites1 supported at a moderate elevation1 and impelled by the wind4 ,the paper kite has also been employed to convey a line over the capital of ,pompey's ,pillar4 ,we do not expect our readers to perform any electrical or locomotive experiments with their kites2 but we are quite sure that they may derive great amusement from these little arial machines1 especially if they manufacture them with their own hands4 ,we know of no pleasanter occupation for a summer's day than watching the graceful flight of a well-made kite4 ,illustration ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,kite4 ,for the upright get a good straight lath1 as ,a ,b1 in the annexed figure1 and next procure half of a thin hoop or cane for the bow ,c ,d1 and then tie the hoop to the upright at ,a1 and take care to have as much on one side of the upright as on the other2 otherwise your kite will be sure to fall on one side when flying4 ,notch the two ends of the bow ,c ,d1 and tie a long piece of string to ,d2 pass it round the upright at ,e1 and then fasten it at ,c2 next carry the string to ,a1 pass it down to ,d1 and tie it there3 from thence it is to be continued to ,b1 passed round a notch there1 and carried up again to ,c1 then down the upright at ,f1 and up to ,d1 where it is to be finally fastened off4 ,the skeleton being thus finished1 the next thing to be done is to paste several sheets of paper so as to form a surface large enough to cover the kite and allow of a little turn over to fasten the outer edges2 after you have pasted the paper on to the skeleton1 you must make two holes1 in the upright1 as at ,g1 ,g1 through which the belly-band is to be passed1 knotting the two ends of the string to keep it from slipping through the holes4 ,the wings are to be made of several sheets of paper1 cut into slips1 rolled close up1 so as to bear some resemblance to a tassel1 and tied to the sides of the kite at ,c1 ,d4 ,the tail1 which should be about fifteen times the length of the kite1 is made by folding a number of pieces of paper so as to be about an inch in breadth1 and four inches in length1 and afterwards tying them on a string at intervals of three inches1 and is finished by affixing to the end of the string a large tassel made in the same manner as the wings4 ,tie the string with which you intend to fly the kite to the belly-band1 and your kite is complete and ready for service4 ,,flying ,,the ,,kite4 ,illustration ,we need not enter very minutely into the rules to be observed in flying a kite1 as every boy is acquainted with them4 ,unless there be a nice breeze stirring1 the kite-flyer need not expect to have much sport1 as nothing can be more vexatious than attempting to fly a kite when there is not sufficient wind for the purpose4 ,to raise the kite in the first instance1 the flyer will require the aid of another boy4 ,the owner of the kite having unwound a considerable length of string1 now turns his face towards the wind and prepares for a run1 while his assistant holds the kite by its lower extremity as high as he can from the ground4 ,at a given signal the assistant lets the kite go1 and if all circumstances be favourable it will soar upwards with great rapidity4 ,with a well-constructed kite1 in a good breeze the flyer need not trouble himself to run very fast nor very far1 as his kite will soon find its balance1 and float quite steadily on the wind4 ,the kite-flyer should be careful not to let out string too fast4 ,when a kite pitches1 it is a sign that it is built lop-side1 or that its tail is not long enough4 ,,messengers4 ,some boys amuse themselves by sending messengers up to their kites when they have let out all their string4 ,a messenger is formed of a piece of paper three or four inches square1 in the centre of which a hole is made4 ,the end of the string is passed through the hole1 and the wind quickly drives the messenger up to the kite4 ,the kite-flyer should be careful not to send up too many messengers1 lest they weigh down the kite4 ,,calico ,,kites4 ,calico has many advantages over paper as a covering for kites2 it is not so liable to be torn1 is not damaged by wet1 and may be sewn on the framework much more neatly than paper can be pasted4 ,being much heavier than paper1 it is1 however1 only suited for large kites4 ,a portable calico kite may now be procured at most of the toy-shops4 ,the framework of this kite is formed of two slender pieces of wood1 which turn on a common centre in such a manner that they can either be shut up1 so that one piece lies flat upon the other1 or opened out into the form of a cross4 ,the calico covering is attached to this cross by means of tapes4 ,this portable kite can be rolled up and carried to the field without inconvenience4 ,,fancy ,,kites4 ,illustration ,illustration ,ingenious boys now and then take a hint from the ,chinese1 and so shape and paint their kites that they resemble different animate and inanimate objects4 ,the 8officer kite10 which has the figure of a soldier painted on it1 and the 8hawk kite10 which rudely represents a flying hawk1 are common forms of fancy kites4 ,a very funny effect may be produced by painting a kite like a sailor1 and attaching moveable arms1 instead of the ordinary tassel wings1 to the shoulders4 ,we present our readers with a few suggestive forms1 which are quite novel4 ,all fancy kites should be painted with the most glaring colours1 and the figures on them drawn as coarsely as possible1 as they are intended to be seen at a great distance4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,high ,,flyer4 ,illustration3 ,,marbles ,in ancient times1 when we were boys1 and indulged in the luxury of marbles1 they were very different from their present form4 ,they were made of stone1 nicely polished1 and some of them1 called 8alleys10 of the purest marble4 ,many of the stone marbles were beautifully variegated1 and now and then a fancy pet was treasured under the name of 8taw10 which had somewhat the virtues of a talisman1 for to 8lose it or to give it0 were 8such perdition10 as ,othello says1 as could never be exceeded4 ,of late years1 marbles1 like all other matters1 have undergone considerable change4 ,foreign marbles have been introduced1 prodigiously cheaper1 it is true1 than our old ,english marbles1 but infinitely worse2 and various kinds of 8patent marbles0 have had their day4 ,some of these go by the name of ,dutchmen1 others are called ,frenchmen1 and others again ,chinamen1 while it is not quite impossible to procure some right old ,english marbles1 which1 if they can be procured1 are still the best4 ,we would advise all marble players to procure these1 if they can1 as 8marbles0 is a royal game1 and ought to be duly honoured4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,to ,,hold ,,your ,,taw4 ,how to ,shoot your ,marble4--,the art of holding a marble to shoot it properly seems to be lost among our ,london boys1 who are generally content to throw one marble at another1 or if they shoot it to hold it in the turn of the fore-finger1 forcing it out by the thumb1 which is placed behind it4 ,this1 in our boyish days1 was held to be a very illegitimate way of proceeding1 derogatory to the true marble-player1 and bore the dishonourable appellation of 8fulking10 and any one who made it his rule to hold a marble in such a manner was looked upon as a charlatan1 or almost a cheat4 ,the true way to hold your taw is to place it between the point of the forefinger and the first joint of the thumb1 and to propel it from the nail of the thumb with strong muscular force2 and so great was the skill attained by many boys1 that they would sometimes strike a marble at five yards' distance1 and frequently shoot one to six or seven4 ,,bounce ,,eye4 ,this game is played by several players1 each of whom puts down a marble in a small ring4 ,one player then stands in a perpendicular position over the cluster of marbles1 and1 taking his own bounce in his hand1 lets it fall from his eye on to the heap1 and those forced out of the ring by this method are considered won4 ,if he does not succeed in this1 and his marble falls within the ring1 it belongs to the common stock1 and is there impounded4 ,,conqueror4 ,there is a game called 8,conqueror10 which is extensively played in some places4 ,a piece of hard ground1 and free from stones1 is chosen for the spot4 ,the first player lays his marble on the ground1 and the second throws his own at it with all his force1 and endeavours to break it4 ,if he succeeds1 his marble counts one1 and the vanquished player lays down another marble4 ,if two players have marbles that have already vanquished others1 the 8,conqueror0 counts all the conquered of the other party in addition to his own4 ,for example1 suppose ,a1 being conqueror of twenty1 breaks ,b1 also a conqueror of twenty1 ,a counts forty-one1 i4 e4 twenty of his own1 twenty for the vanquished belonging to ,b1 and one for ,b itself4 ,nuts1 chestnuts1 and other similar objects are also employed in this game1 only they are fastened to a string1 and swung against the opponent1 instead of being thrown4 ,,die ,,shot4 ,illustration ,this is a very good game1 and requires both skill and caution4 ,it is played by elevating a die upon a marble1 whose sides are slightly ground down1 so that it will stand firmly1 and firing at it from an offing1 which is generally at a distance of about four feet from it4 ,the die-keeper undertakes to pay to the shooter who knocks down the die the number which falls uppermost1 receiving one marble from each player as he shoots4 ,,eggs ,,in ,,the ,,bush4 ,this game is a great improvement upon odd or even4 ,dick asks ,tom to guess the number of 8eggs in the bush0--that is1 the number of marbles in his closed hand4 ,if ,tom can guess the right number1 he takes all2 but if he is out in his reckoning1 he pays ,dick as many marbles as will make up or leave the exact number4 ,suppose ,dick has six marbles in his hand2 now1 if ,tom should guess either four or eight1 he would have to forfeit two marbles to ,dick1 because four is two less1 and eight is two more1 than the exact number4 ,the players hold the 8eggs in the bush0 alternately4 ,,increase ,,pound4 ,in most respects resembles ,ring taw1 the variations being1 that if before a marble is shot out of the ring one player's taw is struck by another's 7excepting his partner's71 or if his taw remains within the ring1 he puts a shot in the pound1 continues in the game1 and shoots again from the offing before any of his companions4 ,if his taw is struck after one or more marbles have been driven out of the ring1 if he has taken any shots himself1 he gives them to the player who struck him1 puts a taw in the ring1 and shoots from the offing1 as before4 ,if1 however1 he has not won any marbles during the game1 before his taw is struck1 he is 8killed0 and put out of the game2 he is likewise out if1 after any shots have been struck out1 his taw gets within the pound--if it remains on the line it is nothing4 ,he then puts the marbles 7if he has won any7 into the circle1 adding one to them for the taw struck1 and shoots again from the offing4 ,in case he cannot gain any shots after his taw gets 8fat10 as remaining in the ring is termed1 he is killed1 and out for the rest of the game4 ,when only one marble remains in the ring1 the taw may continue inside it without being 8fat40 ,each player seldom puts more than one marble in the ring at the beginning or a game4 ,,knock ,,out1 ,,or ,,lag ,,out4 ,illustration ,this game is played by knocking marbles against a wall1 or perpendicular board set up for the purpose2 and the skill displayed in it depends upon the player's attention to what is called in mechanics the resolution of forces3 for instance1 if an object be struck against the wall at ,a from the mark at ,b1 it will return again to ,b in a straight line2 if it be sent from ,c to ,a1 it will1 instead of returning to ,c1 pass off aslant to ,d1 and its course will form the angle ,c ,a ,d2 the angle of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection4 ,the game is played by any number of players3 the first player throws his marble against the wall1 so that it may rebound and fall about a yard distant from it2 the other players then1 in succession1 throw their marbles against the wall1 in such a way as to cause them to strike any of those already lagged out1 and the marble struck is considered won by the owner of the taw that strikes it1 in addition to which the winner has another throw4 ,when only two boys play1 each successively throws out till one of the 8laggers0 is struck1 and he who strikes takes up all4 ,,long ,,taw4 ,illustration ,long taw is played by two persons in the following manner4 ,one boy places his marble on the ground at ,a1 the other at ,b2 then both retire to the spot ,c4 ,the first boy now shoots at ,b from a line marked at ,c4 ,if he strikes it1 he takes it and shoots at ,a2 if he strikes ,a1 he then wins the game4 ,if1 however1 he misses ,b1 the second boy then shoots at ,b2 if he strikes it1 he can then either shoot at the first boy's taw at the place at which it lies1 or he can shoot at ,a4 ,if he hits his opponent's taw1 he is said to kill him1 and wins the game1 or if he shoots at ,a1 and hits it4 ,the boy who hits the last shot has the privilege of shooting at the taw of the other1 provided it has not already been killed4 ,if he hits it1 the taw is taken1 or the owner must pay one1 and the game ends2 and if he misses it1 the game is then at an end also4 ,long taw is a game seldom played by ,london boys1 but is very common in the different ,english counties4 ,,nine-,,holes1 ,,or ,,bridge ,,board4 ,this game is played by means of a piece of board cut into the form of a bridge1 having nine arches1 and just large enough to let the marbles pass through1 as in the subjoined diagram4 ,one of the players undertakes to be 8bridge-keeper10 and the stipulation usually made is1 that he should receive one for every unsuccessful shot1 and pay to those who shoot their marbles through the arches the numbers standing over them4 ,the place from which the players shoot their marbles is generally about four feet from the bridge4 ,illustration ,,odd ,,or ,,even4 ,one player extends his closed hand containing some marbles1 and asks his opponent to guess whether their number is odd or even4 ,should he guess wrong1 he forfeits a marble1 and his questioner tries him with another lot2 but should he guess right1 the first player must pay him a marble1 and take a turn at guessing4 ,,picking ,,the ,,plums4 ,illustration ,this game consists in each player placing a marble on a line drawn upon the ground thus1 and the whole shooting at them in succession from a mark about four feet off4 ,the order of the shots is determined beforehand1 by pitching at a marble from a six-feet offing1 those nearest being first1 second1 third1 and fourth in order1 as the marbles lie4 ,the marbles knocked off the line are won by the respective shooters4 ,,the ,,pyramid4 ,illustration ,in this game a boy generally sits upon the ground1 with his legs open wide1 and1 making a small circle1 places in it three marbles at the three points of a triangle1 and the fourth on the top of them1 so as to form a small pyramid4 ,a distance of about four feet is then chosen as the point to shoot from1 and the other players shoot at the pyramid4 ,those that strike it have all the marbles they knock out of the ring2 but if they miss1 they lose their shots4 ,,ring ,,taw4 ,illustration ,ring taw is a game requiring skill and judgment1 and is a most excellent game4 ,it is played as follows4 ,two rings are drawn upon the ground1 a small one1 six inches in diameter1 enclosed by a larger one1 six feet in diameter4 ,into the small ring each player puts a marble1 called 8shot40 ,the players then proceed to any part of the large ring1 and from thence1 as an offing1 shoot at the marbles in the centre4 ,if a player knocks a marble out of the ring he wins it1 and he is entitled to shoot again before his companions can have a shot4 ,when all the players have shot their marbles1 they shoot from the places at which their marbles rested at the last shot4 ,if the shooter's taw remain in the small circle1 he is out1 and has to drop a marble in the ring1 and he must put in besides all the marbles he had previously won in that game4 ,it is a rule1 also1 that when one player shoots at and strikes another's taw1 the taw so struck is considered dead1 and its owner must give up to the striker of the taw all the marbles he may have previously won during the game4 ,the game is concluded when all the marbles are shot out of the ring1 or all the taws are killed4 ,,spans ,,and ,,snops1 ,,and ,,bounce ,,about4 ,this consists of one boy laying down his taw1 and1 giving a distance1 his antagonist shoots at it2 if he misses1 the first boy shoots at the taw of the second1 till one is struck1 which the striker claims4 ,bounce ,about is the same game played by throwing large marbles instead of shooting smaller ones1 he who strikes the other's bounce being the winner4 ,,teetotum ,,shot4 ,illustration ,this is played on the same conditions as ,die ,shot4 ,a teetotum is set spinning by the keeper1 and1 when in motion1 any player is allowed to shoot at it1 upon the payment of one marble1 receiving1 if he strikes1 turns over1 and stops the teetotum1 as many marbles as are indicated on the side that falls uppermost4 ,this is a very skilful game1 and requires good shots4 ,,three-,,holes4 ,this game is played by making three holes in the ground1 about a yard and a half or two yards asunder4 ,about two yards from the first hole a line is drawn4 ,the right to shoot first is decided by chance4 ,the first shooter now knuckles down at the line1 and endeavours to shoot into the first hole4 ,if he does this he proceeds to the second1 then to the third1 and wins the game2 but this rarely occurs4 ,if he misses the first hole1 the other players shoot their taws1 and if neither of them enter the hole1 the first shot immediately does so2 and then he has the privilege either of proceeding to the second hole1 or of killing the other men by shooting at and hitting them1 when they must either give up their taws or drop one4 ,sometimes a player will kill all his antagonists in succession without proceeding to any hole except the first1 and thus wins the game2 at other times the game may be won by any of the players killing their antagonists during any period of the game4 ,it is a rule that no one can 8kill a taw0 till he has been in the first hole4 ,illustration ,,tipshares1 ,,or ,,handers4 ,this game is played by two or more players4 ,to play it1 a hole1 of the diameter of three inches1 is first made on a smooth or level piece of ground1 and a line is marked at about seven feet from it4 ,each boy puts down two1 three1 or four marbles1 as may be agreed upon1 and then the whole party bowl for their throws1 by retiring to three times the distance already marked from the hole1 and bowling one marble to it2 the order of throws being determined by the nearness that each boy's marble approaches the hole4 ,when this is settled1 the first thrower takes all the marbles in his hand1 and throws them in a cluster towards the hole4 ,if an even number falls in1 such as #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 he wins all2 but if an odd number falls in1 he loses all4 ,illustration3 8,,marbles ,,are ,,out0 ,illustration3 ,,tops ,the peg-top appears to be a modern invention1 but the whip-top is of great antiquity1 it having been used in remote times by the ,grecian boys2 it was well known at ,rome in the days of ,virgil1 and in ,england as early at least as the fourteenth century1 when its form was the same as it is now4 ,strutt1 in his 8,sports and ,pastimes of the ,people of ,england10 relates the following amusing anecdote of ,prince ,henry1 the eldest son of ,james ,i41 which he met with in an old manuscript at the ,british ,museum3 8,the first time that the prince went to the town of ,stirling to meet the king1 seeing a little without the gate of the town a stack of corn in proportion not unlike to a top wherewith he used to play1 he said to some that were with him1 #8,lo1 there is a goodly top6' ,whereupon one of them saying1 #8,why do you not play with it then8' he answered1 #8,set you it up for me and ,i will play with it4'0 ,,the ,,humming-,,top4 ,these cannot easily be made1 but can very easily be purchased by those who are so lucky as to have the money4 ,they are made hollow1 having at their crown a peg1 round which is wound a string2 this1 being pulled through a kind of fork1 gives motion to the top1 and sets it spinning--the fork and the string being left in the spinner's hand4 ,in spinning the top1 care should be taken to wind the string firmly and evenly on the peg2 and when it is pulled out1 neither too much nor too little force should be used1 and a firm and steady hand should be employed1 while the top should be held in a perpendicular position4 ,the string should be drawn with a steadily increasing force1 or the top will not hum properly4 ,illustration ,,peg-,,top4 ,there are various kinds of ,peg-tops1 and they also vary in shape1 some being much rounder than others4 ,those are the best which are shaped like a pear4 ,there is also great variety as regards the shape and size of the peg1 which in some tops is short and thick1 in others long and tapering4 ,again1 tops are made of different kinds of wood1 some being made of deal1 others of elm1 some of yew-tree1 and others of boxwood4 ,these last are the ,boxers so highly prized4 ,some of the very best tops are made of lignum vit1 with long1 handsome pegs4 ,illustration ,,spanish ,,peg-,,top4 ,illustration ,the ,spanish peg-top is made of mahogany4 ,it is shaped somewhat like a pear2 instead of a sharp iron peg1 it has a small rounded knob at the end4 ,as it spins for a much longer time than the ,english peg-top1 and does not require to be thrown with any degree of force in order to set it up1 it is extremely well adapted for playing on flooring or pavement4 ,,the ,,whip-,,top4 ,whip-top is a capital sport when played by two persons2 and is played by first whirling the top into motion by turning it sharply with both hands1 and then by flogging it till its motion becomes very rapid4 ,when two persons play whip-top1 the object should be for each to whip his top to a certain goal1 he who reaches it first being the victor4 ,,chip-,,stone4 ,this game is played by two boys1 in the following manner3 ,two lines1 about six feet apart1 are marked upon the ground1 which ought to be smooth and hard4 ,some small stones are then procured and placed midway between the lines2 they should not be larger than a small bean1 and the black and polished ones are the most sought after4 ,the tops are now set up spinning on the ground1 and the players1 being each provided with a small wooden spoon1 dexterously introduce them under the pegs of the spinning tops1 and then1 with the top still spinning in the spoon1 throw the point of the peg against the stone1 so as to chip it out of bounds2 he who does this the soonest being the victor4 ,while the top continues to spin1 he may take it up with the spoon as many times as he can1 and when it spins out he must again wind up1 pursuing the same plan till he 8chips out40 ,directions4--,in winding up the top do not wet the end of the line too much1 and take care to lay it closely and evenly within the grooves4 ,in throwing the top from you1 the line must be pulled in with a peculiar jerk of the hand1 which practice alone can give4 ,the string button should be held close in the hand1 between the last two fingers of the hand4 ,there is what is called an 8underhand0 way of spinning a top1 i4 e4 by holding it peg downwards1 throwing it in a straight line forward1 and withdrawing the string2 but as we dislike everything underhand1 we shall not recommend this practice any more than we shall the ,spanish tops1 which are spun after this method4 ,illustration ,,peg-,,in-,,the-,,ring4 ,this game may be played by any number of boys4 ,a ring about a yard in diameter is first marked on the ground1 and another ring surrounding the first1 and at a yard's distance from it1 is also marked4 ,the players must stand on this ring1 and from it throw their tops4 ,one player begins by throwing his top spinning into the ring1 and while it is there spinning the other players are at liberty to peg at it as quickly as they can4 ,if none of them hit it while it is spinning1 and if it rolls out of the ring1 the owner is allowed to take it up1 and having wound it1 to peg at the others which may be still spinning in the circle4 ,should any of the tops1 when they cease spinning1 fall within the ring1 they are considered dead1 and are placed in the centre of the circle for the others to peg at4 ,the player who succeeds in striking any of the tops out of the circle claims those so struck out4 ,in some places each player may ransom his top with a marble4 ,sleeping tops are exposed to much danger in the play1 for they offer a fair mark to the 8pegger10 and often get split1 when the 8peg0 is taken by the splitter as his trophy4 ,long-pegged tops are the best for the game1 for they lie more upon their sides after their fall1 and1 before the spinning entirely ceases1 are the more likely to spin out of the ring4 ,there is a way of making the top spring out of the ring directly it has touched the ground4 ,only long-pegged tops will execute this feat4 ,it is done by drawing the hand sharply towards the body just as the top leaves the string4 ,when the manuvre is well executed1 the top will drive any opponent that it strikes entirely out of the ring1 while it does not remain within the dangerous circle itself for more than a few seconds4 ,illustration3 8,,tops ,,are ,,in40 ,illustration3 ,,miscellaneous ,,toys ,there are some out-door games played with toys which do not fall under any of our previous headings4 ,these games we now lay before our reader1 together with a description of the toys in common use4 ,,the ,,apple ,,mill4 ,the ,apple ,mill is made by boring a hole in a nut1 just large enough to pass a thin skewer through2 the kernel should then be extracted1 and another hole bored in the side of the nut1 as ,a in the annexed figure4 ,a skewer should next be cut or thinned1 leaving it large enough at the top to form a head1 as shown in the cut4 ,a piece of string is then to be tied to the skewer1 and passed through the hole in the side of the nut at ,a1 and an apple stuck on the end of the skewer4 ,the mill being now complete in all its works1 it should be twirled round in the same manner as the humming top to wind up the string1 holding the nut stationary between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand2 when this is done1 the string must be pulled out quickly1 and the mill will immediately spin round4 ,when an apple cannot be procured1 a small potato will serve equally well4 ,illustration ,,aunt ,,sally4 ,this amusing game is of a very simple character1 consisting essentially in throwing at a small object4 ,aunt ,sally herself is composed of a head and bust cut out of a solid block of wood1 and generally carved with negro features1 and painted black4 ,in the middle of her nose1 or between her lips1 a hole is bored1 into which is stuck a short pipe4 ,to break it is the object of the game4 ,an iron rod serves to support the wooden figure at a proper elevation from the ground2 and when in gala costume1 ,aunt ,sally is usually arrayed in a mob cap and a petticoat4 ,the mode of playing the game is as follows3-- ,the iron rod is stuck in the ground1 a pipe put into the old lady's mouth1 and a line drawn upon the ground1 at twelve1 sixteen1 or more paces4 ,at this line the players stand1 and each is furnished with three short cudgels1 about eighteen inches in length1 which they hurl at ,aunt ,sally's head1 in hopes of hitting the pipe4 ,the best plan is to throw the cudgels underhand1 giving them a rapid rotatory movement at the same time4 ,some persons insert an additional pipe into each ear2 but this is an innovation1 and leads to careless throwing4 ,it is better to hang a sheet1 net1 or large cloth behind ,aunt ,sally1 in order to catch the sticks1 and save the trouble of continually fetching them from a distance4 ,within doors1 the iron rod is furnished with a loaded pedestal4 ,illustration ,,baton1 ,or1 8,throwing ,sticks40 ,this very popular game among the ,greeks was by them called ,kyndalismos4 ,it was played with short batons1 and required considerable strength and quickness of eye4 ,with us the game is played in much the same manner as the ,greeks played it4 ,a stick is fixed in a kind of cup or hole1 about six inches deep1 in a loose moist soil1 and the players consist of the ,keeper and ,throwers4 ,the ,keeper places on the top of the stick some article1 such as an apple or orange1 and the ,throwers endeavour to knock it off1 by throwing at it with short thick sticks1 or batons2 whoever succeeds in doing this claims the prize1 whenever it falls without the hole4 ,the ,thrower will soon find in his play1 that to hit the stick is of little importance1 as from the perpendicular line of gravity which the apple or orange will take in its descent1 it is almost certain to fall into the hole4 ,the aim1 therefore1 should be to strike the object from the stick4 ,this game is very common at fairs and similar places1 and three sticks1 with articles upon them1 are usually set up1 but which offer no advantage to the throwers4 ,,cat4 ,tip ,cat1 although not altogether a nice pastime1 ought to be noticed here4 ,it is a dangerous game1 and should be played with great caution on the part of the players4 ,it is a rustic game1 well known1 and generally goes by the name of ,cat4 ,it is played with a cudgel or bludgeon1 resembling that used for trap-ball4 ,its name is derived from a piece of wood called a 8,cat10 of about six inches in length1 and an inch and half1 or two1 in diameter1 diminished from the middle to both the ends1 being of the shape of a spindle or double cone2 by this contrivance the places of the trap and ball are at once supplied1 for when the ,cat is laid upon the ground1 the player with his stick tips it at one end by a smart stroke1 which causes it to rise in the air with a rotatory motion1 high enough for him to strike it as it falls1 in the same manner as he would a ball4 ,illustration ,there are various methods of playing the game of ,cat4 ,the first is exceedingly simple1 and consists in making a large ring upon the ground1 in the middle of which the striker takes his station4 ,his business is to beat the ,cat over the ring2 if he fails in so doing he is out1 and another player takes his place2 if he is successful1 he judges with his eye the distance the ,cat is driven from the centre of the ring1 and calls for a number at pleasure to be scored for the game3 if the number demanded be found1 upon measurement1 to exceed the same number of lengths of the bludgeon1 he is out2 on the contrary1 if it does not1 he obtains his call4 ,the second method of playing ,cat is to make four1 six1 or eight holes in the ground1 in a circular direction1 and as nearly as possible at equal distances from each other1 and at every hole is placed a player with his bludgeon4 ,one of the opposite party who stands in the field tosses the ,cat to the batsman who is nearest him1 and every time the ,cat is struck the players are obliged to change their situations1 and run once from one hole to another in succession4 ,if the ,cat be driven to any very great distance1 they continue to run in the same order1 and claim a score of one towards the game every time they quit one hole and run to another4 ,but if the ,cat be stopped by their opponents1 and thrown across between any two of the holes1 before the player1 who has quitted one of them1 can reach the other1 he is out4 ,,cat ,,and ,,mouse4 ,this sport1 which is of ,french origin1 is for two players only4 ,both being blindfolded1 they are tied to the ends of a long string1 which is fastened by a loose knot in the middle to a post1 and1 as the knot is very slightly tied1 the players are enabled to move about with facility4 ,the player who takes the part of the 8mouse0 scrapes two pieces of wood together1 so as to make a grating noise1 and for which purpose the edges of one of the pieces of wood are notched3 the sound attracts the other player1 who represents the 8cat10 and he immediately uses his utmost efforts to catch his prey1 by following the noise as well as he can1 the 8mouse0 at the same time struggling about1 in order to escape being caught4 ,,knock-',,em-,,down1 ,illustration ,a similar game to ,aunt ,sally1 but a simpler one1 is made by scooping a hole in the ground1 and placing in it an upright stick2 on the top of it is placed a stone1 or similar substance4 ,the player then retires to a distance1 and flings at the stone with cudgels or balls1 the latter being preferable4 ,if the stone falls into the hole1 the player only counts one towards the game2 but if it falls outside the hole1 he counts two4 ,this is a capital game for the seaside1 and can be played upon the sands4 ,this game is almost similar to ,baton4 ,,pea-,,shooters4 ,the pea-shooter is a tube of metal1 through which a pea may be propelled with great force by a puff of air from the mouth4 ,the ordinary tin pea-shooters sold in the shops are comparatively worthless4 ,we should advise the reader to procure a straight piece of brass tube from two to four feet long1 and get a brazier to tin one end of it1 so that the brass may not corrode when placed in the mouth4 ,with such a tube peas1 pellets of clay1 and other projectiles may be shot with great precision to a considerable distance4 ,the game of puff and dart is played with a long brass tube1 and a small dart having a needle point4 ,the dart is blown through the tube at a target1 on which there are divisions bearing different numbers4 ,,quoits4 ,the game of ,quoits is very excellent4 ,it seems to have derived its name from the ancient discus1 and with us in the present day is a circular plate of iron perforated in the middle1 not always of one size1 but larger or smaller to suit the strength or convenience of the several candidates4 ,illustration ,to play at ,quoits an iron pin called a hob is driven into the ground within a few inches of the top1 and at the distance of eighteen or twenty yards1 as may be agreed upon1 a second pin of iron is also fixed4 ,the players are generally divided into parties1 and the players pitch the quoits from hob to hob2 those who pitch the nearest reckoning towards the game4 ,but the determination is discriminately made2 for instance1 if a quoit belonging to ,a lies nearest to the hob1 and a quoit belonging to ,b the second1 ,a can claim but one towards the game1 though all his other quoits be nearer to the hob than all the other quoits of ,b1 because one quoit of ,b being the second nearest to the hob1 cuts out1 as it is called1 all behind it4 ,if no such quoit had interfered1 then ,a would have reckoned all his as one each4 ,having all cast their quoits1 the players walk to the opposite side1 and determine the state of the play4 ,then taking their stand there1 throw their quoits back again1 and continue to do so alternately1 till the end of the game4 ,a quoit that falls with its flat side upward does not count4 ,illustration ,,nine-,,pins4 ,illustration ,this game1 as its name denotes1 is played by means of nine pins1 which are set up in a regular order1 the aim of the players being to throw down as many as possible in the fewest attempts4 ,each player is permitted to throw three times at the pins1 and if he can knock them all down in two throws1 it is called a 8single10 and they are again set up for his last throw2 or1 if he can knock them down in one throw1 it is called a 8double10 and they are set up4 ,a heavy wooden ball1 called a 8bowl10 is used to throw at the pins4 ,,skittles4 ,illustration ,skittles is played in a manner somewhat similar to the preceding game1 but the number of pins is only four4 ,these are very large1 and are arranged on a square framework1 so as to present one of the angles to the player4 ,the bowl used for playing this game is of the shape of a cheese1 and is usually made of lignum vit1 as being very heavy and hard wood4 ,the game requires more bodily strength than nine-pins1 as the bowl must be thrown upon the skittles1 and not rolled up to them4 ,the best play is to throw the bowl with a round-handed swing of the arm1 so as to strike the nearest skittle at the right of its upper third4 ,the ball then springs to the second skittle1 and from this generally twists to the third1 while the fourth skittle is sent down by the roll of the one first struck4 ,it is very difficult to make this throw successfully1 and many players prefer driving down the first and third skittles with a straightforward shoot1 and then making their second ball spring across from the second to the fourth4 ,this latter stroke appears very difficult1 but is soon learnt2 the great point being to throw the bowl high1 so that it may drop as perpendicularly as possible on the left of the upper third of the second skittle4 ,in the long run1 the constant repetition of this practice will overbalance occasional brilliancy of play4 ,,dutch-,,pins4 ,illustration ,this game is nothing more than a modification of nine-pins2 the pins being higher1 and the centre one bearing the name of king1 and a crown upon its head4 ,the great point in this game is to strike the king out of the board without knocking down any of the subjects4 ,if this can be done1 the game is won4 ,in all other cases1 the king counts for no more than any of his subjects4 ,,throwing ,,the ,,hammer4 ,this is a good athletic sport1 but the ,hammer can scarcely be called a toy4 ,the hammer used by rustics is generally the sledge-hammer of the blacksmith1 with a head weighing some twelve or fourteen pounds4 ,the players are all single and do not join in parties1 and the prize is given to him who makes the greatest number of long throws in a dozen4 ,it does not merely require strength to throw the sledge-hammer1 but a nice calculation of the area which the ,hammer has to pass over in its flight1 combined with the strength of the thrower4 ,,the ,,boomerang4#a ,illustration ,this instrument is a curved piece of wood1 flat on one side1 and slightly rounded on the other4 ,it is used by the natives of ,new ,south ,wales1 who can throw it so dexterously as to kill a man behind a tree1 where he may have fled for safety4 ,it should be held horizontally in throwing it1 and cast by bringing the arm backwards1 and after making a variety of curves it will come back again to the person who send it4 ,if skilfully thrown1 it may be made to go in almost any direction the thrower pleases4 #a ,the instrument represented in the cut is the ,australian boomerang4 ,those used in ,england have a sharper curve4 ,,the ,,skip-,,jack1 ,,or ,,jump-,,jack4 ,the skip-jack is manufactured out of the merry-thought of a goose1 which must1 of course1 be well cleaned before it is used4 ,a strong doubled string must be tied at the two ends of the bone1 and a piece of wood about three inches long put between the strings1 as shown in the marginal illustration1 and twisted round until the string acquires the force of a spring4 ,a bit of shoemaker's wax should then be put in the hollow of the bone at the spot where the end of the piece of wood touches1 and when the wood is pressed slightly on the wax the jack is set2 it adheres but a very short time1 and then springs forcibly up4 ,the skip-jack is placed on the ground with the wax downwards1 and in some parts of the country it is usual to call out1 8,up1 ,jack60 or 8,jump1 ,jack60 just before it springs4 ,illustration ,,the ,,sling4 ,illustration ,the art of slinging1 or of casting stones with a sling1 is of very high antiquity4 ,we see it represented on the ,nimroud monuments1 and the feat of the divine youth1 ,david1 is familiar to every one4 ,in the earliest times there were bands of slingers1 and probably whole regiments of them1 and there is little doubt that the art of slinging preceded that of archery4 ,the former seemed1 however1 to belong to the ,asiatic1 as the latter did to the ,european nations4 ,our ,saxon ancestors1 also1 seem to have been skilful in their manner of holding the sling4 ,its form is preserved in several of their paintings1 and the manner in which it was used by them1 as far back as the eighth century1 may be seen in the annexed cut4 ,we have also sufficient testimony to prove1 that men armed with slings formed part of the ,anglo-,norman soldiery4 ,illustration ,in country districts1 slinging of stones is a common sport2 and the sling so used consists simply of a piece of leather cut into the subjoined form1 to which are affixed two cords1 one having a loop4 ,in using it1 leather is suffered to hang from the strong downwards2 the slinger places his little finger in the loop1 and holds the other end in his hand1 and then putting the stone in the hole of the sling at ,a1 which prevents its falling1 whirls the whole round for three or four times1 to obtain a strong centrifugal force1 and suddenly letting go of that part of the sling held in his hand1 the stone flies forward with inconceivable rapidity1 making a twanging sound in the ear as it flies4 ,slinging is a very good exercise for imparting strength to the arm1 but young slingers should be very careful where they send their stones1 or they may do much damage4 ,illustration ,if any of my readers may wish to construct a better kind of sling1 they may do it in the following manner3--,get a currier to cut a piece of very strong buckskin leather in this shape1 the centre being cut into bars4 ,two long strips of the same leather are then cut of this shape1 ,illustration two cuts being made along them1 so as to leave three leather cords4 ,these are plaited together1 and the flat ends firmly sewn to the centrepiece4 ,the shape will then be this3 ,illustration ,a sling made on this principle will carry a stone of a pound weight4 ,the loop and point should be whipped with silk4 ,the accuracy that can be obtained with such a weapon is astonishing1 only the missiles should always be leaden bullets of the same weight--two or three ounces being the best average weight4 ,at the school where my boyhood was spent1 we used to send such bullets just over the weather-cock of one of the loftiest spires in ,england1 and stripped a chestnut-tree of its blossoms4 ,one year there was a solitary blossom on the top of the tree1 which defied our efforts for many days4 ,the blossoms were soon knocked off1 but the green stalk resisted the blows for a long time4 ,it was battered to pieces1 but bent to the strokes1 and had to be knocked off in fragments4 ,i mention this to show the accuracy of aim that can be attained by practice4 ,,walking ,,on ,,stilts4 ,illustration ,among the ,swiss1 and in several districts in the ,south of ,france1 walking on stilts is not only an amusing1 but a useful1 practice1 as by means of these crane-like legs men and women transform themselves into the order of 8,waders10 emulating the long-legged storks and herons1 and can cross over marshes and flooded grounds without wetting their feet4 ,stilts are easily made1 being nothing but a pair of poles1 with a wooden step at the sides for the feet to stand on4 ,the poles are kept in their proper place by the hands4 ,a little practice will soon render a youth 8easy on his stilts10 and they may be made an amusing and healthy exercise4 ,illustration ,,the ,,sucker4 ,the sucker is a toy of the simplest construction imaginable2 it is made by merely cutting a circular piece out of some tolerably stout leather1 boring a hole in its centre1 and then passing a string through the hole1 taking the precaution to make a large knot at the end of the string1 to prevent its being drawn completely through the hole4 ,before using the sucker1 it must be steeped in water until it becomes quite soft and pliable4 ,if its smooth1 moist surface be now pressed so closely against the flat side of a stone or other body1 that the air cannot enter between them1 the weight of the atmosphere pressing on the upper surface of the leather will cause it to adhere so strongly1 that the stone1 if its weight be proportioned to the extent of the disc of leather1 may be raised by lifting the string4 ,if the sucker could act with full effect1 every square inch of its surface would support about the weight of fourteen pounds4 ,the feet of the common house-fly are provided with minute natural suckers1 by aid of which the insect is enabled to run up a smooth pane of glass and walk along the ceiling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our young readers will in all probability remark that we have laid but little stress on games with toys1 and that comparatively few toys have been mentioned4 ,we have done so intentionally1 because the book is written expressly for boys1 and those1 ,english boys4 ,now an ,english boy always likes a toy that will do something4 ,for example1 he cares not one farthing for all the elegant imitations of guns in the world1 as long as he can have his pea-shooter2 and the walnut stock1 the glittering decorations1 and the burnished but useless barrel of the toy gun1 are nothing in his eyes1 when compared with the plain tin barrel of his beloved pea-shooter1 which will throw a missile with rifle-like accuracy of aim4 ,for these reasons1 we have mentioned but very few toys1 looking with contempt upon those innumerable fabrications that find their place in the windows of toy-shops1 and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred are only purchased for the immediate gratification of spoilt children1 who unconsciously illustrate the real objects of toys1 by pulling them to pieces1 and converting the fragments to unexpected uses4 ,illustration3 ,,end ,,of ,,toys4 ,,easy ,,games ,,with ,,toys4 ,,indoor4 ,there are many elaborate toys which are not included under this head1 as they are always sold with printed directions for using them4 ,the games which follow are played with toys of the simplest construction1 many of which may be easily manufactured by the reader4 ,,battledore ,,and ,,shuttlecock4 ,illustration ,illustration ,this game is so well known as to require but little remark4 ,the ,battledores may be purchased at the toy-shops1 as may also be the ,cocks2 but many of our young friends who know anything about carpentry may easily make both for themselves4 ,the ,battledores can be cut out with a key-hole saw into the subjoined shape4 ,they should be about a quarter of an inch thick1 the handles about six inches long1 and the 8spades0 of about five inches long1 and five broad4 ,the ,shuttlecock may be made by cutting a piece of cork into the following form1 and placing a small brass nail at its lower end4 ,the top should be plumed with five feathers standing outwards from the rim1 being fastened by a little gum into small holes cut therein4 ,the practice of the game is for two players to beat the ,cock backwards and forwards from one to the other1 and the one that lets it fall1 by failing to strike it with his bat1 is to give to the other a pea1 bead1 pin1 or some other small article4 ,some foreigners1 particularly the ,chinese1 play at this game with the toes1 hands1 elbows1 and other parts of the body1 and will keep the ,cocks up in a most amusing manner1 in the midst of many grotesque gestures4 ,,bandilor4 ,this toy is simply a wheel or pulley of hard wood1 having a very deep groove1 round which a strong but fine cord is wound4 ,the player holds the free end of the cord between his finger and thumb1 gives a rapid rotatory motion to the bandilor1 by allowing it to fall towards the ground2 by a sudden jerk he now tightens the cord in the groove1 and the toy rises towards his hand4 ,a little practice will enable any one to keep the bandilor in motion for a considerable time by causing it to rise and fall alternately4 ,,cup ,,and ,,ball4 ,a ball of ivory or hard wood is attached to a stem of the same substance1 having a shallow cup at one end and a point at the other4 ,the player holds the stem in his right hand1 as shown in the figure2 and1 having caused the ball to revolve by twirling it between the finger and thumb of his left1 he jerks it up and catches it either in the cup1 or upon the spike1 to receive which a hole is made in the ball4 ,we need scarcely say that the latter feat can only be performed by a skilful player4 ,cup and ,ball was the favourite pastime at the court of ,henry ,,iii4 of ,france4 ,illustration ,,the ,,cutwater4 ,the ,cutwater is a circular piece of sheet lead1 notched like a saw round the edge1 and having two holes pierced in it at some distance from each other1 through which is passed a piece of string1 the two ends being afterwards tied together4 ,the annexed figure shows this toy1 and the way it is to be held by the player4 ,to set the ,cutwater in action1 the double string must be alternately pulled and slackened4 ,every time the string is relaxed the disc revolves1 in consequence of the impetus it has acquired from the previous pull2 and every time the string is tightened1 it whirls round in an opposite direction1 as the double string is then untwisted4 ,if the edge of this toy be dipped in water1 it may be made to sprinkle the bystanders and the player2 hence its title of 8,cutwater40 ,illustration ,,fox ,,and ,,geese4 ,illustration ,fifteen ordinary draughtsmen compose the flock of geese4 ,the fox may either be two draughtsmen placed one upon another1 or any small object which may be at hand4 ,the game is played on a board marked as shown in the annexed engraving4 ,the fox is placed in the middle of the board1 and the geese on the points on one side of it1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the game is to confine the fox to some spot on the board1 so that there shall be either the edge of the board or else two rows of men round him4 ,when the fox cannot escape1 the game is done1 and the player of the geese wins2 but when one of the geese is left on a point next to that occupied by the fox1 and is not supported by another goose behind1 or by the edge of the board1 the fox can take it1 and by jumping over its head to the next space1 he may1 perhaps1 escape the persecutions of some of the others1 as all the geese are compelled to move forwards towards the end of the board that was unoccupied at the commencement of the game4 ,the fox is allowed to move either backwards or forwards4 ,neither fox nor goose must be moved more than one space at a time4 ,if the fox neglects to take when he has a chance1 he is huffed1 and one of the captured geese is restored to the back of the board4 ,the fox should avoid getting into the lower square of the board if possible1 as he will find it difficult to extricate himself from a position which can be so easily blockaded4 ,illustration ,there is another method of playing fox and geese on a chessboard2 namely1 with four white men1 representing the geese1 and one black one1 representing the fox4 ,the geese are ranged on the four white squares nearest one player1 and the fox may be placed where his owner pleases4 ,the best place for him is that marked in the diagram1 as he can manuvre in a very puzzling way4 ,the geese can only move forward1 and the fox moves either way4 ,the object of the geese is to pen up the fox so that he cannot move1 and the fox has to break through4 ,if the game is properly played1 the geese must win1 the secret being to keep them all in line as much as possible4 ,the fox tries to prevent this plan from being followed up2 and if he can succeed in doubling the geese1 or getting one to stand before another1 he is nearly sure to pass through them4 ,,goose4 ,to play at ,goose a board must be made containing sixty-three circles1 placed so as to form some resemblance to the shape of a goose1 and numbered consecutively4 ,two dice and a box1 and as many counters as there are players1 are required4 ,each player in turn throws the dice1 and according to the number he throws1 so he reckons1 counting from ,no4 #a1 and placing his counter on the number he obtains4 ,the player who first reaches sixty-three wins the game4 ,but mark2 he must throw sixty-three exactly1 or else he has to count the surplus number back from sixty-three4 ,for instance1 suppose when at sixty he throws eight1 this makes sixty-eight1 five over sixty-three4 ,the player must1 therefore1 take five back from sixty-three1 and leave his counter at fifty-eight4 ,the game is called ,goose from the fact that a goose is usually drawn on every fourth and fifth ring2 and the player who lands on one of these1 scores double the number he has just thrown4 ,several obstacles occur1 however1 on the journey4 ,on one ring is drawn a bridge1 to pass which a toll of one counter must be paid4 ,a little farther on is an inn1 where the player halts for two turns and pays two to the pool2 but if he fall into the pond1 the unfortunate wight has to stay there until another player tumbles in too1 when he is allowed to proceed on his journey4 ,the last hindrance is a gloomy prison1 in which the same rule holds good1 except that the relieving party1 instead of going on as in the case of the pond1 remains in durance vile until somebody else enters the prison-house4 ,other obstacles may be inserted at the players' option4 ,,head1 ,,body1 ,,and ,,legs4 ,one player takes an oblong piece of paper1 and having divided it into three equal parts by folding1 he sketches a comic head1 either with pen or pencil1 in the upper space2 he then doubles the paper over1 and hands it to another1 who draws a body in the middle compartment1 folds the paper over once more1 and passes it to a third1 who completes the figure by drawing a pair of legs in the lower space4 ,the player who draws the head1 must continue the neck a little way into the middle space1 and he who sketches the body must just commence the legs in the lower compartment2 this arrangement insures the connexion of head1 body1 and legs4 ,our first illustration shows how the paper is to be folded over for drawing the different parts of a figure4 ,each player should be provided with a pen or pencil1 and a few pieces of paper2 having drawn a head1 he should fold his sketch in a proper manner and pass it to his right-hand neighbour2 in this way a number of figures may be finished simultaneously4 ,a knowledge of drawing is not expected of any player1 as the crudest notion of a head1 a body1 or a pair of legs1 will fully meet the requirements of the game4 ,those who have never played at ,head1 ,body1 and ,legs1 can have no idea of the absurd combinations that spring from the independent labours of the different players2 thus1 a man's body will sometimes get joined to a donkey's head1 and be supported by the legs of an ostrich4 ,illustration ,,knuckle-,,bones4 ,this game is played with five little bones from a sheep's trotter4 ,one player tosses up the knuckle-bones1 sometimes one at a time1 sometimes all together1 and catches them either in the palm or on the back of his hand1 according to certain rules4 ,should he fail to perform one of the tricks properly1 he must hand the bones to his opponent1 who attempts to go through the same series of manuvres with them4 ,when the first player regains the bones through the unskilful play of his adversary1 he once more attempts the feat he failed to accomplish before1 and if he succeeds he tries to pass through the subsequent stages of the game4 ,the player who first arrives at the end of the regulated series of tricks wins the game4 ,it would be impossible to give the reader a clear idea of the manner of performing each trick without the aid of diagrams4 ,in almost every school may be found an experienced player at knuckle-bones1 whose directions will be of more value than any remarks we can make1 though we were to devote a couple of pages to this pastime4 ,in some parts of ,england a similar game1 called 8,jackstones10 is played with small round pebbles4 ,,merelles1 ,,or ,,nine ,,men',s ,,morris4 ,illustration ,this is an ancient ,english game1 and ought not to be laid aside2 so we resuscitate it for the benefit of young ,england4 ,it used to be played in ,england on the ground with stones1 but may be played best on a table indoors4 ,the form of the merelle-table1 and the lines upon it1 as it appeared in the fourteenth century1 are here represented4 ,these lines are still the same4 ,the black spots at every angle and intersection of the lines are the places for the men to be laid upon4 ,the men are different in form and colour1 for distinction sake4 ,the manner of playing is briefly thus3 ,two persons1 having each of them nine pieces1 or men1 lay them down alternately1 one by one1 upon the spots2 and the business of either party is to prevent his antagonist from placing three of his pieces so as to form a row of three without the intervention of an opposing piece4 ,if a row be formed1 he that made it is at liberty to take up one of his competitor's pieces from any part he thinks most to his advantage2 excepting he has made a row1 which must not be touched if he have another piece upon the board that is not a component part of that row4 ,when all the pieces are laid down1 they are played backwards and forwards in any direction that the lines run1 but can only move from one spot to another at one time4 ,he that takes all his antagonist's pieces1 is the conqueror4 ,,paper ,,dart4 ,illustration ,to form this dart you must take an oblong piece of paper1 and fold it down the middle lengthwise2 then double each of the lower corners up to the middle crease1 and fold the doubled paper over to the same mark2 you must now turn each folded side outwards1 and your dart will resemble the annexed figure4 ,the paper dart1 when thrown from the hand1 rarely hits the object aimed at1 as it generally makes a graceful curve in passing through the air4 ,boys sometimes amuse themselves by fighting sham battles with these harmless weapons4 ,,the ,,popgun4 ,illustration ,the best ,popguns are made of a strong straight piece of elder-tree1 which ought to be cut from an inner branch1 and should be about six inches long4 ,the pith of this should be pierced out by an iron ramrod fitting the hole2 and when the inside is made thoroughly smooth by rubbing the rod up and down1 it is ready for use4 ,the pellets are made with moistened tow--brown paper is a nasty thing to put into the mouth1 and we shall never advise the use of it4 ,when the pellet is prepared1 it should be laid over the mouth of the gun in such a quantity as to require squeezing and plugging in4 ,the first pellet should be driven through the gun to its other end2 the second pellet is to be driven in1 in a similar manner to the first1 and then it is forced through the gun3 the air between the pellets being incompressible beyond a certain point1 forces out the lower pellet with a loud 8pop20 hence the the term 8,popgun10 which has been applied to them4 ,popgun-playing is not a very healthy exercise1 the pressing of the rammer against the pit of the stomach frequently leading to derangement of that organ4 ,to prevent this1 the lad who plays at popgun should have a small round board slung over his neck by a string1 hanging as low as the pit of his stomach1 like a 8conductor's ticket10 against which he should press the handle of his ramrod when he fires off his popgun4 ,,push-,,pin4 ,this trifling game is usually played by two boys4 ,each player places a pin on the table1 and then endeavours to push one pin across the other with his finger-nail2 should he succeed1 both pins become his property4 ,at starting1 the pins must be placed head to head1 and the players push alternately4 ,sometimes each player puts down two1 three1 or even more pins4 ,,schimmel4 ,to play this amusing game1 which is of ,german origin1 it is necessary to be furnished with five cards1 on which are painted the figures of a white horse1 an inn1 a bell1 a hammer1 and a bell and hammer2 with eight little ivory cubes marked on one side only1 six numbered #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 and the other two marked1 one with a bell and the other with a hammer2 with a box for throwing the dice1 a hammer for disposing of the cards by auction1 and a proportionate quantity of counters for the players4 ,the cards1 dice-box1 and auctioneer's hammer1 are shown in the annexed illustration4 ,any youth who can draw may easily prepare the cards2 the cubes may be procured from an ivory-worker's and may be marked with ink4 ,the game can be played by as many persons as are present4 ,the counters are to be distributed by one of the players who holds the office of cashier1 their value having been previously determined upon by the players4 ,this being done1 twelve are to be deposited by each player in the pool4 ,the cashier then disposes of the five cards separately to the highest bidders1 the produce of which is also to be placed in the pool4 ,the white horse is by far the most valuable card1 and therefore fetches the highest price in counters4 ,the inn ranks next1 and is usually purchased by the most speculative player1 as its value depends upon circumstances4 ,the bell and the hammer generally fetch the same number of counters1 these cards being equally valuable1 and the card upon which both bell and hammer are painted fetches about half the number that is given for one of the single figures4 ,the bidders are not bound to confine themselves to the number of counters dealt out to them at the beginning of the game2 should they exceed it1 they may pay the remainder of the debt by instalments out of their receipts in the course of the game4 ,illustration ,each person is at liberty to purchase as many cards as he may think proper4 ,the dice are then to be thrown by the players alternately1 beginning with the holder of the white horse1 any one being allowed to dispose of his throw to the highest bidder4 ,when all blanks are thrown1 each of the players pays one to the holder of the white horse1 and he pays one to the inn4 ,if with the blanks the bell1 or hammer1 or the bell and hammer together are thrown1 the possessor of the card so thrown pays one to the white horse4 ,when numbers accompany the bell1 hammer1 or bell and hammer1 the cashier is to pay the counters1 to the amount of numbers thrown1 to the holder of such card1 from the pool2 but if numbers are thrown unaccompanied1 the cashier then pays to the thrower4 ,when the pool is nearly empty there arises an advantage to the inn1 for if a player throws a figure greater than the quantity contained in the pool he pays the overplus to the inn2 thus3 suppose #d are in the pool1 if the players throws #aj1 he is to pay #f to the inn2 and if #b are thrown1 those #b are paid to him from the pool1 and so on till a figure is thrown which clears the pool1 and so concludes the game4 ,if all blanks are thrown after the inn begins to receive1 the players pay nothing1 but the owner of the white horse pays one to the inn2 and should the bell1 c4 be thrown with the blanks1 the holder of that card pays one to the inn2 and if numbers accompany the bell1 c4 the holder of that card must pay to the inn the number thrown above those remaining in the pool4 ,nuts are sometimes used as counters1 and the players keep their winnings4 ,sometimes the cashier receives a halfpenny or a penny a dozen for the counters1 and when the game is finished the receipts are divided among the players according to their winnings4 ,those who do not hold cards frequently find themselves richer at the close of the game than their speculative companions1 whose winnings do not always exceed the price paid for their cards4 ,,spelicans4 ,spelicans are made of thin pieces of ivory cut into different forms1 some being like spears1 others saws1 bearded hooks1 c42 of some of the patterns there are duplicates1 whilst of others only one4 ,each pattern has a value assigned to it1 the lowest being five1 and the highest forty2 the numbers do not run in regular succession--as five1 six1 seven1 eight--but irregularly1 as five1 sixteen1 twenty-five4 ,hooks1 made of bone1 are used pointers4 ,the game is played as follows3--,one player should take up all the spelicans in a bundle1 and holding them at a little height from the table1 let them fall down in a confused heap on it2 each player must then try alternately to take away a spelican from the heap without moving any of the others1 and this it is generally very easy to accomplish at the first1 for the top ones are mostly unconnected with the rest1 but as the players proceed it requires some tact to jerk them out1 with the help of the hook1 made pointed for that purpose4 ,the player who1 at the entire removal of the heap1 has the greatest number of spelicans1 wins the game4 ,should any of the spelicans1 while being removed shake the others1 they must be put back into the heap again4 ,it is usual in some places1 instead of each player removing a spelican alternately1 for one to continue lifting up the spelicans until he happens to shake one1 when another player takes his turn until he in like manner fails1 when another tries his fortune2 and so the game continues1 until all the spelicans are withdrawn4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,athletic ,sports and ,manly ,exercises3 ,,including ,,angling1 ,,archery1 ,,boxing1 ,,canoes ,,and ,,canoeing1 ,,cricket1 ,,croquet1 ,,driving1 ,,fencing1 ,,fives1 ,,foot-,,ball1 ,,golf1 ,,gymnastics1 ,,hockey1 ,,rackets1 ,,riding1 ,,rowing1 ,,sailing1 ,,skating1 ,,sliding1 ,,swimming1 ,,training4 ,illustration3 ,,athletic ,,sports4 ,illustration ,,angling4 8,when ,i was a mere schoolboy1 ,ere yet ,i learnt my book1 ,i felt an itch for angling ,in every little brook4 8,an osier rod1 some thread for line1 ,a crooked pin for hook2 ,and1 thus equipp'd1 ,i angled ,in every little brook4 8,where sticklebacks and minnows ,each day ,i caught in store1 ,with stone-roaches and miller's thumbs3-- ,these brooks afford no more4 8,but ,i a little angler1 ,with crooked pin for hook1 ,would shun each noisy wrangler1 ,to fish the little brook40 ,what can be more delightful than angling8 ,not indeed so much on account of the fish we may catch1 but for the pleasantness of the recreation itself1 for the cool streams1 the shady trees1 the little sunny nooks1 the tiny or gigantic cascades1 the meandering rills1 the still pools1 8with sedges overhung20 the picturesque mill-wheels1 the deep mill-ponds1 8smooth sheeted by the flood20 and above all1 for the hair-breadth escapes1 for the duckings1 for the hazards1 for the triumphs4 ,we do not wonder at boys being fond of angling1 it is almost an instinct with them1 and has long been a favourite amusement with boys of all degrees1 ages and constitutions4 ,therefore we shall be somewhat comprehensive in our notices of this interesting sport1 that every boy who can bait a hook and hold a line may be an angler if he will4 ,a ,,word ,,about ,,fish4 ,first1 however1 let us say a word about fish in general1 before we come to fish in particular4 ,fish or fishes are1 to speak scientifically1 a class of vertebrated animals 7having a backbone7 inhabiting the water2 which breathe through the medium of that fluid by means of branchi or gills1 instead of lungs2 which swim by means of fins1 and are mostly covered with scales4 ,they are also generally furnished with a white membraneous bag close to the backbone1 called the air bladder1 by the dilatation or compression of which it is supposed they can rise or sink in the water at pleasure4 ,all parts of their bodies seem to aid them in swimming in the water2 their fins1 their tails1 and the undulation of their back-bones assist progression1 and their whole structure is as much adapted for swimming as that of a bird is for flight4 ,the fins of fish consist of thin elastic membrane1 supported by bony rays1 and are denominated according to their position--dorsal on the back1 pectoral on the breast1 ventral near the vent1 anal that between the vent and the tail1 and caudal the tail fins4 ,the dorsal and ventral fins appear to balance the fish1 and the pectoral to push it forward2 while the tail fins are the grand instruments of motion1 and enable the creature to dart forward almost as rapidly as the bullet from a gun4 ,with regard to the senses of fishes1 the eye holds the first place2 but this is best adapted for seeing under water4 ,of the organ of hearing there is no outward sign4 ,the organ of taste is thought to be very unsensitive1 and the sense of touch but slightly developed4 ,to preserve their own existence1 and to transmit it to their posterity1 seems to be their only enjoyment2 they move forward in pursuit of whatever they can swallow1 conquer1 or enjoy1 and their insatiable appetite impels them to encounter every danger1 whilst to their rapacity there seems to be no bound4 ,a single pike has been known to devour a hundred roach in three days4 ,the fecundity of fish is prodigious4 ,the number of eggs in the codfish often amounts to more than three millions2 those of flounders are above a million1 of the mackarel #ejj1jjj1 of the sole #ajj1jjj1 and of the lobster #bj1jjj2 but the sturgeon is far more productive than any of these1 as it has been known to have more than twenty millions of eggs6 ,without saying any more about 8,fish in the abstract10 as the angler called his 8catch10 when he returned without one1 we must go to the art of 8catching fish20 and the first thing to be attended to is the necessary fishing apparatus1 which may be increased to any extent2 but the young angler would be wise to limit his stock as much as possible4 ,we have fished many a hundred miles of water1 and killed many a thousand of fish1 with no better equipment than this3--,one rod of about fourteen feet long1 with three tops1--one stiff top1 for bottom fishing and trolling1 and two for fly-fishing4 ,two reels or winches1 one holding a silk and hair line of thirty-five yards in length for fly-fishing1 and the other holding a similar line1 of forty yards1 but much stronger1 for bottom fishing1 trolling1 c4 ,one moderate-sized creel or fishing basket4 ,one tin bait-box for worms or gentles2 one tin live-bait can for carrying pike baits or minnows2 and one strong bag for carrying ground-bait4 ,a landing-net2 some shoemaker's wax in a piece of soft leather2 a large clasp-knife2 a pair of sharp-pointed scissors2 a pocket-book1 the centre filled with leaves of flannel to hold flies1 and the remainder fitted up with gut1 hooks1 silk1 baiting-needles1 a pair of small pliers1 split shot1 floats1 c4 ,illustration ,,about ,,the ,,rod4 ,the rod is a material article in the young angler's catalogue1 and much care should be taken to procure a good one4 ,the fishing-tackle shops keep a great variety1 made of bamboo cane1 hazel1 hickory1 and other kinds of wood4 ,rods are of different lengths1 some fitted as walking-canes1 and others made to pack in canvass bags2 the latter are preferred1 because you may have them any length1 and they are more true4 ,those made of bamboo cane are the best for general angling2 but the rods made of the white cane much superior for fine fishing1 particularly for roach1 being very light in weight1 but stiff4 ,,choosing ,,the ,,rod4 ,in choosing a rod 7not a school rod1 for no one likes to choose that71 observe that it is perfectly straight1 when all the joints are put together and that it gradually tapers from the butt to the top1 and is from twelve to sixteen feet long4 ,a bad rod is likely to snap in striking a heavy fish4 ,rods fitted with several tops are at once the best and most convenient4 ,some anglers have one rod for trolling1 another for barbel1 perch1 or other heavy fish1 as well as one for fly-fishing--which boys may have when they become men--but a thoroughly good rod will suit the juvenile for all purposes4 ,we have now one with which we can fish for anything1 from a bleak to a pike1 by only changing the top and second joints4 ,a good trolling rod should be made of the choicest stout and well-seasoned bamboo cane1 from fourteen to sixteen feet in length4 ,when trolling with the gorge1 or live-bait fishing1 a long rod is necessary1 to enable the angler to drop in his baited hook over high sedges1 rushes1 c4 as also when the water is bright1 for he should then keep as far away from it as he can1 which a long rod enables him to do while dipping1 casting1 or spinning his bait4 ,if either a jack or pike see him1 it is very rare indeed that he will take the bait2 and again1 with a long rod you will be able to drop your baited hook in some very likely place for jack or pike1 such as a small hole1 division1 or clear place among a bed of weeds1 in a river or any other water where there are any weeds4 ,there is some difference of opinion among anglers about the number of rings necessary for trolling rods3 those who have their line on a thumb winder1 or on a bank runner1 seldom place more than two or three rings on their rod1 and others have only one large ring at the top2 but if a winch is used1 there should be a ring to every joint including the butt2 make each ring of double twist wire1 fixed so as always to stand out1 and nearly large enough to admit the top of your little finger2 the top joint should have two rings1 the top one nearly three times the size of the others2 this prevents any obstruction of the line running1 which is of material consequence4 ,when not in use1 rods should be kept nicely stowed in a moderately dry place1 and they ought to be well scraped and revarnished every three years2 should the joints become loose by shrinking1 they should be slightly moistened4 ,should any accident befall a rod while fishing1 and you should not have a spare top with you1 your only remedy will be to splice your rod4 ,to do this the ends of the broken pieces for about two inches must be laid parallel to each other1 and then tightly bound together with waxed silk1 or very strong yellow hempen twine4 ,,lines ,,or ,,bottoms4 ,next to the rod the line is of the utmost importance4 ,good lines should be well twisted4 ,the twisted lines should be made wholly of silk1 or silk hair1 but those made of gut are the strongest and best for young anglers2 the twisted hair are the cheapest1 and the single horsehair the finest4 ,the young angler will find a line of about four yards in length the most useful4 ,a single gut line1 with a small porcupine float1 is commonly useful for general fishing2 the plaited silk lines are the best for trolling1 and are less inclined to break or tangle than the twisted4 ,,shotting ,,the ,,line ,the line must be shotted1 that the float may partially sink in the water2 and in putting on the shots1 place them all together within three inches of the bottom loop of the line2 to which loop fix the loop of the hair or gut to which the hook is tied4 ,when you make a line of silk1 gut1 or hair1 remember it must be always finest at the bottom1 where the hook is fastened1 very gradually increasing in thickness to the top4 ,,the ,,float4 ,there are various kinds of floats1 each adapted for different kinds of fishing4 ,the principal are3 #a4 ,tip-capped floats2 #b4 ,cork floats2 #c4 ,plugged floats4 ,the tip-capped floats are made of several pieces of quills1 or of reed for the middle1 and ivory or tortoiseshell for the top and bottom1 and narrow at each end1 gradually increasing in circumference to the middle4 ,they are superior to all others for angling in waters which are not very rapid1 particularly in roach fishing1 as the least movement or fine bite sinks them below the water4 ,the tip-capped float is also best for pond fishing for carp and tench1 as it requires but few shot to sink it1 and consequently disturbs the water but little when cast4 ,the young angler should note that the caps which fix the lines to the float are not rough at the edge1 as this roughness chafes and weakens a fine line2 should this be the case1 he should smooth them before use4 ,the best caps are made of gutta-percha4 ,illustration ,cork ,floats are generally made of quills at the top1 with a piece of cork1 which is burned or bored in the middle to admit the quill1 and then filed or ground down smooth and painted4 ,the bottom is plugged with wood1 and has a ring to let the line pass through4 ,cork floats are well calculated to fish in heavy or rapid streams1 as they require a great many shot to sink them1 which weight of shot prevents the baited hook from passing too rapidly over the bottom4 ,cork floats are made of various sizes and forms2 instead of common quills1 some introduce the quills of the porcupine1 which make an excellent strong float4 ,except for live-bait fishing a tapering cork float is preferable to a round one4 ,plugged ,floats4--,these kind of floats are the cheapest1 and made of indifferent quills1 some of them of one goose quill with a wooden plug at the bottom1 from which they take their name3 they are very apt to loosen by the plug coming out4 ,they are often used by the young angler1 because they are cheap2 but we may say in the words of the ancient ,roman1 8,bad is the best40 ,,reels ,,or ,,winches4 ,a reel or winch is a most necessary addition to the rod and line1 as it enables you to vary the length of your line at pleasure1 and to play your fish4 ,the best winches are those to fix in a groove on the rod1 and are fastened with brass ferrules made for the purpose on the butt1 because you can fasten such a winch to any sized joint4 ,illustration ,there are three kinds of winches1 check1 multipliers1 and plain3 the multiplying winch is apt soon to get out of order1 unless carefully and constantly oiled1 and is otherwise the least efficient and most expensive of the three4 ,i would recommend young anglers at first1 to purchase a plain and strong winch1 which will answer every purpose1 and be much less expensive4 ,a check winch is1 however1 the best4 ,,reel ,,lines ,are mostly made of silk and horsehair1 twisted or plaited together1 but some are made entirely of silk4 ,i prefer the latter1 as it is less likely to twist1 runs more freely1 and is less likely to rot4 ,the length of lines vary from fifteen to eighty yards2 but for general purposes thirty or five-and-thirty yards is quite long enough4 ,the line should always be unwound after a day's fishing1 as1 if it is allowed to remain wet on the reel1 it soon rots4 ,,hooks4 ,hooks are to be bought at the angling shops1 of all sizes1 and suitable for the kind of fish to be caught4 ,there are great controversies among adept anglers about hooks1 which are sometimes as violent as those upon politics or religion4 ,some anglers prefer what are called the ,limerick hooks1 some the ,kendal2 while others again prefer the ,kirby or ,sneckbend4 ,we are hooked to the ,kirby1 as we consider those to be by far the best for holding the fish--a most important particular4 ,the hooks found most suitable for the following fish are these3-- ,,barbel1 #a1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,,bleak1 #aa1ab1 #ac4 ,,bream1 #aj4 ,,carp1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,,chub1 #h1 #i4 ,,dace1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,,eels1 #h4 ,,flounders1 #c4 ,,grayling1 #aj1 #ab4 ,,gudgeon1 #i1 #aj4 ,,loaches1 #ac4 ,,miller',s ,,thumb1 #ac4 ,,minnow1 #ac4 ,,perch1 #g4 ,,roach1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,,rudd1 #aj4 ,,ruffe1 #aj4 ,,smelt1 #i1 #aj4 ,,tench1 #i1 #aj4 ,,trout1 #f1 #aj4 ,,how ,,to ,,bait ,a ,,hook4 ,to bait a hook with a worm1 use the following method3 ,first enter the point of the hook close to the top of the worm's head1 and carry it carefully down to within a quarter of an inch of its tail2 to do which you must gently squeeze or work up the worm with your left thumb and finger1 while with your right you are gradually working the hook downwards4 ,the small lively piece of the worm at the point of the hook moving about will entice the fish2 but1 mind1 if too much of the worm hangs loose1 though it may entice fish to nibble1 yet they will seldom take the whole in their mouth1 so as to enable the angler to hook them2 on the contrary1 he is frequently tantalized with a bite1 and1 when he strikes1 finds part of his worm gone1 and his fish too4 ,therefore1 to bait a hook well with a worm is necessary to ensure hooking a fish when you strike2 and it consists in drawing the worm without injuring it 7use him as you would a friend1 ,walton says7 quite over and up the shank of the hook1 leaving only a small lively part of the tail below4 ,if you bait with half a worm1 prefer the tail end1 and enter the point of the hook into the top part1 and bring it down nearly to the end of the tail1 leaving only a very small piece of it loose4 ,if you bait with two worms on the same hook1 draw the first up above the shank1 while you put the second on in the same manner as directed with one worm1 but enter the hook near the tail of the second worm2 then draw the first one down on the second over the shank of the hook1 and all will then be well covered1 and the bait will be a very bon-bon for perch1 chub1 carp1 barbel1 and all large fish2 but when angling for gudgeon1 and other small fish1 half a red worm is sufficient1 and the tail end is best4 ,if blood-worms are used1 put on two or three1 in doing which be tender1 or you will burst them4 ,,baits4 ,the principal baits are-- #a4 ,,the ,,lob-,,worm4 #b4 ,,the ,,brandling4 #c4 ,,the ,,marsh-,,worm4 #d4 ,,the ,,tagtail4 #e4 ,,the ,,ash-,,grub4 #f4 ,,cowdung ,,bait4 #g4 ,,caterpillars4 #h4 ,,cabbage-,,worms4 #i4 ,,crab-,,tree-,,worms4 #aj4 ,,gentles4 #aa4 ,,cad-,,worms4 #ab4 ,,flag-,,worms4 #ac4 ,,grasshoppers4 #ad4 ,,wasp-,,grub4 #ae4 ,,cockchafers4 #af4 ,,bread ,,paste4 #ag4 ,,cheese ,,paste4 #a4 ,lob-worms are found in gardens or churchyards1 late in the evening2 they have a red head1 a streak down the back1 and a broad tail4 ,this is a good worm for salmon1 chub1 trout1 barbel1 eels1 and large perch4 #b4 ,brandling is found in old dunghills1 rotten earth or cow-dung1 and the best in tanners' bark4 ,it is a good bait for any kind of fish4 #c4 ,the ,marsh-worm is found in marshy grounds1 or on the banks of rivers2 and is a good bait for trout1 perch1 gudgeon1 grayling1 and bream4 #d4 ,the ,tagtail is found in marly lands or meadows1 after a shower2 and is a good bait for trout when the water is muddy4 #e4 ,the ,ash-grub is found in the bark of trees4 ,it is a good bait for grayling1 dace1 roach1 or chub4 #f4 ,cowdung ,bait is found under cowdung1 from ,may to ,michaelmas2 and is good bait for grayling1 dace1 roach1 or chub4 #g4 ,caterpillars can be found on almost every tree or plant4 ,almost any small caterpillar will answer4 #h4 ,the ,cabbage caterpillar is found on cabbages4 #i4 ,the ,crabtree-worm can be taken by beating the branches of the crab-apple4 #aj4 ,gentles4 ,these are bred in putrid meat--liver producing the best--or may generally be obtained from the butchers4 ,they are an excellent bait for most kinds of fish4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,caddis ,,fly4 #aa4 ,caddis is found in ditches1 or on the sides of brooks4 ,it is an excellent bait for trout1 grayling1 roach1 dace1 or chub4 #ab4 ,flag-worms are found among flags in old pits or ponds1 and are good bait for grayling1 tench1 bream1 carp1 roach1 and dace4 #ac4 ,grasshoppers are found in sun-burnt grass1 and are good bait for chub1 trout1 and grayling4 #ad4 ,wasp-grubs are to be obtained from wasps' nests1 and are a good bait for most fish that will take gentles4#b #b ,wasp-grubs will keep better1 and be easier to fit on the hook1 if they are baked for half-an-hour4 #ae4 ,cockchafers are found humming round the bushes at about dusk on a summer evening1 and everywhere1 and sometimes in cowdung2 are a capital bait for chub1 though not for anything else4 #af4 ,white-bread ,paste is prepared by dipping white bread in water 7soaking and squeezing it in the corner of a pocket-handkerchief is the best way71 and then working it a little in the palm of the hand4 ,it is a good bait for carp1 tench1 chub1 or roach4 ,some add a little honey4 #ag4 ,cheese ,paste is made with fresh cheese1 worked up in the hand4 ,it is a good bait for chub4 #ah4 ,ground ,bait should be used in the spot about to be fished1 and1 if possible1 the night before1 and should be fresh4 ,for carp1 chub1 roach1 or dace1 use white bread soaked in water1 and mixed with bran1 pollard1 or meal4 ,for barbel1 chandler's greaves1 boiled and worked up into a ball with clay4 ,gentles may also be used as ground bait for any of the above4 ,,to ,,bait ,,with ,,greaves4 ,first select the whitest pieces from those you have soaked1 and put two or three of them upon your hook1 or as much as will cover it from the bend to and over the point2 these pieces should be put on the hook separately1 one after the other--not a large piece doubled1 as some slovenly boys will do1 for then the hook is prevented from entering firmly the fish you may strike4 ,these little particulars of baiting are of considerable advantage to young anglers1 who ought to remember also that it is a bad practice to soak greaves in hot water1 for it makes them rotten1 and they in consequence soon fall off the hook4 ,,to ,,scour ,,and ,,preserve ,,worms4 ,to do this1 the young angler should provide himself with a quantity of fresh moss4 ,wash out all the earth and squeeze it1 but not too dry2 then put it into a jar and squeeze it lightly down3 throw in the worms upon it4 ,the jar should be kept in a cool place in summer1 and the moss changed once in three or four days4 ,gentles should be thrown into a mixture of damp sand or bran to scour them1 and will be ready in two or three days4 ,,the ,,plummet4 ,plummets are used by anglers for sounding the depth of a stream or hole4 ,they are of two kinds1 either the folding plummet1 or the common plummet4 ,the folding plummet1 which is the better1 is made of a slip of sheet lead1 folded up2 and this the young angler should never be without4 ,,plumbing ,,the ,,depth ,illustration ,is performed in the following manner3 ,if a folding plummet1 unfold about two inches of it1 pass the hook over its side1 and then fold the plummet up again3 your hook is now secured from drawing away from the plummet4 ,as success depends much in angling at a proper depth1 the young angler should take due pains1 and measure the depth accurately before he begins fishing4 ,when the plumb-lead touches the bottom1 and the top of the float is even with the surface of the water1 you will have the true depth4 ,,landing-,,hook ,,and ,,landing-,,net4 ,illustration ,the landing-hook or gaff is a large hook1 which is sometimes barbed like a fish-hook1 and sometimes plain1 fastened to one end of a handle2 this latter is occasionally composed of several pieces1 which run one into another1 like the slides of a telescope4 ,a landing-net is a small net mounted on a iron ring1 which is fastened1 like the landing-hook1 to the end of a handle or pole4 ,,clearing ,,ring ,,and ,,line4 ,the clearing-line is made of several yards of strong small cord1 to the end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass4 ,if the hook should get fast in a heavy weed1 post1 or anything else1 this ring is put over the butt of the rod1 and suffered to slip down the line to the hook4 ,the rod should be held in the right hand1 the top pointing downwards1 the clearing-line in the left1 the ring falling on the hook1 from its weight1 generally clears the hook from what it may have struck against4 ,if not1 the angler should hold the rod firmly1 and draw the line sideways1 and break away4 ,in this case1 the angler seldom loses more than a hook1 if he acts as above directed2 but without the assistance of a clearing-line he frequently loses his float as well as his hook and line1 and sometimes breaks his top joint4 ,the brass clearing-rings are to be preferred1 because they are jointed1 and in consequence can be used when the angler has a winch in his rod1 in which case the leaden ring could not be passed over the winch4 ,,drag-,,hook4 ,the drag is a piece of iron with three or four stout wire hooks without barbs1 placed back to back1 fastened to a strong cord line1 and which is used to draw away weeds4 ,,bank ,,runner4 ,the bank-runner is mostly used in the day-time1 when the angler is fishing for roach1 barbel1 c4 ,it is stuck in the bank1 the bottom being strong turned wood1 sharpened for the purpose1 with a winder at the top for the line1 which should be from forty to sixty yards long1 made of silk1 thin cord1 or plaited ,dutch twine4 ,but there should be a cork and bullet to the line1 and the bait a dace or gudgeon1 which should swim about mid-water4 ,,live-,,bait ,,kettle4 ,this should be of an oblong form1 and not round2 bright inside1 and brown out4 ,in getting out the bait1 never put your hand into the water1 which frightens the fish1 and1 by heating the water1 makes them sickly and dull2 but make use of a small net1 which is easily carried in the fish-kettle1 by having a piece of the lid cut away in one corner4 ,,disgorger4 ,this is an instrument with a forked top1 about six inches long1 made of iron1 brass1 or bone4 ,its use is to get the hook from a fish when swallowed2 and in using it1 the forked end is thrust down upon the swallowed hook with one hand1 while the line is held tight with the other3 pressure disgorges the hook1 and it is then easily drawn out4 ,in attempting to get a gorged hook from a fish without this instrument1 you run a hazard of breaking the hook and hurting yourself4 ,when the fish is hooked through the lip1 the angler has only to hold the fish steadily in one hand1 while with the other he carefully disengages the hook4 ,,angling ,,axioms4 #a4 ,never fish any water without leave from the proprietor1 unless it be water that is free to all comers4 #b4 ,never use unfair bait1 or attempt to take fish in any but a fair and sportsmanlike manner4 #c4 ,never start on a day's fishing without first considering the wind1 weather1 and water4 #d4 ,never let your shadow fall on the water4 #e4 ,use the finest tackle of which your fishing will admit4 #f4 ,never begin bottom fishing without first plumbing the depth4 #g4 ,never intrude upon another fisherman's water4 #h4 ,and always remember that nothing is lost by politeness4 ,,accounts ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,fresh-,,water ,,fish1 ,,with ,,their ,,habits1 ,,haunts1 ,,seasons1 ,,and ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,taking ,,them4 ,,the ,,salmon4 ,the ,salmon is the king of fresh-water fish4 ,it is handsome in form1 its head is small1 its nose pointed1 its back and sides grey1 its belly silvery1 and its flesh the well-known salmon colour4 ,the male may generally be distinguished by its having the lower jaw more 8hooked10 or turned up at the point1 than the female2 the head is also generally somewhat longer1 in comparison to the rest of the body4 ,illustration ,salmon bite best from six till eleven in the forenoon1 and from three in the afternoon until sunset1 especially when there is a moderate breeze upon the water4 ,the chief months to angle for them are ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 and ,june4 ,they are to be fished for with lob-worms1 or in spinning with minnows1 but a large artificial fly is the most killing bait4 ,the rod1 for a boy1 should not be less than fifteen feet long1 with a good running line1 and the reel should contain at least fourscore yards4 ,the hook must be large and long in the shank4 ,few of our young readers1 however1 will be able to go salmon fishing till they have reached maturity1 and1 therefore1 to give detailed instructions as to the modes of capturing the fish would be superfluous4 ,,the ,,trout4 ,this beautiful fish is much prized4 ,izaak ,walton says of it1 8,it is more sharp-sighted than any hawk1 and more watchful and timorous than your high-mettled merlin is bold40 ,in its habits it is a very solitary and predacious fish4 ,the trout are found in lakes and rivers and minor streams1 and are finest in appearance from the beginning of ,april to the end of ,july or middle of ,august3 their principal spawning time is from ,november to ,january4 ,the most brilliant and beautiful trout are generally found in streams that flow rapidly over rocky or chalky bottoms4 ,they feed upon worms1 minnows1 and other small fish1 but their favourite food consists of insects1 flies1 caterpillars1 c4 upon which they thrive and fatten prodigiously4 ,illustration ,in angling for the trout we must have a stout rod and running tackle4 ,the principal baits for him are natural and artificial flies1 minnows1 and worms4 ,the minnow is1 perhaps1 the most taking bait for large trout3 it should be cast lightly on the water1 and drawn trippingly against the current so as to spin4 ,the angler must strike directly his bait is seized4 ,the favourite haunts of the trout are scours1 mill tails1 eddies1 pools1 the roots of overhanging trees1 and the 8nethers0 of bridges and weirs4 ,,the ,,jack ,,or ,,pike4 ,the mighty luce or pike1 says ,walton1 is taken to be the tyrant1 as the salmon is the king1 of the fresh waters4 ,his aspect is savage but by no means repulsive1 and when in fine condition a large pike is altogether a grand-looking fish4 ,his teeth are very sharp and very numerous1 being upwards of seven hundred1 and his voracious appetite is such that nothing comes amiss to him4 ,he has been known to swallow the plummet1 and the clay and bran balls of ground bait of the angler1 and he will prey upon 8rats and mice and such small deer10 with ducks1 geese1 and even swans1 which he has been known to pull under water4 ,he often grows to an enormous size 7no wonder71 and has been taken upwards of ninety pounds in weight4 ,pike are fond of dull1 shady1 and unfrequented waters1 with a sandy1 chalky1 or clayey bottom1 and are found among or near flags1 bulrushes1 or water docks4 ,they seldom seek a very rapid stream1 although weirs and mill-pools are often their favourite retreat in the early summer months--that is1 in ,june and ,july1 when they have recently spawned4 ,in winter they retire into the depths1 eddies1 and waters little acted upon by the current4 ,illustration ,the pike is in its prime during ,october and ,november1 but is in season from ,june to ,february2 the baits used for it are gudgeon1 minnows1 chub1 and bleak1 and should be about three or four inches in length4 ,the rod should be strong2 the line of dressed silk1 at least sixty yards long1 wound upon the winch already described4 ,hooks for trolling1 called dead gorges1 and other sorts for trolling1 snap1 c4 and fishing needles1 are to be bought at every shop where fishing tackle is sold2 in the choice of the first1 let them not be too large1 nor their temper injured by the lead on the shanks1 nor the points stand too proud2 and although usually sold on wire1 it is recommended to cut off the wire about half an inch from the lead1 and with a double silk1 well waxed1 fasten about a foot of good gimp to the wire1 with a noose at the other end of the gimp large enough to admit the bait to pass through to hang it upon the line4 ,the best baits are gudgeon and dace of a middling size2 put the baiting needle in at the mouth and out at the middle of the tail1 drawing the gimp and hook after it1 fixing the point of the hook near the eye of the fish2 tie the tail to the gimp1 which will not only keep it in a proper position1 but prevent the tail from catching against the weeds and roots in the water4 ,thus baited1 the hook is to be fastened to the line and dropped gently in the water near the sides of the river1 across the water1 or where it is likely pike resort2 keep the bait in constant motion1 sometimes letting it sink near the bottom and gradually raising it4 ,when the bait is taken1 let the pike have what line he chooses4 ,it will be soon known when he has reached his hole1 which he generally flies to1 by his not drawing more4 ,allow him ten minutes for gorging the bait1 wind up the line gently till you think it is nearly at its stretch1 and then strike4 ,manage him with a gentle hand1 keeping him1 however1 from roots and stumps1 which he will try to fasten the line upon1 till he is sufficiently tired1 and a landing net can be used2 but by no means1 however apparently exhausted he may be1 attempt to lift him out with the rod and line only4 ,illustration ,in trolling1 the bait hook should never be thrown too far2 in small rivers the opposite bank may be fished with ease1 though the violence of its falls upon the water in long throws soon spoils the bait by rubbing off its scales4 ,in angling for pike always prefer a rough wind4 ,if a pike goes slowly up a stream1 after taking the bait1 it is said to be the sign of a good fish4 ,,the ,,gudgeon4 ,is one of the most delicious fish for eating1 although small in size4 ,it bites freely from the latter end of spring until autumn1 in gloomy warm days1 from an hour after sunrise to within the same space of its setting2 and during the rest of the year1 in the middle of the day1 when it is warmest4 ,in angling for gudgeon the tackle must be very fine1 a single hair or fine gut fine1 a hook ,no4 #h or #i1 a short rod and line1 and a small tapering cork float4 ,the gudgeon will take the small red-worm greedily1 and blood-worms--the first is perhaps the best4 ,a rake or the boat-hook should be kept frequently stirring the bottom4 ,to the spot so stirred gudgeon assemble in shoals1 expecting food from the discolouring of the water4 ,they are apt to nibble at the bait2 the angler ought not1 therefore1 to strike till the float goes well down4 ,illustration3 ,,gudgeon ,,and ,,bream4 ,should any young angler desire a good day's fishing for gudgeon1 and a pleasant walk into the bargain1 he should seek out some sequestered gravelly stream1 and providing himself with a rake with a long handle1 he may have sport till he is tired of it4 ,he will find the fish scattered up and down every river in the shallows during the heat of summer1 but in winter they get into deeper water4 ,gudgeon are to be fished for there with your hook always touching the ground4 ,,the ,,roach4 ,the roach is a handsome fish either in or out of the water4 ,it inhabits many of our deep still rivers1 delighting most in quiet waters4 ,it is gregarious1 keeping in large shoals4 ,it delights in gravelly1 sandy1 or a kind of slimy marl bottom1 under a deep gentle running stream2 in summer it often frequents shallows near the tails of fords1 or lies under banks among weeds1 under the shades of boughs1 and at or opposite the mouth of a rivulet or brook1 that empties itself into a large river4 ,in winter the roach like to get into clear1 deep1 and still waters4 ,the tackle for roach must be fine and strong1 a twelve-foot rod and a five-foot line1 a porcupine float1 and hooks ,no4 #aa or #ab4 ,the bait1 gentils1 bread-paste1 boiled wheat or red worms4 ,the ground bait should be damp meal or bran1 mixed with soaked bread or clay 7the former best74 ,in fishing for roach in ponds1 chew and throw in white bread4 ,the hook should be ,no4 #f1 and the bait either touch the bottom or lie within one inch of it4 ,as many gentils should be put on the hook as will cover it1 all but the barb4 ,strike directly the float goes down4 ,the season for roach fishing in the ,thames begins about the latter end of ,august and continues through the winter4 ,to ,london ,bridge and among the shipping below it1 numbers of roach return in ,june and ,july1 after having been up the river to spawn1 and many of them are taken by means of a strong cord1 to which is fastened a leaden weight1 more or less1 according to the strength of the current2 a foot above this lead a twine twelve feet long is joined to the cord1 and to this twine at convenient distances are tied a dozen hair links1 with roach hooks at the ends2 these are baited with white snails or periwinkles1 the fisherman holds the cord in his hand1 and easily feels the biting of the fish1 which is a signal to pull up1 and frequently five or six are taken at a haul4 ,illustration3 ,,roach ,,and ,,dace4 ,,the ,,dace4 ,dace are gregarious--are great breeders--very lively--and during summer fond of playing near the surface4 ,their haunts are deep water1 near the piles of bridges1 where the stream is gentle1 and has a sandy or clayey bottom4 ,they like deep holes that are shaded by water-lily leaves1 and under the foam caused by an eddy2 in the warm months they are to be found in shoals on the shallows and gravels4 ,the baits for dace are red-worms1 gentles1 and small flies1 natural or artificial1 used as in fly-fishing for trout4 ,in angling for dace with worms1 maggots1 c4 the tackle cannot be too fine1 the float small1 the hook ,no4 #i1 the shot a foot from it2 by baiting the place with a few maggots before fishing1 the diversion will be increased4 ,if you angle in an eddy between two mill streams1 and the water is only two or three feet deep1 there will be a greater chance of success than where it is deeper2 bait and strike as in roach fishing4 ,the ground-bait may also be the same4 ,fish for dace within three inches of the ground1 especially where the ant fly is the bait under water4 ,in fishing1 take advantage if you can of a still1 warm1 gloomy day1 or go in a summer's evening to a gravelly or sandy shallow1 or tail end of a mill-stream1 and as long as the light continues the dace will yield diversion4 ,,the ,,perch4 8,perch feed on perch10 is an old maxim2 the perch being the only one of all fresh-water fish that feeds on its own kind4 ,his excuse is a prodigious appetite1 like that of ,saturn1 who ate his own offspring4 ,notwithstanding this wicked propensity1 the perch is a beautiful fish1 the back and part of the sides being a deep green1 marked with broad black bars1 pointing downwards2 the spaces between are golden1 the belly white1 and the fins tinged with scarlet4 ,they vary greatly in size4 ,the largest perch we ever caught weighed three pounds twelve ounces1 and was taken with a roach bait near ,richmond4 ,their general length is about ten or twelve inches4 ,illustration ,perch are found in ponds and in clear rivers with pebbly1 clayey1 or sandy bottoms4 ,they are fond of water moderately deep1 and frequent holes near to gentle streams where there is an eddy1 the hollows under banks1 among weeds and roots of trees1 piles of bridges1 or in ponds which are fed by a brook or rivulet4 ,the perch is a bold biter in the summer1 but scarcely ever in the winter4 ,in the middle of a warm sunshiny day1 you are sure to have him with a proper bait4 ,in the winter he bites best in large quiet eddies1 to which he retreats after the first heavy flood4 ,the baits for perch are various1 as well as the manner of using them4 ,of worms1 the best are brandlings1 and red dunghill-worms1 well scoured4 ,the hook may be varied from ,no4 #b to #f1 being well whipped to a strong silkworm gut1 with a shot or two a foot from it4 ,put the point of the hook in at the head of the worm1 out again a little lower than the middle1 pushing it above the shank of the hook upon the gut2 then put the point of the hook into the worm again the reverse way1 and draw the head part down so as to cover the hook entirely4 ,this is the most enticing method that can be adopted in worm-fishing4 ,use a small cork float to keep the bait at six or twelve inches from the bottom1 or sometimes about mid-water4 ,in angling near the bottom1 raise the bait very frequently from thence almost to the surface1 letting it gradually fall again4 ,should a good shoal be met with1 they are so greedy that sometimes they may be all caught4 ,other baits for perch are cadbait and gentles2 but the best and most enticing bait is a live minnow4 ,if you find the fish shy1 try not long in one spot4 ,in baiting your hook with the minnow1 fix your hook through his upper lip1 and use a small reel with your rod4 ,your hook should be ,no4 #e1 fastened to a link of gut4 ,,the ,,grayling4 ,the grayling is a fish of elegant form2 the back is of a dusky purple1 the sides of a fine silvery grey1 with the scales in long parallel rows or lines 7from which the fish derives its name71 marked with black spots1 irregularly placed4 ,it is rather a hog-backed fish2 and1 from the nose and belly touching the ground together1 is supposed to feed mostly at the bottom4 ,in length it seldom exceeds sixteen inches1 but some have been caught upwards of five pounds in weight4 ,illustration ,the haunts of the grayling are in rapid1 clear streams1 particularly such as flow through mountainous countries4 ,they are usually taken in the same manner as the trout1 and with similar baits4 ,they do not bite freely till late in ,august1 or early in ,september1 and may be found at the tails of sharp streams and in deep water4 ,they rise more boldly than the trout1 and if missed several times will still pursue the bait4 ,they will bite during the whole of the cold cloudy days2 but the preferable time to look after them is between eight and twelve o'clock in the morning1 and from four in the afternoon till after sunset4 ,grasshoppers1 wasp-grubs1 maggots1 and the artificial fly1 are the most killing baits4 ,,the ,,chub4 ,this fish takes its name from the shape of the head1 not only in our own1 but in other languages4 ,the head and back are of a deep dusky green1 the sides silvery4 ,the tail is forked1 and very black at the end1 and altogether the chub is rather a handsome fish1 although its flesh is not much in esteem4 ,the haunts of the chub are in rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay1 or which flow over a gravelly bottom1 in deep holes1 under hollow banks2 in summer1 particularly where shaded by trees1 c4 they frequently float on the surface1 and are sometimes found in streams and deep waters1 where the currents are strong4 ,in ponds fed by a rivulet they grow to a large size4 ,illustration ,to fish for chub at the bottom1 you should have a stout long rod1 a strong line 7and if you use a reel1 you will be the better able to fish under bushes71 with two yards or more of the best silkworm gut at bottom2 a hook proportionate to the bait used2 a swan-quill float2 and the line so shotted1 eight or ten inches from the hook1 as to sink the float to a quarter of an inch above the surface4 ,the same groundbait is to be used as for carp4 ,the best baits are greaves1 cheese paste1 or the tail end of a well-scoured lob-worm4 ,the cockchafer is also a very tempting bait1 especially towards dusk3 no float or shot are required for this4 ,after baiting your hook with a cockchafer1 move it two or three times near the surface1 as in the act of flying2 then drop it in the water1 tapping the rod gently1 which will cause the appearance of its struggling to escape4 ,this attracts the chub1 who are so fond of this bait1 that they will rise two or three at a time to seize it4 ,but mind and be ready with your landing-net4 ,the chub will take a grub1 wasps1 maggots1 paste of fine new bread worked in the hand1 and tinged with vermilion1 to make it look like salmon-roe2 but the best bait for bottom or float-fishing for the chub is new ,cheshire cheese1 worked with the crumb of a new roll1 or the pith from the backbone of an ox4 ,in baiting with the cheese1 put a round lump the size of a cherry on a large hook1 so as to cover the bend1 and some way up the shank2 fish six inches from the bottom1 or in cold weather the bait may lie on the ground4 ,when there is a bite1 the float will be drawn under water3 strike immediately1 and give him play1 holding a tolerably tight line1 to keep the fish clear from weeds and stumps4 ,the best time for fishing for chub is chiefly before sunrise to nine in the morning1 and from four till after sunset in the summer2 but1 in winter1 the middle of the day is best4 ,in hot weather1 the chub is to be fished for at or near the top of the water1 and not deeper than midwater2 and in cold weather1 close to or near the bottom2 and the main point in taking the fish is for the angler to keep himself out of sight4 ,a very deadly way of killing chub1 and certainly the most artistic method1 is with the artificial fly1 used as in trout fishing4 ,flies are made expressly for this purpose1 and of these the best are red and black palmers1 and the ,marlow buzz4 ,,the ,,carp4 ,carp are esteemed among the richest fresh-water fish we have in the kingdom1 and are as cunning as foxes4 ,the angler1 therefore1 must be 8wide awake0 to catch him1 and also as patient as a saint4 ,he may1 however1 fish for him at any time in the day during warm weather4 ,the bait may be either worms or paste4 ,of worms1 the bluish marsh or meadow is the best2 but a red-worm1 not too big1 will do3 of paste1 the best is made of bread and honey2 and the spot intended should be well baited beforehand4 ,in a large pond1 to draw them together1 throw in either grains1 or soaked bread worked up with meal or bran2 follow this with a few of the small baits you intend to angle with4 ,illustration ,whilst you are fishing1 chew a little bread1 and throw it in about the place where your float swims4 ,in fishing for carp in ponds1 the bait and about half a foot of the gut nearest the hook should lie on the bottom2 otherwise the carp will continually suck the bait off4 ,when the carp has fairly taken the bait1 you will perceive the float move steadily away or under water1 then strike1 and not till then4 ,in this way1 with due patience1 you will prove a match for these crafty fish4 ,,the ,,tench4 ,the tench is one of our most useful fresh-water fishes1 for the ease with which it may be preserved1 and the goodness of its flesh4 ,it is very usual to breed it in ponds1 but naturally1 like many others of the carp tribe1 it is generally found in lakes and still waters2 its favourite haunts are in places well shaded with bushes or rushes4 ,in standing waters1 it lies under weeds1 near sluices1 and at pond-heads4 ,illustration ,the best baits for tench are bread paste and red worms1 but he usually prefers the latter4 ,he feeds best in the three hot months4 ,the worm should be put on the hook in the method directed for perch1 but the hook itself should be of a somewhat smaller size4 ,use a light float and strong gut line1 and let the bait swim within an inch or two of the bottom4 ,,the ,,pope1 ,,or ,,ruff1 ,is something like a perch in shape1 but more bluff and bulky4 ,he is found principally in slow1 deep1 quiet rivers1 which have a loamy bottom4 ,the spawning time is in ,april4 ,the best baits for him are red-worms and brandlings4 ,the places where he is to be had are where the water is deep and still2 and these places should be baited with some clay-balls1 with which worms are mixed4 ,should the water be muddy1 worms will do alone2 but if clear1 clay must be used to render it opaque before you fish4 ,the fish will bite at any time of a warm summer's day1 when the sky is cloudy4 ,in angling1 use a ,no4 #h or #i hook1 with a quill float2 and the moment you see the float disappear1 strike4 ,illustration ,,the ,,bream4 ,the bream1 at full growth1 is a large and stately fish1 and is oftentimes as fat as a hog4 ,he is principally found in large ponds or in lakes1 and in still rivers where the waters are deep and shaded by weeds2 and may be taken throughout the latter part of summer and autumn4 ,the baits are many3 paste made of white bread and honey1 gentles1 wasp-grubs1 and brandlings2 but much the best general bait is the tail end of a lob-worm4 ,use lob-worms1 cut in pieces1 brewers' grains1 or greaves1 as groundbaits in the places where you intend to angle4 ,use a gut line1 quill float1 and hook the same as for perch4 ,sound the bottom1 which should be eight or ten feet deep1 and stand at least two yards from the bank from which you fish2 the bait should just touch or trip along the bottom4 ,,the ,,flounder4 ,the flounder is a well-known flat-fish very common about our own coasts2 and should any of our young friends be at the seaside1 it is well that they should know how to take flounder4 ,they are also found in rivers1 at some distance from the sea4 ,they may be taken in ,may1 ,july1 and ,august1--not in ,june1 as that is their spawning time4 ,the best baits are red-worms and marsh-worms1 on a ,no4 #f hook2 and you should fish at the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,flounder4 ,,eels4 ,eels are denizens of the mud2 but they are fond of clean not foul mud1 and ought never to be sought after in filthy places4 ,there are many modes of taking them3 by rod and line1 by dead line1 by sniggling1 by bobbing1 and by spearing4 ,when a rod is used1 you should put a brandling or red-worm on a ,no4 #h hook2 the bait should touch the bottom2 and1 when you have a 8bite10 the float should be drawn quite under water before you strike4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the dead line is a line of whipcord1 with hooks about two feet asunder1 baited with lob-worms or small fish1 and having a weight at the end4 ,you should also have a bank-runner--a reel on a pin or stake stuck into the ground on the edge of the bank2 the line and baits should be thrown in1 and left for the eels to amuse themselves with1--looked to1 and drawn up at your leisure4 ,in sniggling1 a lob-worm is put upon a stout worsted needle2 the line is on a winder2 and the fish will be found near flood-gates1 wharfings1 bridges1 piles1 holes in the banks of rivers1 ponds1 and canals4 ,the bait should be put into the lurking-places of the eel1 by means of a stick with a forked head2 and when the bait is taken1 which will easily be known by the pull of the string1 strike4 ,bobbing for eels4--,in this process long red-worms are strung on threads of worsted1 until a bunch as large as the two fists is formed around a piece of lead4 ,the whole is sunk to the bottom1 or nearly so1 then raised a little1 then depressed1 so as to induce the eels to bite4 ,when this occurs1 heave up without hurry4 ,the number of eels taken in this way is often prodigious4 ,in spearing eels1 the spearer usually goes into the mud in a pair of pants or mud pattens1 pieces of square board fastened into the heel to prevent sinking4 ,he takes an eel-spear in his hand1 something like ,neptune's trident1 and progs the mud all over1 and the eels are caught between the forked blades of the spear4 ,great numbers of eels are taken in this way on the muddy ooze of salt or fresh-water rivers4 ,,the ,,stickleback ,,and ,,minnow4 ,illustration ,the stickleback is a dark-coloured little fish1 found in ditches and ponds4 ,they are best caught with a small hand-net1 and are occasionally used as bait for perch4 ,the minnow is very beautiful in appearance1 being of a rose colour underneath1 and may be taken with a worm and a ,no4 #ac hook at any time of day2 but more easily with a small hand-net4 ,they are commonly found in little rivulets1 rills1 or small sandy streams1 and are highly prized by the angler as baits for many kinds of fish4 ,,the ,,barbel4 ,the barbel is a bold1 sturdy1 handsome-looking fish1 although its flesh is coarse to the eater2 but he is a rare fellow for sport1 and often affords great amusement as well as chagrin to the angler by his bolting off with the line by a 8coup de barbel10 and breaking it with his tail4 ,izaak ,walton says1 that barbel 8flock together like sheep40 ,barbel are to be found in the strongest runs of water4 ,in summer1 they love the shallowest and sharpest streams1 and will lurk under weeds1 and will root and dig in the sand like pigs4 ,sometimes he retires to deep and swift bridges1 or to flood-gates or weirs1 and will rest himself against piles or hollow places4 ,in winter he gets into deep water4 ,illustration3 ,,barbel ,,with ,,gold ,,carp4 ,in fishing for barbel in large streams1 you should go out in a boat provided with greaves1 gentles1 and red-worms2 and1 before you begin fishing1 you should throw in plenty of groundbait--such as soaked greaves1 bran and clay made into small balls1 maggots1 or lob-worms4 ,they may be angled for with a stout rod1 strong running line1 cork float1 and ,no4 #g or #h hook1 baited with marshworms or greaves4 ,the barbel being a sharp biter1 strike the moment you feel a nibble4 ,he may be caught from ,may to ,october all day1 but best in the morning and evening4 ,after he is struck he will frequently make a run1 but you must play him gently2 keep him clear of weeds1 and try to get him into deep water2 and when you have him1 mind he does not bounce out of your hand and drop down the stream again4 ,,natural ,,fly-,,fishing1 ,,or ,,dipping4 ,fishing with a fly may be practised either with the natural fly1 usually called 8dipping10 or with the artificial fly2 in which latter case the sport is called 8fly-fishing10 or sometimes 8whipping40 ,dipping requires a moderately long and stiff rod1 of about twelve or thirteen feet4 ,the line should not be above a yard in length from the end of the rod1 but the reel should contain sufficient to play the fish if necessary4 ,when the river is much overhung with bushes1 it is a good plan to wind the line round the end of the top joint1 leaving only a few inches dependent2 and then1 having thrust the rod through some small opening in the bushes1 gradually to unwind the line by turning the rod in the hand1 so as to drop the fly on the water in the most gentle manner4 ,in this insidious way large fish are often taken with any of the flies which are in season and found at the time on the banks of the river which is fished1 especially if they are only just coming out1 and the fish are not yet satiated with them4 ,it is quite needless to give a list of the natural flies which are likely to prove serviceable to the fisherman1 because he has only to look for those which at the time are tempting the fish1 and then to endeavour to find them on the banks1 and at once to try their powers4 ,in the case of chub1 however1 he will find grasshoppers and humble-bees more useful than any of the flies1 and yet they are neither of them often seen upon the waters1 and may be considered exceptional cases4 ,the fish which will generally take the natural fly are grayling1 trout1 chub1 and dace4 ,,fly-,,fishing ,,and ,,artificial ,,flies4 ,for this delightful sport1 which captivates alike the sexagenarian and the schoolboy1 rods and tackle of the finest quality are required4 ,it is true1 that a good workman will take fish even with a willow wand1 but still he would do far better with a rod turned out by a good maker2 and few young hands will be able to do much without a well-finished specimen of the art of rod-making4 ,the rod should be strong1 yet fine1 and either of dressed silk1 or silk and hair mixed4 ,the lower portion1 called the foot-length1 is of gut1 generally occupying about five or six feet of it1 to which one1 two1 or three flies are attached1 the one at the end being called a stretcher1 and the others droppers4 ,the fly-fisher should be able to make his own flies1 as there is a great advantage in being able to 8do for oneself20 and it may sometimes happen that he may be out of a particular fly when far away from 8fly shops40 ,,materials ,,for ,,making ,,flies4 ,feathers of various kinds2 hairs of various kinds2 very fine sewing silk2 gold and silver twist4 ,of the first1 the young fly-fisher must provide himself with the feathers of the duck1 cock1 grouse1 snipe1 bittern1 woodcock1 partridge1 landrail1 starling1 jay1 golden plover1 and peacock4 ,of the second1 the fur from ,tommy's tail1 from the skins of squirrels1 moles1 and water rats1 camel's hair1 hare's ear1 fur from its neck1 the yellow fur from the neck of the martin1 mohairs of different shades1 camlets1 black horsehair1 hog's down dyed various colours4 ,and with these1 gimps1 silks1 and tinsel1 a good pair of pliers1 and a pair of fine-pointed scissors4 ,in making your fly1 imitate as nearly as possible the natural fly you wish to represent2 to do this properly1 it will be well to dissect a natural fly1 and to imitate its several parts1 and then to reconstruct it with a reference to the whole4 ,with a hook of the proper size1 and a feather of the right colour1 the fly-maker may now commence4 ,his feather must be stripped down on each side1 leaving just so much as will do for the wings at the fine end2 a piece of fine gut1 free from imperfection1 and properly tested as to its strength2 dubbing or hackle2 and a piece of fine silk well waxed with shoemaker's wax4 ,let the essay be now made4 ,hold your hook in the left hand1 wrap the silk round the bare hook two or three times1 and put the finest end of the gut on the under side of the hook4 ,if you are working for a tackle fly1 begin at the band and work up to the head1 after turning three or four times round the hook and gut2 fasten on the tackle1 and continue the winding of the silk until it reaches the end of the hook1 then turn it back two or three times1 to form the head4 ,the dubbing must now be twisted round the silk1 and wrapped upon the hook for nearly half the proposed length of the body2 fasten it there by a single loop1 that both hands may be at liberty to manage the tackle4 ,when sufficient of the feather is wound upon the hook1 the remainder should be held under the thumb of the left hand1 and the entangled fibres picked out with a needle4 ,the silk and dubbing must now be twisted over the end of the tackle1 until the body of the fly is of the length required1 and then fastened4 ,if gold or silver twist is used1 the twist should be fastened to the lower end of the body before the dubbing is applied to the silk4 ,to make a winged fly1 the same method must be observed in tying on the hook2 then take the feather which is to form the wings1 and place it even on the upper side of the shank1 with the roots pointing towards the bend of the hook2 fasten the feathers1 by winding the silk over it1 and cut the root end close with a pair of scissors1 and divide the wings as equally as possible with a needle1 passing the silk two or three times between them1 to make them stand in a proper position2 bring the silk down the shank of the hook the proposed length of the body1 and fasten it1 then apply the dubbing to the silk1 and twist it towards the wings2 fasten in the hackle for legs1 and wind it neatly under the wings1 so as to hide the ends of the cut fibres3 the silk must be fastened above the wings--be careful of this4 ,it would be impossible for us1 nor would it be very useful to the young fly-fisher1 to give him directions for making every kind of fly4 ,we may1 however1 throw out a few hints concerning the making of most of the flies in common use1 and of the materials employed4 ,illustration #a4 ,the green drake or ,may fly4--,this is one of the most killing trout flies1 but it is seldom in the water for a longer period than three weeks4 ,the time of its appearance varies in different rivers1 but it generally rises about the last week in ,may1 and continues for about three weeks4 ,the wings are made of the light feathers of a grey drake1 dyed a pale yellow-green colour1 by being boiled for a minute or two in a decoction of green vitriol4 ,the body is formed of amber-coloured mohair or silk ribbon1 with dark green silk2 the head of peacock's harl1 and the tail of three long hairs taken from a sable muff4 #b4 ,the black gnat4--,the body of this fly is made of black ostrich harl1 and the wings of a pale starling's feather2 it must be dressed short and thick4 ,it is in use from the end of ,april till the end of ,may1 and is a good killer when the water is low4 #c4 ,hare's ear4--,the wings are made from the feather of a starling's wing1 the body from the fur of the hare's ear1 the legs of a ginger cock's hackle4 #d4 ,cock tail4--,wings of the light feather from a snipe's wing1 the body of yellow mohair4 #e4 ,whirling dun4--,wings of a snipe's feather1 body of blue fur wrapped with yellow silk1 and a blue cock's hackle for legs2 the tail of two hairs from a coloured muff4 #f4 ,grey drake4--,wings of a dark grey feather of the mallard1 the body of white silk1 striped with dark silk1 the head of a peacock's harl1 and the tail of three hairs from a sable muff4 #g4 ,cowdung fly4--,the wings of the feather of a landrail1 the body of yellow camlet1 mixed with a little brown bear-fur1 and a ginger hackle for legs2 the wings should be dressed flat4 #h4 ,bee fly4--,the body of thread of various colours1 arranged in stripes of the following order3--black1 white1 light yellow1 white1 black1 white2 the legs of a black hackle2 the wings from the feathers of a blue pigeon's wing3 the body must be dressed thick4 #i4 ,red palmer4--,the body of dark-red mohair1 ribbed with gold twist1 and wrapped with a red cock's hackle4 #aj4 ,peacock palmer4--,the body of a peacock's harl1 wrapped with a dusky-red cock's hackle4 #aa4 ,kingdom fly4--,wings of a woodcock's feather1 the body of white silk1 striped with green1 and the legs of a red cock's hackle4 #ab4 ,white gnat4--,the wings of a small white feather1 the body of white silk1 and the legs of a red cock's hackle4 #ac4 ,blue dun4--,the wings of a starling's feather1 the body of blue fur from a water rat1 mixed with a little lemon-colour mohair2 the tail is forked1 and should be made of two fibres from the feather used for the wing4 #ad4 ,red ant4--,the wings of a light starling's feather1 the body of peacock's harl made thick at the tail1 and a ginger hackle for legs4 #ae4 ,gold spinner4--,wings of a starling's feather1 body of orange silk1 ribbed with gold twist1 and the legs of a red hackle4 #af4 ,great white moth4--,wings of a feather from the wing of a white owl1 the body of white cotton1 and a white cock's hackle wrapped round the body4 #ag4 ,governor4--,wings of a woodcock's feather1 the body of a peacock's harl1 tied with orange silk4 #ah4 ,march brown4--,wings of the dark mottled feather from the tail of a partridge1 the body of fur from a hare's ear1 well mixed with a little yellow worsted1 and a grizzled cock's hackle for legs4 #ai4 ,stone fly4--,wings of a dusky-blue cock's hackle1 or a mottled feather from a hen pheasant1 the body of dark-brown and yellow camlet mixed1 and a grizzled hackle for legs2 the wings should be flat4 #bj4 ,black silver palmer4--,the body of black ostrich harl1 ribbed with silver twist1 and wrapped with black cock's hackle4 #ba4 ,willow fly4--,the wings of dark grizzled cock's hackle1 the body of blue squirrel's fur1 mixed with yellow mohair4 #bb4 ,yellow palmer4--,the wings of white hackle1 dyed yellow1 the body of yellow silk4 #bc4 ,black palmer4--,the body of black ostrich's harl1 wrapped with a black cock's hackle4 #bd4 ,black palmer ribbed with gold4--,the body of peacock's harl1 wrapped with a black cock's hackle1 and ribbed with gold twist4 #be4 ,marlow ,buzz or ,cock-a-,boundhu4--,this is one of the most killing flies known1 and should never be off the line during the trout season4 ,the body of peacock's harl1 ribbed with gold twist1 and a dark-red cock's hackle over all4 #bf4 ,the ,grouse ,hackle4--,this is also a very killing fly1 especially late in the evening1 during ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,body of brown fur1 ribbed with gold twist1 and a grouse hackle over all2 hook ,no4 #aj4 ,the foregoing list comprises twenty-six of the most killing flies2 and the following are the months in which they will be found to kill best4 ,february1 red cowdung fly1 blue dun2 ,march1 brown2 ,april1 black gnat1 stone fly1 gravel or spider fly1 the green tail1 brown1 blue dun2 ,may1 green drake1 grey drake1 oak fly1 hazel fly1 little iron blue and yellow sally2 ,june1 hare's ear1 cock tail1 whirling dun1 marlow buzz1 bee fly1 kingdom fly1 white gnat1 blue gnat1 blue dun1 governor1 fern fly2 gold spinner2 ,july1 red ant1 red spinner1 yellow dun1 coachman1 fern fly2 ,august1 whirling blue1 red spinner1 pale yellow dun2 ,september1 willow fly1 silver twisted blue1 whirling blue4 ,it would of course be impossible1 in a work of this description1 to give a list of all the artificial flies used by experienced fishermen1 but the above are a few of the most killing4 ,for bleak1 dace1 roach1 chub1 c4 a piece of a maggot1 or a small piece of white leather1 should be placed at the end of the hook4 ,having thus given the 8order of flies10 natural and artificial1 we may imagine the young fly-fisher1 with rod in hand1 proportionate to his strength and the breadth of the stream1 ready to throw his fly2 but let his rod and running tackle be in good order1 and the idea of the coachman's whip out of his mind4 ,he is not to flog the water1 but to tickle it4 ,the novice should teach himself to handle the line1 by beginning with it alone1 7i4 e4 without flies or hook17 trying a short length first1 and lengthening it gradually4 ,in using the rod1 it should be drawn vigorously back1 though without a jerk1 and thrown forward again when the line has reached its full extent behind4 ,take care in doing this1 that the fly be not whipped off4 ,when tolerably expert1 put on one fly1 and try awhile with that1 adopting two or three when able to use them properly4 ,in fly-fishing keep as far from the water as possible1 especially if fishing for trout4 ,let only the flies touch the water1 and keep moving them gently and slowly on the surface4 ,when a fish rises1 let not a moment elapse before you strike1 and do it sharply4 ,when you have two flies on your line1 you must try to throw your line so that the bottom fly shall reach the water first2 it must be done always as lightly as possible1 so that it may resemble a natural fly settling upon the water4 ,you must suffer the line to float gently down the stream1 at the same time working it towards you4 ,the best time for angling with the fly is when there is a gentle breeze upon the water2 south and west winds are to be preferred1 when the water has been disturbed by heavy rains and is just resuming its natural colour1 or when the day is dull and cloudy4 ,the best time1 morning and evening4 ,in cold weather the fish bite deeper1 and you should then let the fly sink a little4 ,take care to have the wind in your back1 and the sun in your face1 if possible4 ,when you see a rise1 throw your fly about half a yard above the fish's nose1 and let it fall down with the stream2 watch it narrowly1 and strike as the fish rises1 giving him an 8infinite little moment0 to taste4 ,when you have hooked1 play your fish carefully1 keeping up his head and running him down the stream1 at the same time steering him towards you4 ,if you see a fish rise at a natural fly1 throw your bait a little before him1 so that he may take it as 8one of the number40 ,to know what flies the fish are most likely to take1 observe what natural flies are about the water1 or on the grass1 trees1 or bushes in the vicinity of the river2 and take that fly which is the most in abundance1 either natural or artificial at your discretion4 ,such are a few practical particulars concerning angling and fly-fishing1 sufficient to enable any young angler to begin4 ,for more abundant information we refer him to ,mr4 ,stoddart and ,mr4 ,stewart1 for fly-fishing1 ,mr4 ,cholmondeley ,pennell for pike-fishing1 8,hewitt ,wheatley0 for grayling fishing1 and ,mr4 ,francis ,francis for the various modes of bottom fishing4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,archery4 8,and he was clad in coat and pode of grene2 ,a shefe of pecocke arrows bryght and shene ,under his belt he bare1 ful threftely4 ,well coude he dresse his tackle yomanly4 ,his arrows drouped not with feathers lowe1 ,and in his hande he bare a myghty bowe40--,,chaucer4 ,the skill of the ,english in archery was always very great4 ,our ancestors used the bow for a double purpose3 in time of war1 it was a far more dreadful instrument of destruction than our present soldier's musket2 while in the 8piping times of peace10 it became an object of amusement4 ,the victories the ,english obtained over their enemies in times of war were many1 and what the world calls glorious2 and they stand upon record in our history1 where the young reader may peruse them with interest and advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,saxon ,,bow ,,and ,,arrow4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons and the ,danes were certainly well acquainted with the use of the bow1 which they used1 not so much for war purposes1 as in the sports of the field4 ,but it is well known that the ,normans used the bow as a military weapon1 and under their government the practice of archery was not only much improved1 but generally diffused throughout the kingdom4 ,the long-bow was an instrument of ,norman introduction1 and there seems good reason to believe that the arbalist1 or cross-bow1 was used by these sturdy invaders4 ,,the ,,long-,,bow4 ,illustration3 ,,norman-,,bow4 ,the use of the ,english long-bow arrived at the highest perfection in the reign of ,edward ,,iii42 and1 notwithstanding the introduction of fire-arms1 continued for a long time after to be successfully cultivated4 ,cressy1 ,poictiers1 ,agincourt1 and many other victories1 were obtained by its use2 and ,sir ,john ,fortescue writes1 8,that mighte of the realme of ,englande standyth upon her archers10--as it will now upon our riflemen or sharpshooters1 when our army shall get the right kind of gun4 ,,the ,,cross-,,bow4 ,illustration ,the cross-bow1 or arbalist1 was a popular weapon with the ,etolians1 and was introduced into ,england in the thirteenth century4 ,the arrows shot from it were called 8guorrels40 ,it was fastened upon a stock1 and discharged by means of a catch or trigger1 which probably gave rise to the lock on the modern musket4 ,one historian informs us1 that ,richard the ,first was wounded by an arrow from a bow of this kind2 and also1 that the ,english cross-bow was used chiefly at sieges of fortified places1 and on ship-board in battles upon the sea4 ,it was1 however1 used in recreation1 and acquired great reputation among the citizens of ,london1 who had 8butts0 in various places for the practice of this kind of archery2 as at ,newington ,butts1 ,brentford ,butts1 and other spots1 which still retain the name of ,butts3 and in the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 an act passed1 which directed that butts should be in every township1 where the inhabitants should shoot on every feast-day1 under a penalty of a halfpenny when they shall omit the exercise4 ,illustration ,,feats ,,of ,,the ,,bow4 ,mr4 ,grose informs us that an archer could shoot six arrows in the time necessary to charge and discharge a musket2 and even in modern days1 a practised bowman has been known to shoot twelve arrows in a minute into a circle not larger than the circumference of a man's hat1 at a distance of forty yards4 ,of the power of the bow1 and of the distance it will carry1 some remarkable anecdotes are told4 ,xenophon mentions an ,arcadian1 whose head was shot through by a ,carduchian archer4 ,stuart mentions a random shot of a ,turk1 which he found to be #ehd yards2 and ,mr4 ,strutt saw the ,turkish ambassador shoot #dhj yards in the old archery-ground in ,london4 ,an old author speaks of a ,turkish bow1 the arrow of which was known to pierce a steel target two inches thick4 ,in the journal of ,king ,edward ,,vi41 it is mentioned that #ajj archers of the king's guard shot at an inch board1 and that some of the arrows passed through this1 and into another board behind it1 although the wood was extremely solid and firm4 ,william de ,brensia relates that a ,welshman having directed an arrow at a horse-soldier of his1 who was clad in armour1 and had his leathern coat under it1 the arrow1 beside piercing the man through the hip1 struck also through the saddle1 and mortally wounded the horse on which he sat4 ,another ,welsh soldier having shot an arrow at one of his horsemen1 who was covered with strong armour1 the shaft penetrated through his thigh1 and fixed in the saddle2 but what is most remarkable is1 that as the horseman drew his bridle aside1 in order to turn round1 he received another arrow in the opposite thigh1 which passing through it1 he was firmly fixed to the saddle on both sides4 ,mr4 ,barrington1 in the 8,archologi10 relates a tradition that one ,leigh1 an attorney 7it must have been a barrister71 shot an arrow a mile in three flights2 and ,carew1 speaking of the ,cornish archers two centuries back1 says that the butts for long shooting were placed #dhj yards apart4 ,such1 my good friends1 are the feats you may emulate with the bow4 ,,length ,,of ,,bows ,,and ,,arrows1 ,,and ,,how ,,used ,,in ,,ancient ,,times4 ,illustration3 ,,norman ,,bowman ,,equipped ,,for ,,battle4 ,the length of the bow varied1 but was usually the height of the bearer1 as the ,act of ,edward ,,iv4 commands every man to have a bow his own height4 ,the arrows were of different weights and sizes2 the lighter sort1 for long ranges1 about two feet three inches2 while the heavy were a cloth yard in length4 ,the heads had various shapes1 among which the broad arrow extended in width to nearly four inches to the extremity of the wings4 ,of these1 #bd in a sheaf were put into a quiver1 and1 in action1 about #ab in the girdle4 ,they were trimmed with three goose-quill feathers each1 and when the archers shot in volley1 the quantity of arrows in the air was compared by ,froissart to a fall of snow4 ,the farthest range of arrows was estimated at eleven score yards4 ,the archers1 in order of battle1 generally carried1 beside the bow1 axe1 and target1 a stake pointed at both ends4 ,they formed in open ranks1 in files eight deep4 ,when on the point of engaging1 they advanced a few paces beyond the intended line1 and fixed their stakes1 inclined towards the enemy1 in the ground4 ,they then stepped backward1 and from behind these chevaux-de-frise dealt forth their destructive arrows2 and when the enemy were thrown into confusion1 they sallied1 and with small battle-axes and swords completed the defeat4 ,,marks ,,for ,,shooting ,,at4 ,the marks usually shot at by the archers for pastime were 8butts10 8prickes10 and 8rovers40 ,the 8butt0 was a level mark1 made by placing a target on a slope of a hill or bank of earth1 and required a strong arrow4 ,the 8pricke0 was a 8mark of compass10 but always of one distance1 and had some emblem on a pole for shooting at2 and to this mark strong swift arrows of one flight1 with a middling size feather1 were best suited4 ,the 8rover0 was a mark of uncertain length1 and often an arrow shot forth from a bow4 ,other marks were used1 as the standard1 the target1 hazel-wands1 rose-garlands1 and the popinjay1 which was an artificial parrot or peacock1 or sometimes the common cock1 set upon a post or pole1 as seen in the engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,shooting ,,at ,,the ,,popinjay4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,archery4 ,roger ,ascham1 who was well versed in the subject of archery1 says that it was necessary for the archer to have a bracer1 or close sleeve1 to lace upon the left arm2 and to this was added a shooting-glove for the protection of the fingers4 ,the bow was to be made of elm1 ash1 or yew2 the bow-string to be composed of good hemp1 flax1 or silk2 the arrows were to be made of oak1 hornbeam1 or birch4 ,the feathers from a goose1 and especially of a grey goose1 he thought preferable to any for the pluming of an arrow4 ,,ancient ,,directions ,,for ,,archery4 ,ascham says3 8,first take care of a graceful attitude40 ,the archer should stand fairly and upright with his body1 his left foot at a convenient distance from his right1 holding the bow by its middle1 with his left arm stretched out1 and with the first three fingers and the thumb of his right hand on the lower part of the arrow affixed to the string of the bow4 ,the notch of the arrow to rest between the fore-finger and the middle finger of the right hand4 ,the arrow1 in drawing the bow1 was to be elevated to the right ear4 ,the shaft of the arrow below the feathers to be rested on the knuckle of the fore-finger of the left hand4 ,the arrow was to be drawn to the head1 and not held too long in that situation1 but neatly and smartly discharged4 ,among the requisites necessary to constitute a good archer are1 a clear sight steadily directed to the mark1--a proper judgment of distances1 to determine the length of the ground4 ,he ought also to know how to take advantage of a side-wind1 and to be well acquainted with what compass his arrows would take in their flight4 8,courage10 he says also1 8is an indispensable requisite2 as he who shoots with the least trepidation is sure to shoot badly40 ,,decline ,,of ,,archery4 ,notwithstanding the great advantages of archery in ancient days1 somehow or other it began to decline even at the time of its zenith2 so that1 from time to time1 acts of parliament were made to compel the citizens of ,london1 and other towns1 to practise it4 ,some of our monarchs made sumptuous archery entertainments4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 a grand shooting-match was held in ,london of all the archers in the surrounding districts2 and these meeting at the appointed time1 with their different companies1 proceeded in a pompous march from ,merchant ,tailors' ,hall1 numbering #c1jjj archers1 sumptuously apparelled1 every man having a long-bow and four arrows2 #idj of them had gold chains about their necks4 ,this splendid company was attended by #d1jjj whifflers and bellmen4 ,the queen met them in ,smithfield1 and presided at their sports4 ,but still the art continued to decline1 and1 with the increase of other warlike weapons1 became at last almost extinct4 ,within these few years1 however1 it has again become a somewhat favourite exercise1 near ,london1 and in various parts of the country4 ,in ,scotland1 the 8,royal ,company of ,archers0--the ,queen's body-guard for ,scotland--comprises many of the ,scottish nobility1 and ,king ,george ,,iv4 recognised it4 ,it now comprises about #ejj members1 who meet weekly1 and at certain seasons contend for several annual prizes4 ,convinced as we are that the practice of archery possesses1 in point of health1 all the advantages of field sports1 without their cruelty to animals1 and demoralizing oppression to our fellow-creatures1 we strongly recommend it to our juvenile friends4 ,it is an exercise adapted to every age and every degree of strength2 and especially adapted to young ladies1 whose sedentary occupations1--rendered still more injurious by the pestiferous ,berlin wool1--disposes them to disease and consumption4 ,i do not wish to sing the praises of the art to their full extent1 but ,i wish to see it universally cultivated1 and should hail with pleasure the time when it can be again said1 as with ,statius1 8,pudor est nescere sagittas40 ,,modern ,,archery4 ,proceeding now to the modern practice of the art1 we must first begin with ,,the ,,bow4 ,the ,bow may be made of the yew-tree1 laburnum1 thorn1 or acacia1 and is generally formed of two pieces of wood joined together1 the back piece being of a different wood to the front1 and the grain reversed4 ,it is of great importance to secure a good bow4 ,we would not1 therefore1 advise the young archer to make one1 but to buy one at a good archery shop1 where they may be had at all prices4 ,upon making a purchase1 he should examine the bow well1 to observe whether it be well set in all its parts1 of an elegant cut or shape1 and free from flaws1 knots1 or cracks4 ,he should look well at the ends1 and to those points on which the bow-string is fixed1 which ought to be tipped with horn4 ,the proper length of a bow for a youth is about five feet4 ,the flat or outward part of a bow is called its back1 and the inward part its belly2 and in stringing it the young archer should be particularly careful to keep the belly inwards1 or the bow will break4 ,,the ,,string4 ,the string of the bow should be made of hemp1 and whipped with sewing silk at that part of it which receives the arrow1 marked ,c in the annexed plan4 ,the thickness of the string should depend upon the length of the bow1 and should never be too thin for its powers1 as the snapping of a string sometimes causes the snapping of the bow4 ,the young archer should never use a string in the least out of order1 and should avoid cat-gut strings especially4 ,a bow five feet long1 when bent1 should have a string about five inches from the centre4 ,this will be a guide in stringing the bow4 ,the young archer should take great pride in the care of his bow1 especially of the string1 and look carefully1 after every day's shooting1 at the 8whipping0 of the string1 and at the wearing points1 repairing the least defect4 ,he ought also to place his bow in an oil-skin case1 lined with baize2 and when put away for the season it should be well rubbed with oil1 and polished4 ,he should also have always two or three spare strings in readiness1 in case the one in use may fly4 ,illustration ,,stringing ,,the ,,bow4 ,the young archer must be very careful in performing this feat1 or he will fail in the attempt2 to do so safely1 he must take the bow in his right hand by the handle1 the flat part towards him2 then let his arm rest against his side1 then put the lower end of the bow against the inside of the right foot1 bring his left foot forward1 and place the centre of the left wrist on the upper level of the bow below the loop of the string1 the fore-finger knuckle on one edge of the bow1 and the top of the thumb upon the other2 then up with the bow and loop it4 ,this feat1 however1 can be best learned by seeing another expert person perform it4 ,in unstringing the bow1 the short horn should be placed on the ground against the right foot1 the middle of the bow grasped in the right hand1 and the left wrist placed on the upper horn1 so that the fore-finger may unloop the string when the bow is brought down1 as in the manner of stringing it4 ,,the ,,arrows4 ,illustration ,arrows are generally made of some white wood1 such as ash1 deal1 or the wood of the orbele poplar1 and are sometimes varnished4 ,they are both blunt and sharp4 ,the sharp ones are for target shooting1 the blunt ones principally for roving2 they also vary as regards length1 some being long1 and some short4 ,in purchasing them1 the principal thing to be attended to is1 that they are perfectly straight1 well made1 and that the plumes are securely fitted4 ,there should be three on each arrow2 one1 which is of a darker colour than the rest1 is called the cock plume1 and in shooting should be placed uppermost4 ,the length and weight of the arrows should be in proportion to the size of the bow4 ,the nicks of arrows should be cased with horn1 and they should fit the string exactly4 ,,the ,,quiver4 ,illustration ,the quiver is used to contain the arrows1 and is usually made of wood1 or tin1 or leather1 those made of the latter material being the most serviceable and convenient to wear4 ,it should be long enough to contain the arrows up to the feather1 without bruising or crushing the plumes1 which ought always to be kept perfectly straight and unruffled4 ,the quiver in shooting is not carried1 but the arrows are placed in a pouch attached to the belt4 ,illustration3 ,,tassel4 ,illustration3 ,,brace4 ,,the ,,tassel1 ,,brace1 ,,belt ,,and ,,pouch4 ,the ,tassel is usually made of green worsted1 and is used by the archer for the purpose of cleansing the arrow from dirt after being taken from the ground4 ,it is usually suspended on the left side of the archer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,belt4 ,the ,brace is of leather1 and is buckled on the arm to save it from being hurt by the string upon the discharge of the arrow4 ,it ought to be very smooth on its surface1 so as to offer no impediment to the bow-string4 ,the ,belt is made of leather1 and is buckled round the waist4 ,it has fastened to it a pouch1 for the temporary reception of the arrows in shooting4 ,,shooting ,,glove1 ,,and ,,grease ,,pot4 ,the ,shooting ,glove is made of cow-hide1 or horse ball leather4 ,it has places or stalls for three fingers only1 with a wrist strap to fasten it on4 ,its use is to protect the fingers from the action of the string1 and in selecting it the young archer should be careful that the finger stalls are neither too long nor too short for the hand4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glove4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,grease ,,pot4 ,the ,grease ,box hangs usually by the side of the tassel1 and contains a small portion of grease composed of suet and bees-wax well compounded4 ,this is used for rubbing on the fingers of the shooting glove1 and is indispensable to the archer4 ,,the ,,target4 ,targets are made with plaited straw bands1 wound round a centre1 and sewn together4 ,over this body is placed a facing of canvass1 the ground of which is painted white2 upon the white are painted four circles1 and a gold centre called the bull's eye4 ,the first circle close to the eye is red2 the next white1 called the inner white2 the third black2 and the fourth white1 called the outer white2 while the outside verge1 called the petticoat of the target1 is painted green4 ,illustration ,a certain value in shooting is given to each circle of the target1 which is thus computed3 ,outer white #a2 ,black #c2 ,inner white #e2 ,red #g1 and the ,gold ,eye #i4 ,there are usually two targets in an archery field1 placed at certain distances from each other1 which shortens the labour of walking2 for if one target only be used1 a great deal of time is lost in going from the shooting mark to the target to fetch the arrows1 and in returning to the spot again4 ,the prizes usually shot for in archery matches are gold and silver medals1 silver cups1 silver arrows1 silver gilt bugles1 prize bows and arrows4 ,there are generally two prizes given2 the first for the shots nearest the gold centre1 the second for the number of shots put into the target1 according to their value4 ,a person is usually appointed to register the shots at the targets1 who has a card similar to the form given below1 by which he takes an account of the hits as they are made4 ,,names ,,gold ,,red ,,inner ,,black ,,outer ,,total ,,value ,,white ,,white ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,smith #b #c #g #c #aa #bf #ajj ,jones #a #f #e #h #g #bg #ajg ,brown #c #d #i #g #ah #da #aci ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,the markings are usually made by the marker with a pin1 holes being less liable to obliteration than pencil marks4 ,,butts4 ,are usually made of pieces of turf piled one upon another1 and laid one upon the other in the following shape4 ,they are usually about six feet high and four feet broad at the face1 upon which a circular piece of thin white pasteboard1 about six inches in diameter1 is affixed with pegs4 ,butts are generally placed in the field in sets of four1 so as not to stand in the way of each other4 ,and when shot at1 the arrows placed in the pasteboard mark are alone reckoned1 and those who here place the greatest number of shots are the winners of the prize4 ,illustration ,,how ,,to ,,draw ,,the ,,bow4 ,the ancient directions for drawing the bow1 or rather the arrow1 have been already given4 ,the archer having placed himself opposite to the target1 with his face a little inclined to the right1 should swing himself slightly round1 so that his eye and the target are in an exact line4 ,he should stand quite upright1 his left foot slightly in advance4 ,holding the bow horizontally in his left hand1 he should draw an arrow from his pouch and carry it under the string and over the left side of the bow4 ,the fore-finger of the left hand now holds the arrow secure on the wooden part of the bow at its centre1 while the right hand fixes the nick of the arrow on the string1 where it is held fast between the first and second fingers1 the cock feather being uppermost4 ,the fore-finger of the left hand may now be removed from the arrow1 and the centre of the bow grasped tightly4 ,the bow is now raised gradually by the left hand1 at the same time that the string is pulled by the right2 and when the arrow is drawn about two-thirds of its length1 the neck of it should be brought close to the right ear and the aim should be taken4 ,the aim should be taken quickly1 and the string loosened freely from the fingers with a peculiar touch1 which no books can teach1 and which nothing but experience and skill can give4 ,in long shots the right hand must be lowered1 and the arrow sent so as to form a greater curve in its flight4 ,the archer should look at his mark1 not at his shaft1 and when he has shot should retreat to the leftward1 and take his position behind the person with whom he is shooting4 ,illustration3 ,,position ,,in ,,shooting4 ,,flight ,,shooting4 ,this is principally engaged in for the purpose of ascertaining the greatest distance to which the arrows can be sent by the respective shooters4 ,it requires no skill in aiming1 but much care in drawing the arrow1 as nothing is more likely to fracture the bow than flight shooting4 ,the archer who sends his arrows to the greatest distance is the winner4 ,,clout ,,shooting4 ,in clout shooting the target is only a small piece of white pasteboard attached to a stick about five feet from the ground1 and placed at a distance of from #abj to #aej yards4 ,in it seven makes the game1 and all arrows that fall within two bows' length of the foot of the stick are marked in counting4 ,,roving4 ,so called from the shooters roving from place to place1 over field1 heath1 moor1 common1 finding their marks in trees1 posts1 bushes1 c4 ,the distances constantly varying1 give to young archers a great deal of practice2 besides which1 the variety of the scenery1 and the various incidents that occur in a day's roving1 are often highly interesting and exciting4 ,by roving the eye gets a habit of measuring distances1 and the hand and arm strength for the bow4 ,blunt-headed arrows are the best for roving1 of which about a dozen ought to be carried by each archer4 ,sharp arrows would imbed themselves too deeply in trees to be easily extracted4 ,in a roving party1 arrows that reach within five bows' length of the mark tell1 and those which are nearest cut the others out4 ,each archer measures with his own bow4 ,the number of the game is often nine1 but generally twelve4 ,,general ,,hints ,,for ,,archers4 #a4 ,in commencing archery never begin with a stiff bow1 but select one adapted to your strength1 and change this for a stronger from time to time4 #b4 ,never shoot with another person's bow4 #c4 ,never put an arrow in the string when any one stands between you and the target1 or you may shoot out an eye4 #d4 ,never talk1 jibe1 or jest at the time of shooting4 #e4 ,always study to take a graceful attitude in shooting1 or in moving about the field4 #f4 ,never draw a bow near another person2 as1 should it snap1 the danger will be greater to him than yourself4 #g4 ,never let your bow-string get untwisted or ravelled by neglect4 #h4 ,never exhibit impatience at the tardy efforts of your compeers1 or chagrin at your own failures4 #i4 ,never shoot alone if you can help it1 as it leads to negligence and indifference4 ,illustration ,,boxing4 ,we will first give briefly some of the reasons why we have determined to mention this branch of the manly exercises4 ,firstly1 we do so because we have a great personal esteem for the art1 though none can be more sternly opposed to its abuse4 ,secondly1 because it affords one of the finest exercises in the world1 employing every limb and every muscle in the body1 giving at the same time readiness of hand and quickness of eye1 while it tests and improves the patience and endurance4 ,and1 thirdly1 because every one likes to know how to use the weapons which ,nature has given him1 and will contrive to acquire the desired knowledge whenever he can find an opportunity4 ,all ,englishmen1 and therefore all ,english boys1 are proud of their natural weapon1 and compare it with the knife1 the loaded stick1 the knuckleduster1 and the pistol of other nations4 ,the principle of fair play and justice is strongly developed in an ,english breast1 and in nothing is the principle so thoroughly carried out as in boxing4 ,no unfair advantage is allowed to either side1 no striking upon the vital parts of the body is permitted1 and the use of the foot1 tooth1 or nail is forbidden under the severest penalties4 ,even in the very prize ring1 where men are trained for the express purpose of hitting each other with the utmost force of which human arms are capable1 there is little harm done1 and in a few days both combatants look as if nothing had happened to them4 ,it is not so even in a wrestling county1 or in some few parts of our own land where men fight like brute beasts1 and use their best endeavours to maim or blind their adversaries for life4 ,a well-known ,american writer has expressed1 in his own humorous language1 the astonishment which he felt at witnessing a short 8turn up0 at an ,english cattle-fair4 ,the grave propriety of the affair1 and the admirable order in which it was conducted1 struck him with profound admiration1 as contrasted with the 8inglorious and inevitable ,yankee clinches1 followed by a general mle10 which in popular language is termed a 8free fight10 and in which every one attacks every one else with any weapons and in any manner4 ,before proceeding to our genuine ,english ,boxing1 we must just mention the ,french 8savate10 of which we have heard so much of late4 ,we have seen it practised and taught in the salles d'armes1 and for it1 as a system for boxing1 we have the profoundest contempt2 as also for that execrable ,french custom of striking upwards with the knee when at close quarters--an atrocity for which we should like to see a man soundly horsewhipped on the spot4 ,now1 the savate simply consists in this4 ,you make a feint1 as if to strike in the usual manner1 and then1 instead of striking with the fist1 you kick with the foot4 ,or1 when your antagonist is pressing you sharply1 you send the point of your toe into his chest1 and stop him4 ,or1 you retreat from him1 suddenly turn round1 and kick at him backwards--of course being quite unable to tell where the blow will alight1 and possibly inflicting an injury the effects of which will be felt for life4 ,those who are practised in this manuvre will employ it with wonderful skill4 ,they will hit you on the nose or on the forehead without the least apparent effort1 and with the greatest certainty2 they will fling you back from your advance with stunning force1 and the effect of the lash-out is terrific4 ,indeed1 if the object of boxing be to use all means of offence and defence1 the savate is indispensable4 ,having many opportunities of visiting several schools of arms1 we carefully considered this system1 which was then totally unknown to us2 and after watching it well for some time1 during our residence in ,paris1 we came to the conclusion that the savate is useful enough in case you are attacked by ruffianly fellows1 whom you must needs maim1 lest they should maim you2 and that by the combined use of the savate and a stick1 or even the fist1 a man may knock over a couple of assailants simultaneously and effectually4 ,and if a ,frenchman who uses the savate were opposed to an ,englishman who never heard of it1 the probability is that the former would win1 because the latter would lay himself open to a mode of attack which he had always been taught to consider unfair and unmanly4 ,but we do not believe that it would be of the slightest value against any one who knew that his antagonist would employ it1 and think that the person attempting to use it would find himself hurled to the ground1 and probably discover that his leg was violently sprained4 ,so much for the savate4 ,it is not easy to teach any branch of the science of arms in a book1 and boxing is perhaps as difficult to be learned from books as fencing4 ,still1 something can be done even through the medium of ink and paper2 and the reader can1 at all events1 learn to avoid the errors to which a total novice is subject4 ,the first and most important point is the position in which the boxer stands4 ,this is not very dissimilar to that of a left-handed fencer1 except that the right arm1 instead of being raised1 is brought across the body1 so that it defends the pit of the stomach 7technically called the 8mark071 and only leaves a very small portion of the chest open to a blow4 ,the left arm is rather higher than if it held a foil1 and the elbow is kept well to the side4 ,this latter point is most important1 as it is impossible to hit straight from the shoulder if the elbow should project from the side4 ,the weight of the body rests mostly on the right leg1 so that the boxer can step backwards or forwards1 while still keeping his side to the adversary4 ,if you stand opposite a good sparrer in boxing attitude1 you will be surprised to find how well guarded he is1 and how difficult it is to hit him1 even if he neither moves nor attempts to return the blow4 ,his left hand keeps you well away from him1 and his right is ready either to stop or throw off your blow4 ,illustration ,it will be seen from the foregoing description1 as well as by reference to the illustration1 that a right-handed boxer stands with his left side towards the opponent1 uses his left hand for the chief part of the hitting1 and reserves the right for stopping1 parrying1 or returning blows when at close quarters1 or what is technically called a 8rally40 ,practise this attitude before a glass4 ,you will soon see if you lay yourself open1 and will learn to stand in a correct position4 ,advance and retreat also before the glass1 and so make sure that you do not expose some weak point while so doing4 ,i met a ,french gentleman who had made himself really a creditable boxer1 merely by practising before his mirror2 and after a few days of practical work with the gloves he became quite a formidable antagonist4 ,illustration ,another important point is the making up of the fist--not such a simple matter as it seems4 ,the fingers must be clenched tightly1 and the thumb doubled down outside them1 so that when presented towards your antagonist he can see no part of it projecting over the fingers4 ,this can also be practised at the glass4 ,if the hand be rightly held1 it will be seen that the knuckles form a kind of arch1 of which the middle knuckle is the keystone4 ,it is with this knuckle that you strike2 and be sure to clench the hand with all your power as you deliver the stroke2 otherwise you will run a sad risk of dislocating either a finger or a thumb4 ,the position of the head is of no small importance4 ,on no account bear forwards1 as is the way of muffs1 but keep it lightly thrown back1 and never take your eye off that of your opponent4 ,greenhorns always lower the head1 and rush at their antagonist with their arms flying about like the sails of a windmill2 and the natural consequence is1 that their opponent quickly steps aside1 lets them pass1 and knocks them neatly over by a blow on the temple1 which they cannot possibly see or guard4 ,having got our attitude and doubled our fist1 we now learn to strike4 ,deliver your blow straight and from the shoulder1 not merely with the arm4 ,put all your body into the stroke1 and aid it with the spring of the right foot against the ground4 ,thus you add to the blow the force of a kick1 and the stroke comes with such terrific force that ,i have seen a tall man lifted fairly off the ground and deposited on his back by a straight shoulder-hit1 even though the two were merely sparring with the gloves4 ,never draw back your hand before you strike1 as that tells your opponent what you are contemplating4 ,your stroke should flash out like the lightning1 without warning and straight to the mark4 ,you cannot strike too rapidly1 and you cannot recover yourself too quickly4 ,practise this repeatedly before a glass1 and note the length of your reach1 for in a knowledge of distance lies half the art of boxing4 ,as a general rule1 if you can get your left toe on a level with your antagonist's heel1 you have your proper distance4 ,this rule1 however1 is necessarily variable1 as in the case of the contest to which allusion has just been made1 where one party could reach a full foot beyond the other1 and had1 in consequence1 the advantage of twelve inches of space at his disposal4 ,now that we have practised the left hand and arm1 let us turn to the right4 ,except when striking1 you need not trouble yourself to close the fist very tightly1 but may let the hand lie in an easy and unconstrained position across the chest1 ready for use in any direction that may be required4 ,the chief use of the right hand and arm are for parrying and stopping1 which are thus achieved3-- ,if your opponent delivers a blow at the face or upper part of the chest1 and you find yourself in a good position1 do not retreat from it1 but fling your right arm sharply outwards and upwards1 catching the opponent's arm by the wrist1 and throwing it out of the direction in which it was aimed4 ,the effect of the parry is very powerful1 as it mostly lays open the antagonist's head1 and gives opportunity for a smart return blow with the left hand2 it is then near the opponent's head1 and has only a short distance to traverse4 ,this return blow is technically called the 8counter10 and is usually very effective1 as it takes effect just at the moment when the antagonist is expecting his own blow to strike1 and turns the tables on him after a rather discouraging fashion4 ,practise this also before the glass1 parrying an imaginary blow from the opponent1 and simultaneously shooting your own left hand against the spot where your antagonist's head ought to be4 ,i have often found that a quick double blow when countering is very embarrassing1 and gives an opportunity of stepping in and planting your right hand after your left with enormous effect4 ,stopping is performed in another manner1 and must often be used where the parry is impracticable4 ,for example1 if your antagonist strikes at the body the parry cannot be accomplished1 and you must either get away1 stop1 or take the blow in hopes of retaliation4 ,in stopping you receive the blow on your arm1 and thereby break its force1 while1 unless your opponent is possessed of herculean strength1 the arm scarcely feels the stroke1 yielding before the assault and acting like the cotton bales that have saved many a ship from the enemy's cannon4 ,if you are fortunate enough to find a good boxer1 get him to give you a few lessons in the practical department of the art1 and in all cases be careful to keep your temper4 ,i know that few things are more annoying than when you have made a telling plan of attack1 and are just about to begin its execution1 to be checked by a short dab on the nose1 which makes your eyes water and the lids blink1 and forces you to act on the defensive for the next few minutes1 while the tears are streaming down your cheeks1 and you cannot use a handkerchief by reason of the gloves4 ,remember that there are two golden rules for a boxer1 namely1 hit straight and keep your temper4 ,fail in either of these requisites1 and you will probably come off second best2 fail in both1 and you will certainly do so4 ,listen to an account of a battle where strength and weight and anger were overmatched by skill and coolness3--8,as the assailant rushed in he ran a prominent feature of his face against a fist which was travelling in another direction1 and immediately after struck the knuckles of the young man's other fist a severe blow with the part of his person known as the epigastrium to one branch of science1 and the bread-basket to another4 ,this second round closed the battle40 ,so we say again1 keep your temper and hit straight4 ,you see a circular blow takes more time to deliver than a straight one1 and if your opponent swings his arm round at you1 while you dart out your own fist at him1 your blow will have taken effect long before his clumsy circumgyratory attempt has completed its journey4 ,let me here offer another piece of advice4 ,do not buy cheap gloves4 ,you may get them at a saving of half-a-crown or so1 but you will soon wish that you had expended the money in obtaining a better pair4 ,gloves require the best horsehair1 arranged after a peculiar fashion1 in order to give them the mixed softness and elasticity which they require4 ,inferior gloves soon become hard and knotty1 the stuffing gets thin in some places1 especially just in those very parts where it is most required4 ,the consequence is1 that the gloves become practically useless1 and the blows are nearly as severe as if struck with the bare hand4 ,remember that1 although we strongly approve of boxing1 it is not to be understood that we want every one to be fighting4 ,we very much approve of fencing and single-stick1 but we certainly have no wish that every one who learns to use the foil or the single-stick in mimic combat should want to try his rapier or his broadsword in deadly fight4 ,as a mere exercise it stands supreme2 but it is even something beyond an exercise4 ,it shows that superior strength and height and weight are powerless before superior skill1 and that a small boy who knows how to box will certainly conquer a big one who is ignorant of the art4 ,we say again1 we do not recommend fighting2 but still it is good to know how to stand up in one's own defence1 and we heartily wish that when we went to school some kind friend had taught us the rudiments of the art4 ,the brutal bully of a school never holds his own when he meets with an antagonist who is skilful in the use of his hands1 and is forced to confess that his brute strength and cruel nature are useless in such a contest4 ,we once saw a school bully get his deserts in a charming manner4 ,he had fallen upon 7of course7 a much smaller boy1 and was chasing him down a passage between a double row of forms4 ,suddenly his victim turned round1 and delivered a right-and-left blow on the chin of his tormentor1 astonishing him in no slight degree4 ,the bully pressed on1 thinking to annihilate his impertinent antagonist1 but could not do so on account of the narrowness of the passage4 ,as he pressed forward the bold little fellow retreated backwards1 step by step1 popping in his blows sharp and quick1 and stepping back just as those of his persecutor were delivered4 ,the bully never guarded a single blow or succeeded in hitting one1 and by the time that they had made their way through the defile he was obliged to confess himself beaten1 and was deposed for ever from the despotic throne which he had so long disgraced4 ,illustration ,,canoes ,,and ,,canoeing4 ,despite the assertion of even so great an authority as ,mr4 ,macgregor1 whose name has now become a household word1 canoeing is an amusement that must necessarily involve a considerable amount of danger1 and ought to be indulged in by no one who has not1 according to the ,eton phrase1 passed in swimming4 ,whether or not it is a very comfortable means of locomotion is purely a matter of personal feeling2 but in face of the fact that the ,canoe ,club now numbers upwards of a hundred members1 and that the boat-builders have had extensive orders for canoes1 it is only fair to suppose that those who venture enjoy the new mode of locomotion4 ,there is one circumstance that will1 no doubt1 obtain for canoes great favour1 especially with young people1 and that is1 their cheapness4 ,messrs4 ,searle at ,lambeth1 ,simmons at ,putney1 or ,wheeler at ,richmond1 will build a good stout travelling canoe1 after the fashion of the ,rob ,roy1 for #ael42 which price includes mast1 sails1 apron1 paddles1 and all necessaries4 ,any respectable boatbuilder would no doubt do the same1 when he is once provided with the necessary instructions1 which1 ,i need scarcely add1 it is essential should be carried out to the letter1 for the slightest deviation from the recognised standard might cause the most disagreeable results4 ,the following points are the most important4 ,in having a canoe built1 it is a matter of considerable moment1 that in certain portions of its framework it should be constructed for and peculiarly adapted to the particular person who is going to use it4 ,the length of the foot decides the height the canoe should be from keel to deck2 the length of the legs the space required for the 8well20 while the weight1 of course1 decides the displacement that is to be accounted for1 and must be taken into consideration at the same time as the amount of luggage that it is proposed to carry4 ,oak is the best wood that can be used1 with the top streak of mahogany and the deck of fine cedar4 ,these were the materials of the ,rob ,roy1 and as her weight with all her fittings was only #ga lbs41 it would be unreasonable to want one lighter2 indeed1 for anything like knocking about flimsy canoes are utterly and entirely useless1 and only aggravate the labour of paddling4 ,the length over all should be #ad feet2 beam1 #bf inches2 depth1 from top of deck to bottom of keel1 #ab inches1 though towards the gunwale this is reduced to #h inches4 ,the well should be #cb inches long and #bj broad1 and protected by a combing of oak half an inch in height4 ,if your canoe is intended for travelling purposes1 the beam should be #f inches abaft midships2 so that when stores1 provisions1 sails1 and so on1 are stowed away forward1 it brings the craft to very nearly an even keel4 ,otherwise1 it should only be #a foot abaft midships4 ,the boards that compose the floor1 and on which you have to sit1 resting your back against the backboard1 are about two feet long1 and are fitted so that the knees just touch the combing1 while the heels are against the footboard on the keel1 thus obviating the discomfort that would follow on having to keep the legs stretched out straight at full length4 ,as ,i take it for granted that no one would think of going to the expense of having a canoe built without securing the services of some one who could supply him with the many minor details that it would be impossible to give here1 ,i shall not enter more minutely into any of the less important matters1 but would add1 that a comfortable backboard1 after the following pattern1 goes a long way to lightening the labour of paddling4 ,it should be made of two strips of oak1 #ah inches long1 #b inches wide1 arched by two crosspieces1 one of which should be grooved1 so as to rest on the combing1 and work after the fashion of a hinge1 it being fastened thereon by a stout cord4 ,the result is that the muscles down the back are supported and rested while the spine is left free4 ,the greatest possible care should be taken in selecting the apron1 which is too often left to the last moment and chosen in a hurry4 ,being intended to prevent the water making its way over the deck into the well1 and at the same time to avoid being fastened in any way likely to impede the canoeist in case of an upset1 it may readily be understood that it requires nice discrimination and handiwork4 ,it should fit close to him--in short1 he should be measured for it as for a coat4 ,mr4 ,macgregor has invented a new apron1 the receipt for which may be easily obtained1 as well as any other particulars1 at ,messrs4 ,searle's at ,lambeth4 ,i should recommend the novice in canoeing to rest content with propelling himself by the aid of his paddle for a while--in fact1 until he is thoroughly at home in his craft and the way to manuvre her4 ,spruce-fir is the best wood of which to have it made1 as it combines lightness and durability1 two qualities that can be readily appreciated after a day's locomotion4 ,the action1 though it need not be violent1 except in currents and so on1 is very fatiguing1 owing to the motion the body takes from side to side4 ,at the same time1 practice will prove to the novice that he requires to move but very little from one side to the other4 ,there can of course be no harm in having a mast fitted to your canoe1 and as soon as you feel capable of the risk1 set it up1 hoist your sail1 and be prepared to capsize4 ,this latter alternative is only added by way of warning4 ,with caution nothing of the sort need happen1 for the stiffness of canoes under sail in a strong wind and heavy weather has been satisfactorily proved on more than one occasion4 ,messrs4 ,silver and ,co4 of ,bishopsgate ,street1 make the sails according to a regulation pattern that has been supplied them1 while the boom1 yard1 and woven cord can best be obtained at ,mr4 ,farlow's1 the fishing-tackle maker's1 in the ,strand4 ,i have thought it advisable to give these names1 as they are recommended by ,mr4 ,macgregor himself1 who speaks in their favour with that best of all good reasons for doing so1 namely1 that he has found their wares satisfactory4 ,in conclusion1 ,i am bound to add that ,i am under much obligation to him for the information he has afforded me concerning this pleasant and novel form of aquatic amusement4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,cricket4 8,come on1 lads6 come on3 come on1 one and all3 ,now shoulder the bat1 and spin up the ball4 ,take the field like young ,trojans2 your prowess essay3 ,while the batsman cries1 ,ready1 the bowler says1 ,play3 ,then run like wild deer pursued by the hounds1 ,and ground your bat proudly just over the bounds40--,,cunningham4 ,the game of cricket is the noblest of ,english pastimes4 ,it combines athletic power1 grace1 quickness of eye and of hand1 nimbleness of leg1 and scientific skill4 ,it is played by high and low1 rich and poor1 man and boy2 and there is no game1 either native or foreign1 can compete with it for manliness1 fairness1 and healthfulness4 ,every one should learn to play it1 and all should begin early4 ,how it originated1 or who evolved its beautiful laws and regulations1 it is now difficult to discover4 ,we have nothing like it among the sports of the ,greeks and ,romans1 and we can only trace it to an old ,english pastime in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 called 8club-ball40 ,strutt1 in his 8,pastimes of the ,people of ,england10 gives the following engravings1 representing two specimens of club-ball3 the first from a ,,ms4 in the ,bodleian ,library1 dated #acdd1--;and exhibits a female figure in the act of throwing a ball to a man1 who elevates his bat to strike it4 ,the next specimen of ball1 taken from a drawing more ancient than the former1 i4 e4 a genealogical roll of kings of ,england to the time of ,henry ,,iii41 in the ,royal ,library1 presents two players only2 and he who is possessed of the bat holds the ball also1 which he either threw into the air1 and struck with his bat as it descended1 or cast forcibly upon the ground1 and beat it away when it rebounded4 ,but we should be rather inclined to trace the game of cricket to trap-ball1 which was1 no doubt1 an improvement upon the early games played with the bat and ball4 ,this may be traced as far back as the fourteenth century1 and a curious specimen of the manner in which it was then played is given in a beautiful ,,ms4 in the possession of ,francis ,douce1 ,esq4 ,here are only two players2 but the game then consisted of six or eight of a side1 and the size of the bat indicates the holder to have possessed no great judgment in striking the ball4 ,there was another game1 called 8stool-ball10 from which some have supposed cricket to have been derived2 but there is no evidence in favour of this position1 and it seems rather more reasonable to look upon it as a modification of 8trap-ball0 than any other game4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,the ,,bat4 ,the regulation size of the bat1 called by ,felix the mighty sceptre of delight1 is #ch inches in length1 of which #be inches are taken up by the pod1 or1 according to the more modern term1 the blade1 and #ac by the handle4 ,no bats are made longer than this1 although1 of course1 they are allowed to be of various smaller proportions1 in order to suite the height of the player4 ,illustration ,we must strongly impress on all young players the great importance of using a bat in proportion to their strength4 ,if they use a very heavy bat1 they will not be able to move it quickly enough to play the ball properly1 and are apt1 in consequence1 to get into a sluggish style of play1 which is almost sure to stick to them all their lives4 ,a very light bat is equally injurious3 the batsman sees an easy ball approach1 plays hard at it1 when1 instead of going right over the head of long-on1 it drops an easy catch into mid-wicket's hands1 in consequence of there not being enough driving power in the bat to send it further4 ,illustration ,,the ,,ball4 ,the present style of ball1 with the exception of some very slight modifications1 seems to have been in use since cricket assumed anything like its present form4 ,according to the rules of the present day1 it must not be more than #i inches in circumference1 and must not weigh more than #e or less than #e ounces4 ,match balls are always treble-seamed1 and are sold at the average price of #gs4 #f;d4 ,but for ordinary practice1 a double-seamed ball1 at about #fs41 will be found quite good enough1 and will answer just as well as the more expensive article4 ,,the ,,stumps4 ,the stumps have undergone more change during the last hundred and fifty years than any of the accessories to cricket4 ,at first they were two in number and only #ab inches high4 ,a third stump1 #b feet in length1 was laid across them1 although1 with the exception of being knocked down by the bowler1 it was similar in no respect to the bails of the present day1 as the wicket-keeper was obliged1 in order to stump a person1 to place the ball in a large hole dug between the two stumps4 ,illustration ,in the year #aghj the width between the two stumps was decreased to #f inches4 ,it was also at this time that a bail was introduced1 for it is almost impossible to dignify the transverse stump1 #b feet long1 which was in use till this date1 by that appellation4 ,in #agha a third stump was added1 and the height of the wickets increased to #bb inches4 ,the addition of a stump was mainly owing to the fact1 that ,lumpy1 a celebrated bowler of that day1 sent the ball almost three times running between the two stumps4 ,this was thought so unfair for the bowler1 that it was resolved to increase the number of stumps in order to give him a better chance4 ,in #ahad we find that the wickets were increased in height to #bf inches1 and in width to #h inches1 and in #ahag another inch was added to their length4 ,this1 with the exception of dividing the bail into two equal parts1 is the last change that has taken place4 ,,pads ,,or ,,guards4 ,since the introduction of round-hand bowling1 pads or guards have come into vogue1 and at the present time it is really a dangerous feat to play without them4 ,the first notion of a leg-guard was two thin boards placed anglewise on the right shin4 ,since that time improvements have been effected in them at various times1 until they have arrived at their present state of excellence4 ,illustration ,the leg-guard itself is now so well-known as to render any description of it needless2 but as there are two or three fastenings in use1 it will perhaps be as well to state what they are1 and also which is the best4 ,the first consists of three sets of tape1 one round the ancle and two round the knee4 ,these naturally take a great deal of time to fasten properly1 and if one breaks1 the pad is rendered useless for some time4 ,the next is three pieces of elastic1 with a catch which fastens almost instantaneously2 but in course of time it loses its elasticity1 and the pad dangles on one leg in a loose and awkward manner4 ,the third1 and in our opinion the best fastening1 is two sets of straps1 with holes pierced at very slight intervals4 ,the player can then have his pad as tight as he pleases1 without the chance of the fastenings breaking or becoming loose1 as in the case of the other two4 ,there are several other guards1 such as elbow and private-guards2 but they are scarcely ever used4 ,illustration ,,batting ,,gloves4 ,these are now made with the palm cut clear away1 thus enabling the batsman to hold the bat in a much firmer manner than he could were the palm of his hand covered by the glove4 ,as will be seen by referring to the accompanying cut1 the india-rubber is placed differently on the two hands4 ,this difference will be more particularly noticed on the two thumbs4 ,the left one1 as it is always behind the handle of the bat1 requires no guard2 but the back of the left hand being in front of the bowler1 is covered with a semicircle of india-rubber1 while the strips of the india-rubber on the fingers are much longer than those on the right hand4 ,it may be urged by those who object to the use of batting gloves1 that the ball is likely to fly off them and give a catch4 ,this1 although true1 very rarely happens1 and besides1 if the ball came with enough force to fly into the air off the glove1 is it not very probable that1 without a glove to shield them1 the fingers would be broken by the same collision8 ,illustration ,,wicket-,,keeping ,,gloves4 ,these might be more appropriately termed gauntlets1 for they are much longer than the ordinary gloves1 and entirely cover the wrist4 ,thanks to the suggestions of the best wicket-keepers of the day1 they have now been greatly improved1 and have padding only in those parts where it can possibly be required4 ,it is absurd to try to keep wicket well without wearing these gauntlets2 therefore let no young cricketer be fool-hardy enough to attempt the feat4 ,as the right and left hand gloves are precisely the same1 the artist has drawn one glove in two positions1 in order to show the front and back of it4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,cricket4 ,the following are the laws which govern the game everywhere4 ,they have been recently revised by the ,marylebone ,club1 usually considered the highest authority in the game4 #a4 ,the ,ball must weigh not less than #e ounces1 nor more than #e ounces4 ,it must measure not less than #i inches1 nor more than #i inches1 in circumference4 ,at the beginning of each innings either party may call for a new ball4 ,it is1 however1 not customary to have a new ball at the beginning of each innings4 ,one a match is usually considered sufficient4 #b4 ,the ,bat must not exceed #d inches in the widest part2 it must not be more than #ch inches in length4 #c4 ,the ,stumps must be #c in number1 #bg inches out of the ground2 the bails #h inches in length2 the stumps of equal and of sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through4 #d4 ,the ,bowling ,crease must be in a line with the stumps2 #f feet #h inches in length2 the stumps in the centre2 with a return crease at each end towards the bowler1 at right angles4 #e4 ,the ,popping ,crease must be #d feet from the wicket1 and parallel to it1 unlimited in length1 but not shorter than the bowling crease2 unlimited in length1 so that the batsman may keep out of the way of the ball when it is thrown in4 #f4 ,the wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires1 at the distance of #bb yards4 #g4 ,it shall not be lawful for either party during a match1 without the consent of the other1 to alter the ground by rolling1 watering1 covering1 mowing1 or beating1 except at the commencement of each innings1 when the ground shall be swept and rolled1 unless the side next going in object to it4 ,this rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands during the innings1 nor to prevent the bowler from filling up holes with sawdust1 c4 when the ground is wet4 #h4 ,after rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of both parties4 #i4 ,the ,bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground behind the bowling crease1 and within the return crease1 and shall bowl four balls before he change wickets1 which he shall be permitted to do only once in the same innings4 ,in a one day's match six balls are usually allowed as an over4 #aj4 ,the ball must be bowled2 if thrown or jerked1 the umpire shall call 8no ball40 #aa4 ,he may require the striker at the wicket from which he is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct4 #ab4 ,if the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head1 or bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be fairly within the reach of the batsman1 he shall adjudge one run to the party receiving the innings without an appeal1 which shall be put down to the score of wide balls2 such balls shall not be reckoned as one of the four or six balls3 but if the batsman shall by any means bring himself within reach of the ball1 the run shall not be scored4 #ac4 ,if the bowler deliver a 8no ball0 or a 8wide ball10 the striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get1 and he shall not be put out except by running out4 ,in the event of no run being obtained by any other means1 then one run shall be added to the score of 8no balls0 or 8wide balls10 as the case may be4 ,all runs obtained for 8wide balls0 to be scored to 8wide balls40 ,if the ball shall first touch any part of the striker's dress or person 7except his hands71 the umpire shall call 8leg bye40 ,if1 however1 the batsman runs two byes from a wide or a no ball1 they are scored as two wides only4 ,many young players are in the habit of running a single bye off a wide ball1 without ever thinking that they endanger their wicket without the slightest possible chance of advantage to themselves4 #ad4 ,at the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call 8play20 from that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler4 ,this rule is very seldom enforced1 as a new bowler is almost invariably allowed a trial ball1 though not on the wicket4 #ae4 ,the ,striker is ,out if either of the bails be struck off1 or if a stump be bowled out of the ground2 #af4 ,or1 if the ball1 from a stroke of the bat or hand1 but not the wrist1 be held before it touches the ground1 although it be hugged to the body of the catcher2 #ag4 ,or1 if in striking1 or at any other time while the ball shall be in play1 both his feet shall be over the popping-crease1 and his wicket put down1 except his bat be grounded within it2 #ah4 ,or1 if in striking at the ball1 he hit down his wicket2 #ai4 ,or1 if under pretence of running or otherwise1 either of the strikers prevent a ball from being caught1 the striker of the ball is out2 #bj4 ,or1 if the ball be struck1 and he wilfully strike it again2 ,this does not prevent the batsman from hitting the ball off his wicket when it glides in from not being blocked with sufficient force4 #ba4 ,or1 if in running the wicket be struck down by a throw1 or by the hand or arm 7with ball in hand71 before his bat 7in hand7 or some part of his person be grounded over the popping-crease4 ,but if both the bails be off1 a stump must be struck out of the ground2 #bb4 ,or1 if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket2 #bc4 ,or1 if the striker touch or take up the ball while at play1 unless at the request of the opposite party2 #bd4 ,or1 if with any part of his person he stop the ball1 which in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket1 and would have hit it4 ,on the #aeth of ,april1 #ahfc1 the ,m4 ,c4 ,c4 altered this rule as follows3--8,or1 if the ball hit any part of his person which in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been placed in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket40 ,but at their next meeting1 discovering that their former proceedings were informal1 they cancelled their new rule2 so that the law remains as before4 ,it is almost impossible for a round-arm bowler1 unless he bowl over the wicket1 to pitch the ball in a straight line4 #be4 ,if the players have crossed each other1 he that runs for the wicket which is put down is out4 #bf4 ,a ball being caught1 no runs shall be reckoned4 #bg4 ,a striker being run out1 that run which he and his partner were attempting shall not be reckoned4 #bh4 ,if a lost ball be called1 the striker shall be allowed six runs2 but if more than six shall have been run before 8lost ball0 shall have been called1 then the striker shall have all which have been run4 #bi4 ,after the ball shall have been finally settled in the wicket-keeper's or bowler's hand1 it shall be considered dead2 but when the bowler is about to deliver the ball1 if the striker at his wicket go outside the popping-crease before such actual delivery1 the said bowler may put him out1 unless 7with reference to the #bast law7 his bat in hand1 or some part of his person1 be within the popping-crease4 #cj4 ,the striker shall not retire from his wicket and return to it to complete his innings after another has been in1 without the consent of the opposite party4 #ca4 ,no substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out1 or run between wickets for another person1 without the consent of the opposite party2 and in case any person shall be allowed to run for another1 the striker shall be out1 if either he or his substitute be off the ground in manner mentioned in laws #ag and #ba1 while the ball is in play4 #cb4 ,in all cases where a substitute shall be allowed1 the consent of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act as substitute1 and the place in the field which he shall take4 #cc4 ,if any fieldsman stop the ball with his bat1 the ball shall be considered dead1 and the opposite party shall add five runs to their score2 if any be run1 they shall have five in all4 #cd4 ,the ball having been hit1 the striker may guard his wicket with his bat1 or with any part of his body except his hands2 that the #bcrd law may not be infringed4 #ce4 ,the wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of stumping until it has passed the wicket2 he shall not move until the ball be out of the bowler's hand2 he shall not by any noise incommode the striker2 and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket1 although the ball hit it1 the striker shall not be out4 #cf4 ,the umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play2 and all disputes shall be determined by them1 each at his own wicket2 but in case of a catch1 which the umpire at the wicket bowled from cannot see sufficiently to decide upon1 he may apply to the other umpire1 whose opinion shall be conclusive4 #cg4 ,the umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets2 and the parties shall toss up for choice of innings4 ,the umpires shall change wickets after each party has had one innings4 #ch4 ,they shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in1 and ten minutes between each innings4 ,when the umpire shall call 8play10 the party refusing to play shall lose the match4 #ci4 ,they are not to order a striker out unless appealed to by the adversaries2 #dj4 ,but if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground behind the bowling-crease1 and within the return-crease1 when he shall deliver the ball1 the umpire at his wicket1 unasked1 must call 8no ball40 #da4 ,if either the strikers run a short run1 the umpire must call 8one short40 ,the run is of course not scored4 #db4 ,no umpire shall be allowed to bet4 #dc4 ,no umpire is to be changed during a match1 without the consent of both parties1 except in case of violation of the #dbnd law2 then either party may dismiss the transgressor4 #dd4 ,after the delivery of four or six balls the umpire must call 8over10 but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket-keeper's or bowler's hand2 the ball shall then be considered dead2 nevertheless1 if an idea be entertained that either of the strikers is out1 a question may be put previously to1 but not after1 the delivery of the next ball4 #de4 ,the umpire must take especial care to call 8no ball0 instantly upon delivery2 8wide ball0 as soon as it shall pass the striker4 #df4 ,the players who go in second shall follow their innings1 if they have obtained eighty runs less than their antagonists1 except in all matches limited to only one day's play1 when the number shall be limited to sixty instead of eighty4 #dg4 ,when one of the strikers shall have been put out1 the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in4 ,,note4--,the ,committee of the ,marylebone ,club think it desirable that1 previously to the commencement of a match1 one of each side should be declared the manager of it2 and that the new laws with respect to substitutes may be carried out in a spirit of fairness and mutual concession1 it is their wish that such substitutes be allowed in all reasonable cases1 and that the umpire should inquire if it is done with the consent of the manager of the opposite side4 ,complaints having been made that it is the practice of some players when at the wicket to make holes in the ground for a footing1 the ,committee are of opinion that the umpires should be empowered to prevent it4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,single ,,wicket4 #a4 ,when there shall be less than five players on a side1 bounds shall be placed #bb yards each in a line from the off and leg-stump4 #b4 ,the ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to a run1 which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or crease in a line with his bat1 or some part of his person1 or go beyond them1 returning to the popping-crease1 as at double wicket1 according to the #bast law4 #c4 ,when the striker shall hit the ball1 one of his feet must be on the ground1 and behind the popping-crease1 otherwise the umpire shall call 8no hit40 #d4 ,when there shall be less than five players on a side1 neither byes nor overthrows shall be allowed1 nor shall the striker be caught out behind the wicket1 nor stumped out4 #e4 ,the fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play between the wicket and the bowling-stump1 or between the bowling-stump and the bounds2 the striker may run till the ball be so returned4 #f4 ,after the striker shall have made one run1 if he starts again he must touch the bowling-stump1 and turn before the ball cross the play1 to entitle him to another4 #g4 ,the striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball1 and the same number for ball stopped with bat1 with reference to the #bhth and #ccrd laws of double wicket4 #h4 ,when there shall be more than four players on a side1 there shall be no bounds4 ,all hits1 byes1 and overthrows shall then be allowed4 #i4 ,the bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket4 #aj4 ,not more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball4 ,,the ,,batsman4--,,hints ,,to ,,young ,,players4 ,the first point to be considered in batting is the sort of bat to be used4 ,many young cricketers cramp their play by using a bat much too heavy for them4 ,now1 it stands to reason that one should be able to have a complete mastery over the weapon one wields4 ,a bat weighing about two pounds will be found quite heavy enough for most schoolboys4 ,it may1 however1 be urged that the heaviest bats drive the farthest1 and that many of the old-fashioned players made some of their famous hits with them2 but it must also be borne in mind that those were the days of underhand bowling1 and that at the present time cutting and leg-hitting1 in consequence of the swift round-arm bowling1 are infinitely more prevalent than forward drives1 and that in many cases the position of field-on is done away with altogether4 ,therefore let us beg young players to use a light bat1 one that feels almost as a whip in their hands1 and one with which they can play back as quickly as is necessitated by the speed of the bowling4 ,and now a few words with regard to guard4 ,of course1 in many instances1 the distance from the wickets depends considerably upon the pace and pitch of the bowling1 but as a rule the safest guard is about four inches from the popping-crease4 ,this block not only gives you a better chance of stopping shooters1 but also enables you to play forward better1 since you can cover more ground than if your block were nearer the wicket4 ,a leg hit can also be made sooner1 and consequently squarer1 and with a good long block there is less chance of hitting your wicket in playing back1 and more chance of stopping a full-pitched ball before it touches the ground4 ,the left foot should be at right angle to the wickets1 and the other parallel with them4 ,free hitters keep their hands at the upper part of the handle of the bat1 whilst some players1 who have a reputation for steadiness1 hold it with the hands three or four inches apart4 ,the former position enables a player to hit much sooner1 and also to have a much longer reach4 ,the advantages of the position are readily discovered when there is a chance of a cut or a leg-hit4 ,the batsman should stand quite erect1 endeavouring to make the most of his height4 ,before the ball is delivered1 the bat should be raised1 with the full face presented to the bowler1 and covering as much of the wicket as possible4 ,the moment the bowler is about to deliver the ball1 raise your bat slightly from the block1 keeping it almost straight to him4 ,if you hold it1 as some players do1 still on the block-hole until the ball approaches1 you are almost sure to be too late for the ball2 and although1 if it be straight1 you may keep it off your wicket1 yet it is a hundred chances to one that you will miss all the leg balls1 or those which come to the off-side4 ,play1 too1 as low as possible4 ,it is much better to hit a ball well along the ground for two1 than to send one high into the air1 although you get four or five for it4 ,sooner or later you will lose your wicket1 for the ball is sure at some time to be caught by long-on or long-off4 ,assuming that the player has taken up his position at the wicket1 we must now fully impress upon him the importance of not being in a hurry to score4 ,in fact1 nothing is so injurious as making runs in the first over4 ,the best maxim to be observed is1 play steadily until you can understand the bowling4 ,it is astonishing how much confidence you gain after you have played a dozen balls or so4 ,then1 when you have1 as it were1 taken the measure of your opponent1 lunge out1 as soon as you get a chance1 and show the field your favourite drive1 and prepare to make a score4 ,in writing the last sentence1 we are reminded of the many mishaps and even serious accidents that have occurred on the cricket-field in consequence of the careless manner in which some players run4 ,they rush between the wickets1 watching the course of the ball rather than the wicket towards which they are going2 occasionally they run too far and lose time1 or else do not run far enough and lose runs2 or1 what is even worse1 a collision takes place between the two batsmen1 and one is run out1 if not seriously injured by the bat or body of his comrade4 ,the simplest plan1 therefore1 is always to run on the right side1 to keep the bat in the right hand1 and to watch the wicket towards which you are running4 ,it has often been remarked that the most difficult balls to play are shooters1 and those that are well pitched up and just take the bail off4 ,indeed1 some shooters are almost sure to take a wicket2 the moment1 therefore1 that a ball shoots1 drop the bat back close to the stumps1 and chop down upon the ball4 ,stopping a shooter is always a sign of good play1 and often at ,lord's produces more applause than a hit which scores two or three runs4 ,some players1 like ,parr and ,carpenter1 can stop shooters so well1 that although they only chop down upon them1 yet the force of the stroke often drives the ball far enough to obtain a run4 ,how happens it that so many players miss the cut1 although they attempt this stroke at almost every ball that rises to the off8 ,as a rule1 young players hit too soon1 and if they touch the ball1 in most cases they give either point or cover-point an easy catch2 others hit in time1 but play with a horizontal bat1 the face of which is presented to the bowler4 ,the ball then rises in many instances either to slip or long-slip1 with the usual result4 ,in cutting1 the batsman should wait until the ball has almost passed the wicket1 and then drop down upon it1 with the face of the bat almost towards the ground4 ,this keeps the ball down and drives it in the direction required4 ,in cutting1 the left foot acts as a pivot1 and the right foot is drawn back4 ,the advantage of taking a long block is here shown1 as occasionally this leg knocks down the wicket2 and if the block is near the stumps1 they are easily struck by the bat itself4 ,in leg-hitting1 on the contrary1 the right acts as a pivot1 and the left is thrown forwards4 ,the sooner the hit is made the squarer the ball goes1 and1 as a rule1 the greater distance also4 ,since then1 in swift bowling1 long-on is generally done away with1 a leg ball that is hit in front of long leg is safe to obtain more runs than if hit much behind the wicket4 ,a very common habit among young players is to strike at wide balls4 ,many and many a time have we seen a batsman rush out to a wide off-ball1 and send it into point's or cover's hands1 thus depriving himself of his innings and his side of a run4 ,before we conclude this somewhat desultory chapter1 we must urge upon everybody the importance of wearing both gloves and leg-guards when playing against swift bowling4 ,the many dangerous accidents that have happened in consequence of the legs and hands having no protection1 should induce every person to guard himself as much as possible4 ,one can stand up to the wicket much better1 and have far more confidence1 when one knows that a blow from the ball upon the legs is likely to produce no ill effect4 ,the absence of pads causes many players to run away from the ball1 and if the ball turns1 the off-stump in most cases will soon be prostrate4 ,be careful1 too1 in running1 that you ground your bat on the popping-crease4 ,nothing is so tantalizing to a player as to lose a run through the carelessness of his companion1 who in his excitement runs an inch or so short of the proper distance4 ,the moment the ball has left the bowler at your wicket1 walk a yard or two2 you may by this means steal many a run that it would be impossible to obtain if you were at your own wicket when the ball was hit4 ,never1 if you can possibly avoid it1 hit a ball on the wrong side4 ,how disgusting it is to see a big awkward player swipe a ball right round to the off-side which he should have drawn or played to mid-wicket on6 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,leg ,,hit4 ,do not run away from the ball4 ,if you do1 you can never get a good leg hit2 besides1 you naturally expose your wicket1 and if the ball turns in 7as it often will do71 you will find it almost impossible to be back in time to save your off-stump4 ,as a rule1 play forward whenever you can2 but be sure you don't run out of your ground to hit unless you feel perfectly confident of your success4 ,waiting for the ball is always a dangerous experiment1 and will often result in your playing back so far that you upset your own wickets when in the act of achieving a most scientific cut4 ,be careful to keep one foot steadily planted within the popping-crease2 it is sometimes impossible to help being bowled or caught1 but the worst player in the world can always prevent the wicket-keeper stumping him4 ,mind1 too1 that the bat ought to strike the ball1 and not the ball the bat4 ,be always cautious of straight balls1 however tempting they may appear4 ,remember that if you miss them1 you are safe to lose your wicket2 therefore always treat them with the respect that they deserve4 ,balls1 too1 that come about five inches above the bails should generally be allowed to pass1 for unless you are well skilled in the art of hitting down1 you are sure to give a catch4 ,and now a word or two with regard to the three leg hits--the draw1 the forward1 and the backward leg hit4 ,when a ball seems pitched at the leg stump1 hold your bat straight1 as it were1 for a block2 but the moment the bat meets the ball1 turn the face of it a trifle round towards you1 and the ball will then slip off between your legs and the stumps4 ,this is called the draw4 ,this play1 however1 requires a great deal of practice1 and should very rarely be attempted by inexperienced players4 ,the forward leg hit is made in the following manner3--,when a ball is pitched rather wide on the near side1 advance the left foot in front of the wicket1 turn half round1 and hit down upon the ball as hard as you can4 ,when the ball is pitched inside the near stump1 step back with the right foot1 and with an upright bat play it off the wicket4 ,the ball will fly rapidly along the ground1 and usually between leg and long-stop4 ,recollect1 the sooner you hit at a leg ball the squarer it goes4 ,the cut is the most difficult of all1 and can only be accomplished when the ball rises a little wide of the off-bail4 ,even then you are very likely to play either too soon or too late at it1 and it is very rare indeed that a player makes a really good legitimate cut4 ,when you see the ball about to rise a foot away from off-bail1 draw the right leg backwards1 and1 with a horizontal bat1 give the ball something between a pat and a push1 between point and short-slip4 ,this is very far from being a scientific definition of this delightful stroke2 but ,i think1 from the plain manner in which ,i have stated it1 that it will be more likely to be understood4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cut4 ,the technical names for the various balls the batsman is likely to receive are--the full pitch1 the tice1 the hop1 the half volley1 the ground ball1 and the shooter4 ,leg balls and balls to cut we have already explained4 ,at first sight1 a full pitch would seem one of the easiest balls to play2 but in reality it is not2 and many a good batsman1 who could play any number of well-pitched balls1 has lost his wicket by playing rashly or across a toss4 ,again1 if hit carelessly1 it is almost sure to be caught by one of the long-fields2 and often1 when the batsman tries to play it down1 it hits the top of his bat1 and goes into long-stop's hands4 ,the best plan 7if you are not very tall71 when you think it is too high to take your wicket1 is to leave it alone altogether2 but when you feel persuaded that if you miss the ball it will take the stumps1 either play it down1 or else hit it where there is no field4 ,the tice is almost a full pitch4 ,if you have a long reach1 go in and play it forward2 if not1 however1 keep your bat down and block it4 ,running in is generally a bad habit1 as it is sure to engender a loose style of play4 ,the long hop1 if straight1 should be played very carefully1 and with an upright bat4 ,those batsmen who have1 as it is called1 8got their eye in10 can usually strike at one with impunity2 but as the ball is liable to twist every time it reaches the ground1 the young player should be very careful in striking at it4 ,a half volley is a ball which rises well from the pitch4 ,catches are1 however1 often the result of hitting right at a half volley4 ,a ground ball is perhaps better known among our young friends as a sneak4 ,if played at with a high bat1 the wicket is almost sure to fall4 ,the best plan is to keep the bat well down1 and play forward at it4 ,if the bat is kept in a straight line with the ball1 you cannot miss it1 and often by playing it forward you can send it past the bowler4 ,a shooter is the most difficult ball to play1 and if not treated with proper respect1 is sure to take the wicket4 ,the moment the ball shoots1 play back1 dropping the bat down on it within an inch of the stumps4 ,you are by this means very likely to keep it off your wicket1 but do not try to hit it4 ,left-hand bowling generally turns in from the off2 therefore play forward at it4 ,,fielding4 ,although not of so interesting a character as batting and bowling1 yet fielding is in itself of too much importance to be overlooked1 or even carelessly practised1 by anybody who desires to become a cricketer4 ,many a match has been lost by loose fielding1 and instances without number have occurred of a man who1 after being missed before he has made a run1 has sent his score up to fifty before receiving his dismissal4 ,it is astonishing how many runs may be saved by careful fielding4 ,hits which at first seem good for four1 only obtain one through good fielding1 and that even a sharp run4 ,quick fielding should be practised by the tyro1 before either of the other two departments of the game4 ,as soon as a boy gets a ball in his hand1 he tries to catch it1 or to get a companion to throw it to him2 and thus before he even knows how to handle a bat1 many a boy has in him the elements of a good field4 ,as1 however1 the fascination of batting grows upon him1 he cares less for the other parts of the game2 and thus it happens that although we have many gentlemen cricketers who bat just as well as professionals1 yet the latter obtain the mastery through their superior bowling and fielding1 which they are obliged to practise as often as batting1 in order to obtain the reputation of good players4 ,i have1 however1 heard it stated that no finer fielding can be seen than that shown in the ,university match4 ,this is generally admitted2 but it must be borne in mind that the ,university match is played by young men whose ages vary from twenty to five-and-twenty1 whereas most of the players are over thirty1 and some rapidly approaching to forty1 an age at which the bones are not so lissom as those that have just arrived at man's estate4 ,as a proof of this ,i may cite the ,gentlemen and ,players' match at ,lord's1 a contest 7if such it can be called7 which is only worth seeing on account of the excellent bowling and fielding of the professional players4 ,it is satisfactory to know that it is the opinion of most judges of the game1 that as long as the gentlemen persist in practising batting only1 they will scarcely have a chance against the players4 ,no advice1 however1 will produce the same good upon a young player in the matter of fielding as watching a match in which some of the best players take part4 ,in this he should bear well in mind the manner in which the ball is stopped and thrown to the wicket-keeper4 ,supposing that our cricketer can stop and catch a ball pretty well1 the next point for him to study is to throw it in carefully4 ,how many men that should have been run out save their wickets through the bad throwing of a field1 who1 either through hurry or nervousness1 pitches the ball over the wicket-keeper's head1 or sends it in so much along the ground as to render the picking up of it sharply by the wicket-keeper a matter of impossibility6 ,the best plan is to throw in a catch to the top of the bails4 ,a long hop occasionally meets with success2 but if the ground is bumpy1 and the ball is thrown in from a distance1 it is very possible that it will go over the man's head4 ,one of the most prominent failings of a young eleven is the careless manner in which they back up4 ,overthrows in a professional eleven are almost a matter of impossibility1 for if the ball passes one field there is almost sure to be another behind him to stay its progress2 whereas1 in some clubs1 if there is one man to back up the wicket-keeper1 the ball is considered safe1 and as he generally stands within a few yards of the wicket1 he usually misses the ball if it passes the amateur ,lockyer4 ,if1 however1 it is expedient to throw the ball to the bowler1 and he does not wish to hurt his fingers1 an overthrow is sure to follow1 for long-on or long-off scarcely ever thinks it his duty to stand behind the bowler's wicket when the ball is thrown in4 ,overthrows in themselves are not only annoying1 because they are obtained through no merit of the batsman1 but because they always produce a merciless laugh from the spectators1 and occasionally epithets of a not very complimentary character4 ,it is therefore the captain's bounden duty to make his eleven back up well1 and not to consider the ball safe unless two or three people are behind the wicket at which it is thrown4 ,one naturally imagines that the wicket-keeper's hands get occasionally damaged from the sharp throwing to which he is subjected4 ,whatever he would do without his thick gauntlets1 it is unpleasant to imagine4 ,care should on all occasions1 therefore1 be taken to save his hands1 and when the batsmen are not running1 there is no need to throw the ball as hard as possible at him4 ,the long-stop1 who returns the ball to the wicket-keeper oftener than any other field1 should send it in gently when there is no run1 and the wicket-keeper ought1 in throwing it to the bowler1 to toss it as quietly as he can1 in order not to deaden the fingers of that important functionary4 ,whilst writing about bowler and wicket-keeper1 we cannot allow the opportunity to pass of requesting all players to obey with the utmost fidelity any order given to them in the field4 ,the wicket-keeper can1 by raising his hand1 change the positions of the field unknown to the batsman1 who1 hitting a ball to a place which he thinks is not covered1 and finding it suddenly stopped1 sees that he must play more carefully in future4 ,two of the most important positions in the field are the mid-wickets and cover-point1 and no player1 unless he is a safe catch1 and can return the ball sharply1 should ever be placed there4 ,it has been computed that mid-wicket runs more out than any other field4 ,anybody who has seen ,r4 ,daft in this place will be surprised at the rapidity with which he picks up the ball and sends it in4 ,the space that a good cover-point can command is really astonishing4 ,players seeing that the ball has passed point feel sure that it is safe for one1 whereas1 if cover runs in and sends it in well to the wicket-keeper1 one of the batsmen will probably have 8run out0 to his name4 ,long-stop should on no account be too close to the wicket4 ,if he takes a position where he feels sure he can stop one run1 he will do much more service than nearer the stumps4 ,not only will he be able to stop some balls which might have gone over his head1 but he may stay the progress of many leg-hits and slipped balls1 besides standing a better chance of a catch4 ,catching comes so naturally that we need say little about it4 ,the chief point to be remembered is to keep the hands well together4 ,occasionally one sees--in catching--the ball slip through a man's hands altogether4 ,at other times the ball lodges in the hands for an instant1 and then drops to the ground1 because the arms were not drawn back with the ball1 but held out to meet it4 ,in catching1 the arms should always be drawn back as the ball comes1 as this lessens the force with which the ball strikes the hands4 ,a good plan1 but one which1 however1 requires much practice1 is to pat the ball up as it comes1 and then to catch it4 ,it is evident that when the ball has thus been sent up1 it descends much more slowly than when it comes direct from the bat4 ,even1 however1 if1 in spite of advice and practice1 one of the field is unfortunate enough to miss a catch1 the captain should not allow any unfeeling remarks to be made4 ,the anguish of the unfortunate player is quite deep enough without being aggravated by growls and sneers from comrades who may perhaps do the same thing in a few minutes4 ,the captain should also do all he can to prevent talking in the field4 ,it is time to do that when a wicket falls1 but very unlike a true cricketer to endeavour to attract the field's attention just as the bowler is about to deliver the ball4 ,,bowling4 ,we have read in a manual of ,cricket that there are four styles of bowling1 and ,felix1 we believe1 in his excellent work on the ,bat1 states that there are five modes1 all of which are in general use4 ,for the present purpose1 however1 we think it will be sufficient if we confine our remarks to two styles1-- #a4 ,round-arm ,bowling4 #b4 ,underhand ,bowling4 ,the former is an innovation upon the latter1 and1 like all improvements1 met with a great deal of opposition at first1 since it was more difficult to play1 and made the innings shorter4 ,now1 however1 the batting seems to have obtained as much mastery over the round-arm bowling as before it had over the underhand1 and it is even probable that in a few years a new style will be introduced1 in order to decrease the inordinate length which innings assume now-a-days4 ,the following hints apply to the round-arm bowling3-- ,the ball should be held with the fingers across the seams1 as this occasionally makes the ball twist1 and renders the defence of the batsman a matter of more difficulty4 ,many bowlers1 however1 can never get what is technically called 8a twist on10 whereas others1 after an hour's practice1 can manage to make the ball twist in any direction they please4 ,it is also important to take a run of a few yards1 increasing the distance in proportion to the pace4 ,this allows the bowler to get his arm into swing1 and increases the impetus with which the ball is delivered4 ,the bowler should always stand with his body well towards the other wicket4 ,we have seen a man run almost round the wicket and deliver the ball without looking at the stumps he is supposed to aim at4 ,long practice had enabled him to bowl pretty well1 but the absurdity of his position was so apparent that it provoked a laugh from all who saw it4 ,it must not be imagined1 however1 that a bowler should always deliver the same style of ball4 ,many a wicket 7paradoxical as it may seem7 falls from a ball that is not straight4 ,a batsman who has had a hit to leg for four1 becomes at once anxious to get another4 ,very often1 if a bowler pitches the ball in a different manner1 the batsman endeavours to give another specimen of his favourite hit1 and equally often loses his wicket4 ,practise1 therefore1 change of pace and pitch1 as catches are almost sure at some time to be the result4 ,nyren1 one of the earliest writers on ,cricket1 speaks of this plan in the following manner3-- 8,when it is difficult to part two batsmen1 and either of them has a favourite hit1 ,i have often succeeded in getting him out by opening the field where his hit is placed1 at the same time hinting to the bowler to give him a different style of ball4 ,this1 with the opening of the field1 has tempted him to plant his favourite hit1 and in his anxiety to do so he has not unfrequently committed an error fatal to him40 ,in writing of round-arm bowling let us recommend young bowlers to practise bowling over the wicket in preference to what is usually termed round or outside it4 ,the former plan is the only mode that necessitates straight bowling1 since1 from the position of the arm1 the ball may be straight all the way1 whereas1 in the latter1 the ball must come in from the leg side4 ,again1 it will be recollected that in the late discussion about leg before wicket1 many of the best judges gave it as their opinion that the batsman could not be given out l4 b4 w4 unless the ball was delivered over the wicket4 ,to these advantages may be added the fact that a much better view of the opponent's stumps can be obtained1 and that the distance is also shorter than from the outside of the wicket4 ,among the most common faults of young players may be cited a habit of not pitching the ball far enough4 ,this is mainly owing to a want of power in the arms1 but still a little careful practice will considerably assist the player4 ,those nice specimens of bowling known as bailers1 when the bail is knocked off1 can only be obtained by a ball that is well pitched up4 ,shooters1 also1 are the result of balls that touch the ground near the wicket4 ,we may also add that a ball that is pitched short is easy to play1 since it can be seen well1 and its coming in contact with the ground deadens its force and checks its speed4 ,another practice which is often condemned is a habit of bowling fast4 ,now1 it is a great mistake to imagine that fast bowling is the most difficult to play1 as may be ascertained by the fact that our fastest bowlers by no means take the most wickets1 excepting ,jackson1 whose bowling1 however1 is not so successful now as it was at one time4 ,fast bowling does not so readily allow accuracy of pitch as a slower style2 besides1 a fast bowler soon gets tired1 then bowls loosely1 and then gets taken off4 ,those tips 7for they are nothing else7 to the slips for four or five1 are more the result of the bowler than the batsman4 ,let us1 therefore1 earnestly recommend young bowlers to begin bowling slowly1 and to increase their pace as they grow older and stronger4 ,many a promising bowler has been irretrievably spoilt by beginning to bowl too fast for his strength1 and finding in a short time that he has no style at all1 and that the fruit of his labour is principally found in the number of byes scored off him4 ,particular care must also be taken to avoid bowling over the shoulder4 ,it is a pity that there is not some more stringent rule than at present exists with regard to law #aj1 although in such a case the most successful bowlers would find their occupation gone2 besides1 as the no-balling of a bowler by an umpire usually causes the greatest unpleasantness in a match1 spoiling the amicable feeling which almost invariably exists in the cricket-field1 it is much better to avoid the head and front of the offending1 by practising the best means to prevent the arm getting over the shoulder4 ,we recollect at school a big sturdy fellow1 who1 not content with bowling over his shoulder1 delivered the ball always as fast as he could4 ,his bowling1 however1 7as might be expected7 was so loose that his services were never called into requisition at a match2 but at practice he occasionally handled the ball1 much to the dread of the batsman he opposed4 ,one day he was bowling against the present writer in his usual headstrong style1 and actually sent a ball over the wicket-keeper's head into long-stop's hands4 ,this naturally frightened us1 as we thought it just possible that the next might hit us on the chest4 ,a narrow escape we had1 for the very next was pitched so high1 that1 had we not quickly dropped on the ground1 it would have hit us on the head with such force as probably to stop cricket with us for ever4 ,our remarks on underhand bowling1 or slows1 must necessarily be brief4 ,that good slows are effective1 particularly against county twenty-twos1 is proved by the analysis of ,r4 ,c4 ,tinley's bowling1 and the destructive power of ,mr4 ,v4 ,e4 ,walker's slows is well known to most of those who have played against him4 ,it is often a good plan to begin with a fast bowler at one end and slows at the other4 ,the change of pace and delivery is very puzzling to the batsman1 who is compelled to play the two styles on a different plan4 ,if1 however1 a slow bowler is hit about much1 he should be changed at once1 as the hits from slows generally add up quicker than those from round-arm4 ,if change of pitch is advantageous in the swift bowling1 it is the very soul of slows4 ,full pitches1 leg balls1 off balls1 shooters1 all styles and forms1 should be allowed full play4 ,the bowler1 too1 must dodge about1 and make himself an extra field1 going wherever he imagines the ball will be hit4 ,in writing about slows we cannot pass unmentioned the great advantage derived from making a ball twist in from the leg4 ,it is always understood that the leg stump is the hardest to defend1 and consequently the best to attack4 ,a slow ball is pitched a little wide of the leg1 the batsman runs away from his guard1 and1 in his imagination1 sees the ball hit to square leg for four4 ,in reality1 however1 he finds his off-stump knocked down by this same leg ball at which1 in his ignorance1 he struck too soon1 and therefore saw it hit his stump before he could be back to stop it4 ,the positions of the field may be varied according to the opinion of the bowler4 ,illustration ,,the ,,wicket-,,keeper4 ,the duties of the wicket-keeper are to stop the balls when missed by the striker1 to stump him when off his ground1 and to catch the ball1 and knock the wickets down before the striker1 when running1 can ground his bat over the popping-crease4 ,since the introduction of fast bowling this position has become the most dangerous in the field1 and a wicket-keeper seldom gets through a match without receiving some bruises4 ,he should always wear pads and gloves4 ,some people recommend a guard for the abdomen1 but this is scarcely ever used4 ,the wicket-keeper should1 if possible1 be captain of his eleven4 ,as he is behind the striker1 he can by a motion of his hand move any of the field closer or further1 unknown to the batsman4 ,this naturally requires great tact1 and is often the means of saving many a run1 or of getting a wicket4 ,he should stand in a somewhat stooping position1 his left leg well forward and his hands close together1 while his eyes should watch every movement of the ball4 ,he should be very cautious about taking leg balls1 as1 if he gets too near1 he is likely to receive a blow from the batsman4 ,as soon as the ball is thrown to him from the long-stop1 he ought to advance two or three yards 7provided1 in the meantime1 the batsmen are not running71 and send it gently into the bowler's hands4 ,the moment a hit is made1 he should stand on that side of the wicket farthest from the ball1 and wait quietly till it is thrown in4 ,the ball should be thrown in by one pitch1 and not in long hops1 as is often the case among bad players4 ,above all1 he should knock the wicket down as seldom as possible1 but content himself with striking a bail off when he thinks the batsman is out of his ground4 ,,long-,,stop4 ,stands behind the wicket-keeper1 in order to prevent byes4 ,he must be careful not to be too far away from the wicket1 or else clever players are apt to steal a bye before the ball has reached him4 ,the moment he gets the ball1 he should return it sharply into the wicket-keeper's hands1 and scarcely ever throw it over to the bowler4 ,he should assist in backing up short slip1 and also endeavour to save runs on the leg side4 ,when slows are put on in a match1 the long-stop is usually changed to a position about twelve yards behind the bowler's head4 ,,point4 ,stands in a direct line with the popping-crease1 at a distance of about twelve yards on the off-side1 for fast bowling4 ,the faster the bowling1 the sharper he should stand4 ,he should commence at first at the distance we have just mentioned1 and approach when he sees the player about to strike4 ,a sharp point may often stop a hard hit to cover-point4 ,this position is1 however1 rather dangerous in fast bowling1 and1 at the same time1 one of the most important4 ,for slow bowling1 he should come in to about five yards1 and stand at a more acute angle than when the delivery is very swift4 ,,short-,,slip4 ,stands a few yards behind the wicket on the off-side4 ,as this position does not entail much running1 it is usually allotted to the bowlers4 ,the balls come in very sharply when the bowling is swift1 and the person occupying this position has to watch the ball very attentively1 or he stands a very good chance of receiving it in his face4 ,it is also his duty to back up the wicket-keeper1 and to take his place at the wicket when that functionary runs after the ball4 ,,cover-,,point4 ,stands some distance behind point1 to prevent a second run4 ,the sharper the bowling is1 the squarer he should stand4 ,he must also be particular in backing up1 as he can prevent many an overthrow4 ,,long-,,slip4 ,performs the same duties1 and occupies the same position1 with regard to slip as the last-mentioned field does to point4 ,he should1 when he can1 back up long-stop and save a second run4 ,,long-,,on4 ,stands deep on the on-side4 ,when the bowling is very swift1 he can take the place of mid-wicket on1 as a ball in such a case is seldom hit fair1 either on the on or off side4 ,he must be a good catch1 a good thrower1 and very swift on his legs4 ,,long-,,off4 ,occupies the same position as long-on at the other side of the wicket4 ,,leg4 ,stands about the same distance behind the wicket on the on-side as long-on does before it4 ,he must possess a quick eye and great agility4 ,leg-hits1 after touching the ground1 usually turn off in quite a different direction from what one would expect4 ,leg should therefore try to get them before they pitch1 or else be careful in running to meet them4 ,,mid-,,wicket ,,on ,,and ,,off4 ,stand halfway between the long-fields and the striker's wicket4 ,as many catches come to these parts of the field1 they should be very sharp and active1 and try to prevent the ball going past them4 ,,third ,,man ,,up4 ,in very swift bowling the long-on often takes this position4 ,he stands between point and short-slip1 in a direct line with the bowling-crease1 at a distance of about twelve yards4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 having given the functions of the fieldsmen1 we propose to show1 by diagrams1 their positions with regard to fast and slow bowling4 ,,diagram ,i4--,,fast ,,round-,,arm ,,bowling4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,striker2 #a4 ,the ,bowler2 #b4 ,wicket-,keeper2 #c4 ,long-,stop2 #d4 ,short-,slip2 #e4 ,point2 #f4 ,long-,slip2 #g4 ,mid-,wicket on2 #h4 ,long-off2 #i4 ,cover-,point2 #aj4 ,third ,man up2 #aa4 ,long-,leg2 ,u4 ,umpire4 ,,diagram ,,ii4--,,medium ,,pace ,,round-,,arm ,,bowling4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,striker2 #a4 ,bowler2 #b4 ,wicket-,keeper2 #c4 ,long-,stop2 #d4 ,short-,slip2 #e4 ,point2 #f4 ,long-,slip2 #g4 ,long-on2 #h4 ,long-off2 #i4 ,cover-,point2 #aj4 ,mid-,wicket on2 #aa4 ,leg2 ,u4 ,umpire4 ,,diagram ,,iii4--,,slow ,,underhand ,,bowling4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,bowler2 #b4 ,wicket-,keeper2 #c4 ,leg2 #d4 ,short-,slip4 #e4 ,point2 #f4 ,extra ,long-on2 #g4 ,long-on2 #h4 ,long-off2 #i4 ,mid-,wicket off2 #aj4 ,mid-,wicket on2 #aa4 ,square-,leg2 ,s4 ,striker4 ,u4 ,umpire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as in very swift bowling the ball is often hit to the off1 it will be seen that in ,diagram ,i4 we have placed no less than six out of the eleven on that side4 ,mid-wicket on and long-off should be a little nearer the bowler1 and long-slip nearer the long-stop1 than represented in the illustration4 ,in ,diagram ,,ii4 third man up is made mid-wicket on1 while cover-point comes in nearer than when the bowling was very fast4 ,in ,diagram ,,iii41 as the bowling is slow1 no long-stop is required2 he is therefore sent as an additional field behind the bowler4 ,short-slip stands in very close to the wickets4 ,,croquet4 ,,materials ,,of ,,the ,,game4 ,,the ,,mallets4 ,illustration ,the mallet1 of which in a ,croquet set there are eight1 varies in length from #cb to #ci inches4 ,the handle is thin and round1 and is fastened into the head somewhat in the manner of an ordinary mallet used for knocking in tent pegs4 ,the head slightly resembles in shape a dice-box1 inasmuch as it is narrower in the centre than at the ends4 ,the mallet is the active agent in the game1 just as the bat is at cricket2 and as the mallet is always in the hands of the striker1 care should be taken that it is well planed4 ,towards the top of the handle a few circular lines may be cut with advantage1 as they give a firmer hold to the hand4 ,at the bottom of the handle is usually painted a colour1 or a number of lines1 corresponding to the marks on one of the balls4 ,such an arrangement1 although not absolutely necessary--since a player can use any mallet without interfering with the game--is of advantage in according to each player the same coloured mallet as his ball2 and were the mallets uncoloured1 disputes would probably arise about one which was a greater favourite than the others4 ,some people prefer to have the colour of all the balls painted on their mallets4 ,this is a very good plan if one is in the habit of playing with inattentive people1 who will not recollect when it is their turn to play4 ,as the hard surface of the end of the mallet-head coming sharply in contact with a ball often cracks1 chips1 or breaks it in two pieces1 it has been suggested that a piece of wash-leather should be let in at each end of the head1 in order to deaden the force of the stroke4 ,we do not1 however1 recommend the adoption of this plan1 as it is very expensive1 and the wash-leather is not only likely to be soon torn1 but in the course of the game may come out altogether2 besides1 a ,croquet-ball can always be replaced for a trifling sum1 and1 if played with carefully1 ought to last twelve months at least4 ,illustration3 ,,croquet4 ,illustration ,,the ,,balls4 ,the balls are eight in number1 and are generally painted different colours--blue1 pink1 black1 yellow1 brown1 orange1 red1 green4 ,the size varies from #c inches to #c inches in diameter4 ,the balls of some of the better ,croquet games are not entirely covered with paint1 but adorned simply by a band of paint1 about half an inch in width1 or with lines of blue and red1 varying from one to four in number1 as in the illustration4 ,balls coloured thus are1 however1 not so easily distinguishable as those which are painted all over4 ,,the ,,hoops4 ,illustration ,the hoops1 ten in number1 are made of iron4 ,they are about #af inches high1 and #ab inches wide2 although these dimensions are not of much importance4 ,in some games the hoops are of bronze1 or else are painted a golden colour4 ,usually1 however1 they are of a black1 iron tint4 ,the set with which we generally play is painted white4 ,this plan is in many respects advantageous1 for as the shades of evening close round the players the contrast between the grass and the hoops becomes less vivid1 and consequently in the excitement of the game a player occasionally tumbles over a hoop1 and probably hurts his legs2 when1 however1 the hoops are painted white1 the play can be continued to a late hour without the chance of such a casualty as the breaking of one's shins against the iron hoops4 ,,the ,,posts4 ,the posts1 two in number1 should be from #bd to #cf inches high4 ,one end must be sharpened into a point1 in order to allow it to stick well in the ground4 ,one is called the starting1 the other the turning post4 ,the top half is1 in the cheaper sets1 divided into eight divisions1 each of which is painted according to the colours of the ball4 ,thus1 beginning from the top1 we trace the divisions into the following order3-- #a4 ,blue4 #b4 ,pink4 #c4 ,black4 #d4 ,yellow4 #e4 ,brown4 #f4 ,orange4 #g4 ,green4 #h4 ,red4 ,the order of the colours acts as a guide to the players2 and since those on each side play alternately1 it follows that in a game of eight1 the dark balls--blue1 black1 brown1 and green--are matched against the light balls--pink1 yellow1 orange1 and red4 ,the advantage of this arrangement is plainly manifest1 since1 during the game1 the players1 without referring to the peg1 will know that the light colours play alternately with the dark4 ,we admit1 however1 that opinion may be divided about the lightness of red as a colour2 and we therefore hope that the ,croquet-makers will change it into white1 which is not likely to be confounded with the yellow1 for the latter1 in consequence of being in more frequent use1 is sure to become dark in much shorter time than the former4 ,some1 however1 as in the illustration1 have red and blue divisions1 marked from one to four1 to correspond with the number of rings painted on the balls4 ,illustration ,,clips4 ,illustration ,a set of ,croquet-clips--little pieces of tin1 coloured according to the colours of the balls1 in order to slip over the hoops1 and thus show the hoop through which the player has next to pass--has been lately introduced4 ,we do not1 however1 recommend the use of them1 as they are liable to cause much confusion1 and certainly give a great deal of trouble to those players who adopt them4 ,,marking ,,board4 ,a gentleman has invented a marking-board1 on which is placed the position of each player after his stroke is made2 but as this requires an umpire to mark the positions of the balls1 we do not think the plan worth adoption4 ,illustration ,,tunnel4 ,in some games a very narrow hoop--scarcely wide enough for the ball to pass through--has been introduced under the name of tunnel4 ,it certainly adds to the complication of the game4 ,illustration ,,the ,,cage ,is another novelty1 formed by placing two hoops across each other1 and fastening a bell at the point of intersection1 which has to be struck by the ball passing through4 ,illustration ,a ,,croquet ,,stand ,is one of the best of the recent inventions in ,croquet1 and is to be recommended as a great improvement over the unwieldy box1 which contains usually a ,croquet set1 and which is generally so badly arranged that a quarter of an hour is occupied in taking out the ,croquet implements1 and about double that time in replacing them after the game is over4 ,,how ,,the ,,game ,,is ,,played4 ,sides are chosen in the usual manner1 the captain of one side taking the first ball and the captain of the other the second2 while the remaining balls are given to the other players in the order in which they are chosen4 ,eight persons can play at this game1 but any smaller number will do equally well4 ,if only six or four play1 the same number of balls must be used2 but if two play1 the game is improved by each player taking two balls and playing them alternately as usual4 ,if there be an odd number of players--either three1 five1 or seven--the players play against each other1 or else one person takes two balls and plays for each side4 ,it has been suggested that to amuse a large party two games should go on at once1 through the same hoops1 one side to begin at the starting-post and the other at the turning-post4 ,the confusion1 however1 caused by the balls getting in each other's way would quite spoil all chance of good play4 ,assuming that each player has a ball and a mallet1 that the hoops are arranged in either of the three positions given on pages #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 we now come to the mode of playing the game4 ,the object is to drive the balls through all the hoops1 in the direction indicated by the dotted lines on the diagrams1 and to strike the two posts4 ,the side all of whose members succeed in performing this feat first wins the game4 ,now1 although this is the chief object of the game1 yet the act from which it derives its title1 to wit 8,croquet10 is of much greater importance than would at first be imagined4 ,if a player hit with his ball any of the others1 he is allowed to place his own against the ball he has struck1 and setting his foot upon his own ball1 he hits it with the mallet1 and the force of the blow drives the opponent's ball a considerable distance in the direction towards which the mallet is directed4 ,as the player is allowed to croquet either friend or foe1 it is evident that he can do a great deal of damage or service1 according to his inclination1 since he is at liberty to drive the ball in any direction he pleases4 7,see ,rules of the ,croquet1 page #ahb47 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind that no player can croquet or be croqued until he has been through the first hoop4 ,the holder of the first ball1 placing his ball a mallet's length in any direction from the starting-post1 endeavours by striking it with the end of his mallet to drive it through the first hoop4 ,if he succeeds1 he continues his turn1 and attempts to send the ball through the second hoop1 and then through the third2 for driving the ball through a hoop or croquing another ball imparts the privilege of an additional stroke4 ,when he has finished1 the second goes on1 and the other players follow in the order in which the balls are marked upon the post4 ,till a player has gone through the first hoop he is not allowed to have an extra turn1 if his ball hit that of another4 ,in a short time is palpably shown the great advantage of the croquet4 ,often when a player has his ball in a good position in front of a hoop1 another will hit it and drive it to the other end of the croquet-ground1 compelling the croqued ball to take two or three turns before it can regain its former position4 ,occasionally two or three balls lie close to each other1 and one is struck by a ball which was some distance off4 ,the striker is now allowed to place his ball by the side of the one he has struck1 and then1 after croquing it1 is almost sure of hitting the two others1 since his last stroke has brought him very near to them4 ,the player who reaches the turning-post first has great advantages for a time1 for as soon as he touches it he commences his return journey1 and meeting the other players on their road to the farthest point of their voyage1 he is able to croquet them and considerably impede their progress4 ,while writing about the turning-post1 we cannot refrain from calling attention to a strange rule which appears in a recently-issued manual of ,croquet4 ,in this work it is stated that on touching the post the striker discontinues playing1 and is not allowed for the act the same privilege that he obtains for passing through a hoop4 ,this regulation is1 we think1 so unfair that we cannot allow this work to go to press without taking the opportunity of recording our protest against the adoption of the rule in question4 ,it must be evident to anybody who knows anything about the game that it is a more difficult task to strike the post than to pass through a hoop4 ,now1 touching the post is a point in the game1 for it is one of the stations that everybody must pass on the journey2 and as for each other point1 such as passing a hoop or croquing1 the player is allowed an additional turn1 surely it stands to reason that the same advantage should be accorded to a player who performs the feat of striking the turning-post4 ,captain ,mayne ,reid and all the other writers on ,croquet 7with one exception7 agree with us in the view we have taken on this subject1 to which we have at some length drawn attention1 in the hope that the author of the obnoxious rule will think fit to make the necessary alteration4 ,when a player has passed through all the hoops1 he becomes what is called in the technical language of ,croquet a ,rover1 and is privileged to rove about over the ground croquing his friends and foes 7see page #ahe74 ,it is therefore obvious that a good player can prove1 when thus situated1 of immense advantage to his side1 and should on no account hit the starting or winning post till all on his side have passed through the last hoop 7see page #aia74 ,good players1 however1 generally content themselves with passing through all the hoops but two1 as it often happens that if a ,rover is tiresome his adversaries unite in their efforts to drive his ball against the starting-post1 and thus kill him4 ,this1 of course1 they cannot do until he has passed through all the hoops4 ,the excitement towards the end of the game is almost inconceivable2 each stroke is watched with the keenest interest4 ,gradually one by one the players hit the post1 until perhaps only two remain1 and now occurs an opportunity for skilful play4 ,if the two opponents are good players1 they afford a rare treat to the bystanders4 ,the object of each is first to hit the post1 and1 failing in that1 to keep as far off his adversary as he can4 ,both endeavour1 at the same time drawing nearer to the great object in view1 to keep the post between their own and the other ball4 ,at length one plays at the post1 misses it1 and sends his ball near his adversary1 who first hits it1 next croquets it away1 and then strikes the post1 while all his side wave their mallets aloft1 and loudly shout 8,victory60 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,no4 #a4--,this position1 which is the simplest of those we have drawn1 is the one which we recommend all young players to adopt4 ,the space between the hoops and between the hoops and the posts should be about six feet1 although it can be varied in proportion to the capabilities of the different players4 ,the course of the ball is indicated by the dotted lines1 and the arrows show the direction in which at starting the ball should travel4 ,although it may appear rather a simple matter to go through the two first hoops by one straight stroke1 yet the unfortunate player will soon find out his mistake by experience1 and that1 in attempting to pass through the hoops1 8,slow and sure0 is the best maxim to adopt4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,no4 #b4--;,in this1 the second1 diagram it will be seen that the two centre side hoops are done away with1 and that one is placed in the centre of the game instead3 but although in the play we now require one hoop less than in the former diagram1 yet the player will have to pass through the same number of hoops as before1 since he travels twice through the hoop in the centre--once on his way to the turning-post1 and once on his return4 ,this position is necessarily not so simple as the last one1 for now all chance of going through the three side hoops in one turn is done away with1 and few players will be able to make the passage in less than three turns4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,no4 #c4--;,in this the same number of hoops is used as in the first diagram1 but the hoops numbered respectively #d and #i1 instead of being placed parallel to the others1 are now at right-angles to them3 thus1 in playing from #c to #d1 one has to keep to the right of the second ring1 and then to pass through it from the outside of the game--a much more difficult arrangement than either of the other positions we have described4 ,as the player's knowledge of ,croquet increases1 many other positions will suggest themselves2 but those we have printed are the simplest1 and are the diagrams in general use at the present time4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,no4 #d4--;,in this diagram the cage is introduced2 otherwise it is nearly the same as ,diagram ,no4 #b4 ,the reader is now requested to give his attention to the following ,rules1 which we believe will be found to meet all the requisites of the game4 ,,rules4 ,,striking4 #a4 ,at the commencement of the game the ball is to be placed a mallet's length from the starting-post in any direction1 and the player endeavours to drive it through the first hoop4 ,as the distance between the first post and the first hoop depends so much upon the size of the ,croquet-ground1 the first rule may be altered to suit the convenience of the players2 but if the length is less than a mallet1 the player will probably strike the post with his own mallet4 #b4 ,in striking the ball1 the player must stand on one side of the ball1 and not behind it4 #c4 ,in striking1 the mallet must be about an inch from the ground1 and must not be pushed along it when the stroke is made1 except when the distance between the ball and some other object is too small to admit the mallet lengthwise4 ,some players wish only one hand to be used in striking4 ,most of the large sets1 however1 are too heavy to allow this rule to be generally carried out4 #d4 ,the ball must be struck with an end of the mallet1 and not by the side4 ,,order ,,of ,,playing4 #e4 ,the balls are to be played in the order in which they are marked upon the post4 #f4 ,if any player play out of his turn1 he finishes the stroke2 but for the violation of the last rule he is deprived of the next turn4 ,it may perhaps be suggested that a player1 seeing a good opportunity for some effective stroke1 would purposely play out of his turn4 ,this we doubt2 for not only would the deprivation of his next turn do him a great deal of damage1 but the chances are that one of the other players would stop him before he had commenced the stroke4 #g4 ,if a player play with a wrong ball1 he has to replace the ball and lose his next turn4 ,this penalty is not enforced against a player if the error be not discovered before the arrival of his second turn4 #h4 ,if a player by a stroke of his mallet drives his ball through the next hoop in the order of his course1 he is allowed to continue his stroke4 #i4 ,a player may in one stroke drive his ball through more than one hoop4 #aj4 ,if a ball1 in going through a hoop1 strike another ball1 the player can either continue his stroke at the next hoop1 or else croquet the ball that is struck2 but he is not allowed two turns for passing through a hoop1 and then hitting a ball4 #aa4 ,if a ball strike another ball1 and then pass through a hoop1 the player can either croquet or continue his stroke1 and has not to pass through the same hoop again4 ,from this rule the reader may infer1 that if a ball go through its hoop either by striking another ball or by hitting the sides of the hoop1 it is considered to have passed the hoop4 ,it has been suggested that a ball is dead directly it croquets another1 and that therefore any stroke it makes after that is of no avail2 but as this not only does away with ,rule #aa1 but prevents any player croquing two balls in one stroke1 we cannot adopt it4 #ab4 ,if a ball1 instead of playing at its hoop1 play at a ball on the other side of the hoop1 and consequently have to be moved by the hand through its own hoop in order to croquet1 it is not considered to have gone through the hoop1 but must return to the proper side of the hoop in the ordinary manner4 #ac4 ,a ball is not through a hoop if the handle of the mallet when laid across the two sides of the hoop from whence the ball came touches the ball without moving the hoop4 #ad4 ,if a player strike a ball which he cannot croquet1 and by that stroke go through a hoop1 the last stroke holds good1 and he has another turn4 #ae4 ,if a ball1 when croqued through its hoop in a wrong direction1 roll back through the hoop1 it has not to pass through the same hoop in the same direction again4 ,,the ,,croquet4 ,when the game of ,croquet first came into fashion1 there was only one mode of the croquet1 which was that usually known as the tight croquet4 ,since then other forms1 known as the loose and slipping croquet1 have come into fashion1 and have met with so much favour that it is impossible to deny their claims to our attention4 ,in the tight croquet the player must keep his foot upon his own ball1 and is not allowed to move it while he makes the stroke2 but in the loose croquet he need not even put his foot on his own ball at all1 and is able consequently to drive not only his adversary's ball1 but also his own1 in any direction he pleases4 ,the adoption of this plan1 even although it lengthens and complicates the game1 affords so much pleasure to the players themselves1 that it is becoming universally adopted4 ,some writers1 however1 insist that to rovers only should the privilege of the loose croquet be accorded2 whilst others1 on the other hand1 would allow the privilege only to those who are not rovers4 ,in fact1 so much is to be said on each side1 that the better plan is to allow the players to choose which of these courses they think fit to adopt4 ,in some places1 in addition to the loose croquet1 a practice prevails which is usually known by the term 8taking two off40 ,thus if a player croquet a ball1 he is allowed to drive his own ball in any direction he pleases1 without touching the croqued ball4 ,after this he has another stroke1 so that he is enabled to get close to any ball on the ground4 ,this plan seems to us so highly objectionable1 and so thoroughly subversive of all good play1 that we must decline to recommend it4 ,it should also be known that many of our correspondents object to loose croquet altogether1 on the ground that it tends greatly to prolong the turns1 and thus spoils the game1 as people1 grown tired of waiting1 lose all interest in it1 and forget when their turn comes to play4 ,what expressions more common on the ground than 8,whose turn is it now80 #af4 ,a player is allowed the privilege of croquing whenever his ball strikes another1 except when by doing so he makes the ball that is struck hit the winning-post1 if it have passed through the hoops4 #ag4 ,in the tight croquet the player must keep his foot firmly upon his own ball1 and if the stroke move it the ball must afterwards be brought back to the position it occupied before it was struck4 ,some writers insist that if the croqueur's ball slip1 he loses his turn4 ,this arrangement is too absurd to be tolerated for an instant4 #ah4 ,no ball can croquet1 or be croqued1 until it has passed through the first hoop4 ,it has been the custom to allow a player to take up his ball1 and play1 when his turn comes1 from the starting-post again1 if he misses the first hoop4 ,this plan1 however1 has nothing to recommend it4 ,it would enable a player who wished to play last to do so at ease by intentionally missing the hoop1 and is obviously so unfair that we have no wish to adopt it4 #ai4 ,no ball 7except a rover7 can croquet the same ball twice1 until it 7the croqueur7 has passed through a hoop or touched the post since its first croquet4 ,if1 however1 the croqueur be a rover1 he cannot croquet the same ball twice in one turn4 ,in either case1 however1 he is at liberty to strike the same ball twice1 but this act does not allow him the privilege of a fresh stroke4 #bj4 ,a croquet need not necessarily be a distinct stroke4 ,if the striking ball in its passage hit either a post or a hoop1 and then cannon upon a ball1 the privilege holds good2 and if1 also1 one ball strike two or more others1 each of these is croqued in the order in which they were struck2 but the striker has only one additional stroke when he has croqued the lot1 and not one for each ball he has struck4 #ba4 ,as the moving of the croquing ball in the tight croquet is of itself illegal1 it stands to reason that if this ball during the stroke slip and touch another ball1 the player has not the right to claim the privilege of the croquet4 ,in the loose croquet a player may by his croquing stroke drive his own ball through a hoop4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tight ,,croquet4 #bb4 ,a player1 after striking a ball1 is not necessarily compelled to croquet it1 but is allowed to play in any direction he pleases4 ,it must1 however1 be understood that he must play from the place where his ball is1 and not1 since he abnegates the privilege of it1 as after a croquet1 from a position touching the ball he has struck4 #bc4 ,if a player hit a rover1 and by the blow force the other ball against the winning-post1 he cannot croquet the ball1 as it is plainly dead2 he however retains the privilege of another turn4 ,as the ball is dead1 it must be moved at once4 #bd4 ,if a player in the act of croquing do not move the croqued ball at least #f inches1 he is at liberty to take the stroke over again4 ,of course the croqued ball must be placed in the position it occupied before it was struck4 #be4 ,if a ball go through a hoop and then croquet a ball1 both strokes count4 #bf4 ,if a player croquet a ball illegally1 both balls must be restored to their former positions4 #bg4 ,if a ball hit two or more balls by one stroke1 and croquet one1 it is forced to croquet all it has struck1 and is not allowed to croquet one and leave the others alone4 ,,the ,,posts4 ,some writers give certain privileges for passing two hoops at a time1 and for striking the posts--such as placing the ball a mallet's length in any direction from its original position4 ,this plan1 however1 is very irregular1 and affords too great an advantage to one player to be adopted4 #bh4 ,striking the posts enables the player to have a fresh turn1 and is in all respects equivalent to passing a hoop4 #bi4 ,a player who1 having gone through all the hoops1 strikes the winning-post1 is dead2 and being out of the game1 is not allowed to have a fresh turn4 #cj4 ,if either of the posts be struck by a ball that is driven thither by a croquing or croqued ball1 or in passing through the next hoop to it in the right direction1 the stroke holds good4 #ca4 ,if a ball be moved by a player when it should not have been touched1 it must be restored to its former position1 even if the stroke have sent it against a post or through a hoop4 #cb4 ,if any ball 7or balls7 be struck by the ball moved1 as in the last rule1 it must be at once replaced in its former position4 #cc4 ,if a ball1 in the tight croquet1 slip from under the feet and strike the turning-post1 the stroke does not count4 ,by the same rule1 if a player in croquing strike the winning-post1 the stroke does not count4 #cd4 ,if a ball be hit off the ground on a gravel-walk or a flower-bed1 it is to be placed at once #ab inches at right-angles from the limit of the boundary4 ,,the ,,rover4 #ce4 ,as a rover has passed through all the hoops1 he is not allowed to croquet the same ball twice in one turn4 #cf4 ,a rover has only the right to play a second time when he croquets another ball4 #cg4 ,a ball is dead as soon as it has passed through all the hoops and struck the two posts4 #ch4 ,a rover who hits another ball1 and then the post1 is dead1 and cannot take another turn4 ,a rover who croquets another ball against the post is according to ,rule #bc allowed another turn2 but if a rover1 in croquing a ball1 lets his ball slip against the post1 he is dead according to the principles of loose croquet4 #ci4 ,the game is finished when all the players on one side have gone through all the hoops and struck the two posts4 #dj4 ,a match is the best of three games4 #da4 ,a tournament is the best of three matches4 ,,hints ,,to ,,young ,,players4 ,it is almost impossible 7as the reader will already have perceived7 to overestimate the great importance that 8the croquet0 bears upon the game4 ,a player who devotes all his efforts to pass through the hoops will find himself soon left behind by those who look upon that department of the game as merely subservient to the more fascinating task of driving away a foe1 or of helping a friend2 and this fact becomes more and more patent when the number of players is six or eight4 ,true1 when only two play1 if one gets a good start1 it is a somewhat difficult matter for the other player to stay his progress2 and as this inevitably takes away half the interest of the game1 we recommend a pair of players to use a couple of balls1 since by so doing one can assist the other1 and develop the croquet to great advantage2 but then1 again1 it is not expedient to devote the whole of one's energies to produce a collision between two balls4 ,the player's first rule should be to pass through a hoop2 if1 however1 he sees an equal chance of passing through it after he has gone out of his route to drive an adverse player away1 he should at all times make use of the croquet2 for it must be remembered that keeping an enemy back is almost equivalent to making progress1 and that the game cannot be lost as long as a foe's ball is behind one's own4 ,the art of the tight croquet consists in placing the striking ball in juxtaposition to that ball which has been croqued1 and then1 setting the left foot upon his own ball1 the striker hits it sharply with his mallet1 and consequently the other ball is driven by the power of the stroke to a distance in proportion to the force with which the ball was struck4 ,in the loose croquet1 however1 the player need not place his foot upon the ball at all1 but by adopting the following stroke can drive the two balls forward in the same direction1 or by hitting his own ball with a slanting mallet can drive the balls away at an angle to each other4 ,the purpose of this feat is either to aid a friend or to do damage to an enemy4 ,a friend can by croquing send a partner through the hoop he wishes to pass1 or else drive an enemy--who has obtained a good position1 and who feels certain of going through a hoop at his next turn--exactly in the opposite direction to that in which he wishes to travel4 ,in order1 however1 to make this stroke very effective1 great care must be taken with regard to the way in which the ball is driven4 ,many thoughtless players think nothing of driving a foe close to a friend1 or1 in the hopes of assisting their side1 send a friend in the immediate neighbourhood of a foe--thus improving the position of the adverse side1 and damaging that of their own4 ,the difference that a few thoughtful players make to a side is wonderful4 ,whilst others hit their balls about without ever thinking that at his next turn a foe will probably croquet them1 the careful players1 anticipating the positions of the other bails1 place themselves in a position from which1 when their next turn comes1 they can either go through a hoop1 or croquet the ball of a more careless player4 ,thus1 if foe ,b is behind a hoop through which ,a has to pass1 but requires two turns for the passage1 it would be very absurd if ,a were to place himself close to ,b1 in the hope of passing through next time1 since ,b would be sure to croquet him1 and place him in even a worse position than he occupies in the illustration4 ,a should content himself by playing to ,c1 for ,b would not go so far out of his way to croquet him1 and then ,a could go through the ring the next time he plays4 ,illustration ,if ,a is at the side of a hoop through which he cannot possibly pass in one turn1 he should play behind the ring to the spot marked ,b1 and not in a line marked ,a ,c1 or else he would probably go either too far or not far enough1 and be forced to accomplish in three turns what1 if he had gone to ,b1 he could probably have done in two4 ,illustration ,illustration ,suppose ,b to be placed in front of the fourth hoop 7see ,positions of ,hoops1 ,diagram ,no4 #b71 and ,a1 whose turn it is1 to be behind ,no4 #b2--many players would just go through ,no4 #b1 and then quietly drop down to ,no4 #c1 in the hope of passing through at the next turn4 ,a thoughtful player1 however1 would1 by driving his ball sharply through hoop ,no4 #b1 obtain a position close to ,b1 and next1 taking a second turn for going through the hoop1 would be able to croquet ,b1 and drive him a long way off his hoop1 and then return to a good position behind ,no4 #c4 ,the following position will show one of the advantages of the loose croquet4 ,it is the turn of the ball ,c to play1 and he has to go through the hoop e in the direction e ,a4 ,in his present position it is impossible for him to go through the hoop at one turn4 ,if1 however1 he croquets ,d1 and then indulges in the loose croquet1 he can drive his own ball to ,b1 and send the other to ,a4 ,he can then pass through the hoop1 and can croquet ,d again at the spot ,a4 ,illustration ,we have mentioned this problem more as an example for young players than because it is a recognised rule4 ,many such plans1 equally advantageous to follow1 will readily present themselves to players in the course of the game1 and in no more forcible manner can they show their good play than by disregarding the passage of a hoop in order to croquet a foe and thus spoil his position4 ,it can be easily understood that a player who1 by passing through all the hoops1 obtains the title of 8,rover10 and may therefore rove wherever he pleases1 has far more power than one whose flight is fettered by being compelled to pass through the little iron hoops that dot the ,croquet-ground4 ,he can either keep close to a laggard friend1 and aid him by the croquet1 or he can take up a position a little in advance of a forward foe1 and delay his progress in a very unpleasant manner4 ,suppose that ,a has just passed through the last hoop but two1 and that ,b1 a rover1 has taken up a position close to the hoop1 in such a manner that a portion of it intervenes between him and ,a4 ,if1 then1 the latter play near the hoop1 ,b is sure to croquet him and drive him away4 ,he is therefore compelled to keep some distance off the hoop until a friend comes to aid him1 unless a change in his position allows him to croquet ,b1 which1 if the latter is a good player1 is not likely to occur4 ,now1 having shown how a rover can worry a foe1 let us demonstrate how he can aid a friend4 ,a is close to the hoop through which he has to pass1 and ,b1 a rover of his own side1 is in a line with him4 ,if ,b hit ,a1 he will probably drive him off his hoop and spoil his turn2 but if ,b play to ,c1 a spot halfway between the two hoops1 ,a can go through his hoop1 croquet ,b at ,c1 drive him to ,d1 and then go through the next hoop1 croquet ,b at ,d 7for he has been through a hoop since he last croqued him71 drive him to the other side of the next hoop1 and so on4 ,a rover playing with another ball can be of more help to him than hindrance to a foe2 and as it is more important to get the balls of one's own side forward than to delay those of a foe1 the former plan should1 when feasible1 be adopted4 ,thus it will be seen that a good rover is of the greatest service to the side1 and that the sooner he is placed hors de combat the better for the opposite side4 ,the rovers on the other side should therefore do all they can to make the rover's ball hit the post by croquing it against it1 if possible2 for although if all on his side hit the post before those on the other side the game is won1 yet when the best player1 being dead1 is able to render no further assistance1 the game often goes against that side4 ,this plan1 however1 must be adopted with the greatest precaution and care1 and on no account whatever should a bad player be thus disposed of1 since the mere fact of keeping him in the game is of the highest importance1 as his services are of little avail to his own side1 who cannot win as long as one of their party remains in the game4 ,with these few desultory hints we conclude this article1 which all beginners should study carefully1 and 7we hope7 with advantage4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,,driving4 8,the rash boy ,phaeton his proud chariot drove ,till he was smitten by almighty ,jove3 ,take heed1 young driver1 while you like him boast1 ,you are not #8spilled' against an ugly post40--,swift4 ,,introduction4 ,our young friends ought to know1 not only how to ride1 but also how to drive4 ,from the very earliest times1 horse and chariot races were considered the noblest of sports1 and ,apollo is represented as driving the chariot of the sun4 ,the four horses were typical of the four seasons of the year4 ,four horses driven abreast was common also to the ,olympic games1 and the ,hippodrome was the scene of chariot races in which even a greater number was sometimes used4 ,it was1 indeed1 an imposing sight to see the ,hippodromic course at the time of one of these chariot festivals4 ,the place set apart for the contest was about a mile in length4 ,over a bar that ran across the entrance of the lists was placed a brazen dolphin1 and upon an altar in the middle of the barrier stood an eagle of the same metal4 ,by means of a machine1 put in motion by the president of the games1 the eagle suddenly sprang up into the air with its wings extended1 so as to be seen by all spectators2 and at the same moment the dolphin sank to the ground1 which was a signal for the cars to arrange themselves in order for the race4 ,besides the statue of ,hippodamia1 and the table on which were placed the crowns and palm-branches1 there were several images and altars in the course1 particularly that of the genius ,taraxippus1 who1 as his name imports1 was said to inspire the horses with a secret terror1 which was increased by the shrill clangour of the trumpets placed near the boundary1 and the deafening shouts and outcries of the multitude4 ,while the chariots were ranged in line ready to start1 the horses1 whose ardour it was difficult to restrain1 attracted all eyes by their beauty1 as well as for the victories which some of them had already gained4 ,pindar speaks of no less than forty chariots engaged at one and the same time4 ,if we recollect that they had to run twelve times the length of the ,hippodrome1 in going and returning1 and to steer round a pillar or goal erected near each extremity1 we may imagine what confusion must have ensued when1 upon the signal trumpet being sounded1 they started amid a cloud of dust1 crossing and jostling each other1 and rushing forward with such rapidity that the eye could scarcely follow them4 ,at one of the boundaries a narrow pass was left only for the chariots1 which often baffled the skill of the expertest driver2 and there were upwards of twenty turnings to make round the two pillars2 so that at almost every moment some accident happened1 calculated to excite the pity or insulting laughter of the assembly4 ,in such a number of chariots at full speed1 pushing for precedence in turning round the columns1 on which victory often depended1 some were sure to be dashed to pieces1 covering the course with their fragments1 and adding to the dangers of the race4 ,as it was1 moreover1 exceedingly difficult for the charioteer1 in his unsteady two-wheeled car1 to retain his standing attitude1 many were thrown out1 when the masterless horses plunged wildly about the ,hippodrome1 overturning others who had1 perhaps1 previously escaped every danger1 and thought themselves sure of winning4 ,to increase the confusion1 and thereby afford better opportunities for the display of skill and courage1 there was reason to believe that some artifice was employed for the express purpose of frightening the horses when they reached the statue of ,taraxippus4 ,so great sometimes was their consternation1 that1 no longer regarding the rein1 the whip1 or the voice of their master1 they broke loose1 or overturned the chariot1 and wounded the driver4 ,such is the ancient description given by a ,greek writer of the chariot races of the ,hippodrome4 ,we have no coach racing now-a-days1 except omnibus racing in the streets3 not a great deal of 8coaching40 ,now and then1 indeed1 we see the 8,brighton four-horse10 and start with wonder at the sight4 ,but still there are necessities for private driving1 more important at the present than at any former period2 and we hold driving to be not only a necessary1 but an indispensable accomplishment to every young gentleman4 ,,the ,,horse ,,in ,,harness4 ,a horse fully equipped in harness1 attached to a dennet or stanhope1 is one of the most beautiful things to look at in the world3 few boys are trusted to drive a pair2 nor have they physical power for the task4 ,we will therefore confine our attention chiefly to single harness1 adding only a short description of the various kinds of carriages in common use4 ,if1 however1 the youthful charioteer can drive a single horse well1 he will find no difficulty in controlling a pair1 provided their mouths are sufficiently tender for his strength to manage4 ,the horse is here represented harnessed to a light dennet-gig4 ,,the ,,horse ,may be either a full-sized harness horse1 or a galloway1 or a pony2 the two last being the best fitted for juvenile driving4 ,illustration ,,the ,,harness1 ,in every case1 is composed of the same parts1 which consist of three essential divisions3 #ast1 the driving1 or guiding part2 #b;d1 the drawing part2 and #c;d1 that for holding up the shafts4 ,the driving part comprises the bridle and reins4 ,the bridle is made up of a front piece 7#a71 a head piece 7#b71 two cheek pieces and winkers 7#c71 a nose band 7#d71 and a throat lash 7#e74 ,the cheek pieces are buckled to the bit 7#f7 by means of leather loops1 called billets1 as also are the driving-reins 7#g71 and the bearing-rein1 which is attached to a separate bit called the bridoon 7a plain snaffle71 and then is hooked to the pad-hook4 ,this is now very generally dispensed with1 as shown in the cut at the head of this article2 but for young drivers it is often desirable when they have not strength to check the fall of a horse4 ,the drawing parts consist of a padded oval ring fitted to the shoulders1 and called the collar 7#aj71 sometimes replaced by a padded strap across the chest called the breast-strap4 ,on the collar are fastened two iron bars called hames 7#ab71 by means of a strap at the top and bottom 7#h-aa71 and these hames have a ring in the upper part for the reins to pass through1 called the hame terret 7#i72 and nearer the lower part1 a strong arm of iron covered with a coating of brass1 silver1 or leather1 which receives in its eye the tug of the trace 7#ac47 ,the trace 7#ag7 is a long and strong strap of double leather1 stitched1 which runs from the collar to the drawing bar1 and may be lengthened or shortened by a buckle4 ,the part for holding the gig up consists of a pad or saddle1 which is buckled on to the horse by the belly-band 7#af71 and from which the shaft is suspended by the back-band and shaft-tug4 ,it is prevented from slipping forward by the crupper1 which is slipped over the tail4 ,besides these parts1 some horses have in addition a breechen 7#ah-ai7 which holds the shafts back in going down hill2 and when they are addicted to kicking1 a strap is buckled over their hips to the shaft which is called a kicking-strap4 ,illustration ,,the ,,carriage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,britzschka4 ,the ,dennet-gig1 as represented in the last page1 is the most common form for a two-wheeled carriage2 but there are also the ,stanhope1 the ,cabriolet1 as here shown1 the ,tilbury1 and the ,dog-cart4 ,the various open four-wheeled carriages are the ,britzschka1 ,barouche1 and ,phaeton2 and of closed four-wheeled carriages there are the ,brougham and ,clarence on elliptic springs1 and the chariot and family coach with c springs4 ,when these two last are made to open1 they are called the ,landaulet and ,landau4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,brougham4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,family ,,coach4 ,,putting ,,to4 ,before driving1 it is necessary that the horse or pony should be 8put to10 which is effected as follows3 #ast1 slip the shafts through the tugs1 or1 if there are hooks1 drop them down into them2 #b;d1 put the traces on to the drawing-bar1 either hooking them on1 or else slipping them on to the eyes1 and being careful to place the leather stops in these1 to prevent the trace coming off2 #c;d1 buckle the belly-band sufficiently tight2 and #dth1 buckle the kicking-strap1 or breechen1 if either is used4 ,after this1 the reins are taken from the terrets1 where they were previously placed1 and the horse is ready4 ,,directions ,,for ,,driving4 ,in driving1 the reins are held differently from the mode already described as used in riding1 the fore-finger being first placed between them1 and then both the reins are grasped by all the other fingers1 and the near-side rein is also held firmly against the fore-finger by means of the thumb4 ,in this way1 on an emergency1 the near or left rein may be pulled by itself1 by holding it firmly with the thumb1 and suffering the other1 or off rein1 to slip through the fingers1 or vice vers4 ,the most usual way is to pull the left rein with the left hand1 and the right with the right hand1 by hooking one or two fingers over it while held firmly in the left4 ,in this manner1 with the whip also held in the right hand1 the horse is guided or stopped4 ,the young driver should take care and keep his feet well before him1 with his knees as straight and firm as possible1 so that in case of a fall of the horse he may not be thrown forwards out of the vehicle he is driving4 ,he should also sit square to his work1 with his elbow held easily to his side1 and his left thumb pointing to his horse's head1 by which1 as in riding1 his elbow is pretty sure to be properly placed4 ,the bit should not be too firmly pulled against1 but a light and 8give and take0 kind of handling is the best1 by which the horse is allowed freedom of action1 and yet is checked if he makes a mistake4 ,in meeting other vehicles1 the rule is to keep to your left1 and in passing them1 to leave them also on your left4 ,this should be rigidly adhered to for fear of the accidents which would otherwise constantly happen4 ,illustration ,in reference to driving in ,america1 nothing better can be given than the rules of the ,english school for driving4 ,in ,america the rule governing the side to pass another rider on is the reverse of the ,english rule4 ,in ,america the law is 8drive to the right40 ,in ,england it is to the left4 ,the former appears to us to be the 8right0 one4 ,illustration ,,fencing4 ,fencing is the art of using the small-sword or rapier4 ,the small-sword has a straight blade1 about thirty-two inches in length1 outside the guard1 and is fashioned for thrusting only4 ,although it is an art of the greatest antiquity1 very great improvements have been made in it during the last half-century1 chiefly by ,french masters1 who excel those of all other countries4 ,this has been attributed to various causes2 by some to the agility and acknowledged power of rapid physical action possessed by this nation2 by others1 to their natural vivacity and mental quickness4 ,in my opinion1 however1 a more direct and powerful cause may be traced in the great encouragement and universal patronage which it has ever received from every grade of a chivalrous and military people4 ,every regiment has its matre d'armes1 and every barrack its fencing-school4 ,indeed1 in so important a light was the proper teaching of this art held1 that one of the ,french kings 7,louis ,,xiv47 granted letters-patent to twenty eminent masters1 who alone were permitted to teach in ,paris4 ,when a vacancy occurred1 no interest and no favour could enable a candidate to obtain this privilege3 he had to fence in public with six of these chosen masters2 and if by any of them he was beaten by two distinct hits1 he was considered unqualified to teach in the capital4 ,independent of its value as the scientific use of the sword1--the gentleman's weapon of defence1 par excellence1--fencing stands unrivalled as an exercise2 and it is in this sense that it will now be treated4 ,the most eminent physicians which this country have produced have all1 in the most earnest manner1 recommended it to the attention of the young4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,clive says3-- 8,muscular exertion is essential in perfecting the form of the body1 and those exercises which require the exercise of the greatest number of muscles are the most conducive to this end4 ,fencing causes more muscles to act at the same time than most other exercises4 ,it promotes the expansion of the chest1 and improves respiration1 whereby the functions of the most important organs of the body are more perfectly performed40 ,sir ,anthony ,carlisle uses similar language3-- 8,according to my judgment1 the exercise of fencing tends to promote bodily health1 and the development of athletic powers4 ,it is likewise apparent1 that the attitudes and exertions of fencing are conducive to the manly forms and muscular energies of the human figure40 ,again1 ,sir ,everard ,home1 in still stronger terms3-- 8,of all the different modes in which the body can be exercised1 there is none1 in my judgment1 that is capable of giving strength and velocity1 as well as precision1 to the action of all the voluntary muscles of the body in an equal degree as the practice of fencing1 and none more conducive to bodily health40 ,i shall give one more extract from another physician of equal eminence1 ,dr4 ,babbington3-- 8,i am of opinion that1 in addition to the amusement which this exercise 7fencing7 affords1 it is particularly calculated to excite in young persons a greater degree of energy and circumspection than they might otherwise possess2 and it is obvious that1 in respect of health1 that mode of exertion is superior to all others1 which1 while it gives motion and activity to every part of the body1 produces at the same time corresponding interest in the mind40 ,sir ,john ,sinclair1 ,dr4 ,pemberton1 c41 speak in terms equally recommendatory4 ,to avoid all danger in the lessons and practice1 foils are substituted for real swords4 ,strong wire masks are worn on the face1 a well-padded glove on the hand1 and the upper part of the body1 at which alone the thrusts are aimed1 is protected by a strong jacket1 the right side and collar of which should be of leather4 ,the first movement a beginner has to learn is the manner of placing himself in the position called ,,the ,,guard4 ,it is from this position that all movements are made1 whether offensive or defensive4 ,let the beginner be placed with his knees straight1 his feet at right angles1 heel to heel2 the right foot1 right side1 and face directed to the master4 ,the body must be held upright and firm1 the arms hanging down by the side1 but easily and without constraint2 the left hand holding the foil a few inches beneath its guard4 ,next let him bring the right hand across the body1 and seize the foil-handle2 by a second movement1 bring the foil above the head1 the hands separating as they ascend1 until both arms be nearly extended upwards and outwards4 ,here pause4 ,this may be called the first position of the ,guard4 ,these movements should be frequently practised1 as they accustom the arms to move independently of the body1 flatten the joints of the shoulders1 and give prominence to the chest4 ,illustration ,to arrive at the second position of the ,guard1 the right arm1 with the foil1 is brought down to the front1 until the right elbow is a little above and in advance of the waist2 the fore-arm and foil sloping upwards2 the point of the foil being the height of the upper part of the face2 then1 by a second movement1 the learner must sink down1 separating the knees1 and stepping forward with the right foot fourteen or sixteen inches2 for1 of course1 the guard of a tall man will be wider than that of a short one4 ,however1 his own comfort in the position will direct him as to the distance2 and the general rule is1 that the knee of the left leg will jut over the toes of the left foot1 and the right leg from ankle to knee be perpendicular4 ,it is in this position that he will receive all attacks from an adversary1 and from this position will all his own attacks be made4 ,also in this position will he ,,advance upon an adversary1 when beyond hitting distance4 ,the step in the advance is usually about that of the width of the ,guard1 although of course this would vary with circumstances4 ,the step is made by advancing the right foot the distance ,i have named2 and on its reaching the ground1 the left foot is brought up1 and takes its place4 ,to ,,retreat1 the reverse of the above movement is made4 ,the left foot takes the lead1 stepping to the rear about as far as the right had stepped to the front2 the right occupying its place on its taking up its new position4 ,the next movement1 ,,the ,,longe1 is a very important movement1 and is rather difficult to make properly1 and fatiguing to practise4 ,indeed1 the first movements in fencing are the most trying to the learner2 and he must not be discouraged if he fails to do them correctly at first--practice only will give him this power4 ,the ,longe is that extension of body which accompanies every attack1 and is thus made3 ,the right arm is extended straight from the shoulder1 the arm and blade being on the same level2 by a second movement1 the right foot is raised from the ground1 and a step made forward1 about eighteen inches in length1 while the left remains firmly planted in its place4 ,at the instant that this step is made1 the left hand is allowed to fall within a few inches of the left thigh1 and the left knee is stiffened back until the leg is perfectly straight4 ,illustration ,the thigh of the right leg will now be in a position nearly horizontal2 from the knee downwards1 perpendicular4 ,having executed the ,longe1 the next movement to be made is ,,the ,,recover2 that is1 to return from the position of the ,longe to that of the ,guard1 and is thus effected3 ,the left arm is nimbly thrown up to its place1 the right arm drawn in1 and the left knee re-bent4 ,these movements must be made at the same time1 as it is their united action that enables a person to recover from so extended a position as the ,longe quick enough to avoid a thrust if his own attack has failed4 ,these movements must be frequently practised before any others are attempted--the ,guard1 the ,advance1 the ,retreat1 the ,longe1 and the ,recover2 and when the learner has attained some proficiency in them1 he may begin the more delicate movements of attack and defence4 ,of these ,i will now speak4 ,,the ,,engage4 ,it is customary for adversaries1 on coming to the ,guard1 to ,engage1 or to join blades1 on what is called the inside1 that is1 the right side2 although there are occasions on which it is advisable to engage on the outside1 or on the left2 otherwise called the ,quarte or ,tierce sides4 ,two men thus opposed to each other will at once perceive that there are two lines of attack open to them1 i4 e4 the line inside and the line outside the blade--these1 and no more4 ,but these may be1 and in fencing are1 subdivided into inside above the hand1 and inside under the hand1 and the same subdivision for outside4 ,this gives four lines of attack--or1 to speak more simply1 gives four openings through which an adversary may be assailed4 ,now1 to protect each of these assailable points1 are four defensive movements1 called ,,parades4 ,each opening has its own parade or defence1 and each parade will guard its own opening1 and1 strictly speaking1 no other4 ,the opening inside above the hand is defended by two parades4 ,illustration ,as its name imports1 the first and most natural parade is that of ,prime4 ,the action of drawing the sword from its sheath is almost exactly the movement made use of in the parade of ,prime4 ,in this parade1 the hand is raised as high as the forehead1 so that the fencer can see his opponent's face under his wrist4 ,the blade of the foil is almost horizontal1 but the point is rather lowered towards the ground4 ,as this parade will throw the right side of the body open to the adversary's sword1 it is good play to disengage from left to right1 and deliver a rapid thrust at the adversary1 in order to anticipate him before he can bring his own sword round for another thrust4 ,his point will be thrown far out of line1 so that he is behind-hand in point of time4 ,this is a very useful parade for fencers of short stature1 as they can sometimes get in their blade under their adversary's arm1 after they have parried his thrust4 ,the other parade is that of ,,quarte4 ,it is thus formed4 ,on the approach of the point of an adversary's blade 7and how these approaches are made ,i will presently explain71 the right hand is moved a few inches--three or four will be enough--across the body on the inside2 the hand being neither depressed nor raised1 and the foil being kept on the same slope as in the ,guard4 ,this guards the body on the inside above the hand1 but 7and here comes an important law in fencing7 the very movement which has guarded the body on one side has exposed it on the other3 this is the case with all the simple parades4 ,illustration ,suppose1 now1 that the exposed part outside above the hand were assailed1 then the defence for it is the parade of ,,tierce4 ,it is formed by turning the hand with the nails downwards1 and crossing to the opposite side some six or eight inches2 the hand and point at the same elevation as before3 this will guard this opening4 ,if1 however1 the attack had been made under instead of over the hand1 then the proper parade would have been ,seconde4 ,illustration ,there is another method of parrying1 called ,quarte1 over the arm1 which is executed by making almost the same parade as in ,tierce1 with this exception--first1 the hand is retained in its original position1 with the nails upwards2 and1 secondly1 the point is not raised above the eye of the adversary4 ,illustration ,it is rather more delicate than tierce1 but wants its power and energy4 ,the ,ripostes1 or reply thrusts1 are made1 as they would have been had the parade been that of ,tierce4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,seconde is formed by turning the hand in the same position in which it was turned for ,tierce1 but the point of the foil slopes as much downwards as in ,tierce it did upwards2 the direction and distance for the hand to traverse being the same4 ,again1 had the attack been delivered at none of these1 but at the inside under the hand1 then the proper parade would have been ,,demi-,,cercle1 which1 as its name expresses1 is a half-circle1 described by a sweep of the blade traversing the under line4 ,next comes the parade of ,,octave4 ,in this parade the hand is held as in ,quarte2 the hilt of the foil is kept lower than that of the opponent2 the blade is almost horizontal1 the point being only slightly lower than the hilt1 and directed towards the body of the adversary4 ,illustration ,octave is extremely useful when the fencer misses his parade of ,demi-cercle1 as there is but a short distance for the point to traverse1 and it generally meets the blade of the adversary before the point can be properly fixed4 ,moreover1 it brings the point so near the adversary's body1 that he will not venture to make another thrust until he has removed the foil4 ,thus ,i have enumerated1 and partly explained1 the forms and uses of these four parades3 they are called ,simple ,parades1 to distinguish them from another set of defensive movements1 called ,,contre-,,parades4 ,i have said and shown that a man standing foil in hand1 in the position of the guard1 is exposed in four distinct places to thrusts from an adversary within longing distance4 ,i have also shown that he has a defence for each of these exposed places2 but if a man has but one defence for each assailable part1 then his adversary1 knowing beforehand what the defence must be1 would be prepared beforehand to deceive him4 ,but if he has a reserve--if he has a second defence for each part1 then the adversary cannot tell what the defence will be1 until his attack1 false or real1 is begun4 ,to meet this contingency1 a second series of defences have been devised1 which are of an entirely different nature from the ,simple ,parades4 ,again1 as each of the simple parades is framed to guard only one opening1 it was found desirable that the contre-parades should be of a more comprehensive character4 ,they are therefore devised so that each is capable of protecting the entire front4 ,it is evident that this object could not be attained without the sacrifice of quickness1 because a larger space must be traversed1 and therefore more time is occupied with a contre than a simple parade4 ,to know one contre-parade is virtually to know all1 as they are all formed on the same plan4 ,they are all full circles in the position of hand and direction of foil of the different simple parades2 or more clearly speaking1 each simple parade has a contre-parade2 there are1 therefore1 four simple and four contre-parades1 which may be thus arranged3-- ,quarte ,contre de ,quarte4 ,tierce ,contre de ,tierce4 ,seconde ,contre de ,seconde4 ,demi-cercle ,contre de ,cercle4 ,i have said that a contre-parade is a full circle in the position of hand and direction of blade of its simple2 thus1 contre de quarte is made by retaining the hand in the position of quarte1 while the foil describes a circle descending on the inside1 and returning by the outside to the place of its departure4 ,so with all the others1 the foil following the direction of the simple parade1 of which it is the contre4 ,these complete the entire system of defences4 ,i now come to movements of an opposite nature1 namely1 the ,,attacks1 and shall begin with the most simple of them4 ,i will again suppose two adversaries standing1 en guard1 within longing distance of each other3 now the most simple movement that the attacking party could make would be1 ,,the ,,straight ,,thrust to the outside or inside1 according to his line of engagement4 ,i have1 in describing the longe1 in effect described the straight thrust2 it is but a longe in a straight line1 taking care1 however1 to feel firmly the adversary's blade1 but taking care also not to press or lean on it during the delivering of the thrust4 ,next in character comes ,,the ,,disengagement4 ,this attack is made by dropping the point of the foil beneath the adversary's blade1 and raising it on the opposite side1 at the same time1 rising with the arm fully extended2 on the completion of the extension the longe is made and the thrust delivered4 ,,the ,,one-,,two is but a double disengagement1 the first being but a feint or false attack1 to induce the adversary to form a parade to cover the part threatened1 for the covering of one part of the body exposes the opposite3 the second disengagement is made to take advantage of this exposure4 ,the arm is extended halfway on the first1 and then wholly on the second1 to be immediately followed by the longe4 ,,the ,,beat ,,and ,,thrust4 ,this is another variety of attack4 ,supposing the adversary's blade to be firmly joined to yours1 when you wished to deliver a straight thrust1 there would then be danger of your falling upon his point4 ,this danger is avoided by giving a slight beat on his blade the instant preceding your extension of arm1 of course to be followed en suite by the longe4 ,the companion attack to this attack is ,,the ,,beat ,,and ,,disengagement4 ,the beat here takes the character of the first disengagement in one-two1 i4 e4 becomes a feint1 and is intended to induce the adversary to return to the place he occupied when the beat was made4 ,you then immediately pass to the opposite side of his blade in the manner described in the disengagement4 ,it will be seen that all these movements pass under the adversary's blade4 ,however1 there are certain situations in the assault1 as a fencing bout is called1 when an adversary is more assailable over the point than under the blade2 for this purpose there is what the ,french call the coup sur point1 or ,,cut ,,over ,,the ,,point4 ,it is thus made3 ,by the action of the hand1 and without drawing it back at all1 the foil is raised and brought down on the opposite side of the adversary's blade1 the arm being extended during its fall to the horizontal position1 on attaining which the longe is delivered4 ,,cut ,,over ,,and ,,disengagement is on the same principle as the one-two and the beat and disengagement4 ,on the adversary opposing the first movement 7the cut7 with a parade1 the second movement 7the disengagement7 is made to the opposite side1 to be followed of course by the longe2 the extension of the arm being divided between the two movements4 ,these attacks are called simple attacks1 because they may be parried by one or more simple parades1 according to the number of movements in the attack4 ,in fact1 every attack can be parried1 and every parade can be deceived3 it is the additional movement last made which hits or guards4 ,thus1 you threaten by a disengagement to the outside2 your adversary bars your way effectually by the parade of tierce2 you make a second disengagement to the inside1 which is now exposed from the very fact of the outside being guarded 7for both lines of attack cannot be guarded at the same time71 thus converting your attack into one-two2 but if your adversary parries quarte on your second movement1 your attack would be warded off4 ,this can be carried much further1 but the above will1 ,i think1 be sufficient to explain the nature of simple parades and attacks4 ,to deceive a contre-parade1 a separate movement1 called a doubl1 or ,,double1 has been invented2 it is very simple in principle1 and admirably answers the purpose4 ,for instance1 if you were to threaten your adversary by a disengagement to the outside1 and if1 instead of tierce1 he parried contre de quarte1 the double is then made by your making a second disengagement to the same side as the first1 for it will be found that his contre de quarte has replaced the blades in the positions they occupied previous to your disengagement4 ,you will then have an opening1 and may finish the attack by the longe4 ,as all the contre-parades are on the same plan and principle1 so are all the doubles4 ,of course1 it is understood that you will make all the movements of the double en suite1 and without allowing your adversary's blade to overtake yours4 ,,all ,,feints4 ,the foregoing movements having been well practised in the lesson1 the next step is that of all feints and all parades1 and may be practised either with a master or fellow-pupil4 ,the practice consists of one pupil standing on the defensive entirely1 while another assumes the offensive1 and attacks him with all the feints of which he is master1 the other1 of course1 defending with all his parades4 ,it is excellent practice1 as it accustoms the pupil to think for himself gradually1 he having thus but one set of movements to think about4 ,he is therefore enabled to make them boldly1 without having to encounter unknown movements from his adversary4 ,it also enables him to see the extent of his resources1 both for attack and defence4 ,when he can both attack and defend with some presence of mind1 he may then begin ,,the ,,assault2 that is1 he may encounter an adversary1 to attack or defend as occasion presents4 ,he is then left to his own resources entirely4 ,the following ,,general ,,advice1 given by a very eminent fencer and excellent teacher1 cannot fail to be of use3-- 8,do not put yourself on the position of the guard within the reach of your adversary's thrust1 especially at the time of drawing your sword4 8,if you are much inferior make no long assaults4 8,do nothing that is useless2 every movement should tend to your advantage4 8,let your movements be made as much within the line of your adversary's body as possible4 8,endeavour both to discover your adversary's designs1 and to conceal your own4 8,two skilful men1 acting together1 fight more with their heads than their hands4 8,the smaller you can make the movements with your foil1 the quicker will your point arrive at your adversary's body4 8,do not endeavour to give many thrusts on the longe1 thus running the risk of receiving one in the interim4 8,if your adversary drops his foil by accident1 or in consequence of a smart parade of yours1 you should immediately pick it up1 and present it to him politely4 8,always join blades 7if possible7 previously to another attack1 after a hit is given40 ,,broadsword4 ,the principal distinction between the broadsword and the rapier is1 that the latter is formed only for thrusting1 while the former is adapted for cutting also4 ,indeed1 those who use the broadsword are1 in my opinion1 too apt to neglect the use of the point1 and to give their attention almost exclusively to the cuts4 ,the first lesson in the sword exercise is necessarily to know how to stand4 ,the learner should be instructed to perform the different movements by word of command1 remembering to consider the first parts of the word as a caution1 and not to stir until the last syllable is uttered4 ,at the last syllable1 the movement should be performed smartly4 ,in giving the word1 the instructor always makes a slight pause1 in order to give his pupils time to remember what they must do4 ,for example1 the words ,draw ,swords1 is given thus1 ,draw 4 4 4 4 4 ,swords--the word swords being spoken smartly1 in order that the movement may correspond4 ,,positions4 ,first ,position4--,make the target#c about fourteen inches in diameter1 and place it on the wall1 having its centre about four feet from the ground4 ,draw a perpendicular line from the spot at the bottom of the target to the ground1 and continue it on the floor1 in order to ensure the proper position of the heels4 ,the learner stands perfectly upright opposite the target1 with his right side towards it1 his heels close together1 his right toe pointing to the target1 and his left foot at right angles with the left4 ,his arms must be clasped behind his back1 his right palm supporting the left elbow1 and his left hand grasping the right arm just above the elbow4 ,in this position1 he must bend both knees and sink down as far as possible4 ,this will not be very far at first1 but he will soon sink down quite easily4 ,see accompanying figure 7#a74 #c ,for target1 see next page4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,second ,position4--,this is accomplished by placing the right foot smartly in front1 about sixteen or fourteen inches before the left4 ,see 7#b74 ,he must accustom himself to balance himself so perfectly on his left foot1 that he can place the right either before or behind it1 without losing his balance4 ,third ,position4--,the third position must then be learned4 ,this consists in stepping well forward with the right foot1 until the left knee is quite straight1 and the right knee exactly perpendicularly placed over the right foot4 ,great care must be taken to keep the heels exactly in the same line1 and the body perfectly upright4 ,see ,figure 7#c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,these preliminaries having been settled1 the learner stands upright before the target1 as in 7#a74 ,a sword is then put into his hand1 and the target is explained as follows3-- ,illustration ,,target4 ,the interior lines represent the cuts4 ,cut one being directed from ,no4 #a diagonally through the target1 coming out at #d4 ,cut two is the same1 only from left to right4 ,three is made upwards diagonally1 and four is the same1 only in the opposite direction4 ,cut five is horizontally through the target1 from right to left1 and six from left to right4 ,cut seven is perpendicularly downwards4 ,care must be taken that the cuts are fairly given with the edge4 ,the swords drawn on the target represent the guards4 ,the seventh guard ought1 however1 not to be made directly across1 but must have the point directly rather forwards and downwards1 as a cut #g glides off the blade1 and can be instantly answered either by a thrust or by cut #a4 ,the two dark circles represent the places where the thrusts take effect4 ,illustration ,the learner begins by taking the sword in his right hand1 having its edge toward the target and its back resting on his shoulder4 ,his right arm is bent at right angles1 and the elbow against his side4 ,the left hand must rest upon the hip1 the thumb being to the rear4 ,at the word-- ,,cuts ,,and ,,guards4 ,,cuts4 ,cut #a4--,the young swordsman extends his right arm1 and makes the cut clear through the target4 ,when the point has cleared the target1 continue the sweep of the sword1 and by a turn of the wrist bring it with its back on the left shoulder1 its edge towards the left4 ,the arm is then ready for ,cut #b4--;,bring the sword from #b to #c1 continue the movement of the sword1 and turn the wrist so that the point is below the right hip and the edge towards the ground4 ,cut #c4--;,cut through the target diagonally1 bringing the sword from ,no4 #c to ,no4 #b1 and bring the sword onwards1 so that it rests with the edge downwards1 and point below the left hip4 ,at ,cut #d4--;,cut from #d to #a1 and bring the sword round until its point is over the right shoulder1 and its edge well to the right4 ,cut #e4--;,at the word ,five1 make a horizontal cut from #e to #f1 and sweep the sword round until it rests on the left shoulder1 with its edge to the left1 and its point well over the shoulder4 ,cut #f4--;,cut horizontally through the target1 from #f to #e1 and bring the sword over the head1 with its edge upwards1 and its point hanging over the back4 ,from this position1-- ,cut #g4--,make a downward stroke until the sword reaches the centre of the target4 ,arrest it there1 and remain with the arm extended1 waiting for the word ,,points4 ,first ,point4--,draw back the sword1 until the right wrist is against the right temple1 the edge of the sword being upwards4 ,make a slight pause1 and then thrust smartly forward towards the centre of the target1 raising the right wrist as high as ,no4 #a1 and pressing the left shoulder well back4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,point4 ,second ,point4--,turn the wrist round to the left1 so that the edge comes upwards1 draw the hand back until it rests on the breast1 and give the point forwards1 to the centre of the target1 raising the hand as before4 ,illustration3 ,,second ,,point4 ,third ,point4--,give the handle of the sword a slight twist in the hand to the right1 so that the edge again comes uppermost1 and the guard rests against the back of the hand4 ,draw back the hand until it rests against the right hip1 and deliver it forwards towards the spot at the bottom of the target1 raising the wrist as high as the spot in the centre4 ,the object in raising the wrist is to deceive the eye of the opponent1 who will be more likely to notice the position of your wrist than of your point4 ,in all the thrusts1 the left shoulder should be rather brought forward before the point is given1 and pressed well back while it is being delivered4 ,illustration3 ,,third ,,point4 ,,guards4 ,wait after the third point has been delivered for the word ,defend4--,at this word draw up the hand smartly1 and form the first guard4 ,make the other guards in succession as they are named1 while the instructor proves their accuracy by giving the corresponding cuts4 ,the guards must be learned from the target1 by placing the sword in exactly the same position as those delineated4 ,the guards are these3-- ,a ,first guard4 ,b ,second4 ,c ,third4 ,d ,fourth4 ,e ,fifth4 ,f ,sixth4 ,g ,seventh4 ,the two spots ,h and ,i mark the places towards which the points are made1 ,h for the first and second point1 ,i for the third4 ,,parry4 ,the parry or parade of a thrust is executed with the back of the sword4 ,the firmest way of parrying is to hold the sword perpendicular1 with its edge to the right and its hilt about the height of and close to the right shoulder2 then1 by sweeping the sword round from left to right1 any thrust within its sweep is thrown wide of the body4 ,the parry is executed with the wrist and not with the arm1 which must not move4 ,,hanging ,,guard4 ,when the pupil is acquainted with both cuts and guards1 he should learn the hanging guard1 a most useful position1 as it keeps the body well hidden under the sword1 and at the same time leaves the sword in a good position to strike or thrust4 ,it is accomplished in the following way4 ,step out to the second position1 as in ,figure #b1 raise the arm until the hand is just over the right foot1 and as high as the head4 ,the edge of the sword is upwards1 and the point is directed downwards and towards the left4 ,the left shoulder is pressed rather forward1 and the neck and chest drawn inward4 ,in this position1 the swordsman is in a position to receive or make an attack as he may think fit4 ,it is rather fatiguing at first1 owing to the unaccustomed position of the arm and head1 but the fatigue is soon overcome1 and then it will be found that there is no attitude which gives equal advantages4 ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,,guard4 ,there are two other modes of standing on guard1 each possessing their peculiar advantages4 ,these are1 the inside and outside guard4 ,the inside guard is made as follows3-- ,,inside ,,guard4 ,stand in the second position1 having the wrist of the right hand nearly as low as the waist1 the hand being exactly over the right foot4 ,the point of the sword is raised as high as the eyes1 and the edge is turned inwards1 as will be seen from the accompanying engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,inside ,,guard4 ,,outside ,,guard4 ,the outside guard is formed in the same manner as the inside1 with the exception that the edge of the sword is turned well outwards4 ,illustration3 ,,outside ,,guard4 ,to get to the hanging guard1 the words are given as follows3--inside guard--outside guard--guard4 ,,attack ,,and ,,defence4 ,the swordsman having learned thus far1 is taught to combine the three movements of striking1 thrusting1 and guarding1 by the following exercise3-- #a4 ,inside ,guard4 #b4 ,outside ,guard4 #c4 ,guard4 #d4 ,cut ,one4 #e4 ,first ,guard4 #f4 ,cut ,two4 #g4 ,second ,guard4 #h4 ,cut ,three4 #i4 ,third ,guard4 #aj4 ,cut ,four4 #aa4 ,fourth ,guard4 #ab4 ,cut ,five4 #ac4 ,fifth ,guard4 #ad4 ,cut ,six4 #ae4 ,sixth ,guard4 #af4 ,cut ,seven4 #ag4 ,seventh ,guard4 #ah4 ,first ,point4 ,prepare for the point in ,first ,position4 ,two4 ,thrust in ,third ,position4 #ai4 ,second ,point4 ,prepare for it in ,first ,position4 ,two4 ,thrust in ,third ,position4 #bj4 ,third ,point4 ,prepare4 ,two4 ,thrust4 #ba4 ,parry4 ,prepare to parry in ,first ,position4 ,two4 ,parry4 #bb4 ,guard4 ,the young swordsman must remember that in this1 as in all the exercises1 the cuts and points must be given in the third position1 as in the accompanying illustration1 which shows the swordsman just as he has delivered the seventh cut1 and is waiting for the next word before he resumes the first position4 ,illustration3 ,,seventh ,,cut4 ,the guards1 on the contrary1 are given in the first position1 as is seen in the figure on p4 #bai1 which illustrates the seventh guard4 ,these exercises are always learned with the single-stick1 or basket-hilted cudgel1 in order to avoid the dangers which would be inevitable if the sword were used4 ,but as the single-stick is only an imitation of the sword1 ,i will give the method of getting the sword out of the sheath into any position required4 ,,draw ,,swords4 ,the first word of command is draw swords4 ,at the word draw1 seize the sheath just below the hilt1 with the left hand1 and raise the hilt as high as the hip1 at the same time grasping the hilt with the right hand1 turning the edge of the sword to the rear1 and drawing it partially from the sheath1 to ensure its easy removal4 ,illustration3 ,,seventh ,,guard4 ,at the word swords1 draw the blade smartly out of the scabbard1 throwing the point upwards1 at the full extent of the arm1 the edge being still to the rear4 ,,recover ,,swords4 ,the wrist is now smartly lowered until it is level with the chin1 the blade upright1 and the edge to the left4 ,this is the position of recover swords4 ,the elbow must be kept close to the body1 as in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,,recover ,,swords4 ,,carry ,,swords4 ,the wrist is now sharply lowered until the arm hangs at its full length1 the wrist being in the line with the hip1 the edge of the sword to the front1 and its back resting in the hollow of the shoulder1 the fingers lightly holding the hilt4 ,the left hand hangs at the side until the word inside guard1 when it is placed on the left hip4 ,,slope ,,swords4 ,at the word swords1 raise the right hand smartly1 until it forms a right angle at the elbow4 ,,return ,,swords4 ,at the word1 raise the blade until it is perpendicular1 move the hilt to the hollow of the left shoulder1 drop the point of the sword into the scabbard 7which has been grasped by the left hand and slightly raised17 at the same time turning the edge to the rear4 ,pause an instant1 and send the sword smartly into the sheath1 removing both hands as the hilt strikes against the mouth of the scabbard3 drop them to the side1 with the palms outwards1 and stand in the first position4 ,,practices4 ,there are many exercises with the broadsword1 called ,practices4 ,i have given one of them1 which is to be practised alone2 but when the pupil has attained some confidence in the use of his weapon1 he must be placed opposite another pupil1 and they must go through them1 each taking the attack and defence in turn4 ,the young swordsman must be provided with a very stout wire mask1 which defends the face and part of the neck1 and which should be worked in a kind of helmet above1 to guard against the disastrous consequences of receiving the seventh guard4 ,no practices1 loose or otherwise1 should be permitted without the masks1 as neither party would be able to cut or thrust with proper confidence4 ,,second ,,practice4 ,this is very useful in teaching the point and parry1 as well as giving steadiness on the feet4 ,two boys are placed opposite each other1 at just such a distance1 that when perfectly erect they can touch the hilt of their adversary's sword with the point of their own4 ,the one who gives the first point is called ,front ,rank1 7there may be a dozen in each rank1 each having tried the distance to his right by extending his sword17 and the one who gives first parry is called ,rear ,rank4 ,,word ,,of ,,command4 ,,front ,,rank4 ,,rear ,,rank4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,third ,point4 ,prepare to give ,third ,point4 ,prepare to ,parry4 ,point4 ,give ,third ,point1 and when ,parry ,third ,point1 parried spring back to ,first and prepare to ,position1 and prepare to parry4 give ,third ,point4 ,point4 ,parry ,third ,point1 and prepare ,give ,third ,point1 for ,third ,point4 and prepare to ,parry4 ,point1 c4 c4 ,this should be continued until both are weary4 ,both swordsmen should learn to do it more rapidly every time they practise4 ,next time of going through it1 front rank and rear rank change places1 as they must do in all the practices4 ,,third ,,practice4 ,,word ,,of ,,command4 ,,front ,,rank4 ,,rear ,,rank4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,leg4 ,cut ,four4 ,cut ,seven4 ,inside ,guard4 ,inside ,guard4 ,inside ,guard4 ,leg4 ,cut ,six at ,leg4 ,cut ,six at ,neck4 ,outside ,guard4 ,outside ,guard4 ,outside ,guard4 ,leg4 ,cut ,five at ,leg4 ,cut ,five at ,neck4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,slope ,swords4 ,slope ,swords4 ,slope ,swords4 ,in this and the other practices1 the cuts must be delivered in the third position1 and the guards in the first4 ,in the third and fourth practices1 the cuts must be given lightly1 as many of them are not intended to be guarded1 but merely to show the powers of the sword in various positions4 ,,fourth ,,practice4 ,,word ,,of ,,command4 ,,front ,,rank4 ,,rear ,,rank4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,cut ,seven4 ,leg4 ,fourth ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,leg4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,fourth ,cut4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,slope ,swords4 ,slope ,swords4 ,slope ,swords4 ,in this and the preceding exercise1 the power of shifting the leg is shown4 ,if two swordsmen attack each other1 and ,no4 #a strikes at the leg of ,no4 #b1 it will be better for ,no4 #b not to oppose the cut by the third or fourth guard1 but to draw back the leg smartly1 and cut six or seven at the adversary's head or neck4 ,in loose play1 as it is called1 i4 e4 when two parties engage with swords without following any word of command1 but strike and guard as they can1 both players stand in the second position1 because they can either advance or retreat as they choose1 and can longe out to the third position for a thrust or a cut1 or spring up to the first position for a guard with equal ease4 ,it is often a kind of trap1 to put the right leg more forward than usual1 in order to induce the adversary to make a cut at it4 ,when he does so1 the leg is drawn back1 the stroke passes harmless1 and the deceived striker gets the stick of his opponent on his head or shoulders4 ,we now come to a very complicated exercise1 called the ,,fifth ,,practice4 ,,word ,,of ,,command4 ,,front ,,rank4 ,,rear ,,rank4 ,draw ,swords4 ,draw ,swords4 ,draw ,swords4 ,inside ,guard4 ,inside ,guard4 ,inside ,guard4 ,outside ,guard4 ,outside ,guard4 ,outside ,guard4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,arm4 ,second ,cut at ,arm4 ,second ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,arm4 ,second ,guard4 ,second ,cut at ,arm4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,right ,side4 ,sixth ,cut4 ,sixth ,guard4 ,head4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,head4 ,seventh ,cut4 ,seventh ,guard4 ,right ,side4 ,sixth ,guard4 ,sixth ,cut4 ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,hanging ,guard4 ,this practice is capital exercise1 and looks very imposing4 ,all these practices ought to be so familiar1 that the words of command are not needed1 the only word required being ,first1 ,second1 or ,third ,practices1 as the case may be4 ,i remember once1 that two of my pupils had attained such a mastery of their weapons1 that we used often to go through the practices with real swords4 ,on one occasion1 we were acting a charade1 and my eldest pupil and myself were enacting the part of two distinguished foreigners 7country unknown7 who were to get up a fight4 ,so we began by a little quarrel1 and finally drew our swords and set hard to work at the fifth practice1 which we could do with extreme rapidity1 and without the use of words of command4 ,the spectators were horrified1 and the ladies greatly alarmed2 for there seems to be no particular order in that practice1 and an inexperienced eye would certainly fancy that the combatants were in earnest4 ,,fort ,,and ,,feeble4 ,the half of the sword blade next the hilt is called the 8fort10 because it is the strongest place on which the cut of an adversary can be received4 ,always parry and guard with the fort of your sword1 as1 if you try to guard a cut with the 8feeble10 which is the remaining half of the blade1 your guard will be forced1 and the cut take effect4 ,,drawing ,,cut4 ,the drawing cut is made best with a curved sword1 and is executed by placing the edge of the sword on the object1 and drawing it over it until it is severed4 ,a good large mangel worzel is capital practice4 ,place the root loose on a table1 stand at arm's length from it1 lay the edge of the sword lightly on it1 and slice the root by repeatedly drawing the sword over it4 ,this is very difficult1 although it looks easy enough1 and is sure to jar the arm from the wrist to the shoulder the first time or two1 while the sword glides off as if the root were cased in polished steel4 ,however1 a little practice will soon overcome the difficulty4 ,this cut is much in use among the ,sikhs4 ,,general ,,advice4 ,never look at your own sword1 but watch the eye and sword wrist of your opponent4 ,remember that the great point in this exercise1 as in fencing1 is to gain time4 ,endeavour1 therefore1 to advance your point nearer your adversary than his is to you4 ,begin the assault out of distance1 so that neither party can complain of being taken by surprise4 ,if the two parties exchange a cut or a thrust at the same moment1 the one who gave his cut or thrust in the third position is victorious4 ,when a cut or thrust is made1 the one who receives it passes his sword1 i4 e4 stick1 into his left hand1 and his opponent comes to inside guard4 ,always spring back to the second position after delivering a cut or thrust4 ,keep the line of direction carefully1 or you will leave an open space for the adversary to get his sword into4 ,last and most important1 ,don't lose your temper4 ,illustration ,,fives4 ,it is impossible to play at this excellent game unless there be a high wall1 free from abutments1 and a smooth1 dry1 paved ground before it4 ,when this can be procured1 a line is drawn on the wall1 about #ch inches from the ground2 another line is drawn on the ground1 about #aj feet from the wall1 ,a2 and two others are drawn on each side as boundaries1 ,b ,c4 ,the instruments used in the play are a ball of tightly-sewn leather and a fives-bat4 ,it has a long handle1 and an oval bowl of wood4 ,the ball is hard1 rebounding1 small1 and white4 ,the game may be played by two or four people2 in the last case1 two on each side4 ,the method of play is as follows3--,the game may be played either single-handed or with partners4 ,when it is played with partners1 the players toss up for innings4 ,the first player takes the ball1 and strikes it against the wall with his bat above the line on the wall1 and so that it may fall without the line on the ground4 ,the other then strikes it1 and the players continue to hit it against the wall1 either before it comes to the ground or at the first bounce1 until one of them missing it1 or driving it out of bounds1 or beneath the wall-line1 loses or goes out4 ,of course the ball may fall anywhere within the side boundaries1 after being once struck up by the player who is in4 ,the game is usually fifteen1 but is sometimes extended to twenty-five4 ,the game above described is that known as bat-fives1 and differs little from the game of rackets1 except that it may be played in any open court1 and that a differently-shaped bat and a larger ball are employed4 ,fives was originally played with the hand1 instead of a racket1 and in the fourteenth century was called ,hand ,tennis in ,england1 and in ,france1 ,palm ,play4 ,it is said to have obtained the name of ,fives1 from ten of the ,earl of ,hertford's servants having played before ,queen ,elizabeth1 five of a side2 but more probably on account of the five fingers of the hand4 ,this game of 8hand-fives0 is the one ordinarily played by boys1 and known technically as 8fives40 ,the ball is hit against the wall entirely by the hand1 and no bat of any description is used4 ,the game may be played by two or more people1 and is usually fifteen4 ,players with tender hands usually play with an ordinary kid or padded glove1 either of which is quite admissible4 ,there are variations of the game at different schools1 owing to peculiarities in the shape of the courts4 ,at ,eton1 for instance1 a buttress of the chapel abuts into the court1 and the ,eton courts at ,oxford are made on a similar plan4 ,but the game as ordinarily played is that as described above4 ,,foot-,,ball4 ,uncertain as to the date of its origin1 there is no ,english game which is at once so popular and about which so much difference of opinion exists4 ,all agree as to its manly character1 its capabilities for endurance1 activity1 hardihood1 and strategical skill1 but there are very few who agree entirely as to the rules by which the game should be played4 ,in ancient records there is no mention of the game before the reign of ,edward ,,iii42 and at that period it seems to have been so popular that by royal edict it was put down1 as being antagonistic to the royal amusement of archery4 ,but that it flourished1 and flourished considerably1 beyond that date1 there is no doubt4 ,in many market-towns of ,england and ,scotland1 and notably in that of ,kingston-on-,thames1 all business is suspended on ,shrove ,tuesday1 and a great game of foot-ball is played in the market-place4 ,all is officially conducted1 and the mayor is honoured with the privilege of 8kick-off40 ,it would seem a pity at first sight that there is no authority like that of the ,marylebone ,club to revise the laws of foot-ball and insist upon their being observed in all places where the game is played4 ,foot-ball as now constituted is not1 and cannot be1 a national game4 ,there are hardly two schools in ,england that agree in its first principles1 and that are not continually wrangling and disputing as to how the game should be played4 ,to touch the ball with the hands is in some eyes a heresy1 and in others an uncommon virtue4 ,some schools advocate running with the ball1 while others consider such licence as antagonistic to the proper principles and well-being of the game4 ,and1 indeed1 looking round at the various head-quarters of foot-ball in ,england1 it really does seem a difficult matter to reconcile the games as now played so as to suit all tastes4 ,rugby and ,eton foot-ball can hardly be looked upon as the same game4 ,illustration3 ,,football4 ,we have one set of people advocating the employment of only eleven1 or at most twenty1 players on a side1 and another maintaining that a hundred or so on a side matters little4 ,we have one school playing the game against a brick wall1 another using boundaries of canvas1 another dashing the ball about in narrow cloisters1 and another marshalling a little army of players1 with regularly organized back and forward players1 reserve forces1 vanguard1 scouts1 runners1 all of whom have their direct influence on the fate and fortunes of the game4 ,the great essentials for foot-ball are pluck1 endurance1 and good temper4 ,half the disputes at foot-ball which are ascribed to 8hacking0 and 8shinning0 would not have occurred had good temper been observed4 ,no one 8hacks0 or 8shins0 wilfully1 except he loses his temper2 and a player in foot-ball1 as in other games1 who cannot keep his temper is unfit in every way to enjoy the game4 ,as a match at foot-ball is now made1 two parties1 containing any number of competitors1 take the field1 and1 having tossed up for sides1 stand between two goals1 placed at a distance of some eighty yards apart4 ,the party that loses the toss has the privilege of 8kick-off40 ,the goal is marked by two upright poles1 driven into the ground about ten yards apart4 ,the ball1 which used formerly to be made of a blown bladder1 is now made of an inflated vulcanized india-rubber case1 inclosed again in a case of laced and well-sewn leather4 ,the object of each party is to drive the ball through the goal of their antagonists4 ,the skill of the players is best employed in attacking and defending the goals4 ,in the game of football the fewer the rules1 and the simpler those rules are1 the better4 ,the great 8bone of contention0 with lovers of the game is1 as to whether players should be allowed to touch the ball with their hands or not4 ,eton and ,westminster players will be arguing for ever that the game is foot-ball1 and not hand-ball2 while ,rugbans1 on the other hand1 will contend that without the use of the hands as well as the feet the game is robbed of one of its principal charms4 ,in the following rules a medium course is advocated1 as1 while nothing looks so bad as to see a lazy or inactive player1 who does not care to follow the ball1 playing fives with it whenever it comes within his reach1 it would be equally absurd to stop a player who catches the ball fairly either on the full or first bound from running a yard or so with it in his hands1 in order to allow him to get up the necessary impetus for a strong drop-kick4 ,with regard also to 8off-side10 it is essentially necessary that some clear and definite rules should be laid down4 ,what can possibly look worse than to see a player1 again one of those who are too indolent to 8follow up0 the ball1 coolly stand in the middle of the course1 or1 worse still1 at the very door of his neighbour's goal1 waiting until the ball is kicked up to him1 in order that he1 fresh and full of wind as he is1 may follow it in to the goal8 ,it is hoped that the following rules may give general satisfaction1 and prevent disputes and obstacles3-- #a4 ,a goal may be obtained by a fair full kick or drop-kick off the hand1 provided the ball goes over the bar which runs between the goal-posts2 or a goal may be obtained by a fair foot-ball 8bulley10 which sends the ball through all obstacles anywhere between the posts4 #b4 ,the foot-ball course must be marked by side boundaries4 ,when the ball is kicked outside these boundaries1 a player of either side may kick it into the course again in a straight line from where it went out4 #c4 ,a player who shall not have been behind the last player on his own side who kicked the ball shall be considered 8off his side40 #d4 ,no player who shall be 8off his side0 shall be allowed to kick the ball until it shall have touched one of the opposite side1 when he becomes on his side again1 and may join in the game4 #e4 ,a player who obtains a fair catch of the ball1 either full or on the first bound1 may take a short run1 in order to obtain a 8drop-kick10 or may kick it at once full off his hands4 #f4 ,any player of the opposite side may use his best endeavours to prevent a drop or full kick after a fair catch4 #g4 ,no 8holding0 must be allowed at any period of the game4 #h4 ,no 8shinning0 or 8hacking0 is to be allowed4 #i4 ,at the commencement of the game the captains of each side shall determine mutually how long the game is to last4 #aj4 ,at the end of the time1 no matter in what position the game is1 one of the captains shall cry 8no game10 and the game shall immediately cease4 ,,golfing4 ,illustration ,golfing is played with a club and ball4 ,the club is from three to four feet long1 according to the height and length of arm of the player4 ,it is curved and massive towards the end1 to give strength and weight4 ,this knob is formed for strength from some very tough wood1 as beech1 and as it curves and proceeds upwards is planed off1 so as to adapt itself to the handle1 to which it is partly glued and tightly corded down4 ,a want of due attention to these particulars in the making of it will render the head liable to split and fly off by either a very hard or indirect stroke4 ,the face of the club is further secured by a piece of hard bone1 and occasionally of ivory1 at least half an inch thick4 ,it is also loaded with from four to six ounces of lead1 according to the will of the player4 ,the handle is usually bound with cord1 list1 or velvet1 at the pleasure of the owner4 ,it is1 however1 to be remembered1 that the form of the club1 the materials of which it is made1 and the numbers taken to the golfing ground1 vary considerably1 according to the circumstances and habits of the players1 the attendant cad or caddie having usually many varieties1 to suit every peculiarity under which the ball may be placed2 for in many clubs it can never be touched by the hand until holed4 ,the golf ball is about the size of an egg1 and is made very hard4 ,it is composed of stout leather1 which1 having been previously soaked in boiling water1 allows of its being first very firmly sewed1 and then turned inside out1 leaving a small opening only1 by which it is very forcibly stuffed with feathers4 ,the leather being yet wet1 it contracts into a ball of the dimensions stated1 but never gets circular1 as that used in the game of cricket4 ,it is afterwards painted over with several coats of white paint2 in doing which it is requisite that the lead used should be very pure and exceedingly well ground down1 as well as that each coat laid on should be perfectly dry and hard before another is applied4 ,the game is played by two or more persons1 so that there be an equal number on each side2 but only two balls are used1 one belonging to each party1 each party also striking in turn3 but if the last striker does not drive his ball as far as that of his opponent1 one of his party must then strike one1 or perhaps two more1 and the game is thus marked by calling out one1 two1 or three more1 as the case may be4 ,if more than two are playing1 the same person does not strike twice in succession3 a miss is considered one4 ,the party who puts the ball into the hole in the fewest strokes wins the game4 ,the grounds used for this sport vary in different parts of ,scotland4 ,some are nearly square1 in which case a hole is made in each corner2 but if it be irregular in figure1 it is not uncommon to place one at each angle1 so that the party shall traverse the whole surface1 and finish at the spot from whence he started2 a quarter of a mile being usually allowed between each hole4 ,besides the stick1 or club1 already described1 there are others1 usually carried by an attendant for each party4 ,these are called1 by way of distinction1 putters--of which1 however1 there are several sorts1 one being short1 stiff1 and heavy1 similar in figure1 but longer on the head1 for making a steady and direct stroke when near the hole4 ,another1 formed of iron1 instead of wood1 is used for making a hit at a ball when very unfavourably placed1 as in a rut1 where the common club would be in danger of breaking4 ,when a ball falls into a hole or rut1 from which it is impossible to strike it out1 the party is allowed1 by a special agreement1 in some clubs1 to take it out with his hand1 and throw it up in a line with the spot1 which is accounted as one1 and he then strikes from where it chances to rest2 but1 as already observed1 this indulgence does not extend to every ,golfing ,society4 ,illustration ,,gymnastics4 ,,introduction4 ,the study of ,gymnastics is of the utmost importance to young persons1 as its object is to call into exercise1 and to train to perfection1 all the corporeal or bodily powers4 ,it is the education of the limbs1 joints1 and muscles2 and includes not only the systematic training of these1 but also assists the sciences of riding1 driving1 wrestling1 rowing1 sailing1 skating1 swimming1 c4 ,in the following gymnastic exercises we have determined to introduce only those more simple and useful feats which may be said to make up the 8,alphabet of the ,science10 and all the individual and progressive exercises are susceptible of being everywhere introduced4 ,they may be performed in very small spaces1 and require no particular preparation1 expense1 or place4 ,by attention to the directions any pupil between the ages of twelve and sixteen may train and exercise himself1 and a number of other children younger than himself2 and this excellent study may thus become a source of amusement and delight4 ,illustration3 ,,gymnastics4 ,,historical ,,memoranda4 ,the first gymnasium is said to have been established at ,sparta1 and some years afterwards at ,athens4 ,in the former city the exercises partook of a rude military character2 but among the ,athenians1 who were always disposed to mingle the elements of the beautiful in whatever they undertook1 gymnastics were refined1 and the ,gymnasia became temples of the ,graces4 ,in each there was a place called ,palstra1 in which wrestling1 boxing1 running1 leaping1 throwing the discus1 and other exercises of the kind were taught4 ,gymnastics were afterwards divided into two principal branches--the ,palstr1 taking its name from the ,palstra1 and the ,orchestr4 ,the former embraced the whole class of athletic exercises2 the latter dancing1 and the art of gesticulation and declamation4 ,the ,gymnasia were spacious edifices1 surrounded by gardens and a sacred grove4 ,their principal parts were3 #a4 ,the ,portices1 furnished with seats and side buildings1 where the youths met to converse4 #b4 ,the ,ephebeion1 that part of the edifice where the youth alone exercised4 #c4 ,the ,apodyterion1 or undressing room to the ,conisterium1 or small court in which was kept the yellow kind of sand sprinkled by the wrestlers over their bodies after being anointed with the aroma1 or oil tempered with wax4 #e4 ,the ,palstra properly was the place for wrestling4 #f4 ,the ,sphristerium1 where the game of ball was played4 #g4 ,aliterium1 where the wrestlers anointed themselves with oil4 #h4 ,the ,area or great court1 where running1 leaping1 and pitching the quoit were performed4 #i4 ,the ,xysta1 open walks in which the youths exercised themselves in running4 #aj4 ,the ,balanea1 or baths4 ,behind the ,xysta lay the ,stadium1 which1 as its name imports1 was the eighth of a mile in length2 and in this were performed all sorts of exercises1 in the presence of large numbers of persons and the chiefs of the state4 ,to all these branches of gymnastics the ,grecian youth applied themselves with peculiar eagerness1 and on quitting the schools devoted to them a particular portion of their time1 since they regarded them as a preparation for victory in the ,olympic and other games1 and as the best possible means for promoting health and ripening the physical powers2 nor could anything be better adapted for those whose heroism was liberty1 and whose first great aims were to be good citizens and the defenders of their country4 ,the ,romans never made gymnastics a national matter1 but considered them merely as preparatory to the military service2 and1 though forming a part of the exhibitions at festivals1 they were practised only by a particular class trained for brutal entertainments1 at which large bets were laid by the spectators1 as is still the custom on our own racecourse3 but when all the acquisitions of the human intellect were lost in the utter corruption of the ,roman empire and the irruptions of wandering nations1 the gymnastic art perished4 ,,modern ,,gymnastics4 ,the commencement of tournaments during the ,dark ,ages in some degree revived athletic exercises2 but the invention of gunpowder1 the use of the small sword1 the rifle1 and scientific tactics1 by which battles were gained more by skill than force1 kept down the training of the body for athletic feats4 ,but in the last century1 when men broke loose from the yoke of authority1 and education began to be studied1 it was found that physical education had been forgotten4 ,salzmann1 a ,german clergyman1 invented a system of physical exercises1 principally confined to running1 leaping1 swimming1 climbing1 and balancing2 and at the commencement of the present century a ,german of the name of ,volker established the first gymnasium in ,london1 while ,captain ,clias1 a ,swiss1 established one in the ,royal ,military ,asylum2 and since then many of the best schools and colleges have a gymnasium attached to their establishments4 ,it generally happens that the pupils of a gymnasium1 after a time1 lose their interest in the exercises4 ,the reason of this appears to be that little or no difference is made in the exercises of different ages1 and it is natural that an exercise repeated for years should become wearisome4 ,gymnastics1 therefore1 when they are taught1 should be divided into two courses4 ,in the first course we would include walking and pedestrian excursions1 elementary exercises of various tests1 running1 leaping in height1 in length1 in depth1 leaping with a pole 7in length and height71 vaulting1 balancing1 exercises on the single and parallel bars1 climbing1 throwing1 dragging1 pushing1 lifting1 carrying1 wrestling1 jumping 7#a4 with the hoop2 #b4 with the rope71 exercises with the dumb bells1 various gymnastic feats or games2 and1 lastly1 swimming1 skating1 fencing1 riding on horseback1 rowing1 c4 ,gymnastic exercises may be begun by a boy of about eight years of age1 or may be commenced at any age2 but in all cases he should begin gently1 and proceed gradually1 without any abrupt transitions4 ,they should be commenced before breakfast in the morning1 or before dinner or supper2 but never immediately after meals3 and the pupil should be very careful1 after becoming heated by exercises1 of draughts or cold1 and especially refrain from lying on the damp ground1 or from standing without his coat or other garments2 and rigidly guard against the dangerous practice of drinking cold water1 which1 in many instances1 has been known to produce immediate death4 ,,walking4 ,in all gymnastic exercises walking1 running1 and jumping deserve the preference1 because they are the most natural movements of man1 and those which he has most frequent occasion to use4 ,this exercise1 within the reach of everybody1 ought to be placed among the number of those which are direct conservators of health1 and which have the most important beneficial effects upon our mental and moral economy4 ,walking provokes appetite1 assists digestion1 accelerates the circulation1 brings the fluids to the skin1 strengthens the memory1 and gives cheerfulness to the mind1 and in fatiguing the limbs gives repose to the senses and the brain4 ,it might be supposed that every one knows how to walk3 not so1 however2 some persons crawl1 some hobble1 some shuffle along4 ,few have the graceful noble movement that ought to belong to progression1 or1 however well formed1 preserve a really erect position and an air of becoming confidence and dignity4 ,to teach walking--that is to say1 to teach young persons to walk properly--we should advise a class of them to unite1 that they may be able to teach themselves1 which they may readily do if they follow the instructions given below4 ,a company of boys being formed1 the eldest1 or the one best adapted to the task1 should act as captain1 and at the word of command1 8,fall in10 all the boys are to advance on the same line1 preserving between each the distance of about an arm's length4 ,at the word 8,dress0 each boy places his right hand on the left shoulder of the next1 extending his arm at full length1 and turning his head to the right4 ,at the word 8,attention0 the arms fall down by the side1 and the head returns to the first position4 ,the captain should now place his little regiment in the following manner3--#a4 ,the head up4 #b4 ,the shoulders back4 #c4 ,the body erect4 #d4 ,the stomach in4 #e4 ,the knees straight1 the heels on the same line4 #f4 ,the toes turned very slightly outwards4 ,the captain now stands before his men1 and advancing his left foot1 his knee straight1 and his toe inclined towards the ground1 he counts one1 two1 placing his boot on the ground1 the toe before the heel2 he then directs his pupils to obey him1 and to follow his motions1 and says1 8,march10 when each foot is advanced simultaneously1 till he gives the word 8,halt40 ,he then makes them advance1 wheel to the right and left1 in slow time1 quick time1 always observing the position of the body1 and requiring that they move all together4 ,,the ,,tip-,,toe ,,march4 ,this movement is preparatory to running and jumping4 ,the boys being in line1 the word 8,on tip-toes0 is given3 each boy places his hands on his sides1 and waits for the word1 8,rise20 when they all gently raise themselves on their toes1 joining their heels together1 and keeping the knees straight1 remain in this position till the word 8,rest0 is given1 when they fall back slightly on their heels1 their hands at the same time falling down by their sides4 ,proceeding in this manner through a few courses1 with such changes as may present themselves1 the pupils will soon acquire a habit of graceful walking1 of the highest importance to every one who studies a gentlemanly bearing4 ,,running4 ,running is both useful and natural2 it favours the development of the chest1 dilates the lungs1 and1 when moderate1 is a highly salutary exercise4 ,to run fast and gracefully one should as it were graze the ground with the feet1 by keeping the legs as straight as possible whilst moving them forward4 ,during the course the upper part of the body is inclined a little forward1 the arms are as it were glued to the sides1 and turned in at the point of the hips1 the hands shut1 and the nails turned inwards4 ,the faults in running are swinging the arms1 raising the legs too high behind1 taking too large strides1 bending the knees too much1 and in not properly managing their wind4 ,in all running exercises the young should begin gradually1 and never run themselves out of breath at any time4 ,by careful practice a boy may soon acquire the power of running a mile in ten minutes2 this is called moderate running3 in what is called prompt running a thousand yards in two minutes is thought very good work1 and in quick running #fjj yards in a minute is considered good4 ,the first distance that children1 from eight to ten years of age1 may be made to run is about #bjj yards2 the second1 for those more advanced1 #cjj yards2 and the third1 for adults1 #djj yards4 ,it is however most essential1 that in running boys should not over-tax their strength or 8wind40 ,we are not all constituted alike1 and a boy who could last for #bjj yards or so might injure himself considerably by racing for a mile4 ,,jumping4 ,of all the corporeal exercises jumping is one of the most useful2 and during our lives very many instances occur of a good jump having done us essential service4 ,to jump with grace and assurance one should always fall on the toes1 taking care especially to bend the knees on the hips3 the upper part of the body should be inclined forwards1 and the arms extended towards the ground4 ,the hands should serve to break the fall when jumping from a great height4 ,in jumping we should hold the breath and never alight on the heels4 ,boys should exercise themselves in jumping1 by jumping in length1 and jumping from a height1 with attention to the above cautions4 ,they may make progressive exercises in length by varying the distance from time to time1 and in height by jumping from a flight of stairs or steps1 increasing a step at a time3 they will soon be able to jump in length three yards1 and from a height six feet1 without injury4 ,,leaping4 ,leaping is somewhat different to what is called jumping1 as the object is to pass over an obstacle2 and1 as in jumping1 it is of great importance to draw in the breath1 while the hands should be shut1 the arms pendent1 to operate after the manner of a fly-wheel or pendulum4 ,it may be practised by a leaping stand1 which can be easily made of two sticks or stakes sunk in the ground1 in which little catches are made at various distances1 on which an even piece may be laid1 that may readily be knocked over1 so as to offer no resistance to the jumper1 and injure him by an ugly fall4 ,the principal exercises in leaping are3--#a4 ,the high leap without a run4 #b4 ,the high leap with a run4 #c4 ,the long leap without a run4 #d4 ,and the long leap with a run4 ,in the first of these the legs and feet are closed1 the knees are bent till the calves nearly touch the thighs1 and the arms are thrown in the direction of the leap1 which increases the impulse4 ,this leap may be practised at the following progressive heights1--eighteen inches1 twenty-four inches1 thirty-two inches1 forty-eight inches1 which last is perhaps what few lads would attain4 ,the high leap with a run4--,the run should never exceed twelve paces1 the distance between the point of springing and the obstacle to leap over to be about three-fifths the height of the obstacle from the ground2 and in making it the leaper should go fairly and straightly over without veering to the side1 and descend on the ball of the foot just beyond the toes4 ,the heights that may be cleared by the running leap vary from three to six feet4 ,a good leaper of sixteen years old ought to leap four feet six inches1 and an extraordinarily good leaper five feet4 ,adults well trained will leap six1 and some have been known to leap seven feet4 ,the long leap without a run4--,the long leap may be marked out from four to eight feet1 according to the agility and strength of the leaper2 and the object to be cleared1 a small block of wood1 which should in this kind of leap be never more than six inches high1 placed midway4 ,in leaping the body is bent forward1 the feet are closed1 the arms first sway forwards1 then backwards1 and then forwards at the moment of taking the leap4 ,in this kind of leap ten or twelve feet is considered good work4 ,the long leap with a run4--,the run should be on firm level ground4 ,the body should be inclined forward1 and the run consist of about twelve paces1 a small block of wood1 as before1 being placed mid distance in the leap4 ,the spring should be principally on the right foot1 and the arms should be thrown forwards at the time of the leap4 ,in descending1 if the leap be a very long one1 the leaper should descend principally upon his toes2 if the leap be not very long1 he may descend on the balls of the toes4 ,the leap is considered good if fifteen feet be cleared1 but twenty may be done by a good leaper1 and one or two individuals have fairly reached twenty-three feet4 ,vaulting4--,vaulting is performed by springing over some stationary body1 such as a gate or bar1 by the aid of the hands1 which bear upon it4 ,to perform it1 the vaulter may approach the bar with a slight run1 and placing his hands upon it1 heave himself up and throw his legs obliquely over it4 ,the legs should be kept close together3 while the body is in suspension over the bar1 the right hand supports and guides it1 while the left is free4 ,the vaulter may commence this exercise with a bar or a stile three feet high1 and extend it gradually to six feet4 ,leaping with a ,pole4--,a great variety of leaps may be practised with a pole1 which should be of a sufficient length1 and shod at one end with iron1 so as to take hold of the ground4 ,the leaper should grasp with his right hand that part of the pole a little below the level of his head1 and with his left that part of it just below the level of his hips2 he should then make a slight run1 and1 placing the pole on the ground1 take a spring forward1 and swing himself slightly round1 so that when he alights the fall may be brought towards the place from which he rose4 ,the pole is also employed in both long and deep leaps4 ,in both of these the mode of holding the pole is similar2 but in leaping from a height the pole should be grasped at the level of the knee1 and then the leaper1 with a slight circular swing1 should descend on the balls of his toes4 ,,to ,,climb ,,up ,a ,,board4 ,this should be firmly fixed at an angle of thirty degrees4 ,the climber should seize both sides with his hands1 and place his feet in the middle on the soles4 ,this will teach him to hold firm by his hands1 and to cling with his feet4 ,as the climber gets used to this exercise1 the angle of the board may be increased4 ,the young gymnast can ascend when the plank is perfectly perpendicular4 ,a pole may be mounted in the same manner4 ,,climbing ,,the ,,pole4 ,the pole should be about nine inches in diameter1 and firmly fixed in the ground in a perpendicular position4 ,in mounting1 the pole is to be grasped firmly with both hands1 the right above the left4 ,the legs are alternately to grasp the pole in the ascent by means of the great toe1 which is turned towards the pole4 ,in descending1 the friction is to be thrown on the inner part of the thighs1 and the hands are left comparatively free4 ,climbing the mast is similar to climbing the pole2 but in this exercise the climber is unable to grasp it with his hands1 but holds it in his arms3 the position of the legs is the same as for the pole4 ,,climbing ,,the ,,rope4 ,in climbing the rope1 it is firmly grasped by the hands1 which are placed one above the other1 and so moved alternately4 ,the heels are crossed over the rope1 which is held fast by their pressure1 the body being supported principally by them4 ,in the sailor's method the rope passes from the hands round the inside of the thigh1 under the knee-joint1 over the outside of the leg1 and across the instep4 ,but the enterprising gymnast will not be satisfied until he can climb the rope by his hands only1 allowing the rest of his body to hang freely suspended4 ,,climbing ,,trees4 ,in climbing trees the hands1 and feet1 and knees1 are all to be used2 but the climber should never forget that it is to the hands that he has to trust4 ,he should carefully look upwards and select the branches for his hands1 and the knobs and other excrescences of the trees for his feet4 ,he should also mark the best openings for the advance of his body4 ,he should also be particularly cautious in laying hold of withered branches1 or those that have suffered decay at their junction with the body of the tree1 in consequence of the growth of moss1 or through the effects of wet4 ,in descending1 he should be more cautious than in ascending1 and hold fast by his hands4 ,he should rarely slide down by a branch to the ground1 as distances are very ill-calculated from the branches of a tree4 ,,the ,,giant ,,stride1 ,,or ,,flying ,,steps1 ,,and ,,its ,,capabilities4 ,the valuable and invigorating apparatus which is called the ,giant ,stride in some places1 and the ,flying ,steps in others1 is to be found in many schools where an inclosed open-air playground can be secured4 ,excepting on a few occasions1 or when the charm of novelty induces the boys to exercise1 it is seldom in much favour1 and is usually seen idle1 with the ironwork rusting1 the beam rotting1 and the ropes yielding to exposure4 ,in fact1 it really seems as if the masters and teachers were doing their best to weaken their apparatus1 and to cause a severe accident whenever it breaks down1 as such is always the case1 sooner or later4 ,the rusty iron gives way to a harder pull than usual1 the ropes snap1 or the upright post breaks off level with the ground1 and falls with dreadful force4 ,we knew of a boy being killed by such an accident1 and in consequence the parents of the other pupils laid the blame on the ,giant ,stride itself1 instead of on those who allowed it to get into such a state of decay4 ,boys1 too1 soon get tired of it2 they take hold of the ropes1 run round a few times1 and then leave it1 naturally1 seeing no interest in such a proceeding4 ,but in reality the ,giant ,stride is a most useful article in the muscular education1 as it exercises at the same time the arms and legs1 is capital for the lungs1 and strengthens those invaluable muscles about the loins which we so sadly neglect1 and by reason of whose weakness many dangerous injuries occur to young and old4 ,there is something most fascinating in the exercises that can be achieved on this apparatus2 the gymnast seems to be almost endowed with wings1 and in his arial course hardly touches the ground with his toes1 flying1 like feathered ,mercury1 through the air1 and literally basking in the pure element4 ,the common posture of holding the bars close to the breast1 and then running round the post1 is radically false1 and deprives the ,giant ,stride of all its use1 and the greater part of its pleasure4 ,being ourselves ardent advocates of this instrument as affording an amount of healthy exercise not to be obtained by any other means1 we gladly take this opportunity of describing the manufacture and capabilities of the ,giant ,stride4 ,having fixed upon a suitable spot of level ground1 well laid with gravel1 and carefully drained1 dig a hole at least seven feet in depth1 and fill about eighteen inches with stones about the size of the fist1 or1 to use a homely but expressive simile1 as if a sack of potatoes had been emptied into it4 ,pound and press the stones well down1 and then pour rough gravel upon them until you have made the surface tolerably level4 ,the object of these stones is to prevent the water from accumulating round the post and rotting it4 ,now for the post4 ,this should be at least twenty feet long1 so as to leave about fifteen feet projecting when set upright in the hole4 ,the butt should be left very large1 as is done with ordinary wooden gate-posts1 and the whole affair ought to be made of thoroughly seasoned wood4 ,unless this is the case1 it is sure to rot1 and then down it comes some day1 when least expected4 ,triangular steps should be nailed upon opposite sides1 like those on railway signal-posts1 as otherwise the daily task of removing and replacing the ropes will be very irksome4 ,illustration ,get a blacksmith to make a stout iron pin1 such as is shown at a1 having a projecting shoulder1 to prevent it from entering too far into the wood4 ,he should also make a strong iron collar to put over the top of the pole1 as is seen at b1 where the pin is also shown fixed4 ,the last piece of blacksmith's work is an iron disc1 having a cap or thimble in the middle1 which is intended to receive the iron pin1 and to enable the disc to spin round freely4 ,four holes are bored through the edge of the disc1 as seen at c4 ,purchase four iron ,s hooks1 and the same number of swivels1 and good store of well-made half-inch rope1 and the machine may then be set up4 ,first char carefully the whole of the butt that is to enter the ground1 and for about six inches above1 in order to prevent the wood from being injured by wet4 ,place it upright in the hole1 testing it by a plumb-line tied to the top1 and fill in the hole with earth1 pounding it down firmly with a heavy rammer4 ,you cannot be too careful about this process1 and the apparatus should not be used until the earth has had time to settle4 ,while waiting for this operation1 cut the rope into appropriate lengths1 and fasten one end of each rope to a swivel1 and the other to the centre of a stout bton of elm or oak wood1 about eighteen inches long4 ,unless you are very sure of your powers of splicing ropes and making 8eyes10 let the ropemaker do this for you1 as it is a most important operation1 and involves the security of the gymnast in no slight degree4 ,it is necessary to have swivels1 as the ropes would otherwise become so twisted as to lose their freedom of play1 or even to weaken their structure4 ,these preparations being completed1 mount the post by the steps1 taking the cap with you1 grease the pin well with an end of tallow-candle1 and slip the cap upon it1 taking care to spin it well in order to assure yourself that all is right4 ,hang the swivels to the circular plate by means of the ,s hooks1 one curve of which passes through the hole in the plate1 and the other through the loop in the swivel4 ,the ropes should be just so long that when they hang loosely along the pole the cross-bar should be two feet from the ground4 ,as1 however1 new ropes stretch in a wonderful manner1 it is needful to allow considerably for this property4 ,one thing more is needed1 and then the whole apparatus will be complete4 ,measure the greatest distance which can be reached by the feet of any one swinging round by the ropes1 and about one yard beyond that line erect a slender pole nearly as high as the central post1 having pegs driven at intervals of four inches4 ,this is intended to aid the learner in leaping1 and the mode by which this object is accomplished is seen in fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,having now everything ready1 we first look to all the fastenings1 a precaution which must never be neglected2 see that the pin and swivels are well greased1 take the cross-bar of one rope in both hands1 and retire from the post as far as the outstretched arms will permit4 ,of course1 if there are four performers1 each takes his stand exactly opposite his neighbour4 ,it is better not to exercise alone1 on account of the unequal strain on the post2 and it is evident that the opposite players should be as nearly as possible of similar weights1 so as to balance each other in their course4 ,it may easily be imagined that the strain upon the base of the post is enormous1 there being a leverage of fifteen feet1 and that some precautions are necessary to prevent injury4 ,keeping our right sides to the post1 and the rope tightly stretched1 we begin to run1 throwing as much weight as possible on the rope1 and as little as possible on the feet4 ,as the pace increases1 the feet are taken off the ground1 and touch it at longer intervals1 until1 when at full speed1 they only come to the ground occasionally1 just sufficient to maintain the impetus4 ,having kept up this speed as long as is agreeable1 we slacken the pace gradually1 and stop4 ,next time we take care to run the contrary way1 keeping the left side towards the pole4 ,this is done to exercise equally the muscular system on both sides of the body2 and to save time and space1 we will say1 once for all1 that when any feat is described1 it must be accomplished in either direction with equal ease4 ,we will now explain the method of leaping1 one of the most exciting of all these exercises4 ,set the string to quite a low elevation1--say two feet from the ground1--stand with your back to it1 the cross-bar in your hands1 and run quickly round4 ,when you come about one quarter of the distance1 try to fling yourself into the air1 not by jumping with the legs1 but by letting the whole weight depend on the rope1 so that the centrifugal force takes you off your feet4 ,as you touch the ground1 take about three long steps1 and at the third step hurl yourself again off the ground1 with the body straight1 and the feet extended well behind1 and the impetus will carry you over the string1 and land you neatly on the other side4 ,you will soon learn to increase the height of the jump1 until you can pass over the string at an elevation of ten feet with perfect certainty4 ,another very pretty1 though not so dashing1 a feat is to spin round on your own axis as you run round the course4 ,at first it is needful to manage this cautiously1 as a slip of the foot is sure to disturb your balance1 and send you ignominiously scraping your way over the gravel in a derogatory and rather painful position4 ,when1 however1 you have mastered this art1 you can go round revolving the whole time1 keeping your legs straight1 feet together1 and toes pointed4 ,there are many modifications of these exercises which ,i should right well like to describe2 but as our space is limited1 we must content ourselves with two more4 ,at the same time ,i may say1 that if any of the readers of this book succeed in achieving them1 they will bid fair to attain no mean position in the gymnastic art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,in the first of these exercises the performer never moves hand or foot1 but holds himself straight1 stiff1 and immovable as an ,egyptian statue1 and in the course of his progress round the central post his feet describe a series of circles1 or rather spirals1 while his hands merely move in a circle1 and serve as the axis on which the body revolves4 ,this feat is not very easily made intelligible1 but with the help of two diagrams we hope that our readers will comprehend it4 ,fig4 #b shows the method of commencing it4 ,the performer grasps the cross-bar in both hands at the full stretch of his arms1 holds himself quite straight and stiff1 points his toes1 and then falls forward1 as shown in the engraving4 ,if he has the strength and nerve to hold himself quite stiff1 though his face comes rather near the ground1 the whole body swings off the ground1 the hands being the pivot1 and the feet take the course denoted by the dotted line1 the hands retaining their position4 ,it is possible1 by dint of practice1 to manage so as to make the entire circuit of the pole in four such revolutions1 and the course of the performer is shown by the accompanying diagram 7fig4 #c71 where the dark circle in the centre represents the pole1 the dotted line is the course taken by the hands1 and the continuous line the course of the feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,this is a most elegant and graceful performance1 and never fails to elicit the admiration and applause of the bystanders4 ,there seem to be no means of propulsion1 and the performer appears1 to an uninitiated spectator1 to be impelled by a simple act of volition4 ,the last is the most daring and difficult of all the feats1 being nothing less than passing over the string with the head downwards and the feet in the air4 ,this need not be attempted by any but a tolerable gymnast1 and is achieved by running at the string in the manner already described1 and just as the body is rising in the swing drawing the hands smartly to the breast1 throwing the feet into the air1 and clasping the rope between them4 ,it is a most dashing feat1 and generally takes spectators entirely by surprise4 ,we should well have liked a longer disquisition on a favourite subject1 but must now take our leave1 merely assuring the reader that the few exercises which we have described are the keys to the thorough mastery of the ,giant ,stride4 ,as a last caution1 let us recommend that the ropes should be taken down every evening and put in a dry spot1 as they are liable to be much weakened if permitted to hang in the open air4 ,in wet weather the same precaution should be taken4 ,,parallel ,,bars4 ,these are two pieces of wood1 from six to eight feet in length1 and about four inches square1 the edges rounded4 ,for lads1 they are fixed at about eighteen inches apart1 and supported by two round standards1 firmly fixed in the ground1 from three to four feet high1 according to the stature of the boys4 ,balancing4--,being placed between the bars and in the centre1 put your hands right and left on the bars at the same time4 ,after a little jump upwards1 preserve your equilibrium on both wrists1 the legs close2 this is called the first position4 ,then communicate to your body a gentle movement of balancing from behind1 forwards1 and continue this for several times1 the body moving as it were upon a pivot4 ,this should be practised until the body swings freely backwards and forwards4 ,illustration ,to bring both legs over4--,from the first position1 after a little movement of balancing1 bring both legs1 close and at once1 over one of the bars forwards1 without touching it or moving your hands from the place4 ,the same ought to be made backwards1 from right to left4 ,illustration ,to jump out4--,after having communicated to the body a movement of balance1 the moment at which the legs are raised over the bars1 jump backwards over the right without touching it with the feet or waist2 then perform the same jump forwards4 ,by the vaulting jump you may easily come between the bars1 and also bring your body over both without touching them otherwise than with your hands4 ,illustration ,to rise and sink down4--,being in equilibrium in the middle of the bars1 place the legs backwards1 the heels close to the upper part of the thigh4 ,from this position1 come gently down1 till the elbows nearly meet behind the back1 then rise up gently without any impulse or touching the ground with your feet4 ,to kiss the bar behind the hands4--,in the same position as before1 bring the body gently down between the bars without touching the ground with your knees2 kiss the bar behind each hand alternately1 and then rise up in the first position4 ,jumping on the ,bars4--,keep the knees straight and jump along the bars backward and forward4 ,afterwards1 do the same with the fingers turned inside4 ,these will be learned easier1 if the young gymnast tries them first with bent knees4 ,illustration3 ,,walking ,,on ,,the ,,bars4 ,walking on the ,bars4--,walk on the hands to the end and back again4 ,in walking backwards1 take care to keep the elbows straight1 or you will come down4 ,when this is done with ease1 do the same1 only keep your fingers inside the bars4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,l4--,sit on the ground between the bars2 take hold of the bars with your hands and raise your body still in the sitting position1 and stay there as long as you can4 ,when that is learned1 jump along the bars in the same attitude4 ,keep your knees straight1 and don't mind if your limbs ache a little4 ,illustration ,the ,arm ,swing4--,rest the fore arms on the bars1 and swing4 ,when tired of swinging1 let the body hang straight1 and then rise on the hands4 ,not easy at first1 but soon done with practice4 ,the ,roll4--,rest on the fore arms1 swing backward1 and turn completely over1 catching the bars under the arms4 ,it looks difficult1 but is easy enough1 only wanting a little nerve4 ,the ,janus4--,sit astride the bars1 having your hands rather behind4 ,now raise the feet1 swing through the bars1 and come up astride on the other side4 ,your arms will then be twisted1 and your face will be looking in the opposite direction4 ,swing boldly1 or the shins will be knocked against the bars4 ,illustration ,the ,sausage4--,kneel on the bars4 ,stretch the hands as far forward as possible1 and hitch the toes over the bars behind1 at the same time stretching them backwards as far as possible4 ,now let the body sink between the bars1 being supported by the hands and insteps4 ,now rise again4 ,difficult1 but soon learnt4 ,illustration ,to stand on a bar4--,sit astride one of the bars4 ,place the heel of the right foot on the bar1 hitching the left instep under it4 ,draw yourself up by means of the left instep4 ,take care of your balance4 ,this is a very useful accomplishment1 and may possibly stand the gymnast in good stead4 ,the ,drop4--,stand on the bars with each foot over one of the posts4 ,spring slightly into the air1 put the feet together1 and come down stiff1 catching yourself by your hands4 ,this should be done over the posts1 as the bars might be broken1 were the weight of the faller to come in the middle4 ,illustration ,the ,spring4--,swing at one end1 and with a sudden impulse leap to the other on your hands4 ,take care of the balance of the body1 or you will come on your back between the bars4 ,illustration ,the ,barber's ,curl4--,hang on one end of the bars as in the ,l4 ,keep the knees straight1 and turn over slowly1 not letting the feet come to the ground4 ,stay there while you count ten1 and come back the same way4 ,,the ,,horizontal ,,bar4 ,let two strong upright posts be firmly fastened into the ground1 about six feet apart1 and let a wooden bar be strongly mortised into their tops4 ,the bar should be made of white deal1 about two inches and a half in diameter4 ,the bar must have no knot in it1 or it will break4 ,it should be so high from the ground that a spring is required to reach it with the hands4 ,the surface of the bar should be free from all roughnesses1 but not polished4 ,the ,grasp4--,the fingers should be hooked over the pole1 keeping the thumb on the same side as the fingers4 ,hang as long as possible1 first with both hands1 then with each hand by turns4--,see p4 #bdd4 ,the ,walk4--,hang by the hands1 and walk by them from one end of the pole to the other1 backwards and forwards4 ,do not slip4 ,do it first with both hands on the same side of the pole1 afterwards with a hand at each side4--,see p4 #bdd4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,grasp4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,walk4 ,illustration3 ,,breasting ,,the ,,bar4 ,breasting the ,bar4--,hang by the hands1 and draw up the body slowly until the chest touches the bar4 ,practise this as often as possible--knees straight4 ,illustration ,kicking the ,bar4--,hang by the hands and draw up the feet very slowly until the instep touches the pole4 ,do it several times4 ,difficult at first1 but soon learned4 ,do not kick about1 or jerk yourself upward1 or you may strain yourself4 ,illustration ,swinging4--,hang by the hands and swing backwards and forwards4 ,practise this until your heels are considerably above your head each way4 ,after a while1 let go of the pole as you swing back1 and catch it again as you come down4 ,an inch or two at first is enough1 but do not be satisfied until the hands can have a space of eight or ten inches between themselves and the bar4 ,illustration ,to sit on the ,bar4--,hang by the hands1 and pass one of your feet through them1 hitching your knee over the bar4 ,then give a good swing backwards1 and come up sitting on the bar with one leg4 ,now draw the other leg over1 and do not tumble off4 ,circling the ,bar4--,hang by the hands1 and curl the body gently over the bar4 ,if it is too difficult1 stop for a minute or two1 try something else1 and after an interval try it again4 ,it will be soon learned4 ,the true ,lover's ,knot4--,grasp the bar2 pass the left knee through the right arm1 so as to let the knee rest in the elbow2 pass the right knee over the instep of the left foot2 let go with the left hand1 and with it grasp the right foot4 ,you will now be suspended by the right hand1 and will be packed up in a remarkably small space4 ,take care of the right wrist1 or you will spin round and twist off4 ,illustration3 ,,circling ,,the ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,true ,,lover',s ,,knot4 ,illustration3 ,,passing ,,through ,,the ,,arms4 ,passing through the ,arms4--,hang by the hands1 and bring the feet between them1 permitting them to pass through until they can nearly touch the ground2 now return in the same way4 ,this cannot be done properly without practising1 as the muscles of the shoulder blades must be capable of great relaxation1 together with great power4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,grasshopper4 ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,,by ,,the ,,legs4 ,the ,grasshopper4--,sit on the pole1 grasping it with the fingers to the front4 ,slide gradually off1 until the small of the back rests against the pole1 while the arms are elevated at the elbows like a grasshopper's legs4 ,now draw yourself up again4 ,hanging by the legs4--,this is easy enough1 and a capital preservative against determination of the blood to the brain4 ,first practise it with both legs over the pole2 then take off the left leg and hitch it over the right instep2 then learn to hang by one leg only1 while you try to carry a weight in your hands4 ,when you are perfect and confident1 sit on the pole1 and drop off backwards1 catching yourself by the legs4 ,this must be done with a fall like a plummet1 or the body will swing1 and probably unhitch the legs from the pole4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,arm-,,chair4 ,the ,arm-chair4--,hang on the bar by the arms just below the elbows1 keeping the elbows firmly pressed to the side4 ,the hands should be lower than the bar1 to counteract the swing of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,hanging ,,by ,,the ,,feet4 ,hanging by the feet4--,hang by the hands1 and curl up the body1 until the insteps are well hitched over the bar4 ,let go the hands cautiously1 and permit the body to hang at full length4 ,the best way to reach the bar again is to seize one of your legs1 and pull yourself up by it4 ,to leave the ,bar4--,never get on the bar or leave it in a clumsy manner2 there should be art about everything4 ,to leave the bar effectively is well worth practising4 ,here are six modes3-- #a4 ,sit on the bar2 drop and hang by the legs1 at the same time giving the body a swing forwards which will loosen the hold of the legs4 ,alight on the hands1 and get gently on the feet4 ,this is rather a brilliant finish1 and not so difficult as it appears4 #b4 ,sit on the bar1 place both hands on one side1 and vault over4 #c4 ,sit astride1 place both hands on the bar in front1 bring up both feet1 at the same time springing upright2 run along the bar and jump off the end1 or slide down the post if it is too high to jump4 #d4 ,hang by the hands1 draw up the body until the chest touches the bar2 spring off backwards by the force of the arms4 #e4 ,hang by the hands1 and swing completely round once1 letting the impetus hurl you forward4 ,take care to cross the feet and come down on the toes4 #f4 ,if you are tired and cannot perform any of these things1 merely hang by the hands1 and come round through them1 but never merely loose the pole4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,there is not a more graceful or more interesting series of exercises than those performed on the ,wooden ,horse4 ,they are very useful also1 as they give exceeding pliancy to the limbs1 and teach the gymnast how to take advantage of the weight of each member4 ,they have also the advantage of requiring some daring1 and a spirited lad will always surpass at these exercises4 ,the horse is made of a great cylinder of wood mounted on four legs1 which are firmly fastened into the ground--their ends should be charred as was directed for the ,giant ,stride4 ,nearer one end than the other a piece of stout rough leather is firmly nailed1 to represent the saddle1 and two curved pieces of wood bound the saddle and represent the pommels4 ,the hind pommel should be nearly half an inch higher than the other4 ,they may be covered with leather also4 ,on the off side of the horse a pit about a foot deep and four feet square should be dug and filled with sawdust1 while on the near side the paving should be either very fine gravel1 or1 if possible1 sand4 ,there should be several horses1 adapted to the different sizes of boys who are to practise on them4 ,when a boy can place his chin on a level with the saddle1 he should change to a higher horse1 as the top of the saddle ought to be on a level with the nose of the gymnast4 ,mounting4--,stand by the horse1 place one hand on each pommel1 spring up1 so that the body is supported by the hands1 while the legs rest lightly against the horse4 ,keep the body upright and knees straight4 ,down and up again several times4 ,always come down on the toes4 ,illustration ,now do the same thing2 but1 in springing up1 throw out the right leg until it is nearly at right angles with the body1 then the left4 ,afterwards spread both legs as widely as possible4 ,when this can be done with ease1 spring up as before1 rest a moment1 then throw the right leg easily over the saddle1 removing the right hand1 and there you are4 ,dismounting4--,put the left hand on the fore pommel1 right hand on the saddle1 spring off and come to the ground1 keeping your right hand still on the saddle4 ,be sure in all these exercises to come down on the toes4 ,illustration ,sustaining the body4--#a4 ,spring up as in mounting1 and throw the body away from the horse1 bringing it back again without coming to the ground4 #b4 ,mount1 and putting both hands on the front pommel1 raise the body as high as you can4 ,don't be afraid of going too high4 #c4 ,do the same1 but swing the body backwards and forwards4 ,hard work1 but capital exercise4 #d4 ,do the same1 and slap the soles of your shoes together4 ,knee practice4--#a4 ,put your hands on the pommels1 spring up1 and lodge your right knee on the saddle4 ,down1 and then the left knee4 ,then both knees4 ,practise these well4 #b4 ,hands on pommels1 leap up and touch the saddle with both toes4 ,illustration3 ,,knee ,,practice4 ,illustration3 ,,touch ,,saddle4 ,illustration3 ,,jumping ,,off4 #c4 ,kneel on the saddle with both knees2 now lean well forward and jump off4 ,very easy1 but requires confidence4 ,swinging practice4--#a4 ,sit behind the saddle1 put the left hand on the front pommel1 and the right hand on the other4 ,raise the body and swing round the horse1 seating yourself on his neck1 before the saddle4 ,change hands1 and swing round until you regain your former position4 ,illustration ,illustration #b4 ,put both hands on the front pommel1 raise the body1 and suddenly swing boldly upwards1 turning round and crossing the legs1 so that you will sit on the saddle with your face to the tail4 ,keep the hands in their places1 and swing back again in the same manner4 ,miscellaneous ,exercises4--,hands on pommels1 spring up and put the right leg through the arms1 letting the left hang straight4 ,withdraw the right leg1 and spring up again1 using the left leg1 and letting the right hang down4 ,hands on pommels1 spring up1 and seat yourself like a lady behind the saddle2 spring down to the ground1 and seat yourself in a similar manner before the saddle4 ,hands on pommels1 spring up1 cross your feet1 pass them through the hands1 and come to the ground on the opposite side4 ,illustration ,take a short run1 place the hands on the pommels1 and vault completely over the horse1 keeping the knees straight4 ,illustration ,sit behind the saddle1 put both hands on the hind pommel1 and throw yourself off over the horse's tail4 ,hands on pommels1 spring up1 make the body into an ,l1 let the feet pass through the hands and rest suspended without touching the saddle4 ,knees quite straight4 ,illustration ,a good one for a finish4--,take a run1 put both hands on the very top of the pommels1 and throw yourself over in a regular somerset4 ,that is not bad1 but you can do better after the somerset has been well learned4 ,illustration ,throw the somerset as before1 only do not let go the hands4 ,you will now be standing with your back to the horse1 the spine considerably bent1 and your arms thrown over your head4 ,wait so for a few seconds1 and then with a powerful effort throw yourself back again1 so as to come on the ground on the same side of the horse from which you started4 ,this is really difficult1 as it requires practice1 strength1 and confidence1 but it looks so well that it is worth learning4 ,the writer of these few instructions has often astonished the natives with it1 and has lately repeated it after two years' absence from any gymnasium4 ,,the ,,swing4 ,let no one despise this exercise4 ,it is worth learning1 if only as a preservation against sea sickness4 ,if any one can stand a twenty-feet swing for half-an-hour1 the sea may toss its worst1 for he will come off unscathed4 ,now1 ,i do not mean to say that merely sitting on a board and getting swung by some one else is any great object3 far from it4 ,but there are some very graceful exercises to be managed on the swing4 ,here are some3-- #a4 ,the way to get into the swing is as follows3--,take one rope in each hand1 just above the seat2 walk backwards until the ropes are freely stretched4 ,now run sharply forwards1 letting the hands glide up the ropes as far as possible1 and the instant that you feel a check1 grasp the rope tightly1 and spring into the seat standing4 ,when there1 work easily up by alternately bending and straightening the knees4 7,see #a47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 #b4 ,when in good swing1 slip the feet off the seat 7which should not be more than four inches wide72 let the hands slide down the ropes1 and come down sitting4 ,to recover the standing position1 reach upwards with the hands as high as possible1 and draw yourself upwards as the swing is going forwards1 when the seat will place itself exactly under your feet4 #c4 ,now for some feats4 ,let the swing go very gently4 ,place both hands at the level of the shoulders1 and suddenly extend them1 keeping the arms straight4 ,take care1 as there will be a violent vibration1 and you will be shot out of the swing before you know where you are4 ,practise it first while the swing is still1 but do not be satisfied until you can do it while in strong swing1 and without closing the hands1 merely letting the palms rest against the ropes4 7,see #b47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,swing still4 ,stand up on the seat1 and grasp the rope with the hands as low as possible1 without bending the body or the knees4 ,now lean forward1 making your hands the pivot1 and do not be astonished at finding your heels in the air1 and your head downward4 ,to recover yourself1 the body must be bent a little4 7,see #c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,stand sideways on the seat1 grasp one rope with both hands leaning your back against the other1 taking care to have the rope well between the shoulder blades4 ,put the inner centre of the left foot against the opposite rope1 and fix the right foot in the same manner against the left heel4 ,now let go both hands1 and lean well backwards1 when you will be exactly balanced4 ,when you are secure with a quiet swing1 practise it while the swing is moving1 until you can lie securely against the rope while you are moving freely4 ,the balance is entirely kept by the shoulder blades against the rope1 and the arms must be folded in order to throw the shoulder blades well back4 ,if the gymnast gets alarmed1 and puts his hands out to save himself1 the rope slips off his back1 and out he goes4 7,see #d47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,while the swing is working1 suddenly hang out at one side1 supporting yourself by one hand on the rope1 and one foot on the seat4 ,practise this on both sides4 7,see #e47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,seize the left rope with both hands1 press the feet firmly against the ropes where they join the seat1 and fall out forwards4 ,the ropes will now cross1 and when the swing is in full operation1 the curves described are most elegant4 ,to recover the ordinary position1 wait until the swing is going backwards1 and a powerful twist of the body will uncross the ropes1 when the right hand should take hold of the right rope and steady the swing4 7,see #f47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,when the swing is in motion1 grasp the ropes as tight as possible1 and raise the feet until they are high in air between the ropes4 ,take care of the balance in the back swing1 as1 if the body is suffered to bend backwards1 the hands will hardly bear the strain4 ,now slide slowly and carefully down the ropes until the head rests on the footboard4 ,to make a telling exit from the swing1 two ways may be adopted4 ,first way3--,get the swing into a firm1 steady movement1 sit down1 and bring both hands inside the ropes2 and just as the swing has passed its centre1 strike the seat away with the hands and you will shoot forward several yards4 ,take care to come down on the toes1 and to lean well backwards as you leave the swing1 as the impetus will bring you upright as you touch the ground4 7,see #g47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,the second method is1 to seat yourself in the same manner1 and as the swing crosses its centre backwards1 lean well forwards and strike away the seat4 ,you will then be hurled backwards1 and if your balance is good1 will come to the ground in a very elegant attitude4 ,be sure to lean well forward1 cross the feet1 clasp the hands1 and come down on the toes4 7,see #h47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,great care must be taken to lean well backwards if you shoot out forwards1 and well forwards as you shoot backwards1 or in the one case you will come with your nose on the ground1 and in the other you will find the back of your head rather damaged4 ,so practise with gentle swings at first1 and then increase4 ,i have often done it with the swing at full speed1 and in one instance in a public gymnasium1 ,i shot so far forward that the spot was marked by a row of iron nails driven into the floor4 ,in a volume of this nature1 it is impossible to give more than a comparatively slight sketch of any subject4 ,i am sure1 however1 that if the reader will master even these short instructions in gymnastic exercises1 he will be able to realize that great blessing1 the sound body1 in which only a sound mind can reside4 ,his trained eye will be accustomed to measure instinctively any obstacle in his way1 and the training of his body will enable him to put forth the full power of his muscles to overcome the obstacle4 ,danger will lose half its perils to him who thus knows how to meet it4 ,a strong rope will be as safe as a staircase to him2 it will be perfectly indifferent to him whether his head or his heels be uppermost1 and he will be enabled by the presence of mind which such studies engender to think out calmly modes of escape from danger which would instantly overwhelm those whose bodies are uninstructed4 ,but even to pass by the question of utility1 it is a duty of man to preserve his body in health1 and to develop its powers4 ,every man would think himself wrong to neglect the mind2 surely then1 every man ought no less to think it wrong to neglect the body1 which is made by the same mighty ,hand that implanted the mind within it4 ,indeed1 the neglected body is sure to injure the mind1 and therefore those who improve their bodies are at the same time improving their minds4 ,i know one young man1 who owes all his health1 and probably his life1 to gymnastic exercise4 ,from his earliest childhood he was always ailing1 and through the whole of his childhood was never suffered to sleep unwatched4 ,when he entered upon manhood1 the childish illness changed into annual fevers1 which held their sway until he had been for some time at one of the ,universities4 ,his medical attendant advised him to take regular exercise1 and recommended the study of gymnastics4 ,he rapidly improved in health and strength1 his fever has not attacked him for eight or nine years1 and he actually led the gymnasium for a whole year4 ,were ,i to have the charge of a school1 ,i should consider the gymnasium as part of the regular school discipline1 and take care that the boys were exercised as carefully in their bodily as their mental powers4 ,,throwing ,,the ,,javelin4 ,illustration ,this play is very interesting1 and gives strength to the arm1 and exactness to the eye4 ,in playing it1 a square target must be procured1 made of thick wood1 about four feet in diameter1 and on which should be marked concentral circles1 the same as those of a target in archery4 ,this should be well supported behind by two stout back pieces1 resting in the ground1 so as to prevent the target from being easily overturned4 ,the circles may be several in number2 the centre should be black1 and about six inches in diameter1 and count ten2 the second circle should be red1 and should count five2 and the third should be light blue1 and count three4 ,the other parts of the target to count as may be agreed4 ,the javelins should consist of poles of ash or fir1 about an inch and half in diameter1 and should be five feet six inches in length4 ,they should have a spike in one end1 which should be surrounded with a rim of iron2 the spike should be about two inches long1 thick1 and strong1 so as to enable it to become fixed in the target without splitting it4 ,the game may be played by any number of boys1 and is commenced as follows3-- ,one player takes a javelin in his right hand1 and walking to a distance from the target1 previously agreed upon by the players1 he poises his javelin1 by holding it in the hollow of his hand1 between the ball of the thumb and the fleshy part at the side1 and his elbow is at the same time bent1 and his arm elevated so that his hand is a little above his ear1 the javelin being at the same time nicely balanced with the smaller fingers1 touching it so as to direct its course2 it is then launched forward at the target1 and1 if properly poised1 directed and thrown1 will go to it in a direct line4 ,the point at which it strikes the target is then marked1 and then the other players follow in the same way for twelve times in succession3 the person who scores the most marks being the victor4 ,illustration ,the javelin will fly better and straighter if a rotatory movement is communicated to it by a slight pull of the little finger as it leaves the hand4 ,when some skill has been obtained in darting1 blunt javelins with padded ends should be procured1 and the players should accustom themselves to avoid1 parry1 or catch a javelin thrown at them4 ,when they can do so with certainty1 they may storm a fort4 ,the best fort is a hedge with gaps4 ,the players divide into two parties1 one defending and the other attacking4 ,each player should be furnished with three javelins at least1 well padded and nicely balanced4 ,the art of catching and returning a javelin is exceedingly useful in this game4 ,we well remember an occasion when1 on storming a fort1 one of our opponents1 whose frame was larger than his soul1 had prudently retired into the background until all our spears were exhausted1 but1 on seeing us weaponless1 he with great courage ran up to the hedge and hurled his spear1 as we were running forward to pick up a fallen lance4 ,the moment he had thrown the javelin he ran away as fast as he could1 but was overtaken by his own weapon1 which took him in the rear1 and toppled him over in beautiful style4 ,we have only known one accident at this game1 and that was caused by the impetuosity of one of the garrison1 who on seeing an enemy crawling up through the gap1 and finding himself without a spear1 snatched up a bow that was lying near1 and made a thrust at him1 which sent the sharp horn tip of the bow through his under lip4 ,,the ,,trapeze3 ,,single ,,and ,,double4 ,should the intending gymnast possess a strongly-built barn or outhouse1 which is large enough to permit the trapeze to have fair play1 and strong enough to endure the stress of the swinging weight1 the ropes can be suspended from a beam1 either belonging to the building or inserted for the express purpose1 and resting at each end on strong brackets4 ,but as such buildings are very seldom to be obtained1 we here give a sketch of a plan invented1 we believe1 by ,messrs4 ,snoxell1 the well-known furnishers of gymnasia4 ,although its structure may appear to be light and flimsy1 it is in reality possessed of strength which renders a fracture impossible1 and is indeed far more fitted to resist the enormous strain which is laid upon it1 than if it were made of massive beams morticed4 ,illustration ,in the first place the upright poles 7a7 do not pass into the ground1 but are supported upon stone slabs1 so there is no fear of that terrible enemy of the gymnasium--rotting wood1 which silently decays and suddenly snaps off level with the surface of the ground4 ,the cross piece 7b7 is affixed to the uprights by a simple cap1 bent at right angles1 as is seen at f4 ,the cross piece is permanently secured into the cap1 but the uprights can be slipped in and out without difficulty4 ,at c may be seen four slender wire ropes1 the upper ends of which are fastened to the uprights1 and the lower ends are furnished with hooks4 ,these hooks are intended to be slipped into the staples 7e71 which are firmly secured into the ground1 just as the old bull-rings were fixed4 ,at d are seen the tightening screws1 which are simply turned by hand1 and shorten the wire ropes just as the connecting screws of a railway train draw the carriages together4 ,the apparatus is so perfectly simple that it can be set up or taken down by two boys in five minutes1 or by one boy in rather a longer period4 ,the process is as follows3-- ,the uprights are slipped into the caps1 and the hooks at the ends of the wire ropes or stays are hitched into the staples of one side1 say at e4 ,the uprights are then reared1 and their bases set on the stones4 ,the hooks of the opposite stays are then hitched into the staples at e e1 and the screws at d turned until the stays are quite tight and the uprights are perfectly perpendicular4 ,it seems rather a complicated process to read about1 but it is remarkably simple when reduced to action4 ,we have mounted and dismounted one of these ingenious contrivances in a wonderfully short space of time1 and without any assistance4 ,for practising the feat of passing through the air from one trapeze to another a double set of apparatus is required2 but for most useful purposes one set is sufficient4 ,the ropes by which the bar is suspended must be thoroughly stretched before they are attached to the bar1 or there will be no certainty in the swing4 ,few persons who have not had practical experience on this subject would imagine how greatly the length of a rope is increased by the process of stretching1 and how absolutely necessary is this precaution4 ,the ropes are passed at each end over an iron eye1 the upper one of which is hitched over a hook on the cross bar1 and the other receives the hook which suspends the bar4 ,on looking at the illustration the reader will notice these hooks just above the bar4 ,they are useful1 because1 when needed1 a pair of rings can be substituted for the bar1 and permit certain variations in the performances1 ,still1 their presence or absence is quite optional1 and the only remark that need be made is1 that they should be furnished with springs like the fastening of a breguet chain1 so as to guard against the possibility of slipping4 ,the bar itself must be very heavy1 or otherwise it will not have sufficient weight to keep the cords at full stretch1 and in consequence will not swing truly4 ,those which were employed by ,leotard were iron1 with a mere shell of wood1 so as to give a pleasant hold for the hands1 and we have seen them made of iron1 coated with leather4 ,the last point that needs notice is the perch or stand from which the performer launches himself4 ,this may be fixed at any convenient elevation1 and its centre should exactly coincide with the centre of the bar4 ,having now the apparatus ready1 let us commence the performance4 ,set the bar swinging boldly2 ascend the perch quickly1 and seize the bar in both hands4 ,wait for a moment1 until the ropes are fully stretched1 and then launch yourself for a swing4 ,now there are two ways of doing everything--a right and a wrong way2 and the present instance affords no exception to the rule4 ,the wrong way--and the usual way--is to fall forwards from the perch4 ,now this is quite wrong2 and if you act in such a manner you will bungle your sway1 and will not retain sufficient impetus to enable you to return to the perch4 ,the right mode of starting is as follows3 ,stand as seen in the accompanying illustration--the spine well bent backwards1 the body tolerably stiff1 and leaning well against the heavy bar4 ,now draw yourself up gently by the arms1 as if you were trying to lift your chin above the bar1 and you will find yourself started without any trouble4 ,keep the back still bent1 and as you descend allow the arms gradually to assume a perfectly straight position4 ,you will then swing out fairly and boldly1 and by the least possible sway at the end of the swing will retain sufficient impetus to enable you to resume your stand on the perch4 ,even in this there is an art4 ,if you merely allow yourself to swing back as you swing forward1 you will be disagreeably reminded of your error1 by hitting the back of the leg smartly against the edge of the perch4 ,in order to avoid this misfortune1 draw up the legs sharply just before you reach the end of the return swing1 and you will find them come down on the perch with perfect ease4 ,if you are using the rings instead of the bar1 you can vary this part of the performance by turning round in the air1 and crossing the ropes so that you alight on the perch with your back towards the trapze1 though it is necessary to give a sharp twist as your foot touches the perch1 and so to turn in the direction in which you started4 ,illustration ,take notice that the arms are always at full length during the swing1 and that the illustrations which represent the performer swinging with bent arms are entirely erroneous4 ,there is another fault into which the artists mostly fall4 ,thinking that they are obtaining pictorial effect1 they represent the ropes which sustain the bar as forming an angle with the arms of the performer1 whereas the arms1 body1 and ropes are1 or ought to be1 all in the same line4 ,the real attitude in the trapze is given in the accompanying illustration1 wherein it will be seen that the ropes1 the arms1 and the body are all in the same line2 and1 indeed1 a little reflection will prove that they must be so4 ,note the position and action1 or rather the non-action of the body1 and be careful to imitate it4 ,during the swing1 let the body and limbs hang at full length1 and be sure to keep the feet nearly together1 and the toes pointed4 ,the illustrations are all wrong in this respect4 ,they always will show the performer in an attitude which the draughtsman is pleased to think a graceful one2 but it is inexpressibly graceless and ridiculous in the eyes of a gymnast4 ,illustration ,when you have accomplished the swing and return satisfactorily1 you may advance another step4 ,swing off as usual2 and1 when you have reached the extremity of the swing1 you will find yourself balanced for a moment motionless1 the attraction of gravitation being balanced by the impetus of the swing4 ,just at this important point1 shift your hold on the bar1 and change sides1 as you would do if the bar were hanging quietly4 ,you will then face the spot whence you started1 and in landing on the perch you must be careful to give yourself a twist as you place your feet on the perch1 and with a slight exertion of the arms you will draw yourself upright without difficulty1 and without running the risk of falling off the perch again--a frequent and ignominious misfortune4 ,it will now be time to practise the descent from the swinging trapze to the ground4 ,begin by sitting on the bar1 grasping it with the hands1 and falling off backwards1 taking care to come to the ground with pointed toes and crossed feet4 ,the reason of this precaution is that1 if the feet are crossed1 the knees are separated1 and that when the body yields--as it must do when it touches the earth--there is no danger of hitting the chin against the knee1 and thereby receiving a momentary shock to the brain by the teeth striking together4 ,when you can manage the 8fall-back10 as it is called1 with tolerable ease and certainty1 seize the bar with the hands1 set it swinging1 keeping your face to the perch1 and when you are nearly at the full extent of the swing loosen your hold1 and allow yourself to come to the ground4 ,be very careful to point the toes1 as has already been described1 and continue the practice until you can stand on the perch1 launch yourself backwards1 and fly off at the highest point of the swing4 ,always leave the bar while you are swinging backwards1 because the attitude of the body is then such as to insure your coming to the ground in the correct position2 whereas1 if you do so while swinging forward1 you are nearly certain to overbalance yourself1 and either fall on your nose1 or go staggering along in a very ignominious style4 ,the next process is to start as usual1 raise yourself in a sitting position on the bar1 and ask some one to remove the perch4 ,fall back as before1 only1 instead of coming on the ground1 hang by the legs1 and accustom yourself to swing in this attitude4 ,when you can accomplish that feat without difficulty1 and feel no nervousness at your strange position1 remove one leg from the bar and hang by the other4 ,practise this with both feet4 ,it is not nearly so difficult as it looks1 and is an important feat to perform1 because it gives such perfect presence of mind4 ,the next feat looks positively awful1 but1 as usual in gymnastic performances1 is perfectly easy1 requiring no skill at all and only a little courage4 ,sit on the bar when it is still1 and do the 8fall-back40 ,but1 instead of allowing the feet to pass between the ropes1 spread the legs as far apart as possible1 and bend up the feet rigidly4 ,the consequence is1 that the insteps hitch in the ropes1 slide down them1 and the body becomes suspended by the feet1 which are firmly hitched between the ropes and the bar1 as seen in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration ,if you possess a second trapze1 you may now proceed to the beautiful series of performances which are achieved upon them4 ,let them at first be set moderately near each other1 so that when the bar of the first trapze is at full swing1 it passes within a yard or four feet of the second4 ,start off as usual1 and just as you are well on the rise1 after passing through the upright1 loose your hold of the bar1 and you will pass through the air towards the second bar which you catch rapidly4 ,if you perform the feat nicely1 you will have so much impetus to spare that you will be carried along on the second bar1 and may either attempt to return or quietly drop to the ground at the end of the swing4 ,if you prefer the latter course1 be sure to turn through your arms and come down on your toes4 ,you will find that the return to the perch1 simple as it looks1 is by far the most difficult feat that has yet been mentioned4 ,make but the least mistake and failure is certain4 ,if you do not catch the bar exactly at the right moment1 you lose your impetus1 and if you do not seize it exactly in the right place you do not swing truly between the uprights1 and consequently cannot land on the spot at which you aim4 ,the method of performing this feat is as follows3 ,swing off the perch1 pass to the second bar1 and while at the full extent of the swing1 change sides1 and give yourself a slight impulse with the feet4 ,you will now meet the first bar swinging towards you1 and if you can seize it just at the right moment1 you will find yourself with sufficient impetus to reach the perch4 ,if not1 swing once more1 give yourself a hearty impulse with the legs and try it again4 ,failure is certain at first1 but after a little practice the feat becomes easy4 ,here we must protest against the totally erroneous ideas of artists respecting the attitude of the body while the performer passes from one bar to another4 ,we think that without an exception they all represent him as shooting horizontally through the air1 with his hands stretched out1 and with one leg bent and the other straight4 ,now1 if any one will watch a performer on the trapze1 he will see that the attitude is nearly perpendicular1 and that any other position is really absurd and impracticable4 ,illustration ,in the accompanying illustration1 we have given a sketch of the real attitude of the performer1 wherein it will be seen that the body is nearly perpendicular1 and that the arms are kept bent1 with the hands close to the shoulders1 ready to be darted out in a moment when the trapze swings within distance4 ,we are the more particular in giving these illustrations1 because they are needed in order to correct the very false notions which are prevalent respecting this beautiful exercise4 ,parents especially are apt to form their judgments from the illustrations which are seen upon advertising bills and in illustrated journals1 and thinking that the exercise must be attended with great danger1 do not like to give their permission for their sons to learn it4 ,let our readers be assured that there is no more danger in this beautiful exercise than in jumping over a chair--perhaps not quite so much--while the manner in which it develops the muscular powers of the arms1 shoulders1 and loins1 is unapproachable by any other system4 ,one caution is1 however1 needful4 ,take care that every loop and splice be perfectly secure1 look over the whole of the apparatus daily1 and never venture upon the trapze until you have ascertained that nothing is likely to give way4 ,if you perceive the slightest feeling of insecurity1 the whole enjoyment of the exercise is lost1 and no benefit can be expected from it4 ,,tricks ,,and ,,feats ,,of ,,gymnastics4 ,the book4--,fix a book between the toes of the feet1 and1 by a jerk1 throw it over the head4 ,the chalk line4--,draw a line with chalk on the floor2 against this place the toes of both feet2 then kneel down1 and rise up again without leaving the line1 or using the hands4 ,stepping through4--,take a small piece of cane about a foot long1 and holding it between the hands1 leap through it4 ,afterwards take a tobacco-pipe1 and perform the same feat without breaking2 after this1 join the hands together1 and leap through them1 which is not very difficult of accomplishment4 ,armless4--,lying upon the back with the arms across the chest1 the attempt must be made to rise on the feet again4 ,hop against the wall4--,stand with one toe close against the wall1 about two feet from the ground1 and turn the other over it1 without removing the toe from the wall4 ,stoop if you can4--,one boy having placed his heels against the wall1 another must place near his toes a shilling1 and tell him he may have it if he can pick it up4 ,this he will find to be impossible for him to do while his heels touch the wall1 as there is no room for his back to balance the other parts of his body4 ,the spring from the wall4--,placing yourself at a proper distance from the wall with your face opposite to it1 throw yourself forward until you support yourself by one hand4 ,then spring back into your former position4 ,begin this feat at a short distance from the wall1 and increase the distance by degrees4 ,the 8athlete0 will1 in a short time1 be able to stand at nearly the length of his body from the wall4 ,this feat is sometimes called the palm spring1 but the palm has really nothing to do with it4 ,the thumb spring is similar1 but dangerous1 and many have sprained their thumbs in attempting it4 ,illustration ,the long reach4--,this is a somewhat difficult feat1 and requires great caution in its performance4 ,a line is chalked on the floor1 at which the toes must be placed1 and from which they are not to remove4 ,the left hand is then to be thrown forward in a long reach until the body descends upon it1 without any part touching the floor in its descent2 the right hand is now to be stretched out as far forward as possible1 and with a piece of chalk1 a mark is made on the floor at its fullest extent1 the body being sustained by the left hand during the operation4 ,the boy should now recover the upright position on his legs1 by springing back from the left hand without touching the floor in any way4 ,the length reached1 and the perfection with which the body recovers itself1 distinguishes the winner of the game4 ,illustration ,the stooping stretch4--,in this feat a line is drawn on the floor1 at which the outer edge of the left foot is placed1 and behind this1 at a short distance1 the right heel4 ,taking a piece of chalk in the left hand1 the youngster passes it between the legs1 and under the bend of the left knee1 chalking the floor with it as far forward as he can4 ,he then recovers his position without moving his feet from the line at which they had been fixed4 ,illustration ,the chair feat4--,place three chairs in the situation indicated in the cut 7p4 #bfd71 and lay down upon them1 the head resting on one1 the heels upon another1 and the lower part of the body on the third or middle chair1 which should be much lighter than the others4 ,then1 by stiffening the body and limbs1 and throwing up the chest into a state of rigidity1 it will not be difficult for a boy to remove the middle chair1 and to pass it quite over on the other side of him4 ,illustration ,the poker feat4--,take a common poker and hold it the lower end downwards1 in the manner shown in the cut1 i4 e4 by the fingers1 thumb1 and ball of the palm4 ,then1 by the mere motion of the fingers and thumb1 and the fulcrum of the palm1 work the poker upwards till you raise it through the whole length to that part of it which goes into the fire4 ,this trick depends mainly upon the strength of the muscles of the hand and fingers1 combined with a certain knack to be acquired by practice4 ,illustration ,the stick feat1 or from hand to mouth4--,take a piece of stick of the length of the fore arm1 measuring from the elbow to the end of the middle finger4 ,hold it in the hand horizontally before you1 the knuckles being down and the nails upwards1 and the elbow being on a line with the hand4 ,then raise the left end of the stick from the breast to the mouth1 without any other movement of the hand than the arm at the wrist4 ,this is a difficult feat1 but may be easily acquired by practice4 ,illustration ,illustration ,walking on stilts4--,among the ,swiss1 and in several districts in the ,south of ,france1 walking on stilts is not only an amusing1 but a useful practice1 as by means of these crane-like legs men and women transform themselves into the order of 8,waders10 emulating the long-legged storks and herons1 and can cross over marshes and flooded grounds without wetting their feet4 ,stilts are easily made1 being nothing but a pair of poles1 with a wooden step at the sides for the feet to stand on4 ,the poles are kept in their proper place by the hands4 ,a little practice will soon render a youth 8easy on his stilts10 and they may be made an amusing and healthy exercise4 ,,hockey4 ,in all the general principles1 hockey bears a great resemblance to foot-ball1 the game consisting in driving a ball through a goal4 ,the ball1 however1 is of much smaller dimensions1 even where a ball1 and not a bung1 is used2 and it is impelled1 not by the foot1 but by certain sticks1 or clubs1 called hockeys1 or hookeys1 because the end with which the ball is struck is more or less hooked4 ,the shape and dimensions of the hockey-stick are entirely arbitrary1 being left to the peculiar taste of the owners4 ,some like their hockeys to be sharply hooked1 while others prefer them merely bent over at the end4 ,some players like a very thick1 heavy stick1 which can be put down in front of the ball in order to neutralize the blows of the opposite side1 while others can play best with a slight and springy weapon1 that can be used with one hand1 and is employed to tap the ball away just as an opponent is about to strike1 and to coax it1 as it were1 towards the goal through the mass of adverse sticks4 ,illustration ,the four sticks shown in the engraving are very good samples of the forms best adapted for use4 ,fig4 #a is much in favour with some players1 and is therefore given2 but for our own part we never could play to our satisfaction with it1 the large and deep curve deceiving the eye and causing the player to let the ball pass through the hook1 besides running the risk of entanglement in the opponent's stick4 ,fig4 #b is usually a favourite1 but the angle of the head with the handle is arranged according to the fancy of the player4 ,some like the head to be made of horn1 backed with lead like a golf-stick2 but this formation is hardly necessary1 costing a rather large sum1 and not conveying correspondent advantages4 ,fig4 #c is a queer and eccentric form1 which is not suitable to every player on account of its weight and generally large proportions4 ,we have1 however1 seen it employed with extraordinary effect by a player who was accustomed to drive his opponents into a state of considerable excitement by his faculty of stopping the ball with this overgrown weapon1 and then planting it so firmly that all the opposing sticks could not get at the ball in spite of their battering4 ,in this way he would save many a game that had well-nigh been given up as hopeless1 and by thus checking the ball on its way to the goal1 would give time for his own side to come up and turn the tables4 ,the great hooked end of this club was bound with very strong iron wire4 ,the same player was equally successful with a stick the exact reverse of the preceding1 and represented as fig4 #d4 ,this was a very slight ashen stick1 with a small1 but rather heavy head1 so that when shaken it would bend and spring like whalebone4 ,this little stick was used for darting among the struggles and clatter of contending weapons1 and giving the ball just a wee pat now and then at critical moments1 so as to edge it a little nearer the goal1 and at the same time to knock it away just as the blow of the opponent descended4 ,illustration ,the ball used for this game is sometimes an ordinary cask bung4 ,as this would speedily be knocked to pieces1 it is generally quilted with string1 as shown in the illustration1 for the better preserving its integrity4 ,sooner or later1 however1 it goes to pieces1 for the string is sure to be cut or worn through1 and the cork soon gives way4 ,balls1 too1 are apt to get their jackets knocked off1 and if struck hard will sometimes fly in the face of a player1 who cannot avoid it at so short a distance1 and do no small damage4 ,a hollow india-rubber ball is very good2 but the best that we have yet seen1 was a common globular india-rubber bottle1 such as can be procured at any stationer's1 with the neck cut off1 and partly filled up by leaving a strip of the neck and securing it by the proper varnish4 ,it made a capital ball4 ,nothing could hurt it1 and it could hurt no one4 ,we have had it driven into our face at two yards' distance1 and felt little the worse for it five minutes afterwards4 ,it would not roll very far by itself1 but required to be edged carefully by the sticks2 it never could get cut against flints1 or spoiled by thorns or splinters2 it was big enough to be easily seen if knocked into a ditch or over a hedge1 and if struck into water it would not sink but come to the surface at once1 bobbing about as if to draw attention to its presence4 ,it remained in constant action for two years to our knowledge1 had been employed for several seasons before we made its acquaintance1 and for aught we know may be in use now4 ,in fact1 if it were only kept out of the way of a fire or an ostrich1 we know nothing that would hurt the ball except burning or swallowing4 ,even in the latter case we fancy that the ostrich would be the sufferer rather than the ball4 ,having now described the instruments1 we will proceed to the method of playing the game4 ,as has already been mentioned1 this game is in principle similar to foot-ball4 ,two goals are set up1 at a convenient distance from and exactly opposite to each other1 as in foot-ball4 ,the same goals indeed will answer as for that game1 only the cross pole should be lashed to the uprights at a much lower elevation1 say three feet six inches or four feet from the ground1 and the uprights should be within six feet of each other4 ,very good and simple goals can be made by taking long osiers1 willow branches or brambles1 pointing the two ends1 bending them over and sticking the pointed extremities into the earth1 so as to make an arch4 ,a peg is driven exactly half-way between the goals1 goal-lines are drawn as at foot-ball1 and the ground is then laid out4 ,the players1 having previously chosen their sides1 arrange themselves between the goals1 facing each other1 and always having their left sides towards the enemy's goal and their right towards their own4 ,the ball is then thrown in the air1 so as to fall on or near the wooden peg1 and each party try with their sticks to drive it through the goal of the enemy4 ,the rules of this fine game are few and simple4 #a4 ,the game is won by the ball passing through the enemy's goal4 #b4 ,the ball must be struck through the goal with the stick1 not thrown or kicked4 #c4 ,each player shall strike from right to left1 and any player infringing this rule is liable to the penalty of a blow on the shins from any of the opposite side4 #d4 ,each player shall remain on his own side1 and if he crosses to that of the opponents is liable to the same penalty4 #e4 ,no player shall raise the head of his stick higher than his shoulder1 on pain of the same penalty4 #f4 ,the ball may be stopped with the stick1 or with any part of the person1 provided that the intervening player is on his own side4 #g4 ,if the ball be kicked or thrown through the goal1 or if struck beyond the goal-lines1 it is to be fetched by the junior player of the side who struck the last blow1 and gently thrown towards the centre peg4 #h4 ,any player wilfully striking another1 except when inflicting the penalty contained in rules #c1 #d1 and #e1 is immediately to be excluded from the game4 ,by means of these rules1 the game of hockey is shorn of the danger consequent on the loose and unrestrained play that is sometimes seen1 the sticks brandished in all directions1 and the two sides so intermixed that it is hardly possible to discriminate between them4 ,many a person has been seriously damaged by such undisciplined play1 and teeth have been struck out1 or even eyes lost in the contest4 ,by strict adherence1 however1 to the above rules1 there is no fear of incurring any injuries1 and this really fine game is rendered as safe as it is exciting4 ,as a general rule1 a good player seldom if ever strikes the ball with any violence1 but keeps it well in hand1 trundling it along rather than knocking it forcibly1 and endeavouring1 if he finds it likely to pass out of his control1 to strike it gently towards another of his own side1 who may keep it in its course towards the enemy's goal4 ,a bad player1 on the contrary1 rushes about without any definite purpose1 shouts continually at the top of his voice1 brandishes his stick to the danger of other persons' eyes and the detriment of his own hands1 which are sure to be painfully blistered in half an hour1 and exhausts his strength and breath so early in the game1 that he fails just at the critical moment1 and sees the ball driven past him without being able to check it4 ,as a parting word of advice1 let us recommend to our readers to play this game as quietly as they can contrive to do1 and as a golden rule1 always to keep the head of the hockey-stick close to the ground4 ,above all1 keep your temper intact1 and don't lose it even if one of your own side should make some stupid mistake1 and lose you a winning game4 ,take especial care to keep strictly to the rules1 and if your opponent should break them and render himself liable to the penalty1 be merciful to his shins1 and inflict the punishment as a warning to deter from future transgression1 and not as a spiteful opportunity for giving a blow which cannot be returned4 ,,rackets4 ,this game is not easily played without what is called a racket ground1 which consists of a large space of ground1 a parallelogram1 of not less than fifty yards long1 by twenty-five broad4 ,where such an advantage presents itself1 the game may be easily attempted4 ,sometimes the high dead wall of a garden may be made into a racket wall1 by fixing up some boards and net-work along the top1 supposing there is space enough below1 when the game may be played in a small way4 ,the wall should be painted black1 and the ground be divided into four equal divisions1 which should be distinctly marked either by chipping a groove in it by a spade1 or by chalk4 ,it is very essential1 however1 that the flooring of the court should be paved4 ,these divisions are1 two close to the wall1 as ,a and ,b1 and two in front of them1 as ,c and ,d1 which divisions are occupied by those who play the game4 ,the wall should be marked by a broad line of white paint at forty-two inches from the ground1 and above this line every ball must strike4 ,the ball is1 according to law1 only to weigh one ounce1 and is either white1 or made so from time to time by dipping into a bag of chalk1 that it may be the better seen against the black wall by the players4 ,the ball is made of pure white and tightly-sewn leather4 ,the bat used to propel the ball is of a legal make1 and its lower end of a spoon form1 over which is placed a strong net-work of silk-wire1 or catgut4 ,the bat is called a racket4 ,illustration ,how the game is played4--,rackets is a very simple game1 and may be played either by two or more players4 ,when it is played by four persons1 one stands in each of the compartments1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d2 those near the wall being called in-hand1 and those furthest from it out-hand players4 ,when two play1 each player takes two of the divisions1 and the one who takes the ,a first from the wall is called in-hand player1 and the other out-hand player4 ,having determined by lot who is to begin the game1 the in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against it2 if it strikes under the line1 goes over the wall1 does not rebound into the out-hand spaces1 or goes beyond the racket ground1 the striker is out1 and the out-hand player takes his place2 but if the player is more successful1 and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces1 and hopping from the ground is sent back to the wall again1 to rebound into one of the in spaces1 the game goes on4 ,in a close-court game the 8server0 who serves the ball properly above the line but not accurately into his adversary's court is allowed three trials before his 8hand0 is out4 ,the play of the game is1 that the in-player should send the ball in such a manner against the wall that1 on its rebound1 the opposite party1 or player1 shall be able to pick it up or hit it4 ,whenever this happens1 he who struck the ball counts one point1 or an ace1 and the play is continued until one player or party scores eleven1 or1 as is sometimes and now more frequently played1 fifteen4 ,this capital game1 so conducive to health and affording such excellent exercise1 may be played either in an open court--that is1 a court with only one wall1 against which the game is played--or in a closed court which is surrounded by four walls4 ,sometimes a compromise is made by the employment of the ordinary high front wall1 and a smaller back wall1 omitting the side walls altogether4 ,the closed court game is the best and far the most scientific1 but the great expense necessary for erecting a proper court compels many to content themselves with an ordinary old-fashioned open court game1 for there seems little doubt that the open court game is the oldest and the one which in old days was held in highest favour4 ,illustration ,,riding4 8,fleet as the wind1 he shoots along the plain1 ,and knows no check1 nor heeds the curbing rein2 ,his fiery eyeballs1 formidably bright1 ,dart a fierce glory1 and a glowing light2 ,proud with excess of life he paws the ground1 ,tears up the turf1 and spurns the sand around40--,blacklock4 ,a boy on horseback is a king on his throne2 he feels more than 8boy0 the moment he gets astride of anything in the shape of a nag4 ,boys have an instinct for riding1 an impulse they cannot resist1 like the instinct for eating1 breathing or moving4 ,in his earliest days1 in the very 8boyhood of being10 8,ride a-cock horse to ,banbury ,cross0 is a ditty of infinite delight1 and long before the days of corderoys the equestrian exercise of 8,grandfather's ,stick0 affords him 8joy ineffable40 ,then comes the noble game of ,hippas1 or the wooden 8,bucephalus10 on which he feels greater than ,alexander2 and last1 though very little1 yet still not least1 the 8pet ,shetland10 which adds to the bliss of being mounted1 a positive progressive locomotion1 and the 8greater than ,alexander0 is made greater still4 ,considering1 therefore1 that all boys love riding1 it is for us to tell them how they may 8mount the fiery ,pegasus10 and ride with elegance and safety1 8,to witch the world with noble horsemanship40 ,illustration3 ,,riding4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,the horse is one of the most beautiful and graceful animals in nature1 and perhaps the most useful to man1 though in this respect it would be difficult to say which of the four or five domesticated quadrupeds bears the palm4 ,during life1 the horse and the dog would each contest the point2 while in relative value after death1 the bullock1 sheep1 and swine1 are fairly entitled to an equal share with them4 ,but there is something very captivating in the appearance of the horse1 whether used for the purposes of war1 or for racing1 or for hunting1 or road-work2 and in all these several capacities the readers of this book may possibly admire him1 though it is chiefly as the riding-horse1 or hack1 that he usually attracts their notice4 ,in the animal kingdom1 the horse belongs to the division ,,vertebrata1 and class ,,mammalia1 he having a back-bone composed of vertebr1 and his young being suckled4 ,his broad and undivided hoof places him among the ungulata2 and lastly1 his teeth are as follows1 viz4 six front teeth1 above and below1 called 8nippers20 two canine in each jaw1 called 8tusks20 and the remainder1 consisting of grinders1 having flat surfaces opposed to each other1 with rough ridges on them1 by which the grass1 hay1 and corn are rubbed or ground down to a fine pulp1 adapted to the stomach4 ,these teeth are moved or rolled on each other by a peculiar action of the muscles of the jaw1 so as to aid the process4 ,,the ,,marks ,,of ,,age ,,in ,,the ,,horse4 ,by means of the gradual wearing down of the front teeth1 or nippers1 the age of the horse may be known4 ,each of the nippers has a hollow in its upper surface1 which is very deep and black when the tooth first rises above the gum1 and is gradually effaced by the friction caused by the cropping of the grass1 or by biting at the manger1 or other kinds of rubbing2 but as these vary a good deal according to circumstances1 so the precise degree of wearing away will also be liable to fluctuations2 and the rules laid down only approximate to the truth1 without positive accuracy as to a few months4 ,there are also two sets of teeth2 a milk set1 which first rise1 beginning at once after birth1 and a permanent set1 which replace the milk-teeth as they fall out4 ,the milk-teeth come up two at a time1 but all are up by the end of the first year4 ,the permanent teeth1 also1 make their appearance by twos1 the first pair showing themselves in the place of the two middle milk-teeth in the third year1 and being generally level with the other milk-teeth by the end of the fourth year1 by which time the next pair have fallen out1 and the permanent teeth have shown themselves in their places4 ,at five years of age the horse has lost all his nippers1 and his corner permanent teeth have nearly completed their growth4 ,the tusks are also above the gums4 ,the centre nippers are now much worn1 and the next are becoming slightly so4 ,at six years old the 8mark0 in the centre nippers is quite gone2 at seven years of age this disappears from the next pair1 and at eight from the corner nippers2 after which1 none but a professed judge is likely to make out the age of the horse by an inspection of his mouth2 and1 indeed1 at all times the tyro is liable to be deceived by the frauds of the low horse-dealer1 who cuts off the top of the teeth1 and then scoops out a hollow with a gouge2 after which a hot iron gives the black surface which in the natural state is presented to the eye4 ,this trick is called 8bishoping40 ,,the ,,paces ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,the natural paces of the horse are the walk1 trot1 and the gallop2 to them are added by man the canter1 and sometimes the amble and the run4 ,in the walk1 each leg is taken up and put down separately1 one after the other1 the print of the hind foot in good walkers generally extending a few inches beyond that of the fore foot4 ,the order in which the feet touch the ground is as follows3 #ast1 the off fore foot2 #b;d1 the near hind foot2 #c;d1 the near fore foot2 and #dth1 the off hind foot4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,the gallop consists of a succession of leaps1 during a great part of which all the feet are off the ground4 ,as the feet come to the ground they strike it in regular succession2 but the exact order will depend upon the lead1 which may be either with the off or near fore leg4 ,when in action and the horse is leading with the off fore foot 7which if well broken he would do71 the off hind and near fore feet touch the ground simultaneously next the near hind foot1 and lastly1 the off fore foot which he leads with4 ,in the trot1 the two legs of opposite sides are moved exactly together1 and touch the ground at the same moment2 whilst in the amble the two legs of each side move together1 and the horse is supported for the instant upon the half of his usual and regular foundation4 ,to counteract this deficiency in the centre of gravity1 the body is balanced from side to side in a waddling manner4 ,,terms ,,used ,,by ,,horsemen4 ,the left side is called the 8near side10 the right the 8off40 ,four inches make 8a hand40 ,the upper part of the horse's neck is called his 8crest20 the bony ridge in front of the saddle the 8withers10 the part between the saddle and the tail the 8croup20 the bony points1 one on each side the bosom1 the 8shoulder points20 and the line between these and the back of the withers1 corresponding with the shoulder blade1 is the 8line of the shoulder40 ,the body between the hip and shoulder line is called the 8middle piece40 ,in the fore legs1 the two divisions are called the 8arm0 and 8cannon20 above which is the 8elbow-joint10 and between them the 8knee-joint40 ,in the hind leg1 the two parts are called the 8thigh0 and 8cannon20 and the joints are the 8stifle0 and 8hock40 ,below these1 in both the hind and fore legs1 are the upper and lower 8pasterns10 then the 8coronet10 or ring between the leg and foot1 and lastly1 8the hoof40 ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,it is a common observation of the horseman that the horse can go in all forms2 and this is borne out by the fact1 that he does occasionally do so2 but nevertheless1 it is well known1 that among a large number it will be found that those whose form is most in accordance with the shape considered the best by good judges1 will turn out the best movers4 ,in technical language1 the horse whose 8points0 are the best will be the best horse4 ,these points are considered to be3 a neat head well set on a lean wiry neck1 the latter with a very gentle curve1 whose convexity looks upwards 7the opposite form to this makes the 8ewe neck072 moderately high withers2 a sloping shoulder1 wide in the blade1 which should be well furnished with muscles2 strong muscular loins2 a croup not too straight nor too drooping1 with the tail set on with an elegant sweep2 ribs well rounded1 and carried back near to the hips1 so as to make the horse what is called 8well ribbed20 circumference or girth of good dimensions1 indicating plenty of 8bellows' room20 thighs and arms muscular2 hocks and knees bony and large1 without being diseased2 cannon bones large and flat1 with the suspensory ligament and tendon large1 strong1 and clearly defined2 fetlock joints strong1 but not round and inflamed4 ,the eye should be full1 clear1 and free from specks2 and the ears should be moderately small and erect2 the feet should be round1 and not contracted at the heels1 with a well-formed frog4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,suitable ,,for ,,boys4 ,besides the several kinds of horses suitable for grown people1 those for boys are the galloway1 the cob1 and the pony4 ,the first of these may be considered either a small horse or a large pony1 and is usually about fourteen hands high2 and though strong and capable of carrying weight1 yet of a moderately light and active make4 ,he is so called from the district where he was originally bred in large numbers4 ,the cob is a thick and very strong pony1 or galloway1 frequently made to look still more so by cutting his tail and mane short1 called 8hogging0 them1 thus-- ,illustration ,correctly speaking1 a pony is understood to be under thirteen hands in height1 a galloway between thirteen and fourteen and a half1 anything over that a horse4 ,many ponies are now bred almost of pure ,arabian blood1 and they are well suited for lads who have mastered the early difficulties connected with keeping the seat under all ordinary circumstances2 but as they are generally very high-spirited1 they are scarcely suited for the beginner1 and he had better content himself with an animal of more plebeian pedigree and sluggish temperament4 ,,the ,,accoutrements ,,and ,,aids ,required by the young amateur1 are either a pad or saddle1 according to his age1 together with a bridle and a whip or stick4 ,spurs are seldom desirable for any but the accomplished rider1 as they are apt to irritate the pony if not used with discretion1 and it is rather difficult to put an old head upon young shoulders4 ,if the learner is very young1 a pad which is made without any tree affords a better hold for the knees than a regular saddle1 and will also enable him to ride without stirrups1 which feat he will hardly manage on an ordinary smooth saddle4 ,the stirrups are of the following form1 but are often1 for boys1 made much lighter4 ,they ought always to be used with strong stirrup leathers1 and these should be attached to the saddle by spring-bars1 which release the stirrups in case of the leg being entangled in them after a fall4 ,the groom should always remove the leathers after the ride1 and replace them on the opposite side of the saddle1 by which means their tendency to hang as shown at 7a71 is rectified1 and they assume the position indicated by the one marked 7b71 both representing the left1 or near1 side4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the bridle is either a single or a double-reined one1 according to the mouth of the pony ridden4 ,a single-reined bridle is usually a snaffle1 it being very improper to allow any one to ride with a curb alone1 unless he has very steady and light hands4 ,the snaffle bit is merely a jointed bar of iron 7#e #e7 in the accompanying sketch1 but when used alone it has a light cross-bar as well as the ring there shown1 in order to prevent the bit being pulled through the mouth4 ,this1 however1 in the double-reined bridle is omitted1 since it would interfere with the action of the curb4 ,snaffles are either smooth or twisted1 and are made of all sizes1 the smallest being only adapted for occasional use1 and not for the hands of the learner1 who should have a large smooth one4 ,the curb-bit consists of three parts2 the mouthpiece 7#a71 which usually has a bend in it called the port1 for the purpose of pressing against the roof of the mouth2 secondly1 of the cheek-piece 7#b71 which has a ring 7#c7 at the lower end for the attachment of the rein1 and another at the upper end for the head-piece of the bridle2 and thirdly1 the curb-chain 7#d74 ,this chain is pressed against the outside of the lower jaw1 by the upper arm of the curb used as a lever1 and it should be hooked up sufficiently tight to act upon it by pulling the rein1 whilst at the same time it should be loose enough to prevent its fretting the jaw4 ,this delicacy of adjustment requires some little practice1 and the young rider should always ask his teacher to show him the proper mode of applying the curb-chain4 ,sometimes a martingale is needed1 in order to keep the pony's head down1 but generally the young rider is better without it1 if he will keep his hands well down1 and avoid all jerking of the mouth4 ,,mounting4 ,illustration ,the rider1 even at the earliest age1 should first examine the girths and the bridle1 and see if they are properly adjusted2 for though when leaving home he may be able to depend upon a steady and experienced groom1 yet1 after putting up at strange stables1 he is liable to be led into an accident by careless servants1 and therefore it is better to get into the habit of always inspecting these essentials to safety and comfort4 ,if there is an attendant groom1 he should hold the rein with his right hand1 standing by the off shoulder of the horse1 so as with his left hand to hold the stirrup iron for the rider's right foot as he throws it over the horse's back4 ,the next thing to be done is for the rider to stand at the shoulder of the pony with his left side towards that part4 ,he then lays hold of the reins with his left hand1 drawing them up so short as to feel the mouth1 and at the same time twisting a lock of the mane in his fingers so as to steady the hand4 ,next1 the left foot is placed in the stirrup when the accompanying attitude is presented1 exactly as here shown4 ,at this moment a spring is given from the right foot1 the right hand reaches the cantle of the saddle1 and the body is raised till the right leg is brought up to the level of the left1 when the slightest imaginable pause is made1 and then the right leg is thrown over the back of the pony1 keeping the toe down and heel elevated1 or with the spur on mischief may happen1 while the right hand leaves its hold1 and the body falls into its position in the centre of the saddle2 after which1 the right foot has only to be placed in the stirrup to complete the act of mounting4 ,,dismounting ,illustration ,is exactly the reverse of the last process1 and requires1 first1 the reins to be shortened and held in the left hand with a lock of the mane2 secondly1 the right leg is taken out of the stirrup1 and is thrown over the back of the horse until it is brought down to the level of the other leg4 ,after this1 if the pony is of a small size1 suitable to that of the rider1 the body is gently lowered to the ground1 and the left leg is liberated from the stirrup2 but if the horse is too high for this1 the foot is taken out of the stirrup by raising the body by means of the hands on the pommel and cantle of the saddle1 and then the body is lowered to the ground by their assistance4 ,illustration ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,reins ,is of great importance to the comfort of the rider1 and also to his appearance1 for unless they are held properly1 the body is sure to be awkwardly balanced4 ,when the single rein is used1 the best position is to place the middle1 ring1 and little fingers between the two reins1 and then to turn both over the fore-finger1 where they are tightly held by the thumb4 ,in all cases the thumb ought to point towards the horse's ears1 by which the elbow is sure to be kept in its place close to the side1 and a good command of the reins is insured4 ,if a double-reined bridle is employed1 the middle finger separates the two snaffle reins1 and the little one those attached to the curb1 all being turned over the fore-finger1 and firmly held by the thumb4 ,in both cases the ends of the reins are turned over the left1 or near1 side of the pony's shoulder4 ,when it is intended to turn the horse to the left1 it is only necessary to raise the thumb towards the chest of the rider2 and on the contrary1 when the desire is to turn him to the right1 the little finger is turned downwards and backwards towards the fork4 ,in many well-broken ponies the mere moving of the whole hand to the right or left is sufficient1 which1 by pressing the reins against the neck1 indicates the wish of the rider1 and is promptly responded to by the handy pony4 ,this action1 however1 is objected to by some good horsemen1 though1 in my opinion1 most erroneously1 as it is capable of being made highly effective in practice4 ,illustration ,,the ,,seat ,should always be square to the front1 without either shoulder being in advance2 the loins moderately arched inwards without stiffness2 the elbows close to the side1 but held easily2 the knees placed upon the padded part of the flat in front of the stirrup-leathers2 toes turned very slightly outwards1 and the foot resting on the stirrup1 the inside of which should be opposite the ball of the great toe1 and the outside corresponding with the little toe4 ,in hunting1 however1 it may be placed 8home10 that is1 with the stirrup close to the instep4 ,the heel should be well lowered as far as possible beneath the level of the toe1 which gives a firm seat4 ,but the great point is to obtain a good grasp of the saddle by the knees1 which should be always ready to lay hold like a vice1 without however constantly tiring the muscles by such an effort4 ,the left hand is now to be held very slightly above the pommel of the saddle1 and the right easily by the side of it1 with the whip held in a slanting position1 as at page #bgc1 in which however both hands are much too high above the withers4 ,in order to show the effect of an incorrect mode of holding the reins1 the rider has only to place his hands with the knuckles in a horizontal position1 and the elbow is sure to be turned out in a most awkward manner4 ,,the ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,is effected by the reins1 heels1 voice1 and whip1 variously used according to his disposition and temper4 ,some require only the most gentle usage1 which in fact is almost always the most efficacious1 especially by young people1 for whom the horse and dog seem to have an especial affection1 and to be always more ready to obey them than might be expected1 when their want of strength to enforce their wishes is considered4 ,the young rider will therefore generally find it to his own interest1 as well as that of the noble animal he bestrides1 to use his whip and heel as little as possible1 and to effect his object solely by his voice and the gentlest pressure of the bit4 ,in this way the most high-couraged horses are kept in order by young lads in the racing stables1 and the amateur will do well to follow their example4 ,it is astonishing how fond horses and dogs are of being talked to by their juvenile masters1 and it is right to gratify their love of society by so doing on all occasions4 ,the reins serve1 as already explained1 to turn to the right or left1 or by drawing tight to stop the horse1 and on the contrary1 by relaxing them to cause him to proceed1 aided if necessary by the voice1 heel1 or whip4 ,when it is desired that the right leg should lead in the canter or gallop1 the left rein is pulled and the left leg pressed against the flank1 by which means the body of the pony is made to present the right side obliquely forwards1 and by consequence the right leg leads off4 ,on the other hand1 if it is wished to lead with the left leg1 or to change from the right1 the right rein is pulled1 the right leg pressed to the side1 and then the left shoulder looks forwards and the left leg leads off4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,walk4 ,when it is wished to make the pony walk1 he must be quieted down by soothing him with the voice if he has been excited by the gallop or trot2 and then1 by sitting very quietly in the saddle1 and loosing the reins as much as will allow the head to nod in unison with the action of the body and legs1 the walk is generally at once fallen into1 and there is no farther difficulty except to prevent a stumble4 ,a tight rein is not desirable in this pace1 since it prevents that liberty of action which is required1 and leads to a short walk1 or very often a jog-trot2 and yet there should be such a gentle hold1 or preparation for a hold rather1 as will suffice to check the mouth in case of a mistake4 ,this is a very difficult art to acquire1 and is only learnt by long practice2 but as few ponies fall at this pace1 great liberty may generally be allowed to their mouths4 ,besides this1 little is necessary1 more than to sit steadily1 but not stiffly1 in the saddle1 and not to sway about more than is sufficient to avoid the appearance of having swallowed a poker4 ,,the ,,trot ,,and ,,canter ,are effected by rather different methods1 but both require a very steady hand1 and a quiet treatment4 ,in order to cause the pony to trot1 the reins are taken rather short in the hand1 and the mouth is held somewhat firmly1 but taking great care not to jerk it4 ,the animal is then slightly stimulated by the voice1 and the body1 if necessary1 rises from the saddle1 as in the trot1 so as to indicate what is wanted4 ,this seldom fails to effect the purpose1 and the horse at once breaks into a trot2 or1 if very irritable1 he may be compelled to do so by laying hold of an ear and twisting it1 to avoid which he drops his head1 and trots as a natural consequence4 ,the canter is also an acquired pace1 and for its due performance a curb-bridle is required4 ,in order to make the pony begin this pace1 the left rein is pulled1 and the rider's left leg pressed against the side1 by which the horse's right leg is made to lead off1 this being the most usual1 and certainly the most comfortable 8lead0 for the rider4 ,the hands must make a very gentle and steady pull on the curb-rein1 and the body generally must be very quiet in the saddle1 whilst1 at the same time1 a very gentle stimulus is given by the voice1 which must be repeated at short intervals1 or the canter will be changed to a trot1 or walk1 both of which are preferred to it by most ponies and horses4 ,young riders should avoid cantering long upon one leg1 as it leads to inflammation of the joints1 and they should either change the lead or alter the pace to a trot or walk4 ,illustration ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,gallop ,requires little instruction1 practice being the main agent in effecting a good seat during this pace4 ,the seat is either close to the saddle1 with the body inclining backwards 7p4 #bge71 or standing in the stirrups1 in which position the knees and calves only touch the saddle1 and the body is bent forwards over the withers 7p4 #bgc74 ,it should be the endeavour of the rider1 while he bends his shoulders forwards1 to throw his loins well back1 so as to avoid straining the horse's fore-quarters1 by bearing too much weight upon them4 ,this is done by the hold of the knees on the saddle1 and by keeping the feet back1 also by rounding the loins backwards1 and thus throwing the centre of gravity as far as possible behind the stirrup leathers4 ,the object of standing in the stirrups is to save the horse when at his full gallop1 as in racing1 or in hunting1 when he is going over ploughed ground or up hill4 ,in either of these cases1 this attitude allows the horse to exert himself without feeling the weight of the rider impede his movements more than can be avoided4 ,,leaping ,is only an extra exertion added to the ordinary spring of the gallop1 the attitude being exactly the same4 ,it is best learnt by beginning with small ditches1 which the rider is soon able to clear without difficulty4 ,he may next try sheep-hurdles1 or very low stiles2 but the latter being strong and firmly fixed1 are dangerous to the rider1 unless the pony is very sure of clearing them4 ,a leaping-bar1 if procurable1 should always be adopted in preference to either1 as a fall over it is not attended with any bad consequences4 ,the groom should place it at the lowest notch1 and the pony then may be suffered to clear it at a moderate gallop2 after which1 if the young rider is able to sit pretty closely1 he may be indulged with a higher notch1 and gradually it may be raised until the limits of the pony's powers are reached4 ,in riding at a bar1 the learner should lay hold of a snaffle-rein in each hand1 taking care to keep them close together1 by the right rein being held also in the left hand4 ,the pony is then to be urged to a smart canter or hand gallop1 and held straight to the bar in this way1 so that he is obliged to leap2 or if disliking the act1 being urged by the whip down the shoulder1 or the spur1 or the groom's voice and whip behind4 ,young riders1 however1 should never be put upon a bad or reluctant leaper1 but should be taught upon one which is fond of the amusement4 ,at the moment of rising into the air for the leap the reins are relaxed1 but should not be left quite loose2 while the pony is in the air the body becomes upright1 and as he descends it leans well back1 until1 after a high leap1 it almost touches the croup4 ,during this period the reins should be suffered to remain nearly loose1 the hand barely feeling the mouth2 but as the pony reaches the ground a stronger hold is taken1 in order to guard against a mistake1 which might require the aid of the rider to prevent a fall4 ,it is not that he can keep the animal up1 but that he checks him1 and makes him exert himself in a double degree4 ,there are various kinds of leaping2 as the flying leap1 the standing leap1 the leap in hand1 c4 ,the flying leap is merely one taken at a fast pace1 and when the rider can maintain a good seat in the gallop1 it is the easiest of all to sit4 ,the standing leap is effected from a state of quiescence1 and is much more difficult to sit1 because the horse rises and falls more suddenly and abruptly4 ,between the two is the slow or steady leap1 which is only effected safely by the clever hunter or well-broken pony2 but when perfect it is almost as smooth as a rocking-horse4 ,this is the mode in which the young rider should be taught to leap4 ,leaping in hand is necessary for most ponies in the hunting field1 which would otherwise never be able to compete with full-sized hunters in the way they do4 ,the young hunter1 when he meets with a gate or other strong fence1 which he knows is too much for the powers of his pony1 at once gets off and leads him over by the rein2 and when well taught1 these little creatures will often tilt themselves over high timber1 c4 in a marvellously clever manner1 so that ,i have known them in this way obtain a good place in long and severe runs4 ,if1 therefore1 my readers are allowed to partake in this exciting sport during their ,christmas holidays1 they should teach their ponies to leap in hand1 or they will be sure to be thrown out4 ,illustration ,,treatment ,,of ,,vices4 ,the chief vices which are met with among ponies are--#ast1 ,obstinate ,stopping2 #b;d1 ,stumbling from ,carelessness2 #c;d1 ,rearing2 #dth1 ,kicking2 #eth1 ,shying2 and #fth1 ,running ,away4 ,illustration ,obstinate ,stopping1 which in its worst forms is called 8jibbing10 is a very troublesome vice1 and even in the saddle is sometimes attended with danger1 whilst in driving it is so to a dreadful degree4 ,the rider should never attempt to force his pony forward with the whip or spur1 which only aggravates the bad-tempered brute2 but should patiently sit quiet in the saddle1 and keep his temper1 until the pony chooses to move forward again4 ,in this way sometimes very vicious animals are cured when they find that their stable is not the sooner reached by their device2 on the other hand1 if the whip is used1 the pony1 especially if of ,welsh breed1 is very apt to lie down and roll his rider in the dirt1 or even sometimes to bolt into a river1 or pond1 and leave him in danger of his life4 ,my young friends will therefore remember my advice when being mounted upon an obstinate pony1 and having lost their tempers1 they have proceeded to use their whips1 and are bemired or half drowned in consequence4 ,stumbling is more a defect of conformation than a vice2 but nevertheless1 it greatly depends upon a want of spirit to keep up a steady action of the fore legs4 ,it often happens that a pony trots along for a mile or two safely enough2 but after going that distance he becomes lazy and careless1 and trips with one foot and then with the other1 a sure prelude to such a fall as the following1 which would be a very bad one1 and sufficient to cut both knees to the bone1 and to cause serious damage to the rider4 ,the only way to avoid such accidents is to keep the pony at a steady pace1 fast enough to keep him alive1 but not enough so to tire him4 ,loose stones and broken ground should be avoided1 and a careful hold should be kept upon the mouth1 without being so tight as to gag it4 ,when a stumble actually takes place1 the body should be well thrown back and the mouth forcibly jerked1 so as to make the pony exert himself to keep his legs4 ,an unsafe animal of this kind is1 however1 wholly unfit for young riders1 and they should never be allowed to ride one4 ,illustration ,rearing is a very dangerous vice1 and not very common among ponies after they are once broken in4 ,if the rider should1 however1 be placed upon a rearer1 he should be careful to avoid hanging upon the bit when he rises in the air1 but on the contrary should loose the reins entirely1 and clasp the neck1 if the pony should rise very high in the air4 ,the accompanying sketch shows this vice in a very trifling degree1 and in such a case the seat thus represented is sufficiently forward to prevent accidents4 ,illustration ,the rider will1 however1 observe that the reins are quite loose4 ,it often happens that this vice is produced by too tight and severe a curb in a tender mouth1 and that upon changing the bit1 or letting out the curb chain1 the tendency to rise is entirely gone4 ,whenever1 therefore1 the young rider finds his pony inclined to rear1 let him look well to his bit1 and at once drop the curb rein if he has one4 ,if1 however1 he has only a snaffle1 he may rest assured that it is a regular habit1 and at once make up his mind either to battle with it or to change his pony4 ,illustration ,kicking is much more common among ponies than rearing1 and very many of these little animals are given to practise it4 ,it is perhaps partly owing to the teasing of their young masters that it is so common2 but whatever the cause1 there can be no doubt that it is too prevalent among them4 ,sometimes it exists as a regular attempt to unhorse the rider1 which is a very troublesome habit1 and one very difficult to break1 because it so often succeeds that the pony is tempted to try again4 ,when this vice is met with1 the rider should do all in his power to keep his pony's head up1 by jerking the bit1 and at the same time he should sit well back1 with his feet well forwards1 with heels down1 and trust to his knees in holding on4 ,when kicking is only the result of high spirits and 8freshness10 the best remedy is a smart gallop1 which soon stops all these pranks1 and makes the most riotous animal quiet4 ,shying is also very common among ponies1 and in them is often the result of cunning1 which leads them to pretend a greater degree of shyness than they really possess4 ,the best mode of treatment is to take as little notice as possible of the shying1 but carefully to make the pony pass the object at which he is looking1 without regarding how this is effected4 ,the whip should seldom be used at all1 and never after the object is passed4 ,bolting1 or ,running ,away1 is often the result of want of exercise1 but sometimes it is a systematic vice4 ,a powerful bit and a steady seat1 with good hands1 are the best means of grappling with this habit1 which is sometimes a very dangerous one4 ,if the pony really runs away1 the rider should not pull dead at his mouth1 but should relax his hold for a short time1 and then take a sharp pull1 which is often effectual4 ,a good gallop until he is tired will often cure a runaway for the rest of his life4 ,there are a variety of bits intended expressly to counteract this vice1 such as the ,hanoverian ,pelham1 the curb with a high port1 c42 but nothing is perfectly effectual where there is a determination to run away4 ,a nose-band has lately been invented for the purpose1 which answers better than anything hitherto brought out2 it consists of a long nose-band which crosses behind the jaw and then hooks on to the bit in the same way as the ordinary curb-chain4 ,when the rein is pulled hard1 this nose-band is drawn tight round the jaw1 by which the mouth is closed1 and the port is pressed strongly against the roof of the mouth1 causing a great degree of pain1 sufficient to stop most horses4 ,this powerful remedy1 which has been named the ,bucephalus nose-band1 should not lightly be used2 but in the case of a runaway horse1 or pony1 it is the only really efficacious one4 ,illustration ,,rowing4 8,a boat1 a boat1 is the toy for me1 ,to rollic about in on river and sea2 ,to be a child of the breeze and the gale1 ,and like a wild bird on the deep to sail1 ,this is the life for me60--,procter4 ,,historical ,,memoranda4 ,the sea service is the glory of ,old ,england1 notwithstanding all the glorious land service of ancient and modern days4 ,a country having nearly ten thousand miles of sea-coast1 with numerous ports1 harbours1 estuaries1 river mouths1 and capacious bays1 must ever be a maritime nation1 and look for its supremacy to the sea--to her sons being amphibious2 and nothing is better calculated to develop the inherent instinct for sea duties than the amusements of boating1 of rowing1 of sailing1 and other aquatic sports4 ,every young gentleman in ,england should know how to manage a boat1 and to sail a cutter2 and it will be our duty to initiate him into the methods of doing so4 ,the origin of ships must be traced to the ark of ,noah2 but this was not a sailing or a rowing vessel1 but simply a large floating house or receptacle for ,noah and his family1 and the various types of animated nature4 ,the first navigators were the ,phnicians1 who sailed in various seas4 ,they were succeeded by the ships of ,carthage1 ,egypt1 ,venice1 ,genoa1 ,holland1 and ,portugal4 ,the ,saxons under ,alfred1 and the ,danes under ,canute1 had formidable navies4 ,alfred1 who ascended the throne in #hgb1 commenced the first ,english fleet in person1 and is said to have suggested a variety of improvements in the structure1 as well as greatly to have increased the size of the vessels1 some of the largest of which carried sixty oars4 ,after the death of ,alfred1 the naval power of ,england seems to have lain dormant2 and this1 no doubt1 tempted the ,norman invasion in #ajff1 under ,william the ,bastard1 who sailed for the coast of ,england with a fleet of #ijj vessels2 and so sensible was he of the importance of the naval service1 that he gave certain privileges to certain towns on the sea-coast1 which were from their number called the ,cinque ,ports4 ,richard ,i4 fitted out large fleets2 and his successor1 ,john1 asserted the exclusive right of the ,english nation to the dominion of the seas4 ,the reign of ,edward ,i4 was also distinguished for successes at sea4 ,henry ,,vii41 on gaining the throne1 in #adhe1 put the navy into a respectable condition2 and a large ship1 called the 8,great ,harry10 which may properly be termed the first ship of the ,british navy1 was built at a cost of #ad1jjjl4 ,the discovery of ,america1 about the period of the accession of ,henry ,,viii41 gave a new stimulus to our navy1 and many ships were then built of large tonnage1 some of a thousand tons4 ,but ,queen ,elizabeth1 deeply impressed with the maxim1 that 8whosoever commands the sea1 commands the trade of the world10 and that 8whosoever commands the trade1 commands the riches of the world10 and consequently the world itself1 so encouraged and restored the marine1 that she may be called the 8,restorer of the naval power of ,england20 and1 in a few years after1 the invasion of the ,spanish ,armada put our naval power to the proof4 ,charles ,i41 the great and courageous ,cromwell1 and even the pleasure-loving ,charles ,,ii41 were all impressed with the great advantages of a formidable navy2 and in the reign of ,anne1 fifty-two ,french ships1 containing more than #c1jjj guns1 were captured4 ,and during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 the naval superiority was placed by a series of glorious successes beyond all dispute2 and it is to be hoped that the reign of our beloved ,queen ,victoria1 who is herself a sailor1 and full of every generous aspiration that belongs to a ,british ,tar1 will1 notwithstanding the 8mistakes of the ,admiralty10 prove that ,england still retains the sovereignty of the ocean1 and on that element she will defy the world4 ,,construction ,,of ,,ancient ,,ships ,,and ,,galleys4 ,the ,egyptian vessels are the earliest of which any well-authenticated graphic illustration has been preserved4 ,we here give a view of one of their earliest sailing vessels4 ,the celebrated ,egyptian vessel called the 8,isis0 is said to have been in length #ahj feet1 in breadth #de feet1 and in height1 from the upper edge of the deck to the bottom of the well1 #dc feet4 ,the well-known ship of ,hiero1 king of ,syracuse1 was nearly #djj tons burden4 ,illustration ,,roman ,,galleys1 ,,ships1 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,they were in length about #abe feet1 and in breadth #aj feet4 ,their first requisite was swiftness1 and no part of the side was left vacant where an oar could be put out2 hence they had often three banks of oars1 one above the other4 ,in most ancient ships1 there was placed at the prow an image called 8the sign40 ,the part of the vessel that cut the water was called the 8goose40 ,at the stern1 which generally resembled a shield1 was set or some way delineated a representation of the deity to whose tutelary favour the ship was committed1 and to which daily prayer and sacrifice were offered4 ,war ships were chiefly rowed with oars1 that they might be able to tack about4 ,the first long ships were rowed with fifty oars1 but afterwards a larger number was used4 ,in the more perfect condition of ancient navigation1 there were some ships that had as many as five tiers of oars1 and three hundred rowers4 ,two large holes at the prow of the vessel1 occasionally used for oars1 were called the ship's 8eyes20 and a wooden projection at the prow1 covered with brass1 was called a 8beak20 and pieces of wood placed on each side of the prow of a vessel1 to ward off the force of the enemy's beak1 were called the ship's 8ears40 ,over these vessels were certain raised platforms1 and on their forecastles were towers on which the soldiers stood1 whose shields were usually hung upon the railings which begirt the ship4 ,the sides of the prow were called 8cheeks40 ,the anchors at first used were often large stones1 or even bags of sand2 afterwards1 however1 the ancient ships carried anchors with one1 two1 and four flukes4 ,the larger anchor was called the 8sacred anchor10 and reserved for the most trying occasions4 ,among the ancients1 ships were usually termed 8horses10 which explains many ancient fables4 ,the elder ,pliny1 for instance1 tells us of a boy who was carried by water some miles every day on the back of a dolphin to school2 the vessel1 in all probability1 having a dolphin at the prow4 ,arion1 the famous musician of ,lesbos1 having made great wealth in foreign parts by his profession1 was returning home by ship1 when the sailors resolved to kill him1 and seize upon his riches4 ,playing once again1 at his last request1 a favourite tune1 he leaped into the sea4 ,a dolphin1 attracted by his melody1 received him safely on its back1 and carried him again to the coast where ,periander lived4 ,arion1 doubtless1 escaped by a boat1 the fore-part of which consisted of a dolphin4 ,having thus given the young reader a notion of ancient boats and ships1 we shall now proceed to make him acquainted with the modern practices of rowing1 boating1 sailing1 c4 ,,of ,,boats4 ,a ,boat is properly a vessel propelled by oars4 ,in a more extensive sense the word is applied to other small vessels1 which differ in construction and name1 according to the services in which they are employed4 ,thus they are light or strong1 sharp or flat-bottomed1 open or decked1 according as they are intended for swiftness or burden1 deep or shallow water1 c4 ,the ,barge is a long1 light1 narrow boat1 employed in harbours1 and unfit for sea4 ,the ,long ,boat is the largest boat belonging to a ship1 generally furnished with two sails1 and is employed for cruising short distances1 bringing the cargo and bales on board1 c4 ,the ,launch is more flat-bottomed than the long boat1 which it has generally superseded4 ,the ,pinnace resembles the barge1 but is smaller4 ,the ,cutters of a ship are broader and deeper than the barge or pinnace1 and are employed in carrying light articles1 single passengers1 c4 on board4 ,yawls are used for similar purposes to the barge and pinnace4 ,a ,gig is a long1 narrow boat1 used for expedition1 and rowed with six or eight oars4 ,the ,jolly ,boat is smaller than a yawl1 and is used for going on shore4 ,a merchant ship seldom has more than two boats1--a long boat and a yawl4 ,a ,wherry is a light1 sharp boat1 used in a river or harbour for transporting passengers4 ,a ,punt is a flat-bottomed boat1 chiefly used for fishing on a fresh water river4 ,a ,skiff is a small sharp-nosed boat1 used in rivers4 ,a ,dingy is a very small stiff boat used by yachts4 ,a ,yacht is a pleasure sailing-boat4 ,a ,lugger is a boat which is furnished with sails of a peculiar cut4 ,a ,funny is a small light boat used in river rowing1 and made with her bow and stern nearly alike4 ,,the ,,component ,,parts ,,of ,,boats4 ,illustration ,rowing boats consist of the bows 7#a72 the stem1 or entrance 7#b72 the stern 7#h71 where are the rudder and the lines for steering2 the rowlocks 7#c71 for giving purchase to the oars2 and the thwarts1 or seats 7#d74 ,at the bottom are the foot-boards 7#e71 which are easily removed1 in order to bail out any water which may leak into the boat4 ,besides these parts there is a board placed across the boat for the feet of the rower1 called a stretcher4 ,the whole boat is composed of one or more planks1 called streaks1 nailed upon a light oak framework1 called the timbers1 or ribs2 and the upper streak1 upon which the rowlocks are placed1 is called the wale-streak4 ,boats with two rowlocks opposite each other are called sculling boats1 and are propelled by a pair of light oars called sculls1 the art being called 8sculling40 ,when a boat is fitted with a pair of rowlocks not opposite each other1 it is called a pair-oared boat4 ,if with two in the middle opposite each other1 and two others1 one before and the other behind1 but not opposite each other1 it is called a randan4 ,when a boat has four rowlocks1 none of which are opposite one another1 it is called a four-oared boat1 and so on up to ten oars1 which is the utmost limit in common use for any kind of boat but the pleasure barge1 which sometimes has twenty-four oars1 as in the ,city barges of ,london4 ,the rowlock nearest the bow is called the bow rowlock1 or ,no4 #a2 the next ,no4 #b1 and so on2 and the oars used in them receive the same number1 the one nearest the stern being called the 8stroke oar40 ,the rowlocks in river and sea boats are somewhat different in shape though identical in principle1 both consisting of a square space of about the breadth of a man's hand1 and both lying on the wale-streak2 but in river boats being generally bounded before and behind by a flat piece of oak or ash called1 respectively1 the thowl-pin and stopper2 whilst in sea boats they are merely common round wooden pins dropped into holes made in the wale-streak1 but still receiving the same names4 ,the thowl-pin is for the purpose of pulling the oar against1 whilst the stopper prevents the oar from slipping forwards when the rower is pushing it in that direction after the stroke4 ,,the ,,oars ,,and ,,sculls4 ,illustration ,a scull is a small oar used with one hand1 and requiring a pair1 as in the case of oars1 one being placed in the rowlock on each side the boat1 and the pair being used by one person with his right and left hands4 ,oars are used by both hands1 and a pair-oared boat consequently requires two oarsmen2 a four-oared boat four1 and so on4 ,both sculls and oars consist of the same parts1 except that the handle of the oar is made long enough for both hands1 as at 7b74 ,in every case there is a rounded handle 7a b71 a loom1 square in form1 and extending from the handle to the button1 or about one-third of the length of the oar2 and beyond the button is the blade1 which is first nearly round1 and then gradually widens1 until it assumes the form best adapted for laying hold of the water1 which is now found to be broad rather than long1 as was formerly thought to be desirable4 ,the button is a piece of leather nailed on to prevent the oar from slipping through the rowlock1 but only used in river rowing1 as it is not adapted for the rough work which is often met with in sea rowing4 ,,sea ,,rowing4 ,this is necessarily less elegant than river rowing1 because of the rough nature of the element on which the exercise is pursued4 ,the oar must be held firmly in the hands1 the inside hand being placed at 7b71 and the outside at 7a71 and both hands grasping the oar between the thumbs and fingers4 ,the whole art consists in the crew moving backwards and forwards together1 called 8swinging10 and laying hold of the water as well as they can1 taking care to avoid pulling in the air with great force when there is a trough or interval between two waves1 and on the other hand equally avoiding a heavy wave1 which has a tendency to dash the oar out of the hand4 ,all this requires practice in the rowers1 and also in the steersman1 called the coxswain1 who should watch for the high waves1 and warn his men when a heavy one is coming4 ,he should also take care to cross the roll of the sea as much as possible1 so as to avoid being struck on the side of the boat called 8the counter10 which would either swamp her1 or else knock the oars out of the rowlocks4 ,in this kind of rowing1 the 8feathering0 of the oar1 to be presently described1 is not attempted1 on account of the roughness of the water1 but it merely is pulled steadily1 but strongly1 backwards1 and is then pushed forwards in the rowlocks4 ,,river ,,rowing4 ,the art of river rowing is capable of a high degree of elegance1 and few sights are more pleasing to a lover of graceful forms than that of a crew of fine lads1 or young men1 rowing well together and in good style4 ,to do this requires great practice1 and attention to a few essential points1 which ,i will here endeavour to describe4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,oar4 ,the rower should1 as far as possible1 take some good oarsman for his model1 and endeavour to imitate him in every respect1 which is the only mode of acquiring a good style4 ,description is useful in putting the learner in the way of acquiring what is to be taught1 but it is not all-sufficient for the purpose4 ,in the first place1 the learner should place himself square on the seat1 with his feet straight before him1 and the toes slightly turned out4 ,the knees may either be kept together1 in the ,newcastle or ,clasper style1 or separated considerably1 as practised generally in ,england1 the latter being in my opinion the better mode1 as it allows the body to come more forward over the knees4 ,the feet are to be placed firmly against the stretcher1 which is to be let out or shortened1 to suit the length of the individual2 and one foot may be placed in the strap which is generally attached to the stretcher in modern boats4 ,the oar is then taken in hand1 raising it by the handle1 and then either at once placing it in the rowlock1 or else first dropping it flat on the water1 and then raising the handle it may gently be lowered to its place4 ,the outside hand is placed upon the handle at 7a71 with the thumb as well as the fingers above it1 while the other hand firmly grasps it lower down at 7b71 keeping the nut towards the person4 ,the arms are now quickly thrust forward till they are quite straight at the elbows1 after which the back follows them by bending forward at the hips1 carefully avoiding any roundness of the shoulders4 ,when the hands have reached their full stretch they are raised1 and the blade quietly and neatly dropped into the water2 immediately after which1 and with the water just covering the blade1 the body is brought back with a graceful yet powerful action1 till it reaches a part a little behind the perpendicular of the back of the seat1 when the hands are brought back to the ribs1 the elbows gliding close by the hips2 and at the last moment1 as the hand touches the rib1 the wrist of the inside hand is depressed1 the knuckles being at the same time brought against the chest1 and the oar is made to rotate in the rowlock1 which is called 8feathering0 it1 and by which it is brought cleanly out of the water4 ,the next action is to push the oar rapidly forward again1 first however restoring it to its original position in the rowlock1 which is effected by raising the wrist1 and then darting the arms forward till the elbows are quite straight1 which brings the rower to where we started from in the description4 ,in 8backing water0 the reverse of these actions takes place4 ,the oar is first reversed in the rowlock1 and then it is pushed through the water with as much power as is needed1 and pulled through the air4 ,when the oars on one side are pulled1 and those on the other are backed1 the boat is made to turn on its own water4 8,holding water0 is effected by the oars being held in the position of backing without moving them4 ,,the ,,essential ,,points ,,in ,,rowing4 #ast4 ,to straighten the arms before bending the body forward2 #b;d1 to drop the oar cleanly into the water2 #c;d1 to draw it straight through at the same depth2 #dth1 to feather neatly1 and without bringing the oar out before doing so2 #eth1 to use the back and shoulders freely1 keeping the arms as straight as possible2 and #fth1 to keep the eyes fixed upon the rower before them1 avoiding looking out of the boat1 by which means the body is almost sure to swing backwards and forwards in a straight line4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,boat4 ,every boat without a rudder is manuvred in the water1 either by pulling both sides alike1 in which case it progresses in a straight line1 or by reversing the action of the oars1 equally on both sides1 pushing them through the water instead of pulling them1 and called backing water1 when the boat recedes2 or by pulling one side only1 on which the boat describes a segment of a circle1 which is made smaller by pulling one oar1 and backing the other4 ,by means of a rudder the boat is made to take a certain course1 independent of the rowers1 called 8steering10 the chief art in which consists in keeping the rudder as still as possible1 by holding the lines 8taut10 and avoiding pulling them from one side to the other more than is absolutely necessary4 ,some steersmen think it necessary to swing backwards and forwards with a great effort1 but this is quite useless1 and the more still they keep the better4 ,every coxswain should know the course of the stream or tide2 and when meeting other boats he should1 if he is going down stream1 give them the side nearest the shore1 so as to allow them the advantage of the slack water1 which is quite prejudicial to him4 ,when a crew are steered by a competent coxswain1 they ought to be perfectly obedient to his commands1 rowing exactly as he tells them4 ,his orders are communicated by the following words1 viz4 when desiring his crew to row he says1 8,pull all20 or if wishing any one oar to be pulled1 he says 8,pull bow10 or 8,pull1 ,no4 #c10 or #d1 c4 as the case may be4 ,if they are to stop rowing1 he says 8,easy all10 or for any one oar1 8,easy bow10 or ,no4 #b4 ,the same kind of order is conveyed when 8backing0 or 8holding water0 is desired2 the only variation1 as before1 being between confining his order to any one or more oars1 or extending it to all4 ,in this way all the evolutions practicable on the water are managed1 and the coxswain has complete control over the boat1 being able to cause her to be rowed slowly or quickly1 or to be stopped1 backed1 or turned on her own centre4 ,,rowing ,,together ,is of the utmost importance to the success of a boat when she is manned by a crew2 and they should all endeavour to attain the same style as the 8stroke-oar10 who should be the best in the boat1 and as free from faults as possible4 ,in a four or eight-oared boat1 every one of the crew would do well to imitate his stroke by rowing with him occasionally in a pair-oared boat1 or else1 if this is not practicable1 by pulling behind a waterman who rows in the same style as the stroke-oar4 ,in this way an uniform kind of rowing is attained1 and the boat is propelled equally by all at the same time4 ,the great object is for all to lay hold of the water at the same moment1 and pull their oars through it and out with the same power and at the same time2 this is called 8keeping stroke40 8,keeping time0 means1 all 8feathering0 the oar together1 by which the peculiar click of the oars in the rowlocks is made exactly at the same instant4 ,when this is not done precisely together1 the 8time0 is defective1 and the ear at once detects the error2 but even when the 8time0 is ever so good1 the want of keeping stroke is fatal to the speed of any boat1 however good the individuals may be4 ,,cautions ,,to ,,young ,,rowers4 ,do not be over anxious to avoid 8catching crabs10 which is an event likely to occur in early practice2 and should it happen1 throw the oar quickly upwards out of the rowlock1 and no mischief will ensue4 ,the young rower should be at once shown how to free his oar in this way1 and then he may pull with that freedom from restraint which is necessary to produce a good style4 ,do not stand on the seats1 or lean out of the boat1 and never attempt any practical jokes on the water1 as it is a dangerous element to trifle with4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,sailing4 8,the tar's a jolly tar1 that can hand1 reef and steer1 ,that can nimbly cast-off and belay2 ,who in darkest of nights finds each halliard and gear1 ,and dead reckoning knows well1 and leeway3 ,but the tar to please me must more jolly be1 ,he must laugh at the waves as they roar40--,dibdin4 ,it would be very difficult to trace to its origin the art of sailing4 ,perhaps the curled leaf passing over the water1 with one end erect1 might have given to observant man the first notion of a sail4 ,it has been supposed that the ,nautila1 ,argonaut1 or sailor-fish1 was suggestive of the first sailing-vessel2 but long before the ,argonaut had been noticed1 sails of some kind or other had no doubt been common4 ,a man could not stand in the simplest boat without perceiving that the wind exerted a power upon him and his boat2 and therefore the idea of a sail must have been identical with the first launching of the rudest boat4 ,the science of sailing1 however1 has grown up gradually through a succession of ages1 and has now reached a perfection of which the ancients had no idea4 ,we will first speak of the various kinds of vessels1 which are distinguished principally by the number of masts1 and the number and shape of their sails4 ,a ,sloop is properly a vessel with one mast1 having her sails1 with the exception of her topsails1 set in the plane of her length1 which is technically called 8set fore and aft40 ,her topsail is a square sail1 rigged at right angles to the plane of her length4 ,the bowsprit is generally elevated from the bows1 inclining slightly to the deck4 ,the term 8sloop0 is now usually applied to a man-of-war1 ship-rigged1 and carrying less than #ah guns4 ,illustration ,a ,cutter differs from a sloop in being without a square sail1 and in having her bowsprit horizontal2 her mast at the same time 8raking0 aft4 ,her topsail is fore and aft1 and triangular in shape4 ,a ,brig is a square-rigged vessel1 with two masts4 ,illustration ,a ,schooner is a two-masted vessel1 with fore and aft topsails1 which are called gaff-topsails4 ,sometimes she has a square fore-topsail and top-gallantsail4 ,illustration ,a ,brigantine is something between a schooner and a brig1 and is worked either with oars 7called sweeps7 or sails4 ,illustration3 ,,dutch ,,galleot4 ,a ,dutch ,galleot is rigged like a schooner1 but of a broader and more ,chinese build1 her bottom being nearly flat4 ,a ,billy-boy is rigged sometimes like a sloop1 and sometimes like a schooner2 but her bottom is nearly flat1 and she draws but little water4 ,a ,smack is a small vessel with one mast like a cutter1 used principally for fishing4 ,a ,canoe is a boat used by savages1 usually made of a trunk of a tree1 hollowed4 ,illustration ,a ,felucca has two triangular sails1 is used in the ,mediterranean1 and is particularly swift4 ,it can also use oars in calm weather4 ,illustration ,a ,junk is a ,chinese vessel1 used either for war or merchandise1 is built very heavily4 ,a ,proa is used by the natives of the ,ladrone ,islands1 and is remarkable for its swiftness and sailing close to the wind4 ,the lee-side is quite straight1 and the weather-side is convex1 like a common boat4 ,both head and stern are equally sharp2 and in working her there is no necessity to tack or turn at any time4 ,besides this peculiarity of construction1 the proa has on her lee-side what is called an 8out-rigger10 which is made of two poles1 extending about #aj feet from her side1 having at their extremity a piece of solid wood4 ,this prevents her from having any lee-way4 ,she will sail with a good wind twenty miles an hour4 ,illustration ,the natives of the ,society ,islands use a canoe1 averaging in length from ten to forty feet4 ,it is made of a trunk of a tree1 hollowed out2 and is just wide enough for a person to sit down4 ,it will carry from one to as many as thirty persons4 ,it also has an outrigger1 like a proa4 ,when a native leaves one island to go to another1 he joins two large canoes together1 and builds on them a small hut1 which will hold all his family4 ,this is the most convenient way to travel in a canoe1 for it is difficult to see anything but one's knees when sitting down in the ordinary manner4 ,these canoes carry a square sail in the fore-part4 ,we will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with--viz4 yachts4 ,,characters ,,of ,a ,,yacht4 ,speed1 safety1 and accommodation are the three first qualities of a yacht4 ,she ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat1 of such a breadth as to carry her canvass with ease1 and at the same time so sharp in her bow and well-shapen astern as to displace her weight of water smoothly and gradually1 while she leaves it in the same way4 ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,yachts4 ,yachts are of various kinds1 according to their size4 ,if more than eighty tons burden1 the schooner is most suitable2 for1 as the spars are more numerous1 they are proportionally lighter4 ,the schooner1 as has been before observed1 has two masts--the foremast and mainmast2 the one bearing the sail called the boom-foresail1 and the other a mainsail4 ,she has two or more headsails1 called staysail1 fore-staysail1 and jib4 ,her topsails are either square or fore and aft4 ,the ,cutter has one mast and four sails--viz4 mainsail1 maintopsail1 foresail1 and jib4 ,some smaller craft have larger jibs1 and no foresail4 ,the ,dandy-rigged ,yacht differs from a cutter1 in having no boom for her mainsail1 which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing round it4 ,she has a mizen-mast standing in the stern1 which sets a sail called a mizen1 and which is stretched on a horizontal spar1 projecting over the stern4 ,this style of rig is more safe for a yacht1 as the boom in ordinary cutters is liable to sweep persons overboard2 and the sail can be taken in quicker by brailing it up than by lowering it down4 ,illustration ,the ,hatteener has only two sails1 a fore and a main sail1 of a triangular shape4 ,each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak of the sail1 and a boom at the bottom1 like a cutter4 ,this rig1 from setting more canvass abaft1 is well adapted for narrow waters4 ,illustration ,illustration ,one of the most handy rigs for a young sailor is a triangular mainsail and foresail rig1 on a good-sized open boat4 ,she should be at least twenty feet long1 and five feet on her beam4 ,the foresail is carried over the stem for about a foot1 by means of an iron bowsprit1 which ships and unships on the nose of the boat4 ,her mainsail has a spar reaching from the lower part of the mast to the upper corner of the sail2 a rope is fastened in the middle of this spar1 and passes through a block on the mast1 by which the sail is hoisted4 ,the advantages of this rig are1 that it can be easily managed1 while under it the boat is much safer than under most other kinds of rig2 for1 should a squall arise1 the yachtsman has only to let fly his foresheet and put his helm alee1 and the boat will right immediately4 ,with this rig1 a boat stands very well to windward1 and may be easily brought about4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,cutter ,,yacht4 ,but the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for sailing is the ,cutter ,yacht1 which stands closer to the wind than any other kind of ,european boat2 and of which we propose1 in the first instance1 to give a general description4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,hull4 ,the first step in the construction of the hull is laying down the keel or backbone of the vessel2 which is done by fixing a strong piece of wood1 generally oak1 upon blocks1 that the rest of the timber may be securely added2 the stem is then joined to the fore-post1 nearly at right angles1 slanting a little forward as it ascends2 and the stern-post to its after or hinder part1 sloping upwards and backwards4 ,the timbers and ribs are next cut out of solid wood1 and placed transversely on the keel1 their width varying according to the lines of a plan previously drawn out1--being1 of course1 farthest apart at the beam2 these1 as well as the planks of larger craft1 are made to bend into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while hot4 ,the skeleton being completed1 her planks are then secured by copper or iron nails to the timbers1 and riveted4 ,the deck is made of narrow planks1 running fore and aft4 ,from the level of the deck1 her sides are raised by upright timbers1 called 8stancheons10 cased over by the bulwarks1 and surmounted by a rail called the 8gunwale40 ,some yachts are only half-decked1 the after-part being left open and fitted with seats2 but1 in order to prevent the water from getting in1 a portion of deck1 called water-ways1 is left at each side2 which opposes a further barrier by its terminating on the inner edge in a high crest or combing4 ,the stepping the mast requires great care1 since the good or bad sailing of the boat depends very greatly upon it4 ,if we divide the length of a good yacht into three parts1 the point at which the foremost part joins the middle part will be the widest part1 and there will be nearly the place for the cutter's mast4 ,but the ,american builders have departed from this rule in the construction of their celebrated yacht1 8,the ,america10 whose model1 after all the study and ingenuity that have been applied to yacht-building1 seems to resemble the simple yet beautiful model which nature has given us in the duck4 ,the bow of this vessel rises very gradually for some distance along the keel1 like the breast of the duck2 and1 further imitating the same model1 her beam or widest part is abaft1 or further back than the centre4 ,this superior vessel will sail nearly four points off the wind1 and will probably work an entire change in the present style of yacht-building4 ,we have now glanced at all the principal parts of the hull1 except that all-important part1 the rudder2 which swings by a hinge from the stern-post1 and is moved by a handle fixed to its upper part1 bearing the name of 8a tiller10 and which is used to steer the boat4 ,before proceeding with our instructions for sailing a yacht1 it will be necessary to describe the action of the rudder2 as the art of steering is the nicest and most important branch of seamanship4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the rudder is a flat board1 with a pole rising up on the side1 which is fastened to the vessel2 on the top of which is fixed the tiller4 ,in large vessels1 there are two ropes fastened to the tiller1 which are carried through blocks on each side of the vessel2 then brought back through blocks fastened on the mizenmast1 and passed round a wheel1 by which means a greater command is obtained over the rudder4 ,when the tiller is moved to the right 7starboard71 the rudder1 of course1 is forced in the water to the left 7port74 ,as the vessel moves on1 the water presses against the rudder on the port side1 and thus forces her stern to the starboard side1 and her bow to the port4 ,when the tiller is moved to the left1 it of course produces a contrary effect4 ,if the ship is moving backwards1 then1 by moving the tiller to the right1 the bow is also turned to the right2 for the water presses against the rudder behind it on the left side1 and thus pushes the stern to the left4 ,in steering1 care must be taken not to steer too much1--that is1 not to move the rudder too violently or more than is necessary1--as this materially stops her way4 ,illustration3 ,,cutter ,,at ,,anchor4 ,we here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor1 with her ropes and spars numbered2 and which ought to be thoroughly known1 as well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing a yacht3-- #a4 ,stem4 #b4 ,stern4 #c4 ,tiller4 #d4 ,anchor4 #e4 ,cable4 #f4 ,bowsprit4 #g4 ,bobstay4 #h4 ,mast4 #i4 ,topmast4 #aj4 ,truck4 #aa4 ,vane and ,spindle4 #ab4 ,cross-trees4 #ac4 ,trussle-trees4 #ad4 ,gaff4 #ae4 ,boom4 #af4 ,topmast-shroud4 #ag4 ,topmast-backstay4 #ah4 ,topmast-stay4 #ai4 ,runner and ,tackle4 #bj4 ,traveller for ,jib4 #ba4 ,forestay4 #bb4 ,topping ,lift4 #bc4 ,lift ,blocks4 #bd4 ,mainsheet4 #be4 ,peak ,halliards4 #bh4 ,foresheet4 #bi4 ,signal ,halliards4 #cj4 ,companion4 #ca4 ,forecastle4 #cb4 ,rudder4 ,,something ,,about ,,the ,,masts1 ,,spars1 ,,ropes1 ,,etc4 ,the ,mast 7#h7 is a spar set nearly upright1 inclining a little aft1 to support yards and sails4 ,in a yacht1 it is kept in its place by two shrouds on each side1 made of strong rope1 and fastened to the sides of the vessel4 ,the ,bowsprit 7#f7 is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht1 secured at its inner end between two strong posts piercing the deck1 called 8the bitts40 ,it is kept in its place by the bobstay 7#g71 which is fastened to the stem1 and by a shroud on each side secured to the bow4 ,the ,boom 7#ae7 is that spar which sets out the mainsail below1 and is attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable1 called the 8goose-neck10 and is eased off or hauled in at the other by the mainsheet 7#bd71 which is a rope passing from the end of the boom through a block on the side of the vessel4 ,the ,gaff 7#ad7 sets out the mainsail above1 and slides up and down the mast by means of a crescent end1 which embraces it4 ,the sides of this curve are called 8horns40 ,the ,topmast 7#i7 stands above the mast1 and is made to slide up and down4 ,on it a topsail 7i4 e4 a gaff-topsail7 is set in light winds2 but both sail and mast are generally lowered in squally weather4 ,it is kept steady by a backstay 7#ag7 on each side of the foretopmast-stay4 ,the latter is brought down to the bowsprit4 ,illustration3 ,,cutter ,,before ,,the ,,wind4 ,ropes4--,there are various ropes to hoist and lower sails1 called haulyards 7pronounced halliards74 ,there are also other ropes of great importance1 especially those called the sheets1 which are to haul in the sails1 and make them stand to the wind4 ,in a yacht1 the mainsail has sometimes a sheet each side2 and sometimes only one sheet reeved through double blocks1 which travel on an iron rod1 called 8a horse10 from side to side4 ,the jib has two sheets1 the starboard and port 7right and left74 ,the foresail has the same1 except in some instances1 when it has but one sheet working on a traveller1 like the mainsail4 ,the topsail has only one1 which is rove through a sheave at the end of the gaff and a block at the throat of the gaff1 and then down to a cleat or fastening place on the deck4 ,signal haulyards are for hauling up the colours1 and pass through a small sheave1 in the truck 7#aj71 at the end of the topmast4 ,the ensign haulyards are reeved through a small block at the peak end1 and lead down to the boom4 ,the other ropes on board a yacht are for the support of the spars1 and are called 8standing rigging10 while those used for the sails are called 8running rigging40 ,illustration3 ,,topmast ,,and ,,foretopmast ,,stay4 ,,sailing ,a ,,yacht4 ,if the reader has paid attention to our instructions1 he ought now to be pretty well conversant with build1 rigging1 spars1 and sails of a yacht2 the next thing1 therefore1 is to explain the actual practical sailing of a yacht4 ,the number of hands must depend on the tonnage of the boat and the number of sails4 ,it is best to have a steersman1 and one hand for each sail4 ,our yacht is now lying at anchor1 or moorings1 which consists of a chain and buoy1 fastened to a heavy anchor sunk in the bed of the river4 ,having got on board1 by means of the little boat called a 8dingy10 we first unloose the fore and mainsail1 and forestaysail2 haul out the jib on the bowsprit1 ready for hoisting2 hoist the colours1 with the name of the yacht or club to which she belongs1 to the gaff-end2 and stand by to hoist the canvass4 ,we will suppose it just past high water1 the yacht swinging ebb1 and the wind up stream2 we shall1 therefore1 have tide with us1 and the wind against us4 ,we now hoist the throat and peak halliards1 till the former is well up block to block2 then1 by hauling at the peak-halliards till the after part of the sail is taut 7tight71 the mainsail is set1 and she swings head to wind4 ,the next thing is to hoist the forestaysail and the jib1 which must be well purchased up1 and the sheet well hauled in1 before we can get her on the wind1 i4 e4 sail close up to the wind4 ,the ropes must now be coiled up1 and hung on the cleat belonging to each4 ,our canvass being now up1 we may cast off1 slack out the mainsail1 haul in jibsheet on the contrary tack to which we intend to sail1 and we are under weigh4 ,we have already told the reader that 8starboard0 means right1 and 8port0 means left4 ,formerly1 the word 8larboard0 was used for left2 but1 owing to the similarity between the two words starboard and larboard1 the word port was substituted for the latter4 ,a boat is said to be on the starboard tack1 when the wind is blowing from the starboard side2 the port side is then called the lee side1 and the starboard the weather side4 ,she is on the port tack when the wind blows from the port side1 which is then called the weather side1 and the starboard the lee side4 ,when in steering she is brought nearer the wind1 she is said to 8luff20 and when further from it1 to 8bear away40 ,when the helm is put so as to cause the boat to luff1 the helm is 8put up20 when it causes the boat to bear away1 it is 8put down10 or a-lee4 ,proceeding to our cruise1 we must haul the jib-sheet well in1 put the helm up1 and sail close to the wind2 as1 the wind being against us1 we shall have to 8beat up10 that is1 sail in a zigzag direction4 ,in sailing close to the wind1 we must always take care not to sail too close1 but always keep the canvass quite full4 ,upon the skill of the steersman1 mainly depend the motions of the boat2 he must endeavour to attain the happy medium of keeping the boat close to the wind1 and yet not allowing the canvass to shake4 ,the practised yachtsman feels with his helm every variation of the wind1 and meets it with a turn to port or starboard2 but the young sailor would do well to watch the colour at the masthead1 and1 by keeping it in a line with the gaff1 he will not steer very wildly4 ,we are now getting near the opposite bank from whence we started1 and must therefore tack4 ,if the boat is quick in stays 7i4 e4 will go round quickly71 and the bottom is not muddy1 and is deep enough for the boat1 we may go pretty close to the bank before we tack2 but if she is a slow tub1 we must begin in good time4 ,first1 we must see that all the canvass is quite full2 then the mainsail must be hauled to the middle of the boat1 or amidships1 and the helm put gradually down4 ,when she is head to wind1 let fly the jibsheet2 if she is on the starboard tack1 haul in the port foresheet taut1 which is called backing the foresail2 the wind1 by blowing on the foresail1 assists the boat round4 ,when she begins to fill on the other tack1 cast off the port 7now the weather7 foresheet1 and haul in the leesheet and also the jibsheet1 and trim the mainsail 7i4 e4 let go1 or haul in1 the mainsheet71 according to the direction of the wind4 ,if when the boat is in stays1 or head to wind1 she moves neither way1 put the helm amidships2 if she moves back1 put the helm the contrary way to what you had it before1 resuming its former position when she moves on again4 ,when the wind gets more on our beam 7i4 e4 blows directly across us71 we may slack out the canvass a little2 the more aft it blows1 so much more we must square our sails4 ,there is a heavy cloud in the wind's eye1 that admonishes us that a squall is brewing1 and the dark ripple of the water to windward tells us that it will soon be here4 ,keep her well full1 that as the squall strikes her she may have good way on2 and luff into the wind as soon as the squall begins3 and if she does not right at once1 let go jib and foresheets2 if that fails1 cast off the mainsheet1 and send a hand to stand by the fore and jib halliards1 which must be let go when the squall becomes violent4 ,we must now reef the mainsail2 to effect this1 allow plenty of room for driving to leeward2 set taut the 8topping-lift10 a rope which hoists up the end of the boom2 lower the halliards2 hook at the end of the boom an earring which is higher up in the sail1 and tie up the reef-points2 then1 having set up our mainsail1 hoisted a smaller jib1 and drawn in the foresheet1 we are under sail again4 ,we must take care always to observe the rules of sailing1 when meeting with another yacht4 ,whichever boat is running free must make way for one close hauled2 for a boat when close hauled cannot conveniently alter her course1 but when she is running free she is always able to move to which side she pleases4 ,as we get into wider water1 we shall find more swell1 that impedes the boat to windward2 but1 if the waves be long enough1 there is a way of easing her over them1 by putting down the helm slightly1 just before the highest of them strikes her bow2 thus1 by stopping the boat's way1 she strikes the sea with less violence4 ,,bringing ,,up4 ,our destination outward bound being in sight1 we must prepare to bring up4 ,the anchor must be got on deck2 the cable passed through the hawsehole1 and shackled or fastened to the anchor1 with its stock made ready and secured2 then suspended over the bowsprit shrouds1 and made ready to let go4 ,lower the head-sails1 put down the helm till she is head to wind1 and when she is fairly stopped we may drop the anchor4 ,,making ,,snug4 ,the mainsail may now be triced up1 with the peak lowered1 and with the helm to one quarter or the other1 according as the tide sets2 we may then hope to lie securely as long as we choose4 ,,going ,,back4 ,in getting under weigh once more1 first haul the cable short2 get all the canvass ready to set up2 weigh anchor1 and1 as the wind is fair1 set the head sails first and the mainsail afterwards2 the peak should not be too high in running1 nor the back of the mainsail fast1 but raised slightly to let the wind into the head sails4 ,the tide is now against us2 we must1 therefore1 keep out of the strength of it as much as possible4 ,,jibing4 ,in rounding the next point we shall jib1 or jibe1 one of the most difficult manuvres in sailing2 for in doing so there is danger of broaching-to1 so as to run on shore2 of being swept overboard by the boom as it passes from side to side2 and of carrying away or snapping the boom itself4 ,to avoid these mischances1 give the shore a wide berth2 take in the mainsheet1 keeping its coils clear for running out2 trice up the tack of the mainsail1 and if the breeze is strong1 lower the peak2 you may then put your helm to the opposite side to which the boom swings1 and1 on the instant the mainsail has traversed to the other side1 change your helm to the reverse and meet her2--this prevents the broaching-to which would otherwise occur4 ,,bringing ,,up ,,at ,,moorings4 ,we are still against the tide1 and our moorings are in sight4 ,to bring her up handsomely calls for more skill than even handling her well4 ,our object now must be to lay her still at the moorings from whence we started1 and at the same time to have enough way to reach them4 ,in our present case it will be best to round her to about an hundred yards short of the moorings1 and1 when head to wind1 lower the mainsail1 leaving the head sails standing--this with putting up the helm will bring her head round again--then take in the jib1 and1 if she has way enough1 the foresail also2 and with the opposing tide we may steer our craft so steadily to the buoy as to take it on board with ease4 ,having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done on board1 we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical terms and maxims1 which may lead to the preservation of life and limb4 ,,of ,,the ,,mariners' ,,compass1 ,,and ,,various ,,nautical ,,terms4 ,illustration ,the ancients1 whose only guides over the trackless waters were the heavenly bodies1 so often obscured by clouds1 could not venture far from shore4 ,it is the compass which has enabled us to steer boldly across the deep4 ,the directive power of the loadstone has been long known to the ,chinese1 and it was brought over to ,europe about the year #abfj4 ,the communication of the magnetic power to steel and suspending it on a pivot1 is undoubtedly an ,european invention4 ,the compass is composed of a magnetic needle suspended freely on a pivot1 and supporting a card marked with the thirty-two points of direction into which the horizon is divided1 and which are thence called the points of the compass4 ,the needle always points nearly north1 and the direction of the boat may be easily seen by looking at the card4 ,the whole apparatus on board a ship is enclosed in a box with a glass cover1 to allow the card to be seen without being disturbed by the wind4 ,this box is also sometimes suspended1 to prevent the needle being affected by the motion of the vessel4 ,the whole is then placed at the binnacle1 in sight of the helmsman4 ,in the inside of that part of the compass-box which is directly in a line with the bow1 is a clear black stroke1 called the lubber line1 which the helmsman uses to keep his course2 that is1 he must always keep the point of the card which indicates her course pointing at the lubber line4 ,every young yachtsman must learn to box the compass2 that is1 to repeat all its points in order4 ,,cautions ,,and ,,directions4 #a4 ,never leave anything in the gangway1 and keep the decks clear4 #b4 ,coil up all ropes2 and have a place for everything1 and everything in its place4 #c4 ,take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you overboard4 #d4 ,stand clear of ropes' ends and blocks flying about1 when you are tacking1 and the sails shaking4 #e4 ,keep a good look out ahead1 and also for squalls1 which may generally be observed to windward4 #f4 ,always obey the orders of the steersman promptly4 #g4 ,keep all your standing rigging taut4 #h4 ,when the boat is on the wind1 sit on the weather side4 #i4 ,should the boat capsize1 keep yourself clear of the rigging1 and swim ashore4 ,the young yachtsman should on no account attempt to take command of a boat till he is thoroughly experienced1 and should never go in one without having at least one experienced hand on board2 he should also always have his eyes open to what is going on1 and be ever ready to lend assistance with the greatest promptitude4 ,quickness and agility are the characteristics of a sailor2 without these1 numerous would be the losses at sea4 ,the casting off or belaying a rope quickly1 is often attended with the most important consequences1 in which the losing or saving of life may be concerned2 and we would therefore advise all who are emulous of being sailors1 to be attentive to their duties1 quick in their evolutions1 and steady in all their doings4 ,,nautical ,,terms4 ,aback1 the situation of the sails when the wind presses their surfaces against the mast4 ,abaft1 towards the stern2 e4g41 abaft the mainmast1 behind the mainmast4 ,about1 on the other tack2 going about1 tacking4 ,abreast1 alongside of4 ,adrift1 broken from moorings4 ,afloat1 on the surface of the water4 ,ahead1 in the direction of the vessel's head4 ,amidships1 in the middle of the vessel4 ,apeak1 when the cable is hove taut1 so as to bring the vessel nearly over the anchor4 ,astern1 in the direction of her stern4 ,avast1 an order to stop4 ,athwart1 across--as 8thwart hawse40 ,backstays1 ropes running from topmast and top-gallantmast to her sides4 ,ballast1 heavy materials placed in the bottom of the boat1 to bring her low in the water4 ,beacon1 a post or buoy placed over a shallow bank1 to warn vessels4 ,bearings1 the widest part of the vessel below the upper deck4 ,the bearings of an object is its direction according to the points of the compass4 ,belay1 to2 to make a rope fast4 ,bend1 to2 is to make a sail fast to the yard1 or a cable to the anchor4 ,berth1 the place where the vessel lies2 a man's sleeping place on board4 ,bulwarks1 the woodworks of a vessel above deck2 also the wooden partition between cabins4 ,bunting1 the woollen stuff of which ships' colours are made4 ,buoy1 a floating cask or piece of wood4 ,cabin1 the after part of the vessel in which the officers live4 ,capstan1 a machine placed perpendicularly on deck1 round which the cable is passed1 in order to hoist the anchor4 ,it is moved round with bars of wood stuck into it1 which are called handspikes or capstanbars4 ,cathead1 large pieces of wood over the bow1 having sheaves within them1 by which the anchor is hoisted or lowered4 ,cleat1 pieces of wood on which ropes are belayed4 ,combings1 raised woodwork round the hatches1 to prevent the water going down to the hold4 ,companion1 ladder leading down to the state cabins4 ,davits1 rods of timber or iron1 with sheaves or blocks at their ends1 projecting over a vessel's side or stern1 to hoist boats up to4 ,draught1 the depth of water which a vessel requires to float her4 ,feather1 to2 to lift the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out of the water4 ,fenders1 pieces of wood or rope hanging over the side of a boat1 to keep it from chafing4 ,fathom1 six feet4 ,flat1 a sheet is said to be hauled flat1 when it is hauled down close4 ,fore and ,aft1 lengthwise with the vessel4 ,forecastle1 the part of the vessel before the foremast4 ,foul ,anchor1 when the cable has a turn round the anchor4 ,gaff1 a spar to which the head of a fore and aft sail is bent4 ,gage1 depth of water in a vessel--this water is called 8bilge water40 ,gangway1 that part of a vessel's side through which people pass in and out of the vessel4 ,gaskets1 pieces of rope or plaited stuff1 used to fasten the sail to the yard when it is furled4 ,give way1 to2 to row more forcibly4 ,grapnel1 a small anchor with several claws1 generally four1 used to secure boats4 ,gunwale1 7pron4 ,gun'el17 the upper rail of a boat or vessel4 ,gybe1 or ,jibe1 to2 to shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,halliards1 ropes used for hoisting or lowering yards and sails4 ,hatchway1 an opening of the deck4 ,hatches1 the coverings of hatchways4 ,hawser1 a large rope4 ,helm1 the steering apparatus4 ,hold water1 to2 to stop the progress of a boat1 by keeping the oars in the water4 ,jib1 a triangular headsail4 ,jib-boom1 a spar rigged out beyond the bowsprit4 ,jurymast1 a temporary mast rigged in the place of a lost one4 ,lee ,board1 a board fitted to the lee side of flat-bottomed boats1 to prevent their drifting to leeward4 ,log1 a journal of the proceedings of a vessel2 also a line with a triangular piece of board1 called the log ship1 which is cast overboard to ascertain the ship's rate of sailing4 ,luff1 to2 to steer the boat nearer the wind4 ,lurch1 the sudden rolling of a vessel to one side4 ,marling-spike1 an iron pin sharpened at one end1 to separate the strands of a rope4 ,martingale1 or ,dolphin-striker1 a short perpendicular spar under the bowsprit's end4 ,miss stays1 to fail going about4 ,oakum1 pieces of yarn picked to pieces1 used for caulking4 ,overhaul1 to2 when a rope is passed through two blocks1 in order to make a tackle1 the rope which is hauled on is called the fall2 if one of the blocks gets loose1 the act of hauling on the rope between the blocks1 in order to separate them1 is called overhauling4 ,painter1 a rope attached to the bow of a boat4 ,pendant1 a long narrow flag at the mast-head4 ,quarter1 that part of the vessel between the stern and the main chains4 ,ratlines 7pron4 ,rat'lin's17 ropes fastened across the shrouds1 like the steps of a ladder4 ,scud1 to2 to drive along before a gale with no sail1 or only enough to keep her ahead of the sea4 ,also1 low thin clouds flying swiftly before the wind4 ,spanker1 or ,driver1 the after sail of a ship or bark4 ,it is fore and aft sail set with a boom and gaff4 ,splice1 to2 to join two ropes together by entwining their strands2 a rope is generally formed of three strands twisted together4 ,spring1 to2 to split a mast4 ,stays1 large ropes leading from the masthead forward4 ,staysail1 a sail hoisted on a stay4 ,steerage1 the part of the between decks just before the after cabin4 ,stretcher1 pieces of wood placed across a boat's bottom for the rowers to put their feet against4 ,surge1 large swelling waves breaking over rocks4 ,taut1 tight4 ,throat1 the inner edge of the gaff which embraces the mast4 ,unbend1 to2 to untie4 ,unmoor1 to2 to heave up one anchor1 or to unfasten the ship from her moorings4 ,vane1 a piece of bunting flying at the masthead to show the direction of the wind4 ,waist1 the part of the upper deck between the quarterdeck and forecastle4 ,wake1 the path that a ship leaves behind her in the water4 ,wear1 to2 to come round on the other side of the wind without backing4 ,illustration3 ,let ,a ,b be the vessel1 ,g the direction of the wind2 ,a ,b is sailing in the direction ,b ,c1 and wants to change her course to ,a ,d2 if she tacks1 she traverses the direction ,c ,h ,d2 if she wears1 she goes off from the wind in the direction ,c ,e ,d4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,skating4 ,skating is one of the finest gymnastic exercises1 by which man1 as ,klopstock says1 8like the ,homeric gods1 strides with winged feet over the sea transmuted into solid ground40 ,it is one of the healthiest exercises1 bringing the body into action by a great variety of motions4 ,the art is mentioned in the ,edda1 written eight hundred years ago1 in which the god ,uller is represented as distinguished by beauty1 arrows1 and skates4 ,illustration3 ,,skating4 ,it is not known at what period skating was introduced into ,england1 but there are indications of it in the thirteenth century1 for ,fitz ,stephen1 in his ,history of ,london1 says1 that it was in that time customary1 when the ice was sufficiently strong1 for the young citizens of ,london to fasten the leg-bones of animals under the soles of the feet by tying them round the ancles1 and then taking a pole shod with iron into their hands1 they pushed themselves forward by striking it against the ice1 and moved with a celerity equal to a bird flying through the air or an arrow from a cross-bow4 ,fitz ,stephen describes another kind of diversion on the ice in these words1 which may be acceptable to the young reader4 ,he says3 8,others make a seat of ice as large as a millstone1 and having placed one of their companions on it1 they draw him along1 when it sometimes happens that moving in slippery places they all fall down together1 which is rare sport1 provided no harm be engendered40 ,ibral mentions1 that in his time it was customary to use sledges1 which being extended from the centre by means of a strong rope1 those who are seated on them are moved round with great rapidity4 ,the use of the modern skate is supposed to have been brought from ,holland1 and for many years skating has been exercised with much elegance in ,england and in ,scotland4 ,somehow or other1 we do not of late years have those severe frosts which enable the skater to practise his art with vigour2 but there is now a skating club in ,london who anticipate trips to ,holland during the winter months1 where the art may be practised in all its perfection4 ,in early days we were 8prodigiously10 as ,dominie ,sampson would say1 fond of the sport4 ,our first attempts were made during the great frost in #ahac-ad1 which lasted eleven weeks1 and during which time there was a fair on the ,thames1 and skating was practised in a most delightful manner4 ,one of the finest and most beautiful skaters of that period was ,robert ,fergusson1 a ,scotchman1 who had been a 8gentleman of means10 in the early part of his life1 but having shot1 horsed1 tandem'd1 dog'd1 and skated away his substance1 was so reduced as to become a teacher of his favourite art1 and near the water works of old ,london ,bridge1 on the west side1 he pitched his tent during the frost1 inviting 8gentlemen10 who could afford a 8crown0 to become his pupils in the art of 8,land flying10 as he termed it4 ,he boasted of having taught the ,prince of ,wales1 and he sported the three ostrich feathers and 8,ich dien0 over his canvas4 ,to him in youthful ardour we repaired1 and the substance of his teachings we subjoin for the special benefit of our young friends4 ,the first maxim of ,fergusson to his pupils was1 8,throw fear to the dogs20 the next1 8,put on your skates securely20 and the third1 8,keep your balance30 and premising this as a 8start10 ,i shall now describe the various kinds of skates1 and the methods of using them4 ,,the ,,skate4 ,there are various kinds of skates4 ,some1 such as the ,dutch skates1 are very large and somewhat cumbersome1 but very safe for those who skate with heavy loads on their shoulders1 as they do in ,holland1 ,denmark1 and ,russia4 ,in these the iron often projects above six inches from the wood1 and curls up towards the shin-bone above a foot1 that the skater may glide the more easily over the hillocks of snow common to large expanses of ice4 ,illustration ,some skates are what are called fluted1 that is1 they have a groove running along the centre of the iron1 which are the best for beginners1 as they take a better hold of the ice4 ,the plain skates have no such groove1 and are better adapted for those who have partially acquired the art1 as with them the utmost velocity and elegance of movement may be performed4#d #d ,fluted skates1 however1 are dangerous for any but those of light weight1 as the cut ice is apt to 8ball0 in the groove1 and so to throw the wearer1 if he leans on one side4 ,the iron of the skate1 which lies under the foot1 is called its blade2 this varies in different kinds of skates1 and the practised professor of skating will choose a high or a low bladed skate1 according to the nature of the ice2 but the beginner should never use a skate whose blade is more than three quarters of an inch in depth and a quarter of an inch in breadth1 for when the blades are deeper than this1 the balance of the body is not so easily preserved1 and the ancles are liable to be sprained or twisted4 ,,putting ,,on ,,the ,,skates4 ,in putting on the skate1 the 8youngster0 should kneel on one knee and fasten the skate on the foot of the other leg4 ,if he should have a high laced boot1 called in the eastern counties a 8high-low10 he will find such an excellent support to the whole machinery4 ,or if he can provide himself with a 8skate boot10 in which the skate and shoe are all of a piece1 he will do better4 ,such skates were invented in the great frost about seven years ago1 but just as they were coming in the frost went out2 but they can still be procured4 ,at all events1 the skater should bear in mind that the skate must be fastened securely and firmly to the foot1 by being well fastened to the heel and sole of the boot by means of the screw and points1 and well1 but not clumsily1 strapped round the ancle1 exactly so tight as to confine the foot without hurting it or impeding the motions of the ancle joints4 ,there is a new skate now in use by the ,london ,skating ,club1 called the elastic skate1 or spring skate1 in which a spring is introduced at the bottom of the foot1 which keeps it fast in every part4 ,skates are also now made of gutta percha1 and these are well worthy the notice of the young skater4 ,,how ,,to ,,start ,,upon ,,the ,,inside ,,edge4 ,illustration ,having risen to the perpendicular1 the learner should first ascertain1 by moving his feet about on the ice1 whether the skates are firmly and comfortably fixed on his feet4 ,he should then walk a little on them1 supporting himself by a light pole about six feet in length1 having an iron spike at its end4 ,having in this manner got a little used to the feel of the skate on his foot1 he should then endeavour to throw away all fear and strike out slowly with the right foot1 leaning on the inside edge of the skate1 and making the pressure greatest at that part of the skate opposite the ball of the great toe1 at the same time bending slightly forward4 ,when the skate has moved about a yard forward in this manner1 the left foot should be brought to the ice in precisely similar manner4 ,the figure represents the skater starting and proceeding on the inside edge4 ,,movement ,,on ,,the ,,outside ,,edge4 ,having practised on the inside edge for some days1 to get used to the skates1 the learner may afterwards attempt the 8outside edge10 which is nothing more than throwing themselves upon the outer edge of the skate1 and making the balance of the body bend to that side which will necessarily enable them to form a semicircle4 ,in this much assistance will be derived by placing a bag of lead shot in the pocket next to the foot employed in making the outside stroke1 which will produce an artificial poise of the body at first very useful4 ,at the commencement of the outside stroke the knee of the employed leg should be a little bent1 and gradually brought to a rectilineal position when the stroke is completed4 ,the best method of getting to the 8outside edge0 is to form the circle inwards--say with the right foot and with considerable force2 in the course of this1 place the left foot down in front of the right1 and lean powerfully on the outside of the left heel4 ,a little practice and confidence in his balance will enable the student to lift his right foot1 and hang it behind while he proceeds to cut outside with his left foot4 ,let him then stop1 and begin the inward circle with the left foot1 and slip down the outer edge of the right heel in the same way4 ,the young skater has now learned to balance himself1 and can venture to strike out at once to the right1 on the heel of the right foot1 keeping the left suspended behind1 with its toe closely pointed to the heel of the right4 ,as he advances1 the left must be brought past the inside of the right with a slight jerk2 this slight jerk produces an opposing balancing motion of the body2 the right foot then quickly poises1 first on the outside of the heel1 and then on the inside of its toe1 and by placing the left foot down before it1 and striking outside to the left1 giving at the same time a slight push with the inside of the right toe1 he passes from right to left4 ,having learned this much1 the skater will proceed to change from left to right1 and then from right to left again1 without any trouble4 ,to skate 8outside edge0 properly1 the toe of the suspended foot must be pointed close to the ice behind the other1 and kept there until the foot be regained1 when it must be brought sharply round to the change4 ,the skater must keep himself erect1 leaning most on the heel4 ,this mode of skating having been acquired1 an endless variety of figures1 devices1 and modes of movement may be practised2 such as 8the roll10 the figure of #c1 of #f1 or of #h1 8the spread-eagle10 8the mercury10 8the backward outside edge10 8the circle10 8the waltz10 8the minuet10 8the pirouette10 8the quadrille10 c4 ,the first step towards figure skating is the ,,forward ,,roll1 which is performed in the manner already prescribed in the directions on the 8outside edge40 ,to perform it gracefully1 the skater should bring his left shoulder forward1 throw his right arm back1 look over that shoulder1 and boldly incline his body to that side1 proceeding alternately1 with ease1 grace1 and deliberation4 ,when he wishes to stop1 he should bring both his feet together1 and stop gradually2 or he may stop suddenly1 by pressing on the heels of his skates1 taking care not to throw his toes up too much1 or he will cut 8all-fours40 ,,the ,,dutch ,,roll is so called from the motion being used in ,holland by the travelling and trading classes in their common avocation4 ,the figures it presents on the ice are small segments of very large circles2 which enables the skater to diverge but very slightly from the right line of his course1 and consequently accelerates his progress4 ,illustration ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,eight4 ,illustration ,this is composed by merely finishing the great circles1 of which the above segments form a part4 ,to produce it1 when the skater comes to the finish of the stroke on the right foot1 he should throw the left quite across it1 which will make him bear hard on the outside of the right skate1 from which he must immediately strike4 ,by completing the circle in this manner on each leg1 the figure subjoined is performed4 ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,three4 ,illustration ,this is performed principally on the inside edge backwards4 ,the head of the #c is formed of half a small circle on the heel of the outside edge2 but when the circle is nearly completed1 the skater leans suddenly forward1 and rests on the same toe inside1 and a backward motion is produced1 which develops the tail of the #c4 ,the right legged figure is that of the #c in its natural position1 and the figure made by the left leg is the same figure reversed2 as per example4 ,in these evolutions1 the motion is not1 strictly speaking1 backwards1 but rather sideways1 as his face and body are always in the direction of his motions4 ,,the ,,back ,,roll4 ,by the 8back roll10 as it is termed1 the skater moves from one foot to the other alternately4 ,his face is turned towards the left shoulder4 ,the inside of the left skate bears on the ice1 and the skater immediately strikes from it to the outside back of the other1 by pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe4 ,the 8back cross roll0 is performed in a similar manner1 the stroke being from the outside1 instead of the inside of the skate4 ,illustration ,the above motions combine the elements of skating1 and having acquired these1 the learner may perform an infinite variety of movements1 such as 8the cornua ammonis10 8the ,dutch maze10 8the fish10 8the kite10 8the true lovers' knot10 c42 with any other devices his imagination may suggest4 ,he may also engage in the quadrille or waltz1 and exhibit his person in every variety of graceful form1 at the same time that he exercises every muscle of the body4 ,,general ,,directions ,,to ,,be ,,followed ,,by ,,persons ,,learning ,,to ,,skate4 #a4 ,let your dress fit closely1 but at the same time be of sufficient ease to ensure freedom of motion4 ,neither skirts to coats nor full trowsers should be worn4 #b4 ,let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate1 and an extra under-garment by the robust4 ,let the chest be well defended against the cold4 ,a piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and shirt is one of the best chest protectors4 #c4 ,be careful in venturing upon the ice1 unless it be sufficiently strong to bear the weight of the number that flock to it2 and watch for the increase of numbers1 that you may retire before danger ensues4 #d4 ,avoid rough and very smooth ice1 and look carefully out for obstructions thereon2 such as small twigs of trees1 stones1 or 8hobbles20 as well as for rotten ice1 cracks where the ice has risen higher on one side than the other1 or holes4 ,should you suddenly come upon rotten ice1 do not stop1 but pass over it as rapidly as possible4 ,should you fall down upon it1 roll lengthwise towards the firmer part1 without attempting to stand or walk upon it4 #e4 ,should the skater fall into a hole1 he should extend his pole or stick across it1 and hold on to it till assistance arrives3 should he have no stick1 he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges of the ice1 till a rope can be thrown to him4 #f4 ,after an unlucky immersion in the water1 the unfortunate skater should immediately take off his skates1 and1 if able1 run home as quickly as he can4 ,he should then pull off all his wet clothes1 take a tablespoonful of brandy in a glass of hot water1 rub himself thoroughly with dry towels1 and go to bed4 ,illustration ,,sliding4 ,what can be jollier or more enjoyable than sliding for an hour upon a crisp wintry morning1 when the snow is lying three inches deep on the ground8 ,you may say what you please about the pleasures of skating1 but if you talk for an hour you'll never convince us that there's more fun in it than in sliding4 ,we confess we gaze with admiration at a man twisting about on the ice like a teetotum on a ricketty tea-tray1 and that when1 like a crab1 he goes backwards or waltzes round on one foot1 while the other is gracefully poised in the air1 we feel a pleasure in looking at him2 but then1 after watching a party of skaters for a short time1 we begin to wonder how it is that they all look so solemn1 as if each man were engaged on such an important task that he could not speak a word to his neighbour1 and then we come to the conclusion that there is more display than real jolly pleasure in skating1 and that the highly-trained skater goes through his evolutions rather in the hope of affording satisfaction to the spectators than of deriving enjoyment himself1 for we defy any jolly-tempered fellow to feel jovial on a winter morning in company without laughing and shouting with glee at any person he comes across4 ,therefore1 when on turning from the mystic movements of a troup of skaters to a party of sliders1 we hear them laugh and shout at each other1 8now1 then1 keep the pot boiling10 and other choice sentences1 and when we see a broad grin of pleasure plainly depicted on their rosy faces1 we cannot but think that the enjoyment of sliding shows itself in a far more demonstrative manner than skating1 and that more pleasure is derived from looking at a crowd of merry urchins going gaily down a slide than in seeing quadrilles danced1 or names cut on the ice1 by a band of skilled ptineurs4 ,we also like sliding on account of its simplicity4 ,all that its devotees require is a good sharp frost4 ,what care they for ice8 ,the hobnails in ,london boys' boots soon produce a shiny slippery surface1 and in a short time a respectable slide is made out of the drippings from a water-can1 which a servant may have filled at the pump the day before4 ,there are1 we are sure1 few ,english lads who do not know how to slide4 ,it seems to come as a matter of course to most boys2 but still1 lest there be some benighted youth to whom the pleasures of the slide are still unknown1 we must insert a few hints on the subject4 ,take a sharp run of about ten yards1 and as soon as you feel that you are upon the slide1 push the sole of the left foot as far along as you can1 making the weight of the body rest almost upon it4 ,you will then slide away1 the right foot following without any effort on your part4 ,we say advisedly do not push your foot until you feel well upon the slide1 for if you are not very careful about this point you will endeavour to slide on that part of the earth which is not slippery1 and although the momentum may impel you as far as the slippery portion1 yet your progress will not be very great1 as the force which was required to carry you along the whole length of the slide is partly wasted by the resistance which1 at the start-off1 the hard earth offers to your foot4 ,then1 we have seen many boys in their first attempts to slide1 place the heel upon the slide before the toe4 ,the consequence is that they either fall over1 or else only slip along a few yards1 for a moment's reflection will show that much greater force can be exerted by pushing the sole along than is exerted when the heel takes its place1 and in the latter case1 instead of the weight of the body assisting one's progress1 it probably causes the youthful tyro to fall backwards upon ,mother ,earth1 and to wonder how it happens that he does not get on so well at first as other boys4 ,and now surmising that the slider is proficient in the first rudiments of the art1 let us enumerate a few of the feats which a slider may perform while on the glassy track4 ,foremost amongst these stands the postman's knock1 in which a boy slides upon one foot only1 while with the other he gives double taps quickly upon the ice1 in imitation of the noise made by the red-coated messenger at our street doors4 ,this1 however1 should not be attempted until the performer is well on the slide1 or the result will probably be that he'll measure his length upon the ground4 ,this is also known as 8knocking at the cobbler's door40 ,then comes the 8carambole10 which consists in the slider sinking down two or three times during his journey1 and rising as he reaches its termination2 unless1 however1 he is very careful the weight of his body will drag him down altogether1 and he will continue his journey on another portion of his frame1 rather than on his feet4 ,but the best accomplishment to be performed on a slide is the game known as 8turnpikes40 ,two stones or bricks are placed on the slide1 with sufficient distance between them for a boy's foot to pass through4 ,the turnpike1 thus roughly made1 is to be kept by one of the party4 ,off start the sliders1 taking care to pass through the pike1 without displacing or even touching its walls4 ,woe betide the unlucky wight whose foot infringes this rule6 ,he is instantly turned off the slide1 and has to wait until some other incautious player commits a like offence1 and is thus compelled to take his place4 ,such are a few of the feats performed by adepts in this graceful art4 ,most lads1 however1 will be able to invent many more for themselves1 and numerous are the sports that can be indulged in4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,swimming ,swimming is the most useful of all athletic accomplishments1 as by it human life is frequently saved which might have been sacrificed4 ,it is also useful in the development of muscular strength1 as well as highly beneficial to the nervous system1 and repairs the vital functions when falling into decline4 ,in places near the sea or rivers1 to know how to swim is an indispensable accomplishment4 ,the ancients1 particularly the ,greeks1 held the art in such high estimation as to bestow rewards upon the most perfect swimmers4 ,from the little familiarity with immersion in water which the inhabitants of our over-grown towns and cities possess1 a very great proportion of the ,english population are but little acquainted with the art of swimming1 and with the mode in which they should conduct themselves when risk of drowning presents itself4 ,the ,english1 above all other persons1 should be good swimmers1 exposed as they are by their insular situation1 and commercial pursuits1 and disposition to visit other lands1 so frequently to perils by sea2 yet1 while most towns on the ,continent abound in baths and swimming-schools1 in ,british towns they are still few in number4 ,most animals have a natural aptitude for swimming1 not found in man2 for they will at once swim when even first thrown into the water2 but it must be noticed that the motions they then employ much more resemble their ordinary movements of progression than those made use of by men under similar circumstances4 ,the children of many uncivilized nations1 especially in warm climates1 frequent the water from an early age1 and seem almost to swim by instinct4 ,the remarkable powers of endurance1 agility1 and strength manifested while in the water by many individuals of savage tribes are well known1--powers which often enable them to come off victorious in struggles with some of the fiercest inhabitants of those rivers and coasts4 ,the art of swimming is by no means difficult of attainment1 and several authors have supplied directions to facilitate its acquisition4 ,above all things1 self-confidence 7not rashness leading into danger7 is required2 and1 when this is possessed1 all difficulty soon ceases4 ,dr4 ,franklin1 himself an expert swimmer1 recommends that at first a familiarity with the buoyant power of water should be gained2 and to acquire this1 he directs the learner1 after advancing into the water breast high1 to turn round1 so as to bring his face to the shore3 he is then to let an egg fall in the water1 which1 being white1 will be seen at the bottom4 ,his object must now be1 by diving down with his eyes open1 to reach and bring up the egg4 ,he will easily perceive that there is no danger in this experiment1 as the water gets shallower1 of course1 towards the shore1 and because whenever he likes1 by depressing his feet1 he can raise his head again above water4 ,the thing that will most strike beginners will be the great difficulty they experience in forcing themselves through the water to reach the egg1 in consequence of the great resistance the water itself offers to their progress3 and this is indeed the practical lesson derivable from the experiment2 for the learner becomes aware of the very great sustaining or supporting power of water1 and hence has confidence4 ,this sustaining power of water is shown under many circumstances3 thus1 a stone which on land requires two men to remove it1 might in water be easily carried by one4 ,a man might walk without harm on broken glass in deep water1 because his weight is supported by the water4 ,this knowledge of fluid support constitutes the groundwork of all efforts in swimming1 or in self-preservation from drowning4 ,should a person accidentally fall into the water1 provided he retained his presence of mind1 a knowledge of the above facts would save him probably from a 8watery grave40 ,the body being but very slightly heavier than the volume of water it displaces1 will1 with a very slight motion of the hands under water1 float4 ,when the chest is thoroughly inflated with air1 it is lighter than water1 and floats naturally1 having half the head above water2 so that the person exposed to danger has only to turn upon his back1 in order that that half1 consisting of his face1 with the mouth and nostrils1 be above the water line4 ,but to float thus upon the water1 the greatest care must be taken not to elevate the arms or other parts above its surface2 and it is in remembering this caution1 that presence of mind in the time of dangers confers so much benefit2 for1 in the moment of terror1 a person thrown into the water almost instinctively stretches out his hands aloft to grasp at some object1 thereby depriving himself of a means of proceeding which would frequently keep him afloat until succour arrived4 ,by elevating any part of the body in this way1 we remove it from the support afforded by the water1 and thus render sinking inevitable4 ,dr4 ,arnot1 in allusion to this subject1 says that many persons are drowned who might be saved1 for the following reasons3-- #a4 ,from their believing that their constant exertions are necessary to preserve the body from sinking1 and their hence assuming the position of a swimmer1 with the face downwards1 in which the whole head must be kept out of the water1 in order to enable them to breathe2 whereas1 when lying on the back1 only the face need be above the water4 #b4 ,from the groundless fear that water entering by the ears may drown as if it entered by the mouth or nose1 and their employing exertions to prevent this4 #c4 ,the keeping of the hands above water1 already alluded to4 #d4 ,neglecting to take the opportunity of the intervals of the waves passing over the head1 to renew the air in their chest by an inspiration4 #e4 ,their not knowing the importance of keeping the chest as full of air as possible1 which has nearly the same effect as tying a bladder full of air around the neck would have4 ,but although floating in water is sufficient to preserve from immediate danger1 this will not alone enable us to swim4 ,to swim1 does not mean simply to float1 but to progress2 and progression by this means depends1 like the flight of birds1 upon the law in ,mechanics of every action being followed by a corresponding reaction1 but in an opposite direction2 and thus1 as the reaction of the air compressed by the downward action of the bird's wing1 causes it to mount aloft in proportion to the force it communicates by that motion2 so the backward stroke communicated by the simultaneous movement of the hands and feet of the swimmer1 causes his forward progress in the water4 ,when once familiarised with the support derived from the water itself1 he soon learns to make the stroke correctly1 especially if aided and supported by some more experienced friend1--a far better assistant than corks and bladders4 ,,places ,,and ,,times ,,for ,,bathing ,,and ,,swimming4 ,it is presumed that most young lads who go to bathe will take the opportunity of learning to swim4 ,in crowded cities there are but few places in which the youngster can learn the art2 but in the country there are many rivers1 ponds1 canals1 or lakes1 where both bathing and swimming may be indulged in without annoyance4 ,the best kind of place for bathing is on a shelving gravelly shore1 on which the water gradually deepens1 and where no awkward sweep of current may take the bather off his legs4 ,the spot should also be free from holes1 weeds1 and hard stones2 and a muddy bottom is to be avoided by all means4 ,should the banks of such a spot be shaded by a few trees1 and should there be close by an open space for a run on the grass after the bathe1 so much the better2 and the young learner will then have the chief inducement to venture the sudden dip or head-long plunge4 ,the best time of the day for bathing or swimming is either before breakfast1 between the hours of six and eight in the summer-time1 or between eleven and twelve o'clock in the forenoon4 ,delicate persons should not bathe early in the morning2 and it would be always well to munch a biscuit before early bathing at all times4 ,no one should ever think of entering the water on a full stomach1 or immediately after dinner1 and never when over-heated and exhausted by fatigue4 ,he should also avoid entering it when cold1 or with a headache4 ,before bathing1 it is best to take a moderate walk of about a mile1 and1 while the system is in a glow1 to undress quickly and plunge in4 ,it is bad to walk till you get hot1 then to sit down and cool1 and afterwards to enter the water2 many have lost their lives by this4 ,it is also very wrong to enter the water during rain1 as the clothes are often wetted or damp1 which gives the bather cold4 ,,entering ,,the ,,water4 ,having stripped the body1 the bather should select the best place on the bank for going down to the stream2 and then1 proceeding cautiously but quickly1 wade up to his breasts1 turn his head to the shore1 and dip4 ,he then technically1 as the boys say1 gets his pinch over4 ,should he not be man enough to proceed in this way1 he should1 as soon as he gets his feet wet1 splash some water over his head1 and go into the water more gradually1 and try the rapid rush and dip when he gets bolder4 ,he must not attempt to swim or strike out till he can master the feat of going into the water up to his arm-pits1 and till he feels himself confident and void of timidity4 ,,aids ,,to ,,swimming4 ,many aids have been used for the benefit of young swimmers3 corks and bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones2 but they offer dangerous temptations for bathers to go out of their depth1 and then should cramp1 cold1 or any other accident occur1 the event may be fatal4 ,besides1 these aids often slip about from one place to the other4 ,we remember1 in our younger days1 of the 8corks0 slipping to the hips1 and of seeing a young friend1 now an old man1 suspended in the water with his head downwards2 while collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is by no means uncommon4 ,the best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious friend1 himself a good swimmer1 who will hold up his head1 when he strikes off1 by the 8tip of the finger to the tip of the chin10 and who at the same time will show him how to strike off1 and how to manage his hands and feet4 ,it is not a bad plan to put out a spar from a boat1 to which a rope is attached1 which the young learner may make use of by affixing it to a belt round his body under his arms1 which will afford him support while he learns to strike his legs in the water4 ,the rope may also be held in the hand of a friend1 by the side of the boat1 and the learner may strike off hands and feet as the boat proceeds4 ,the plank is a dangerous aid1 from its tendency to slip about1 and to take the swimmer out of his depth2 and1 although it has many advantages1 is very unsafe4 ,the safest plan of all is1 as we have before stated1 for the learner to advance gradually up to his arm-pits in the water1 and then1 turning about1 to strike slowly out towards the shore1 taking care to keep his legs well up from the bottom4 ,rigid perseverance in this course will in a very short time enable the youngster to feel himself afloat1 and moving at 8all fours10--a delight equal to that experienced by the child who first feels that he can walk from chair to chair4 ,,striking ,,off ,,and ,,swimming4 ,illustration ,in striking off1 the learner1 having turned himself to the shore1 as before recommended1 should fall towards the water gently1 keeping his head and neck perfectly upright1 his breast advancing forward1 his chest inflated2 then1 withdrawing the legs from the bottom1 and stretching them out1 strike the arms forward in unison with the legs4 ,the back can scarcely be too much hollowed1 or the head too much thrown back1 as those who do otherwise will swim with their feet too near the surface1 instead of allowing them to be about a foot-and-half deep in the water4 ,the hands should be placed just in front of the breast1 the fingers pointing forward and kept close together1 with the thumbs to the edge of the fore-fingers3 the hands must be made rather concave on the inside1 though not so much as to diminish the size4 ,in the stroke of the hands1 they should be carried forward to the utmost extent1 taking care that they do not touch the surface of the water2 they should next be swept to the side1 at a distance from1 but as low as1 the hips2 and should then be drawn up again1 by bringing the arms towards the side1 bending the elbows upwards and the wrists downwards1 so as to let the hands hang down while the arms are raising them to the first attitude4 ,,how ,,to ,,manage ,,the ,,legs4 ,the legs1 which should be moved alternately with the hands1 must be drawn up with the knees inwards1 and the soles of the feet inclined outwards2 and they should then be thrown backwards1 as widely apart from each other as possible4 ,these motions of the hands and legs may be practised out of the water2 and whilst exercising the legs1 which can only be done one at a time1 the learner may rest one hand on the back of a chair to steady himself1 while he moves the opposite leg4 ,when in the water1 the learner must take care to draw in his breath at the instant that his hands1 descending to his hips1 cause his head to rise above the surface of the water2 and he should exhale his breath at the moment his body is propelled forward through the action of the legs4 ,if he does not attend precisely to these rules1 he must invariably have a downward motion1 and1 as the boys say1 swim furthest where it is deepest4 ,,plunging ,,and ,,diving4 ,illustration ,there are two kinds of plunging2 that belonging to shallow1 and that belonging to deep water4 ,in shallow-water plunging1 the learner should fling himself as far forward as possible into the stream at a very oblique angle2 and when he touches the water1 he should raise his head1 keep his back hollow1 and stretch his hands forward4 ,in the deep-water plunge1 his body is to descend at a greater angle2 his arms are to be stretched out1 his hands closed and pointed1 and his body bent1 so that his nose almost touches his toes4 ,illustration ,diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swimming4 ,there are many kinds2 the two most common and easiest and necessary modes of going below the surface1 are-- #a4 ,the feet-foremost jump4 #b4 ,the head-foremost jump4 ,in the first1 the legs1 arms1 and head are to be kept perfectly rigid and stiff4 ,the pupil must not allow fear1 or the strange sensation felt in the bowels in leaping from considerable heights1 to induce him to spread the arms or legs1 or to bend his body4 ,in the second mode1 or head-foremost plunge1--which is the safest mode for persons who are heavily built about the chest and shoulders1 if they have to enter the water from heights1--the head is drawn down upon the chest1 the arms stretched forward1 and hands closed to a point2 and as soon as the swimmer feels that he has left the bank1 his knees1 which till then were bent1 are to be stiffened4 ,the diver must avoid striking on the belly--the general consequence of fear2 and turning over so as to come down on his back or side--the consequence of pushing with the feet4 ,when he has gone as deep as he wishes1 the arms are to be raised and pressed downwards4 ,,swimming ,,under ,,water4 ,when under the water1 the swimmer may either move in the usual way1 or keep his hands stretched before him1 which will enable him to cut the water more easily1 and greatly relieve his chest4 ,if he observes that he approaches too near the surface of the water1 he must press the palms of his hands upwards4 ,if he wishes to dive to the bottom1 he must turn the palms of his hands upwards1 striking with them repeatedly and rapidly whilst the feet are reposing2 and when he has obtained a perpendicular position1 he should stretch out his hands like feelers1 and make the usual movement with his feet1 then he will descend with great rapidity to the bottom4 ,it is well to accustom the eyes to open themselves under the water1 at least in those beds of water that admit the light1 as it will enable the swimmer to ascertain the depth of water he is in4 ,,swimming ,,on ,,the ,,side4 ,in this1 the body is turned either on the left or right side1 while the feet perform their usual motions4 ,the arm from under the shoulder stretches itself out quickly1 at the same time that the feet are striking4 ,the other arm strikes at the same time with the impelling of the feet4 ,the hand of the latter arm begins its stroke on a level with the head4 ,while the hand is again brought forward in a flat position1 and the feet are contracted1 the stretched-out hand is1 while working1 drawn back towards the breast1 but not so much impelling as sustaining4 ,as swimming on the side presents to the water a smaller surface than on the waist1 when rapidity is required1 the former is often preferable to the latter4 ,,swimming ,,on ,,the ,,back ,,without ,,employing ,,the ,,feet4 ,illustration ,this is twofold3 #a4 ,in the direction of the feet4 ,the body is placed in a horizontal position1 the feet are stretched out stiffly1 and the heels and toes are kept in contact2 then the body is to be somewhat curved at the seat1 the hands are to be stretched flatly forward over the body1 and1 slowly striking in small circles1 the loins are somewhat drawn up at each stroke4 #b4 ,in the direction of the head4 ,the body is placed horizontally1 but somewhat curved in the seat1 the head in its natural position1 the arms are kept close to the body1 with the elbows inclined inwards1 and the hands describe small circles from the back to the front1 at about a foot-and-half from the hips4 ,these modes serve to exercise and strengthen the arms in an extraordinary degree without in the least fatiguing the breast4 ,,floating4 ,the body is laid horizontally on the back1 the head is bent backwards as much as possible1 the arms are stretched out over the head in the direction of the body1 the feet are left to their natural position2 if they sink1 the loins must be kept as low as possible4 ,in this position1 the person1 who is specifically lighter than water1 remains1 and may float at pleasure4 ,the lungs should be kept inflated1 that the breast may be distended and the circumference of the body augmented4 ,in order not to sink while in the act of taking breath1 which the greater specific weight of the body would effect1 the breath must be quickly expelled1 and as quickly drawn in again1 and then retained as long as possible2 for1 as the back is in a flat position1 the sinking1 on account of the resistance of the water1 does not take place so rapidly but the quick respiration will restore the equilibrium before the water reaches the nose4 ,,treading ,,water4 ,this is a perpendicular position of the swimmer1 and is of great use to enable him to save a person from drowning4 ,it is in general thought to be extremely difficult1 but it is very easy4 ,there are two ways of performing the action3 in the first the hands are compressed against the hips1 and the feet describe their usual circle2 the other mode consists in not contracting both legs at the same time1 but one after the other1 so that while the one remains contracted the other describes a circle4 ,in this mode1 however1 the legs must not be stretched out1 but the thighs are placed in a distended position1 and curved as if in a half-sitting posture4 ,,the ,,fling4 ,illustration ,the swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist1 draws his feet as close as possible under the body1 stretches his hands forwards1 and1 with both feet and hands beating the water violently at the same time1 raises himself out of the water4 ,in this manner one may succeed in throwing oneself out of the water as high as the hips4 ,this exercise is very useful1 for saving oneself by catching a rope or any other object that hangs from above the surface of the water1 or from any perpendicular height4 ,,swimming ,,on ,,the ,,back4 ,illustration ,in this the swimmer turns upon his back in the water by the combined motion of the arm and leg1 and extending his body1 his head being in a line with it1 so that the back and upper part of the head may be immersed1 while the face and breast are out of the water4 ,the hands should be placed on the thighs straight down1 and the legs moved as in forward swimming1 taking care that the knees do not rise above the surface in striking them out4 ,sometimes the hands are used after the motion of a wing or fan1 by which a slight progression is also made at the same time that the surface of the body is well lifted out of the water4 ,,thrusting4 ,in the thrust the swimmer lies horizontally upon his waist1 and makes the common motions in swimming4 ,he then simply stretches one arm forwards1 as in swimming on the side1 but remains lying upon the waist1 and1 in a widely described circle1 he carries the other hand1 which is working under the breast1 towards the hip4 ,as soon as the arm has completed this motion1 it is lifted from the water in a stretched position1 and thrown forward in the greatest horizontal level1 and is then sunk with the hand flat into the water2 while the swimmer thus stretches forth the arm1 he1 with the other hand stretched as wide as possible1 describes a small circle in order to sustain the body2 after this he brings his hand in a largely described circle rapidly to the hip1 lifts the arm out of the water1 and thrusts it forward4 ,during the describing of the larger circle the feet make their movements4 ,to make the thrust beautifully1 a considerable degree of practice is required4 ,this mode of swimming is useful where a great degree of rapidity is required for a short distance4 ,,the ,,double ,,thrust4 ,in the performance of this the arm is thrust forwards1 backwards1 and again forwards without dipping into the water2 in the meantime the stretched-forth arm describes two circles before it begins the larger one4 ,,to ,,swim ,,like ,a ,,dog4 ,illustration ,in this motion each hand and foot is used alternately as a dog uses them when swimming1 as the term implies4 ,the hands are alternately drawn towards the chin in a compressed form1 and then expanded and slightly hollowed1 with fingers close1 and as they strike the water the feet are likewise drawn towards the belly1 and struck backwards with a kind of kick4 ,this mode of swimming is of use to relieve the swimmer from time to time when going a distance4 ,,the ,,mill4 ,the swimmer lays himself on his back and contracts himself so that the knees are brought almost to the chin1 and while one of the hands keeps the equilibrium by describing circles1 the other continues working4 ,thus the body is kept turning round more or less rapidly4 ,,the ,,wheel ,,backwards ,,and ,,forwards4 ,in the forward wheel the hands are put as far backwards as possible1 and so pressed against the water that the head is impelled under the surface1 and the feet1 by a pressure of the hands in a contrary direction1 are rapidly flung above the head1 which in this manner is rapidly brought again to the surface4 ,in the backward wheel the swimmer lies upon his back1 he contracts himself1 the hands1 stretched forward as far as possible1 describe rapidly small circles1 the feet rise1 and as the point of equilibrium has been brought as near as possible to the feet1 the head sinks and the feet are thrown over4 ,,to ,,swim ,,with ,,one ,,hand4 ,the learner to do this swims on one side1 keeps his feet somewhat deeply sunk1 while the arm which in the meantime ought to work is kept quiet--and might even be taken out of the water4 ,it is a good practice of strength to carry1 first under and then over the water1 a weight of four or eight pounds4 ,,hand ,,over ,,hand ,,swimming4 ,illustration ,in this process1 the right hand is lifted out of the water from behind1 swung forwards through the air with a kind of circular sweep to the extent of its reach forward1 then dropped into the water edgeways1 and immediately turned1 with the palm a little hollowed1 downwards1 the body being at the same time thrown a little on one side1 and the right leg struck out backwards to its full extent4 ,the hand descends towards the thigh1 and then passes upwards through the water in a kind of curve towards the surface4 ,the left hand and leg perform a similar movement alternately with the right1 and the measure of progression attained by these combined similar movements is very considerable4 ,,balancing4 ,illustration ,when the swimmer has obtained ease and confidence in the water1 he will find many things easy which before he deemed impossible4 ,balancing is one of these4 ,to perform it he has only1 when out of his depth1 to fall gently back with his chin elevated to a line passing exactly through the centre of his body from the chin to the toes1 then1 folding his arms and remaining perfectly motionless1 he may suspend himself perpendicularly3 but if he should extend his arms backwards1 and pass them gradually beyond his head1 his toes1 tips of his knees1 abdomen1 and part of his chest1 with the whole of his face will appear1 and he will be balanced and float horizontally without the slightest motion4 ,illustration ,,the ,,cramp4 ,the cramp generally proceeds from acidity of the bowels1 arising from a bad state of the stomach1 or from the effects of the cold water on the muscular system4 ,some persons are very subject to it on slight occasions1 and such persons will do well never to go out of their depth4 ,but should a tolerable swimmer be seized with the cramp1 he should not be frightened1 but the moment the cramp is felt in the foot or leg1 strike out that foot or leg with the heel elongated1 and the toes drawn upwards towards the shin-bone1 never minding any little pain it may occasion1 as he need not fear breaking a bone1 muscle1 or tendon4 ,should this not succeed1 he should throw himself on his back1 and float quietly1 and paddle himself gently to the shore4 ,he may also swim with his hands like a dog1 and practise any of the motions of the upper part of the body for keeping his head above water till assistance arrives4 ,,saving ,,from ,,danger4 ,above all things the good swimmer should be anxious to save life1 and to rescue those who are in danger1 without himself becoming the victim1 as it often happens4 ,the following rules are highly important to be observed4 ,the swimmer must avoid approaching the drowning person in front1 in order that he may not be grasped by him2 for whatever a drowning person seizes1 he holds with convulsive force1 and it is no easy matter to get disentangled from his grasp2 therefore he should seize him from behind1 and let go of him immediately if the other turns towards him4 ,his best way is to impel him before him to the shore1 or to draw him behind2 if the space to be passed be too great1 he should seize him by the foot and drag him1 turning him on his back4 ,if the drowning person should seize him1 there is no alternative for the swimmer than to drop him at once to the bottom of the water1 and there to wrestle with his antagonist2 the drowning man1 by a kind of instinct to regain the surface1 when drawn down to the bottom1 usually quits his prey1 particularly if the diver attacks him there with all his power4 ,for two swimmers the labour is easier1 because they can mutually relieve each other4 ,if the drowning person has still some presence of mind remaining1 they will then seize him one under one arm1 and the other under the other1 and without any great effort in treading water1 bring him along with his head above water1 while they enjoin him to keep himself stretched out and as much as possible without motion4 ,,sports ,,and ,,feats ,,in ,,swimming4 #a4 ,the ,float4--,in this sport one swimmer lays himself horizontally on the back1 with the feet stretched out1 the hands pressed close to the body1 and the head raised forward4 ,the other swimmer takes hold of him by the extremity of the feet1 and1 swimming with one hand1 impels him forward4 ,the first remains motionless4 #b4 ,the ,plank4--,one swimmer lays himself horizontally as before1 another lays hold of him with both his hands1 immediately above the ancle1 and pulls him obliquely into the water1 while he extends himself and impels himself forward2 thus both the swimmers drop rapidly the one over the other4 #c4 ,the ,pickaback ,spring4--,one swimmer treads the water1 the other swims near him behind1 places his hands upon the shoulders of the first1 and presses him down4 ,he then leaves his hold1 and puts his feet upon his shoulders1 and1 flinging himself out of the water1 pushes the first towards the bottom4 ,now he treads water1 and the first performs the part of the second1 and so on4 #d4 ,the ,shove4--,two swimmers place themselves horizontally on their backs1 the legs are strongly extended1 and the soles of the feet bear against each other2 each impels forward with all his power1 and he who succeeds in pushing back the other is the conqueror4 #e4 ,the ,wrestle4--,two swimmers place themselves opposite to each other1 tread water and hold their right hands in the air2 the question is1 who shall first force his opponent under the water by pressure4 ,only the head of the adversary is to be touched1 and that only by pressure4 ,,bernardi',s ,,system ,,of ,,upright ,,swimming4 ,this system has been introduced into many of the naval and military colleges on the ,continent1 and has for its distinguishing characteristic the swimming in an upright position4 ,the first object is to teach the pupil how to float in an upright posture4 ,he is taught the use of his legs and arms for balancing the body in water1 and then to imitate as much as possible the movement of the limbs upon land4 ,he then pays great attention to the movements of the head1 the smallest inclination of which on either side instantly operates on the whole body4 ,he next learns the method of using his arms and legs2 and for this purpose is directed to stretch his arms laterally on each side1 and then1 by placing one foot forward and the other backward1 he is enabled to float easily and progress slowly4 ,the same circular sweep of the hands and the action of the legs are next practised1 and the feet should be struck downwards and a little forwards1 when the movement of the arms is the reverse of the old methods of swimming4 ,the young swimmer who has gone through the various courses laid down by us1 will easily comprehend the principle of ,bernardi's system1 and as easily carry it out if he will take the trouble4 ,it is much less fatiguing than the old plan1 and can be carried on for a longer period1 and is of invaluable service to troops who may have to cross rivers or dykes1 and to all who may be exposed to the various accidents of flood and field4 ,,the ,,prussian ,,system ,,of ,,pfuel4 ,the best of all methods for teaching swimming is that originally introduced by ,general ,pfuel into the ,prussian swimming-schools4 ,by this method a person may be made a very good swimmer in a very short time4 ,the apparatus for teaching consists of a hempen girdle five inches in width1 of a rope from five to six fathoms in length1 of a pole eight feet long1 and a horizontal rail fixed about three-and-a-half feet above the platform1 on which the teacher stands1 to rest the pole on4 ,the depth of the water in the place chosen for swimming should1 if possible1 be not less than eight feet1 and the clearest and calmest water should be selected4 ,the pupil wears drawers1 fastened by a band above the hips and covering about half the thighs4 ,he is now placed near the horizontal rail1 his hands resting upon it1 while the teacher shows him the motion which he will have to make with his legs in the water4 ,this he does by guiding the motion of one leg while the pupil rests1 on the other4 ,this motion we shall explain presently4 ,the swimming girdle1 about five inches wide1 is now placed round the pupil's breast1 so that its upper edge rests on the chest1 without getting tight4 ,the teacher takes the rope1 which is fastened to the ring of the girdle1 in his hand1 and directs the pupil to leap into the water1 keeping the legs straight and close together1 and the arms close to the body1 and1 what is very important1 to breathe out through the nose as soon as his head rises above the water1 instead of breathing in first1 as every man naturally does after a suspension of breath4 ,the object of this is to prevent the water from getting into the throat1 which produces an unpleasant feeling of choking and headache4 ,this expiration soon becomes perfectly natural to the swimmers4 ,the pupil is next invited to leap4 ,he is drawn up immediately by the rope1 pulled to the ladder1 and allowed to gain confidence gradually4 ,the rope is now fastened by a noose to the end of the pole1 the other end of it being kept in the hand of the teacher2 the pole is rested on the horizontal rail1 and the pupil stretches himself horizontally on the water1 where he remains1 supported by the pole4 ,next the arms are extended stiffly forward1 the hands clasped1 the chin touches the water2 the legs are also stiffly stretched out1 the heels being together1 the feet turned out1 and the toes drawn up4 ,this horizontal position is important1 and must be executed correctly4 ,no limb is permitted to be relaxed4 ,the movement of the limbs is now taught2 that of the legs is taught first4 ,the teacher first says1 loudly and slowly1 8,one20 when the legs are slowly drawn under the body2 at the same time the knees are separated to the greatest possible distance1 the spine is bent downwards1 and the toe kept outwards4 ,the teacher then says briskly1 8,two20 upon which the legs are stiffly stretched out with a moderate degree of quickness1 while the heels are separated1 and the legs describe the widest possible angle1 the toes being contracted and kept outwards4 ,the teacher then says quickly1 8,three20 upon which the legs1 with the knees held stiffly1 are quickly brought together1 and thus the original position is again obtained4 ,the point at which the motions 8two0 and 8three0 join are the most important1 because it is the object to receive as large and compact a wedge of water between the legs as possible2 so that when the legs are brought together their action upon this wedge may urge the body forward4 ,in ordinary cases of swimming1 the hands are not used to propel1 but merely to assist in keeping on the surface4 ,by degrees1 therefore1 8two0 and 8three0 are counted in quick succession1 and the pupil is taught to extend the legs as widely as possible4 ,after some time1 what was done under the heads 8two0 and 8three0 is done when 8two0 is called out4 ,when the teacher sees that the pupil is able to propel himself with ease1 which he frequently acquires the power of doing in the first lesson1 and that he performs the motions already mentioned with regularity1 he teaches the motions of the hands1 which must not be allowed to sink1 as they are much disposed to do while the motion of the legs is practised4 ,the motion of the hands consists of two parts4 ,when the teacher says 8,one10 the hands1 which were held with the palms together1 are opened1 laid horizontally an inch or two under water1 and the arms are extended till they form an angle of #ij2 then the elbow is bent1 and the hands are brought up to the chin1 having described an arch downward and upward2 the lower part of the thumb touches the chin1 the palms being together4 ,when the teacher says 8,two10 the arms are quickly stretched forward1 and thus the original horizontal position is regained4 ,the legs remain stiffly extended during the motion of the hands4 ,if the motion of the hands is carefully and correctly performed1 the legs and arms are moved together2 so that while the teacher says 8,one10 the pupil performs the first motion of the hands and legs2 when he says 8,two10 the second and third motions of the feet1 and the second of the hands4 ,as soon as the teacher perceives that the pupil begins to support himself1 he slackens the rope a little1 and instantly straightens it if the pupil is about to sink4 ,when the pupil can swim about ten strokes in succession1 he is released from the pole1 but not from the rope4 ,when he can swim about fifty strokes1 he is released from the rope too2 but the teacher remains near him with a long pole until he can swim #aej strokes in succession1 so that1 should he sink1 the pole is immediately held out to him4 ,after this he may swim in the area of the school1 under the superintendence of the teacher1 until he proves that he can swim half-an-hour in succession1 so that1 should he sink1 the pole is immediately held out to him2 he is then considered fit to be left to himself4 ,such are the outlines of the ,german plan of swimming2 and1 much as we dislike the ,german educational quackery1 we are still obliged to confess that schools for swimming might be1 and ought to be1 established in this country in unison with the above system4 ,no well-conducted boarding-school ought to be without a swimming-school2 and the hints above given will be exceedingly useful to the swimmer who has to teach himself1 as well as to the gymnastic tutor who has to teach others the art2 and we conclude by earnestly recommending the accomplishment of swimming to our young readers4 ,illustration ,,training4 ,it is impossible that any one can indulge to any extent either in pedestrianism or rowing without going into some sort of training1 however slight it may be4 ,before either can be thoroughly enjoyed1 it is essential that the body should be brought into condition1 and the constitution prepared for the severe tests to which it is sure to be put4 ,until this has been satisfactorily accomplished 7and it cannot be done without much perseverance and self-denial7 success at regattas or in athletic sports is quite out of the question1 and the most serious results will attend any attempt to take part in such proceedings4 ,courage and determination to win a race1 whether on land or water1 are qualities very much to be admired1 yet they are entirely after considerations2 the first and chief endeavour must be to reduce the superfluous fat without weakening the system1 to secure soundness in wind and limb--in short1 thoroughly to prepare the body1 so that it may be equal to the emergencies that may hereafter present themselves4 ,training should not1 however1 be begun hastily4 ,before it is commenced1 care should be taken to get the stomach into condition for the dieting it will have to undergo4 ,these preliminary proceedings will be more or less prolonged1 according to the habits of life of the patient4 ,if a boy has been given to drinking large quantities of beer1 eating indigestible things1 or smoking1 he does not commence under such favourable circumstances as those who have not so indulged themselves4 ,probably he has injured his digestion and interfered1 however slightly1 with his liver2 a state of things that he can readily appreciate by the restlessness of his night's rest1 and a furred tongue1 and unpleasant taste in his mouth in the morning4 ,the first thing he must do is gradually to lessen his quantity of beer daily1 till he can leave it off altogether if necessary1 to eschew the pastry-cook's and fruiterer's1 and consign his pipe to the dust-hole4 ,when once he has made up his mind to go in for a system of training1 he should commence by taking a mild aperient dose1 such as some salts and senna1 or a rhubarb pill1 the latter followed in the morning1 if necessary1 by a black dose4 ,he must avoid going to the extreme1 and purging himself too violently--the medicine is solely intended to clear the stomach preparatory to its new treatment--and having gone thus far he may1 without any fear1 put himself upon the diet which shall presently be set out4 ,he who has been wise enough to satisfy himself with very little beer1 and still less of raspberry puff or unripe greengages1 and has refrained altogether from tobacco1 which to young people is simply poison1 may1 unless of weak or sickly constitution1 begin to train without any preliminary preparations4 ,if his heart and soul are really in the contest for which he desires to get himself into condition1 and he possesses a small amount of strength of mind1 he will soon become accustomed to the daily routine of food and exercise4 ,it is no use beginning1 and then yielding to the temptation for this or that nice thing2 when once the ordeal has been commenced1 it must be carried out strictly and accurately1 or it may as well be abandoned altogether4 ,for the desired state of body can only be arrived at by one means1 namely1 a large amount of self-denial and close adherence to the prescribed diet4 ,there is of course some slight difference in the systems of training to be pursued for rowing and pedestrianism2 at the same time1 in the chief and important points precisely the same course has to be taken4 ,if a boy has a walking or running race in view1 he must remember this1 that he has to suit his daily exercise according to the distance of the competition in which he is going to take part4 ,for short races he need do little more than keep his digestion and wind in good order1 taking care to have say a couple of hours' good exercise in the course of the day4 ,we would here venture to correct a grave mistake made very often by young runners1 who think that by continual practising and 8spurting0 they learn to improve their pace4 ,they can adopt no better means for defeating their own end than this1 as it will tend far more to diminish their pace than to improve it4 ,on the other hand1 if they have a long course of several miles to get over1 speed is not so much a matter of importance as endurance1 and this latter quality can only be obtained by accustoming the body to long and severe exercise4 ,for young persons1 however1 it is extremely injudicious to attempt too great distances1 and we would advise that two miles1 and no more1 be made the outside limit4 ,longer spins than this are seldom1 if ever1 tried in ordinary amateur races4 ,accordingly as the match that is to be contested is in running or walking1 so must the day's exercise be regulated4 ,avoid1 if for the former1 taking too much running practice1 and that never for a greater distance than that of the race in which you are to take part4 ,good sharp1 brisk walking is more serviceable than anything else in getting the body into order4 ,and now1 presuming that a boy is in sound health1 with good lungs and no unpleasant thumpings about his heart1 let us see how he should regulate his training4 ,six o'clock to get out of bed and commence the day4 ,no one who intends to train himself really seriously will wish to lie longer4 ,then a cold tub with a big sponge and lots of water1 followed by a severe rubbing with a rough ,turkish towel1 that leaves you all a-glow4 ,dress as quickly as you can1 and go out for half an hour's walk1 or run1 as you feel inclined4 ,be sure1 however1 not to fatigue yourself1 and see that you come in to breakfast1 say at half-past seven1 with a good appetite4 ,those who can eat porridge will find it a capital thing to commence breakfast with1 followed by the lean portion of a broiled chop or steak1 with bread at least two days old4 ,tea we believe to be undesirable1 and a pint of really sound bitter beer will be found to agree much better4 ,there is no need to bind yourself down to a stipulated quantity of food2 eat what you feel to require1 and no more4 ,after breakfast get as much rest as you can1 say for a couple of hours2 then take yourself off for a couple of hours' walking or running1 getting back to dinner by about two o'clock4 ,the programme for this meal is simple enough3 a joint of roast meat1 either mutton or beef1 a potato1 and sometimes a little cauliflower1 or brocoli1 just to make a change1 bread as before1 and another pint of bitter beer4 ,the liquids are the things in which the strictest care must be taken1 and the daily quantity regulated4 ,poultry is sometimes introduced1 but we hardly think it good--in fact1 as far as you can1 stick to the good plain joint1 or chop1 or steak1 with bread and beer1 and you will be astonished how you will find your condition improved4 ,after dinner rest again for two or three hours1 and then about six o'clock take yourself off for another hour's exercise1 on your return from which you will no doubt be fully prepared with an appetite for supper4 ,this meal should always be a light one1 as it is bad at all times1 and especially in training1 to go to bed on a full stomach4 ,unless you feel you absolutely require it1 do not take any meat2 otherwise1 a chop is the least objectionable1 and a half-pint of beer4 ,never1 under any circumstances1 exceed three pints of beer a day4 ,butter1 spices1 peppers1 and sauces should on no account be taken1 and1 as we said before1 so we again repeat1 smoking must be abjured4 ,if the directions given are followed out1 defeat will not be occasioned through any error in the system of preparation4 ,illustration ,,part ,,iii4 ,scientific ,pursuits3 ,,including ,,acoustics4 ,,aeronautics4 ,,chemistry4 ,,electricity4 ,,galvanism4 ,,heat4 ,,hydraulics4 ,,magnetism4 ,,mechanics4 ,,microscope4 ,,optics ,,and ,,optical ,,illusions4 ,,photography4 ,,pneumatics4 ,,spectrum4 ,,acoustics4 ,acoustics is the science relating to sound and hearing4 ,sound is heard when any shock or impulse is given to the air1 or to any other body which is in contact directly or indirectly with the ear4 ,,difference ,,between ,,sound ,,and ,,noise4 ,noises are made by the cracks of whips1 the beating of hammers1 the creak of a file or saw1 or the hubbub of a multitude4 ,but when a bell is struck1 the bow of a violin drawn across the strings1 or the wetted finger turned round a musical glass1 we have what are properly called sounds4 ,,sounds1 ,,how ,,propagated4 ,sounds are propagated on all bodies much after the manner that waves are in water1 with a velocity of #a1adb feet in a second4 ,sounds in liquids and in solids are more rapid than in air4 ,two stones rubbed together may be heard in water at half a mile2 solid bodies convey sounds to great distances1 and pipes may be made to convey the voice over every part of the house4 ,,to ,,show ,,how ,,sound ,,travels ,,through ,a ,,solid4 ,take a long piece of wood1 such as the handle of a hair broom1 and placing a watch at one end1 apply your ear to the other1 and the tickings will be distinctly heard4 ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,sound ,,depends ,,on ,,vibration4 ,touch a bell when it is sounding1 and the noise ceases2 the same may be done to a musical string with the same results4 ,hold a musical pitch-fork to the lips1 when it is made to sound1 and a quivering motion will be felt from its vibrations4 ,these experiments show that sound is produced by the quick motions and vibrations of different bodies4 ,,musical ,,figures ,,resulting ,,from ,,sound4 ,cover the mouth of a wine glass1 having a foot-stalk1 with a thin sheet of membrane1 over which scatter a layer of fine sand4 ,the vibrations excited in the air by the sound of a musical instrument1 held within a few inches of the membrane1 will cause the sand on its surface to form regular lines and figures with astonishing celerity1 which vary with the sound produced4 ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,olian ,,harp4 ,this instrument consists of a long narrow box of very thin deal1 about six inches deep1 with a circle in the middle of the upper side of an inch and a half in diameter1 in which are to be drilled small holes4 ,on this side seven1 ten1 or more strings of very fine catgut are stretched over bridges at each end like the bridges of a fiddle1 and screwed up or relaxed with screw pins4 ,the strings must all be tuned to one and the same note1#e and the instrument should be placed in a window partly open1 in which the width is exactly equal to the length of the harp1 with the sash just raised to give the air admission4 ,when the air blows upon these strings with different degrees of force1 it will excite different tones of sound4 ,sometimes the blast brings out all the tones in full concert1 and sometimes it sinks them to the softest murmurs4 #e ,d is a good note for it4 ,the upper string may be tuned to the upper ,d1 and the two lower to the lower ,d and ,d ,d4 ,the 8harmonics0 are the sounds produced4 ,a colossal imitation of the instrument just described was invented at ,milan in #aghf1 by the ,abbate ,gattoni4 ,he stretched seven strong iron wires1 tuned to the notes of the gamut1 from the top of a tower sixty feet high1 to the house of a ,signor ,moscate1 who was interested in the success of the experiment2 and this apparatus1 called the 8giant's harp10 in blowing weather yielded lengthened peals of harmonious music4 ,in a storm this music was heard at a greater distance4 ,,the ,,invisible ,,girl4 ,illustration ,the facility with which the voice circulates through tubes was known to the ancients1 and no doubt has afforded the priests of all religions means of deception to the ignorant and credulous4 ,but of late days the light of science dispels all such wicked deceptions4 ,a very clever machine was produced at ,paris several years ago1 and afterwards exhibited in ,london under the name of the 8,invisible ,girl10 since the apparatus was so constructed that the voice of a female at a distance was heard as if it originated from a hollow globe1 not more than a foot in diameter4 ,it consisted of a wooden frame something like a tent bedstead1 formed by four pillars a a a a1 connected by upper cross rails b b1 and similar rails below1 while it terminated above in four bent wires c c1 proceeding at right angles of the frame1 and meeting in a central point4 ,the hollow copper ball d1 with four trumpets t t1 crossing from it at right angles1 hung in the centre of the frame1 being connected with the wires alone by four narrow ribbons r r4 ,the questions were proposed close to the open mouth of one of these trumpets1 and the reply was returned from the same orifice4 ,the means used in the deception were as follow3 a pipe or tube was attached to one of the hollow pillars1 and carried into another apartment1 in which a female was placed2 and this tube having been carried up the leg or pillar of the instrument to the cross-rails1 had an aperture exactly opposite two of the trumpet mouths2 so that what was spoken was immediately answered through a very simple mode of communication4 ,,ventriloquism4 ,this is an art by no means very difficult of acquirement1 if the young reader will take the pains4 ,it is produced by a reflection of sound within the mouth1 the voice being brought to the lowest possible place in the larynx4 ,when the art is acquired by practice1 the voice may be made to appear as if coming from any part of a room1 from up a chimney1 or from the depths of a cellar4 ,the celebrated ,dr4 ,wolcott1 better known as ,peter ,pindar1 used to amuse his friends in a remarkable manner with this art4 ,he would represent his landlady as demanding payment of her rent1 and hold a colloquy with her1 which would at last rise to terms of reproach and fury1 and end by a noise as if the landlady had been kicked down stairs4 ,the marvellous powers of ,matthews1 ,le ,lagg1 ,alexander1 and1 lastly1 ,mr4 ,love1 are familiar to most persons4 ,to learn the art1 the young practitioner must have the power of enunciating well1 and that without motion of the lips1--of disguising the voice1 so as to imitate other sounds1--and of adapting the degree to the apparent source of the sound4 ,by practice this art is attainable by any person whose organs of speech are completely and fully developed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,aeronautics4 ,,balloons4 ,the art of sailing or navigating a body through the air is called aronautics4 ,in remote ages1 ,icarus is said to have risen so high in the air that the sun melted his wings1 and he fell into the gean sea1 and was drowned2 and there is reason to believe1 from some figures that have recently been discovered on ,egyptian and ,assyrian monuments1 that the ancients possessed means of rising in the air with which we are not now acquainted4 ,the air-balloon1 as now constructed1 is a bag of silk of large dimensions1 usually cut in gores1 and is1 when expanded by gas1 of a pear-shape4 ,it ascends in the atmosphere because its whole bulk is much lighter than the air would be in the space it occupies4 ,it is1 in fact1 a vessel filled with a fluid which will float on another fluid lighter than itself4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,air-,,balloon4 ,the best shape for an air-balloon1 or rather a gas-balloon1 is that of a pegtop4 ,and in preparing the gores proceed as follows3 ,get some close texture silk1 and cut it into a form resembling a narrow pear with a very thin stalk4 ,fourteen of these pieces will be found to be the best number2 and1 of course1 the breadths of each piece must be measured accordingly4 ,when sewing them together1 it will be of advantage to coat the parts that overlap with a layer of varnish1 as this will save much trouble afterwards1 and hold the silk firmer in its place during the stitching4 ,the threads must be placed very regularly1 or the balloon will be drawn out of shape1 and it will be found useful if the gores are covered with an interior coating of varnish before they are finally sewn together4 ,take care not to have the varnish too thick4 ,to the upper part of the balloon there should be a valve opening inwards1 to which a string should be fastened1 passing through a hole made in a small piece of wood fixed in the lower part of the balloon1 so that the aeronaut may open the valve when he wishes to descend2 and this should be imitated on a small scale1 so that the young aronaut may be perfectly familiar with the construction of a balloon4 ,the gores are to be covered with a varnish of ,india-rubber dissolved in a mixture of turpentine and naphtha4 ,over the whole of the upper part should be a net-work1 which should come down to the middle with various cords1 proceeding from it to the circumference of a circle about two feet below the balloon4 ,the circle may be made of wood1 or of several pieces of slender cane bound together4 ,the meshes should be small at top1 against which part of the balloon the inflammable air exerts the greatest force1 and increase in size as they recede from the top4 ,illustration ,the car is made of wicker-work2 it is usually covered with leather1 and is well varnished or painted4 ,it is suspended by ropes proceeding from the net which goes over the balloon4 ,balloons of this kind cannot be made smaller than six feet in diameter1 of oiled silk1 as the weight of the material is too great for the air to buoy it up4 ,they may be made smaller of thin slips of bladder1 or other membrane glued together1 or of thin gutta-percha cloth1 which is now extensively used for this purpose2 with this they may be made a foot in diameter1 and will rise beautifully4 ,,how ,,to ,,fill ,a ,,balloon4 ,procure a large stone bottle which will hold a gallon of water1 into this put a pound of iron filings1 or granulated zinc1 with two quarts of water1 and add to this by degrees one pint of sulphuric acid4 ,then take a tube1 either of glass or metal1 and introduce one end of it through a cork1 which place in the bottle1 then put the other end into the neck of the balloon1 and the gas will rise into the body of it4 ,when quite full withdraw the tube1 and tie the neck of the balloon with strong cord very tightly4 ,if freed it will now rise in the air4 ,,to ,,make ,,fire-,,balloons4 ,illustration ,cut the gores1 according to the forms already given1 from well-woven tissue paper1 paste the gores nicely together1 and look well over the surface of the paper for any small hole or slit1 over which paste a piece of paper1 and let it dry4 ,pass a wire round the neck of the balloon1 and have two cross pieces at its diameter a little bent1 so that a piece of soft cotton dipped in spirits of wine may be laid on them4 ,when all is prepared let some one hold the balloon from its top by means of a stick1 while you dip the cotton in spirits of wine till it is thoroughly saturated1 place it under the balloon and set fire to it1 but be very careful you do not set fire to the balloon4 ,when the air is sufficiently heated within1 the balloon will indicate a desire to rise1 and when it pulls very hard1 let it go1 and it will ascend to a great height in the air1 and at night present a very beautiful appearance4 ,,parachutes4 ,illustration ,these are easily made by cutting a piece of paper in a circular form1 and placing threads round the edges1 which may be made to converge to a point1 at which a cork may be placed as a balance4 ,they ascend by the air getting under them1 and are frequently blown to a great distance4 ,illustration3 ,,scientific ,,pursuits4 ,illustration ,,chemistry4 ,in the eleventh century1 and during the reign of ,king ,henry the ,first1 surnamed ,beauclerk1 or the fine scholar1 there appeared for the first time in certain books1 professing to teach the art making of gold1 the words chemistry1 chemist1 derived from the ,greek 4 ,seven hundred years and more have passed away1 and that which was only the pursuit of a shadow called alchemy1 has resulted in the acquisition of a great and noble science1 now and again called chemistry4 ,when we go to the ,french ,exposition1 we shall doubtless pass by much that is worthy of notice1 and bring away with us only a general impression of the wonders it contains4 ,so it is with the great edifice ,chemistry2 we may1 in these brief pages1 peep in at the open door1 but should we desire to go beyond the threshold1 there are numerous guides1 such as ,roscoe1 ,wilson1 and ,fownes1 who will conduct us through the mazes of the interior1 and explain in elementary language the beautiful processes which have become so useful to mankind4 ,chemistry is one of the most comprehensive of all the sciences1 and at the same time one which comes home to us in the most ordinary of our daily avocations4 ,most of the arts of life are indebted to it for their very existence1 and nearly all have been1 from time to time1 improved by the application of its principles4 ,chemistry is1 in fact1 the science which treats of the composition of all material bodies1 and of the means of forming them into new combinations1 and reducing them to their ultimate elements1 as they are termed1 that is1 bodies which we are unable to split up1 as it were1 or separate into other bodies4 ,to take a common substance as an illustration2 water1 by a great number of processes1 can be separated into two other substances1 called oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportion by weight of #h parts of the first to #a of the second2 but no power that we at present possess can separate the oxygen and hydrogen into any other bodies2 they are therefore called ultimate elements1 or undecomposable bodies4 ,again1 sulphate of magnesia 7common ,epsom salts7 can be very easily separated into two other substances1--sulphuric acid and magnesia2 and in this instance1 both these substances can again be sub-divided--the acid into sulphur and oxygen1 and the magnesia into a metallic body called magnesium and oxygen2 but sulphur1 oxygen1 and magnesium are incapable of further division1 and are therefore called ultimate elements4 ,these ultimate elements amount to #fd in number1 according to the present state of our knowledge1 and may be arranged in various ways2 the simplest plan1 perhaps1 is dividing them into ,non-metallic and ,metallic elements4 ,the ,non-metallic elements are3--#a4 ,oxygen4 #b4 ,hydrogen4 #c4 ,nitrogen4 #d4 ,chlorine4 #e4 ,iodine4 #f4 ,bromine4 #g4 ,fluorine4 #h4 ,carbon4 #i4 ,sulphur4 #aj4 ,selenium4 #aa4 ,tellurium4 #ab4 ,silicon4 #ac4 ,boron4 #ad4 ,phosphorus4 ,the last-named element is the connecting link with the metals through arsenic1 which phosphorus closely resembles in its chemical properties4 ,the ,metallic elements may be sub-divided into the metals of the alkalies1 the metals of the alkaline earths1 the metals of the earths1 and the other metals sometimes called metals proper4 #ast4 ,the metallic bases of the alkalies3--potassium1 sodium1 lithium1 ammonium1 csium1 rubidium4 #b;d4 ,the metallic bases of the alkaline earths3--calcium1 strontium1 barium4 #c;d4 ,the metallic bases of the earths3--aluminium1 glucinum1 zirconium1 thorium1 yttrium1 erbium1 cerium1 lanthanum1 didymium4 #dth4 ,the metals proper1 the most important of which are3--platinum1 gold1 silver1 mercury1 copper1 iron1 tin1 lead1 nickel1 zinc1 bismuth1 antimony1 manganese1 cobalt1 arsenic4 ,now1 from these elementary bodies1 united together in various proportions1 is formed the infinite variety of substances around us1 whether animal1 vegetable1 or mineral2 in fact1 a few only are generally employed2--in the case of animals and vegetables1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 nitrogen1 with occasionally some sulphur1 calcium1 phosphorus1 and silicon1 suffice for building up the beautiful forms of animated nature2 while the fabric of our globe itself consists for the most part of the earths2 silex1 i4 e4 flint or crystal2 lime1 in the shape of chalk1 marble1 or limestone1 such as our flagstones are composed of2 slate and granite1 which are compounds of aluminium1 silica1 and small quantities of oxide of iron1 and sometimes a little potash1 c42 and through their masses are projected irregular streams--veins as they are termed--of the metals1 either in a pure state1 as is the case sometimes with gold1 silver1 platinum1 mercury1 and perhaps one or two others2 or combined with one of the non-metallic elements1 or with one another4 ,late calculations have determined the composition of the earth's solid crust in #ajj parts by weight to be ,oxygen #ddj to #dhg ,silicon #bbh #cfb ,aluminium #ii #fa ,iron #ii #bd ,calcium #ff #ji ,magnesium #bg #ja ,sodium #bd #be ,potassium #ag #ca ----- ----- #ajj #ajj ,all these combinations are effected by certain powers1 termed forces2 those which cause the union of the elements are called the forces of attraction2 those causing their separation1 the forces of repulsion4 ,the force of attraction when exerted between masses of matter1 is termed gravitation2 when it unites particles of matter of a similar kind and produces masses1 it is called the attraction of cohesion2 when the particles united are of a dissimilar character1 it is then termed chemical or elective affinity4 ,for example1 the crystals of ,epsom salts are formed from minute particles of the salt1 united into a larger or smaller mass by the attraction of cohesion1 while the elements of which each particle consists1 namely1 the sulphur1 oxygen1 and magnesium1 are united by the attraction of chemical affinity4 ,cohesion thus unites particles of a similar kind2 chemical affinity1 of a dissimilar nature4 ,it is to cohesion that the existence of masses of matter is owing1 and its power increases as the squares of the distances diminish1 in an inverse ratio to the squares of the distances of the particles on which it acts4 ,the power exerted by cohesion may be exhibited in various ways4 ,this is one3 ,procure two discs of glass about three inches in diameter1 their surfaces being ground extremely smooth2 fix each into a square piece of wood1 taking care that they are placed accurately in the centre2 then put them together1 by sliding their edges very carefully over each other1 so as to avoid any air getting between them1 and you will find a great force necessary to separate them4 ,a hook should be fixed into the centre of each piece of wood1 so that they may be suspended1 and a weight hung to the lower one4 ,it is almost impossible for any one to separate them by merely pulling them with both hands2 a weight of many pounds is required for that purpose4 ,in like manner two freshly-cut surfaces of caoutchouc will1 on being squeezed together1 cohere so perfectly1 that it is difficult to tear them asunder1 and it is in this way that tubes of caoutchouc may be rapidly prepared for experiments1 where little or no pressure is exerted4 ,chemical affinity is sometimes called elective1 or the effect of choice1 as if one substance exerted a kind of preference for another1 and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which it was previously combined2 thus1 if you pour some vinegar1 which is a weak acetic acid1 upon some pearlash 7a combination of potash and carbonic acid71 or some carbonate of soda 7a combination of the same acid with soda71 a violent effervescence will take place1 occasioned by the escape of the carbonic acid1 displaced in consequence of the potash or soda preferring the acetic acid1 and forming a compound called an acetate4 ,then1 if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound1 the acetic acid will in its turn be displaced by the greater attachment of either of the bases1 as they are termed1 for the sulphuric acid4 ,again1 if into a solution of blue vitriol 7a combination of sulphuric acid with oxide of copper7 the bright blade of a knife be introduced1 the knife will speedily be covered with a coat of copper1 deposited in consequence of the acid preferring the iron1 of which the knife is made1 a quantity of it being dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of copper deposited4 ,illustration ,it is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation1 called a silver-tree1 or a lead-tree1 may be formed thus3--,fill a wide bottle1 capable of holding from half a pint to a pint1 with a tolerably strong solution of nitrate of silver 7lunar caustic71 or acetate of lead1 in pure distilled water2 then attach a small piece of zinc by a string to the cork or stopper of the bottle1 so that the zinc shall hang about the middle of the bottle1 and set it by where it may be quite undisturbed2 in a short time1 brilliant plates of silver or lead1 as the case may be1 will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc1 assuming more or less of the crystalline form4 ,this at first is a case of elective affinity2 the acid with which the silver or lead was united prefers the zinc to either of those metals and in consequence discards them in order to attach the zinc to itself1 subsequently a voltaic current is set up between the two metals1 and the process will continue until almost the whole of the zinc is taken up1 or nearly the whole of the silver or lead deposited4 ,again1 many animal and vegetable substances consist for the most part of carbon or charcoal1 united with oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion which forms water4 ,now oil of vitriol 7strong sulphuric acid7 has so powerful an affinity1 or so great a thirst for water1 that it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists2 if you then pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar1 or place a chip of wood in it1 the sugar or wood will speedily become quite black1 or be charred1 as it is called1 in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being removed by the sulphuric acid1 and only the carbon1 or charcoal1 left4 ,when ,cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar1 she was exhibiting unwittingly an instance of chemical elective affinity2 the pearl being simply carbonate of lime1 which was decomposed by the greater affinity or fondness of lime for its new acquaintance 7the acetic acid of the vinegar7 than for the carbonic acid1 with which it had been united all its life1--an example of inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct of its owner1 who chose death rather than become the mistress of her lover's conqueror4 ,,gases4 ,the three permanent gaseous elements are oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen4 ,the compound gases are very numerous1 some being combustible1 and others supporters of combustion4 ,gases are for the most part transparent and colourless1 with a few exceptions1 and of course1 like the air of the atmosphere1 invisible4 ,they are little affected by the attraction of cohesion1 but rather1 on the contrary1 the particles composing them have a constant tendency to separate from each other1 so that their force of expansion is only limited by the pressure under which they may be kept1 and the temperature they may be exposed to4 ,they have a tendency to penetrate each other1 as it were2 for instance1 if you take a jar of heavy gas1 such as carbonic gas1 set it with its mouth upwards1 then invert over it another jar containing hydrogen1 a gas nearly twenty-two times lighter2 in a very short time the two gases will have become thoroughly mixed1 the heavy carbonic acid having risen1 and the light hydrogen fallen1 until the gases are thoroughly mixed1 each jar containing an equal quantity of each gas4 ,,oxygen ,,gas4 ,this gas1 so named from two ,greek words signifying the maker of acid1 was discovered by ,dr4 ,priestly in #aggd4 ,he obtained it by heating the red oxide of mercury in a glass retort1 when the gas escaped in considerable quantities4 ,in the ensuing year ,scheele obtained it by a variety of methods1 and a few years afterwards ,lavoisier discovered that it was contained in atmospheric air1 where it exists in the proportion of about one-fifth1 the remaining four-fifths being almost entirely nitrogen4 ,oxygen gas may be obtained for the purpose of experiment1 by heating to redness the black oxide of manganese in an iron bottle1 to the mouth of which a flexible tube is attached to convey away the gas as fast as it is liberated from the manganese4 ,the first portions should be allowed to escape1 being mixed with the air in the tubes and bottle1 and the remainder may be collected in a gasometer1 or in glass jars inverted over water4 ,another method to obtain the gas1 and one to be used only in the absence of other ingredients1 is to mix in a retort some of this same oxide of manganese with about half its weight of strong sulphuric acid1 and apply heat to the retort1 when the gas will come over in considerable quantities2 the first portions must be allowed to escape as before4#f ,if the gas is required very pure1 a small quantity of the salt called chlorate of potassa may be heated in a retort1 and oxygen gas will be evolved1 and may be collected as before4 ,if you have an iron bottle1 the first mode is by far the cheapest1 as the heat of a bright fire is sufficient for the operation1 and a large quantity of gas is obtained in a short time from a very inexpensive material4 ,the most rapid and convenient process of all is to heat a mixture of two parts chlorate of potash1 and one of powdered black oxide of manganese1 in a common clean oil flask1 to which a cork and bent tube has been adapted4 ,care must be taken not to mistake sulphide of antimony for black oxide of manganese1 as very serious accidents have arisen from this cause4 #f ,some boiling water should be added to the mass left in the retort directly the gas has ceased to come away1 or it will adhere to the glass so firmly1 that the retort will certainly be spoilt4 ,oxygen is largely distributed over our globe1 both in its uncombined state1 and in union with other substances4 ,besides forming one-fifth of the atmosphere1 it forms eight-ninths by weight of all the water in the ocean1 rivers1 and springs on the face of the whole earth4 ,it also1 in combination with various metals1 forms the various earths and minerals of which the crust of the earth consists1 so that it is the most abundant and widely distributed substance in nature1 and in combination with other elements1 forms nearly half the weight of the solid earth4 ,in its uncombined state it is a colourless gas1 somewhat heavier than atmospheric air1 without taste or smell4 ,it is a powerful supporter of combustion1 and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life1 which cannot exist for any time without a free supply of this gas1 which is constantly consumed in the act of breathing1 and is replaced by an equivalent portion of carbonic acid gas4 ,the want of oxygen is partly the cause of the oppression felt in crowded rooms1 where the air cannot be renewed so fast as is required for the number of persons who are constantly consuming the oxygen2 and if an animal be confined under a glass jar inverted over water1 it will presently die1 just for the same reason that burning tapers are extinguished under similar circumstances4 ,if a jet of this gas be thrown upon a piece of charcoal1 sulphur1 or almost any combustible body in a state of ignition1 it will make it burn with great vividness and rapidity4 ,for a complete series of experiments with oxygen see 8,the ,boy's ,play-book of ,science40 ,,experiment4 ,but by far the most intense heat1 and most brilliant light1 may be produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen4 ,the phosphorus may be placed in a small copper cup1 with a long handle of thick wire passing through a hole in a cork that fits the jar4 ,the phosphorus must first be ignited2 and1 as soon as it is introduced into the oxygen1 it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can bear it1 and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely luminous atmosphere4 ,it is well to dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part of common air to moderate the intense heat which is nearly certain to break the jar if pure oxygen is used4 ,illustration ,,experiment4 ,if a piece of charcoal1 which is pure carbon or nearly so1 be ignited1 and introduced into a jar containing oxygen or common atmospheric air1 the product will be carbonic gas only1 of which we shall speak presently4 ,as most combustible bodies contain both carbon and hydrogen1 the result of their combination is carbonic acid and water4 ,this is the case with the gas used for illumination2 and in order to prevent the water so produced from spoiling goods in shops1 various plans have been devised for carrying off the water when in the state of steam4 ,this is generally accomplished by suspending over the burners glass bells1 communicating with tubes opening into the chimney1 or passing outside the house4 ,to show that oxygen1 or some equivalent1 is necessary for the support of combustion1 fix two or three pieces of wax-taper on flat pieces of cork1 and set them floating on water in a soup-plate1 light them1 and invert over them a glass jar2 as they burn1 the heat produced may perhaps at first expand the air so as to force a small quantity out of the jar1 but the water will soon rise in the jar1 and continue to do so until the tapers expire1 when you will find that a considerable portion of the air has disappeared1 and what remains will no longer support flame2 that is1 the oxygen has been converted partly into water1 and partly into carbonic acid gas1 by uniting with the carbon and hydrogen1 of which the taper consists1 and the remaining air is principally nitrogen1 with some carbonic acid2 the presence of the latter may be proved by decanting some of the remaining air into a bottle1 and then shaking some lime-water with it1 which will absorb the carbonic acid and form chalk1 rendering the water quite turbid4 ,,nitrogen4 ,this gas is1 as its name implies1 the producer of nitre1 or at least forms a portion of the nitric acid contained in nitre4 ,it is rather lighter than atmospheric air1 colourless1 transparent1 incapable of supporting animal life1 on which account it is sometimes called azote--an objectionable name1 as it is not a poison like many other gases1 but destroys life only in the absence of oxygen4 ,this gas extinguishes all burning bodies plunged into it1 and does not itself burn4 ,it exists largely in nature1 for four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen gas4 ,it is also an important constituent of animal bodies1 and is found in the vegetable world4 ,nitrogen may be most easily obtained for experiment by setting fire to some phosphorus contained in a porcelain or metallic cup1 placed under a gas jar full of air1 and resting on the shelf of the pneumatic trough1 or in a soup-plate filled with water4 ,nitrogen combines in five different proportions with oxygen1 producing five distinct chemical compounds1 named respectively nitrous oxide1 nitric oxide1 nitric tri-oxide1 nitric tetr-oxide1 nitric pent-oxide1 which last1 united with water1 forms nitric acid1 now called hydric nitrate1 as nitrous acid is termed hydric nitrite4 ,illustration ,nitrous oxide gas is generally known by the name of 8laughing gas10 from the jolly sensations experienced on inhaling it4 ,it may be procured by distilling in a glass retort a salt called nitrate of ammonia1 which yields the gas in considerable quantities1 and it should be kept standing in jars over water for some hours before it is used4 ,it should be transferred into a silk air-tight bag1 furnished with a stopcock and mouthpiece1 from which the gas may be breathed2 a little practice is required to do this easily1 and more resolution to desist when the gas begins to produce its effects1 as it appears to fascinate the experimenter1 and actual force is often necessary to remove the bag from the mouth4 ,the effects produced vary according to the temperament of the person inhaling it2 they are1 however1 always of a highly pleasurable nature1 muscular action being generally greatly exalted1 compelling the individual to race round the apartment and execute leaps and pirouettes perfectly astounding4 ,some persons shout and sing1 and ,i have seen one expend his superfluous animation in twisting his features into such ludicrous grimaces as would be the envy of the candidates at a grinning match1 and beat them all out of the field4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy was the discoverer of this gas1 and of its peculiar effects on the nervous system1 and a full account of it may be found in his 8,researches on ,nitrous ,oxide ,gas40 ,this gas is heavier than air1 and supports combustion nearly as energetically as oxygen1 as may be shown by introducing a piece of ignited phosphorus into a jar of this gas4 ,it will not1 however1 support the life of small animals1 such as mice1 which introduced into it die very quickly4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,pneumatic ,,trough4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,pneumatic ,,trough4 ,the next compound of nitrogen with oxygen1 when one proportion of nitrogen unites with two of oxygen1 is termed nitric oxide gas4 ,it may be easily procured by heating in a retort some copper turnings in dilute nitric acid4 ,it is colourless and transparent1 and has the property of combining with oxygen to form other compounds4 ,,experiment4 ,into a jar of this gas standing over water pass some oxygen gas4 ,the jar will be filled with red fumes1 which will be rapidly absorbed by the water4 ,if atmospheric air be used instead of oxygen1 there will remain in the jar the nitrogen of the air1 amounting to four-fifths of the air employed4 ,this gas is destructive to animal life1 in consequence of its property of uniting with the oxygen in the lungs1 and producing the highly corrosive nitrous acid gas4 ,it will1 however1 support the combustion of a few substances1 phosphorus for instance1 provided it is sufficiently heated before being plunged into the gas4 ,we pass over the third and fourth compounds of nitrogen with oxygen1 as they are not calculated for amusing experiments4 ,nitric acid is easily prepared on the small scale1 by gradually heating equal parts by weight of nitric and sulphuric acid in a retort to which a receiver has been adapted4 ,the receiver1 which may be a clean oil flask1 should be kept cool with wetted blotting paper4 ,nitrogen combines with chlorine and iodine1 forming detonating compounds1 the former being so extremely dangerous that it will be better to pass it by4 ,the compound with iodine1 called iodide of nitrogen1 may very easily be made by pouring strong solution of ammonia 7a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen7 upon some iodine in a phial1 shaking them well together1 and after letting them stand for a few hours1 pouring off the fluid2 the black powder remaining in the phial is the explosive compound1 the iodide of nitrogen4 ,when dry1 it is very apt to detonate spontaneously2 it should therefore be shaken out of the phial while wet1 and spread in very small quantities on separate pieces of blotting paper1 which should be kept apart from each other4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the slightest touch with the point of a feather1 shaking the paper on which it rests1 or even opening too rapidly the door of a closet where it has been put to dry1 will cause it to explode1 producing a quantity of violet-coloured fumes4 ,the explosion is somewhat violent1 producing a sharp cracking noise2 and the greatest care should be taken in experimenting with it4 ,,atmospheric ,,air4 ,as has been already mentioned1 nitrogen is the principal constituent of the air of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe1 extending to a height of about forty-five miles above it1 and playing a most important part in the economy of nature1 inorganic as well as organic4 ,this atmospheric air consists by volume of nearly four-fifths of nitrogen1 and rather more than one-fifth of oxygen1 viz4 seventy-nine of the former to twenty-one of the latter1 or twenty-three parts by weight of oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen2 it generally contains also a variable proportion of the vapour of water1 and a very small quantity of carbonic acid gas1 being only about four volumes to #aj1jjj of air4 ,its constituent parts are easily separated1 as it is a mechanical mixture and not a chemical compound1 though the mixture by diffusion is so complete that chemists have not been able to ascertain any difference in the composition of air taken from all parts of the world1 and from different heights1 up to the highest point which has to this time been attained4 ,the atmosphere presses on the surface of the globe1 and every being on it1 with a force of about fifteen pounds to every square inch of surface1 but as it presses equally in all directions1 upwards as well as downwards1 its weight cannot be perceived unless the pressure be removed from one surface by some artificial means4 ,atmospheric air contains1 besides the oxygen and nitrogen1 its principal constituents1 a small proportion of carbonic acid gas1 as has been mentioned1 and this may be shown by filling a tube about half full of lime-water1 and shaking it with the air contained in the other half1 when it will become slightly turbid from the insoluble carbonate of lime formed4 ,when we consider that every living animal is constantly consuming oxygen1 and replacing it by carbonic acid gas1 and that all burning bodies1 fires in our dwellings1 furnaces1 artificial lights of all kinds1 act in the same way in abstracting the oxygen from the air1 and replacing it by immense quantities of carbonic acid gas1 which is a poison to all animals who breathe1 or attempt to breathe it1 we must wonder what becomes of this irrespirable gas1 as it is found to exist in the air in quantities so minute1 and by what means the oxygen is restored1 and the air again made fit for respiration4 ,this is effected by one of those laws which the wisdom of the ,creator has impressed upon matter1 by which one part of creation as it were balances another1 and all proceeds in an endless circle of change4 ,this carbonic acid1 which is so poisonous to animal life1 is the food of the vegetable world1 plants having the power of taking up the carbonic acid into their pores2 converting the carbon into their own substance1 and rejecting the oxygen1 which is again respired by animals1 c4 ,in the same way1 all animal refuse is the food of vegetables1 and is used under the name of manures4 ,the atmosphere contains also a variable quantity of vapour of water1 invisible as long as it is in the state of vapour1 but it may be rendered obvious by bringing any very cold body into warm air1 when the vapour will condense on the cold body in the form of small drops of water4 ,a tumbler of fresh-pumped water brought into a crowded room1 is almost immediately covered with moisture1 and it may also be seen on bottles of wine which have been put into ice before coming to table4 ,fogs are occasioned by the condensation of vapour produced by mixing a current of warm air with a colder air4 ,the banks of ,newfoundland are notorious for dense fogs1 occasioned by the warm air brought from the south by the great ,gulf stream1 mixing with the cold air from the ,arctic regions1 and thus precipitating the vapour in a visible form1 rendering everything but itself invisible4 ,the famous ,london fogs depend upon the same precipitation of the vapour of water1 with the addition of the smoke from the numerous sea-coal fires1 which give it that interesting yellow tinge for which it is so remarkable4 ,aqueous vapour appears to impart a transparency to air1 and permits objects to be seen more distinctly in proportion to its quantity2 hence1 when distant hills appear nearer1 and objects upon them more distinct than usual1 rain may be expected1 the air being fully charged with vapour ready to be deposited on the slightest cause4 ,,hydrogen4 ,illustration ,hydrogen gas is the lightest substance known1 being fifteen times lighter than atmospheric air4 ,it is colourless and transparent1 incapable of supporting combustion or respiration1 but is itself combustible4 ,hydrogen1 as its name implies 7being derived from two ,greek words1 signifying the generator of water71 is a constituent of water in the proportion of one-ninth by weight1 and is always obtained by decomposing that fluid1 by presenting to it some body to take up its other ingredient1 oxygen1 and so set the hydrogen at liberty4 ,if the steam of water be passed through a red-hot gun barrel1 containing iron filings1 the water is decomposed1 the iron taking the oxygen1 and the hydrogen comes over in torrents2 but as every one has not a gun barrel and furnace to heat it1 the usual mode is to employ dilute sulphuric acid1 and iron filings1 or zinc1 in small pieces1 and it may be collected over water by means of a bent tube issuing from the bottle in which it is formed4 ,it is so light that it was used to fill balloons before coal gas was to be had1 and if you procure a light air-tight bag of silk1 or thin membrane such as a turkey's crop1 and fill it with the gas1 it will ascend rapidly1 and dance about the ceiling of a room4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,attach a tobacco-pipe to a bladder filled with this gas1 and blow some soap-bubbles with it2 they will rise very rapidly1 and if a lighted taper be applied to them they burn4 ,if you mix in a soda water bottle one-third of oxygen with two-thirds of hydrogen1 and apply flame1 the mixture will explode with a sharp report4 ,great care must be taken in all experiments with the mixed gases4 ,to avoid danger the gases are placed in separate india-rubber bags1 and are only brought together at the jet4 ,this is an expensive apparatus1 and should only be used by experienced persons4 ,illustration #b4 ,if a jar of this gas be held with its mouth downwards1 and a lighted taper passed up well into the jar1 the taper will be extinguished1 and the gas take fire1 and burn quietly at the mouth of the jar2 if mixed with oxygen or atmospheric air1 it will explode4 ,illustration ,hold over the jet of hydrogen issuing from a small tube1 hollow cylinders of glass or earthenware1 ,florence flasks1 or hollow glass balls1 and musical sounds will be produced1 which were supposed to depend on some peculiar property of hydrogen gas1 until ,mr4 ,faraday tried flame from coal gas1 olefiant gas1 and even the vapour of ether1 when the sounds were still produced1 and he attributed them to a continuous explosion1 or series of explosions1 produced by the union of oxygen with the hydrogen of the flames4 ,,water4 ,with oxygen1 hydrogen unites to form the important compound water1 which exists not only in the obvious form of oceans1 rivers1 lakes1 rains1 dews1 c4 c4 but is found intimately combined with many substances1 giving them some of their peculiar properties4 ,many crystals have a definite proportion of water combined with them1 and on losing this water they lose their crystalline form4 ,many acids also cannot exist as acids without water4 ,the slaking of lime depends upon the union of water with the lime1 the dry powder resulting from the process being a hydrate of lime1 the water having become solidified1 and in passing from the fluid to the solid state gives out its latent caloric1 producing the heat observed during the process4 ,when a large quantity of lime1 a barge-load for instance1 has got wetted by accident1 the heat evolved has been sufficient to set fire to the barge4 ,at the temperature of #cb of ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 water loses its fluid form1 and becomes ice4 ,as it solidifies1 it starts into beautiful crystals1 which unite and cross each other at determinate angles4 ,ice is lighter than the water on which it floats1 forming a protection to the water beneath1 and preventing it from being frozen so rapidly2 else1 if the ice were heavier than water1 and consequently sank as soon as formed1 each portion of water would be frozen in its turn1 until rivers became solid throughout1 and every living creature in them must be destroyed4 ,now1 the temperature of the water under the ice is seldom much below #dj1 and if care be taken to break holes at intervals to allow access to the air1 the fish and other aquatic animals seldom suffer even in our coldest winters4 ,although it is impossible to raise ice even one degree above #cb without thawing1 it is not difficult to reduce water many degrees below that point without freezing it4 ,illustration ,in order to obtain both the constituents of water in a separate state1 it must be decomposed by galvanism1 each pole of a battery terminating in a separate tube containing water1 when the result will be that at the positive pole oxygen gas will be evolved1 and hydrogen at the negative1 the latter being double the quantity of the former4 ,now1 if you mix the gases thus obtained1 introduce them into a vessel called a 8,eudiometer10 and pass an electric spark through them from a ,leyden phial1 a sudden flash will be seen1 and the gases will entirely disappear1 being again converted into water4 ,if you have a mercurial trough1 and perform this experiment over mercury1 the inside of the eudiometer will exhibit minute drops of water4 ,thus you have proved both by analysis and synthesis1 that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportion of one volume of the former to two of the latter4 ,,experiment4 ,take some perfectly pure distilled water1 filter it1 surround it with a mixture of light snow1 or powdered ice1 and salt1 taking care to keep it perfectly still1 a thermometer having been previously placed in it4 ,the mercury will gradually sink many degrees below the freezing point #cb 7it has been reduced as low as #d71 the water still remaining fluid2 when all at once1 either from shaking the table1 or simply because the reduction can be carried no further1 it suddenly starts into ice1 and the thermometer jumps up at once to #cb1 where it remains until the whole is frozen1 when the temperature gradually sinks to that of the surrounding medium4 ,now if you remove the glass of ice from the freezing mixture into the apartment1 and watch the thermometer1 you will find it gradually rise to #cb1 and there remain until all the ice is melted1 when it will gradually acquire the temperature of the room4 ,the reason of this is1 that the water in passing from the solid to the fluid form absorbs1 and in passing from the fluid to the solid form gives out caloric1 so maintaining the temperature at #cb1 the point at which the change of form takes place1 until it is completed4 ,between the temperature of #cb and #bab1 water exists in a fluid form1 under ordinary circumstances2 but at the latter point it assumes the form of vapour or steam1 and acquires many of the properties of gases1 being indefinitely expansible by heat1 the force increasing as the temperature is raised1 provided the steam be confined1 until it becomes irresistible1--witness the frequent explosions of steam-engines even in this country2 and in ,america1 where the engines are worked at a high pressure1 accidents are of daily occurrence4 ,the temperature at which water boils is modified by the pressure applied to it4 ,thus1 as you ascend a mountain1 and so pass through a portion of the atmosphere1 water boils at a lower temperature1 until at great heights it boils at so low a heat1 that good tea cannot be made because it is impossible to heat the water sufficiently4 ,under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump1 water boils at about #adj4 ,,chlorine4 ,another gaseous element1 sometimes called a supporter of combustion1 is named chlorine1 from a ,greek word signifying yellowish green4 ,this gas was formerly called 8oxymuriatic acid10 being supposed to be a compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases1 until ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in a series of masterly experiments carried on during the years #ahjh-i-aj and #aa1 proved that it contained no oxygen or muriatic acid1 and that it was in fact a simple or undecompounded substance1 and changed its name to chlorine1 which name was1 after some discussion1 accepted by the scientific world1 and is still in use4 ,this gas may be obtained for experiment1 by gently heating in a retort a mixture of muriatic or hydrochloric acid1 hydrochloride1 as it is now called1 with some black oxide of manganese3 the muriatic acid1 a compound of chlorine and hydrogen1 is decomposed1 and so is the oxide of manganese1 giving out some of its oxygen1 which takes the hydrogen from the muriatic acid to form water1 while the chlorine gas1 with which the hydrogen had been united1 is set at liberty1 and may be collected in jars over water4 ,illustration ,chlorine gas is transparent1 of a greenish yellow colour1 has a peculiar disagreeable taste and smell1 and if breathed even in small quantities1 occasions a sensation of suffocation1 of tightness in the chest1 and violent coughing1 attended with great prostration4 ,i have been compelled to retire to bed from having upset a bottle containing some of this gas4 ,it destroys most vegetable colours when moist1 and is in fact the agent now universally employed for bleaching purposes4 ,it has also the power of combining with and destroying all noxious smells1 and is invaluable as a purifier of foul rooms1 and destroyer of infection4 ,for these latter purposes it is used in combination with lime1 either in substance or solution1 under the name of 8,chloride of ,lime40 ,sir ,w4 ,burnett has lately discovered that the chloride of zinc answers the same purposes as the chloride of lime1 and has the advantage of being itself destitute of smell1 and his fluid is frequently substituted for the other4 ,chlorine gas is a powerful supporter of combustion1 many of the metals taking fire spontaneously when introduced in a fine state of division into the gas4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,into a jar of chlorine gas introduce a few sheets of copper leaf1 sold under the name of ,dutch foil1 when it will burn with a dull red light4 #b4 ,if some metallic antimony in a state of powder be poured into a jar of this gas1 it will take fire as it falls1 and burn with a bright white light4 #c4 ,a small piece of the metal potassium may be introduced1 and will also take fire4 #d4 ,a piece of phosphorus will also generally take fire spontaneously when introduced into this gas4 ,in all these cases direct compounds of the substances with chlorine are produced1 called chlorides4 #e4 ,if a lighted taper be plunged quickly into the gas1 it will continue to burn with a dull light1 giving off a very large quantity of smoke1 being in fact the carbon of the wax taper1 with which the chlorine does not unite2 while the other constituent of the taper1 the hydrogen1 forms muriatic acid by union with the chlorine4 #f4 ,this substance has the property of destroying most vegetable colours1 and is used in large quantities for bleaching calico1 linen1 and the rags of which paper is made4 ,it is a curious fact that it shows this property only when water is present1 for if a piece of coloured cloth is introduced dry into a jar of the gas1 also dry1 no effect will be produced--wet the cloth1 and reintroduce it1 and in a very short time its colour will be discharged4 #g4 ,introduce a quantity of the infusion of the common red cabbage1 which is of a beautiful blue colour1 into a jar of this gas1 and it will instantly become nearly as pale as water1 retaining a slight tinge of yellow4 ,a solution of sulphate of indigo can always be obtained1 and answers well for this experiment4 ,,muriatic ,,acid ,,gas1 ,,or ,,hydric ,,chloride4 ,with chlorine1 hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic1 or hydrochloric acid gas4 ,it cannot easily be formed by the direct union of its elements1 but is procured from some compound in which it exists ready formed4 ,common salt 7chloride of sodium7 is generally employed2 and when acted on by strong sulphuric acid 7or oil of vitriol71 the gas is disengaged in abundance4 ,it must be collected over mercury1 for water absorbs it1 forming the liquid muriatic1 or hydrochloric acid4 ,a lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished4 ,it is very dangerous to animal life if respired4 ,it has the property of destroying animal effluvia1 and was once employed to purify the cathedral of ,dijon1 which was so filled with putrid emanations from the bodies buried in it1 that it had been closed for some time4 ,it perfectly succeeded1 but it is so destructive to all metallic substances that it is not used now1 for the chlorides of lime and zinc have since been discovered to act more effectually than the muriatic acid gas1 without its inconvenience4 ,the compounds of hydrogen with iodine are passed over4 ,with nitrogen1 hydrogen unites and forms one of the most extraordinary compounds in the whole range of chemistry1--the gas called ammonia4 ,this is the only gas possessing what are called alkaline properties2 i4 e4 it changes the blue colour of certain vegetables to green1 yellow to deep brown1 and unites with the acids to form neutral compounds1 just as the other alkalies1 potash and soda1 which are oxides of metals4 ,it may be procured in abundance by heating the hydrochlorate of ammonia1 or sal ammoniac1 as it is usually called1 with quick-lime1 which takes the hydrochloric acid1 and sets free this remarkable gas4 ,it must be received over mercury1 as it is absorbed to almost any extent by water1 forming the fluid sold as 8spirits of hartshorn0 in the shops4 ,this gas is colourless and transparent1 lighter than atmospheric air1 and will not support combustion2 it has a very pungent but not disagreeable smell4 ,under certain circumstances it is combustible4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,take a bottle containing chlorine gas1 and invert over its mouth another filled with ammoniacal gas2 then if the bottles be held in the hand 7guarded by a pair of gloves71 and suddenly turned1 so that the chlorine be uppermost1 the two gases will unite so rapidly that a white flame fills the bottles for an instant4 #b4 ,substitute for the chlorine of the last experiment a bottle of carbonic or hydrochloric acid gas2 in either case the gases disappear1 and a light white powder settles on the sides of the bottles1 being the carbonate or hydrochlorate of ammonia1 according to the acid used4 ,carbonate of ammonia is the substance sold for 8smelling salts20 and the hydrochlorate1 or muriate of ammonia1 is the salt called 8sal ammoniac10 whence the alkaline gas was first obtained1 and from which it got its name of ammonia4 ,the salt itself was so called1 because it was formerly brought from the deserts near the ruins of the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,this salt is1 as has been shown1 a compound of muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas1 containing therefore only three simple elements--hydrogen1 chlorine1 and nitrogen1 all gases1 and known only in the gaseous state1 its symbol being ,,nh,cl2 yet they by union form a solid body1 resembling in all essential qualities the salts of potash and soda1 which are oxides of known metals4 ,moreover1 if some mercury be placed in a solution of this salt1 and subjected to the action of galvanism1 the negative pole being applied to the mercury1 and the positive to the sal ammoniac1 the mercury presently loses its fluidity1 increases greatly in size1 and in fact presents the same appearance as when it is mixed with some metal1 forming what is called an 8amalgam40 ,when the battery ceases to act1 a succession of white films forms on the surface of the amalgam1 and the mercury soon returns to its original state4 ,how is this to be explained8 ,some chemists have supposed that there must be a base united to the mercury1 and have named this hypothetical substance 8ammonium10 to correspond to potassium and sodium1 the bases of potash and soda1 which resemble ammonia in so many properties4 ,but what is this ammonium8 and how is it formed8 for hydrogen and nitrogen are simple elementary bodies4 ,are all metals compounds of gases8 and are there but a few elements instead of the #fd now enumerated8 ,this1 however1 is a difficult question1 not fitted for discussion here4 ,carbonate of ammonia may be obtained by mixing together powdered chalk 7which is a carbonate of lime7 and muriate of ammonia1 and heating the mixture in close vessels1 when the salt in question will rise in fumes1 and be condensed in a mass in the upper part of the vessel4 ,it is1 however1 so largely produced in other manufactures1 particularly in gas-works1 that there is no necessity to resort to the more expensive and direct method4 ,it is the well-known 8smelling salts40 ,the only other salt of ammonia worth our notice here is the nitrate1 from the destructive distillation of which is obtained the nitrous oxide1 or laughing gas1 already mentioned4 ,,iodine4 ,on the coasts of certain islands belonging to the ,duke of ,argyll1 vast quantities of sea-weed are occasionally torn up from their ocean beds and deposited on the shores4 ,this weed1 after being partially dried by exposure to the sun and air1 is burnt in a shallow pit2 the ashes are then collected1 and form the commercial raw material called kelp1 from which iodine is procured by a gradual series of processes4 ,,experiments4 ,iodine has a beautiful metallic lustre1 with a bluish black colour1 and should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle4 ,a small quantity placed in a clear flask and heated1 affords a magnificent violet vapour1 which may be poured from the flask into another glass vessel1 when it condenses again into crystalline plates4 ,the colour of the vapour originates the name of this element1 so called from the ,greek 1 violet-coloured4 ,if a little iodine be placed in contact with a thin slice of phosphorus1 the latter takes fire almost immediately4 ,,bromine4 ,so called from the ,greek 1 a bad odour1 is most intimately allied with chlorine and iodine2 like these elements it belongs to the sea1 and is a constituent of sea-water4 ,bromine is a very heavy fluid1 and should be preserved by keeping it covered with water in a stoppered-bottle4 ,experiments with liquid bromine are not recommended1 as all the most interesting ones can be performed with the vapour1 which is easily procured by letting fall a few drops of bromine into a warm dry bottle4 ,,experiments4 ,pounded antimony sprinkled into the vapour takes fire immediately4 ,a thin slice of phosphorus placed in a deflagrating ladle and placed into the vapour of bromine ignites very quickly4 ,a solution of sulphate of indigo1 or an infusion of red cabbage1 are easily bleached by being shaken violently with the vapour of bromine4 ,,fluorine4 ,in many parts of ,england1 especially in ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 and above all in ,derbyshire1 is found a very beautiful mineral1 known by the name of ,fluor ,spar1 ,derbyshire ,spar1 and called by the miners ,blue ,john1 to distinguish it from another mineral found1 in the same locality1 called ,black ,jack4 ,it occurs in very regular and frequently large crystals in the form of cubes1 and occasionally in octodra4 ,it is a compound of calcium with fluorine1 and is very abundant in certain fossil bones4 ,this element1 in combination with hydrogen and called hydrofluoric acid1 acts so energetically upon all substances containing silica1 that it cannot be preserved in vessels of glass or porcelain--very few of the metals are capable of resisting its action1 lead being nearly the only common metal possessed of this power4 ,gutta percha may also be employed for vessels to hold it4 ,this property of dissolving silica1 has caused this acid to be used for engraving on glass4 ,,experiment4 ,mix one part of powdered fluor-spar1 quite pure1 with two parts of oil of vitriol1 in a saucer1 and apply a gentle heat1 when the acid will be disengaged in the form of vapour4 ,prepare a piece of glass after the manner of engraving on copper1 by coating it with a thin covering of wax1 placing a paper over the wax1 and then drawing any design with a sharp-pointed instrument1 when1 on removing the paper1 the wax-coating will be found to be removed wherever the instrument has passed over it4 ,now invert1 this glass over the fumes of the acid for half an hour or so1 and then heat the glass so as to soften the coating1 and wipe it off2 the design will then appear 8bitten in0 as the term is1 that is1 the acid will have dissolved the glass wherever it was not protected by the wax1 and will exhibit the design indelibly fixed on the glass4 ,this acid requires the greatest care in handling1 for it is extremely corrosive1 producing very troublesome ulcers if it comes in contact with the skin2 even the fumes will produce smarting if the skin is long exposed to them4 ,,carbon4 ,the next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named carbon4 ,the purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond1 which consists entirely of carbon in a crystallized form4 ,the ,french chemist ,lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of the diamond2 and ,sir ,h4 ,davy found that when once set on fire it would continue to burn in oxygen gas air1 and that the product of the combustion was carbonic acid gas1 exactly equal in quantity to the gas produced by burning an equal weight of pure charcoal1 the most common form of carbon4 ,plumbago1 or 8black-lead10 as it is very improperly called1 is also nearly pure carbon1 a very small quantity of iron being united with it4 ,by far the greater part of all vegetable1 and a very large portion of animal bodies consists of carbon2 and in the state of carbonic acid in combination with lime and some other earths1 it forms nearly the half of all the chalk1 marble1 and limestone of our hills2 so that it is1 in one shape or other1 one of the most widely diffused bodies in nature4 ,carbon forms two gaseous compounds with oxygen2 the first1 called carbonic oxide1 is easily obtained by boiling oxalic acid with its own bulk of sulphuric acid1 in a flask to which a cork and bent tube is attached4 ,the gas comes over in large quantities1 and must be collected in a gas jar1 or the pneumatic trough4 ,it is inflammable1 and burns with a lambent blue flame4 ,the other compound1 carbonic acid1 is transparent1 colourless1 much heavier than atmospheric air1 has an agreeable taste1 has the power of irritating the mucous membrane of the nose1 7as any one can tell who has drunk soda-water71 without possessing any particular odour1 is absorbed by water1 does not support respiration1 and extinguishes flame4 ,carbonic acid gas may be obtained with the greatest facility by pouring some muriatic or sulphuric acid1 diluted with about six parts of water1 upon some pieces of marble or limestone in a bottle with a tube attached1 when the gas comes over in torrents4 ,it may be collected over water4 ,,experiments4 ,illustration3 ,,stoppered ,,bottle ,,for ,,holding ,,gas4 #a4 ,to show the great comparative weight of this gas1 place a lighted taper at the bottom of a tall glass jar1 then take a jar full of carbonic acid gas1 and pour it as you would pour water into the jar containing the lighted taper2 you will soon find the taper will be extinguished as effectually as if you had poured water on it1 and the smoke of the taper will float on the surface of the gas in very beautiful wavy forms4 #b4 ,heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal spoon 7platinum is best71 and if introduced in a state of ignition into the gas1 it will continue burning brilliantly1 producing a quantity of dense smoke1 which is the carbon from the carbonic acid1 the potassium having seized the oxygen and being converted by it into potash4 #c4 ,if a mouse1 bird1 or other small animal1 be placed in a jar of this gas1 it becomes insensible almost immediately1 but if speedily removed it will occasionally recover4 #d4 ,shake up some water with some of this gas in a bottle2 the greater part of the gas will be absorbed by the water1 which acquires a sparkling appearance and a pleasant sharp taste2 with the addition of a little soda this becomes the well-known beverage called soda-water1 so famous for removing the morning headaches caused by 8that salmon0 having disagreed at yesterday's dinner4 ,it is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to descend into deep wells1 for by its great weight it collects at the bottom1 and instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who incautiously subjects himself to it4 ,hence it is prudent always to let down a lighted candle before any one descends into a well1 or other deep excavation1 and if the candle is extinguished1 it is necessary to throw down several pails of water1 lime-water if possible1 and again to try the candle1 which must burn freely before it is safe for any one to descend4 ,it is this same gas under the name of 8choke-damp10 which proves so dangerous to miners1 particularly after an explosion of 8fire-damp10 for it is the principal product of the explosion1 and it is by no means an easy matter to dislodge it4 ,carbonic acid gas has been condensed into the fluid form by causing it to be disengaged under great pressure2 the fluid acid has the appearance of water4 ,when the pressure is removed1 as by allowing some of the fluid acid to escape from the vessel in which it has been condensed1 it instantly reassumes the gaseous form1 and in so doing absorbs so much latent caloric that a portion of the acid is actually solidified1 and appears in the shape of snow1 which may be collected and preserved for a short time4 ,after a lecture by ,mr4 ,addams before the ,ashmolean ,society of ,oxford1 ,i carried a kind of snowball of carbonic acid for a distance of #ejj or #fjj yards1 and placed it in a saucer in a room4 ,it evaporated very rapidly1 and left no residue1 not even a mark where it had lain4 ,it was too cold to be touched by the naked hand without pain4 ,carbonic acid and lime are mutually tests for each other4 ,if a jar containing a little lime-water be put into a jar of this gas1 it speedily becomes turbid1 the gas uniting with the lime1 and producing chalk 7the carbonate of lime71 which is insoluble in water4 ,this gas is produced in large quantities by the respiration of animals1 as may be proved by respiring through a tube immersed in lime-water1 when the water will be instantly rendered turbid from the formation of chalk4 ,,carbon ,,and ,,hydrogen4 ,to the combination of these elements in various proportions1 and with the occasional addition of other substances1 we are indebted for all1 or nearly all1 our means of obtaining light and heat4 ,coal1 wood1 spirit1 oil1 and all the varieties of fats1 are composed principally of carbon and hydrogen1 and may easily be converted into the gas with which our houses and streets are lighted1 which is nearly pure carburetted hydrogen4 ,the two chief definite gaseous compounds of these two elements are the light carburetted hydrogen1 and the heavy carburetted hydrogen1 or olefiant gas4 ,the first is easily procured by stirring the bottom of stagnant water on a hot summer's day1 and collecting the bubbles in a bottle filled with water and inverted over the place where the bubbles rise4 ,this gas burns with a yellowish flame1 and when mixed with a certain proportion of air1 or oxygen gas1 explodes with great violence on the application of a flame4 ,it is the much dreaded fire-damp generated so profusely in some coal-mines1 and causing such fearful destruction to life and property when accidentally inflamed4 ,the other compound1 the heavy carburetted hydrogen1 forms part of the gas used for illumination2 and1 in fact1 whatever substance is employed for artificial light1 whether oil1 tallow1 wax1 c4 c4 it is converted into this gas by heat1 and then furnishes the light by its own combustion4 ,this gas has some very curious properties1 and may be obtained nearly pure by mixing in a retort1 very carefully1 one part of spirits of wine and four of sulphuric acid4 ,a lamp must be placed under the retort1 when the gas will be speedily disengaged1 and come over in great abundance2 it may be collected over water4 ,this gas is transparent1 colourless1 will not support combustion1 but is itself inflammable1 burning with a brilliant white light1 and being converted into carbonic acid and water4 ,if mixed with three or four times its bulk of oxygen1 or with common atmospheric air in much larger proportions1 it explodes with great violence4 ,this gas is sometimes called 8olefiant gas10 from the property it has of forming an oily substance when mixed with chlorine4 ,illustration3 ,,jar ,,for ,,collecting ,,gases4 ,,experiment4 ,into a jar standing over water half full of this gas1 pass an equal quantity of chlorine gas4 ,the gases will speedily unite and form an oily-looking liquid1 which may be collected from the sides of the jar as it trickles down4 ,by continually supplying the jar with the two gases as they combine1 a considerable quantity of this substance may be collected4 ,care should be taken that the olefiant gas is rather in excess4 ,the substance produced is insoluble in water1 with which it should be washed by shaking them together in a tube1 and has a pleasant sweetish taste and aromatic smell1 somewhat resembling ether4 ,,coal ,,gas4 ,the gas so universally employed for the purposes of illumination is a mixture of the carburetted and the bi-carburetted hydrogen1 with minute portions of other gases scarcely worth mentioning4 ,it is procured by submitting coals to a red heat in iron retorts1 having a tube passing from one end1 along which passes all the fluid and gaseous matter separated from the coal1 namely1 gas tar1 ammoniacal liquor1 and various gases1 carburetted hydrogen1 carbonic acid1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 c4 c4 ,the tar and ammoniacal liquor remain in the vessel in which the tubes from the retorts terminate1 and the gaseous productions are conveyed through water and lime to separate the impurities2 the remaining gas1 now fit for use1 passes into large iron vessels1 called gasometers1 inverted over water 7like the jars in a pneumatic trough71 whence it is sent through pipes and distributed where required4 ,what remains in the retorts is called coke4 ,it consists principally of charcoal1 mixed with the earthy and metallic particles contained in the coal4 ,,experiment4 ,if you possess an iron bottle1 fill it with powdered coal1 and attach a flexible tube to it1 and put it in the fire3 as soon as it becomes red hot1 large quantities of smoke will escape from the end of the tube1 being the gas mixed with all its impurities4 ,by passing it through water 7if mixed with lime it will be better71 the gas may be collected in jars standing over water1 and submitted to experiment4 ,if you do not possess a bottle1 take a tobacco-pipe with a large bowl1 7a 8churchwarden0 for example72 fill the bowl with small coal1 cover it with clay or putty1 and when dry put it into the fire1 and the gas will soon appear at the other end of the pipe1 when it may be lighted1 or the gas may be collected over water1 as in the former experiment4 ,the light carburetted hydrogen contained in this gas is given off spontaneously in some coal-mines1 and as it forms explosive mixtures with atmospheric air1 the mines where it abounds could not be worked except at the greatest risk until about the beginning of the present century1 when ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 while prosecuting some researches on the nature of flame1 found that flame would not pass through metallic tubes1 and he gradually reduced the length of the tubes1 until he found fine iron wire gauze formed an effectual barrier against the passage of flame4 ,he then thought that if the light in a lantern were surrounded with this gauze1 it might safely be used in an inflammable atmosphere1 where a naked light would instantly cause an explosion4 ,upon submitting the lamp to experiment1 he found that by passing coal gas by degrees into a vessel in which one of his lamps was suspended1 the flame first became much larger1 and then was extinguished1 the cylinder of gauze being filled with a pale flame1 and though the gauze sometimes became red-hot1 it did not ignite the gas outside4 ,as the supply of coal gas was diminished1 the wick of the lamp was rekindled1 and all went on as at first4 ,a coil of platinum wire was afterwards suspended in the lamps1 which becomes intensely heated by the burning gas1 and gives out sufficient light to enable the miner to see to work4 ,as long as the gauze is perfect it is almost impossible for the external air to be kindled by the wick of the lamp1 but the miners are so careless that they will often remove the gauze to get a better light1 to look for a tool1 or some cause equally trivial1 and many lives have been lost in consequence of such carelessness4 ,the effect of fine wire gauze in preventing the passage of flame may be shown by bringing a piece of the gauze gradually over the flame of a spirit-lamp1 until it nearly touches the wick1 when the flame will be nearly extinguished1 but the vapour of the spirit passes through1 and may be lighted on the upper side of the gauze1 which will thus have a flame on either side1 though totally unconnected with each other4 ,the flame from a gas-burner will answer as well as the spirit-lamp4 ,nearly all the fluids1 and solids also1 used for procuring artificial light1 such as naphtha1 various oils1 tallow1 wax1 spermaceti1 spirits of wine1 ether1 c4 c4 are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in different proportions1 with the occasional addition of some other elements1 especially oxygen and hydrogen1 in the proportions to form water2 as a general rule1 those bodies containing the greatest proportion of carbon give the most light1 though not necessarily the most heat4 ,,phosphorus4 ,the next body we have to notice is phosphorus1 a most remarkable substance1 procured from the earthy part of bones by a process not worth detailing here4 ,it should be always kept under water1 and the naked fingers should not be allowed even to touch it1 for the smallest piece getting under the nail will inflame the first time the hand comes near the fire1 and produce a sore very painful and difficult to heal4 ,it should be cut under water by a knife or scissors1 and removed with a pair of forceps4 ,its combustible properties have been frequently mentioned4 ,it has also the property of shining in the dark1 so that if you write on a wall with a solution of phosphorus in oil1 the letters will appear luminous in the dark--there is no danger1 excepting from the greasiness of the oil4 ,of the compounds of phosphorus with oxygen we have nothing to do here1 but it forms with hydrogen a very curious gaseous compound1 which takes fire spontaneously on the contact of air1 or almost any gas containing oxygen4 ,,experiments4 ,it may be procured in either of two ways1 according to the purpose for which it is wanted4 ,the simplest way is to put a lump or two of phosphuret of lime into a saucer1 about two inches in depth1 containing some very diluted hydrochloric acid2 bubbles of gas will speedily arise1 and bursting on the surface of the fluid will burn with a slight explosion1 and a circular wreath of smoke will rise into the atmosphere1 enlarging as it rises1 and wreathing itself round and round in the most elegant forms4 ,care must be taken that the phosphuret is fresh1 and has been kept in a well-closed bottle1 or the experiment will fail4 ,the apartment must be free from draughts4 ,if you desire to collect the gas1 another method must be employed4 ,illustration ,fill a small retort quite full1 neck and all1 of a solution of caustic potash1 drop five or six pieces of phosphorus into it1 place the finger on the end of the retort1 and immerse it in a basin also containing a hot solution of potash1 remove the finger1 and on applying the heat of a lamp to the retort1 the gas will soon be disengaged rapidly1 and drive out the fluid in the retort2 it then escapes into the air1 when it inflames with the same appearances as before described4 ,or it may be collected in gas jars filled with the potash solution1 and held over the mouth of the retort4 ,the object in using hot solution of potash in the basin is1 that when the gas ceases to be given off1 and the heat of the lamp is withdrawn1 the hot fluid may gradually fill the vacuum which will form in the retort1 and so prevent its being broken4 ,this gas is transparent and invisible1 like most other gases4 ,it is very poisonous if inhaled4 ,if kept for any time1 it loses its property of spontaneous inflammation1 and must therefore be made at the time it is required4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur1 or brimstone1 as it is frequently called1 is sold in the form of sticks1 or roll brimstone1 or in fine powder called flowers of brimstone4 ,it is capable of showing electric phenomena when rubbed1 giving out slight sparks1 and first attracting and then repelling light bodies1 such as small pieces of paper1 c4 ,it is so bad a conductor of heat1 that if grasped suddenly in a hot hand1 it will crack and split into pieces just as glass does when suddenly heated or cooled--of course ,i am speaking of the roll brimstone4 ,water has no effect on it1 as may be seen in the pans placed for pet dogs to drink out of1 where the same piece of brimstone lies for years entirely unaltered1 though it is supposed to prevent the dogs from having the mange6 ,sulphur is largely used in the arts1 principally in the manufacture of gunpowder1 and fireworks of various kinds4 ,it combines with hydrogen1 and forms a gaseous compound called sulphuretted hydrogen1 which is almost the most poisonous of all the gases4 ,it fortunately has so abominable smell1 that due notice is given of its presence4 ,rotten eggs1 a dirty gun-barrel1 cabbage water1 putrid animal and vegetable matter1 c4 are indebted to this gas for their inviting odour2 and it is found in certain mineral springs1 as at ,harrogate1 where the water contains a considerable quantity of this gas1 and is found useful in many diseases of the skin4 ,it is also given off in a gaseous form by some volcanoes4 ,this gas may be obtained by pouring dilute hydrochloric acid upon a metallic sulphuret1 such as that called crude antimony1 being a native sulphuret of that metal4 ,the gas may be kept for a short time over water4 ,it is colourless and transparent1 inflammable1 but quite irrespirable1 a small bird dying instantly when placed in air containing only #a_/aejjth of this gas4 ,its most remarkable property perhaps is the effect it has on certain metallic oxides1 and other metallic salts1 blackening them instantly4 ,white paint is easily stained by this gas1 and it will darken the colour of a metal in a solution1 especially of lead1 even when diluted with #bj1jjj times its weight of water4 ,by way of experiment1 slips of riband1 silk1 or even paper1 may be wetted with various metallic solutions1 such as silver1 mercury1 lead1 c4 or words may be written with the solutions1 and on holding them over a stream of this gas they will be instantly darkened4 ,if this gas be collected in the pneumatic trough1 which is usually painted white1 you will have the pleasure of seeing the colour changed to a very dark brown1 when your experiments are finished4 ,with this very limited description of some of the non-metallic elements and their combinations1 we must1 for want of space1 take leave of this division of chemistry2 8the beginning of which is pleasure1 its progress knowledge1 its objects truth and utility40--7,davy47 ,,metals4 ,we have a few words to say about a class of bodies called metals1 which are of the utmost importance to mankind1 and indeed without some of them1 especially iron1 few of the arts of civilized life could exist4 ,fifty substances are now included in the list of metals2 some of them1 however1 are only supposed to exist1 such as ammonium1 the supposed base of ammonia2 and very many are to be viewed rather in the light of chemical curiosities1 as from their great rarity they are too expensive for use1 even if possessed of valuable properties of which others might be destitute4 ,several metals have been known from the earliest period of which we have any record2 such were iron1 gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 tin1 mercury1 and probably zinc1 or at least its ores2 for brass1 which is an alloy of copper and zinc1 is frequently mentioned in the early part of the ,old ,testament4 ,in the sixteenth century others were discovered1 such as antimony and bismuth4 ,in the last century1 cobalt1 arsenic1 platinum1 nickel1 manganese1 and chromium1 together with several unimportant metals1 were discovered by various philosophers2 while in the present century1 ,dr4 ,wollaston discovered rhodium1 the hardest and nearly the most indestructible of all the metals2 and a few years later1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy found that the alkalies1 potash1 and soda1 with many of the earths as they were called1 had each a metal for its base1 to which he gave the ,latin name of the alkali or earth1 with the termination um1 as potassium1 the base of potassa1 sodium of soda1 calcium of calx 7lime71 c4 ,until ,sir ,h4 ,davy's discovery of the metals of the alkalies1 great specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking characteristics of a metal1 the lightest of them being much heavier than the heaviest earth2 but potassium is very much lighter than water1 and not much heavier than spirits of wine4 ,the other metals vary from a specific gravity of nearly twenty-one--or twenty-one times heavier than an equal bulk of water--that of platinum1 to somewhat less than seven1 which is the specific gravity of antimony4 ,when pure1 they all have a lustre1 differing indeed among themselves1 but so peculiar that it is called the metallic lustre1 for instance1 gold and copper are yellow and red--nearly all the others white1 but of a different shade2 still there is no mistaking their metallic character1 no other substances at all equalling them in this respect4 ,they are also opaque1 although some1 like gold1 when reduced to thin films1 allow light to pass through them4 ,they are all good conductors of heat and electricity1 though some possess that property to a greater extent than others4 ,many of them are what is called malleable1 that is1 may be extended or spread out by rolling1 or beating them with a hammer2 and ductile1 or have the property of being drawn out into wire4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 and iron1 are the most remarkable in this respect4 ,all the metals are fusible1 but some require very different degrees of heat to render them fluid1--platinum requiring the heat of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe1 while tin melts in the flame of a candle1 and mercury is fluid at all temperatures in this climate1 but becomes solid at #dj ,fahr4 below #j1--;a temperature occasionally experienced in the ,arctic regions1 where the mercurial thermometer is useless1 the mercury becoming solid4 ,they are all excellent conductors of heat and electricity1 and have the property of reflecting light and forming mirrors2 for looking-glasses owe their power of reflecting objects principally to what is called the 8silvering20 that is1 a mixture of mercury and tin spread over the back of the glass1 which being transparent1 allows the image reflected from the metal to pass through it4 ,the following classification is most instructive1 because it suggests to the young student that there must be identical properties in the metals thus placed together3-- ,class #a4 ,ammonium1 csium1 lithium1 potassium1 sodium4 ,class #b4 ,calcium1 barium1 strontium4 ,class #c4 ,aluminium1 cerium1 didymium1 erbium1 glucinium1 lanthanum1 thorium1 yttrium1 zirconium4 ,class #d4 ,zinc class3 cadmium1 magnesium1 zinc4 ,class #e4 ,iron class3 cobalt1 chromium1 indium1 iron1 manganese1 nickel1 uranium4 ,class #f4 ,tin class3 niobium1 tantalum1 tin1 titanium4 ,class #g4 ,tungsten class3 molybdenum1 tungsten1 vanadium4 ,class #h4 ,arsenic class3 antimony1 arsenic1 bismuth4 ,class #i4 ,lead class3 lead1 thallium4 ,class #aj4 ,silver class3 copper1 mercury1 silver4 ,class #aa4 ,gold class3 gold1 iridium1 osmium1 palladium1 platinum1 rhodium1 ruthenium4 ,,potassium4 ,potassium was discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy in the beginning of the present century1 while acting upon potash with the enormous galvanic battery of the ,royal ,institution1 consisting of #b1jjj pairs of #d-;inch plates4 ,it is a brilliant white metal1 so soft as to be easily cut with a penknife1 and so light as to swim upon water1 on which it acts with great energy1 uniting with the oxygen1 and liberating the hydrogen1 which takes fire as it escapes4 ,,experiment4 ,trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel's-hair brush dipped in water1 and place a piece of potassium about the size of a pea on one of the lines1 and it will follow the course of the pencil1 taking fire as it runs1 and burning with a purplish light4 ,the paper will be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash4 ,if turmeric paper be used1 the course of the potassium will be marked with a deep brown colour4--,corollary4 ,hence1 if you touch potassium with wet fingers you will burn them6 ,if a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice1 it will instantly take fire1 and form a deep hole1 which will be found to contain a solution of potash4 ,in consequence of its great affinity for oxygen1 potassium must be kept in some fluid destitute of that element1 such as naphtha4 ,caution6--,as the globules of potassium after conversion into potash1 when thrown on ice or water burst1 strewing small particles of caustic hot potash in every direction1 the greatest care should be taken to keep at a sufficient distance whilst performing the above experiment4 ,saltpetre1 or nitre1 is a compound of this metal 7or rather its oxide7 with nitric acid4 ,it is one of the ingredients of gunpowder1 and has the property of quickening the combustion of all combustible bodies4 ,mix some chlorate of potash with lump sugar1 both being powdered1 and drop on the mixture a little strong sulphuric acid1 and it will instantly burst into flame4 ,this experiment also requires caution4 ,want of space precludes us from considering the individual metals and their compounds in detail2 it must suffice to describe some experiments showing some of their properties4 ,the different affinities of the metals for oxygen may be exhibited in various ways4 ,the silver or zinc tree has already been described1 page #ceg4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,into a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water immerse a clean plate or slip of copper4 ,the solution1 which was colourless1 will soon begin to assume a greenish tint1 and the piece of copper will be covered with a coating of a light grey colour1 which is the silver formerly united to the nitric acid1 which has been displaced by the greater affinity or liking of the oxygen and acid for the copper4 #b4 ,when the copper is no longer coated1 but remains clean and bright when immersed in the fluid1 all the silver has been deposited1 and the glass now contains a solution of copper4 ,place a piece of clean iron in the solution1 and it will almost instantly be coated with a film of copper1 and this will continue until the whole of that metal is removed1 and its place filled by an equivalent quantity of iron1 so that nitrate of iron is found in the liquid4 ,the oxygen and nitric acid remain unaltered in quantity or quality during these changes1 being merely transferred from one metal to another4 ,a piece of zinc will displace the iron in like manner1 leaving a solution of nitrate of zinc4 ,nearly all the colours used in the arts are produced by metals and their combinations2 indeed1 one is named chromium1 from a ,greek word signifying colour1 on account of the beautiful tints obtained from its various combinations with oxygen and the other metals4 ,all the various tints of green1 orange1 yellow1 and red1 are obtained from this metal4 ,solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates with solutions of alkalies and their salts1 as well as with many other substances1 such as what are usually called prussiate of potash1 hydro-sulphuret of ammonia1 c42 and the colours differ according to the metal employed1 and so small a quantity is required to produce the colour that the solutions before mixing may be nearly colourless4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,to a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solution of prussiate of potash1 and a blue colour will be produced4 #b4 ,substitute sulphate of copper for iron1 and the colour will be a rich brown4 #c4 ,another blue1 of quite a different tint1 may be produced by letting a few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate of copper--a precipitate of a light blue falls down1 which is dissolved by an additional quantity of the ammonia1 and forms a transparent solution of the most splendid rich blue colour4 #d4 ,into a solution of sulphate of iron let fall a few drops of a strong infusion of galls1 and the colour will become a bluish-black--in fact1 ink4 ,a little tea will answer as well as the infusion of galls4 ,this is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for dressing gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable2 for as they were indebted to a salt of iron for their colour1 buff as it was called1 a drop of tea accidentally spilt produced all the effect of a drop of ink4 #e4 ,put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of granulated zinc1 fill it about one-third full of water1 put in a few grains of iodine and boil the water1 which will at first acquire a dark purple colour1 gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc4 ,add a little more iodine from time to time1 until the zinc is nearly all dissolved4 ,if a few drops of this solution be added to an equally colourless solution of corrosive sublimate 7a salt of mercury7 a precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet colour1 brighter if possible than vermilion1 which is also a preparation of mercury4 ,,crystallization ,,of ,,metals4 ,some of the metals assume certain definite forms in returning from the fluid to the solid state4 ,bismuth shows this property more readily than most others4 ,,experiment4 ,melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire2 remove it as soon as the whole is fluid2 and when the surface has become solid break a hole in it1 and pour out the still fluid metal from the interior2 what remains will exhibit beautifully formed crystals of a cubic shape4 ,sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner1 but its fumes when heated are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them4 ,one of the most remarkable facts in chemistry1 a science abounding in wonders1 is the circumstance1 that the mere contact of hydrogen1 the lightest body known1 with the metal platinum1 the heaviest1 when in a state of minute division1 called spongy platinum1 produces an intense heat1 sufficient to inflame the hydrogen3 of course this experiment must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen4 ,time and space 7or rather the want of them7 compel us to conclude with a few experiments of a miscellaneous character4 ,,to ,,form ,a ,,solid ,,from ,,two ,,liquids4#g ,prepare separately1 saturated solutions of sulphate of magnesia 7,epsom salts7 and carbonate of potash4 ,on mixing them the result will be nearly solid4 #g ,saturated solutions are made by adding the salt to boiling water until it will take up no more1 letting it stand till cold and then pouring off the liquid4 ,solutions of muriate of lime and carbonate of potash will answer as well4 ,,to ,,form ,a ,,liquid ,,from ,,two ,,solids4 ,rub together in a ,wedgewood mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda and acetate of lead1 and as they mix they will become liquid4 ,carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper1 previously reduced to powder separately1 will also1 when mixed1 become liquid1 and acquire a most splendid blue colour4 ,the greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular forms1 or become crystallised1 when passing from the fluid to the solid state2 and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a great measure on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved4 ,sugar is a capital example of this property2 the ordinary loaf-sugar being rapidly boiled down1 as it is called3 while to make sugar-candy1 which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form1 the solution is allowed to evaporate slowly1 and as it cools it forms into those beautiful crystals termed sugar-candy4 ,the threads found in the centre of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of hastening the formation of the crystals4 ,,experiments4 #a4 ,make a strong solution of alum1 or of sulphate of copper1 or blue vitriol1 and place in them rough and irregular pieces of clinker from stoves1 or wire-baskets1 and set them by in a cool place1 where they will be free from dust1 and in a few days crystals of the several salts will deposit themselves on the baskets1 c42 they should then be taken out of the solutions1 and dried1 when they form very pretty ornaments for a room4 #b4 ,fill a ,florence flask up to the neck with a strong solution of sulphate of soda1 or ,glauber's salt1 boil it1 and tie the mouth over with a piece of moistened bladder while boiling1 and set it by in a place where it cannot be disturbed4 ,after twenty-four hours it will probably still remain fluid4 ,pierce the bladder covering with a penknife1 and the entrance of the air will cause the whole mass instantly to crystallize1 and the flask will become quite warm from the latent caloric1 of which we have spoken before1 given out by the salt in passing from the fluid to the solid state4 ,it is better to prepare two or three flasks at the same time1 to provide against accidents1 for the least shake will often cause crystallization to take place before the proper time4 ,,changes ,,of ,,colour ,,produced ,,by ,,colourless ,,liquids4 ,make a strong infusion of the leaves of the red cabbage1 which will be of a beautiful blue colour2 drop into it a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid1 and the colour will change to a bright red2 add some solution of carbonate of potash1 or soda1 and the red colour will gradually give way to the original blue2 continue adding the alkaline solution1 and the fluid will assume a bright green colour4 ,now resume the acid1 and as it is dropped in1 the colour will again change from green to blue1 and from blue to red4 ,now this simple experiment illustrates three points3 first1 that acids change the colour of most vegetable blues and greens to red2 second1 that alkalies change most blues and reds to green2 and third1 that when the acid and alkali are united together1 they both lose their property of changing colour1 and become what is called a neutral salt1 i4 e4 a compound possessing the properties of neither of its constituents4 ,illustration ,,electricity4 ,no branch of science is more capable of affording amusement1 combined with instruction1 than electricity1 and there are few sciences in which the experiments are more easily performed4 ,we would therefore especially recommend it to our young friends4 ,the term electricity is derived from the ,greek word electron1 signifying amber1 because electrical attraction was first discovered from its being noticed that when amber was rubbed into a certain degree of warmth1 it had the power of attracting small bodies to itself4 ,electricity therefore primarily treats of the phenomena and effects produced by the friction or rubbing together of certain bodies called electrics4 ,these consist of glass1 amber1 resinous matters1 silks1 hair1 wool1 feathers1 various vegetable substances1 and atmospheric air1 and the electricity so obtained is usually called ,frictional ,electricity1 to distinguish it from that produced by chemical action1 and called ,voltaic ,electricity4 ,,simple ,,means ,,of ,,producing ,,electricity4 ,to show the nature of electrical action1 rub a piece of sealing-wax or amber upon the coat-sleeve1 and it will attract light bodies1 such as straws or small pieces of paper4 ,if a clean glass tube be rubbed several times through a silken or leather cloth1 and presented to any small substances1 it will immediately attract and then repel them2 and if a poker suspended by a dry silk string be presented to its upper end1 then the lower end of the poker will exhibit the same phenomena as the tube itself1 which shows that the opposite electrical condition may be induced upon other bodies by the mere neighbourhood and approach of another electrified body1 and the effect so produced is called induced electricity4 ,illustration ,when an electrified conductor is supported by non-conductors1 so that the electric fluid cannot pass from the conductor to the earth1 it is said to be insulated3 thus the human body is a conductor of electricity--but if a person standing on a glass stool 7as represented in the drawing7 be charged with electricity1 the electric fluid cannot pass from him to the earth1 and he is said to be insulated2 and if he be touched by another person standing on the ground1 sparks will be exhibited at the point of contact1 where also the person touching will feel a pricking sensation4 ,illustration ,,attraction ,,and ,,repulsion ,,exhibited4 ,illustration ,in order to illustrate certain remarkable facts in this science of an amusing character1 attention must be directed to the figure ,a ,b1 which is a metal stand2 ,c is a small piece of cork or pith1 which is suspended from the hook by a dry silken thread4 ,having rubbed an electric1 as a dry rod of glass1 and presented it to ,c1 the ball will be instantaneously attracted to the glass and will adhere to it4 ,after they remain in contact for a few seconds1 if the glass be withdrawn without being touched by the fingers1 and again presented to the ball1 the latter will be repelled instead of attracted1 as in the first instance4 ,by being touched with the finger1 the ball can be deprived of its electricity1 and if after this has been done we present a piece of sealing-wax in the place of the glass formerly employed1 the very same phenomena will take place4 ,on the first application the ball will be attracted1 and on the second repelled4#h #h ,for a more complete account of this interesting science we would refer the young reader to 8,the ,boy's ,playbook on ,science10 or1 if more advanced1 to 8,noad's ,manual of ,electricity40 ,before the young reader can perform any very important experiments with electricity1 he must become possessed of an ,,electrical ,,machine1 which is an instrument contrived for the purpose of rubbing together the surfaces of glass and leather4 ,they generally consist of a cylinder1 or plate of glass1 and a piece of silk or leather for it to rub against1 covered with an amalgam1 the method of preparing which we shall hereafter describe4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,electrical ,,machine4 ,illustration ,it is very easy to make a glass machine of the cylindrical form1 if the maker cannot afford to buy one4 ,first procure a common wine bottle of good dimensions1 and thickish glass4 ,drill a hole through its bottom1 with a file moistened with dilute sulphuric acid4 ,a blacksmith1 if supplied with the acid1 would undertake to do this part of the work4 ,through this hole and the mouth pass a spindle1 as represented in the cut4 ,the end of ,b should be squared to fix a handle on1 and the spindle should be fixed firmly in the bottle4 ,the bottle is then to be fixed in a frame in the following manner3 the end of the spindle ,c passes through a hole at ,b2 and the other end at ,c has the handle for turning the machine4 ,illustration ,next make a cushion of wash-leather stuffed with wool1 and fastened to the top of a frame of the following figure4 ,this frame is to be of such a height that the cushion shall press against the sides of the bottle1 and a piece of black silk is sewn on to the top of the cushion1 and hangs over the bottle ,d4 ,the cushion should be smeared with an amalgam1 formed by melting together in the bowl of a tobacco-pipe one part of tin with two of zinc2 to which1 while fluid1 should be added six parts of mercury4 ,these should be stirred about till quite cold1 and then reduced to a fine powder in a mortar1 and mixed with a sufficient quantity of lard to form a thickish paste4 ,when all is done1 the machine is complete4 ,illustration3 ,,cushion4 ,,the ,,conductor4 ,the electricity being generated by the friction produced between the rubber and the bottle from the motion imparted by the handle1 it is necessary to draw it off for use4 ,this is performed by what is called a conductor4 ,this is made by covering a cylinder of turned wood six inches long and two and a half inches in diameter1 and nicely rounded at the ends1 with tinfoil1 which is then mounted on a stand on a glass rod4 ,when used1 it is to be placed in the direction of the length4 ,in it some pins are inserted1 with the points outside1 in a line even with1 and about half an inch from1 the bottle1 and it should be of such a height as to come just below the silk apron4 ,when it is wished to charge a ,leyden jar1 it is to be placed at the round end of the conductor4 ,by these simple means a great variety of pleasing experiments may be performed2 but to show the various phenomena connected with this interesting study1 we shall now describe an electrical machine of the newest construction1 and perform our experiments with it4 ,,the ,,plate ,,electrical ,,machine4 ,illustration ,formerly the electrical machine was made in the form of a cylinder1 but now it consists of a plate ,a1 as seen in the engraving4 ,the plate is turned by the handle ,f through the rubber ,b ,b1 which diffuses the excitement over the glass4 ,the points or balls at each side of the plate carry off a constant stream of positive electricity to the prime conductor ,c4 ,negative electricity is generated by insulating the conductor to which the cushion is attached1 and continuing the prime conductor with the ground1 so as to carry off the fluid collected from the plate4 ,,how ,,to ,,draw ,,sparks ,,from ,,the ,,tip ,,of ,,the ,,nose4 ,if the person who works the machine be supported on a stool having glass legs1 and connected with the conductor by means of a glass rod1 the electricity will pass from the conductor to him1 and as it cannot get away1 owing to the glass on which he stands being a non-conductor1 any person on touching him can draw the electricity from him1 which will exhibit itself in small sparks as it passes to the person who touches him4 ,if touched on the nose1 sparks of fire will issue from it4 ,,how ,,to ,,charge ,a ,,leyden ,,jar4 ,illustration ,a most useful piece of electrical apparatus is called the ,leyden jar1 here represented4 ,it is employed for the purpose of obtaining a quantity of electricity1 which may be applied to any substance4 ,it consists of a glass jar1 coated both inside and without1 four-fifths of the way up1 with tinfoil4 ,a knob rises through a wooden top communicating with the inside of the jar4 ,when it is wished to charge the jar1 this knob is applied to the prime conductor of the electrical machine when in action1 and a quantity of electricity being given off1 the jar will remain charged with it till a connexion is made1 by some good conductor of electricity1 between the knob and the outside tinfoil4 ,a piece of brass chain must hang from the stem that carries the knob1 and connect it with the interior of the jar4 ,,the ,,electrical ,,battery4 ,illustration ,if several of these jars be united1 a large quantity of electricity can be collected2 but1 in arranging them1 all the interior coatings must be made to communicate by metallic rods1 and a similar union must be effected among the exterior coatings4 ,when thus arranged1 the whole series may be charged as if they formed but one jar4 ,illustration ,for the purpose of making a direct communication between the inner or outer coatings of a jar or battery1 by which a discharge is effected1 an instrument called a discharging rod is employed4 ,it consists of two bent metallic rods1 terminating at one end by brass balls1 and connected at another by a joint which is fixed to the end of a glass handle1 and which1 acting like a pair of compasses1 allows of the balls being separated at certain distances4 ,when opened to the proper degree1 one of the balls is made to touch the exterior coating1 and the other ball is then brought into contact with the knob of the jar1 when a discharge is effected2 while the glass handle secures the person holding it from the effects of the shock4 ,,dancing ,,balls ,,and ,,dolls4 ,illustration ,get two round pieces of wood1 ,a ,b1 and coat them with tinfoil2 or two pieces of metal plate2 attach one of them to the prime conductor by a chain1 and let it hang about two or three inches from the knob4 ,place some pith-balls upon the bottom piece of wood ,b1 and bring it under the other4 ,immediately this is done1 and the upper piece is charged with electricity from the machine1 the pith-balls will jump up and down1 and from one to the other with great rapidity4 ,if some of the pith be formed into little figures1 they will also dance and leap about in the most grotesque manner4 ,the same may be made to dance by merely holding the inside of a dry glass tumbler to the prime conductor for a few minutes1 while the machine is in action1 and then if this be placed over them they will jump about1 to the astonishment of the spectators1 as the cause of their motions is not quite so apparent4 ,,the ,,electrical ,,kiss4 ,this amusing experiment is performed by means of the electrical stool4 ,let any lady challenge a gentleman not acquainted with the experiment to favour her with a salute4 ,the lady thereupon mounts the glass stool1 and takes hold of a chain connected with the prime conductor4 ,the machine being then put in motion the gentleman approaches the lady1 and immediately he attempts to imprint the seal of soft affection upon her coral lips1 a spark will fly in his face1 which generally deters him from his rash and wicked intention4 ,,ringing ,,bells4 ,illustration ,bells may be made to ring by electricity in the following manner4 ,let three small bells be suspended from a brass wire1 ,d ,d1 and supported by a glass pillar ,a1 passing through bell ,b to the bell ,e4 ,the electrical apparatus being attached to the knob ,f1 the electricity passes down the wires ,d ,d to the bells1 which are then positively electrified and attract the clappers ,c ,c1 that are negatively so1 in consequence of being insulated by the silken strings1 which are not conductors4 ,the bells therefore attract the clappers till they are charged1 when they strike against the centre bell to discharge themselves1 and thus a peal is rung on the bells until the electricity is driven off4 ,,working ,,power ,,of ,,electricity4 ,this may be shown in a variety of ways4 ,the subjoined machine will exhibit the principle upon which many ingenious toys may be made by the young philosopher4 ,in the figure ,a is a wooden board or stand1 ,b ,b ,b ,b1 four pillars of glass1 gutta-percha1 or sealing-wax1 having fine wires1 ,c ,c1 stretched above4 ,on these rest the rotatory wire or wheel ,f1 having its points turned the reverse ways4 ,by means of a chain attached to the conductor1 and to the instrument at ,b1 the electricity passes over the pillar ,b1 up the wire ,c into the wheel1 and off at the points1 which causes it to be turned round on an inclined plane till it reaches the top4 ,illustration ,,the ,,electrified ,,wig4 ,while a person is on the electrical stool1 if he be charged with much electricity1 8,each hair will stand on end1 ,like quills upon the fretful porcupine40 ,illustration ,a wooden head--not your own1 but a real wooden head--with a wig of streaming hair1 and a handsome face to correspond1 may be made in the following form1 with a wire in the neck to support it by1 and fixed in the conductor of an electrical machine4 ,when this is put in motion the hair will rise up1 as in the figure1 in a manner to astonish even the 8big-wigs40 ,,imitation ,,thunderclouds4 ,illustration ,to show the manner in which thunderclouds perform their operations in the air1 ,a ,a is a wooden stand1 on which are erected two uprights1 ,b ,b2 ,c ,c are two small pulleys1 over which a silken cord can pull easily2 ,e is another silken line stretched across from one upright to another2 on these silken cords two pieces of thin cardboard covered with tinfoil1 and cut so as to represent clouds1 are to be fixed horizontally1 and made to communicate1 by means of thin wires ,f and ,g1 one with the inside1 and the other with the outside1 of a charged jar1 ,d4 ,now1 by pulling the loop of the silk line1 the clouds will be brought near the cloud #b2 continue this slowly1 until the clouds 7which are furnished with two small brass balls7 are within an inch of each other1 when a beautiful flash1 strongly resembling lightning in miniature1 will pass from one cloud to the other1 restoring electrical equilibrium4 ,,the ,,lightning ,,stroke ,,imitated4 ,illustration ,if the jar ,d be put behind the stand1 and the cloud #b removed1 a vessel communicating by means of a wire with the outside of the jar may be swum in water under the remaining cloud2 the mast being made of two pieces1 and but slightly joined together1 with a hollow space in one half of the mast1 into which the ends of the conductor pass1 but do not touch1 leaving an interval of about a quarter of an inch between them4 ,the hollow is then filled with gun-cotton1 and closed with cork4 ,when the cloud is passed over the vessel1 the mast will be struck and shattered to pieces4 ,a strip of tinfoil1 arranged with pins over the hollow part of the mast1 will show how a continuous conductor will convey the discharge safely away4 ,,the ,,sportsman4 ,this apparatus is capable of affording much amusement4 ,a is a stand of wood1 ,b is a common ,leyden jar1 out of which proceed the wires ,h ,h--one terminating in ball ,f1 the other in the ball ,d--to which are attached a number of pith birds by silken strings2 ,e is a shelf for the birds to rest upon2 ,c is the sportsman2 ,g his gun4 ,illustration ,to put this operation in motion the ,leyden jar is to be charged with electricity by affixing a chain to the bottom part of it1 and connecting it with an electrical machine in the usual manner1 or by applying it to a prime conductor1 when the birds will fly off the knob to which they are fixed in consequence of their being repelled4 ,if the sportsman and gun be then turned1 so that the end of his gun shall touch the knob ,f1 an electric spark will pass from one to the other1 a report will be heard1 and the birds will fall down as if shot1 in consequence of the electricity having been taken from the ,leyden jar4 ,there should be a communication between the sportsman and the jar formed of tinfoil1 or some metal1 as shown by the dotted line on the stand4 ,such are a few of many numerous experiments which may be made by the young experimenter1 who is fond of science and has any ingenuity2 but should he like to amuse himself with an electrifying machine of little cost1 he may warm a sheet of brown paper1 and then rub it briskly on a teatray with india-rubber2 on raising the paper in a dark room1 he will see many pretty electrical sparks4 ,the back of a black tom cat is sometimes recommended as a cheap electrical machine2 but as the wishes of the animal have to be consulted1 perhaps it is wiser to leave the cat alone4 ,illustration ,,galvanism1 ,,or ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 8,to play with fire ,they say is dangerous2 what is it then ,to shake hands with the lightning1 and to sport ,with thunder80--,,tyler4 ,galvanism1 or electricity of quantity1 in contradistinction to frictional electricity1 called electricity of intensity1 owes its name to the experiments on animal irritability made in #agij by ,m4 ,galvani1 a professor of anatomy at ,bologna4 ,these experiments were suggested by the following circumstances4 ,,origin ,,of ,,galvanism4 ,it happened that the wife of ,galvani1 who was consumptive1 was advised to take as an article of food some soup made of the flesh of frogs4 ,several of these creatures were killed and skinned1 and were lying on the table in the laboratory close to an electrical machine1 with which a pupil of the professor was making experiments4 ,while the machine was in action1 he chanced to touch the bare nerve of the leg of one of the frogs with the blade of the knife that he had in his hand1 when suddenly the whole limb was thrown into violent convulsions4 ,galvani was not present when this occurred2 but being informed of it1 he immediately set himself to investigate the cause4 ,he found that it was only when a spark was drawn from the prime conductor1 and when the knife or any other good conductor was in contact with the nerve1 that the contracting took place2 and after a time he discovered that the effect was independent of the electrical machine1 and might be equally well produced by making a metallic communication between the outside muscle and the crural nerve4 ,,simple ,,experiment ,,to ,,excite ,,galvanic ,,action4 ,if the young experimenter will obtain a piece of zinc of the size of half a crown and place it on the top of his tongue1 and place a half-crown underneath it1 and bring the edges of the half-crown and zinc in contact in front of his tongue1 he will notice a peculiar sensation in the nerves of this organ1 and some taste will be imparted to his mouth at the moment of contact4 ,,with ,,metal ,,plates ,,in ,,water4 ,illustration ,if we take two plates of different kinds of metal1 platinum 7or copper7 and zinc1 for example1 and immerse them in pure water1 having wires attached to them above1 then if the wire of each is brought into contact in another vessel of water1 a galvanic circle will be formed1 the water will be slowly decomposed1 its oxygen will be fixed on the zinc wire1 and at the same time a current of electricity will be transmitted through the liquid to the platina or copper wire1 on the end of which the other element of water1 namely1 the hydrogen1 will make its appearance in the form of minute gas bubbles4 ,the electrical current passes back again into the zinc at the points of its contact with the platina1 and thus a continued current is kept up1 and hence it is called a galvanic circle4 ,the moment the circuit is broken by separating the wires the current ceases1 but is again renewed by making them touch either in or out of the water4 ,if a small quantity of sulphuric acid be added to the water1 the phenomenon will be more apparent4 ,the end of the wire attached to the piece of platinum or copper is called the positive pole of the battery1 and that of the wire attached to the zinc the negative pole4 ,the current of electricity here generated will be extremely feeble2 but this can be easily increased by multiplying the glasses and the number of the pieces of metal4 ,if we take six such glasses instead of one1 partially fill them with dilute sulphuric acid1 and put a piece of zinc and copper into each1 connecting them by means of copper wire from glass to glass through the whole series1 a stronger current of electricity will be the result4 ,the experimenter must be careful not to let the wire and zinc touch each other at the bottom of the tumblers1 and must also remember that the copper of glass #a is connected with the zinc of glass #b1 and so on4 ,illustration ,,to ,,make ,a ,,magnet ,,by ,,the ,,voltaic ,,current4 ,to effect this1 make a connexion between the poles of the above or any excited battery with the two ends of a wire formed into a spiral coil1 by bending common bonnet-wire closely round a cylinder1 or tube1 of about an inch in diameter2 into this coil introduce a needle or piece of steel wire1 laying it lengthways down the circles of the coil4 ,in a few minutes after the electric fluid has passed through the spiral wire1 and consequently round the needle or wire1 the latter will be found to be strongly magnetized1 and to possess all the properties of a magnet4 ,,effects ,,of ,,galvanism ,,on ,a ,,magnet4 ,if a galvanic current1 or any electric current1 be made to pass along a wire under which1 and in a line with it1 a compass is placed1 it will be found that the needle will no longer point north and south1 but will take a direction nearly across the current1 and point almost east and west4 ,,change ,,of ,,colour ,,by ,,galvanism4 ,put a teaspoonful of sulphate of soda into a cup1 and dissolve it in hot water2 pour a little cabbage blue into the solution1 and put a portion into two glasses1 connecting them by a piece of linen or cotton cloth previously moistened in the same solution4 ,on putting one of the wires of the galvanic pole into each glass1 the acid accumulates in the one1 turning the blue to a red1 and the alkali in the other1 rendering it green4 ,if the wires be now reversed1 the acid accumulates eventually in the glass where the alkali appeared1 while the alkali passes to the glass where the acid was4 ,,the ,,galvanic ,,shock4 ,if the ends of the wires of a small galvanic battery are connected with a proper electro-magnetic coil1 which may now be purchased at a very cheap rate1 and the wires from the coil be placed in separate basins of water1 then1 on dipping the fingers of each hand in the basin1 a smart shock will be felt1 with a particular aching accompanied with trembling4 ,with a strong battery and larger coil this effect is felt as high as the shoulders4 ,the shock will also be felt by simply holding the wires of a powerful galvanic battery1 one in each hand1 provided the hands be moistened with salt and water4 ,several persons may receive the shock from the battery and coil together by joining hands4 ,,the ,,electrotype4 ,the electro-galvanic current has in no case been more interestingly employed than in the process of electrotyping4 ,it consists of a mode of obtaining the copy of coins1 medals1 engraved plates1 and other objects1 which may be easily illustrated4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,electrotype ,,apparatus4 ,illustration ,take an earthen jar and a porous tube2 fill the tube with ten parts of water and one of sulphuric acid2 put it into the jar1 into which pour as much of a solution of sulphate of copper 7blue vitriol7 as will fill three parts of it2 place in the tube a piece of zinc1 to which a copper wire is soldered and bent round1 so that one end be immersed in the sulphate of copper2 and a deposit of the copper will be immediately formed upon the wire4 ,if there be plenty of acid and water1 so as to allow of the action enduring for a long time1 this process will go on till it has deposited all the copper4 ,this is the principle upon which electrotyping proceeds1--a principle referable to electro-chemical decomposition4 ,the diagram represents an outer vessel of wood1 glass1 or earthenware1 capable of holding a pint of liquid1 within which there is suspended a short lamp-glass ,a1 the one end being open1 and the other1 ,b1 closed with a diaphragm of plaster of ,paris2 ,c is a small bag of crystals of sulphate of copper1 to keep up the strength of the solution2 ,z is the zinc1 and ,m the metal4 ,,to ,,obtain ,,the ,,copy ,,of ,a ,,coin ,,or ,,medal4 ,never place the original medal in the apparatus1 or the deposited copper may adhere so tightly to it that the removal destroys the beauty of the medal4 ,having taken an impression in sealing-wax1 cover the latter with black-lead1 and attach a wire so that it is in contact with the black-lead4 ,to the wire and cast thus arranged a piece of sheet or cast zinc1 amalgamated with mercury1 must be attached1 and we are at once furnished with the materials for the battery1 as the object to be copied supplies the place of the copper4 ,the medal must always be placed horizontally4 ,now let the apparatus be charged with the solution1 by pouring into the outer vessel a portion of the coppery solution1 so that it will stand about an inch above the medal2 then pour in the glass the dilute acid to the same height as the former2 now introduce the zinc into the acid1 and the object to be copied into the solution of copper1 which will immediately be deposited on the medal1 and when of a sufficient thickness may be taken off4 ,,heat4 ,,heat1 ,,or ,,caloric4 ,the chief agent in causing the repulsion or separation of the particles of bodies from each other is heat1 or more correctly caloric1 by which is understood the unknown cause of the effect called heat4 ,philosophers are not agreed upon the nature of this wonderful agent4 ,it pervades all nature1 is the cause of nearly all the changes that take place both in organic and inorganic matter1 and has great influence in the meteorological phenomena which we observe in the atmosphere that surrounds our planet4 ,it appears to be intimately connected with light1 electricity1 and magnetism1--subjects which the genius of ,faraday and others have investigated1 and by their discoveries brought us nearer to the knowledge of the real nature of these most wonderful forces4 ,caloric1 then1 exists in all bodies1 and has a constant tendency to equalize itself1 as far at least as its outward manifestation1 called temperature1 is concerned2 for if a hot body be brought near colder ones1 it will give up heat to them1 until by its loss and their gain they all become of the same temperature2 and this proceeds more or less rapidly1 according as the original difference of temperature was greater or less4 ,some other circumstances also influence this equalization4 ,the converse will take place on introducing a cold body among warmer ones1 when heat will be abstracted from all the bodies within reach of its influence1 until it has absorbed sufficient caloric to bring its own temperature to an equality with theirs4 ,this is the true explanation of the apparent production of cold4 ,when1 for instance1 an iceberg comes across a ship's course1 it appears to give out cold1 whereas1 it has abstracted the heat from the air and sea in its neighbourhood1 and they in turn act upon the ship and everything in it1 until one common temperature is produced in all the neighbouring bodies4 ,it does not follow that the bodies thus equalized in temperature contain equal quantities of caloric2 far from it4 ,each body requires a particular quantity of caloric to raise its temperature through a certain number of degrees2 and such quantity is called its specific caloric4 ,a pound of water1 for instance1 will take just twice as much caloric as a pound of olive oil1 to raise its temperature through the same number of degrees2 the specific caloric of water is therefore double that of oil4 ,mix any quantity of oil at #fj of temperature with an equal weight of water at #ij1 and you will find the temperature of the mixture to be nearly #hj1 instead of only #gd or #ge1 showing that while the water has lost only #aj of caloric1 the mixture has risen #bj4 ,if the oil be at #ij1 and the water at #fj1 the resulting temperature will be only #gj1 or thereabouts1 instead of #ge1 the mean2 thus1 here the hot oil has lost #bj1 while the mixture has risen only #aj2 the water1 then1 contains at the same temperature twice as much caloric as the oil2 its specific caloric is double that of the oil4 ,this mean temperature does result when equal weights of the same body at different temperatures are mixed together4 ,the sensations called heat and cold are by no means accurate measures of the real temperature of any substances1 for many causes influence these sensations1 some belonging to the substances themselves1 others to the state of our organs at the time4 ,every one has remarked that metals in a warm room feel warmer1 and in a cold room colder than wooden articles1 and these again than woollen or cotton articles of dress or furniture2 this arises from metals being what is termed better conductors of heat than wood1 and this better than wool1 c41 that is1 they give out or absorb caloric more rapidly than these last4 ,some philosophers1 wishing to ascertain how much heat the human body could endure1 had a room heated with stoves1 every crevice being carefully stopped1 until the temperature rose so high that a beefsteak placed on the table was sufficiently cooked to be eaten4 ,they were dressed in flannel1 and could with impunity touch the carpets1 curtains1 c41 in the room2 but the iron handles1 fire-irons1 and all metallic substances1 burnt their fingers2 and one who wore silver spectacles was obliged to remove them to save his nose4 ,the fallacy of our sensations may be easily shown by taking two basins1 placing in one some water at #ajj1 in another some water at as low a temperature as can easily be procured--hold the right hand in one1 the left in the other1 for a few minutes1 and then mix them1 and place both hands in the mixture2 it will feel quite cold to the hand that had been in the hotter water1 and hot to the other4 ,in order to arrive at a correct estimate of the temperature of bodies1 instruments are made use of called thermometers1 or measurers of heat1 which show increase or diminution of temperature by the rising or falling of a column of some fluid in a tube of glass1 one end of which is expanded into a bulb1 and the other hermetically sealed4 ,this effect is produced by the expansion or swelling of the fluid as caloric is added to1 and its contraction when caloric is abstracted from it4 ,coloured spirits of wine1 or quicksilver1 are the most usual thermometric fluids1 and the tube containing them is fixed to a wooden or metallic frame1 on which certain divisions are marked1 called degrees4 ,that in general use in ,england is called ,fahrenheit's1 from the name of the person who first introduced that particular scale4 ,in this thermometer1 the point at which the mercury in the tube stands when plunged into melting ice1 is marked #cb1 and the distance between that point1 and the point to which the mercury rises in boiling water1 is divided into #ahj equal parts1 called degrees2 so that water is said to boil at #bab #ahj #cb4 ,there are two other scales of temperature used in different parts of the world1 but it is not worth while to notice them here4 ,not only do different bodies at the same degree of temperature contain very different quantities of caloric1 but this also is the case with the same body in different forms4 ,ice1 water1 and steam1 are three forms of the same body1 but ice at #cb contains much less caloric than water at the same temperature1 and water at #bab contains much less caloric than steam 7or water in a state of vapour7 at that temperature4 ,place in a jar any given quantity of snow1 or small pieces of ice1 at #cb1 and in another the same weight of water at #cb1 pour on each an equal weight of water at #agb1 and you will find that in the first case the ice will be melted1 but the temperature will remain at #cb or thereabouts1 while the temperature of the water in the other vessel will have risen to #ajj or thereabouts1 being as near as possible the half of the excess of the temperature of the hot water1 #adj over that of the cold1 namely #gj added to #cb1 the original temperature4 ,now1 what has become of the heat which was added to the ice1 and is apparently lost8--it is absorbed by the ice in its passage to the fluid state2 so that water may be said to be a compound of ice and caloric4 ,again1 take #aj ounces of water at about #ej1 and add #a oz4 of water at #bab1 and the temperature of the mixture will be about #ff2 then condense some steam at #bab1 into another #aj oz4 of water until it has become #aa oz41 and you will find the temperature will be nearly #bab4 ,why does the ounce of steam at #bab raise the temperature of the water so much higher than the ounce of water at the same temperature8 ,obviously because it contains hidden in its substance a vast quantity of caloric1 not to be detected by the thermometer2 in fact1 that steam is a compound of water and caloric1 as water is a compound of ice and caloric2 and this caloric which exists1 more or less1 in all bodies without producing any obvious effect1 is called latent caloric1 from the ,latin verb lateo1 to lie hid4 ,the quantity of caloric thus absorbed as it were by various bodies1 differs for each body1 and for the same body in different forms1 as mentioned above4 ,,expansion4 ,as a general rule1 all bodies1 whether solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 are expanded by caloric4 ,this may be shown by experiments in each form of matter4 ,have a small iron rod made1 which when cold just passes through a hole in a plate of metal2 heat it1 and it will no longer pass2 after a time the rod will return to its former temperature1 and then will go through the hole as before4 ,the rod increases in length as well as width2 if you have a gauge divided into #a_/ajj of an inch1 and place the rod in it when cold1 noting its position1 on heating it will extend to a greater length in the gauge1 returning to its former place when cool4 ,the effect of caloric in causing fluids to expand is actually employed as a measure of quantity in the thermometer1 the rise of the fluid in the tube when heated depending on the increased bulk of the fluid occasioned by the addition of caloric4 ,the same fact is to be noticed every day when the cook fills the kettle1 and places it on the fire4 ,as the water becomes warmer it expands1 that is1 takes up more room than it did before1 and the water escapes by slow degrees1 increasing as the heat increases1 up to the point of boiling1 when a sudden commotion takes place from the condensation of a portion of the water into steam4 ,but it is in the form of vapour or gas1 7which by the bye is not the same thing1#i7 that the expansive force of caloric is most obvious4 ,the gigantic powers of the steam-engine depend entirely on the tendency of vapour to expand on the addition of caloric2 and this force of expansion appears to have no limit2 boilers made of iron plates an inch or even more in thickness1 and the buildings or ships containing them1 having been torn to pieces and scattered in all directions by the expansive power of steam4 ,take a bladder1 and fill it about half full of air1 and tie the neck securely2 upon holding it to the fire it will swell out1 and become quite tense from the expansion of the contained air4 #i ,it may be well to state here1 that by vapour is generally understood the arial form of a substance usually existing in a solid or fluid form at ordinary temperatures2 as the vapour of iodine1 a solid2 of mercury1 water1 spirits1 and other fluids3 while the term gas is applied to those bodies usually known in the arial state2 thus oxygen1 nitrogen1 carbonic acid1 hydrogen1 c4 c41 are called gases4 ,it is1 however1 but an arbitrary distinction2 for many of these gases have1 by the combined influence of cold and powerful pressure1 been converted into fluids1 and even solids--carbonic acid gas for instance6 ,the principal source of caloric is the sun1 whose beams1 diffused through all nature by the refractive property of the atmosphere1 are the source of vitality both to vegetables and animals1 and when concentrated by a large convex lens1 produce the most intense heat1 sufficient to light a piece of diamond1 and melt platinum4 ,caloric is also produced or evolved by combustion1 by friction1 percussion1 chemical combination1 electricity1 and galvanism4 ,the evolution of heat by friction may be witnessed daily in a thousand instances4 ,lucifer matches are lighted by rubbing the highly inflammable substances with which they are tipped against a piece of sand-paper4 ,nearly all savage people procure fire by rubbing a piece of hard wood violently against a softer piece4 ,the axle-trees of steam-engines1 and even of carriages1 have been known to be so heated by friction as to endanger burning the carriage2 and it is very usual to be obliged to pour a quantity of cold water on the iron axle of the carriages of an express train after an hour of constant and rapid work4 ,if you merely rub the blade of a knife rapidly on a piece of wood1 it will become hot enough to burn your hand4 ,percussion is merely a more energetic kind of friction1 and is often resorted to by the blacksmith to light his furnace4 ,he places a nail or other piece of soft iron on his anvil1 and beats it rapidly with the hammer1 when it becomes actually red hot4 ,the production of sparks by striking flint against steel1 or two pieces of flint one against the other1 are familiar instances of heat produced by percussion4 ,one of the most powerful means of producing heat is the process of combustion4 ,combustion1 as the word imports1 is the burning together of two or more substances1 a chemical union of oxygen generally with carbon and hydrogen in some shape or other4 ,in our ordinary fires we burn coal1 a hydro-carbon as it is called2 and the gas which is now so universally used for the purpose of illumination1 is a compound of the same bodies--so wax1 tallow1 oil of various kinds1 both of animal and vegetable origin1 are all hydro-carbons4 ,on the application of a sufficient heat1 and a free access of atmospheric air1 or of some other gas containing oxygen in a certain state of combination1 these bodies take fire1 and continue to burn either with flame1 or a red or even white heat without flame1 until they are consumed2 that is1 until they have entered into new combinations with the oxygen1 and are converted into carbonic acid and water1 the carbon forming the first product1 the hydrogen the other4 ,illustration ,the following experiment shows the production of heat by chemical action alone4 ,bruise some fresh prepared crystals of nitrate of copper1 spread them over a piece of tin-foil1 sprinkle them with a little water2 then fold up the foil tightly as rapidly as possible1 and in a minute or two it will become red-hot1 the tin apparently burning away4 ,this heat is produced by the energetic action of the tin on the nitrate of copper1 taking away its oxygen in order to unite with the nitric acid1 for which1 as well as for the oxygen1 the tin has a much greater affinity than the copper has4 ,combustion without flame may be shown in a very elegant and agreeable manner1 by making a coil of platinum wire by twisting it round the stem of a tobacco-pipe1 or any cylindrical body1 for a dozen times or so1 leaving about an inch straight1 which should be inserted into the wick of a spirit-lamp2 light the lamp1 and after it has burnt for a minute or two extinguish the flame quickly2 the wire will soon become red hot1 and1 if kept from draughts of air1 will continue to burn until all the spirit is consumed4 ,spongy platinum1 as it is called1 answers rather better than wire1 and has been employed in the formation of fumigators for the drawing-room1 in which1 instead of pure spirit1 some perfume1 such as lavender water1 is used2 by its combustion an agreeable odour is diffused through the apartment4 ,these little lamps were much in vogue a few years ago1 but are now nearly out of fashion4 ,experiments on combustion might be multiplied almost to any amount1 but the above will be sufficient for the present4 ,when we come to treat of the properties of the gases and some other substances1 we shall have occasion to recur to this subject4 ,the production of caloric by chemical combination may be exhibited by mixing carefully one part of oil of vitriol with two of water1 when sufficient heat will be produced to boil some water in a thin and narrow tube1 which may be used as a rod to stir the mixture4 ,the production of heat by electric and galvanic agency belongs to another subject4 ,i will content myself with saying here1 that these forces afford the most powerful aid in decomposing and uniting various bodies1 and that it was by the immense power of a battery of #b1jjj pairs of plates1 belonging to the ,royal ,institution in ,london1 that ,sir ,h4 ,davy discovered the metallic bases of the alkalies and earths4 ,,hydraulics4 ,the science of ,hydraulics comprehends the laws which regulate non-elastic fluids in motion1 and especially water1 c4 ,illustration ,water can only be set in motion by two causes--the pressure of the atmosphere1 or its own gravity4 ,the principal law concerning fluids is1 that they always preserve their own level4 ,hence water can be distributed over a town from any reservoir that is higher than the houses to be supplied2 and the same principle will enable us to form fountains in a garden1 or other place4 ,should any of our young friends wish to form a fountain1 or jet d'eau1 they may1 by bringing a pipe from ,t1 a water-tank1 which should be at the upper part of the house1 convey the water down to the garden4 ,then by leading it through the earth1 underneath the path or grass-plot1 and turning it to a perpendicular position1 the water will spring out1 and rise nearly as high as the level of that in the tank4 ,the part of the pipe at ,b should have a turnkey1 so that the water may be let on or shut off at pleasure4 ,,the ,,syphon4 ,illustration ,the syphon ,b is a bent tube1 having one leg shorter than the other4 ,it acts by the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,in order to make a syphon act1 it is necessary first to fill both legs quite full of the fluid2 and then the shorter leg must be placed in the vessel to be emptied4 ,immediately upon withdrawing the finger from the longer leg1 the liquor will flow4 ,any young person may form a syphon by a small piece of leaden pipe1 bent into the form above4 ,,the ,,pump4 ,illustration ,the action of the common pump is as follows3 ,when the handle ,a is raised1 the piston-rod ,b descends1 and brings the piston-valve1 called the sucker1 or bucket1 to another valve1 ,c1 which is fixed1 and opens inwards towards the piston4 ,when the handle is drawn down1 the piston is raised1 and1 as it is air-tight1 a vacuum is produced between the two valves2 the air in the barrel of the pump1 betwixt the lower valve and the water1 then forces open the lower valve1 and rushes through to fill up this vacuum2 and the air in the pump being less dense than the external atmosphere1 the water is forced a short way up the barrel4 ,when the piston again descends to the lower valve1 the air between them is again forced out by forcing open the upper valve2 and when the piston is raised1 a vacuum is again produced1 and the air below the lower valve rushes up1 and the water in consequence is again raised a little further4 ,this operation continues until the water rises above the lower valve2 at every stroke afterwards1 the water passes through the valve of the descending piston1 and is raised by it1 on its ascent1 until it issues out of the spout4 ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,dancer4 ,illustration ,make a little figure of cork1 in the shape of a dancing mountebank1 sailor1 c4 ,in this figure place a small hollow cone1 made of thin leaf brass4 ,when this figure is placed upon any jet d'eau1 such as that of the fountain recommended to be constructed1 it will be suspended on the top of the water1 and perform a great variety of amusing motions4 ,if a hollow ball of very thin copper1 of an inch in diameter1 be placed on a similar jet1 it will remain suspended1 turning round and spreading the water all about it4 ,,the ,,water ,,snail1 ,,or ,,archimedean ,,screw1 ,illustration may easily be constructed4 ,purchase a yard of small leaden pipe1 and twist it round a pole1 as in the following figure1 ,a2 place a handle at its upper end1 ,b1 and let its lower end rest in the water4 ,between the last turn of the pipe and the orifice place a paddle-wheel1 ,c4 ,now1 should the water be that of a running stream1 the force of the stream will turn the pipe1 and the water will rise in it till it empties itself into the trough at ,d4 ,should the water have no motion1 the turning of the handle at ,b will elevate the water from the lower to the higher level4 ,illustration ,,magnetism4 ,the attractive power of the loadstone has been known from a very remote period4 ,the natural magnet appears native in a grey iron ore in octahedral crystals1 composed of #afh parts of iron1 and #fd parts of oxygen1 ,fe,o4 ,its properties seem to have been studied in ,europe during the dark ages1 and a directive power is alluded to by ,cardinal ,james de ,vitri1 who flourished about the year #abjj1 who observed1 that it was indispensable to those who travel much by sea4 ,in modern times1 the history as well as the nature of the magnet has engaged remarkable attention2 and it has been determined beyond all dispute that the magnet was used by the ,chinese under the name of the tche-chy 7directing-stone7 about #bfjd years before ,christ4 ,it passed from them to the ,arabs1 and was first used in ,europe after the ,crusades2 and ,ludi ,vestomanus asserts1 that about the year #aejj he saw a pilot in the ,east ,indies direct his course by a magnetic needle like those now in use4 ,,relation ,,of ,,magnetism ,,to ,,electricity4 ,the most remarkable theories have been invented to account for the phenomena of magnetism4 ,halley imagined magnetic globes to be moving to and fro in the interior of the earth4 ,barlow's theory1 which refers the whole to electrical currents1 is the most rational4 ,dr4 ,faraday1 for whose kindness to us in early days we always feel grateful1 in a series of very curious experiments1 has succeeded in identifying magnetism with galvanism1 by directing galvanic currents at right angles to the direction of powerful magnets4 ,and its connexion with this and the common species of electricity has deprived it of all its conjuring powers1 and reduced it to the well-defined action of electrical bodies4 ,it is not for us to write either a history of this interesting subject1 or to treat it as a science to be acquired2 but as it embodies a great number of most instructive and amusing experiments1 we think it proper to introduce it here4 ,,to ,,make ,,artificial ,,magnets4 ,this may be done by stroking a piece of hard steel with a natural or artificial magnet4 ,take a common sewing-needle and pass the north pole of a magnet from the eye to the point1 pressing it gently in so doing4 ,after reaching the end of the needle the magnet must not be passed back again towards the eye1 but must be lifted up and applied again to that end1 the friction being always in the same direction4 ,after repeating this for a few times the needle will become magnetised1 and attract iron filings1 c4 ,,how ,,to ,,magnetise ,a ,,poker4 ,hold it in the left hand in a position slightly inclined from the perpendicular1 the lower end pointing to the north1 and then strike it smartly several times with a large iron hammer1 and it will be found to possess the powers of a magnet1 although but slightly4 ,,to ,,show ,,magnetic ,,repulsion ,,and ,,attraction4 ,suspend two short pieces of iron wire1 ,n ,s1 ,n ,s1 so that they will hang in contact in a vertical position4 ,if the north pole of a magnet ,n be now brought to a moderate distance between the wires1 they will recede from each other1 as in figure #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig #a4 ,the ends ,s ,s being made south poles by induction from the north pole ,n1 will repel each other1 and so will the north poles ,n ,n4 ,this separation of the wires will increase as the magnet approaches them1 but there will be a particular distance at which the attractive force of ,n overcomes the repulsive force of the poles ,s ,s1 and causes the wires to converge1 as in figure #b2 the north poles ,n ,n still exhibiting their mutual repulsion4 ,,north ,,and ,,south ,,poles ,,of ,,the ,,magnet4 ,each magnet has its poles1 north and south--the north or south poles of one magnet1 repel the north and south pole of another4 ,if a magnet1 as in the following figure1 be dipped in some iron filings1 they will be immediately attracted to one end4 ,supposing this to be the north pole1 each of the ends of the filings1 not in contact with the magnet1 will become north poles1 while the ends in contact will by induction become south poles4 ,both will have a tendency to repel each other1 and the filings will stand on the magnet as in the figure4 ,illustration ,,polarity ,,of ,,the ,,magnet4 ,illustration ,the best method of proving this is to take a magnet or a piece of steel rendered magnetic1 and to place it on a piece of cork by laying it in a groove cut to receive it4 ,if the cork be placed in the centre of a basin of water1 and allowed to swim freely on its surface1 so that it is not attracted by the sides of the basin1 it will be found to turn its north pole to the north1 and its south pole to the south1 the same as the mariner's compass4 ,if you fix two magnets in two pieces of cork1 and place them also in a basin of water1 and they are in a parallel position with the same poles together1 that is1 north to north1 and south to south1 they will mutually repel each other2 but if the contrary poles point to one another1 as north to south1 they will be attracted4 ,,the ,,magnetic ,,fish4 ,illustration ,fish are to be purchased at the toy-shops1 by which the young 8magntique0 may perform this experiment2 they are made hollow1 and will float on the water4 ,in the mouth of each should be inserted a piece of magnetic wire4 ,the angling rod is like any other rod1 and has a silken thread for a line1 and an iron hook also strongly magnetised4 ,to catch the fish it is only necessary to put the hook in contact with the noses of the fish1 and they will be taken without any of the baits mentioned in the former part of this work4 ,,the ,,magnetic ,,swan4 ,illustration ,the figure of a swan should be cut in cork1 and within its beak a small strongly magnetised piece of steel should be placed4 ,the swan should then be covered with a coating of white wax1 and fashioned further into the shape of a swan1 and glass beads may be placed in its head for eyes4 ,this should be placed in a small tub or large basin of water1 and to make it swim about1 you should place in a white stick about nine inches long a magnetic bar1 on which the north and south poles are marked4 ,if you wish to bring the swan towards you1 present to him the north pole of the wand1 if you wish it to retire1 present the south pole1 and thus you may direct the swan to any part you desire4 ,,to ,,suspend ,a ,,needle ,,in ,,the ,,air ,,by ,,magnetism4 ,place a magnet on a stand to raise it a little above the table2 then bring a small sewing-needle containing a thread1 within a little of the magnet1 keeping hold of the thread to prevent the needle from attaching itself to the magnet4 ,the needle in endeavouring to fly to the magnet1 and being prevented by the thread1 will remain curiously suspended in the air1 reminding us of the fable of ,mahomed's coffin4 ,,to ,,make ,,artificial ,,magnets ,,without ,,the ,,aid ,,either ,,of ,,natural ,,loadstones ,,or ,,artificial ,,magnets4 ,illustration ,take an iron poker and tongs1 or two bars of iron1 the larger and the older the better1 and fixing the poker upright1 hold to it with the left hand near the top ,p by a silk thread1 a bar of soft steel about three inches long1 one fourth of an inch broad1 and one twentieth thick2 mark one end1 and let this end be downwards4 ,then grasping the tongs ,t with the right hand a little below the middle1 and keeping them nearly in a vertical line1 let the bar ,b be rubbed with the lower end ,l of the tongs1 from the marked end of the bar to its upper end about ten times of each side of it4 ,by this means the bar ,b will receive as much magnetism as will enable it to lift a small key at the marked end2 and this end of the bar being suspended by its middle1 or made to rest on a joint1 will turn to the north1 and is called its north pole1 the unmarked end being the south pole4 ,this is the method recommended by ,mr4 ,caxton1 in his process1 which he regarded superior to those in former use1 and of which a more detailed account will be found in his interesting volume4 ,,horse-,,shoe ,,magnets4 ,illustration ,the form of a horse-shoe is generally given to magnetised bars1 when both poles are wanted to act together1 which frequently happens in various experiments1 such as for lifting weights by the force of magnetic attraction1 and for magnetising steel bars by the process of double touch1 for which they are exceedingly convenient4 ,the following is the method of making a powerful magnetic battery of the horse-shoe form4 ,twelve bars or plates of steel are to be taken1 and having been previously bent to the required form1 that is1 the horse-shoe shape1 they are then bound together by means of rivets at their ends2 before being finally fastened they are each separately magnetised1 and afterwards finally united4 ,horse-shoe magnets should have a short bar of soft iron adapted to connect the two poles1 and should never be laid by without such a piece of iron adhering to them4 ,bar magnets should be kept in pairs with their poles turned in contrary directions1 and they should be kept from rust4 ,both kinds of magnets have their power not only preserved but increased1 by keeping them surrounded with a mass of dry filings of soft iron1 each particle of which will re-act by its induced magnetism upon the point of the magnet to which it adheres1 and maintain in that point its primitive magnetic state4 ,,experiment ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,soft ,,iron ,,possesses ,,magnetic ,,properties ,,while ,,it ,,remains ,,in ,,the ,,vicinity ,,of ,a ,,magnet4 ,illustration ,let ,m be a magnet and ,k a key1 held horizontally near one of its poles1 or near its lower edge4 ,then if another piece of iron1 such as a small nail1 be applied to the other end of the key1 the nail will hang from the key1 and will continue to do so while the magnet is slowly withdrawn2 but when it has been removed beyond a certain distance1 the nail will drop from the key1 because the magnetism induced in the key becomes at that distance too weak to support the weight of the nail4 ,that this is the real cause of its falling off may be proved by taking a still lighter fragment of iron1 such as a piece of very slender wire1 and applying it to the key4 ,the magnetism of the key will still be sufficiently strong to support the wire1 though it cannot the nail1 and it will continue to support it even when the magnet is yet further removed2 at length1 however1 it drops off4 ,,electro-,,magnetism4 ,the identity of magnetism with electricity alluded to in a former paragraph1 has led to the formation of a new science under the above name1 and to some of the interesting experiments connected with it1 we shall briefly allude for the amusement of the young reader4 ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,electro-,,magnet4 ,illustration ,the same influence which affects the magnetic needle already described1 will also communicate magnetism to soft iron4 ,if a bar of that metal bent1 as in the drawing1 be surrounded with a common bonnet wire1 or a copper wire prevented from touching the iron by a winding of cotton or thread1 and then if a current of voltaic electricity be sent through the wire1 the bar becomes a powerful magnet1 and will continue so as long as the connexion with the battery is preserved4 ,on breaking the contact1 the magnetism disappears4 ,this experiment may be easily made by the young reader with a horse-shoe magnet1 surrounded by several coils of wire4 ,p is the positive1 and ,n the negative pole4 ,,the ,,mariner',s ,,compass ,,and ,,experiments ,,with ,a ,,pocket ,,compass4 ,the mariner's compass is an artificial magnet fitted in a proper box1 and consists of three parts--#a1 the box2 #b1 the card or fly2 and #c1 the needle4 ,the box is suspended in a square wooden case1 by means of two concentric brass circles called gimbals1 so fixed by brazen axes to the two boxes1 that the inner one1 or compass-box1 retains a horizontal position in all motions of the ship4 ,the card is a circular piece of paper which is fastened upon the needle1 and moves with it4 ,the outer edge of the card is divided into thirty-two points1 as shown in the engraving1 called points of the compass4 ,the needle is a slender bar of hardened steel1 having a hollow agate cup in the centre1 which moves upon the point of a pivot made of brass4 ,illustration ,,variation ,,of ,,the ,,needle4 ,the magnetic needle does not point exactly north and south1 but the north pole of the needle takes a direction to the west of the true north4 ,it is constantly changing1 and varies at different parts of the earth1 and at different times of the day4 ,,dip ,,of ,,the ,,needle4 ,another remarkable and evident manifestation of the influence of the magnetism of the earth upon the needle is the inclination or dip of the latter1 which is a deviation from its horizontal place in a downward direction in northern regions of its north1 and in southern regions of its south pole4 ,in balancing the needle on the card1 on account of this dipping1 a small weight or moveable piece of brass is placed on one end of the needle1 by the shifting of which either nearer to or further from the centre1 the needle will always be balanced4 ,,useful ,,amusement ,,with ,,the ,,pocket ,,compass4 ,pocket compasses are to be bought for five or six shillings1 and may be used in many ways4 ,in travelling over mountains or a wide extended moor1 they are indispensably necessary2 and no one should go a tour into ,wales1 ,scotland1 or the lakes without such a companion1 and it will be a very useful and amusing exercise for any young person to take the bearings of his own or some particular locality1 and make out what may be called a bearing card4 ,this he may easily do in the following manner4 ,supposing he wishes1 for instance1 to take the bearings of his own house1 he has nothing to do but to set his pocket compass upon a map of the district1--a county map will do very well1 unless his house stands on the verge of a county1 then two county maps will be necessary4 ,he must make the north of the map exactly coincide with the north1 as indicated by his compass1 and having fixed his map in this situation1 he should take a ruler and piece of paper1 and dot down the exact bearings of each important town1 or place1 or village1 around him4 ,let him suppose himself1 for instance1 in the town of ,cambridge1 and laying down his map as indicated by the compass1 north to north and south to south1 he will find the following places due north1 ,wilberton1 ,wentworth2 ,little ,wilbraham1 ,teversham1 due east2 ,duxford and ,chesterfield1 south2 ,coton and ,st4 ,neots in ,huntingdonshire1 west4 ,the other points of the compass may be filled up in the same manner4 ,should therefore our young friend be upon any elevated situation near his own dwelling1 or upon any other elevated spot from which the bearings have been taken1 he will be able to inform his young friends that such and such a place lies in such a direction1 that this place lies due north1 the other north-west1 a third south-east1 the fourth south-west1 c4 c4 ,illustration ,,interesting ,,particulars ,,concerning ,,the ,,magnet4 ,fire-irons which have rested in an upright position in a room during the summer months are often highly magnetic4 ,iron bars standing erect1 such as the gratings of a prison cell1 or the iron railings before houses1 are often magnetic4 ,the great iron-clad ships1 which have now replaced the wooden walls of ,old ,england1 are powerfully magnetic1 and therefore affect the compass by which the vessel is steered2 ingenious arrangements are therefore made to correct the effect of the local attraction1 so that the man-of-war may be steered correctly4 ,magnetism may be made to pass through a deal board2 to exhibit which1 lay a needle on the smooth part above1 and run a magnet along the under side1 and the needle will be found to follow the course of the magnet4 ,a magnet dipped into boiling water loses part of its magnetism1 which however returns upon its cooling4 ,a sudden blow given to a magnet often destroys its magnetic power4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,mechanics4 8,these are machinations comical40--,,ford4 ,there is no subject of such importance as ,mechanics1 as its principles are founded upon the properties of matter and the laws of motion2 and in knowing something of these1 the tyro will lay the foundation of all substantial knowledge4 ,the properties of matter are the following3 ,solidity 7or ,impenetrability71 ,divisibility1 ,mobility1 ,elasticity1 ,brittleness1 ,malleability1 ,ductility1 and ,tenacity4 ,the laws of motion are as follow3-- #a4 ,every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilineal motion1 unless affected by some extraneous force4 #b4 ,the change of motion is always proportionate to the impelling force4 #c4 ,action and reaction are always equal and contrary4 ,,experiment ,,of ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,motion4 ,in shooting at 8taw10 if the marble be struck 8plump10 as it is called1 it moves forward exactly in the same line of direction2 but if struck sideways1 it will move in an oblique direction1 and its course will be in a line situated between the direction of its former motion and that of the force impressed4 ,this is called the resolution of forces4 ,,balancing4 ,the centre of gravity in a body is that part about which all the other parts equally balance each other4 ,in balancing a stick upon the finger1 or upon the chin1 it is necessary only to keep the chin or finger exactly under the point which is called the centre of gravity4 ,,the ,,prancing ,,horse4 ,illustration ,cut out the figure of a horse1 and having fixed a curved iron wire to the under part of its body1 place a small ball of lead upon it4 ,place the hind legs of the horse on the table1 and it will rock to and fro4 ,if the ball be removed1 the horse would immediately tumble1 because unsupported1 the centre of gravity being in the front of the prop2 but upon the ball being replaced1 the centre of gravity immediately changes its position1 and is brought under the prop1 and the horse is again in equilibrio4 ,,to ,,construct ,a ,,figure1 ,,which1 ,,being ,,placed ,,upon ,a ,,curved ,,surface1 ,,and ,,inclined ,,in ,,any ,,position1 ,,shall1 ,,when ,,left ,,to ,,itself1 ,,return ,,to ,,its ,,former ,,position4 ,the feet of the figure rest on a curved pivot1 which is sustained by two loaded balls below2 for the weight of these balls being much greater than that of the figure1 their effect is to bring the centre of gravity of the whole beneath the point on which it rests2 consequently the equilibrium will resist any slight force to disturb it4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,carriage ,,run ,,in ,,an ,,inverted ,,position ,,without ,,falling4 ,illustration ,it is pretty well known to most boys1 that if a tumbler of water be placed within a broad wooden hoop1 the whole may be whirled round without falling1 owing to the centrifugal force4 ,on the same principle1 if a small carriage be placed on an iron band or rail1 it will ascend the curve1 become inverted1 and descend again1 without falling4 ,,to ,,cause ,a ,,cylinder ,,to ,,roll ,,by ,,its ,,own ,,weight ,,up-,,hill4 ,illustration ,procure a coffee-canister1 and loading it at ,f with a piece of lead1 which may be fixed in with solder1 the position of the centre of gravity is thus altered4 ,if a cylinder so constructed be placed on an inclined plane1 and the loaded part above1 it will roll up-hill without assistance4 ,,the ,,balanced ,,stick4 ,illustration ,procure a piece of wood1 about nine inches in length and about half an inch in thickness1 and thrust into its upper end the blades of two penknives1 on either side one4 ,place the other end upon the tip of the fore-finger1 and it will keep its place without falling4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,mandarin4 ,illustration ,construct out of the pith of the elder a little mandarin2 then provide a base for it to sit in1 like a kettle-drum4 ,into this put some heavy substance1 such as half a leaden bullet2 fasten the figure to this1 and in whatever position it may be placed1 it will1 when left to itself1 immediately return to its upright position4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,shilling ,,turn ,,on ,,its ,,edge ,,on ,,the ,,point ,,of ,a ,,needle4 ,illustration ,take a bottle1 with a cork in its neck1 and place in it1 in a perpendicular position1 a middle-sized needle4 ,fix a shilling into another cork1 by cutting a nick in it2 and stick into the same cork two small table-forks1 opposite each other1 with the handles inclining outwards and downwards4 ,if the rim of the shilling be now poised on the point of the needle1 it may easily be made to spin round without falling1 as the centre of gravity is below the centre of suspension4 ,,the ,,dancing ,,pea4 ,illustration ,if you stick through a pea1 or small ball of pith1 two pins at right angles1 and defend the points with pieces of sealingwax1 it may be kept in equilibrio at a short distance from the end of a straight tube1 by means of a current of breath from the mouth1 which imparts a rotatory motion to the pea4#aj #aj ,the pins are only used to hold the pea steady before it is blown from the pipe1 as the pea alone will dance quite as well4 ,,obliquity ,,of ,,motion4 ,cut a piece of pasteboard into the following shape1 and describe on it a spiral line2 cut this out with a penknife1 and then suspend it on a large skewer or pin1 as seen in the engraving4 ,if the whole be now placed on a warm stove1 or over the flame of a candle or lamp1 it will revolve with considerable velocity4 ,the card1 after being cut into the spiral1 may be made to represent a snake or dragon1 and when in motion will produce a very pleasing effect4 ,illustration ,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,knives4 ,illustration ,place three glasses1 ,a ,a ,a1 in the form of a triangle1 and arrange three knives upon them1 as shown in the figure1--the blade of ,no4 #a over that of ,no4 #b1 and that over ,no4 #c1 which rests on ,no4 #a4 ,the bridge so made will be self-supported4 ,,the ,,toper',s ,,tripod4 ,illustration ,place three tobacco-pipes in the position shown in the engraving1 the mouth of the bowls downwards1 and the lower end of the stems upon the stem just by the bowls4 ,this tripod1 if carefully put together1 will support considerably more than a pot of 8,lockwood's home-brewed10 equally celebrated with the trick4 ,,the ,,microscope4 ,at any time of the year or hour of the day there are few pursuits more interesting1 and at the same time instructive1 than the study of ,nature by means of the microscope4 ,this instrument has revolutionized science1 solved many problems that had wearied the souls of older naturalists1 and even in its simplest form is beyond all value to those who love ,nature and the objects which they see around them4 ,the microscope opens a new world to us4 ,when the first telescope was directed to the heavens1 and unlocked the mysteries of the skies1 when it crumbled into dust all the theories of the past centuries1 and told mankind that the planets were not merely instruments of fortune-telling1 whose voices were intelligible to a chosen few1 but orbs far vaster than our own2 even then the new world of thought into which man entered was no wider than that which is displayed by the poorest lens that possesses the power of magnifying4 ,all of us must admire the more than awful grandeur of that universe whereof we form so infinitesimal a part1 wherein the stars are scattered as the sand on the sea-shore1 and every star a sun1 the centre of a system of orbs too distant for the eye of man to perceive4 ,looking at our nearest planet1 and observing on her face vast mountain-chains1 ravines into which the light of the sun can never penetrate1 and volcanoes whose craters are so wide that they would take in the whole of ,london1 the whole of ,birmingham1 and all the country between them1 we can judge by analogy of the unseen wonders which must exist in the world beyond our ken4 ,but to him who can read ,nature rightly1 the microscope is a teacher as grand as its sister instrument1 and the awful magnificence of ,nature is as evident in a midge's wing as in the more patent glories of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,in the following pages we hope to put the readers of this book in the way to read their microscope rightly--possibly to make it--and to show that much can be done with small means when 8there's a will10 and to indicate to them that objects of no small interest can be found without stirring from the room in which we sit1 or even from the table on which our microscope is placed4 ,some of our readers may say1 when they read the heading of this paper1 that they should like a microscope very much1 but that they have no money to buy it1 and that their parents cannot afford one4 ,this is just the feeling which we used to have when a boy1 for in those days microscopes were microscopes indeed1 and you had your choice between a little instrument1 with a series of brass cups1 having glasses in them1 which magnified slightly but defined clearly1 or a great composition of brass and iron1 looking like a rocket-tube1 with an eye-piece at one end and a glass shot at the other4 ,in was very costly1 very imposing1 and magnified very highly2 but it strained the eyes painfully1 had no defining capacities1 and made all the objects look as if they were seen through a thick fog4 ,practically1 therefore1 the former was the only instrument that was available4 ,a still more useful instrument1 however1 was that which can always be obtained for a few shillings1 and which is now made wonderfully cheap and wonderfully good2 we mean the double or treble pocket-lens4 ,so we say1 if you cannot afford a really good microscope1 do not waste your money upon inferior and pretentious instruments1 but get a sound pocket-lens4 ,it has a thousand advantages4 ,it is portable1 and is even more useful in the fields than in the house4 ,it defines very clearly1 and needs little trouble in manipulation4 ,we need not say how difficult is the task of getting a complicated instrument to define properly1 how impossible with a bad one4 ,the object and the glass can be held in any light1--a matter of no small consideration when examining anything new1 and trying to make out its structure4 ,it is not easily put out of order1 and if treated with the most ordinary care1 will last for a lifetime4 ,you can push it under water1 and it will magnify as well as in the air2 and if you are wandering on the river-side1 you can lie down on the bank1 dip the upper part of your head into the water1 together with the glass1 and watch carefully the subaquatic objects without removing them4 ,the water will not hurt the eye in the least1 though a non-swimmer may perhaps find a little difficulty in his first attempt4 ,it makes a good burning-glass1 should fire be needed1 and no other means of procuring a spark be at hand4 ,it can be used so as to show the principle of a camera obscura1 and to illustrate the manner in which photographic portraits are taken4 ,it can be made into an admirable dissecting microscope1 and needs scarcely any practice in the manipulation4 ,these are some of its advantages1 and there are many others which need not be mentioned4 ,even if you should be able to procure a good microscope1 get a pocket-lens as well1 for you will want them both1 and we may say that the most practised microscopists1 and those who are possessors of the most elaborate instruments1 are the very men who are most certain to have a pocket-lens about them1 and to use it most frequently4 ,practise well with the pocket-lens before you meddle with the compound microscope4 ,you will waste no time1 but will rather gain by it2 for you will be learning the rudiments of a new science1 and laying a solid foundation on which to build4 ,whenever we see a lad take out his pocket-lens in a business-like way1 use it skilfully1 and put it back with a mechanical facility that tells of constant practice1 we know that there is a lad who has learned the chief lesson of a naturalist1--namely1 the art of observing4 ,we speak highly of the pocket-lens1 because we think highly of it and owe much to it4 ,one or two practical remarks on the proper handling of the pocket-lens may be of use4 ,do not always employ the same eye in looking through the lens1 but use the eyes alternately4 ,there is always a temptation to employ the same eye1 which thus receives a kind of training in vision2 but it is a temptation always to be resisted4 ,with some persons the right eye is most in favour1 and with others the left2 and when the favourite eye gets all the work1 it too frequently suffers4 ,whether you look with the right or the left eye1 keep both eyes open4 ,it is a pitiful sight to see a human face all screwed up into a corner1 the lids of the unused eye convulsively squeezed together1 and the mouth slanting upwards1 as if in sympathy with the eye4 ,not only does the human face become repulsively mean and portentously ugly by such action1 but the sight of the eye is seriously strained1 and sometimes impaired for life4 ,at first the beginner will find a little difficulty in restricting his vision to one eye while the other remains open1 just as a beginner on the pianoforte feels himself puzzled when he tries to make his right hand go one way and his left hand another2 but in either case a little practice and plenty of perseverance are sure to overcome all obstacles1 and in a wonderfully short time the difficulty will not only be overcome1 but forgotten4 ,we speak here with some feeling1 because1 while engaged on a work on the microscope1 we were necessarily obliged to work much at night1 and inadvertently employed the left eye more than the right2 the consequence of which imprudence was that we have been obliged ever since that time to give the left eye perfect rest1 as far as artificial vision goes1 and1 except when looking through a binocular instrument1 we have not ventured to use it either to a microscope or telescope4 ,the vision accommodates itself to circumstances with wonderful ease1 and the observer learns the curious art of cutting off all communication between the unused eye and the brain2 so that1 although the objects around may imprint themselves upon the retina1 the mind is as totally unconscious of them as if they had no existence4 ,if possible1 always examine an object without removing it1 as thereby you see it as it is1 without altering any of the conditions with which it is surrounded4 ,should this not be practicable1 take the object to be viewed in the left hand and the lens in the right4 ,place the wrists of the two hands together1 and then you will find that one supports the other1 and that the lens can be held in the proper focus without the least difficulty4 ,after you have used the lens for some little time1 you will learn to hit upon the right focus almost to a hair's breadth1--so as to lose no time1 a matter of some importance when a living creature is to be examined1 especially if it be in motion4 ,as to the selection of objects1 none is necessary4 ,look at everything2 and the uglier and more unpromising it is1 let it be the closer examined4 ,we do not merely use our aids to vision for the sake of seeing beautiful things1 though the microscopist sees more beauty in a day than others will see in a year4 ,we want to see how the world and its constituent parts are made2 and though admiration will not be wanting1 yet it does not1 or ought not1 to hold the first place4 ,always have a motive for looking at every object1 and if you have none1 try to make one4 ,one of our friends1 known by name at least to most of my readers1 struck out1 some years ago1 a most curious train of thought while looking at an object which is seen daily by thousands of human beings1 and will probably soon give the public the benefit of it4 ,we have seen the object hundreds of times1 but the ideas which it suggested did not happen to occur to us4 ,illustration ,we are now about to suggest a very simple piece of mechanism1 by which the pocket-lens can be converted into a microscope that will serve for dissection and many other purposes4 ,the accompanying sketch is taken from an instrument of our own manufacture4 ,it is of very rough make1 and by an old ,indian officer would be contemptuously termed 8cutcha40 ,measured1 however1 by its performance1 it is quite as satisfactory as those instruments which are made by professed opticians1 and which the same old ,indian would class under the honoured title of 8pucka40 ,melt three or four pounds of lead in an iron ladle1 and make a mould1 consisting of a hollow hemisphere of paper or cardboard1 through the centre of which an iron rod has been passed4 ,the hollow of the paper should resemble an ordinary saucer4 ,pour the lead into the saucer1 and let it cool4 ,the paper mould will be scorched by the heat and rendered useless1 but an outer coating of lead will be cool and hard before the paper is quite destroyed4 ,the rod and leaden stand will now appear as in the illustration4 ,next take a piece of stout brass wire and a wine-cork2 twist the wire round the cork several times2 cut off one end close to the cork2 sharpen the other1 and turn it up as seen in the engraving4 ,bore a hole through the cork1 just large enough to allow the upright rod to slip through it1 and there is the 8stand0 of your microscope4 ,now take your pocket-lens1 and get an optician to bore a hole through one end of it1 just large enough to receive the upturned end of the wire2 slip the lens on the wire1 and the microscope is complete4 ,the cork1 though grasping the upright stem with tolerable firmness1 can be slid up and down so as to insure the correct focus1 and can be pushed aside whenever the object has to be viewed with the naked eye and must not be removed from its place4 ,this instrument is a capital one for dissecting purposes1 and will answer quite as well as those expensive affairs that are to be purchased in the shops4 ,if1 however1 our readers would like to possess a real and well-made instrument1 he cannot do better than get one of ,ross's ,dissecting ,microscopes1 which are very steady1 and1 as may be seen1 can be adjusted to almost any position4 ,a rack-and-pinion movement for elevating or lowering the sliding pillar would be useful4 ,illustration3 ,,ross',s ,,dissecting ,,microscope4 ,if the object be transparent1 and requires to be seen by transmitted light1 the following plan will answer3--,take a thin piece of wood1 cut or punch a round hole out of the middle1 and support it on four legs4 ,wires or wooden pegs fixed in corks will answer the purpose well1 and if the corks be glued to the corners of the board1 the legs can be inserted or removed at pleasure4 ,the wood of which cigar-boxes are made will answer the purpose very well4 ,its dimensions should be about three inches in length by two in width4 ,now buy one of the doll's looking-glasses that are sold for a penny1 and put it under the stand4 ,lay a flat piece of glass over the hole1 place the object upon it1 and direct the light through it by means of the mirror below4 ,if such a mirror cannot be obtained1 it is easy enough to make one1 by mounting a piece of looking-glass in a cork frame1 and making it swing on pivots1 like the glasses of our dressing-rooms4 ,the young microscopist must remember that when he is examining any object by transmitted light1 he must arrange it as flatly as possible on the glass4 ,in many cases1 a still neater manipulation is required1--as1 for example1 when the petals of flowers are under examination4 ,thin glass is to be purchased at any optician's1 and if cut in squares1 instead of circles1 is very much cheaper1 and quite as useful for all practical purposes4 ,lay the petal on the glass plate1 place a piece of the thin glass upon it1 and press it gently while examining it4 ,if it still remains thick and dull1 put a drop of pure water on the petal1 and replace the thin glass1 when the structure will almost invariably be detected4 ,everything depends on the proper management of the object and the arrangement of the light4 ,some opaque objects can be seen best by direct light1 and others by transmitted light4 ,if a leaf be examined1 particularly if it be a thick and heavy one1 like that of the ivy1 the upper and lower membranes must be stripped apart1--a task which is easily performed by tearing a small slit1 and then ripping it smartly across4 ,a pair of forceps will be required for this and other delicate work1 and may be obtained at a cheap rate4 ,care must be taken to keep the points exactly even1 and if at any time one of them appears to be shorter than the other1 they should be rubbed on a hone until they are brought perfectly level4 ,illustration ,these should be made of steel2 but the young microscopist will find that a second pair made of brass1 and much rougher in finish1 are invaluable aids as he takes his walks into the country4 ,by their aid he can pick up minute objects1 draw insects out of crevices without damaging them1 and pluck the tiniest flowers without harming their petals4 ,they can be carried in the waistcoat pocket1 and the cost is sixpence4 ,any lad who knows how to handle solder can make a pair for himself in a few minutes4 ,a penknife with one blade kept scrupulously sharp is essential1 and we have found an old lancet of the greatest service4 ,lancets have gone so much out of fashion1 that the second-hand instrument shops abound with them4 ,we did not allow our own lancet to be shut up1 but removed the blade from the tortoise-shell handle1 and fixed it upon a wooden handle1 about four inches in length1 so that it looked very clumsy1 but was extremely useful4 ,two pairs of scissors are needful1--one very fine1 and the other moderately strong4 ,both pairs1 however1 must have very short blades and very long handles1 and the scissors such as ladies use are of very little use1 the short handles causing the fingers of the right hand to shade the object4 ,as to the fine pair1 it is hardly possible to have the handles too long or the blades too short2 for if the points can be separated a quarter of an inch1 nothing more is needed4 ,if a pair of bent scissors can also be obtained1 they are extremely pleasant to work with1 and save much trouble4 ,illustration ,for arranging the objects under the microscope1 there are no instruments equal to those which are here engraved4 ,they are nothing more than ordinary needles stuck into the handles of camel's-hair brushes4 ,the uppermost is made of the largest-sized darning-needle1 and is useful for making little holes1 and similar purposes4 ,the two next instruments are the most generally useful1 and several of each should be always at hand4 ,nos4 #d and #e are for special purposes2 the former for holding tissues aside1 and the latter for lifting them up4 ,the needles must not be longer than those in the illustration1 as they would otherwise be too springy1 and apt to tear the object instead of pulling or pushing it4 ,the bending is readily done in the flame of a spirit-lamp1 or even of a common candle2 but in the latter case the needle is always covered with soot1 which must be wiped off before its shape can be seen4 ,the elasticity of the needles is lost by the operation1 but is easily restored by heating them red-hot1 and plunging them immediately into cold water4 ,the end of the handle should be wrapped with thread1 in order to prevent it from splitting4 ,pill-boxes of various sizes are of very great service to the microscopist4 ,we always have them arranged in 8nests10 i4 e4 six or seven inside each other1 so that space is greatly economized1 as long as they are not in absolute use4 ,all delicate objects should be placed in separate boxes1 and the predaceous insects must be treated in the same manner1 or they will certainly destroy one another1 or1 at all events1 inflict such injuries as will make them useless for microscopic purposes4 ,illustration ,when the insects are to be killed on the spot1 we employ another and a very simple plan4 ,we take one of the old-fashioned wooden lucifer-match boxes1 bore a hole in the lid1 and push through the hole a swan-quill or the barrel of one of the swan-quill steel pens4 ,a glass tube is still better1 but is too fragile4 ,beeswax is tightly worked into the junction of the tube with the wood1 so as to make it as nearly air-tight as possible4 ,a cork stopper is then cut to fit the tube4 ,the accompanying illustration will show the box completed4 ,when this is finished1 we take the smallest-sized pill-box1 bore a number of holes in it with a red-hot needle1 place a little piece of solid ammonia within it1 and inclose it in the lucifer-box4 ,its effects are almost instantaneous2 for scarcely has the insect touched the bottom of the box before it is helpless1 and in a very few moments it is quite dead1 so powerful is ammonia towards insects4 ,the reader will of course understand that the pill-boxes must never have been used for pills1 and that the match-box must be carefully cleaned before employing it in the microscopic service4 ,moreover1 any boxes that have been used for lepidopterous insects become useless1 inasmuch as the scales always fall from the wings1 and cling to the sides of the box1 so as to mix with succeeding objects1 and very much puzzle the observer4 ,aquatic and marine objects require bottles1 and1 as a general rule1 these bottles ought always to have wide mouths4 ,indeed1 if there be no shoulder at all1 their purpose will be better served1 as a small object is very apt to be caught under the shoulder1 and to give much trouble before it can be removed without injury4 ,wide and short test-tubes answer admirably for collecting2 and it will always be advisable to have a few small test-tubes ready fitted with corks1 for the purpose of isolating those specimens which might receive or cause injury by being mixed with others4 ,to remove minute objects from one vessel into another is a very easy process4 ,take a glass tube1 mark off a portion about eight inches in length1 cut a little notch with a file1 and bend it smartly1 when it will break neatly across1 without leaving points or having the regularity of its ends injured by gaps4 ,turn each end round and round in the flame of the spirit-lamp1 and you have an ordinary 8pipette40 ,the object of placing the ends of the tube in the flame is to render the edges quite smooth and rounded4 ,now mark off the same length of tube1 and place the marked portion in the flame1 taking care to warm it well first1 lest the sudden heat should crack the glass4 ,keep it continually turning between the fingers1 and when it is quite soft1 and of a fine red heat1 draw the hands smartly apart1 and you will produce a couple of tubes tapering to very fine points4 ,break off the tapering portions at any convenient point1 round the edges as before1 and you will then have pipettes suitable for small objects4 ,as there are many specimens1 especially the smaller animalcul1 which have a habit of retiring into the remotest corner1 it is necessary to bend another pipette1 so as to follow them4 ,for our own part1 we prefer the pipette to be bent nearly to a right angle4 ,the mode of using these simple instruments is as follows3--,place the forefinger or thumb firmly on the large end1 and push the point under water4 ,when the opening is close to the sought-for object1 lift the finger suddenly1 and admit the air into the tube4 ,the water will immediately rush in at the lower end1 and if the orifice has been properly directed1 will carry the object into the tube4 ,the finger is again applied to the mouth of the tube1 and the object can be then carried off4 ,as with the pocket-lens almost every object is to be viewed by means of direct light1 the young observer will find himself much aided by a suitable background4 ,any small object1 such as a minute insect1 a seed1 or a hair1 becomes very indistinct if held up against the light1 or even when viewed against a broken background of trees1 houses1 or herbage4 ,the simplest plan of securing a proper background is to take a disc of ivory1 bone1 or even of white cardboard1 and to blacken one side of it4 ,the black paint which is used for this purpose must be without gloss1 and have what is called a 8dead0 surface4 ,ink answers very well for the purpose1 and so does ivory-black2 but ,indian ink is too glossy to be serviceable4 ,to procure specimens from the water is a matter of some difficulty if managed badly1 but easy enough when the collector knows his business4 ,it is of course needful to attach the collecting vessel to the end of a rod1 and to plunge it into the spots which look most favourable4 ,now even so simple a matter as this requires some little care1 if the young microscopist really wishes to obtain the best specimens4 ,a common walking-stick will answer most purposes2 but the most efficient rod for the purpose is one of the common walking-stick fishing-rods without the top joint1 as it can be carried without attracting attention1 and can be lengthened at will by adding the different joints4 ,illustration ,many methods have been proposed by which the vessel is to be attached to the rod2 but that which ,i am about to describe is certainly the simplest and most effective that ,i have tried4 ,get a piece of gutta-percha tubing1 just large enough to be slipped on the end of the rod or stick2 mark off an inch or so1 and cut the tube nearly through1 as at a in ,fig4 #a4 ,now cut it away longitudinally1 so that a long tongue of gutta-percha is left1 as at b1 and the instrument is completed4 ,its application is as simple as its structure4 ,bend the tongue over1 so as to form a loop1 and push the end through the short tube4 ,slip the neck of the bottle into the loop1 and draw the tongue until it is tolerably tight4 ,push the end of the stick into the tube1 taking care to hold the tongue firmly in its place1 and the vessel will then be fastened at right angles to the stick4 ,the whole arrangement can be seen in ,fig4 #b1 where a represents the gutta-percha tube1 b the tongue1 c the stick1 and d the vessel4 ,the method of collecting by means of this instrument is as follows3--,immerse the vessel in the water1 with the mouth downwards1 so that no water may enter4 ,push it gently towards the spot which is to be investigated1 move it about a little1 so as to cause a disturbance1 and then turn the vessel with its mouth upwards4 ,water will instantly rush in1 carrying with it the objects which are to be examined4 ,the contents of the vessel may then be transferred to the large bottle1 and another dip made4 ,confervoid growths1 especially those which accumulate in a kind of scum on the surface1 should be obtained very quietly1 without previous disturbance of the water4 ,after the pond or stream or ditch has been well searched1 the bottle should be roughly examined1 by means of a pocket-lens1 and the contents sorted into the smaller tubes1 as has already been mentioned4 ,this precaution is especially needful when any of the minute crustacea called ,entomostraca are captured1 as they are most voracious beings1 and will make sad havoc among other specimens1 unless they are placed in separate bottles4 ,they are mostly large enough to be detected with the naked eye1 and look something like little fleas1 as they move along4 ,as the ,entomostraca cast their shells repeatedly during their lives1 some species performing this operation every two days1 a beautiful series of objects can be obtained by gathering the cast shells1 and preparing them for the microscope1 according to the directions that will be found in the following pages4 ,these shells are peculiarly valuable1 as they retain the chief external characteristics of the creature to which they belonged1 the limbs1 plumes1 and even the delicate bristles being preserved entire4 ,it is in the power of the microscopist to retard or hasten the change of shell1 heat and light aiding development1 and cold and darkness retarding it4 ,the remarkable 8ephippium10 or saddle1 which is found on the backs of the ,daphnia1 the ,moina1 and other ,entomostraca1 and which is used as a receptacle for eggs1 should be searched for and preserved4 ,a very thin and very flat bottle is a most useful assistance in detecting the character of any unknown object1 especially if it be living4 ,such a bottle may easily be made by heating one of the small test-tubes in the spirit-lamp until it is of a glowing red heat1 and then pressing the sides together4 ,some little neatness is required in this process1 as an unskilful operator is apt to press the sides unequally1 and to leave a bulging projection at the end4 ,should a higher power be required than is furnished by the pocket-lens1 a 8,coddington0 lens is the very best that can be obtained4 ,in general shape it resembles the well-known 8,stanhope0 lens2 but the latter is so very inferior an article1 that it ought never to be purchased4 ,the two glasses can easily be distinguished by the shape of the ends2 those of the ,coddington being alike1 while in the ,stanhope one is much more convex than the other4 ,at first the young observer generally finds some difficulty in arranging this lens1 so as to hit off the focus exactly2 but if he adopts the following plan1 he will soon handle a ,coddington as easily as an ordinary pocket-lens4 ,the object should be held in the left hand and the glass in the right4 ,let the wrists be placed firmly against each other1 and the lens brought as close as possible to the object1 without quite touching it4 ,now bring the eye to the lens1 taking care not to disturb the arrangement1 and then gradually draw the object away from the lens4 ,the moment that the proper focus is obtained the object will be seen with beautiful clearness1 and by drawing the object from the lens1 instead of approaching the lens to the object1 there is no danger of injuring the one or the other by contact4 ,the great advantages of the ,coddington are the exceeding clearness with which it shows the object1 the perfect definition of every line1 its achromatic character1 and its freedom from colours1 and the flatness of the 8field20 so that the circumference is defined as perfectly as the centre4 ,it can now be obtained very cheaply at any of our microscopical opticians1 and should always be mounted on a tolerably long handle4 ,,the ,,compound ,,microscope4 ,we have already described the simpler forms of magnifying instruments1 together with the best method of using them4 ,we now purpose to describe the more complicated instrument called the compound microscope1 and hints will be given as to the best method of making preparations for it4 ,the great distinction between the simple and compound microscope is1 that whereas the former instrument magnifies the object1 the latter magnifies the magnified image of the object4 ,in the least elaborate form of this instrument there are two glasses1 one at each end of a tube1 the small glass magnifying the object1 and being therefore called the 8object glass10 while the other1 which magnifies the image of the object1 is placed next to the eye1 and is therefore termed the 8eye-glass40 ,in practice1 however1 this arrangement is found to be so extremely defective1 that the instrument was quite useless1 except as an experimental toy2 for the two enemies of the optician1 chromatic and spherical aberration1 prevailed so exceedingly1 that every object appeared as if surrounded with prismatic colours1 and every line was blurred and indistinct4 ,in this uncertain state the compound microscope remained for many years1 its superb capabilities being scarcely recognised4 ,the chief fault was thought to be in the material of which the object-glass was made1 and for a long series of years all experiments were conducted with a view to an improvement in this respect4 ,when1 however1 the diamond had been employed as an object-glass1 and had failed equally with those of less costly material1 attention was directed to the right point--namely1 the arrangement of the different glasses1--and at length opticians succeeded in obtaining a pitch of excellence which can be almost termed perfection4 ,it would be impossible to describe the method which is employed for this purpose1 and it must suffice to say that the principle is that of playing off one defect against another1 and so making them mutually correct their errors4 ,the magnifying powers of the compound microscope can be very great1 and it is therefore necessary that extreme care should be taken in its manipulation4 ,it will be possible for a clumsy person to do more damage to a good instrument in three minutes than can be repaired in as many weeks4 ,before proceeding to the management of the microscope and the construction of the 8slides10 we will briefly describe one or two chief forms of the compound microscope4 ,illustration ,the accompanying illustration represents the simplest form of the compound microscope as at present made4 ,it consists of a stand and a sliding tube1 in which are set the glasses which magnify the object and its image4 ,at the top is the tube1 which is capable of being slid up and down in the shoulder of the stand1 so as to obtain the proper focus4 ,above is seen the eye-glass2 and the object-glass is shown at the bottom of the tube4 ,below the object-glass is the 8stage0 on which the object to be magnified is laid2 and lowest of all is a mirror1 which serves to reflect the light upwards through the object1 and which can be turned by means of the knobs at the sides4 ,the object-glass is composed of two pieces1 which can readily be separated4 ,if both are used1 sufficient magnifying power is gained to show the scales on a butterfly's wing and similar minute objects2 while1 if one is removed1 the object is not magnified to so great an extent1 but a larger portion can be seen1 and the definition is clearer4 ,the cost of this instrument1 together with a few accessories1 is half-a-guinea4 ,there is another microscope constructed on the same principle1 which is a very superior instrument1 though it does not at first sight present any remarkable difference4 ,it possesses1 however1 four times the magnifying power of that which has just been mentioned4 ,instead of two magnifiers1 there are four1 and several subsidiary articles are sent with it1--such as a condenser1 a live box1 an aquatic box1 and half a dozen slides ready prepared4 ,this instrument costs one sovereign4 ,illustration ,but if the reader can by any possibility afford it1 let us advise him in the strongest terms to devote three guineas to the purpose1 and get a really good instrument4 ,for this small sum a microscope may now be obtained which could not have been purchased for twenty times three guineas only a few years ago4 ,one of these beautiful instruments is seen in the accompanying illustration2 in which may be seen the tube1 with its eye-piece and object-glass1 and the stand1 containing the stage and the mirror4 ,the arrangement1 however1 is very different2 for the focus is not obtained by sliding the tube up and down1 but by turning the large milled heads which we see on a level with the stage1 and which raise or depress the tube by means of a rack and pinion4 ,as an extremely high power can be used with this instrument1 a still finer adjustment is required1 so as to obtain a very accurate focus4 ,this is seen on the front of the tube4 ,the reader will notice that the microscope can be inclined backwards1 for it is so made that it can be set to any angle which may best suit the observer4 ,the value of this arrangement is very great1 as it permits the observer to sit at his ease in a chair1 without being forced to crane his neck over the microscope1 and look perpendicularly down4 ,another advantage attending this arrangement is that the secretions which lubricate the eye do not interrupt the vision1 as is apt to be the case when looking directly downwards4 ,the mirror1 too1 can be turned in any direction1 and its distance from the stage lessened or increased by means of a draw-tube4 ,three different powers are supplied with this microscope1 together with a live-box1 dissecting and stage forceps1 c42 and the whole is made so as to admit of additional apparatus4 ,the microscope fits into a neat square box1 in which is plenty of room for various articles which will presently be described4 ,these three microscopes can be obtained from ,messrs4 ,baker1 #bdd1 ,high ,holborn2 and we mention them1 not because we wish to make any invidious distinctions between the many excellent opticians who now make microscopes1 but because we happen to have used ,messrs4 ,baker's instruments for some years1 and can bear practical testimony to their performance4 ,another three-guinea microscope ought1 however1 to be mentioned4 ,it is the ,society of ,arts microscope1 which is made by ,messrs4 ,field1 opticians1 of ,birmingham4 ,in form it closely resembles the instrument which has just been mentioned1 but differs in some of the details1 as it possesses a 8diaphragm-plate0 under the stage for regulating the admission of light1 and1 instead of three object-glasses and one eye-piece1 has two object-glasses and two eye-pieces4 ,dr4 ,carpenter mentions that1 up to #ahfa1 no less than eighteen hundred of these microscopes had been sold4 ,to this instrument the medal of the ,society of ,arts was awarded4 ,either of these microscopes affords all that an ordinary observer is likely to need2 and if he adds a few articles of supplementary apparatus1 he will find himself possessed of a microscope that will serve all purposes except scientific controversy4 ,presuming that the reader has supplied himself with one or other of the compound microscopes1 we will proceed to show the method of using them4 ,the manipulation of a compound microscope is not so easy as it looks4 ,the possessor of a really good instrument may fail hopelessly in his attempts to see a single object4 ,now1 there are three essential points which a microscopist must attend to1--namely1 the correct focus1 the proper light1 and the preparation of the object4 ,of these the focus is of course the most important1 and can be best obtained as follows3-- ,lay the object on the stage of the microscope1 so as to get its centre exactly under the centre of the object-glass1 and illuminate it as you best can4 ,put on the lowest power1 and1 without looking through the tube1 lower the object-glass until it nearly touches the object4 ,now look through the tube1 and raise the object-glass gradually from the object1 until the right focus is obtained4 ,the reason for taking these precautions is1 that if you look through the tube and lower it upon the object1 you will in all probability push the glass against the object1 and damage either the one or the other4 ,when you have thus learned the focus of the lowest power1 add another1 and repeat the process2 and so on until you have made out the focus of each object-glass4 ,if you have more than one eye-piece1 try them both with each object-glass4 ,the proper light is our next point1 and upon it rests the chief beauty of the effect4 ,the light which will suit one object will not suit another1 and even the same object should be examined under every variety of light4 ,some objects are best shown when the light is thrown upon them from above1 and others when it is thrown through them from below4 ,again1 the direction of the light is of vast importance2 for it will easily be seen that an oblique light will exhibit minute projections by throwing a shadow on one side and brilliancy on the other1 while a vertical illumination would fail to show them4 ,on the same principle1 one object will be shown better with the light in front1 and another when it is on one side4 ,illustration ,one of the most effective means of attaining this object is by using the 8bull's-eye condenser10 which is sometimes fixed to the stage1 but is usually detached1 as represented in the illustration4 ,as the upright stem is telescopic1 the glass can be raised to a considerable height1 while the joint and sliding-rod permit the lens to be applied at any angle which promises the most brilliant light4 ,as for the kind of light that is employed1 there is nothing which equals that of a white cloud2 but as such clouds are rare1 and are at the best extremely transient1 and can only be seen by day1 various artificial methods of illumination have been invented4 ,novices generally think that when the sky is bright and blue they will be very successful in their illumination1 and feel grievously disappointed at finding that they obtained much more light from the clouds1 whose disappearance they had anxiously been watching4 ,finding that the blue sky gives scarcely any light at all1 they rush to the other extreme1 turn the mirror towards the sun1 and pour such a blaze of light upon the object1 that the eye is blinded by the scintillating refulgence1 and the object is often injured1 because the mirror is capable of reflecting heat as well as light4 ,in the daytime there is nothing better than the 8white-cloud illuminator10 which is made easily enough by means of plaster of ,paris4 ,a sheet of thin white paper fastened against a window-pane is also useful2 and the simple plan of dabbing the glass with putty will have a beneficial effect in softening the light1 when the window has a southern aspect4 ,in default of these conveniences1 it will be often sufficient to fix a piece of white letter-paper over the mirror1 or even to dull its surface with wax4 ,at all events1 he who aspires to be a true microscopist must be ready with expedients1 and if he finds himself in a difficulty1 he must summarily invent a method of obviating it4 ,at night a lamp is necessary2 candles are useless1 because they have two faults--they flicker1 and they become lower as they burn4 ,the latter defect can be cured by using a candle-lamp1 but no arrangement will cure the flame of flickering2 it is peculiarly trying to the eyes1 and destructive of accurate definition4 ,an ordinary moderator lamp answers pretty well1 and a small one is even better for the microscopist than one of large dimensions4 ,the chief drawback to the moderator lamp is1 that the flame cannot be elevated or lowered1 so that the only way to procure a light at a higher elevation1 is to stand the lamp on a block of wood or a book4 ,small lamps are1 however1 made expressly for the microscope1 and1 if possible1 should be procured1 and used for no other purpose1 and intrusted to no other hands4 ,if you want a really brilliant1 clear1 white light1 you must trim the lamp yourself4 ,a small piece of pale blue or neutral-tint glass1 interposed between the lamp and the microscope1 has a wonderful effect in diminishing the yellow hue which belongs more or less to all artificial lights which are produced by the combustion of oil or fat4 ,we have no doubt but that in a few years we shall be rid of the clumsy and dirty machines that we call lamps1 and have substituted for them the pure brilliancy of the electric light4 ,whatever lamp you use1 a shade is absolutely necessary1 in order to defend the eyes4 ,let me here warn my young readers1 that they cannot be too careful of their eyes4 ,in the exuberance of youthful strength and health we are too apt to treat our eyes as unceremoniously as our digestion1 and in later years we awake to unavailing repentance4 ,illustration ,many shades can be purchased2 but it is far better to make your own after the shape here exhibited4 ,they are not pretty to look at1 but they save the eyes better than any other form1 and whether for reading1 writing1 or microscopic work1 you should use no other4 ,the peculiar merit of them consists in the fact that the light is thrown on the spot where it is wanted1 and is cut off from everything except that spot4 ,another point which calls for extreme attention is the perfect cleanliness of the glasses4 ,it is astonishing how a tiny dust-mote1 or the least condensation of damp1 will diminish the powers of the microscope1 and how often the instrument is blamed for indistinctness1 when the real fault lies in the carelessness of the operator4 ,even when the greatest care is taken1 dust is sure to settle on the glasses1 especially on the eye-piece1 and before using the microscope the glasses ought to be carefully examined4 ,never wipe them with an ordinary handkerchief1 but get a piece of new wash-leather2 beat it well until no dust issues from it1 and then put it into a box1 with a tightly-fitting cover4 ,use this1 and nothing else1 for cleaning the glasses1 and you will avoid those horrid scratches with which the eye-glass and object-glass of careless operators are always disfigured4 ,moisture is very apt to condense on the glasses and to ruin their clearness4 ,if the microscope be brought from a cold into a warm room1 the glasses will be instantly covered with moisture1 just as the outside of a tumbler of cold water is always covered with fine dew when brought into a warm room4 ,the microscope should therefore be kept at least an hour in the room wherein it is to be used1 so that the instrument and the atmosphere may be of the same temperature4 ,you should make the microscope a trifle warmer than the surrounding atmosphere1 and so avoid all danger of condensation4 ,when changing the object-glass or eye-piece1 always keep the hand as far away from the glass as possible1 and manipulate with the tip of the forefinger and thumb4 ,the human skin always gives out so much exhalation1 that even when the hand is cold the glasses will be dimmed2 and it is a peculiarity of such moisture1 that it adheres to the glasses with great pertinacity1 and does not evaporate like the dew which is condensed from the atmosphere4 ,in order to insure perfect success in this important particular1 the young microscopist will do well to get the optician from whom he purchased his instrument to explain its construction1 and to give him a lesson or two in the art of taking it to pieces and putting it together again2 for unless each glass can be separately cleaned1 no one can be quite sure that the instrument will perform as it ought to do4 ,the best method of ascertaining whether it is quite clean is to throw the light upwards by means of the mirror1 and then to turn the eye-piece slowly round4 ,if any dust or moisture has collected either upon the eye-glass or the 8field-glass10 which forms the second lens of the eye-piece1 it will be immediately detected4 ,turning the object-glass will in a similar manner detect impurities upon its surface4 ,we will now proceed to the manner in which objects are examined4 ,suppose1 for example1 that we take a buttercup-leaf1 because it can be found at almost any time of the year4 ,place a piece of glass on the stage1 lay the leaf on it1 put on the lowest power1 set the focus1 and then look at the leaf4 ,you will probably be disappointed1 and see nothing but a confused mass of undulating dark green1 like a green carpet thrown carelessly on the ground1 and seen in the dim twilight4 ,two points are now needed2 the first being to get the leaf flat1 so as to avoid the undulation1 and the second being to throw a proper light upon it4 ,take out the leaf1 and1 instead of laying it entire under the microscope1 select the flattest part1 and cut it out with scissors4 ,a piece the size of a silver penny will be amply large enough4 ,lay this piece on the glass1 get the focus afresh1 and then look through the microscope4 ,the leaf will now appear much more regular1 and will be seen as a rough surface1 mottled with white and traversed by pink and green ridges1 which are the large and small nervures4 ,by means of a mirror or the condenser throw a brighter light upon it1 and it will be seen to be covered with a slight roughness1 the nature of which cannot be clearly ascertained2 then add the next highest power1 and try if the structure of that roughness can be made out4 ,curiously enough1 although the magnifying power has been more than doubled1 the roughness has much the same appearance as before2 so that we must try another plan1 and look at the leaf edgeways4 ,take the piece of leaf in the stage-forceps1 but do not touch it with your hand2 fix the forceps on the stage and turn the leaf so that it presents its edge to the object glass4 ,get your focus1 and you will now see the cut edge of the leaf1 and will at once distinguish its structure4 ,on either side may be seen the upper and lower cuticle1 and in the centre the soft green substance1 or 8parenchyma10 as it is called4 ,from the cuticle project a number of short hairs1 and when the focus is accurately obtained1 the cause of the roughness will be seen in a vast number of minute projections1 which are1 in fact1 identical in structure with the hairs1 though not so well developed4 ,the under-cuticle of the leaf is much more interesting than the upper4 ,illustration ,now change the illumination1 and1 instead of throwing the light upon the object from above1 turn the mirror so as to direct it through the object from below4 ,no apparent result will follow1 because the leaf is so thick and opaque that the light cannot pass through it4 ,hold the leaf horizontally1 and1 by means of the stage-forceps1 rip it smartly across1 and if you do this rightly1 you will find that the two cuticles are partly separated1 so as to allow either to be examined separately4 ,at first the leaf will most probably be torn along one of the large nervures1 so that the cuticles are not perfectly separated4 ,never mind failure1 but try again2 and you are sure1 after a few efforts1 to hit upon the right method of tearing the leaf4 ,illustration ,one of the most useful capabilities of the 8live-box0 is now shown4 ,as may be seen by the figure and section1 it consists of an inner tube with a thick glass1 and an outer tube with a thin glass4 ,the outer tube can be taken off1 water or any other substance laid on the thick glass1 and then the outer tube or cover is slid down upon it until the object is pressed flatly between the two glasses4 ,when you have succeeded in getting a convenient slip of the leaf1 lay it on the thick glass of the inner tube1 and put a drop of water on it4 ,put on the cover1 and push it down until the piece of leaf is pressed flat1 without being squeezed4 ,now look through the microscope1 and you will see a beautiful sight1 showing how much there is in a despised leaf1 which we daily tread under foot4 ,illustration ,the cells of which the cuticle is chiefly composed are seen in many a waving outline1 while at their points of junction are placed the remarkable contrivances called 8stomata10 or mouths1 which are the apertures through which the atmosphere is enabled to penetrate into the interior of the leaf4 ,the two semilunar cells at the sides of the opening may be considered as lips1 which open and close according as the plant needs the air or not4 ,the numerous dots which are seen upon the leaf are of a vivid green colour1 and it is to their presence that the leaf owes its hue4 ,we have given these details because they are applicable to the examination of all leaves and petals1 and show the young observer the method which is to be adopted when looking for the first time at a strange object4 ,illustration ,if the microscopist should follow up his work properly1 and make sketches of every object which he places under the microscope1 he cannot do better than use the camera-lucida1 a neat little instrument1 which is fitted into the eye-piece of the microscope4 ,dr4 ,beale's neutral glass is as efficacious in careful hands1 and only costs a fourth of the sum4 ,this instrument cannot be applied to the ten and twenty shilling microscopes1 as it requires that the tube should be perfectly horizontal4 ,the method of using it is simple enough4 ,after fixing the object and getting the right focus1 set the instrument horizontally1 and arrange the light so that the object is well illuminated1 and its lines quite clear and well defined4 ,now remove the cap of the eye-piece1 and fix the camera-lucida in its stead4 ,lay a drawing-pad on the table under the camera-lucida1 look through the square opening 7or1 if you use ,mr4 ,beale's glass1 look through the neutral glass71 and you will see the object apparently projected on the paper4 ,we say apparently1 because in reality the image is not thrown on the paper at all1 but on the camera1 and the eye refers it to the paper1 as being the nearest object4 ,in fact1 the principle on which this camera-lucida is arranged is exactly that of the ,polytechnic ghost1 which appears to be in one place1 whereas it is in another4 ,now take a pencil1 cut it to a very fine point1 and trace the outline of the object on the paper4 ,at first you will think this to be an impracticable task1 for the point of the pencil will totally vanish4 ,soon1 however1 the eye will so adjust itself as to see the pencil and the object perfectly well1 and by a little practice the observer will be able to sketch every object as rapidly and firmly as if he were copying a drawing1 by means of tracing-paper4 ,the neutral glass is perhaps to be preferred to the camera-lucida1 as it is learned more easily1 and gives less trouble than that instrument4 ,its cost is five shillings4 ,after you have practised yourself well in the handling of the microscope1 your ambition will take another step1 and lead you to the preparation of permanent objects4 ,in order to set yourself up with the needful apparatus1 you will have to disburse about five shillings4 ,a small spirit-lamp will cost eighteenpence1 and a small bottle of ,canada balsam1 another of asphalte varnish1 and another of ,dean's gelatine1 will make about eighteenpence or two shillings more4 ,a few pence will purchase a sheet or two of ornamental paper1 and a few more a flat plate of brass or copper1 about five inches by three4 ,the rest of the five shillings may be expended in 8slides0 and thin glass1 cut square4 ,slides are merely slips of glass1 three inches in length by one in width1 and the thin glass is used for laying upon the objects and defending them from dust4 ,we advise the square glass1 because it scarcely costs one quarter as much as the round glass1 and is equally effective when properly managed4 ,there are several methods of 8putting up0 preparations--namely1 dry1 in ,canada balsam1 in gelatine1 and in cells4 ,we will take them in their order4 ,the simplest plan is1 of course1 the 8dry0 mode4 ,suppose that you want to preserve a tiny piece of down1 or the scales from a butterfly's wing4 ,first wash all the slides and glasses well1 by dipping them into a strong solution of soda1 and then into hot water1 in order to get rid of grease1 taking care never to touch them with the hand1 but to take them out of the water with the forceps4 ,this can be done at any time1 and the glasses carefully wrapped up and placed in a box ready for use4 ,you now select one of the slides1 and lay the object exactly in its centre4 ,if very minute objects are used1 they must be examined in order to see whether they are properly disposed4 ,the next process is1 to take one of the thin glasses with the microscope1 and lay it very carefully over the object4 ,then cut a piece of ornamental paper1 about two inches long and seven-eighths of an inch in width2 cut or punch a circular piece out of its centre1 damp it well1 and cover the wrong side slightly1 but completely1 with paste4 ,lay it on the slide1 so that the centre of the hole shall coincide with that of the object1 work it down neatly with the fingers1 and it will hold the square piece of thin glass1 which is technically called the 8cover10 in its place4 ,watch it occasionally as it dries1 and be ready to press down any part of the paper that may start up4 ,write1 with ink1 the name of the object on the end of the slide4 ,when you have made a dozen or two of these preparations1 it will be time to letter and index them4 ,on each slide paste a slip of white paper1 and on the paper write a brief notice of the object1 thus-- --------------- ,,scales4 ,d4 ,,head ,,moth4 --------------- ,then scratch with a bit of flint1 or with a writing-diamond1 if you have one1 a number on the end of the slide1 and have a note-book with a corresponding number opposite to which you enter the description at a fuller length1 thus3-- #ah--,scales of ,death's ,head ,moth 7,acherontia ,atropos71 from centre of under-surface of right fore wing4 ,dry4 ,june #d1 #ahfd4 ,the cross signifies that you prepared the object yourself1 and the reason for adding the date is1 that in after years you will have a valuable guide as to the durability of your preparations4 ,if the specimen has been purchased or presented1 always add the name of the seller or donor1 as well as the date4 ,these precautions may seem to be needlessly minute1 but we have so often seen whole sets of valuable preparations rendered useless for want of ticketing1 that we cannot too strongly impress on our readers the necessity for the note-book as well as the label1 the one acting as a check upon the other4 ,when the label has been affixed1 and the details transferred to the note-book1 the ink may be washed off the end of the slide4 ,there is another convenient method of putting up the elytra of beetles1 parts of various insects1 mosses1 minute shells1 and similar objects4 ,take a common pill-box of the smallest size1 and cut a little cylinder of cork1 that will nearly1 but not quite1 equal the height of the box1 and fasten one end to the bottom of the box with glue4 ,now blacken the interior of the box and the cork cylinder4 ,put a little drop of ,canada balsam1 ,arabian cement1 or gum ,arabic on the top of the cylinder2 put the object on it1 press it into its place1 and1 when the cement is hard1 the preparation is complete4 ,the cover of the box serves to keep the object from dust4 ,now we come to the ,canada balsam1 a substance which produces beautiful effects when rightly handled1 but is most aggravating to the learner1 causing alternate irascibility and depression of spirits4 ,many objects1 such as the antenn and feet of insects1 will not show their full beauty unless they are mounted in ,canada balsam4 ,the method of doing so is as follows3--,a week or two beforehand put the objects into ether or spirits of turpentine1 and allow them to remain there until wanted4 ,pile up some old books1 or take a couple of convenient wooden blocks2 lay your brass plate upon them2 light the spirit-lamp1 and put it under the plate so as to heat it4 ,lay two or three slides on the plate1 and all then can be heated at the same time4 ,warm the bottle of ,canada balsam1 and with a glass rod take out a very little drop1 and put it exactly in the middle of the slide4 ,in order to insure this point1 ,i always put a dot of ink on the wrong side of the slide4 ,stir it about with one of the needles mentioned on page #dbh1 and if any bubbles rise1 break them4 ,when the balsam is quite soft and liquid1 take one of the objects out of the bottle and put it into the balsam1 exactly over the black dot4 ,now add a little more balsam1 so as to cover it1 and let it lie for a few moments4 ,take one of the glass covers1 put a very little balsam on its centre1 and lay it neatly over the object1 pressing it down gradually and equally4 ,unless this be done1 the object will not remain in the centre1 but will shoot out on one side1 and the whole operation must be begun de novo4 ,remove it from the hot plate and lay it on a cool surface1 still continuing the pressure until the balsam has begun to harden4 ,lay a little leaden weight--a pistol-bullet partly flattened is excellent for the purpose--and on the cover write the name of the object1 as already mentioned1 and then proceed to prepare another slide4 ,twenty such slides may be prepared in the course of a morning1 and when they are finished they should be laid carefully in a cold place1 where they will be free from dust4 ,in a week or so the balsam will be quite hard1 and then the slide may be completed4 ,take an old knife1 which should be kept for this special purpose2 heat the blade in the spirit-lamp1 and then run it along the edges of the slide1 so as to take off the superfluous balsam which has escaped from beneath the cover4 ,this must be done very quickly1 or the balsam inside the cover will be heated by the knife1 and the preparation spoiled4 ,when this is done1 cut the ornamental paper1 as already described1 number and label the slide1 wash off the ink1 and then the preparation is complete4 ,some objects are very troublesome to prepare1 and require to be soaked in turpentine and boiled repeatedly in the balsam before they are completely penetrated with it4 ,objects which are put up in ,deane's gelatine are managed after a similar fashion1 save that the gelatine is to be heated by placing the bottle in hot water1 and that the turpentine is not needed4 ,vegetable structures show beautifully when thus prepared4 ,to remove the superfluous gelatine use a wet and not a hot knife4 ,cells are very difficult to manage1 and the novice had better not attempt to make them1 but is hereby advised to purchase them ready made4 ,suppose that the young microscopist has dissected the digestive organs of a bee1 and wishes to preserve it in spirit2 his best plan will be to use a cell for the purpose4 ,let him buy a cell of sufficient depth1 float the preparation into it1 fill it up with spirit1 put the cover loosely on1 and leave it for a week1 occasionally raising the cover and stirring the preparation with a needle1 in order to get rid of any air-bubbles that may have been entangled in the tissues4 ,then let him wipe the edges of the cell very dry1 put on a slight layer of gold-size or asphalte varnish--the former is preferable--fill up the cell a 8bumper10 and lay the cover very gently upon it1 beginning at one end and gently lowering it4 ,with blotting-paper the liquid that escapes must be removed1 the edges dried afresh1 a flattened bullet placed on the cover1 and with a very small camel's-hair brush the slightest possible coating of size painted round the edge of the cell4 ,when it has hardened another may be given1 and so on1 until a thick hard wall of size has been built up round the edges and made the cover completely air-tight4 ,we presume that the reader does not intend to use his microscope merely as a toy1 but that he desires to gain some insight into the works of ,nature1 and is therefore willing to set to work in a systematic manner4 ,it is now known that both animal and vegetable structures are built up by means of certain minute particles1 technically called ,,cells1 and that in every part of a plant or of an animal can be recognised the constituents of which it is formed4 ,we will1 therefore1 begin with the vegetables4 ,illustration3 ,,cell1 ,,strawberry4 ,some of the lowest plants1 such as the minute alg that inhabit the water1 afford excellent examples of the simple vegetable cell2 but as these plants are not readily procured by a beginner1 we will select some familiar object wherein the cells may be found4 ,if any soft and pulpy fruit be taken when it is quite ripe1 and submitted to the microscope1 the vegetable cell will be seen in a tolerably perfect form4 ,the three rounded objects shown in the accompanying illustration are cells from the strawberry1 specimens of which can easily be seen1 if a very thin slice be cut with a razor or lancet1 the latter being the preferable instrument4 ,be careful to dip the blade in water before cutting the fruit1 and to float the slice from the blade to the glass slide by placing them both under water4 ,unless this precaution be taken1 the section will not be flat1 but will be crumpled up1 and the cells will not be properly seen4 ,within each of these cells may be seen a small rounded object1 which is technically called the 8nucleus20 and in some cases a smaller nucleus1 called the 8nucleolus10 may be observed within the nucleus itself4 ,the increase of cells mostly takes place by a process of division4 ,a line passes across the nucleus1 which presently separates into two distinct parts1 each of which recedes from the other1 causing the cell to enlarge and alter its shape4 ,presently a line is seen across the cell itself1 and in due time the cell is also divided into two parts1 each having its own nucleus4 ,in the present instance the cell is totally spherical1 because the fruit from which it was taken was soft1 and allowed the constituent cells to expand4 ,when1 however1 the vegetable substance becomes hard1 the cells are pressed closely together1 and their shapes are very much altered4 ,sometimes1 when the cells are of nearly the same size1 and the pressure is equal on every side1 the cells form regular twelve-sided figures1 called 8dodecahedra10 which1 when that occurs1 show a six-sided outline4 ,a very thin slice of raw potato will show the twelve-sided cells beautifully1 and has the further advantage of exhibiting the starch globules with which the cells are filled4 ,here is a figure of a potato cell1 which presents a six-sided outline1 just like that of a bee's waxen dwelling1 and which is crowded with the beautiful globules of starch4 ,if the reader likes to make a few dozen balls of clay1 and to squeeze them together in a mass1 he will find that the central balls will have lost their globular shape1 and assumed a more or less regular twelve-sided form1 very much like that of the potato cells4 ,illustration3 ,,cell1 ,,potato4 ,illustration3 ,,stellate ,,tissue4 ,sometimes the cells run out longitudinally into cylinders1 and attain the really enormous length of three inches2 sometimes they become flattened1 as the skin or epidermis of many plants2 and oftentimes they push out their sides into arms or rays1 like stars1 and form the tissue which is technically called 8stellate40 ,here is a specimen of stellate tissue taken from the pith of the common rush1 wherein the rays are seen to be very regular3 generally1 however1 the rays are extremely irregular1 and require some little practice to detect them4 ,stellate tissue may be seen in the white portion of orange-peel1 in the thick fleshy substance of many aquatic plants1 in certain leaf-stalks1 and in many similar objects4 ,we will now see how the soft cells which form the pulpy fruit of the strawberry can be changed into the hard timber of the oak or iron-wood tree4 ,illustration3 ,,ringed ,,structure4 ,wherever a cell is destined to form part of a permanent tissue1 it is strengthened by receiving certain additions to its walls4 ,these additions are technically known as 8secondary deposit10 and are made in various ways4 ,sometimes they extend in a thin layer over the whole cell-wall1 leaving a number of little holes1 which are called 8pits10 and earning the name of 8pitted structures40 ,very frequently the secondary deposit is arranged in a series of rings1 an example of which is given in the accompanying illustration4 ,this object is taken from the mistletoe4 ,good examples of the ringed structures may be seen in the anthers of many plants1 and in the leaf-stem of the common rhubarb1 an example of which is shown in the next illustration4 ,another very common form of secondary deposit is the spiral1 which is generally used where strength and elasticity are united4 ,two examples of the spiral form are given in the illustration2 the first taken from the lily1 and the second from the 8rhizome10 or subterranean stem of the water-lily4 ,illustration3 ,,ringed ,,and ,,spiral ,,structures4 ,another beautiful form of secondary deposit is seen in the fern root4 ,if the root be cut longitudinally1 and the dark hard fibre dissolved carefully out with nitric acid1 the deposit will seem to have assumed the shape of a winding staircase1 and is then called 8scalariform10 or ladder-shaped4 ,similar structures may be found in asparagus4 ,illustration3 ,,wood-,,cells4 ,the reader will see that the hardness of the structure depends entirely on the amount of secondary deposit1 and we accordingly find that when the wood is hard and fit to be worked with tools the cells are almost wholly filled with the secondary deposit4 ,in this state they are called 8wood-cells40 ,examples of these cells may be seen in the accompanying illustration4 ,in the first example1 which is taken from the elder-tree1 four cells are shown in order to display the manner in which their pointed ends are arranged4 7,the reader must remember that in all wood-cells the ends are pointed47 ,in the next example1 which is taken from the chrysanthemum1 the pitted structure is still retained2 but in the last figure1 which is drawn from the lime-tree1 the entire cell is filled with secondary structure4 ,the reader must understand that we can only give the veriest outline of the subject1 and profess to do nothing more than indicate the method of observation1 leaving the pupil to work out the details by himself4 ,illustration3 ,,hair ,,of ,,lavender4 ,another curious development of the plant-cells is the formation of ,,hairs4 ,these objects alone afford an inexhaustible field for the microscopist1 and any one who chooses to work out the subject will find himself repaid if he makes a good series of preparations4 ,in their primary forms the hairs are seen merely as little projections on the epidermis1 whether of the stem1 leaf1 or petal1 and by degrees assume their varied and beautiful forms4 ,in order to show the singular forms which hairs sometimes assume1 an illustration is here given of the hairs of the lavender leaf4 ,this is one of the hairs that give the leaf its silvery gloss4 ,it consists of an upright stem1 from the top of which a number of forked branches shoot out horizontally1 much like an open umbrella held upright4 ,the object of this remarkable form is1 that the delicate vessels in which the perfume is held should escape injury4 ,if the reader will refer to the second figure1 which represents a much magnified view of the edge of the leaf1 he will see the globular perfume-gland standing under the shelter of the branching hairs4 ,the following plants afford valuable examples of hair3--,arabis1 marvel of ,peru1 sowthistle1 tobacco1 southernwood1 hollyhock1 snapdragon1 pansy 7in throat of flower71 deutzia 7under-side of leaf71 verbena1 alyssum1 tradescantia1 borage1 cowhage1 and many others4 ,the beautiful effect produced by the petals of flowers is caused by the imperfect hairs with which their surfaces are studded4 ,the ,,pollen of plants is always worth observing1 and some specimens are of remarkably beautiful shapes4 ,take that of altha1 crocus1 cactus1 heath1 violet1 daisy1 lily1 snowdrop1 wallflower1 willow-herb 7a very beautiful form71 hollyhock1 periwinkle1 primrose1 c4 ,put some up in ,deane's gelatine1 and dry some1 besides examining them all when fresh4 ,the microscopist ought to examine the structures of ,,wood by making sections in the directions transverse and longitudinal4 ,a razor will answer very well for the purpose1 and the wood should always be soaked inside1 and the razor wetted before the section is made4 ,it is often useful to make diagonal sections of several woods1 especially those of the pine and juniper4 ,all the forest trees should be examined1 and their roots and bark should not be omitted4 ,cut sections of coconut-shell1 vegetable ivory1 sugar-cane 7a most beautiful object when mounted opaque71 bamboo1 butcher's broom1 c4 ,,mosses are beautiful objects1 and can always be found4 ,examine particularly the fruit or seed-vessel1 and note the structure of its different parts4 ,put these on a slide1 and breathe on them1 noting at the same time any change which may take place4 ,the ,,spore ,,cases of ferns are extremely beautiful1 and should be carefully examined4 ,the little brown dots or streaks that are seen on the under surface of the fronds are called 8sori10 and contain a large but variable number of the sporanges4 ,these consist of stalked sacs or cases1 and differ much in shape1 according to the species of fern4 ,if the fern be fresh from which the sorus is taken1 the sporanges may be seen writhing and twisting like so many serpents1 and sometimes it happens that one of the sporanges bursts1 and suddenly covers the field of the microscope with minute black dots4 ,these dots are the spores or seeds of the fern1 and when magnified with a very high power1 they are seen to be variously shaped4 ,one of the most remarkable spores is that of the equisetum1 or mare's tail of the water4 ,this spore looks like a ball with something coiled round it4 ,as soon as the spore is discharged from its case1 four threads are seen to uncoil themselves from around it1 and by their elasticity to cause the spore to jump about as if alive4 ,these fibres are technically named elasters1 and are prolongations of the outer coat of the spore4 ,,fungi of all kinds should be examined4 ,there is never any difficulty in finding fungi1 though the autumn is the best time of year for this purpose4 8,mould10 as it is popularly called1 is a form assumed by many species of fungus1 which1 though objectionable to the careful housewife1 are full of interest to the microscopist4 ,the well-known mushroom and toadstools are the highest of the fungi4 ,the black spots on leaves are fungi1 mostly belonging to the genus puccinia1 and the best specimens are generally found on the wild rose or bramble4 ,the black 8smut0 of wheat is another fungus1 very pretty under the microscope1 but very obnoxious to the farmer2 and the 8bunt0 also belongs to the same vast tribe of plants1 four thousand species of which are now known to exist4 ,the young observer should also look for the beautiful crystals which exist in many vegetable cells4 ,the ,,raphides1 as these crystals are called1 are of various forms1 mostly shaped like curved needles1 but often assuming very pretty and regular outlines4 ,raphides are plentifully found in the bulb of the onion1 in the rhubarb1 the lily1 the iris1 c4 ,they are best mounted as opaque objects and1 if the reader can procure a binocular microscope1 he will see the form of the raphides better than with the single-tube instrument4 ,,seeds of different plants should be carefully examined1 especially those of small dimensions1 which often exhibit some wonderful beauties of structure4 ,the winged seed of various plants1 such as the thistle1 the dandelion1 the valerian1 and the willow-herb1 are extremely interesting objects2 while those of the yellow snapdragon1 the mullein1 the ,robin ,hood1 and the bur-seed1 are remarkably beautiful in form1 though they have no parachute1 as the feathery appendage is called4 ,leaving dry land1 we will devote a short time to the water4 ,let the reader take with him the simple collecting apparatus mentioned on page #dcj1 and secure specimens of the water from different ponds1 ditches1 and streams4 ,for collecting the larger objects a little net1 which can be purchased cheap1 is of very great use4 ,it is easily made by any tinman1 and if the young microscopist knows the use of solder1 as all experimental philosophers ought to do1 he can put it together in a few minutes4 ,it is formed of a strip of zinc bent into the requisite form1 and with a socket1 to which a handle can be attached4 ,a piece of coarse muslin1 or1 rather1 fine 8net10 is then stretched over the bottom1 and the apparatus is complete4 ,in the water is sure to be found one of the lowest forms of vegetable life--namely1 the 8confervoid alg40 ,look for these in bright1 clear pools1 placing the collecting bottle near any greenish film collected around the stems of plants1 or spread over the stones on the bed of the pool4 ,if this film be very carefully taken up1 it will produce many interesting forms of vegetable life4 ,one of the most remarkable of these vegetables is that which is called 8volvox globator10 a figure of which is here given4 ,illustration3 ,,volvox4 ,this wonderful object is about as large as the head of a very small pin1 so that it is visible to the naked eye1 and looks like a tiny globule passing through the water4 ,when it is placed under a lens of moderate power1 say of an inch focus1 it exhibits some very strange peculiarities4 ,it continually revolves1 and by its revolution is able to enjoy a moderate degree of locomotion1 though without any apparent object4 ,small dark spots are also seen upon it4 ,if a half-inch lens be now used1 the structure of the volvox begins to be exhibited4 ,the whole surface is covered with a network of very fine fibres1 having a spot at the intersection of each mesh4 ,on applying a still higher power1 say the four-tenths of an inch1 the structure is further elucidated1 and the dots on the surface are seen to consist of greenish bodies1 each furnished with a pair of delicate fibres1 technically named cilia1 which are constantly vibrating1 and cause the revolution of the general mass4 ,the dark spots are now seen to be the young plants in different stages of progress4 ,from six to ten of these are inclosed within the parent1 and when the latter has reached its full age1 the membrane bursts asunder1 and the little volvoces are liberated4 ,illustration3 ,,closterium4 ,another interesting form is the closterium1 a genus which is sure to produce several good examples4 ,we may mention that the ponds in ,blackheath are very rich in these curious vegetables1 and a very considerable series of confervoids may be obtained from them4 ,the closteria are easily recognised by their resemblance to the ,australian 8boomerang40 ,as our space is rapidly waning1 we must leave the vegetable1 and proceed to the animal kingdom4 ,as is the case with vegetables1 the animal structure is composed of cells1 though they cannot be so easily traced as in the examples which we have already noticed4 ,the young observer may readily perceive the animal cell1 in its largest and simplest form1 by placing a little of the yolk of egg under the microscope4 ,,cartilage1 or gristle1 is easily seen to be composed of cells4 ,the nails of the fingers afford good objects for the microscopist in search of animal cells4 ,if a thin section be placed under the microscope1 none but an experienced observer will be able to make out the presence of cells at all2 but if the section be soaked in 8liquor potass10 the cells immediately swell up1 and their shape is at once made plain4 ,take the ,,bone of a young chicken or rabbit1 and make a thin section that embraces both the bone and cartilage1 and there will then be a beautiful object for the microscopist1 showing how the cartilage is changed by degrees into bone4 ,illustration3 ,,bone1 ,,transverse4 ,sections of bone should also be made1 both transverse and longitudinal4 ,the ,,blood is another object which must be carefully examined4 ,the 8corpuscles0 which give the colouring matter to the blood are cells of different size1 according to the creature from which they are taken4 ,the dimensions of the animal exercise no apparent influence on the corpuscles1 for those of 8proteus anguinus10 a little creature not larger than a lamprey1 are many times larger than those of the ox4 ,in the accompanying illustration is shown a series of specimens1 in order to show the great difference in their shape and size1 all being drawn to scale and magnified by the same lens4 ,the circular corpuscles in the left-hand upper corner are those of man2 immediately below is a single corpuscle from the pigeon4 ,the great central corpuscle is taken from the proteus2 the two in the lower right-hand corner are from the frog1 one of these being viewed edgeways2 and of the remaining two1 that on the left hand belongs to the tortoise1 and that on the right to a fish4 ,illustration3 ,,blood ,,corpuscles4 ,the insect tribes are an inexhaustible source of objects for the microscopist1 who may find that even a single fly will give him employment for many months4 ,the scales from the butterfly's wing1 the wonderful compound eyes with which insects are gifted1 the structure of their feet1 and their entire anatomy1 are always at the service of any microscopist who really cares for his work4 ,it would1 of course1 be impossible to give even a list of the interesting portions of the different insects2 so one or two examples must suffice us4 ,illustration3 ,,antenn ,,of ,,fly4 ,take the ,,antenn of the insect tribes1 and see how beautifully they are formed1 how graceful is the shape1 and how elaborate the structure4 ,a low power will be useful for exhibiting their general shape and outline1 but it is not until we know how to use the higher powers that the real beauty of these curious organs is seen4 ,in the accompanying illustration is given part of an antenna of the common blue-bottle fly1 in order to show the remarkable cavities which exist within the antenn1 and which are thought by some anatomists to be organs of hearing1 and by others to be organs of smell4 ,illustration3 ,,wings ,,of ,,bee4 ,the ,,wings of insects are also most remarkable1 and possess many peculiarities of structure which cannot be detected without the aid of a microscope4 ,take1 for example1 the wings of any hymenopterous insect1 say those of a humble-bee1 and see how beautiful is the structure which causes the four wings to be united into two when the insect is about to fly4 ,in the illustration may be seen a pair of these wings1 together with the row of hooks which bind them together4 ,a still more magnified representation of the hooks is placed near the wings4 ,it is now ascertained that the wings of insects are connected with the breathing apparatus1 and that the respiration of the insect extends even to the very tips of these singular organs1 which are not modifications of existing limbs1 as in the birds1 but additional structures4 ,the circulation of insects may often be seen by placing a portion of a transparent wing under a moderately high power4 ,we have often seen it in the wing of the great water-beetle4 ,a series of very beautiful preparations may be made in order to show the distinction between the wings of different insects2 and as the orders of insects are founded upon their wings1 there ought to be at least one example of each order4 ,the proboscis of insects is always worthy of careful examination4 ,as to the breathing apparatus itself1 the best mode of examining it is to open a caterpillar1 remove a part of the large breathing tube which runs along each side1 and place it under the microscope4 ,it should always be taken so as to include one of the spiracles1 or breathing-holes4 ,an example of a breathing-tube1 taken from a silk-worm1 is given in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,breathing-,,tube1 ,,silkworm4 ,,hairs of animals are very curious and interesting objects4 ,they should be mounted in three modes--namely1 dry transparent1 dry opaque1 and in ,canada balsam1 transparent4 ,be sure to procure some hair of the bat1 the sheep1 the mouse1 the deer1 the mole1 and any of the weasel tribe4 ,many insects have very beautiful hair1 but the most lovely hair in the animal kingdom is that which is obtained from the sea-mouse4 ,fish scales should also be procured1 and specimens should be taken from the lateral line4 ,,molluscs of all kinds afford many beautiful objects1 and the observer should be very careful to examine the wonderful tongue-ribbon of the snail1 the slug1 the periwinkle1 the whelk1 and other similar molluscs4 ,if meant to be examined by polarized light1 the tongue-ribbon should be mounted in ,canada balsam4 ,,crystals should always form part of a collection4 ,take those of common salt1 nitre1 sugar1 chlorate of potash1 salicine1 c42 indeed1 anything that will crystallize should be prepared and mounted1 as such objects will often be most useful when examining unknown substances4 ,illustration3 ,,bird',s-,,head ,,process4 ,illustration3 ,,noctiluca4 ,illustration3 ,,pedicillari4 ,,zoophytes must of course find a place in the cabinet1 and the young microscopist ought to put up a few specimens of the 8bird's-head0 processes which are found in the bugularia and other inhabitants of the sea4 ,the pretty noctiluca1 to which is mostly owing the phosphorescence of the sea1 should be preserved1 and the extraordinary appendages to the skin of certain star-fish and sea urchins should be examined4 ,these are called pedicillari1 and a sketch of them is given in the illustration4 ,illustration ,,optics ,,and ,,optical ,,amusements4 8',seeing is believing1' so the sages say1 ,to prove this false1 hear me1 my friends1 ,i pray1 ,and very soon you all will be agreeing1 ,that nought is so deceptive as our seeing40--,,martin4 ,optics is the science of light and vision4 ,concerning the nature of light1 two theories are at present very ably maintained by their respective advocates4 ,one is termed the ,newtonian theory1 and the other the ,huygenean4 ,the ,newtonian theory considers light to consist of inconceivably small bodies emanating from the sun1 or any other luminous body4 ,the ,huygenean conceives it to consist in the undulations of a highly elastic and subtle fluid1 propagated round luminous centres in spherical waves1 like those arising in a placid lake when a stone is dropped into the water4 ,,light ,,as ,,an ,,effect4 ,light follows the same laws as gravity1 and its intensity or degree decreases as the square of the distance from the luminous body increases4 ,thus1 at the distance of two yards from a candle we shall have four times less light than we should have1 were it only one yard from it1 and so on in the same proportion4 ,illustration ,,refraction4 ,bodies which suffer the rays of light to pass through them1 such as air1 water1 or glass1 are called refracting media4 ,when rays of light enter these1 they do not proceed in straight lines1 but are said to be refracted1 or bent out of their course1 as seen in the drawing4 ,the ray of light proceeding from ,b through the glass ,l ,g is bent from the point ,c1 instead of passing in the direction of the dotted line4 ,but if the ray ,f ,c falls perpendicularly on the glass1 there is no refraction1 and it proceeds in a direct line to ,k2 hence refraction only takes place when rays fall obliquely or aslant on the media4 ,illustration ,,the ,,invisible ,,coin ,,made ,,visible4 ,if a coin be placed in a basin1 so that on standing at a certain distance it be just hid from the eye of an observer by the rim or edge of the basin1 and then water be poured in by a second person1 the first keeping his position2 as the water rises the coin will become visible1 and will appear to have moved from the side to the middle of the basin4 ,illustration ,,the ,,multiplying ,,glass4 ,the multiplying glass is a semicircular piece of glass cut into facets or distinct surfaces2 and in looking through it we have an illustration of the laws of refraction1 for if a small object1 such as a fly1 be placed at ,d1 an eye at ,e will see as many flies as there are surfaces or facets on the glass4 ,illustration ,,transparent ,,bodies4 ,transparent bodies1 such as glass1 may be made of such form as to cause all the rays which pass through them from any given point to meet in any other given point beyond them1 or which will disperse them from the given point4 ,these are called lenses1 and have different names according to their form4 #a4 ,is called the plano-convex lens4 #b4 ,plano-concave4 #c4 ,double convex4 #d4 ,double concave4 #e4 ,a meniscus1 so called from its resembling the crescent moon4 ,illustration ,,the ,,prism4 ,the prism is a triangular solid of glass1 and by it the young optician may decompose a ray of light into its primitive and supplementary colours1 for a ray of light is of a compound nature4 ,by the prism the ray ,a is divided into its three primitive colours1 blue1 red1 and yellow2 and their four supplementary ones1 violet1 indigo1 green1 and orange4 ,the best way to perform this experiment is to cut a small slit in a window-shutter1 on which the sun shines at some period of the day1 and directly opposite the hole place a prism ,p2 a beam of light in passing through it will then be decomposed1 and if let fall upon a sheet of white paper1 or against a white wall1 the seven colours of the rainbow will be observed4 ,illustration ,,composition ,,of ,,light4 ,the beam of light passing through the prism is decomposed1 and the spaces occupied by the colours are in the following proportions3--red1 #f2 orange1 #d2 yellow1 #g2 green1 #h2 blue1 #h2 indigo1 #f2 violet1 #aa4 ,now1 if you paste a sheet of white paper on a circular piece of board about six inches in diameter1 and divide it with a pencil into fifty parts1 and paint colours in them in the proportions given above1 painting them dark in the centre parts1 and gradually fainter at the edges1 till they blend with the one adjoining4 ,if the board be then fixed to an axle1 and made to revolve quickly1 the colours will no longer appear separate and distinct1 but becoming gradually less visible they will ultimately appear white1 giving this appearance to the whole surface of the paper4 ,illustration ,a ,,natural ,,camera ,,obscura4 ,the human eye is a camera obscura1 for on the back of it on the retina every object in a landscape is beautifully depicted in miniature4 ,this may be proved by the ,,bullock',s ,,eye ,,experiment4 ,procure a fresh bullock's eye from the butcher1 and carefully thin the outer coat of it behind3 take care not to cut it1 for if this should be done the vitreous humour will escape1 and the experiment cannot be performed4 ,having so prepared the eye1 if the pupil of it be directed to any bright objects1 they will appear distinctly delineated on the back part precisely as objects appear in the instrument we are about to describe4 ,the effect will be heightened if the eye is viewed in a dark room with a small hole in the shutter1 but in every case the appearance will be very striking4 ,,the ,,camera ,,obscura4 ,illustration ,this is a very pleasing and instructive optical apparatus1 and may be purchased for four or five shillings4 ,but it may be easily made by the young optician4 ,procure an oblong box1 about two feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and eight high4 ,in one end of this a tube must be fitted containing a lens1 and be made to slide backwards and forwards so as to suit the focus4 ,within the box should be a plain mirror reclining backwards from the tube at an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,at the top of the box is a square of unpolished glass1 upon which from beneath the picture will be thrown1 and may be seen by raising the lid ,a4 ,to use the camera place the tube with the lens on it opposite to the object1 and having adjusted the focus1 the image will be thrown upon the ground-glass as above stated1 where it may be easily copied by a pencil or in colours4 ,illustration ,the form of a camera obscura used in a public exhibition is as follows3--,d ,d is a large wooden box stained black in the inside1 and capable of containing from one to eight persons4 ,a ,b is a sliding piece1 having a sloping mirror ,c1 and a double convex lens ,f1 which may with the mirror ,c be slid up or down so as to accommodate the lens to near and distant objects4 ,when the rays proceeding from an object without fall upon the mirror1 they are reflected upon the lens ,f1 and brought to fall on the bottom of the box1 or upon a table placed horizontally to receive them1 which may be seen by the spectator whose eye is at ,e4 ,,the ,,camera ,,lucida4 ,illustration ,this instrument consists of a glass prism1 ,c1 ,d1 ,d1 ,e1 having four sides covered4 ,the sides ,c1 ,d1 being exposed to the object to be delineated1 rays pass through the glass and fall on the sloping side ,d1 ,e2 from this they are reflected to the top1 and finally pass out of the prism to the eye2#aa now from the direction at which the rays enter the eye1 it receives them as if coming from an image at ,a1 ,b1 and if a sheet of paper be placed below the instrument1 a perfect delineation of the object may be traced with a pencil4 ,this is a very useful instrument to young draughtsmen4 #aa ,the eye is to be applied to the little circular hole seen on the upper surface4 ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4 ,illustration ,this is one of the most pleasing of all optical instruments1 and it is used to produce enlarged pictures of objects1 which being painted on a glass in various colours are thrown upon a screen or white sheet placed against the wall of a large room4 ,it consists of a sort of tin-box1 within which is a lamp1 the light of which 7strongly reflected by the reflector ,t17 passes through a great plano-convex lens ,e fixed in the front4 ,this strongly illuminates the objects which are painted on the slides or slips of glass1 and placed before the lens in an inverted position1 and the rays passing through them and the lens ,f1 fall on a sheet1 or other white surface1 placed to receive the image4 ,the glasses on which the figures are drawn are inverted1 in order that the images of them may be erect4 ,,painting ,,the ,,slides4 ,the slides containing the objects usually shown in a magic lantern1 are to be bought at opticians with the lantern1 and can be procured cheaper and better in this way than by any attempt at manufacturing them4 ,should1 however1 the young optician wish to make a few slides of objects of particular interest to himself1 he may proceed as follows3-- ,illustration ,draw first on paper the figures you wish to paint1 lay it on the table1 and cover it over with a piece of glass of the above shape2 now draw the outlines with a fine camel's hair pencil in black paint mixed with varnish1 and when this is dry1 fill up the other parts with the proper colours1 shading with bistre also mixed with varnish4 ,the transparent colours are alone to be used in this kind of painting4 ,,to ,,exhibit ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4 ,the room for the exhibition ought to be large1 and of an oblong shape4 ,at one end of it suspend a large sheet so as to cover the whole of the wall4 ,the company being all seated1 darken the room1 and placing the lantern with its tube in the direction of the sheet1 introduce one of the slides into the slit1 taking care to invert the figures2 then adjust the focus of the glasses in the tube by drawing it in or out as required1 and a perfect representation of the object will appear4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4 ,most extraordinary effects may be produced by means of the magic lantern2 one of the most effective of which is a ,,tempest ,,at ,,sea4 ,this is effected by having two slides painted1 one with the tempest as approaching on one side1 and continuing in intensity till it reaches the other4 ,another slide has ships painted on it1 and while the lantern is in use1 that containing the ships is dexterously drawn before the other1 and represents ships in the storm4 ,illustration ,the effects of sunrise1 moonlight1 starlight1 c41 may be imitated1 also by means of double slides1 and figures may be introduced sometimes of fearful proportions4 ,illustration ,heads may be made to nod1 faces to laugh2 eyes may be made to roll1 teeth to gnash2 crocodiles may be made to swallow tigers2 combats may be represented2 but one of the most instructive uses of the slides is to make them illustrative of astronomy1 and to show the rotation of the seasons1 the cause of eclipses1 the mountains in the moon1 spots on the sun1 and the various motions of the planetary bodies1 and their satellites4 ,,the ,,phantasmagoria4 ,between the phantasmagoria and the magic lantern there is this difference3 in common magic lanterns the figures are painted on transparent glass1 consequently the image on the screen is a circle of light having figures upon it2 but in the phantasmagoria all the glass is made opaque1 except the figures1 which1 being painted in transparent colours1 the light shines through them1 and no light can come upon the screen except that which passes through the figure1 as is here represented4 ,illustration ,there is no sheet to receive the picture1 but the representation is thrown on a thin screen of silk or muslin placed between the spectators and the lantern4 ,the images are made to appear approaching and receding by removing it further from the screen1 or bringing it nearer to it4 ,this is a great advantage over the ordinary arrangements of the magic lantern1 and by it the most astonishing effects are often produced4 ,,dissolving ,,views4 ,the dissolving views1 by which one landscape or scene appears to pass into the other while the scene is changing1 are produced by using two magic lanterns placed side by side1 and that can be a little inclined towards each other when necessary1 so as to mix together the rays of light proceeding from the lenses of each1 which produces that confusion of images1 in which one view melts as it were into the other1 which gradually becomes clear and distinct2 the principle being the gradual extinction of one picture1 and the production of another4 ,,how ,,to ,,raise ,a ,,ghost4 ,illustration ,the magic lantern1 or phantasmagoria1 may be used in a number of marvellous ways1 but in none more striking than in raising an apparent spectre4 ,let an open box1 ,a ,b1 about three feet long1 a foot and a half broad1 and two feet high1 be prepared4 ,at one end of this place a small swing dressing-glass1 and at the other let a magic lantern be fixed with its lenses in a direction towards the glass4 ,a glass should now be made to slide up and down in the groove ,c ,d1 to which a cord and pulley should be attached1 the end of the cord coming to the part of the box marked ,a4 ,on this glass the most hideous spectre that can be imagined may be painted1 but in a squat or contracted position1 and when all is done1 the lid of the box must be prepared by raising a kind of gable at the end of the box ,b1 and in its lower part at ,e an oval hole should be cut sufficiently large to suffer the rays of light reflected from the glass to pass through them4 ,on the top of the box at ,f place a chafing-dish1 upon which put some burning charcoal4 ,now light the lamp ,g in the lantern1 sprinkle some powdered camphor or white incense on the charcoal1 adjust the slide on which the spectre is painted1 and the image will be thrown upon the smoke4 ,in performing this feat the room must be darkened1 and the box should be placed on a high table1 that the hole through which the light comes may not be noticed4 ,,the ,,thaumatrope4 ,this word is derived from two ,greek words1 one of which signifies wonder1 and the other to turn4 ,it is a very pretty philosophical toy1 and is founded upon the principle in optics1 that an impression made upon the retina of the eye lasts for a short interval after the object which produced it has been withdrawn4 ,the impression which the mind receives lasts for about the eighth part of a second1 as may be easily shown by whirling round a lighted stick1 which if made to complete the circle within that period1 will exhibit not a fiery point1 but a fiery circle in the air4 ,,the ,,bird ,,in ,,the ,,cage4 ,cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a penny piece1 and paint on one side a bird1 and on the other a cage2 fasten two pieces of thread one on each side at opposite points of the card1 so that the card can be made to revolve by twirling the threads with the finger and thumb3 while the toy is in its revolution1 the bird will be seen within the cage4 ,a bat may in the same manner be painted on one side of the card1 and a cricketer upon the other1 which will exhibit the same phenomenon1 arising from the same principle4 ,illustration ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,phantasmascope4 ,the above-named figure is a ,thaumatrope1 as much as the one we are about to describe1 although the term ,phantasmascope is generally applied to the latter instrument2 which consists of a disc of darkened tin-plate1 with a slit or narrow opening in it1 about two inches in length4 ,it is fixed upon a stand1 and the slit placed upwards1 so that it may easily be looked through4 ,another disc of pasteboard1 about a foot in diameter1 is now prepared and fixed on a similar stand1 but with this difference1 that it is made to revolve round an axis in the centre4 ,on this pasteboard disc1 paint in colours a number of frogs in relative and progressive positions of leaping2 make between each figure a slit of about a quarter of an inch deep3 and when this second disc is made to revolve at a foot distance behind the first1 and the eye is placed near the slit1 the whole of the figures1 instead of appearing to revolve with the disc1 will all appear in the attitudes of leaping up and down1 increasing in agility as the velocity of the motion is increased4 ,it is necessary1 when trying the effect of this instrument1 to stand before a looking-glass1 and to present the painted face of the machine towards the glass4 ,a very great number of figures may be prepared to produce similar effects--horses with riders in various attitudes of leaping1 toads crawling1 snakes twisting and writhing1 faces laughing and crying1 men dancing1 jugglers throwing up balls1 c42 all of which1 by the peculiar arrangement above detailed1 will seem to be in motion4 ,a little ingenuity displayed in the construction and painting of the figures upon the pasteboard disc will afford a great fund of amusement4 ,,curious ,,optical ,,illusions4 ,one of the most curious facts relating to the science of vision is the absolute insensibility of a certain portion of the retina to the impression of light1 so that the image of any object falling on that point would be invisible4 ,when we look with the right eye1 this point will be about fifteen degrees to the right of the object observed1 or to the right of the axis of the eye1 or the point of most distinct vision4 ,when looking with the left eye1 the point will be as far to the left4 ,the point in question is the basis of the optic nerve1 and its insensibility to light was first observed by the ,french philosopher1 ,mariotte4 ,this remarkable phenomenon may be experimentally proved in the following manner3-- ,place on a sheet of writing-paper1 at the distance of about three inches apart1 two coloured wafers2 then1 on looking at the left-hand wafer with the right eye1 at the distance of about a foot1 keeping the eye straight above the wafer1 and both eyes parallel with the line which forms the wafers1 the left eye being closed1 the right-hand wafer will become invisible2 and a similar effect will take place if we close the right eye1 and look with the left4 ,,another4 ,cut a circular piece of white paper1 about two inches in diameter1 and affix it to a dark wall4 ,at the distance of two feet on each side1 but a little lower1 make two marks2 then place yourself directly opposite the paper1 and hold the end of your finger before your face1 so that when the right eye is open it shall conceal the mark on your left1 and when the left eye is open the mark on your right4 ,if you then look with both eyes at the end of your finger1 the paper disc will be invisible4 ,,another4 ,fix a similar disc of paper1 two inches in diameter1 at the height of your eye on a dark wall2 a little lower than this1 at the distance of two feet on the right hand1 fix another of about three inches in diameter2 now place yourself opposite the first sheet of paper1 and1 shutting the left eye1 keep the right eye still fixed on the first object1 and when at the distance of about ten feet1 the second piece of paper will be invisible4 ,,the ,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,one of the numerous optical illusions which have from time to time been evolved by scientific minds1 is that of making an image or picture appear in the air4 ,this is produced by means of a mirror1 and an object in relief1 upon which a strong light is thrown1--the mirror being set at such an angle as to throw up the reflection of the image to a certain point in the view of the spectator4 ,this illusion is produced as follows3 ,let a screen be constructed in which is an arched aperture1 the centre of which may be five feet from the floor3 behind the screen is placed a large mirror of an elliptical form4 ,an object is now placed behind the screen1 upon which the light of a strong lamp is thrown from a point above the mirror1 and is received by the mirror and reflected to the centre of the arched cavity in the screen1 where it will appear to the spectator4 ,care should be taken to place the image in an inverted position1 and the light1 which must be very powerful1 should be so placed that none of it may reach the opening4 ,,breathing ,,light ,,and ,,darkness4 ,illustration ,the following experiment1 if performed with care1 is exceedingly striking4 ,let ,s be a candle1 whose light falls at an angle of #ef #de upon two plate glasses1 ,a ,b1 placed close to each other2 and let the reflected rays1 ,a ,c1 ,b ,d1 fall at the same angle upon two similar plates1 ,c ,d1 but so placed that the plane of reflection from the latter is at right angles to the plane of reflection from the former4 ,an eye placed at ,e1 and looking at the same time on the two plates1 ,c and ,d1 will see very faint images of the candle1 ,s2 which by a slight adjustment of the plates1 may be made to disappear almost wholly1 allowing the plate ,c to remain where it is4 ,change the position of ,d1 till its inclination to the ray1 ,b ,d1 is diminished about #c1 or made nearly #ec #aa4 ,the distance may be easily found by a little practice4 ,when this is done1 the image that had disappeared on looking into ,d will be restored1 so that the spectator at ,e1 upon looking into the two mirrors1 ,c ,d1 will see no light in ,c1 because the candle has nearly disappeared1 while the candle is distinctly seen in ,d4 ,if1 while1 the spectator is looking into these two mirrors1 either he or another person breathes upon them gently and quickly1 the breath will revive the extinguished image in ,c1 and will extinguish the visible image in ,d4#ab #ab ,explanation4--,the light ,a1 ,c1 ,b1 ,d is polarized by reflection from the plates ,a ,b1 because it is incident at the polarizing angle #ef #de' for glass4 ,when we breathe upon the plates ,c ,d1 we form upon their surface a thin film of water1 whose polarizing angle is #ec #aa1 so that if the polarized rays ,a1 ,c1 ,b1 ,d fall upon the plates ,c1 ,d1 at an angle of #ec #aa1 the candle from which they proceeded would not be visible1 or they would not suffer reflection from the plates ,c ,d4 ,at all the other angles the light would be reflected1 and the candle visible4 ,now the plate ,d is placed at an angle of #ec #aa1 and ,c at an angle of #ef #de1 so that when a film of water is breathed upon them1 the light will be reflected from the latter1 and none from the former2 that is1 the act of breathing upon the glass plates will restore the invisible1 and extinguish the visible image4 ,,to ,,show ,,that ,,rays ,,of ,,light ,,do ,,not ,,obstruct ,,each ,,other4 ,illustration ,make a small hole in a sheet of pasteboard1 ,a1 and placing it upright before three candles1 ,b1 placed closely together1 it will be found that the images of all the candle flames will be formed separately on a piece of paper1 ,c1 laid on the table to receive them4 ,this proves that the rays of light do not obstruct each other in their progress1 although all cross in passing through the hole4 ,,optics ,,of ,a ,,soap-,,bubble4 ,illustration ,if a soap-bubble be blown up1 and set under a glass1 so that the motion of air may not affect it1 as the water glides down the sides and the top grows thinner1 several colours will successively appear at the top1 and spread themselves from thence down the sides of the bubble1 till they vanish in the same order in which they appeared4 ,at length1 a black spot appears at the top1 and spreads till the bubble bursts4#ac #ac ,the thinnest substance ever observed is the aqueous film of the soap-bubble previous to bursting2 yet it is capable of reflecting a faint image of a candle1 or the sun4 ,hence its thickness must correspond with what ,sir ,isaac ,newton calls the beginning of black1 which appears in water at the thickness of the seven hundred and fifty thousandth part of an inch4 ,,the ,,kaleidoscope4 ,illustration ,illustration ,if any object be placed between two plane mirrors1 inclined towards each other at an angle of thirty degrees1 three several images will be perceived in the circumference of a circle4 ,on this principle is formed the kaleidoscope1 invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 and by means of which the reflected images viewed from a particular point exhibit symmetrical figures1 under an infinite arrangement of beautiful forms and colours4 ,the kaleidoscope may be bought at any toy-shop1 but it is requisite that every young person should be able to construct one for himself4 ,he must1 therefore1 procure a tube of tin or paper1 of about ten inches in length1 and two and a half or three inches in diameter4 ,one end of this should be stopped up with tin or paper1 securely fastened1 in which is to be made a hole1 about the size of a small pea1 for the eye to look through4 ,two pieces of well-silvered looking-glass1 ,b ,b1 are now to be procured2 they must be not quite so long as the tube1 and they should be placed in it lengthways1 at an angle of #fj degrees1 meeting together in a point at ,a1 and separating to the points ,c ,c1 the polished surfaces looking inwards4 ,a circular piece of the glass is now to be laid on the top of the edges of the reflectors1 ,b ,b2 which1 by their not being quite so long as the tube1 will allow room for its falling in1 and it will be supported by the edges of the tube1 which may be slightly bent over1 to prevent the glass from falling out4 ,this having been done1 now proceed to make the 8cap0 of the instrument4 ,a rim of tin or pasteboard must be cut1 so as to fit over the glass end of the tube2 and in this1 on the outer side1 a piece of ground glass must be fastened1 so that the whole may fit on the tube like the lid of a pill-box4 ,then1 before putting it on1 obtain some small pieces of broken glass of various colours1 beads1 little strips of wire1 or any other object1 and place them in the cap2 and by passing it over the end1 so that the broken glass1 c4 has free motion1 the instrument is complete4 ,to use it1 apply the eye to the small hole1 and1 on turning it1 the most beautiful forms will appear1 in the most wonderful combinations4 ,the following curious calculation has been made of the number of changes this instrument will admit of4 ,supposing it to contain #bj small pieces of glass1 and that you make #aj changes in a minute1 it will take an inconceivable space of time1 i4 e4 #dfb1hhj1hii1egf years1 and #cfj days1 to go through the immense number of changes of which it is capable4 ,,simple ,,solar ,,microscope4 ,having made a circular hole in a window-shutter1 about three inches in diameter1 place in it a glass lens of about twelve inches focal distance4 ,to the inside of the hole adapt a tube1 having at a small distance from the lens a slit1 capable of receiving one or two very thin plates of glass1 to which the object to be viewed must be affixed by means of a little gum-water exceedingly transparent4 ,into this tube fit another1 furnished at its extremity with a lens half-an-inch focal distance4 ,place a mirror before the hole of the window-shutter on the outside1 in such a manner as to throw the light of the sun into the tube1 and you will have a solar magic lanthorn4 ,the method of employing this arrangement of lenses for microscopic purposes is as follows3--,having darkened the room1 and by means of the mirror reflected the sun's rays on the glasses in a direction parallel to the axis1 place some small object between the two moveable plates of glass1 or affix it to one of them with very transparent gum-water1 and bring it exactly into the axis of the tube2 if the moveable tube be then pushed out or drawn in1 till the object be a little beyond the focus1 it will be seen painted very distinctly on a card1 or piece of white paper1 held at a proper distance1 and will appear to be greatly magnified4 ,a small insect will appear as a large animal1 a hair as big as a walking-stick1 and the almost invisible eels in paste or vinegar as large as common eels4 ,,anamorphoses4 ,this is a very curious optical effect1 producing a distorted and grotesque figure from a regular one4 ,the term is derived from two ,greek words1 signifying a distortion of figure1 and by its means many optical puzzles may be produced geometrically4 ,take any subject1 such as the portrait of a head2 divide it vertically and horizontally with parallel lines1 of which the outer sides shall form the boundary1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and the whole shall be equidistant4 ,then1 on a separate piece of paper1 or cardboard1 prepare a drawing similar to ,fig4 #b by the following means3-- #a4 ,draw a horizontal line1 a b1 equal to ,a ,b1 and divide it into as many equal parts as the latter is divided4 #b4 ,let fall a perpendicular line1 e v1 from the middle of a b1 and then draw s v parallel to a b4 #c4 ,both e v and s v may be any length at pleasure1 but the longer the first is1 and the shorter the other1 so will the anamorphoses be more and more deformed4 ,the proportions in our figures are sufficiently different4 #d4 ,after having drawn from the point v right lines1 v #a1 v #b1 v #c1 v #d1 to the divisions of a b1 draw the line s b1 and through each point where s b intersects the divergent lines draw other horizontal lines parallel to a b4 ,we now have a trapezium1 a b c d divided into as many cells as the square in ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,the next step is to fill up all the cells of ,fig4 #b with portions of the device1 proportionate to their position in ,fig4 #a4 ,for instance1 in ,fig4 #a the nose is in the second vertical division from the left1 and in the third and fourth horizontal divisions from the top1 and that portion of the face must accordingly be placed in a corresponding part of ,fig4 #b4 ,by these means we procure the anamorphosis seen in ,fig4 #b1 which when viewed from a particular position1 will lose all its distortion1 and assume an appearance resembling that in ,fig4 #a4 ,this position lies immediately over the point v1 and at a height above it equal to the length of the line s v2 and the means of determining it are as follows4 ,place the drawing horizontally before a window2 take a slip of card1 and rest its lower edge on the line s v1 the card being accurately vertical2 pierce a small hole in the card vertically over the point v1 and at a height from it equal to the length of the line s v1 then with the eye placed immediately behind the card1 look through the orifice at the anamorphosis1 and it will be found that as soon as it has become accustomed to the novelty of the experiment1 the anamorphosis will lose its distortion1 and appear almost exactly like the symmetrical figure4 ,it would be very difficult1 and would require geometrical reasoning of a lengthened kind1 to show why this particular form of construction should lead to such results4 ,,the ,,cosmorama4 ,illustration ,the principle upon which the cosmorama is formed is so simple1 that any person may easily fit up one in a small summer house1 c4 ,nothing more is necessary than to fix in a hole a double convex lens of about three feet focus1 ,a1 and at rather less than this distance a picture1 ,b1 is to be hung4 ,to absorb all the rays of light but those necessary for seeing the picture1 a squared frame of wood blackened on the inside is placed between the lens and the picture4 ,the picture may be hung in a large box having a light coming in upon it from above1 or in a small closet illuminated in the same manner4 ,should it be wished to show it by candle-light1 a lamp1 c1 may be placed on the top of the wooden frame1 and if the light of this be converged by a lens to a moderate radius1 it will be more effective4 ,,distorted ,,landscapes4 ,illustration ,landscapes or other matters may be drawn so as to produce curious optical illusions by the following method4 ,take a piece of smooth white pasteboard and sketch the design upon it4 ,prick the outlines in every part with a fine pin or needle1 then place the pricked drawing in a perpendicular position1 and put a lighted candle behind it4 ,place before it another piece of pasteboard1 and follow with a pencil the lines given by the light1 and you have produced a distorted landscape4 ,now take away the candle and the pricked drawing1 and place your eye where the light was1 and the drawing will assume the regular form4 ,to get your eye in the proper position1 it will be advisable to cut out a piece of card according to the accompanying pattern1 and raising it on its base1 ,b1 look through the hole at ,a1 when the object will appear in its proper proportions4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,photography4 8,come like shadows1 but not so depart40--,,shakspeare4 ,associated with the use of iodine and bromine is an art which every intelligent boy may practise1 if he will attend to the following precise details kindly furnished by ,mr4 ,richard ,thomas1 of #aj1 ,pall ,mall1 who has devoted many years to the careful study of all the processes connected with it1 and from whom all the best apparatus and purest chemicals required may be obtained4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,negative ,,on ,,glass1 ,,using ,,collodion ,,bromo-,,iodized ,,for ,,iron ,,development4 #a4 ,the edges of the glass should be ground all round1 also slightly on the surface of the edges4 ,this prevents contraction of the film1 enabling it to resist the action of a heavy stream of water4 ,mark one side in the corner with a diamond1 and upon this side bestow the greatest care4 #b4 ,to clean the glass1 if new4--,make a mixture of spirits of wine and solution of ammonia1 equal parts2 render it as thick as cream with tripoli2 with a piece of cotton-wool kept for this purpose rub a small quantity over that side marked as described1 wash well under a tap of water1 and wipe dry with a piece of old linen1 washed without soap1 and kept scrupulously clean for this purpose4 ,plates should not1 however1 be cleaned in the operating room with the above mixture2 the vapour of ammonia might prove injurious to the chemicals4 #c4 ,now polish with an old white silk handkerchief4 ,if this latter precaution be not taken1 small particles of linen will be left upon the plate3 these are perhaps only seen when draining off the collodion2 they form nuclei and eddies1 checking the collodion in its course4 ,some of these minute fibres are washed off1 and contaminate the next picture4 ,to all lovers of clean pictures our advice therefore is1 having well dried the plate with old linen1 lay it1 clean side upwards1 upon a few sheets of common glazed demy paper 7not blotting71 and rub it hard with the silk until sensibly warm3 this has the double advantage of dispersing fibres and moisture1 for all glass plates are slightly in a hygrometric condition4 ,double the silk rubber up to form a pad1 and with this the glass must be firmly dusted down just before pouring on the collodion1 which will then run most evenly3 if the coated plate is now viewed by transmitted light1 not a speck or blemish will be seen upon it4 ,when a plate cleaned as above described is breathed upon1 the moisture does not evaporate slowly1 but flies off4 ,do not be afraid of putting the glass into an electrical condition with the silk rubber3 on this account objections have been raised to the use of silk3 practically1 however1 ,i find it a most valuable auxiliary in this starting-point of the process1 the perfect manipulation of which makes an important difference in the value of the finished picture4 ,what can be more inartistic and annoying to an educated eye than spots1 patches1 stars1 and sky rockets1 the forms and shapes of which rival1 in numberless variety1 a display of fireworks8 ,let us not1 therefore1 be contented with pictures1 however good in other respects1 presenting these deformities--so many blots on the photographic escutcheon4 ,to clean a glass after having used it1 when not varnished4--,wash off the collodion film with water1 then clean the marked side with plain tripoli and water1 and dry as above4 ,to coat the plate4--,first remove all the particles of dried collodion from the mouth of the bottle4 ,now pour upon the centre of the cleaned glass as much collodion as it will hold4 ,do not perform this operation hurriedly1 take time1 and systematically incline the plate in such a manner that the collodion may run into each corner in succession2 when perfectly covered1 pour off gently the excess into the bottle at one of the corners nearest to you3 with observation and practice dexterity is easily acquired4 ,there are many ways of coating the plate2 each person will adopt that which practice teaches him is best4 ,the pneumatic plate-holder is a convenient little instrument to use for holding the plate whilst pouring on the collodion3 it may be used for both small and large plates4 ,keep the corner of the glass plate in contact with the neck of the bottle whilst pouring off the collodion2 otherwise the film will be wavy in places4 #d4 ,as soon as the collodion ceases to run1 plunge the prepared glass gently1 without stopping1 into the nitrate of silver bath1 which is prepared as follows4 ,into a #bj-oz4 stoppered bottle put nitrate of silver1 #a ozs42 distilled water1 #d ozs43 dissolve4 ,to this solution add iodide of potassium1 #d grs41 dissolved in #a drachm of distilled water4 ,mix these two solutions3 the precipitate 7iodide of silver7 thus formed is by shaking entirely dissolved4 ,add #af ozs4 of distilled water1 when the excess of iodide of silver is again thrown down1 but in such a finely divided state as to render the saturation of the bath with iodide of silver perfect4 ,now drop in sufficient of the oxide of silver to turn the turbid yellow solution a dirty brown colour2 so long as this effect is produced the quantity of oxide of silver1 however much in excess1 is of no consequence2 shake the bottle well for ten minutes or so at intervals2 then add alcohol1 #cj minims1 and filter2 to the filtered solution add dilute nitric acid of the strength stated1 #e minims4 ,the bath is now ready for use1 and should be quite neutral4 #e4 ,allow the prepared glass to remain in this bath from five to ten minutes1 according to the temperature4 ,move it up and down three or four times whilst in the bath1 in order to get rid of the greasy appearance on the surface3 drain it1 but not too closely4 ,when in the frame1 place upon the back a piece of common blotting-paper1 to absorb moisture1 and the two lower silver wires should also be covered with slips of blotting-paper2 after which the sooner it is placed in the camera the better4 #f4 ,the time of exposure can only be ascertained by practice--no rules can be laid down2 and ,i am unacquainted with any royal road1 but that of experience1 leading to constant success in this most important point4 #g4 ,the plate having been taken from the camera1 and placed upon a levelled stand1 or held in the hand1 develop immediately the latent image with the following solution3-- ,iron developing solution4--,protosulphate of iron1 oz42 glacial acetic acid1 oz42 spirits of wine1 oz42 distilled water1 #h ozs43 mix4 ,pour on of this solution only enough to cover the plate easily1 commencing at that edge of the negative which stood uppermost in the camera2 move the solution to and fro until it has become intimately mixed with the silver on the plate2 then pour off into the developing glass1 and at once return it on to the plate4 ,when as much intensity has been obtained as possible with the iron developer1 it should be thoroughly removed by washing with water4 ,any intensity may be obtained afterwards by using either of the following solutions3-- #h4 ,intensifying solution4--,pyrogallic acid1 #f grs42 glacial acetic acid1 oz42 distilled water1 #f ozs43 mix4 ,a few drops of a #cj-;gr4 solution of nitrate of silver1 the quantity to be regulated according to the intensity required1 to be added1 at the moment of using1 to as much of the pyrogallic solution as may be necessary4 ,intensifying solution 7another form74--#a4 ,pyrogallic acid1 #h grs42 citric acid1 #bj grs42 distilled water1 #b ozs4 #b4 ,nitrate of silver1 #h grs42 distilled water1 #b ozs4 ,mix small quantities of the solutions #a and #b1 in equal portions1 the moment before using4 ,the pyrogallic solution1 made with good acetic acid1 may be kept for a month or more in a cool place4 ,nevertheless1 if the conditions of light and situation are unfavourable1 ,i should prefer this solution just made4 ,the iron solutions act best when freshly prepared4 ,it is supposed by some that a prolonged action of the iron developer produces fogginess4 ,this may be the case when impure or improperly prepared collodion is used1 but certainly not when the preparation is pure and of the proper quality4 ,when the image is sufficiently intense1 wash freely with common filtered water2 then pour on a saturated solution of hyposulphate of soda1 which should immediately remove the iodide of silver3 wash again well with water2 allow as much as the plate will hold to soak in for at least a quarter of an hour1 changing the water occasionally1 to remove all traces of hyposulphate2 lastly1 wash the plate with a little distilled water1 stand up to dry1 and1 if required1 varnish either with spirit or amber varnish4 ,the following solution is also very commonly used for fixing the negative3--,cyanide of potassium1 oz42 water1 #ab ozs4 ,attention to the following rules and cautions will assist the operator in the production of perfect pictures3-- #a4 ,do not disturb the deposit which will occasionally be found at the bottom of the bottle containing the collodion4 #b4 ,remove all particles of dried film from the neck of the bottle before pouring the collodion on the plate4 #c4 ,never use damp cloths1 leathers1 or buffs1 for giving the final polish to the plate4 ,negatives with an indistinct and muddy surface are frequently produced from this cause4 #d4 ,let the film set properly before immersion in the nitrate of silver bath3 its condition can be ascertained by gently touching the lower part of the coated plate with the end of the finger4 #e4 ,never omit to pass a broad camel-hair brush over the plate just before pouring on the collodion4 #f4 ,bear in mind that1 as light is the producing agent1 so will it prove a destructive one3 not less than four folds of yellow calico should be used to obstruct white light2 and in that case the aperture covered should be no larger than is necessary to admit sufficient light for working by4 ,examine occasionally the yellow calico3 when this material is used to exclude white light1 it becomes bleached by constant exposure4 ,do not trust alone to any coloured glass2 no glass yet made is anti-actinic under all aspects of light and conditions of exposure4 #g4 ,when the negative requires intensifying1 carefully wash off all traces of the first developing solution before proceeding to intensify4 ,this operation may be performed either before or after the iodide is removed by fixing4 #h4 ,glass baths are preferable to porcelain1 ebonite1 or gutta-percha baths for solution of nitrate of silver4 #i4 ,in using either spirit or amber varnish1 before pouring it off1 keep the plate horizontal a few seconds4 ,this gives time for soaking in1 and prevents the formation of a dull surface arising from too thin a coating4 #aj4 ,rub the lenses occasionally with a soft and clean wash-leather2 the rapidity of action is much influenced by the brightness of the lenses3 their surfaces are constantly affected by moisture in the atmosphere1 which condensing1 destroys the brilliancy of the image4 #aa4 ,the white blotting-paper used for some photographic purposes is not suitable for filtering solutions2 that only should be employed which is made for this purpose1 and is sold under the name of filtering-paper4 #ab4 ,hyposulphate of soda4--,a great deal of rubbish is sold under the name of this salt4 ,as a test of its quality1 #a drachms should entirely dissolve in #a drachm of water1 and this solution should dissolve rather more than #d grains of iodide of silver4 #ac4 ,chemicals4--,the purity of photographic chemicals cannot be too strongly urged2 the cheapest are not always the most economical4 ,the commercial preparations are generally not to be depended upon1 as these1 though perhaps unadulterated1 are1 strictly speaking1 not chemically pure4 ,it is best to procure them from well-known chemists1 who understand the purpose for which they are intended1 and make the preparation of these substances peculiarly a branch of their business4 #ad4 ,never leave chemical solutions exposed in dishes3 when done with1 pour them back into glass-stoppered bottles1 and decant for use from any deposit1 or filter if necessary4 #ae4 ,in all photographic processes it is absolutely necessary to be chemically clean2 and this sometimes is not easy4 ,as a rule1 never be satisfied with cleanly appearances only1 but take such measures as shall insure the absence of all extraneous matter in preparing the solutions1 cleaning the glasses1 dishes1 c4 #af4 ,all stains on the hands1 linen1 c4 may be removed by means of cyanogen soap or cyanide of potassium1 which should be applied without water at first1 then thoroughly washed off4 ,to assist the operation1 the hands may be now gently rubbed with a fine piece of pumice-stone1 when the stains quickly disappear4 ,for more perfect and complete directions the reader is referred to a most excellent work1 8,the ,modern ,practice of ,photography10 by ,r4 ,w4 ,thomas1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,illustration ,,pneumatics4 8,there is a tricksy spirit in the air ,that plays sad gambols40--,,ben ,,jonson4 ,the branch of the physical sciences which relates to the air and its various phenomena is called ,pneumatics4 ,by it we learn many curious particulars4 ,by it we find that the air has weight and pressure1 colour1 density1 elasticity1 compressibility1 and some other properties with which we shall endeavour to make the young reader acquainted by many pleasing experiments1 earnestly impressing upon him to lose no opportunity of making physical science his study4 ,the common leather sucker by which boys raise stones will show the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,it consists of a piece of soft but firm leather1 having a piece of string drawn through its centre4 ,the leather is made quite wet and pliable1 and then its under part is placed on the stone and stamped down by the foot4 ,this pressing excludes the air from between the leather and the stone1 and by pulling the string a vacuum is left underneath its centre2 consequently the leather is firmly attached to the stone1 which enables you to lift it4 ,,weight ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,proved ,,by ,a ,,pair ,,of ,,bellows4 ,shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows1 and after having squeezed the air out of them1 if they are perfectly air-tight1 we shall find that a very great force1 even some hundreds of pounds1 is necessary for separating the boards4 ,they are kept together by the weight of the air which surrounds them in the same manner as if they were surrounded by water4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,air ,,shown ,,by ,a ,,wine-,,glass4 ,place a card on a wine-glass filled with water1 then invert the glass3 the water will not escape1 the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of the card being sufficient to support the water4 ,illustration ,,another4 ,illustration ,invert a tall glass jar in a dish of water1 and place a lighted taper under it2 as the taper consumes the air in the jar1 the water1 from the pressure without1 rises up to supply the place of the oxygen removed by the combustion4 ,in the operation of cupping the operator holds the flame of a lamp under a bell-shaped glass4 ,the air within this being rarefied and expanded1 a considerable portion is given off4 ,in this state the glass is placed upon the flesh1 and as the air within it cools it contracts1 and the glass adheres to the flesh by the difference of the pressure of the internal and external air4 ,,elasticity ,,of ,,the ,,air4 ,illustration ,this can be shown by a beautiful philosophical toy1 which may easily be constructed4 ,procure a glass jar such as is here represented1 and put water into it4 ,then mould three or four little figures in wax1 and make them hollow within1 and having each a minute opening at the heel1 by which water may pass in and out4 ,place them in the jar1 as seen in the figure1 and adjust them by the quantity of water admitted to them1 so that in specific gravity they differ a little from each other4 ,the mouth of the jar should now be covered with a piece of skin or india-rubber1 and then1 if the hand be pressed upon the top or mouth of the jar1 the figures will be seen to rise or descend as the pressure is gentle or heavy2 rising and falling1 or standing still1 according to the pressure made4 ,,reason ,,for ,,this4 ,the reason of this is1 that the pressure on the top of the jar condenses the air between the cover and the water surface2 this condensation then presses on the water below1 and influences it through its whole extent1 compressing also the air in the figures1 forcing as much more water into them as to render them heavier than water1 and therefore heavy enough to sink4 ,,the ,,air-,,pump4 ,the time was1 and that not very long ago1 when the air-pump was only obtainable by the philosophical professor or by persons of enlarged means4 ,but now1 owing to our 8cheap way of doing things10 a small air-pump may be obtained for about a guinea1 and we would strongly advise our young friends to procure one1 as it will be a source of endless amusement to them2 and1 supposing that they take our advice1 we suggest the following experiments4 ,illustration ,the air-pump consists of a bell glass1 called the receiver1 ,a1 and a stand1 upon which is a perforated plate1 ,b4 ,the hole in this plate is connected with two pistons1 the rods of which are moved by a wheel handle backwards and forwards1 and thus pump the air out of the receiver4 ,when the air is thus taken out1 a stop-cock is turned1 and then the experiments may be performed4 ,under the receiver of an air-pump1 when the air has been thoroughly exhausted1 light and heavy bodies fall with the same swiftness4 ,animals quickly die for want of air1 combustion ceases1 a bell sounds faint1 and water and other fluids change to vapour4 ,,to ,,prove ,,that ,,air ,,has ,,weight4 ,take a florence flask1 fitted up with a screw and fine oiled silk valve4 ,screw the flask on the plate of the air-pump1 exhaust the air1 take it off the plate1 and weigh it4 ,then let in the air1 and again weigh the whole1 and it will be found to have increased by several grains4 ,illustration ,,to ,,prove ,,air ,,elastic4 ,place a bladder out of which all the air has apparently been squeezed under the receiver1 upon it lay a weight1 exhaust the air1 and it will be seen that the small quantity of air left within the bladder will so expand itself as to lift the weight4 ,put a corked bottle into the receiver1 exhaust the air1 and the cork will fly out4 ,,sovereign ,,and ,,feather4 ,illustration ,place a nicely-adjusted pair of forceps at the top of the receiver1 communicating with the top of the outside through a hole1 so that they may be opened by the fingers4 ,then place on each of the little plates a sovereign and a feather4 ,exhaust the air from the receiver2 and having done so1 detach the objects1 so that they may fall4 ,in the open air the sovereign will fall long before the feather1 but in vacuo1 as in the receiver now exhausted of its air1 they will fall both together1 and reach the bottom of the glass at the same instant4 ,,air ,,in ,,the ,,egg4 ,take a fresh egg1 and cut off a little of the shell and film from its smaller end2 then put the egg under a receiver1 and pump out the air2 upon which all the contents of the egg will be forced out by the expansion of the small bubble of air contained in the great end between the shell and the film4 ,,the ,,descending ,,smoke4 ,set a lighted candle on the plate1 and cover it with a tall receiver4 ,the candle will continue to burn while the air remains1 but when exhausted will go out1 and the smoke from the wick1 instead of rising1 will descend in dense clouds towards the bottom of the glass1 because the air which would have supported it has been withdrawn4 ,illustration3 ,,air ,,in ,,the ,,egg4 ,illustration3 ,,descending ,,smoke4 ,,the ,,soundless ,,bell4 ,set a bell on the pump-plate1 having a contrivance so as to ring it at pleasure1 and cover it with a receiver2 then make the clapper sound against the bell1 and it will be heard to sound very well2 now exhaust the receiver of air1 and then when the clapper strikes against the sides of the bell the sound can be scarcely heard4 ,illustration3 ,,soundless ,,bell4 ,illustration3 ,,floating ,,fish4 ,,the ,,floating ,,fish4 ,if a glass vessel containing water1 in which a couple of fish are put1 be placed under the receiver1 upon exhausting the air the fish will be unable to keep at the bottom of the glass1 owing to the expansion of the air within their bodies1 contained in the air bladder4 ,they will consequently rise and float1 belly upwards1 upon the surface of the water4 ,,the ,,diving ,,bell4 ,the diving bell is a pneumatic engine1 by means of which persons can descend to great depths in the sea1 and recover from it valuable portions of wrecks and other things4 ,its principle may be well illustrated by the following experiment4 ,take a glass tumbler1 and plunge it into the water with the mouth downwards1 and it will be found that the water will not rise much more than half way in the tumbler4 ,this may be made very evident if a piece of cork be suffered to float inside the glass on the surface of the water4 ,the air within the tumbler does not entirely exclude the water1 because air is elastic1 and consequently compressible1 and hence the air in the tumbler is what is called condensed4 ,the diving bell is formed upon the above principle2 but instead of being of glass1 it is a wooden or metal vessel1 of very large dimensions1 so as to hold three or four persons1 who are supplied with air from above by means of powerful pumps1 whilst the excess of air escapes at the bottom of the bell1 as may be seen any day at the ,royal ,polytechnic ,institution4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,experiments4 #a4 ,place a cylinder of strong glass1 open at both ends1 on the plate of the air-pump1 and put your hand on the other end1 and you will of course be able to remove it at pleasure4 ,now exhaust the air from the interior of the cylinder1 and at each stroke of the pump you will feel your hand pressed tighter and tighter on the cylinder1 until you will not be able to remove it3 as soon as the air is again admitted to the interior of the cylinder1 the pressure within will be restored1 and the hand again be at liberty4 #b4 ,tie a piece of moistened bladder very firmly over one end of a similar glass cylinder1 and place the open end on the plate of the pump4 ,as soon as you begin to exhaust the air from the interior1 the bladder1 which was previously quite horizontal1 will begin to bulge inwards1 the concavity increasing as the exhaustion proceeds1 until the bladder1 no longer able to bear the weight of the superincumbent air1 breaks with a loud report4 #c4 ,the elasticity of air1 or indeed of any gaseous body1 may be shown by introducing under the air-pump receiver a bladder containing a very small quantity of air1 its mouth being closely tied4 ,as you exhaust the air from the receiver1 that portion contained in the bladder being no longer pressed upon by the atmosphere1 will gradually expand1 distending the bladder until it appears nearly full3 on readmitting the air into the receiver1 the bladder will at once shrink to its former dimensions4 ,a shrivelled apple placed under the same conditions will appear plump when the air is removed from the receiver1 and resume its former appearance on the readmission of the air4 #d4 ,there is a very pretty apparatus made for the purpose of showing the pressure of the atmosphere1 consisting of a hollow globe of brass1 about three inches in diameter1 divided into two equal parts1 which fit very accurately together4 ,it is furnished with two handles2 one of them screwed into a hollow stem1 communicating with the interior of the globe1 and fitting on to the air-pump3 the other is attached to a short stem on the opposite side of the globe4 ,in the natural state the globe may easily be separated into its two hemispheres by one person pulling the handles1 but after the air has been exhausted from the interior it requires two very strong men to separate the parts1 and they will often fail to do so4 ,by turning the stopcock1 and readmitting the air into the interior of the globe1 it will come asunder as easily as at first4 ,we are indebted to the weight of the atmosphere for the power we possess of raising water by the common pump2 for the piston of the pump withdrawing the air from the interior of the pipe1 which terminates in water1 the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water up the pipe to supply the place of the air withdrawn4 ,it was soon found1 however1 that when the column of water in the pipe was more than thirty feet high1 the pump became useless1 for the water refused to rise higher4 ,why8 ,it was found that a column of water about thirty feet high exerted a pressure equal to the weight of the atmosphere1 thus establishing an equilibrium between the water in the pipe and the atmospheric pressure4 ,illustration ,this is the principle on which the barometer1 or measurer of weight1 as its name imports1 is constructed4 ,the metal ,mercury is about thirteen and a half times heavier than water2 consequently1 if a column of water thirty feet high balances the pressure of the atmosphere1 a column of mercury thirty inches high ought to do so also--and this is in fact the case4 ,if you take a glass tube nearly three feet long1 and closed at one end1 and fill it with mercury2 then1 placing your finger on the open end1 invert the tube into a basin or saucer containing some of the same metal2 upon removing your finger 7which must be done carefully1 while the mouth of the tube is completely covered by the mercury17 it will be seen that the fluid will fall a few inches1 leaving the upper part of the tube empty4 ,such a tube with a graduated scale attached is in truth a barometer1 and as the weight of the atmosphere increases or decreases1 so the mercury rises or falls in the tube4 ,this instrument is of the greatest value to the seaman1 for a sudden fall of the barometer will often give notice of an impending storm when all is fine and calm1 and thus enable the mariner to make the preparations necessary to meet the danger4 ,it was discovered by an ,italian philosopher named ,torricelli1 and from him the vacuum formed in the upper end of the tube above the surface of the mercury has been called the ,torricellian vacuum4 ,it is by far the most perfect vacuum that can be obtained1 containing necessarily nothing but a minute quantity of the vapour of mercury4 ,,experiment4 ,pass a little ether through the mercury in the tube1 and as soon as it reaches the empty space it will boil violently1 depressing the mercury1 until the pressure of its own vapour is sufficient to prevent its ebullition4 ,if you now cool the upper part of the tube1 so as to condense the vapour1 the pressure being thus removed1 the ether will again begin to boil1 and so alternately1 as often as you please1 in order to show this fact with effect1 the bore of the tube should not be less than half an inch in diameter4 ,illustration ,,experiment4 ,to show that the heat abstracted by the boiling of one liquid will freeze another1 fill a tall narrow glass about half full of cold water 7the colder the better71 and place in it a thin glass tube containing some ether4 ,put them under the receiver of an air-pump4 ,as you exhaust the air1 the ether will begin to boil1 until at length1 by continuing the exhaustion1 the water immediately surrounding the tube of ether will freeze1 and a tolerably large piece of ice may thus be obtained4 ,ether evaporates so rapidly even under the pressure of the atmosphere1 that a small animal1 such as a mouse1 may be actually frozen to death by constantly dropping ether upon it4 ,if poured on the hand1 it produces a degree of cold that soon becomes1 to say the least1 unpleasant4 ,,experiment4 ,place a flat saucer containing about a pound of oil of vitriol under the receiver of the air-pump1 and set in it a watch glass containing a little water1 supported on a stand with glass legs4 ,exhaust the receiver1 when the water will evaporate1 but without boiling2 and the vapour being absorbed as it forms by the oil of vitriol1 the vacuum is preserved1 and the evaporation continues1 until the vapour has abstracted so much caloric from the remainder of the water that it is all at once converted into ice4 ,in most elementary works on chemistry may be found a long table of freezing mixtures1 as they are called1 some with and others without ice or snow4 ,we have selected a few from each division4 ,,with ,,ice ,,or ,,snow4 ,snow or powdered ice #b parts4 ,powdered common salt #a ,snow #e ,powdered common salt #b ,powdered sal ammoniac #a ,snow #c ,dilute sulphuric acid #b ,snow #b ,crystallized muriate of lime #c ,,without ,,snow ,,or ,,ice4 ,sulphate of soda #c parts4 ,dilute nitric acid #b ,nitrate of ammonia #a ,water #a ,phosphate of soda #b ,dilute nitric acid #a ,sulphate of soda #b ,muriatic acid #a ,the effects of most of these mixtures may be considerably increased by previously cooling the ingredients separately in other freezing mixtures4 ,in connexion with this branch of science1 and especially with chemistry1 the youthful philosopher should practise the art of decanting air from one jar to another standing over water1 beginning by passing it from a small to a larger jar1 then with two of equal size2 and when he can accomplish the transfer without permitting even one bubble to escape1 he may essay the much more difficult task of transferring the air from a large to a smaller jar4 ,illustration ,he should also practise using the blowpipe until he can keep up a steady and uninterrupted flame for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour1 without stopping for breath4 ,it is quite possible to replenish wind in the mouth1 which alone ought to be used1 without interrupting the breathing for an instant1 but it requires some practice4 ,illustration3 7#a7 ,box blowpipe1 ,a1 the stem2 ,b1 the mouthpiece2 ,c1 the box1 in which is placed a piece of sponge to absorb the moisture of the breath2 ,d1 the extremity 7this is moveable1 and each blowpipe has several1 with different apertures72 ,e1 the hollow pivot1 in which the extremity and its arm turn4 ,the box is opened by the milled ring seen at the bottom4 ,,spectrum ,,analysis4 ,if the youthful student wishes to occupy his leisure in a most amusing and instructive manner1 and at the same time to acquire a ready method of testing for the presence of the various metals1 he cannot do better than purchase from ,mr4 ,john ,browning1 of #aaa1 ,minories1 the ,amateur's ,spectroscope1 price two guineas2 or1 if sufficiently ingenious1 a prism and lenses may be purchased for sixteen shillings1 and fitted up in paper tubes4 ,indeed1 it is always better to buy some complete set or portion of a set of apparatus1 instead of the trashy so-called 8,boys' ,cabinets10 which contain very much that is useless and very little for instructive experiments4 ,the instrument enables the observer to examine the properties of metallic salts when in the state of a glowing or incandescent gas4 ,common light affords a continuous spectrum or band of colours1 red at one end and violet at the other1 the intermediate colours being orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 and indigo4 ,the spectra of the metals in the state of luminous vapour are not continuous1 but are represented by distinct bands or lines of light4 ,illustration3 ,solar ,spectrum1 and ,spectra of the ,alkanes and ,alkaline ,earths4 ,copied from the ,original ,drawings of ,g4 ,,kirchhoff and ,r4 ,,bunsen4 ,every element1 metallic or otherwise1 when converted into a luminous gas1 produces lines which are always found in the same part of the spectrum1 and are therefore unalterable in position4 ,the instrument 7,fig4 #a7 is called the ,spectroscope4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,amateur',s ,,spectroscope4 ,a1 ,tube with knife edges2 ,b1 the prism2 ,c1 the telescope2 ,d1 the lamp1 supplied with gas by pipe ,e2 ,f1 stand carrying the platinum wire4 ,the wire may be held in the hand1 but is more convenient when attached to a stand4 ,the instrument 7,fig4 #b7 will exhibit the dark fixed lines in the solar spectrum1 and also the bright lines in the spectra of incandescent metals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,herschel-,,browning ,,direct ,,vision ,,spectroscope4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,a1 another form of gas lamp2 ,b1 the flame2 ,c1 adjusting stand to carry the platinum wire and the lamp4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,spectroscope4 ,screw the tube carrying the knife edges at the small end into the prism bore1 and the telescope into its proper ring4 ,now place any common bright light exactly in front of the knife edges1 and while looking through the telescope arrange the knife edges until a bright and continuous spectrum is visible4 ,,to ,,obtain ,,the ,,bright ,,lines ,,in ,,the ,,spectrum ,,given ,,by ,,any ,,substance4 ,remove the bright flame from the front of the knife edges1 and substitute in its place the flame of a common spirit lamp or1 still better1 a gas-jet known as a ,bunsen's ,burner4 ,take a piece of platinum wire about the substance of a fine sewing needle2 bend the end into a small loop about the eighth of an inch in diameter2 fuse a small bead of the substance1 or salt1 to be experimented on into the loop of the platinum wire1 and attaching it to any sort of light stand or support1 bring the bead into the front edge of the flame1 a little below the level of the knife edges4 ,if the flame be opposite the knife edges1 on looking through the eye-piece of the telescope the fixed lines due to the substance will be plainly visible4 ,when minute quantities have to be examined1 the substance should be dissolved1 and a drop of the solution1 instead of a solid bead1 be used on the platinum wire4 ,the delicacy of this method of analysis is very great4 ,swan found1 in #aheg 7,ed4 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xxi4 p4 #daa71 that the lines of sodium are visible when a quantity of solution is employed which does not contain more than #a_/b1ejj1jjj of a grain of sodium4 ,to view ,fraunhofer's lines on the solar spectrum it is only necessary to turn the knife edges towards a white cloud1 and make the slit formed by the knife edges very narrow by turning the screw at the side of them4 ,in every instance the focus of the telescope must be adjusted in the ordinary way1 by sliding the draw tube until it suits the observer's sight1 and distinct vision is obtained4 ,it should be noted that lines at various parts of the spectrum require a different adjustment in focussing the telescope4 ,the small prism turning on a joint in front of the knife edges is for the purpose of showing two spectra in the field of view at the same time4 ,to do this it must be brought close to the front of the knife edges4 ,then one flame must be placed in the position in which the flame of the candle is shown in the small figure1 and the other directly in front of the slit4 ,on looking through the telescope1 as before described1 the spectra due to the two substances will be seen one above the other4 ,when the slit is turned towards a bright cloud1 and a light is used in the position of the candle flame1 the spectrum of any substance may be seen compared with the solar spectrum4 ,in this manner ,kirchhoff determined in the solar spectrum the presence of the lines of the greater number of the elements which are believed to exist in the sun4 ,,professor ,,stokes' ,,absorption ,,bands4 ,this instrument is expressly adapted to the prismatic analysis of organic bodies1 according to the method recommended by ,professor ,stokes in his lecture at the ,chemical ,society1 printed in the ,chemical ,news4 ,to observe these bands it is only necessary to place a very dilute solution of the substance in a test-tube1 then fix the test-tube in the small clip attached to a ring which slips on in front of the knife edges4 ,upon bringing any bright light in front of the tube1 on looking through the telescope1 if the instrument has been properly adjusted1 a bright spectrum will be seen1 interrupted by the dark bands due to the substance in solution4 ,one of the simplest and most interesting experiments of this kind can be made by preparing dilute solutions of madder1 port wine1 and blood4 ,in these very dilute solutions no difference can be detected by the unassisted eye1 but on submitting them in the manner already described to the test of spectrum analysis1 very different appearances will be presented4 ,the absorption bands may1 however1 be most conveniently examined and accurately investigated by means of ,sorby and ,browning's new ,micro-,spectroscope4 ,,to ,,map ,,out ,,any ,,spectrum4 ,place the eye-piece with cross wires in the telescope1 with the cross in the shape of an ,x4 ,then move the telescope so that the point where the wires cross comes successively in contact with the various lines1 noting the readings of the nonius on the arc4 ,from these readings1 by the help of any mechanical scale of equal parts1 a map may be easily constructed4 ,by the assistance of spectrum analysis four new metals have been discovered1 viz4 ,csium1 ,rubidium1 ,thallium1 ,norium4 ,it is often a cause of grumbling with young beginners in chemistry that there is so much washing of glasses and slopping required to obtain proper results from tests2 but here is a most refined mode of testing1 which may be carried on in the drawing-room1 and so delicate that a portion of sodium salt even less than #a_/ahj1jjj1jjjth part of a grain can be easily detected4 ,formerly the metal ,lithium was considered to be a very rare one1 but since the use of the spectroscope1 quantities less than the #a_/f1jjj1jjjth of a grain have been detected2 it now appears that lithium is a very common metal1 and exists in the human body1 the sea1 and may be obtained from many other common sources4 ,lithium has been found in the ashes of marine plants1 the ashes of tobacco--in milk1 coffee1 tea1 human blood1 and in muscular tissue2 it has also been found in meteoric stones4 ,the coloured plate is a faithful copy of ,kirchhoff's ,diagram1 and shows the solar spectrum1 also the spectra of potassium1 sodium1 lithium1 strontium1 calcium1 barium1 rubidium4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,domestic ,pets4 ,,bees4 ,,canaries4 ,,dogs4 ,,gold ,,fish4 ,,guinea ,,pigs4 ,,hedgehogs4 ,,jackdaws4 ,,jays4 ,,magpies4 ,,owls4 ,,parrots4 ,,pigeons4 ,,poultry4 ,,rabbits4 ,,ravens4 ,,silkworms4 ,,squirrels4 ,,white ,,mice4 ,illustration3 ,,our ,,domestic ,,pets4 ,illustration ,,bees ,,and ,,bee-,,keeping4 ,in treating of that useful insect the honey-bee1 we will first explain briefly the domestic economy of the hive1 and the distinction between the different individuals composing the entire colony1 and then pass on to the more practical details of bee-keeping4 ,a beehive contains three kinds of individuals--a queen1 drones1 and workers4 ,the queen is a female1 and is the mother of the community4 ,the drones are males1 and the working bees neuters1 being neither males nor females4 ,during the warmer part of the year the queen seems to be incessantly employed in laying eggs4 ,she is slow and majestic in her motions1 and differs from the workers in having a larger and longer body1 shorter wings1 and a curved sting4 ,the drones are males2 though much more bulky1 they are not so long as the queen1 but much larger than the working bees4 ,they live on honey1 but bring none home4 ,when the season for swarming has passed1 the workers expel them from the hive1 and none make their appearance till the following spring4 ,the working bees are the smallest in the hive and by far the most numerous2 and they do the entire work of the community--they build the cells1 guard the hive and the queen1 collect and store the honey1 elaborate the wax1 feed the young1 and expel the drones4 ,the average number of these three kinds of bees in a hive is one queen1 two thousand drones1 and ten to twenty thousand workers1 the numbers varying with the strength of the hive and the season4 ,for the greater part of the year the queen lays only workers' eggs2 but during the spring she also lays those which produce drones4 ,as soon as this takes place1 the workers begin to construct royal cells1 in which1 without discontinuing to lay the drone eggs1 the queen deposits eggs which are destined to produce queens4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,bee4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,drone4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,bee4 ,the workers' eggs hatch in a few days1 and produce little white maggots1 which immediately open their mouths to be fed2 these the workers attend to with the greatest care4 ,in six days each maggot fills up its cell2 it is then roofed in by the workers1 spins a silken cocoon and becomes a chrysalis1 and on the twenty-first day it comes forth a perfect bee4 ,the drones emerge on the twenty-fifth day1 and the queens on the sixteenth4 ,the combs of a beehive comprise a number of hexagonal cells1 built by the bees as receptacles for honey and for the nurseries of their young4 ,each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells1 backed against each other4 ,there is a continued series of these double cells in every well-filled hive1 the spaces between them being just sufficient to allow two bees1 one on the surface of each comb1 to pass without touching4 ,each cell is six-sided1 the six sides being perfectly equal4 ,this is one of the geometrical figures that ensures the greatest economy of material and the largest space4 ,the construction of several combs is usually going on at the same time1 until the hive is filled4 ,the cells of the drones are larger than those designed for the workers2 and those designed for the hatching of the young queens pear-shaped1 with the small end downwards4 ,the finest honey is stored in new cells constructed for the purpose of receiving it4 ,the usual modes of establishing an apiary are1 either by the purchase of stock or of swarms4 ,when intending to purchase a stock1 do not buy upon recommendation1 but learn to judge for yourself4 ,if you observe the bees crowding in and out of the hive during the middle of the day1 a considerable number of them having little yellow pellets or balls on their hinder legs1 a very favourable opinion may be formed of the health and condition of the interior1 and especially of the prolific state of the queen4 ,if the bees appear savage1 and bold in their attacks1 it is a good sign4 ,in the purchase of swarms the young bee-keeper must beware of imposition2 for it very often happens that1 instead of having the first swarm1 he is cheated by having a second thrust upon him4 ,this is seldom so large2 but it has the advantage of a young queen1 as the old queen always goes off with the first swarm4 ,a good swarm generally numbers about twenty thousand bees1 and may in country places be obtained for from half-a-guinea to a guinea4 ,there are several distinct systems of bee-keeping1 each of which requires a short notice4 ,first1 the old-fashioned plan of keeping the bees in a common bell-shaped straw hive1 or skep4 ,when this method is followed1 the hives are usually allowed to stand for two summers2 at the end of the second season the bees are destroyed by the fumes of burning sulphur1 and the honey taken4 ,the plan is a very bad one1 as the honey obtained is mixed with bee bread1 is rank in flavour1 and dark in colour1 and is never worth more than about sixpence per pound4 ,illustration ,a great improvement is to have the hives made with flat tops1 like the straw hive shown at the right hand of the engraving4 ,when the bees are first hived1 this is closed by a straw mat4 ,in the spring of next year1 when the bees become numerous and cluster round the entrance1 this mat is removed1 and a small hive1 termed a 8super10 or a box or glass1 neatly furnished with a piece or two of clear empty comb1 is put over2 the bees ascend into this1 build combs1 which they store with pure virgin honey1 without brood or bee bread2 and this1 when full1 is removed1 leaving the stock below undisturbed for the next season4 ,in our engraving the artist has drawn this hive too small2 it should have been as large as the common skeps which are shown on the left-hand side4 ,flat-topped hives1 that are able to be supered1 may be made of wood1 like a common box4 ,one of these is shown on the ground1 and two1 placed one over the other1 are shown behind the flat-topped straw hive4 ,in ,ayrshire1 where they are very skilled in bee-management1 they use eight-sided boxes1 with narrow slides to close the openings in the top4 ,these boxes are placed one over the other1 and large tops of pure virgin honey1 twenty to thirty pounds in weight1 are not unfrequently taken off4 ,the back hive in our group is one with side boxes1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 a collateral hive4 ,these are the most expensive in first cost1 and the least productive of all the varieties4 ,the cottage hives1 with three little glasses1 instead of one large one1 are only playthings1 and not at all productive4 ,frame hives1 in which each comb is placed in a separate frame1 so that it can be taken out and examined1 are very useful for making observations on the natural history of the bees1 but are not so well suited for profitable purposes as the hives that we have described that are arranged in storey or with large supers4 ,in removing a super of honey1 it should be first loosened from the hive by drawing a thin string between the two2 and then1 when the bees have become quiet1 taken quietly away1 and covered over1 until those remaining in it have discovered that they are away from the queen1 when they will rapidly fly back to the hive1 on being uncovered4 ,but the honey must not be left exposed1 or it would attract all the bees in the neighbourhood1 and would rapidly be stored up in the hives4 ,in taking off the supers1 it is best to be protected from the stings of the bees4 ,this is readily done by making a bag of leno1 open at top and bottom2 in use1 the top is tied round the hat1 the bag encircles the head and face1 and the bottom is tucked under the collar of the coat1 which is buttoned closely round the neck4 ,in this manner the face is perfectly protected from stings2 but with the knowledge1 quietness1 and confidence acquired by practice1 almost anything can be done to bees by a skilled bee-master1 even without a veil4 ,,the ,,canary4 ,the canary is a justly favoured pet among boys1 for it is a hardy bird that requires a very small amount of trouble4 ,it is a pleasant1 fascinating little being1 full of quaint ways and sprightly attitudes1 and1 better than all1 the cage is its native element4 ,though an ardent admirer of all birds1 and indeed of everything which draws the breath of life1 we can never pass the cage wherein is confined a lark1 a nightingale1 a bullfinch1 or any other of our indigenous birds1 without a feeling of sadness and regret4 ,they are not cage birds1 and never ought to be confined within the narrow limits of wood and wire4 ,their attitudes show their uneasiness4 ,the mellow1 exultant tone of the skylark sounds as joyously when the bird is imprisoned within a cage as when it soars high in air1 its wings quivering in the breeze1 its frame rejoicing in the glory of the sunbeams1 and its ken surveying the wide panorama which lies spread beneath its gaze4 ,but the gestures of the bird are full of eloquent misery1 and speak volumes to him who will stop and look with his eyes as well as listen with his ears4 ,see how the bird flings itself upwards from the little patch of turf1 which is but a shallow mockery of the green sward to which the skylark is accustomed--how it dashes itself against the roof of green baize1 which represents so feebly the expanse of azure sky--and how it learns at last the lessons of experience1 and stands helplessly in the bay window of the cage1 its wings shivering restlessly1 and its feet trampling impatiently1 in lieu of the the upward leap and soaring flight which it longs to undertake1 but which it will never more be permitted to experience4 ,no more will it roam through the wide expanse of air1 no more will it seek for its mate1 and know all the joys of nest and children4 ,henceforth it is but a prisoner in solitary confinement1 without hope of escape1 and its very individuality destroyed by surrounding circumstances4 ,so with the generality of our cage birds4 ,the man who would imprison the nightingale1 who would limit to one spot the bird that loves to wander1 and who would condemn to solitary confinement the creature which is peculiarly destined for conjugal affection1 which finds expression in liquid melody1 ought to be imprisoned for a month or two1 just to see how he likes it4 8,i can't get out10 is the lament uttered in silent gesture by all birds that ought to roam in wild freedom1 and have been imprisoned in a cage4 ,we always wish to open the cage door1 and set free the prisoner2 at all events1 to remove it to some spot where it might be liberated without danger to itself4 ,but with the canary the case is different4 ,the pretty little bird never has known wider freedom than that of the cage1 and a humane bird-keeper will endow it with increased freedom by enlarging the size of its dwelling4 ,the free use of wings has never been known to the bird1 nor even to its parents2 and the perch is to the canary more familiar than the bough4 ,release an imprisoned lark1 and after the first few moments of surprise it will speed away exulting in its freedom4 ,release a nightingale or a thrush1 and it will dart swiftly to the well-known shelter of the woods4 ,but release a canary1 and you have committed an act of positive cruelty4 ,the poor bird knows not where to go or how to procure its food4 ,throughout all its little life it has been accustomed to reside within the narrow limits of its cage1 and to find its food and water prepared without any expenditure of labour4 ,consequently1 it has no idea of searching for food1 but sits bewildered on a branch of some tree1 and would perish with hunger simply because it does not know how to procure food4 ,ignorance is ever the parent of fear1 and a canary-bird has been known to perish of hunger when removed to a large from a small cage1 simply because it dared not fly down from the comparatively lofty perch on which it had settled when first introduced1 and to which it clung with the tenacity of fear4 ,even the genuine ,british soldier can hardly be more helpless when deprived of ordinary military routine than is a canary-bird when set free and forced to fly alone into the world4 ,the very colour of the bird prevents it from obtaining food like others of the same tribe4 ,all the small birds are absurdly jealous of novelty1 and will mob and worry any feathered being to which they are not accustomed4 ,you may assemble a crowd of them at any time by fixing a comb of scarlet cloth on the head of a sparrow1 and glueing a few scarlet hackles into its tail4 ,the little birds will always gather round an owl that has made its appearance in the daytime1 and will scold the intruder until one would think that their throats would be hoarse4 ,their anger towards the owl is1 however1 mitigated by a wholesome dread of its beak and talons1 and it may therefore be imagined that when they find a little yellow bird sitting all alone on a branch1 and looking bewildered at the position in which it finds itself1 they are not very likely to lose so excellent an opportunity of bullying a foreigner without danger to themselves4 ,successive generations of captivity have rendered the canary unfit for freedom1 and therefore the young naturalist need not think himself cruel because he keeps the bird in a cage4 ,as to cages1 the simple form which has already been described in vol4 i4 p4 #ba of 8,every ,boy's ,magazine0 will be found amply sufficient for all purposes4 ,the wires1 however1 should be closer together than is required for squirrels1 so that the cat may not be able to dart her lithe paw between them and hook out the inmates4 ,the size of the cage is of little consequence1 except that you can never make it too large4 ,if a whole room can be given up to the birds1 the better they will be pleased and the brighter they will look2 and1 if possible1 it should be lighted from above4 ,wherever the birds may be placed1 ventilation is of the greatest consequence4 ,we remember being once summoned to give our opinion upon the continued illness of some canaries of which every care was taken4 ,they had fresh water daily1 were plentifully supplied with sand1 and were fed with the proper seeds1 and cresses1 groundsel1 and other green meat1 and yet they drooped and moped1 and never seemed well4 ,no fault could be found with the arrangements1 and therefore we looked for the cause of illness in another direction4 ,the air of the room seemed very close when ,i entered it1 and on examination we found that there was no outlet whatever1 the chimney having been blocked up and the windows carefully shut1 in order to prevent the birds from escaping4 ,we at once recommended that a pane of glass should be removed at the top of the window1 and a piece of perforated zinc inserted instead2 and when this was done the birds recovered themselves1 and resumed their normal aspect4 ,the two secrets--if secrets they can be called--in bird-keeping are a good supply of fresh food and water and perfect cleanliness4 ,the former necessaries can be easily insured in a very simple manner1 and should be made after the pattern of the accompanying figures4 ,both are founded on the same principle--namely1 that of self-feeding from a reservoir4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,the seed-box is thus constructed4 ,get an old cigar-box1 from which the aroma of tobacco has been removed by long airing1 and take off the lid and the whole of one side2 cut off two-thirds of the lid-piece1 bore three holes in it1 and fix it where the lid was1 as at a2 cut the rest of the lid in two1 and fix the pieces in the box1 so as to separate it into three compartments1 fixing them with glue and a few very tiny brads4 ,you should use pieces of slender brass wire for the purpose4 ,if you left the box in this condition all the seed would run out at the round holes1 and you must therefore correct that error4 ,how this is done will be seen in fig4 #b1 which gives a section of the seed-box4 ,cut a squared piece of wood1 which will just slide into the partition1 so as to make a flat flooring to it4 ,but1 instead of laying it flat1 place it in a sloping direction1 as seen at d1 so that a small space is left between the end of the floor and the back of the box4 ,the reader will see that when the seed is poured into the partition it will drop through the open space at the back1 and fall into the bottom of the box4 ,the birds put their heads through the holes to eat the seeds1 and as fast as they peck them away below1 more fall from above and supply the deficiency4 ,in the front1 and above the holes1 fix a piece of glass1 which is represented by b in fig4 #b1 and which is seen in its place in fig4 #a4 ,the object of the glass is to permit the bird-keeper to see when there is a sufficiency of seed4 ,the sloping top is also of glass1 which is fixed by a strip of ,american leather1 acting as a hinge4 ,it is made of glass1 and set at a sharp angle1 in order to prevent the birds from perching on it1 which they are certain to do if they can find the least foothold4 ,it will be found that the best cement wherewith to fix the glass is gold-size1 and that a coat or two of black sealing-wax varnish makes a nice finish to the job4 ,the holes through which the birds feed should not be much larger than the size of their heads4 ,the reason of this arrangement is that the canaries are apt to shell the seeds while their heads are over the vessel in which the food is contained1 so that the husks fall among the seed1 and it is not easy to discover when the supply is exhausted4 ,but no diurnal bird will feed in the dark1 and as the canary effectually darkens each hole by introducing its head1 it will not crack and eat the seed until it has withdrawn its head and restored itself to light4 ,the object of the partitions is that the birds can be supplied with different kinds of seed1 each of which can be restricted to its own division4 ,the receptacles should be of different sizes--the largest for canary-seed1 the next in size for rape1 and the least for millet1 among which a little hemp may be shaken4 ,in front of the holes1 and about three-quarters of an inch from them1 should be fixed a perch1 upon which the birds can sit while they feed4 ,at the back of the seed-box are fastened a couple of stout hooks--those which milliners call 8stay-hooks0 answer admirably--so that the box may be hung on the wires at any convenient height4 ,it should not be placed on the ground1 because in that case the canaries will stuff all the refuse stems of the green-meat into the feeding-holes1 and will probably mix sand and husks with the seeds4 ,they are as mischievous as monkeys1 and quite as ready at discovering and taking advantage of the slightest opportunities of doing something which they know is forbidden4 ,the 8fountain0 from which they drink is made on a similar principle4 ,fountains can be purchased at any bird-dealer's2 but as it is preferable that boys should use their hands rather than drain their pockets1 we offer simple directions for making a fountain as efficacious1 though not quite so elegant1 as those which are purchased in the shops4 ,the materials required for the purpose are very simple1 and consist of some wire1 both stout and fine1 of an empty ,florence-oil flask1 a saucer1 and some wood4 ,the mode of employing them is shown by the illustration 7fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,make three rings of stout wire1 each diminishing in diameter1 and arrange them as seen at b1 the smallest being uppermost4 ,four pieces of stout wire are then firmly attached1 so as to make a kind of conical stand4 ,were not the birds so mischievous1 this would be sufficient for all purposes2 but as they are sure to go and bathe in the water1 they must be kept out by intermediate wires1 so as to make a kind of cage1 through which the birds can put their heads1 but which will not permit the passage of their bodies4 ,then take your oil-flask1 strip off all the rushen covering1 and wash the interior with strong soda until every trace of the oil is removed4 ,place it in the wire frame1 as shown at c1 and try whether it stands upright4 ,if the wire ring should be too large1 and allow of its slipping through too far1 cut a round hole of the proper size in a piece of pasteboard or very thin wood1 lay it on the ring1 and then introduce the flask4 ,make a round stool or table1 such as is seen in the illustration1 and fix the turned-up ends of the wires to it with small staples4 ,if the fountain were on the ground1 the birds would fill the saucer with sand and husks2 and if it were not firmly fastened1 it would be knocked over by the fluttering wings of a passing bird4 ,the stool must be wide and strong1 or the whole affair will be upset4 ,the mode of preparing the fountain is very simple4 ,fill the flask with water1 and stop up the mouth with a shallow cork4 ,place a saucer 7like a7 under the wire frame1 insert the flask1 hold its mouth in the saucer with one hand1 and remove the cork with the other4 ,the water will immediately rush into the saucer1 and will half fill it1 but owing to the pressure of the atmosphere no more water will descend4 ,when1 however1 the birds have drunk enough to bring the level of the water below the mouth of the flask1 air immediately rushes up in great bubbles1 down comes a corresponding amount of water1 and a fresh supply is thus afforded4 ,in canary-keeping much depends upon the kind of bird4 ,we presume that a good singer will be required1 as well as a strong and healthy bird4 ,if you are not learned in canary lore1 try to induce an experienced friend to choose a bird for you2 but if you are not fortunate enough to possess such assistance1 the following concise directions may aid you4 ,look at the birds for sale1 and note those that stand straightest on their perches1 and that hop quickly and smartly about the little apologies for cages in which they are mostly confined4 ,next hear them sing before deciding on your purchase1 and select the one that possesses the sweetest and fullest tone4 ,the dealer can always make the bird sing when he likes1 and if any bird refuses to sing1 do not buy it1 however handsome it may look4 ,if possible1 procure one that possesses the nightingale's song2 you will have to pay rather heavily for it1 but any one who can afford such a bird will be amply repaid by the very great superiority of the song1 which is divested of that ear-piercing shrillness so unpleasant in most canaries4 ,when you are satisfied with the song1 look the bird well over to see that it has no defects2 and if you prefer the variegated breed1 take care of three principal points--namely1 the top of the head1 technically called the 8cap20 the markings on the back1 called 8spangles20 and the number of quill feathers in the wings and tail4 ,the cap must be uniform and rich in colour1 the spangles bold and well defined1 and the quill feathers not less than eighteen in each wing and twelve in the tail4 ,imperfect or damaged feathers can easily be replaced by pulling them out1 for their places will soon be filled with new and perfect feathers4 ,some persons prefer the yellow varieties1 and many are fond of the crested canaries4 ,we intentionally omit all mention of 8fancy0 canaries1 for the fashion changes with them as fast as it does with tulips or dress4 ,the fashion in canaries seldom outlives a year1 and the prize bird of one year will possibly be despised in the next season4 ,do not1 therefore1 be persuaded to attempt the purchase of costly fancy canaries4 ,they may certainly be of great value when you happen to buy them1 but in a few years no one will think anything of them4 ,choose strong1 sweet-voiced1 and healthy birds1 with colours that please your eye1 and leave the fancy canaries to professional breeders4 ,as to the general management of the canary1 it may be summed up by saying that it chiefly consists in judiciously letting alone4 ,don't meddle with the birds more than is absolutely needed1 and do not worry them with medicines whenever they seem to be unwell4 ,as1 however1 all canaries are liable to certain ailments1 in which a knowledge of the proper treatment is highly useful1 we will just give a few plain directions4 ,one pest is vigorous throughout the year1 and always ready to seize on the birds1 and that is the 8red-mite10 a parasite known to all bird-keepers4 ,if you find your birds restless1 especially at night1 and see them continually pecking among the roots of the feathers1 and especially if they lose appetite1 and become fretful and ill-tempered to their companions1 look out for the red-mite4 ,you can always detect the tiny but formidable foe by placing the bird in a dark room1 and1 after a few hours1 holding a bright lamp close by the cage4 ,if there are any mites about1 you will soon see them crawling upon the perches1 the wires1 and even showing themselves among the feathers4 ,they are not larger than the dot over the letter i1 but their numbers are often very considerable1 and the injury they inflict is great4 ,let not one escape1 for it may be the parent of hundreds more4 ,when the red-mites have once obtained possession of a cage1 their extirpation is a task of very great difficulty to those who do not understand the constitution of the creatures4 ,so difficult1 indeed1 is the business1 that many fanciers will not even attempt it1 but burn the cage and buy another4 ,the metal cages1 which are now so common1 are preferable to those made of wood and wire1 inasmuch as they present very few spots wherein the red-mite can find a hiding-place1 and for that reason metal is to be preferred to wood4 ,even if they have gained admission to an ordinary cage1 they can be extirpated without very much trouble4 ,we have succeeded in doing so in several instances1 and think that in a fortnight any cage can be freed of its troublesome parasites4 ,first place the cage in the sun for a short time1 so as to induce the light-hating mites to leave the bird and hide themselves in the crevices of the cage4 ,remove the bird1 and transfer it to another cage1 or even a box1 and let it wait4 ,take the cage and examine it well1 introducing a heated needle or thin blade of iron into every crevice4 ,next take some insect-destroying powder1 force it into a hollow paper cylinder1 light the paper1 put it into the cage1 and envelop the whole in a newspaper4 ,leave it there for an hour1 and when you remove it you will see dozens of the red-mites1 of all sizes1 lying dead on the floor1 or clinging half-stupefied by the fumes of the powder4 ,scrape them all into boiling water1 and dust the whole of the cage with the powder4 ,by this time every mite will be dead2 but there is a goodly store of eggs which will be hatched in due time1 and infest the cage anew4 ,these are destroyed by means of oil4 ,take a camel's hair brush and some salad-oil1 and with the brush apply the oil to every crevice4 ,if there should be the tiniest scratch on the wood1 touch it with the oil4 ,let oil be applied to every spot where the wires enter the wood1 where they cross each other1 and where the hinges of the door are fixed4 ,every egg will thus be destroyed1 and the cage freed4 ,about half an hour before you restore the bird to the cage hold it in the left hand1 and dust it well with the powder1 blowing up the feathers1 so as to get it well to the roots4 ,scatter some of the powder upon a piece of soft rag1 and roll the bird in it1 carefully binding down its legs and wings1 under each of which a pinch of powder must be sprinkled4 ,you can now attend to the head1 which requires rather neat handling1 as the powder is very apt to settle upon the eyes and to worry the bird4 ,let your feathered pet lie for half an hour in this beneficial bondage1 and then replace it in the cage1 scattering some powder upon the floor4 ,the bird will shake its plumage sharply1 and send a cloud of dust flying1 and in a minute or two will begin to peck among the feathers and settle the plumage4 ,the different aspect of the bird is then quite remarkable1 for it exchanges the fussy1 anxious1 fretful moments for quiet ease1 and even when it does peck among the feathers1 it does so gently and deliberately1 and seems quite another bird4 ,moulting is a disorder to which the canary is annually subject1 and which requires some little attention4 ,some time in the autumn all the canaries exchange the feathers which have endured the wear and tear of a twelvemonth for a completely new suit4 ,feathers are subject to damage in many ways1 and just before the moult takes place the bird is quite ragged and disreputable in dress4 ,meanwhile the germs of new feathers have been growing in the sockets which held the old suit1 and in the course of a few weeks all the feathers are shed and replaced by others4 ,it may easily be imagined that such an operation is not achieved without much physical disturbance1 and it is accordingly found that all birds are more or less indisposed during the time of the moult4 ,scarcely any two birds are affected in precisely the same manner1 and the 8moulting sickness0 tells with especial severity upon the young4 ,quiet and nourishing food are the best remedies for the curious mixture of languor and fever which is always visible among the birds2 and the most accomplished canary-breeders are in the habit of giving the yolk of hard-boiled eggs1 and even a little raw meat1 scraped and cut very fine4 ,sometimes1 in their desire for animal food1 the birds pluck the newly-formed feathers from the bodies of their companions1 and nibble the still vascular and bleeding ends4 ,wine is recommended by some fanciers1 but we cannot agree with them4 ,the moult is a natural ailment1 and the remedies which are best calculated to modify its effects upon the health are those to which the natural instincts of the birds would lead them4 ,frequently the claws and bill of the canary become overgrown1 and produce very unpleasant results2 the latter causing much difficulty in taking food1 and the former entangling the foot in the wires of the cage4 ,the remedy in either case is the same4 ,take the bird in the left hand1 and hold it against the light2 the overgrown portions of the claws will then be easily distinguished1 inasmuch as a delicate scarlet line runs along the centre of each claw and nearly reaches its extremity4 ,taking this line as your guide1 you carefully cut off the overgrown parts with a sharp pair of scissors1 and cause thereby immediate relief to your feathered patient4 ,the bill must be cut in the same way1 but requires a little more care and some neatness in trimming4 ,no pain is given to the bird when the operation is rightly conducted1 for neither bill nor claw possesses sensation4 ,dysentery and diarrha are very common among cage birds1 and should be treated1 the former with a drop or two of castor-oil1 and the latter with a lump of chalk to peck at1 and a rusty nail in the water4 ,sometimes the bird loses the feathers of the head and neck1 and presents a most ungainly appearance4 ,in such cases rub the head with almond-oil1 and feed the bird for a few days on a mixture of lettuce1 scalded bread1 olive-oil1 and a sprinkling of maw seed4 ,health will soon return1 and at the next moult the bird will recover its lost plumage4 ,broken legs are of frequent occurrence1 and mostly happen by the bird entangling itself in the wires and then struggling to free itself4 ,overgrown claws are a fertile cause of this misfortune4 ,do not try to bandage or in any way to meddle with the leg2 but put the bird in a separate cage1 take away the perches1 place the food and water within reach1 so that the patient may partake of them without needing to stand1 and wait until the limb is healed4 ,the bones unite very rapidly1 and in a week or ten days the limb will be nearly as strong as before the accident1 and will betray no sign of the recent misfortune4 ,,dogs4 ,it is to be supposed that each reader of these pages is either the possessor of a dog1 or desires to obtain that privilege1 and that he will wish to learn in a few lines the best way of managing and training his favourite4 ,there are many works which treat of the ,dog2 but all those which are trustworthy are of very large dimensions1 necessarily costly1 and contain a vast amount of information which is very valuable to the owner of hounds1 to the sportsman1 or to the game-keeper1 but is not required by the generality of those to whom these words are addressed4 ,we have1 therefore1 endeavoured to condense into the few pages which can be allotted to a single subject all the information which is absolutely needed by those who keep dogs merely for amusement and the love of their society4 ,firstly1 we may answer here a question that is often asked--namely1 which is the best breed of dogs for ordinary purposes8 ,we of course exclude all the strictly sporting dogs1 such as the foxhound and harrier1 the greyhound1 and perhaps the bull-dog1 though there is something to be said in favour of the last-mentioned1 and somewhat maligned1 animal4 ,the tasks that we wish to impose on the dog are light and simple4 ,we want him to be watchful at night1 to alarm the house at the sound of a strange step on the premises2 if possible1 we want him to be courageous enough to attack an intruder4 ,we want him to be a pleasant companion in our daily walks1 to hunt after anything at which we may set him1 to swim after any object that we may point out1 and to retrieve anything for which we may send him4 ,at the same time1 we want him to be completely under command1 and to be obedient at the least word or sign4 ,lastly1 we want him to be cleanly and comfortable in the house1 to know how to keep out of the way when he is not wanted1 and to be sufficiently clever to learn all kinds of amusing performances4 ,where1 then1 shall we find an animal that is capable of fulfilling all these conditions8 ,there are several varieties of dogs which are well suited for general purposes4 ,there is the spaniel for example1 faithful1 affectionate1 clever1 and docile4 ,there is the poodle1 perhaps the best 8trick0 dog in the world1 with his funny curly coat and his soft brown eye1 full of intelligence almost human4 ,there is the ,newfoundland dog1 who is perhaps almost too big to be a dweller within the house4 ,there is the terrier1 an amusing1 bright-eyed1 agile-limbed1 fussy animal4 ,there is the ,italian greyhound1 one of the most beautiful animals in the world1 but too delicate to please the taste of a boy4 ,there is the ,scotch terrier1 that odd1 wiry-haired1 clever creature1 which has so often been immortalised by affectionate owners4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spaniel4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,terrier4 ,all these varieties are delightful animals1 and we like them all4 ,but had we the choice of a dog1 we should take neither of them1 preferring a mixture between the terrier and the bull-dog1 provided1 of course1 that each were of good breed4 ,many people fancy that a bull-terrier is a dangerous dog to have about the house1 and imagine that it is given to biting without due cause1 and is too savage to be turned into a pet4 ,but much of this misapprehension may be traced to the long-established and popular error regarding the bull-dog4 ,it is seldom that a favourable account of this animal is given1 and it is thought to be brutal1 stupid1 vindictive1 and irreclaimably ferocious4 ,it is impossible to deny that too many bull-dogs agree with this description2 but it is equally impossible to deny that whenever they possess such bad characters the fault lies almost entirely with their master4 8,like master1 like dog10 is an old and true saying1 which has been based on the experience of many years4 ,if the bull-dog is properly treated1 if the owner makes the animal his companion1 and if he carefully studies its character1 as every pet owner ought to do1 encouraging the good qualities1 and gently reproving the bad1 it will be as gentle and much more quiet than a ,king ,charles or a toy terrier4 ,looks are certainly against the animal4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no creature with a more fell aspect than a thorough-bred bull-dog4 ,its underhung jaw1 its glittering teeth1 its sunken eyes1 its tremendous chest1 and lowering countenance are calculated to inspire terror rather than interest4 ,yet1 when a bull-dog is managed with a due appreciation of canine nature1 its aspect thoroughly belies its true nature4 ,we know a thorough-bred bull-dog belonging to a friend1 one of the fiercest and most sullen-looking beasts imaginable4 ,every one gives the animal a very wide berth2 and we confess that when we first saw it we thought that its owner was not acting very wisely in permitting it to walk about unmuzzled4 ,yet this creature is playful and harmless as a kitten4 ,its great jaws look positively awful as it opens its mouth1 and until its real qualities are known1 it requires some little presence of mind to withstand its playful rush4 ,for a pet1 however1 the bull-dog is scarcely suited1 not being sufficiently active or lively4 ,the purely-bred ,english terrier1 on the other hand1 is as mercurial a beast as one can wish to see2 but it has little steadiness of purpose1 is apt to run riot1 and is a rank coward1 not daring to face a rat1 and having serious doubts before it can make up its mind to attack a mouse2 therefore the skilful dog-fancier contrives a judicious mixture of the two breeds1 and engrafts the tenacity1 endurance1 and dauntless courage of the bull-dog upon the more agile and frivolous terrier4 ,thus he obtains a dog that can do almost anything1 and though perhaps it may not surpass1 it certainly rivals1 almost every other variety of the canine species in its accomplishments4 ,in the capacity for learning tricks it scarcely yields1 if it does yield at all1 to the poodle4 ,it can retrieve as well as the dog which is especially bred for that purpose4 ,it can hunt the fox with the regular hounds4 ,it can swim and dive as well as the ,newfoundland dog4 ,in the house it is one of the wariest and most intelligent of dogs1 permitting no unaccustomed footstep to enter the domain without giving warning4 ,it will chase rabbits1 weasels1 rats1 or1 indeed1 any game1 with unextinguishable ardour1 and will fight any foe at which its master may set it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bull ,,dog4 ,one fault indeed it has4 ,it is just a trifle too quarrelsome with other dogs1 and when it meets a strange individual of its own species1 and has gone through all the preliminaries of back-arching1 bristle-setting1 sotto voce growling1 and the various performances with which two strange dogs greet each other1 it is a little too apt to cut matters short by challenging the other to instant combat4 ,even this fault1 however1 is easily overcome by a kind but firm master1 who can impress upon his pupil that it is not to fight anything at which he has not set it4 ,and here let us make a few remarks upon the management of dogs4 ,severity is not at all needed1 but firmness of purpose is indispensable4 ,patience and good temper are also two requisites1 without which no one should attempt to manage a dog4 ,the animal must be made to feel that when an order is given it has to obey at once1 and not even the very slightest act of disobedience should be passed unnoticed4 ,he will soon learn that lesson1 and the rest is easy4 ,if you can procure a dog in his early puppyhood1 it is certainly the very best method1 and you will not require a whip2 but should the animal have attained maturity1 you may employ this instrument1 but must use it with the greatest discretion4 ,if the dog is worthy of the name1 you can punish him in a far more effectual way by appealing to his sense of shame than by flogging him2 but if you once lose your temper1 and begin to inflict a beating on the animal1 half your influence will vanish4 ,if the dog wilfully disobeys you1 as will often be the case when he is full-grown and is trying your mettle1 take him by the neck1 tell him how wicked he has been1 and give him one very sharp blow2 not more than one1--because if you do so he gets so frightened that he forgets all about the scolding4 ,then let him have another chance1 repeat the order1 and if he disobeys again1 inflict another stroke4 ,he is not likely to offend a third time2 and when he obeys the order1 speak kindly to him1 praise him1 and make much of him1--for you can do more with a dog by praise than by rating4 ,with a dog which you have possessed from puppyhood there is seldom the least necessity for severity4 ,the creature is so accustomed to do what his master desires1 that he hardly conceives the possibility of disobedience4 ,gentle firmness is all that is necessary in such a case2 indeed1 we are always opposed to the infliction of pain1 except in rare instances1 where it is the only means by which the animal can be taught the necessity for obedience4 ,we cannot bear to see a dog look up to its master with the half-frightened1 half-shrinking expression which is observable in one that has been accustomed to the whip4 ,the animal ought to consider its master as its best friend1 and to run to him when it is in distress1 rather than to fear his presence and tremble at his voice4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 writing on this subject1 says3-- 8,my dear old ,rory used to be most abjectly miserable when he had offended me4 ,his frisky tail and pretentious ears would droop on such occasions1 his easy assured carriage would sink into a listless1 spiritless gait1 he would hide his head like a naughty child1 he would not leave or enter the room openly1 but would make the transit of the apartment by slinking under the chairs and tables1 so as to keep himself out of sight as much as possible4 ,he would crawl under my chair1 and after waiting some time in hopes that ,i should notice him1 would just push his nose against my heel1 and then retreat again to his hiding-place4 ,he would not eat1 nor drink1 nor sleep1 nor be comforted by any one until ,i had spoken the desired words of forgiveness4 8,and then1 when the first words of reconciliation were spoken1 how he would advance with hope beaming in his countenance1 still mixed with diffidence1 lest he should have mistaken the tone of voice4 ,and when he was quite certain that he was pardoned1 when he felt my hand upon his head1 how wild he was with delight6 ,how he would jump about1 and run from one person to another on his hind legs1 and roll over on his back1 and pretend to bite every one in turn1 and knock the cat over1 and bark until he had to be turned out of the room for the sake of preserving the drums of our ears4 8,then how he would get out of the house1 dash down the street at full speed1 come pelting back again1 jump on the window sill1 bang with his tail for admission1 and then walk quite soberly to his usual place1 and lie on the hearthrug just as if nothing had happened4 8,there certainly are dogs whose feelings are quite beyond the reach of human sympathies2 but it is more than probable that their callousness is attributable to the bad treatment of their owner1 and not to any inherent defect in the animal's nature4 ,in my little book1 #8,glimpses into ,petland1' the reader may see an account of a ridiculous dog who fairly got the better of me by simple vacuity and selfishness4 ,i never saw such a dog in my life1 and ,i really do not want to see such another4 8,nothing could be made of him4 ,he did not care for kindness2 he could not be influenced by the whip2 he never thought of obeying orders2 he got into every scrape in which a dog could by any possibility fall2 and was altogether a hopeless subject4 ,had ,i been a novice in the management of animals1 ,i should have thought myself in fault2 but being tolerably experienced in such matters1 ,i was at no loss to set the failure down to its right source4 8,just before commencing this account1 ,i received a letter from a correspondent who had read the account of #8,roughie1' and wrote a vindication of the ,skye terrier1 to which variety the dog belonged4 ,my correspondent stated that if the ,skye terrier were obtained when young1 and well treated1 it was one of the most affectionate and faithful animals that could be found2 but that if it were bandied about from one master to another1 it lost all its loving qualities1 and became a reckless1 selfish beast4 ,such had evidently been the case with #8,roughie1' and thus his peculiar disposition was accounted for40 ,we will now just run through the list of the dogs which are best suited for pets4 ,of the bull-dog we have already spoken1 as also of the terrier1 which1 as we have said1 should be1 if possible1 a mixture of the two varieties4 ,if you can secure a good healthy puppy from well-bred parents1 think yourself fortunate1 and make much of the dog4 ,do not crop his ears4 ,if you have any sporting friends1 they will advise you to do so1 tell you that it spoils the dog1 and give you all kinds of advice about it4 ,now1 in the first place1 it is reasonable to think that the dog's ,maker knows best the kind of ear that is most suitable for the dog1 and frames it accordingly4 ,if the short1 cropped form had really been the best1 it would have been made after that pattern1 and not left to the scissors of the dog-doctor to complete the work4 ,so we say to our readers1 defy the ridiculous prevailing fashion1 and oppose common sense to it4 ,in a few more years this cropping process will be pronounced obsolete and unnatural2 so be amongst those who lead opinion1 and save your dogs the pain of that cruel and unnecessary process4 ,not long ago worming was all the fashion4 ,no dog was considered safe unless it had been wormed2 that is1 unless the under side of the tongue had been cut open1 and the central tendon pulled out4 ,of course1 when a tendon is drawn from the living body and laid in the cold air1 it contracts and twists about4 ,therefore it was held to be a worm1 and everywhere believed to be the cause of hydrophobia4 ,horses1 again1 were cropped in a most atrocious manner4 ,their ears were clipped close to their head1 and their tails were cut quite short1 leaving only a few inches of hair on the stump2 so that the ,french satirist was quite justified in his sneer against the ,english as a people1 who1 he said1 cut off the tails of their horses and the heads of their kings4 ,the ,french did both afterwards1 with the addition of a queen and a few princes4 ,nor was this all4 ,the under side of the tail was cut across in several places--nicking1 the operation was called--and then the tail was forcibly bent upwards1 and tied in that position until the wounds healed1 and the member left immovable4 ,fancy the torture the poor animals must have undergone1 the fresh wounds being torn open and exposed to the air6 ,mr4 ,waterton1 the venerable naturalist1 remarks that in former days he tried to aid the cause of humanity by his example1 and rode a horse with a proper allowance of tail and with uncropped ears4 ,the experiment failed4 ,the 8arbitrium popularis aur0 was pleased to declare itself against ears and tails4 ,there was such a commotion whenever the humane rider ventured to show himself abroad on a horse which possessed the abominations of ears and a tail--he was so mobbed1 and his horse was so reft of his tail by the urchins who wanted fishing-lines--that1 for the sake of the beast as well as himself1 ,mr4 ,waterton was obliged to conform to the popular verdict1 and dock the tail of his horse as a compromise for his ears4 ,now1 however1 the verdict of popular opinion has undergone a change1 and horses are permitted to wear their ears and tails2 and the time will come before very long when a dog will be thought as much disfigured by having cropped ears as he is now thought to be when he is allowed to wear those members in their natural proportions4 ,the only rational excuse that can be put forward for adopting such a practice is that which is employed by the owners of game-cocks1 when they clip the combs of their feathered protgs4 ,it is1 that the length of the ear affords a hold for an antagonist4 ,but as it is not to be supposed that any of my readers are likely to belong to that brutal class of human beings who keep dogs for the purpose of making them fight each other1 we may pronounce that not one single valid reason can be urged for depriving a dog of his ears4 ,there is the poodle1 a delightful dog for a pet4 ,they are docile in no ordinary degree1 and can learn all kinds of tricks without seeming to take much trouble4 ,performing dogs mostly belong to this variety1 and very amusing are the tricks which they will learn4 ,they will dance a polka with easy skill4 ,they will imitate a ball-room company with such ludicrous burlesque that no one can resist the temptation of laughing4 ,they will walk about on their hind legs1 on their fore legs1 and have even been seen to walk with the two legs of one side1 the other legs being held up in the air4 ,it was difficult to imagine how they could have been taught such a feat2 but it had been done by setting a board on edge1 hitching the two legs of the left side over the board1 and making the dog walk along in this attitude4 ,after passing along the board three or four times1 the dogs found that they could lighten the labour by holding their upper legs clear of the board1 and so they soon learned to dispense with its presence4 ,if you do have a poodle1 you must wash him often and carefully1 because these long1 curly-headed dogs are apt to give out a disagreeable odour unless they are kept very clean4 ,but do not on any account clip his hair in the stupid and ugly fashion that is so often adopted1 and which was first imported from ,france4 ,in that country they shave all kinds of dogs in the same manner1 leaving only a ruff round the neck1 a tuft on each leg1 and a tuft on the end of the tail4 ,there are men and women who make the clipping of dogs a profession4 ,they have carts with pictures of dogs undergoing the process1 and they perambulate the streets in search of patients1 just as knife-grinders do in search of work4 ,when they have collected a goodly assemblage of dogs1 they set off to the river side1 and take up their station under one of the bridges4 ,the poor dogs1 which have been trailing behind the cart at the end of cords1 are now bound and muzzled1 and miserable objects they look as they lie on their sides awaiting the shears of the operator4 ,the hair that is removed is put into sacks1 and sold1 it is said1 for manure2 and the dogs are returned to their owners1 metamorphosed out of all knowledge1 and shivering at the slightest breeze4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,poodle4 ,if your dog should be ever troubled with ticks and fleas1 you may free him from his foes in ten minutes4 ,first tie up his mouth with a piece of broad tape1 to prevent him from licking off the substance which is to be applied2 and if he is not very well under command1 tie his legs also4 ,then lay him on a cloth1 sprinkle him over with the insect-powder1 which may be procured in small quantities at ,no4 #cc1 ,newgate ,street1 and rub the powder well into his fur from his nose to the tip of his tail4 ,when you have done this1 roll the cloth round him1 and pin it well together1 so as to envelop him entirely in its folds4 ,you may let him lie as long as you like1 but ten minutes will mostly be sufficient2 then with a hard brush go all over him1 and brush out all the powder into the cloth4 ,you will be surprised at the multitude of parasites which will be lying dead and dying in the cloth4 ,the powder1 insects1 and all should be carefully shot into the fire1 and your doggie will be grateful to you for the relief which you have afforded him4 ,perhaps next to the bull-terrier ought to come the ,scotch terrier1 a dog that will hunt anything1 and is always a quaint1 independent beast1 with something of the lawless ,highlander about him1 but a capital companion for any one who values dogs and knows how to treat them4 ,spaniels are all beautiful creatures1 very affectionate1 and often very clever2 but their long1 silky hair gets sadly bedabbled with mud and wet1 and they cannot be admitted into the house until they have undergone a careful purification4 ,whatever dog you may have1 do not tie him up in a kennel1 or1 at all events1 allow the animal to enjoy human society for some hours daily4 ,dogs are made savage by this too frequent procedure1 especially those whose blood is purest and whose spirits are highest4 ,a dog that is chained to one spot is sure to be irritable and captious1 just as would be the case with a man who is tied to one spot4 ,even the kingly spirit of ,napoleon lost its grandeur and became peevish and fretful when that restless and ambitious nature was confined within the narrow limits of a rocky island2 and we cannot expect that the mind of a dog should be superior to that of an autocrat4 ,as to the food of the dog1 there is one simple rule1--do not overfeed him2 and1 above all1 never let him have scraps at meal times4 ,it is a very tempting practice1 for the dog is so insinuating in the manner of his request1 and his thanks are expressed so warmly1 that some little strength of mind is required to refuse his demands4 ,still it is one of the occasions on which the dog's owner must show his firmness1 for there are few more miserable beings than a fat1 over-fed dog4 ,his life is a positive burden to him1 and the only remedy is to starve him down to his proper dimensions4 ,give the animal but little meat and plenty of biscuit1 feed it once only per diem1 and you will be repaid by the healthy and active condition of your pet4 ,lastly1 as it is likely that the dog may fall into one of those canine ailments which are to dogs what measles and chicken-pox and whooping-cough are to children1 we will just give a brief piece of advice4 ,distemper is the most common and most annoying of those ailments2 and if the services of a professional dog-doctor can be had1 let the animal be placed under his care4 ,if no such assistance can be obtained1 the best plan is to give the dog no solid food1 but to administer gruel or weak broth1 to prohibit every kind of exercise1 and see that the ventilation and cleanliness of his house are as perfect as possible4 ,leave the rest to nature2 and when the patient is recovering1 let it be led about to exercise1 so as to avoid over-fatigue1 which would1 as a matter of course1 throw him back again4 ,illustration ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,fish4 ,these are of the carp family1 and have been known in this country from the year #afia4 ,they abound in the fresh-water ponds1 lakes1 and rivers of ,china2 nor are they1 indeed1 at the present time quite uncommon in our own climate1 being now naturalised in ponds1 and breeding freely in pure waters4 ,at ,hampton ,court are to be seen some of the finest specimens of the family1 originally placed there by ,mr4 ,jesse1 to whom the frequenters of that place of public resort are so much indebted4 ,they have increased to several hundreds1 and many of them are of prodigious size and very fat1 being to fish what royal porters are to men4 ,the colours of gold-fish are liable to the greatest variation3 some are nearly all gold1 mingled with red2 some are marked with a fine blue1 brown1 or bright silver hue2 but the usually predominant colour is that of a brilliant gold4 ,as an article of food1 they are not used2 and are only valued for their beauty and gentleness4 ,it is a curious fact in the history of the gold-fish1 that it will bear without injury the extremes of heat and cold2 as it will live equally well in a tank1 in a glass vase1 and in a pond in the open air4 ,instances have been known of gold-fish having been frozen hard and stiff in the water1 but yet1 upon being gradually thawed1 becoming perfectly healthy and well4 ,although many preserves of gold and silver fish exist in this country1 the supply was principally from ,portugal1 where they abound4 ,they are brought over in large numbers about spring time2 and then numerous perambulatory gentlemen1 having purchased a few small glasses of the most inferior description1 and fish at twopence each1 very moderately ask1 and often receive1 for a couple of fish1 glass1 and water the sum of five shillings2 but our young friends must beware of such persons1 for the fish they sell usually die in a few days or weeks4 ,the silver-fish differs from the gold-fish only in colour1 which is similar to silver tissue3 it generally has scarlet fins1 and is curiously marked in different parts of the body4 ,both varieties are also subject to variations in the fins1 which are occasionally double2 and specimens have been seen with triple tails4 ,,glasses4 ,the glasses1 or globes1 should be moderately large1 with wide mouths1 and three-fourths filled with water4 ,for two fish the globe should be at least a foot in diameter2 and for three or four fish1 sixteen inches4 ,they should be kept in a cool place--never exposed to a burning sun1 or the heat of a fire4 ,too many should never be crowded into one glass4 ,a few branches of box should be kept in the globe1 for them to rub against1 which should be changed once a week4 ,,feeding4 ,some persons fancy that gold and silver fish need no food4 ,it is true that they will subsist for a long time with nothing but water1 when it is pure and frequently changed4 ,they are best pleased with such jejune diet as bread or biscuit2 but these should be given sparingly1 lest1 turning sour1 they corrupt the water4 ,they will also feed on the aquatic plant called lemna1 or duck's-weed1 and also on small fry4 ,hawkins1 the editor of ,walton1 says that fine gravel should be strewed at the bottom of the vessel that contains the fish2 and he directs them to be fed on bread and gentles1 and to have their water frequently changed4 ,,diseases4 ,you can easily tell when a fish is falling off in his health by observing him frequently coming up to the surface of the water for air4 ,this shows he has not sufficient power in his gills to extract the air from the water4 ,he also looks dull1 and his motions are languid2 a hazy or cobwebby appearance likewise seems to envelop his body1 and perhaps some of the scales will drop off4 ,when a fish gets into this unhealthy state1 he should be immediately removed from the others1 who should have fresh water given them several days in succession4 ,the best remedy for diseased fish is to put them into a pond for a few weeks2 and it is especially necessary for female fish1 which1 if not so treated1 frequently die for want of spawning4 ,a fish is sometimes saved by being placed in a little artificial dam1 made from some running stream in a garden1 for two or three days2 but their diseases are at all times very difficult to remedy4 ,the best way is to prevent them by the precautionary measures--plenty of room and pure water4 ,illustration ,,the ,,guinea-,,pig4 ,the guinea-pig1 or restless cavy1 is a prettily-marked1 stupid1 little animal1 which came originally from ,south ,america1 and has long been a favourite with most little boys1 for when a boy becomes a youth he aspires to keeping something more interesting than these senseless little squeakers4 ,still it is a pretty sight to see the old ones followed by two or three litters1 and to watch their antics when pleased1 which consist of a squeak and a peculiar sharp turn1 as if they tried to jump out of their skins1 but could not1 for they are fitted in too tightly for that4 ,as for the use they are1 why1 they eat and sleep-- 8,just do nothing all the day1 ,and soundly sleep the night away40 ,it is1 however1 a pretty1 harmless1 little animal2 but as a pet is far inferior to others that are more commonly kept4 ,though gentle and inoffensive in its manners1 it seems incapable of feeling the slightest attachment for those who feed and caress it--even for its own offspring it evinces little or no affection3 it will not only suffer them to be destroyed before its face1 without making the smallest efforts to defend them1 but will even at times devour them itself4 ,for all useful purposes guinea-pigs are utterly valueless1 though their flesh is used as an article of food in their native country2 and their skins1 notwithstanding the beautiful sleekness of their appearance1 have as yet been turned to no account by the furrier4 ,their only recommendations1 therefore1 are the gentleness of their disposition1 the cleanliness of their habits1 and the beautiful colouring of their coats4 ,in this latter respect they are very varied2 black1 white1 bright reddish brown1 and a mixture of the three1 called tortoiseshell1 being the principal varieties4 ,the latter are the most prized1 particularly where the dark colours predominate4 ,in their native country they are generally of a pure white1 with pink eyes1 and it is nothing unusual to have one out of a litter white with pink eyes in this country4 ,rats are supposed by many people to have a great antipathy to guinea-pigs1 carefully avoiding the place where they are confined4 ,under this impression--which1 however1 is an erroneous one--they are frequently kept by fanciers in their rabbit-houses and pigeon-lofts1 as a means of protecting their stock against the depredations of those rapacious vermin4 ,they are allowed to run almost anywhere1 and to shift for themselves3 no attention whatever need be paid to the feeding of them1 the mere refuse scattered about the floor being sufficient for their subsistence4 ,when1 however1 they are kept for amusement1 their cages are generally made precisely similar to the rabbit's hutch1 only of rather smaller dimensions3 their treatment1 too1 in most respects1 is much the same as that pursued with regard to that animal4 ,their ordinary food should be oats given twice a day1 and not too many at a time4 ,they are also very fond of bran1 which is a cheap diet2 and they will fatten upon it1 and keep healthy1 if allowed plenty of exercise4 ,green meat should also form a portion of their usual diet1 particularly the wild sorts1 such as dandelions1 sowthistle1 plantain1 c42 tea-leaves they are remarkably fond of1 but these should only be given them now and then by way of a treat2 bread1 also1 they are very partial to1 dipped in milk or water4 ,they are sold by all bird-fanciers2 the prices varying from sixpence to half-a-crown1 according to their age1 colour1 c43 as before remarked1 the dark rich-coloured tortoiseshell ones are considered the most valuable4 ,illustration ,,the ,,hedgehog4 ,this1 though a rough and prickly customer to handle1 is a clean little animal1 and a great pet with country boys4 ,if you have ever seen one--and they are commonly sold at the shops kept by men who call themselves bird-fanciers1 or even hawked about the streets of ,london by countrymen--if you have seen one1 you are aware that1 saving the belly1 they are covered with sharp spikes1 and that when alarmed1 or whenever they please1 they have the power of rolling themselves up into a tight round ball1 which shows nothing but spikes1 and may be rolled along1 like a cricket-ball1 without causing the little animal to uncoil itself1 while every spike is firm and erect as a needle1 and almost as sharp4 ,while in this shape very few dogs can worry the hedgehog2 and as for the fox1 who is rather partial to him1 true to his wily nature1 he rolls the poor hedgehog along with his paws until he comes to a pool of water1 when the hedgehog unrolls himself1 exclaiming1 no doubt1 8,hey6 why1 what's this8 ,i can't breathe60 and trying to peep about and see what's the matter1 the fox1 on the look-out1 seizes him by the belly1 and eats him all up1 saving the spines4 ,were you to thrust a dozen pins with large heads through a piece of parchment1 you would have an exact representation of the spines of the hedgehog1 every one of which is retained inside the skin by the large pin-like head4 ,some say that it sucks the cows1 and draws off their milk2 but this is absurd1 as its mouth is not adapted for sucking4 ,its favourite food are insects and snails3 it also feeds on frogs and mice1 and will even kill a snake1 and eat it all up1 beginning at the tail4 ,the way it kills a snake is very curious4 ,it gives the snake a bite on the back1 then rolls itself up like a ball1 remaining still as a stone for some time1 while the snake lashes and writhes about in agony2 as soon as the snake is a little quiet the hedgehog gives him another sharp bite on the spine1 and so continues until the snake is killed2 then he begins at the tail1 as the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood tells us in his 8,illustrated ,natural ,history10 and eats him up 8as one would a radish40 ,in a natural state it sleeps all the winter1 rolled up in a hole which it has filled with grass1 moss1 or leaves2 and when domesticated1 it will hide itself in some dark corner for weeks1 and never once make its appearance1 unless it chances to awake and feel hungry2 then some day you will see it come creeping towards the fire1 and be very glad to see it too4 ,hedgehogs are great destroyers of beetles1 eating them up as quickly as you would a handful of raisins1 and seeming fond of them4 ,they need no looking after at all1 but will take care of themselves1 though it is as well to have a little hutch to put them into now and then4 ,their feeding-time is in the night2 and if there are black-beetles in the kitchen1 the best plan is to leave the hedgehog there1 and let him devour all he can catch4 ,they have four or five young ones at a litter1 which are born blind4 ,it is no uncommon sight to see a countryman with both old and young ones to sell4 ,you can buy a young hedgehog for sixpence1 and an old one for a shilling1 or less than that even4 ,we know of no animal that is less trouble to keep1 and in time it becomes so tame as to come out of its hiding-place when called4 ,,the ,,jackdaw4 ,to procure a raven1 an order to a dealer is almost necessary2 but every boy should be ashamed if he cannot catch a young jackdaw for himself4 ,these quaint birds make their nests in all kinds of places1 especially affecting old buildings1 such as church towers1 ruins1 or colleges4 ,there is hardly an ancient church throughout the kingdom where a basketful of young jackdaws could not be obtained within half an hour1 and old ruins positively swarm with them4 ,it is curious to see how birds of such different habits as jackdaws1 owls1 pigeons1 and starlings will roost amicably in the same locality1 not appearing to have the least distrust of each other1 or making half the fuss about their dwelling-places that is created nightly by the sparrows when settling to rest4 ,failing ruins and towers1 he will take possession of deserted rook-nests2 and in cases of great distress1 when the country is wide1 where men will not build towers1 where rooks and crows will not build nests1 he is forced to fly for succour to the sea-shore and the warren1 and make his home with the gannets and the rabbits4 ,many a person has been surprised1 on looking into a deserted rabbit burrow1 to find it choked up with a strange mass of sticks and twigs1 and still more surprised when he has brought to view a couple of jackdaw's eggs1 or hears the hungry cries of the young birds4 ,this seeming alliance of the rabbit and the jackdaw is not unique1 for it is observed in the ,coquimbo owl1 or burrowing owl1 as it is sometimes called1 and the prairie dog of ,north ,america1 both of which reside within the same warren1 and seem perfectly satisfied with each other's company4 ,illustration ,the sea-birds1 too1 receive the jackdaw into alliance1 and whole colonies of these grey-hooded birds may be seen hovering about the lofty cliffs that bound our coasts1 crying 8,jack6 ,jack60 in inharmonious chorus with the sea-birds' wail4 ,sometimes a young and too artless bird leaves its nest before it is rightly able to use its wings1 and is unable to ascend to the summit of the cliffs1 flapping idly about the shore1 driven nearer and nearer to the rocks by the advancing tide4 ,the whole colony is roused by the misfortune4 ,they wheel about in the air over the unfortunate bird with cries of distress2 they do their best to encourage it to ascend2 but their endeavours are all in vain4 ,time after time it aims at gaining the summit of the cliff1 but strikes against the rock1 and falls again to the sands4 ,in some spots it contrives to gain an elevated perch1 and then waits the ebb of the tide2 but in those places where the rocks afford no resting-place within a moderate distance of the water's edge the fate of the poor bird is sealed4 ,jackdaws are very easily tamed1 and become very talkative1 after their fashion4 ,their vocabulary is1 however1 limited1 and is mostly restricted to the word 8,jack10 which is uttered on every imaginable occasion4 ,if the bird sees its master coming1 it calls 8,jack60 in order to express its joy2 if it does not see him1 it calls 8,jack60 in order to induce him to come4 ,if it hears a strange noise1 it uses the same remark by way of giving notice2 and if it hears its own name1 it thinks itself bound to repeat the word as a polite recognition4 ,it is a very vigilant bird1 and is quite as useful as a watch-dog to those who wish to gain early intelligence of strange visitors4 ,it is not nearly so mischievous as many of its compeers1 but sits for the greater part of the day on some chosen perch1 and thence surveys the objects around4 ,a passing bee or beetle1 however1 immediately arouses its energies3 it pounces on them with unfailing certainty1 batters them to a shapeless pulp against a stone1 and swallows them leisurely4 ,it will also catch mice1 kill them by severe blows of the beak upon the head1 pull them to pieces1 and eat them systematically1 rejecting the skin as indigestible and unsavoury4 ,as a general rule1 it should be left out of the way of water2 for it is a positive slave to the bath1 and would bathe so frequently that it would not even give itself time to become dry4 ,it may be fed on bread and milk1 oats1 mice1 small birds1 insects1 meat1 or1 indeed1 upon almost anything that can be eaten by the rapacious or frugivorous birds4 ,it is of an affectionate nature1 and will attach itself firmly to those who extend their sympathy towards it4 ,,the ,,jay4 ,the jay is a truly handsome bird1 and will bear comparison with any of the exotic species of the same genus4 ,although it does not possess the exuberance of plumage nor the vivid brilliancy of colour that distinguish many of the jays which inhabit the hotter parts of the world1 there is great beauty in the softly-toned hues of the general plumage and the boldly-contrasted bars of azure and black upon the wings4 ,the moveable crest upon the head imparts a wonderful intelligence to the expression1 and when the bird ruffles up and displays these ornamental plumes1 a fresh charm is added to its appearance4 ,the jay is not nearly so common a pet as the magpie or jackdaw1 probably because it is a rare bird1 and seems yearly to be diminishing in numbers4 ,it is not so impatient of captivity as the magpie1 and will bear confinement in a large cage with tolerable hardiness4 ,in its native state the jay seems to be rather more of a vegetarian than the previously mentioned examples of the corvine birds4 ,still it will eat meat1 small birds1 mice1 insects1 worms1 c41 and has been known to attack and devastate the nests of the thrush and other birds1 and devour the half-fledged young4 ,but if any proprietor of a jay is desirous of giving his pet an especial treat1 he should supply him with a fresh egg4 ,any egg will answer the purpose1 but if the jay seems to have a preference1 the gaily-coloured egg of the thrush1 perhaps1 is most attractive4 ,like the magpie1 he will soon learn to talk1 and displays powers of imitation scarcely1 if at all1 inferior to those enjoyed by that lively bird4 ,even such sounds as the lowing of cattle1 the grunting of pigs1 the bleating of sheep1 or the neighing of horses1 are reproduced with marvellous fidelity by the jay1 although its ordinary note is a soft and rather pleasing cry4 ,illustration ,,the ,,magpie4 ,but what are we to say of the magpie1 the very ,mercury of the feathered tribes1--light1 active1 eloquent1 and the most accomplished thief in the world8 ,he wears all his bad qualities in the face1 is not the least of a hypocrite1 and carries off his delinquencies with so impudent an air that no one can help admiring him1 however they may object to his principles4 ,not being so plentiful in ,england as the jackdaw1 and building his nest on the summits of lofty trees1 he is not so readily procured as that bird4 ,he is1 however1 so extremely amusing in his manners1 that most persons would rather expend a little more money in procuring a healthy magpie than give a much less sum for the more phlegmatic jackdaw4 ,his mischievous propensities are proverbial1 and anybody who keeps one of these birds must be prepared for the commission of every imaginable delinquency4 ,nor must he blame the bird if it should happen to steal his watch-chain1 peck a hole through his best boots1 fill his bed with sticks and pebbles1 upset his ink-bottle1 tear his papers1 put his kid gloves into the dirtiest procurable puddle1 or play practical jokes of a similar kind2 he has only himself to thank for his carelessness in allowing it access to his domains4 ,but if he makes up his mind that under such provoking circumstances the blame rests with himself1 and that he will not be angry with the bird for following the dictates of its instinct1 he will find his magpie a most entertaining companion1 as full of odd tricks as a monkey1 and as playful as a kitten4 ,it requires very little attention1 and provided that he be regularly fed1 and furnished with a shelter in case of inclement weather1 he will live to a venerable old age4 ,the fertility of invention that characterises a magpie's mind is perfectly astonishing1 and the anecdotes that are related by every one who has watched his habits are as varied as they are wonderful4 ,there is an amount of self-reliance in the creature which betrays itself in every gesture1 as well as in the knowing twist of the head2 and the triumphant 8carrack0 that accompanies a successful piece of mischief and the impudent flirt of the tail afford unmistakeable evidence of the bird's true character4 ,none of the corvine birds should be kept in cages4 ,the jackdaw perhaps suffers least from such captivity1 and the magpie perhaps the most4 ,it has such a restless nature1 that it is ever on the move1 and if confined1 in a cage1 may be seen hopping from perch to floor1 and from floor to perch1 in miserable monotony of movement4 ,moreover1 his beautiful tail always suffers severely from contact with the bars of the cage2 and even if it is not rubbed down to a mere stump1 as is frequently the case1 it is always rendered ragged and disreputable at the tip4 ,as a general fact1 the ordinary wicker cages are of small use4 ,a lively1 active magpie1 with all its senses developed1 will make little of such a cage4 ,sometimes he will direct his attention to the door1 and never rest until he has pulled it off the hinges4 ,sometimes he will set deliberately to work1 and peck so fiercely and continuously at the bars1 that he will break them away in splinters1 and make his way out4 ,however1 the best plan is to avoid cages2 or if the bird really must be placed in confinement1 let the cage be roomy1 and made of wire4 ,perhaps the chief charm of the magpie is his great capability for learning to talk1 and his exceeding readiness to display that accomplishment4 ,some individuals are more eloquent than others1 have a clearer articulation and a better memory1--just as is the case among human beings4 ,but though all magpies may not be peculiarly excellent in their powers of conversation1 they can all be taught to talk after a fashion1 and are seldom chary of exhibiting their powers4 ,a magpie has been known to imitate the human voice so perfectly that he has induced his dupe to answer his queries1 believing them to have been made by the lad whose peculiar voice was so well simulated4 ,very little trouble is needful to teach a magpie to talk1 for his imitative instincts are very largely developed1 and he is sure to reproduce with marvellous fidelity the various sounds which he may hear4 ,he can bark like a dog1 mew like a cat1 cry like a child1 scream like a costermonger1 and occasionally swear like a trooper4 ,but he means no harm1 and may be pardoned for the unrefined language he is sometimes in the habit of using4 ,magpies require plenty of water--not so much for drinking1 although they are always thirsty birds1 but for washing4 ,they are extremely fond of bathing1 and a plentiful supply of water is needful to keep their beautiful plumage in proper condition4 ,the food of the magpie is the same as that of the jackdaw4 ,,owls4 ,there are worse pets to be found than owls4 ,they are not so immediately engaging as many creatures that have already been mentioned1 but by proper management they can be made into very companionable birds1 quaint1 grotesque1 and affectionate withal4 ,the chief drawback to the owl as a pet is its nocturnal habits1 which cause the bird to sleep during the day and to be awake during the night4 ,to a certain degree this custom may be corrected4 ,the chief reason why the owl wakes at night is1 that it preys upon mice and other nocturnal creatures1 whether mammals or insects1 and must in consequence be able to pounce upon them as they rove abroad4 ,now1 although at first to wake the owl will be found rather a tedious business1 and to keep it awake still more difficult1 a present of a mouse1 or a small bird1 or a large beetle1 will generally rouse it1 and cause it to remain awake for some little time4 ,to change the creature into a wholly diurnal bird is impossible1 inasmuch as the entire bodily structure1 as well as the temperament1 is that of a nocturnal being4 ,the eyes1 for example1 are formed for vision in a very dim light1 being of very great size1 and with pupils so large that the ordinary light of day is painful to the bird1 and dazzles it so much that it cannot see sufficiently to direct its flight4 ,exceptional cases have occurred1 in which owls have been seen abroad in the daytime1 and been observed in the act of catching mice at mid-day2 but such an event occurs very seldom4 ,even when the bird is placed in a comparatively dark room1 where the rays of the sun cannot beat upon it1 the eyes are continually blinking as long as they are open1 and the large nictitating membrane is ever and anon drawn over them4 ,it may here be mentioned that the nictitating membrane is a kind of inner eyelid1 made of very elastic membrane1 which is gathered up in one corner of the socket1 can be drawn over the eye by means of special muscles1 and returns by its own elasticity when the tension is removed4 ,it is peculiarly strong in birds of prey1 and the best examples of this curious structure are to be found in the owls4 ,illustration3 ,,white1 ,,or ,,barn1 ,,owl ,in general1 the owl sits1 or rather stands1 during the daytime1 fast asleep1 having a very quaint aspect1 the eyes being reduced to a mere pair of lines1 sloping towards the bill1 and surrounded by the round discs of stiff feathers which form a 8splayed0 window in the dense plumage1 and allow the bird a wider scope of vision than it would enjoy if the aperture in the feathers were no larger than the eye itself4 ,altogether the bird looks wonderfully like a ,chinese mandarin of very high rank1 and consequently of great obesity2 the sloping linear eyelids being just as oblique as those of the ,chinamen1 and the two feather discs representing the huge round spectacles with which the ,chinese are accustomed to aid their vision4 ,the position of the owl when at rest is rather curious4 ,instead of sitting with its head reposing on the shoulder1 its legs bent1 and its claws firmly grasping the perch1 the bird stands stiffly upright1 with its legs perfectly straight and its head upright4 ,here we ought to mention the popular error that birds sleep with their heads under their wings4 ,not only is this mistake impressed upon the young1 and fostered by such familiar nursery-rhymes as that of 8,the north wind doth blow10 but it is in force even among educated persons1 who have learned to observe as well as to think4 ,in a recent controversy about fresh air and human lungs some of the advocates for stuffiness and closed windows employed as an argument the imagined fact that1 when birds go to sleep1 they exclude fresh air by tucking their heads under their wings4 ,the force of their arguments and the accuracy of their facts were about on a par4 ,many birds compose themselves to sleep1 but no one ever yet saw a bird put its head under its wing when going to roost4 ,the real process is simple enough1 as any one can prove who will take the trouble to watch a parrot or canary4 ,the bird first settles itself in a comfortable attitude1 which varies according to the species1 and then turns its head round1 and puts its beak among the loose feathers of the shoulder1 the wings being kept closed and held firmly against the body4 ,owls may be procured in various methods4 ,if the reader should happen to possess proper premises1 he will find that to attract owls will be as easy as to buy them1 and will give him better opportunities of studying their habits4 ,all that is required is the command of a retired spot1 where the birds will not be annoyed4 ,a little ingenuity and the expenditure of a few shillings will do the rest4 ,it is impossible to have a better or more complete plan of attracting the owls than that which is employed by ,mr4 ,waterton at ,walton ,hall4 ,he can1 and does1 attract all kinds of birds to his domain by the simple plan of affording them a secure shelter and the prospect of food4 ,in the case of the owls the first precaution is the only one that is needful1 the birds being perfectly capable of finding food for themselves4 ,possibly a few mice thrown on the ground might assist in attracting the birds2 but as they will come when no such precaution is taken1 such bait may be omitted4 ,there is a popular idea that neither the lion1 the eagle1 or the owl will eat game which they have not killed4 ,nothing can be more opposed to fact than such a notion3 for the lion is generally killed by laying in his haunts a dead animal1 which he is sure to eat2 the eagle is only too glad to pick up a dead lamb2 and the owl will carry off almost any number of dead mice that are placed in its way4 ,if the reader wishes to attract owls to his premises1 he must prepare habitations for them4 ,knowing that the common barn owl1 or white owl1 as it is sometimes called1 is fond of resting in buildings1 ,mr4 ,waterton has taken great pains to erect certain domiciles of which the owls are likely to approve4 ,a large hole made in an old ruin is sure to attract the barn owl1 especially if it be well sheltered with ivy1 and a stout perch across the cavity may be useful4 ,there are owl-houses in different parts of the domain1 all tenanted by some bird1 and most of them by the inhabitant for whose use they were made4 ,the jackdaw is the most pertinacious usurper that can be imagined4 ,any house that will suit an owl will suit a jackdaw1 and the daw is so keen at discovery and so quick at utilizing his faculties1 that he takes possession1 and fills the hole with sticks1 before the owls have a chance of securing their home4 ,if the brown owl is wanted1 there are few places like a hollow tree1 an article which can often be purchased very cheaply1 set up in the grounds1 and its interior arranged for the reception of the birds4 ,a writer in the ,field newspaper has mentioned that he has been very successful in attracting the brown owl by means of an empty eighteen-gallon cask1 made very clean1 and fastened in a tree4 ,a perch was placed inside1 a convenient entrance-hole cut1 and a quantity of very dry touchwood placed within4 ,on this touchwood much of the success seemed to depend1 for wherever it was omitted the owls declined to take possession of the cask4 ,in order to fit it for its purpose1 it was carefully dried in an oven4 ,the exterior of the cask was painted so as to harmonize with the colours of the tree4 ,should the reader be unable to fit up such a residence1 he may always purchase young owls at a cheap rate1 and can train them after his own fashion4 ,in order to show how much amusement may be given by so despised a bird as the owl1 the following extract from a private letter is interesting3-- 8,i saw a curious sight yesterday1 which ,i think quite worth communicating to you4 ,some folks about us have got a young owl just fledged1 and one of the boys had given him for his supper a dead swift1 rather high and gamey4 ,while he was enjoying this dainty1 a young tabby kitten1 t4 about eight weeks1 came on the scene1 and walking up to the owl1 deliberately invited herself to a share in the repast4 ,mr4 ,owl did not express any objection1 save by expanding his wings over his food1 more suo1 whereupon pussy crept under the outstretched wing1 and went in for her share4 ,it was droll enough to see the two going halves1 especially as every now and then the owl got pussy's ear by mistake1 and she in like manner began gnawing at his claw4 8,but the scene reached its climax by the appearance of five young ducklings hatched on ,thursday last0 7the date of the letter shows that it was written on ,friday1 and consequently that the ducklings in question were just eight days old71 8who surrounded the group1 and did what they could to help4 ,the smell of the dead bird attracted1 as ,i suppose1 many small flies1 which hovered about and settled1 now on the owl1 now on the cat1 and now on the unfortunate swift4 ,they had better have stayed away1 however1 for the ducklings snapped them up as fast as they alighted1 while both the owl and the cat seemed quite to disregard the pokes and pecks which their bodies received from the sturdy bills of the ducklings40 ,if the reader should keep owls in confinement1 where they cannot procure food for themselves1 he must remember that they are hungry beings1 and give them plenty of food4 ,they will eat almost any kind of meat1 but are very fond of mice and small birds1 the latter of which they will mostly contrive to swallow entire4 ,there is no doubt that all the ,british owls feed upon small birds when they can procure them4 ,they have been observed in the act of robbing the nests1 in spite of the screams and attacks of the angry parents1 and the skulls1 feathers1 and bones of the murdered birds have been seen in the pellets which all owls disgorge4 ,illustration3 ,,brown ,,owl4 ,in common with most raptorial birds1 the owls disgorge the indigestible parts of their food1 such as the bones1 the feathers1 and the skin2 and as the owl eats its prey entire1 the amount of such substances is remarkable4 ,they are formed into egg-shaped masses1 and may be found in plenty in the nest or on the ground near the nest4 ,in some parts of the country these castings are called 8quids40 ,when they are first ejected1 they are wet and rather tenacious2 but they rapidly become dry1 and can then be crumbled down into a soft flock-like substance1 which forms the bed on which the eggs repose4 ,these eggs can easily be recognised by their peculiar shape and texture4 ,in form they are very globular1 their shells are very thin1 and the surface is rough and chalk-like1 as if some one had ground a piece of chalk into coarse powder1 mixed it with gum1 and painted the egg with the mixture4 ,any one who is experienced in such matters knows an owl's egg as soon as he handles it1 even though he cannot see the object which he touches4 ,their method of eating mice is very curious1 and that the owl should derive any gratification from the process seems to be rather remarkable4 ,the owl catches the mouse with its foot--a member that is wonderfully fitted for the purpose--and then shifts the mouse to its beak2 in this respect differing from the hawks1 which hold the prey with the foot1 and only use the beak for the purpose of tearing it to pieces4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens the falcons may be seen at feeding-time with the meat in their claws1 never taking it in the beak when they move1 but hobbling about with a lump of raw meat hanging to one foot1 and presenting a very absurd spectacle4 ,when the owl has settled itself into a comfortable position1 it gives a kind of snap and a gulp1 and in a moment the head of the mouse is in its throat4 ,another gulp and a shake of the head1 and the mouse has disappeared1 with the exception of the tail1 which hangs on one side of the beak4 ,this part of the process seems to afford the owl the greatest satisfaction1 for the bird remains for some time in this attitude1 standing perfectly still1 but giving the tail an occasional roll in the beak4 ,suddenly the head goes back with a jerk1 the eyes close1 there is a mighty gulp1 and the tail has followed the mouse into the bird's stomach4 ,the whole process of swallowing the prey is very much like that which may be observed in the toad1 the gulping effort to swallow appearing to be equally great in either case4 ,all owls can be treated in a similar manner1 so that there is no need of mentioning them individually4 ,if1 however1 either of the eared owls can be obtained1 the young naturalist should not fail to do so4 ,owls kept in captivity should not be placed in cages1 provided that other accommodation can be furnished1 but should have a dark recess in which they can sit during the day1 and where they can always be found4 ,they are not easily seen by inexperienced eyes1 as they have a habit of choosing perches in spots where their colour harmonizes with that of the locality4 ,when properly treated1 the owl can be made quite tame2 but unless it be taken when young1 it is rather uncertain in temper1 biting very sharply4 ,if any one approaches the owl1 and hears a quick1 snapping sound1 as if an elastic piece of wood were 8flicked0 against a table1 he may take it as a warning that the bird does not approve of him1 and that he had better not trust his hands too near the owl4 ,any one can see how cat-like are the owls in their general physiognomy1 as well as in their nocturnal and mouse-loving habits2 and they even carry their feline propensities into peculiarities of diet4 ,no animals are less aquatic than the cat1 and yet none are more fond of fish4 ,even the best bred and most carefully-trained cat finds a difficulty in resisting her appetite when she sees fish on the table1 and she can hardly have a greater treat than an occasional sprat1 herring1 or plaice4 ,angler-cats are not uncommon3 several that were accustomed to haunt the water side have been known to catch the fish in shallow water1 and would even plunge into deep water for their prey4 ,in like manner the owl is a great fish-lover1 and has been seen in the act of dropping into the water1 and rising again in the air with a fish in its claws4 ,now it is an invariable rule with animals of all kinds1 that these little aberrations1 if we may so term them1 are conducive to health3 a very familiar instance is the occasional grass-eating propensities of the dog and cat4 ,the young naturalist will therefore consult the health of his owl pets by giving them a fish now and then1 as well as a few large insects1 in addition to their ordinary diet4 ,,the ,,parrot4 ,among the vast multitude of birds which inhabit all parts of the earth1 or even among the many species which are found in our own country1 it is no easy matter to make a first choice4 ,we will1 however1 commence with the parrot2 and before proceeding to describe the several species which are generally in vogue among ,english fanciers1 we may remark that the parrots1 paroquets1 macaws1 and cockatoos are found in almost every warm portion of the globe4 ,many of the largest and most magnificent species inhabit ,south ,america1 while ,australia is remarkable for possessing several examples of this beautiful group of bird that are most interesting to the young naturalist on account of their form1 colour1 and habits4 ,one species1 the ,long-billed ,parrot1 or ,nestor1 scientifically called ,nestor productus1 is now1 as is feared1 totally extinct1 the last known specimen having been shot some years ago4 ,this curious bird was notable for a wonderfully long upper mandible1 very like a pickaxe in shape1 and employed in much the same service1 being used for digging out of the ground the roots and other vegetable substances on which the bird was accustomed to feed4 ,it is rather remarkable that1 although this strange land is very rich in the parrot tribe1 none of them except the cockatoo can be taught to speak1 being apparently incapable of any imitation of the human voice1 and rarely uttering any sound except a scream or a chuckle4 ,asia also possesses some very elegant species4 ,all the birds belonging to this tribe are furnished with rather big heads1 very large and curved beaks1 with the upper mandible hooked well over the lower1 which is short and stout2 and their toes are so formed that they are divided into two opposable sets1 so as to permit the bird to grasp an object in its claws almost as if they were hands4 ,in climbing1 an exercise of which the parrots are very fond1 the young naturalist will probably observe that the bird makes nearly as much use of its beak as of its feet2 and even when tame and accustomed to perch on the hand of its owner1 it aids itself in its movements by taking hold of the fingers with its beak1 although too gently to cause any injury4 ,the species which is most celebrated for talking is the ,grey ,parrot1 a well-known bird1 living1 when wild1 in ,western ,africa1 and being at once identified by its grey plumage and short red tail4 ,there are several modes of obtaining this bird1 such as requesting a naval friend to bring one home on his return1 or going and fetching one for yourself4 ,but as there are few who are so happy as to have an accommodating nautical friend or relative1 and still fewer who are able to undergo the perils and hardships of a sea voyage1 the best way is to go to a respectable dealer1 and give him an order for a young healthy bird4 ,we say a young bird1 because the purchaser will then be able to teach it every word that it speaks1 and will find his feathered pet become far more familiar than if it entered his possession when aged and with fixed habits4 ,moreover1 an older bird is very apt to pick up all kinds of phrases employed by the sailors on board the ship in which it made its voyage2 and although such a vocabulary excites no particular surprise at sea1 it is rather too forcible and idiomatic for society4 ,the worst of the matter is1 that the parrot is possessed of an iron memory1 and never seems to forget anything it has once learned1 however its acquirements may have been overlaid with fresh teachings4 ,it has often happened that a parrot which has behaved for a long time in the most exemplary manner1 and employed none but the most refined language1 has suddenly met with a sound which recalled all its old associations1 and induced the bird to pour forth a copious volley of language too loud to be disregarded1 and too plain to be misunderstood4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,grey ,,parrot4 ,and parrots are just like children in their propensities for saying the most dreadful things exactly at the most inconvenient times and to the most fastidious persons1 always choosing a dead silence for making some deeply reprehensible remark1 and invariably addressing their observations to some lady or some staid ecclesiastical dignitary4 ,parrots are marvellously nervous birds1 and while young will often throw themselves into such paroxysms of fear at the mere sight of a stranger1 that they will even endanger their lives4 ,they have an odd and unpleasant habit of scolding on such occasions1 uttering loud1 rough1 grating cries1 as piercing to the ear as the sound of a file or a saw1 and stretching out their necks with ruffled feathers and agitated gestures4 ,some birds retain this extreme timidity for a very long time1 in spite of all attempts to conciliate them4 ,as the management of the different species is nearly1 if not quite1 identical1 it is unnecessary to trouble the reader with a detailed description of each kind of parrot and the mode of treating it2 it will be sufficient to tell him how to manage these birds generally1 and give a brief account of the country1 form1 and colour of those species which are most commonly brought to this country4 ,there are1 indeed1 so many1 that it is impossible to mention more than five or six sorts2 but if the reader desires to learn more about the parrot tribe1 let him refer to the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood's 8,illustrated ,natural ,history10 vol4 ii41 where he will find the subject treated at length1 and with large figures of all the most remarkable species4 ,the ,amazon1 or ,green ,parrot1 is so called from its colour1 which is mostly bright green1 with some yellow and purple tints here and there4 ,this species is brought to ,england under the title of the ,green ,parrot1 the second species being more properly called the ,festive ,parrot4 ,it is much larger than the common species1 being about fifteen or sixteen inches in length1 and having the feathers of the lower part of the back of a deep vermilion4 ,teaching this bird to talk is by no means a difficult task1--not nearly so difficult1 indeed1 as hindering it from learning accomplishments which it is not desired to possess1 or inducing it to refrain from producing objectionable sounds1 whether articulate or otherwise4 ,in order to teach the parrot to imitate sounds1 the best and simplest mode is to take the bird into a perfectly quiet room1 where it can hear and see no one but the instructor1 and will not have its attention distracted by surrounding objects4 ,then1 after taking every care to render the feathered pet familiar1 speak the words1 or produce the sounds1 which the bird is required to imitate1 and be careful to avoid varying them even by the fraction of a tone4 ,you will soon see the pupil taking notice of the oft-repeated sound1 and it will presently hold its head aside1 as if to catch the tones more clearly4 ,after a while it will try to imitate them1 and as soon as it makes an attempt1 however imperfect1 make much of the bird1 and give it a small morsel of some special dainty4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,green ,,parrot4 ,parrots are largely gifted with the faculty called by phrenologists 8love of praise10 and are in no slight degree incited by self-esteem2 so that it is possible to induce the bird to perform the oddest feats by carefully working on these two propensities4 ,they have an almost morbid love of being noticed1 and crave for words of praise with as much appreciation as if they could understand their import4 ,you can throw one parrot into a very passion of jealousy by pretending not to hear it1 and talking to another bird4 ,one difficulty in the management of these birds is1 that when you have taught them to exercise their powers of imitation1 they are apt to pick up a kind of chance-medley of every sound they hear1 instead of adhering to one lesson and learning it thoroughly before they begin another4 ,breaking them of the habit is a difficult task1 but can be achieved with ordinary care4 ,the simplest plan is to pounce at once on the obnoxious sound1 and1 by never letting it pass unnoticed1 give ,polly an idea that it is not to be uttered4 ,if she persist in her delinquency1 the best way is to scold her1 and put her at once into a dark closet1 or throw a thick shawl over the cage1 so as to exclude the light4 ,parrots detest being left in the dark1 and it is surprising how soon the bird finds that her utterance of the forbidden sound is sure to be followed by condign punishment1 and therefore ceases to be guilty of the offence4 ,wherein shall our parrot live8 ,this is a natural and a needful question1 and requires a few lines in reply4 ,assuming that1 in any case1 the bird is to have plenty of room1 as is needful for a creature so restless and active1 a cage is to be recommended1 unless the parrot is very tame1 and there is no fear of strange cats2 we say strange cats1 because ,polly will generally contract an alliance with the cat and dog of the household1 and be on the most friendly terms with them4 ,illustration ,a good form of cage is here given4 ,as the reader will observe1 it is much wider across the top than is usually the case4 ,this is to give the bird room to traverse the cage1 or luxuriate in its swing1 without the danger of rubbing its tail into a shabby and ragged condition4 ,there is a metal hoop suspended by a chain1 and it is found that parrots are very fond of getting into this hoop1 and swinging about4 ,the cage should be made of galvanized iron wire1 very strong1 and at least five feet high4 ,we desire to dissuade our readers1 in the strongest terms1 from purchasing cages made of brass wire for their parrot1 or indeed for any other bird4 ,brass is terribly apt to produce verdigris1 especially in ,london or in any other large town1 and where gas is much used2 and as birds1 and parrots especially1 are fond of nibbling the wires1 they may be poisoned1 and die a painful death4 ,should1 however1 the bird be trustworthy1 we would recommend one of the common crutch perches1 to which the bird is secured by a chain1 having one end fastened to a ring on its foot1 and the other end affixed to the crutch4 ,if the room in which the bird is kept will permit the arrangement1 by far the best plan is to add a strong twisted wire to the crutch1 and carry it to the ceiling1 as is done in the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the chain1 instead of being fastened to the crutch1 terminates in a ring1 which slides upon the upright wire1 and permits the bird to mount or descend at will4 ,illustration ,polly will be charmed with this addition to her range of locomotion1 and the sight of his pet bird enjoying herself cannot fail to repay the owner for the slight extra trouble he has taken4 ,parrots are very fond of exercising their strong beaks1 and are apt to gnaw their perches so incessantly1 that they cut them in two1 despite the hardness of the material4 ,prevention1 they say1 is better than cure2 and if the young parrot-owner will take care to give his bird now and then a stout piece of elm wood1 with the bark not removed1 he will find that ,polly will prefer to tear and rasp away at the elm board to biting her hard perch1 where there is no bark to be stripped off4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cockatoo4 ,the pretty ,cockatoos are always great favourites1 their form being very elegant1 their colour delicate1 and their talkative powers very great4 ,these birds are natives of ,australia and the ,indian ,islands1 and derive their name from the peculiar cry of some members of their kind1 which exactly resembles the word cockatoo4 ,the two species generally found in captivity are the great ,wide-crested ,cockatoo1 known by the crest of broad and slightly-hollowed feathers which decorate the head1 and which can be raised and even thrown forward when the bird is excited with pleasure or anger4 ,the colour of this bird is white1 and the under surface of the crest is tinged with red4 ,it comes from the ,moluccas1 and is deservedly in favour as a pet1 being docile1 affectionate1 and very quaint in its habits4 ,the other species is the ,lesser1 or ,sulphur-crested1 ,cockatoo1 also from the ,moluccas and ,indian ,islands4 ,it is easily known by the pointed sulphur-yellow crest1 which is continually being raised and thrown forward4 ,both kinds can learn to talk to some extent1 though they are not such admirable linguists as their kinsmen the parrots4 ,the pretty ,ring ,paroquet is a native of the ,east ,indies1 and is a very familiar inhabitant of our aviaries and cages4 ,it is a gentle creature1 and most affectionate to a kind owner4 ,it is mightily fond of walnuts1 and the bird can be kept in a state of great good-humour for an hour or more by giving it half a one1 and telling it to pick out the contents with its hooked bill4 ,the bird seems perfectly happy1 holding the nut in one claw1 shifting it with great dexterity1 so as to get it into the best position for extracting the kernel1 and uttering the while a little1 low chuckle of gratification4 ,the colloquial powers of this bird are moderate2 but it does not learn so readily1 nor repeat so accurately1 as the grey or green parrot4 ,the ,macaws are notable for their very long tails1 very big beaks1 and very brilliant colouring4 ,the two species usually seen in ,england are the ,scarlet and the ,blue-and-,yellow ,macaw4 ,they come from ,southern ,america1 and have a most magnificent appearance while flying from tree to tree1 with the sunbeams flashing from their gorgeous plumage4 ,as a pet1 the macaw is rather too noisy1 and has a horribly loud and dissonant yell by way of a cry4 ,it is1 however1 a magnificent bird1 often measuring more than a yard in length4 ,the colour of the plumage is almost entirely of a rich glowing scarlet1 relieved here and there by a little blue1 yellow1 and green4 ,the ,blue-and-,yellow ,macaw is another native of tropical ,america1 and though not so gorgeously resplendent a bird as its scarlet relation1 is yet a remarkably handsome creature4 ,as may be surmised from its popular appellation1 the colour is chiefly of the two tints blue and yellow1 mixing occasionally so as to produce green4 ,without going too deeply into minute details1 it will suffice to say that the upper part of the back1 the wings1 and the tail are azure blue1 and the under part king's yellow4 ,on the forehead is a patch of green1 the chin is black1 and the cheeks are white and naked1 with the exception of three narrow bands of very tiny feathers drawn successively beneath the eyes4 ,the parrot tribe may be fed upon various vegetable substances1 such as grain of different kinds1 seeds1 nuts1 ,indian corn1 and biscuits4 ,the stones of peaches are great favourites with these birds1 who derive much amusement from picking with their scoop-like tongues the soft fruit from the interstices of the rough stone4 ,they ought not to have any kind of animal food1 not even milk1 which is frequently recommended for their use1 as their systems are apt to become heated1 and then they pull away their feathers in their attempts to alleviate the irritation4 ,sometimes a parrot will pluck itself bare in every part where its bill can reach1 and so injure itself materially4 ,a capsicum pod now and then is1 however1 a treat1 and may be given sparingly4 ,be careful to use glass or earthenware pans for their food1 and see every morning that the cage and pans are quite clean and bright4 ,,pigeons4 ,the practice of rearing pigeons for fancy or amusement has been for a long time prevalent in ,england4 ,in ancient times the 8dove-cote0 was a general appendix to the family hall or farmer's homestead2 and at the present time it may still occasionally be observed peering above the trees in country districts2 while in ,london the pigeon-loft1 with its 8dormers10 8area10 8traps10 and other appliances1 may be frequently seen on the house-tops1 more especially in the districts inhabited by the working classes4 ,pigeons live together in pairs2 and when a cock and hen once form an attachment1 the union generally lasts during their lives4 ,the pigeon in a wild state breeds only twice or thrice in the season1 but the domestic birds will breed every six weeks1 or during the greater part of the year4 ,whatever number of broods a pair of pigeons may bring up in a year1 the hen never lays but two eggs before she sits4 ,she incubates for eighteen days after the laying of the second egg4 ,both the cock and hen assist in the hatching3 the hen usually sits from the afternoon till about eleven o'clock on the following morning2 the cock then takes her place1 and sits while she goes out to feed and exercise herself1 and generally keeps on the nest until two or three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,when first hatched1 the young are fed for about eight days with a milky secretion prepared in the crop of the parents1 and regurgitated into the mouth of the young1 and afterwards with grain and seeds the old ones have picked up in the fields and treasured in their crops4 ,in this mode of supplying the young with food from the crop birds of the pigeon kind differ from those of any other family4 ,illustration ,formerly it was common to erect buildings as dove-cotes in the neighbourhood of great country mansions3 many of these were of considerable size and elevation1 as shown in the engraving4 ,the custom1 however1 has fallen into disuse1 and pigeon-houses of more moderate sizes are now generally employed4 ,a small one is very often formed from a wine-cask1 which has holes cut in its sides1 and a small platform made before each1 to form a resting-place in front for the birds to alight upon4 ,the interior is divided into chambers by the carpenter1 or any boy of common carpentering ingenuity may readily do it himself4 ,the cask is then elevated on a stout thick scaffolding pole or the trunk of a straight tree1 and made perfectly secure4 ,in arranging the internal chambers for the birds care should be taken that they are large enough for them to turn round in with ease4 ,the cote should be fixed in a warmish spot1 and not exposed to cold easterly and northerly winds4 ,the top of the cask should be thatched or boarded1 and this protection should come well over the holes and sides of the cote1 so as to protect it from the heat of the sun in summer and the drifting of the rain in unseasonable weather4 ,illustration ,the young fancier may employ one after the fashion shown on the following page3 this1 with its compartments1 may be fixed up against the south or south-west side of a stable1 barn1 or out-house4 ,the outside should be well painted1 and the alighting places slightly slanted1 so that the water or rain may not lodge on them1 but run off to the ground outside4 ,the whole should be so placed that it can be approached by a ladder1 which ought not to be permanently attached to the cote1 or it may be a means for the intrusion of cats and vermin4 ,it sometimes happens that a spare loft or room presents itself to the young pigeon-fancier1 which may be made use of for a pigeon-house4 ,when this is the case1 it can easily be filled up with pigeon-boxes1 which may be arranged round the sides1 while holes are made on the outside of the building for the pigeons to fly in and out at4 ,broad flat perches may also be placed across the room1 upon which the birds may rest4 ,the boxes for the nests should be at least a foot square4 ,it is far more advantageous and profitable to keep pigeons in a spare room than to employ the dove-cotes on a pole1 or those fixed against the side of a house1 as double the number of young birds may be reared1 the nests being sheltered from the inclemency of the weather4 ,illustration ,as to the compartments1 or nests1 every one should be furnished with an earthenware nest-pan1 of a size adapted to the pigeons for which they are intended4 ,sand or gravel should be sprinkled over the shelves and on the floor1 as the small stones with which it abounds are useful to the birds in helping them to digest their food1 and a little old mortar-rubbish or pounded burnt oyster-shells should be given1 to supply the lime necessary for the shells of the eggs4 ,everything about them should be kept very clean1 and the whole apparatus1 of whatever kind it may be1 should undergo a frequent and thorough purification1 while the nest-pans or boxes should be well cleaned after every hatching4 ,illustration ,there is a contrivance of great use which is employed for letting into the loft those birds who may not happen to come home before the areas are closed for the night4 ,the object of this door1 which is called the 8bolting wire10 is to let the birds in without letting those in the loft pass out4 ,it is made by placing before a square aperture cut in the pigeon-house a couple of wires about three inches apart from each other 7as seen in the drawing73 these swing loosely upon a piece of wood1 which turns on a wire1 and their lower ends come over the lower ledge on the inside4 ,by this arrangement1 when a bird outside presses against the bars and tries to get in1 the whole opens inwards1 and he easily enters2 but if one from within tries to get out1 the wires press against the ledge at the bottom1 and effectually prevent his egress4 ,within the pigeon-house should be placed boxes for the grain1 pulse1 and beans that the birds feed upon4 ,pigeons are great devourers of food1 and will eat any kind of grain1 such as wheat1 barley1 oats1 peas1 beans1 vetches1 ,indian corn1 tares1 c4 ,small beans1 called pigeon's beans1 are the best general food for all pigeons4 ,if possible1 the peas1 beans1 or tares given to the birds should be old1 as new pulse is apt to disagree1 and purge them4 ,hempseed is very stimulating1 and although pigeons are very fond of it1 it should be sparingly given4 ,pigeons are very fond of lime and salt1 and to supply themselves peck out the mortar from between the tiles4 ,to prevent this1 it is best to make them what is called a 8cat10 which will be exceedingly grateful to them1 as it will tend to keep them in good health4 ,this is done in the following manner3-- ,mix some sifted gravel or earth with old mortar-rubbish1 or pounded burnt shells1 if this cannot be obtained2 add a few handfuls of salt2 and make the whole into a mass with water4 ,portions of this may be put into flower-pots1 and placed in situations where the birds can get at them easily4 ,illustration3 ,,mating ,,cage4 ,pigeons are often sadly annoyed by vermin4 ,to prevent the increase of these intruders1 the most scrupulous attention should be paid to cleanliness in every part of the houses1 nests1 and places of resort1 and the birds should be provided with shallow pans of water to wash in4 ,sometimes there is a little trouble attending the mating of pigeons1 and it is of great importance that they should be properly matched1 or the young will not be purely bred4 ,the mating coops should have a thin lattice-work partition between them1 so that the birds may make acquaintance with each other1 and match together1 when they may be placed in one pen4 ,when they are properly mated1 they may be left at liberty to arrange and build their nests1 which they will do very readily4 ,the illustration on the preceding page shows the construction of the mating cage4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,pigeons4 ,the ,columbid1 or family of pigeons1 are one of the most numerous and most widely distributed families of birds4 ,they are all vegetable feeders2 and many congregate in flocks4 ,but notwithstanding their numbers1 general distribution1 and beauty1 only two1 out of a great number of species1 have been brought into subjection by man3 these are the common pigeon1 or house pigeon1 known as the ,rock pigeon when in the wild state1 and abundant in several parts of the cliffy and caverned shores of the ,british ,islands1 and the ,collared1 or ,cream-coloured dove1 with a narrow black collar round the neck4 ,this latter is frequently kept in confinement3 it breeds freely if in very large cages1 and it may be reared in the open air in this country if protected during severe winters4 ,illustration ,,blue ,,rock ,,dove4 ,the ,blue ,rock dove is the undoubted origin of all the different varieties of domestic pigeons4 ,it is a most beautiful bird2 its general colour is blue1 with two black bars across the wings4 ,in some few of the large dove-cotes blue rocks still exist2 but the pure race1 uncontaminated by intermixture with any of the numerous varieties of domestic pigeons1 is scarcely to be obtained except in the distant islands of the ,hebrides1 or in remote districts unfrequented by man4 ,it is a swift flyer1 a good forager1 and a prolific bird2 but its comparative wildness renders it ill adapted for a domestic pet4 ,illustration ,,the ,,antwerp1 ,,or ,,smerle4 ,smerles are the ,flying ,pigeons of ,belgium4 ,these extraordinary birds1 that perform races of #ejj miles1 returning home to ,brussels and the adjacent towns from the south of ,france1 and even from ,spain1 closely resemble the blue rock in general form2 but1 as shown in the engraving1 the feathers of the wings are rather broader1 and the head and beak thicker and shorter4 ,they are of various colours1 as blue1 checquered1 red1 mealy1 c4 ,their desire to return home is so great that it is useless to attempt to establish a stud of them1 by liberating old birds1 however long they may be shut up2 the only plan is to rear young from them whilst confined in a room or loft1 or to obtain young birds that have never flown at the place of their birth4 ,these1 from the peculiar noise they make1 are termed 8squeakers40 ,we do not know any more delightful fancy for boys than ,antwerps1 as they are strong1 hardy1 fertile1 and require no special trouble2 good water and a little care in cleaning is all they ask2 and they reward their owners by being always ready to convey to their home messages from any distance which they may have been trained to fly4 ,the training is thus accomplished3 the young birds1 when they can fly round with the others1 and dash about in the air in that vigorous style that characterises the breed1 are taken a short distance from home and set free4 ,they rise1 and circling round and round1 descry their home1 and make straight for it4 ,their next journey is longer1 and so on2 the distances are gradually increased1 until the birds will return even for several hundred miles4 ,when these birds are used to convey messages1 the paper must be so attached as not to impede their flight4 ,the proper mode of doing this is to write upon a strip of thin soft paper1 about half an inch broad by three or four inches long3 this is rolled round the leg1 and secured by a thread4 ,an ordinary letter1 tied to the bird in the manner that is often represented in engravings1 would entirely prevent its flight4 ,illustration ,,the ,,pouter4 ,the breeds of pigeons that are most valued by fanciers are those that differ in the greatest degree from the blue rock doves and the common mongrel dove-house pigeons4 ,of these the ,pouters1 ,carriers1 and ,tumblers are the most esteemed4 ,the pouter is a remarkable bird1 distinguished by the extraordinary power it possesses of inflating or blowing out the neck3 it is also characterised by the extreme length of its legs1 which should be feathered to the toes1 and the length of the feathers of the wings and tail4 ,pouters are of various colours3 some are purely white1 but in general they are blue1 or black1 marked or pied with white upon the crop1 and with white flight feathers in the wings2 there are also red and yellow pied birds4 ,the properties for which a pouter is valued are usually stated as being five in number2 viz4 length of leg1 length of feathers1 slenderness of body1 size of crop1 and colour4 ,pouters possessing all these properties of the breed in a very perfect degree are rare1 and consequently very valuable4 ,ten1 or even twenty1 pounds is no uncommon price for a pair of birds sufficiently good to win prizes in the competitions at the exhibitions of poultry and pigeons2 but very fair specimens may be bought at the dealer's for a few shillings per pair4 ,pouters are not such good nurses as many other pigeons1 often neglecting their young before they can feed themselves1 when they die1 unless fed by being crammed with beans at least twice a day4 ,for this reason we would not recommend the young fancier to begin with this breed4 ,illustration ,,the ,,carrier4 ,the ,carrier of the present day is not1 as its name might seem to imply1 ever used to carry messages1 but is a high-class fancy variety1 valued in proportion to the perfection of its properties4 ,in a good carrier the beak is long1 thick1 and straight2 the beak-wattle1 or membrane at its base1 well developed1 and standing well up from the head4 ,the eye-wattle1 or membrane round the eye1 should be large1 flat1 and circular2 the skull narrow and long2 the neck very slender and long2 the plumage firm and glossy1 the tail and flight feathers being long4 ,the colour most valued in carriers is a brilliant jet black3 many first-rate birds are what are called duns1 a variety of brown4 ,there are also white and blue carriers1 and occasionally pied birds are seen4 ,the blacks and duns are1 however1 the most perfect in properties2 and they may be mated together without risk1 as they will always produce either black or dun young birds1 and not1 as might be expected1 a mixture of these colours1 or a bird intermediate in colour between the two4 ,carriers are very fair sitters and nurses1 but they are subject to diseases of the eyes1 and are not as well suited to young fanciers as some of the other breeds4 ,illustration ,,the ,,dragon4 ,for grace1 style1 and beauty there are no pigeons superior to ,dragons4 ,they are almost everything a young fancier could desire--good homing birds1 able to do #ej or #ajj miles with ease2 active on the wing1 close sitters1 good nurses1 fertile breeders1 requiring no special care2 full-sized birds1 good in a pie1 and not expensive in first cost4 ,their general form is somewhat like that of the carrier1 but they are much more active1 and far quicker in flight4 ,some of the best dragons are blue2 others are white1 red1 yellow1 and black4 ,they differ from the carrier in the size of the eye and beak-wattle1 and in the beak4 ,illustration ,,the ,,tumbler4 ,the ,tumblers are the very opposite of the breeds last described4 ,small birds1 with rounded heads1 short beaks1 and pretty little red prancing feet1 they are the very pets of the pigeon fancy4 ,in colour the tumblers vary very much4 ,there are blues1 blacks1 and other self colours2 then some have white heads--these are termed bald heads2 others have a white mark below the under bill--so they are termed beards2 but the variety most valued is that termed the almond tumbler4 ,in this breed every feather of the plumage is variegated with black1 yellow1 and white1 the yellow forming the ground colour4 ,these almond birds are reared by experienced fanciers with beaks so short that they are hardly able to bring up their own young1 and others have to be employed for the purpose4 ,birds of this extreme character are not suited to young fanciers2 but the ordinary flying tumblers1 which can be bought at any dealer's for a few shillings per pair1 are most pleasant pets--good breeders1 active and joyous on the wing1 constantly turning somersaults in the air1 good in a pie1 and able to fly home1 if trained1 some thirty or forty miles with ease4 ,illustration ,,the ,,barb4 ,the ,barb1 or1 as it used formerly to be called1 the ,barbary pigeon1 from the country from where it was originally obtained1 is regarded with great esteem by fanciers1 and very good specimens cannot be obtained except at high prices4 ,in size the barb is rather a small bird4 ,the colours are usually black1 dun1 red1 yellow1 or white2 blue barbs1 strange to say1 are not known4 ,the eye of the barb is surrounded by a naked skin or wattle of a red colour2 this should be circular in form1 and the larger it is the more the bird is valued3 the skull should be broad1 and the beak short and stout4 ,barbs are good sitters1 and bring up their young ones very well4 ,they are also striking in appearance1 the red eye-wattle contrasting well with the colours of the plumage4 ,illustration ,,the ,,owl4 ,like the barbs1 the best ,owl pigeons also come from the north of ,africa4 ,formerly there was very common in this country an elegant1 short-beaked bird of a beautiful blue or silvery colour1 known as the owl3 this was of medium size1 and possessed rapid powers of flight4 ,beautiful as the breed was1 it has almost entirely been superseded at the pigeon shows by a very petite1 delicate1 white breed1 the first specimens of which were brought to this country from ,tunis about a dozen years since4 ,a very good specimen of this charming little variety is represented in our engraving4 ,since that true blue and black owls of the small size have also been introduced4 ,the great drawback to this fairy-like little breed is its delicacy4 ,the young fancier would do well to choose for his first favourites a hardier variety4 ,,the ,,turbit4 ,the ,turbit is a pigeon somewhat resembling the owl1 but its head is flatter1 and it has a turned crown of feathers at the back of the neck4 ,in colour it is peculiar4 ,the wings1 with the exception of the larger flight-feathers1 are coloured1 and the remainder of the body should be white4 ,there are turbits of all varieties of colour1 or1 as they are termed1 blue1 black1 red1 yellow1 and silver turbits4 ,,the ,,fantail4 ,there are a number of pigeons which are strikingly distinguished by remarkable peculiarities in the form of the plumage2 such are the ,fantail1 the ,trumpeter1 and the ,jacobin4 ,the fantail is perhaps the best known of these4 ,the number of feathers in the tail of an ordinary pigeon is fourteen1 but in this breed it is greatly increased2 in some specimens even to three times that number1 and thirty feathers are not uncommon in good birds4 ,the carriage of the tail is also greatly changed2 instead of being borne behind1 like that of an ordinary pigeon1 it is held aloft1 like the expanded tail of a peacock4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fantail4 ,the engraving represents one of the best white fantails1 the tail full1 carried well over the back1 and the long swan-like neck thrown back so as to touch the tail4 ,fantails are good hardy birds1 and as they can be bought at all prices1 very well suit the young fancier4 ,moreover1 they soon become very tame1 and may be reared almost everywhere4 ,illustration ,,the ,,trumpeter4 ,the ,trumpeter is not as common a variety as the fan-tail1 but is fully as remarkable4 ,it derives its name from its peculiar voice1 which is quite unlike the ordinary coo1 coo1 of a common pigeon2 and it is also distinguished by the singular arrangement of the feathers on its head and feet3 the latter are feathered to so great an extent that the bird appears to have four wings4 ,many of the larger quills on the feet of a good trumpeter will exceed four inches in length if unbroken4 ,trumpeters have a tuft over the beak and a turn of feathers at the back of the head4 ,they require to be kept most scrupulously clean2 otherwise the elegant appendages on the feet become clogged with dirt1 and the birds lose all their attractiveness and beauty4 ,illustration ,,the ,,jacobin4 ,no variety of pigeon excels the little ,jacobin in its quaint prettiness4 ,the tiny little head is half concealed in a recurved cowl of feathers which runs down at the sides of the neck1 and nearly meets in front4 ,the head1 the flight feathers of the jacobin1 and those of the tail1 should be purely white1 those of the rest of the plumage coloured4 ,the most common colours are red or yellow2 but there are also black jacks1 as they are sometimes called for shortness1 and also blues1 and some that are entirely white4 ,jacks breed very freely1 and we cannot recommend a prettier pigeon1 or one better adapted to the juvenile fancier4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing breeds include all the best known varieties4 ,it is true there are many others described in the works on pigeons1 but none better fitted for the young and inexperienced fancier4 ,the breed known as ,runts are characterised by their enormous size1 sometimes weighing even as much as four pounds or even four and a half pounds a pair4 ,but they do not fly well1 and are more suited for pigeon pies than for a fancier's loft4 ,there are also the breeds known as ,nuns1 ,spots1 and ,helmets1 which are white with more or less colour on the head1 c42 but for beauty of marking none surpass those blue breeds that possess the arrangement of colours in the plumage that characterises the original wild rock dove4 ,,poultry4 ,,fowls4 ,there are few occupations more attractive than the care and charge of domestic poultry4 ,it is most interesting to behold a hen with her family1 and to mark her care and tenderness for them2 while to see the little chicks themselves1 picking and scratching about1 basking in the sun1 or running hither and thither after the hen1 or nestling under her wings1 is a very pleasant sight4 ,like the pigeons1 fowls are all descended from a single species of wild bird1 the common wild jungle fowl of ,india4 ,this has been domesticated from a very early period1 and carried to all habitable parts of the globe4 ,a large number of different varieties exist in a domestic state1 none of which are known in the wild condition4 ,the chief breeds known in ,england at the present time are the ,dorkings1 ,game1 ,spanish1 ,hamburghs1 ,polish1 ,cochins1 ,brahmas1 ,malays1 ,bantams1 ,silky fowls1 and the common barn-door fowl1 which is a very mongrel breed4 ,the best known ,french varieties are very valuable for economical purposes3 they are ,houdans1 ,crve ,curs1 and the ,la ,flche breeds4 ,fowls require both animal and vegetable food4 ,when allowed to range at large their great search is for worms and insects1 which they obtain for themselves4 ,they must be supplied with grain1 such as barley1 oats1 tail wheat1 c42 and they should also be well furnished with raw vegetables1 grass1 cabbage or lettuce leaves1 unless they have a free range over the fields4 ,boiled potatoes and other vegetables are also very serviceable to them4 ,the staple food should1 however1 be grain1 and this may be mixed with boiled potatoes4 ,the quantity of barley for each fowl is about a quart a week1 if they are entirely fed by hand2 but in barn or stable yards they require much less4 ,they should also always have a plentiful supply of pure and clean water4 ,all fowls dependent upon man for food should be fed regularly twice or thrice a day in the same place4 ,the food should be given to them at nearly the same hour--eight o'clock in the morning and four in the afternoon1 as in the spring and autumn birds retire early to roost1 and it is very bad management to call them from their perches for feeding4 ,young chickens should be fed much more frequently if it is wished that they should grow into fine1 handsome birds4 ,,fattening4 ,when fowls are to be fattened for the table1 they must be fed oftener1 and with different descriptions of food1 than when they are simply kept for rearing stock or laying eggs4 ,they then require ground barley or oatmeal1 which fattens them much quicker if mixed with milk4 ,indian corn is also a capital fattener1 and1 as it is now cheap1 may be used4 ,gross food1 made up of impure fat1 grease1 and flesh-food is very bad for fowls4 ,when fattening for the table1 they should have their food three times a day1 at morning1 noon1 and evening2 and they should be kept warm and comfortable during the night4 ,fowl houses should be warm and dry1 and have compact earthen floors1 well raised1 and littered down with gravel1 from which the large stones have been taken and the small ones left4 ,,laying4 ,nests 7baskets or boxes7 must be made for the hen1 in which a chalk egg or two should be put4 ,the nests may be made of short straw4 ,some hens will lay one egg every day1 and others one every other day4 ,the eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon1 when no more may be expected to be laid2 for if left in the nest the heat of the hens1 when laying the next day1 will render them less fit for domestic use4 ,,hatching4 ,when the hen has laid her number of eggs1 nature has provided for their being hatched by giving the bird an instinct to sit or incubate4 ,this instinct is made known by a particular sort of cluck1 and by the hen sitting steadily on the nest in which she has been in the habit of laying4 ,in selecting the eggs to be sat upon by the hen1 choose such as have been recently laid1 and not those of angular shape or extra size3 the latter are often double yolked1 and rarely produce chickens4 ,the number of eggs to be hatched by the hen must in some degree depend upon her size4 ,a moderate-sized hen will very nicely cover eight or nine eggs in the cold spring months1 and twelve or thirteen in ,april or ,may4 ,an odd number is often chosen2 but there is no advantage in so doing4 ,the hen having received her eggs may be then left to herself2 she should have water placed at a convenient distance1 and her food may be given to her near the place of sitting4 ,the hen sits on her eggs twenty-one days1 during which period she seems in a dozy state1 and seems to require but little food or exercise4 ,some hens will feed every day2 but others will go for several days without leaving the nest1 or taking nourishment3 these should be lifted off the nest1 and fed daily4 ,when chickens are hatching1 which usually takes place twenty-one days after the eggs are placed under the hen1 it is best to leave them entirely to themselves4 ,as soon as the hen becomes a mother1 a great change is seen in her character--all her former habits give way to maternal solicitude4 ,a good hen attends to her brood with the most persevering fondness2 she will attack the fiercest animal who dares to molest her progeny4 ,,rearing ,,of ,,chickens4 ,when the chickens are hatched1 they require no food till the following day1 when they may be fed with crumbs of bread slightly moistened with milk1 and egg beaten up with an equal quantity of milk1 and then heated so as to form a soft custard3 this is the best food that can be given them4 ,they should also have a few grits1 and after a few days some small wheat4 ,if the weather is dry and warm1 it is best not to coop the hens1 as by scratching they obtain a supply of insect food and worms for the chicks1 which is better than anything else that can be given them2 but they should not be let out in damp weather in long grass before the dew has dried up4 ,if cooped1 the coop and hen should be placed in some nice dry and sunny spot in the lawn or garden1 within sight of the dwelling-house1 and where no cats are likely to prowl about4 ,there should be a little pan of water set within reach of the hen1 near the bars of the coop1 and stones should be placed in it to prevent the young brood from drowning themselves1 and this water should be frequently changed4 ,illustration ,the changes of weather should be watched1 and when it sets in wet or cold the young brood should be carefully protected by the removal of the coop into some warm sheltered place1 such as a stable1 coach-house1 or outhouse2 and so with care continue to be nursed1 guarded1 watched1 and attended to1 till they are about seven weeks old1 when they will of themselves separate from their parent hen1 take to the roost1 and act independently4 ,there is a great choice of breeds in the different varieties1 and we will state the advantages of each4 ,dorkings are large heavy fowls1 first-rate for the table1 good sitters and mothers3 but rather delicate1 require a good grass range1 and do not do well on damp soils4 ,spanish are handsome fowls1 lay numerous large eggs1 do not sit2 are not so good for the table as the ,dorkings1 being longer in the limbs1 and not so fleshy4 ,cochins and ,brahmas are large domesticated fowls1 very hardy2 can be kept in by a low fence2 they are good layers1 good sitters1 good mothers1 and useful family fowls on the table4 ,hamburghs are pretty1 light1 active1 roaming fowls2 they are called everlasting layers1 as they never wish to sit1 but lay on incessantly1 except at moulting-time4 ,they do not bear close confinement well1 and are difficult to keep in enclosed places1 as they fly like pheasants1 and know not bounds4 ,the crested ,polish1 black1 white1 and spangled1 are also non-sitters and good layers2 but they are not so hardy as the spangled ,hamburghs4 ,game are hardy1 very fair layers1 good sitters1 the best of mothers2 plump on the table1 though not very large2 well able to take care both of themselves and their chickens4 ,bantams are pretty little pets1 that may be suffered to roam about a garden without doing any injury4 ,the ,french breeds--,houdans1 ,crve ,curs1 and ,la ,flche--are remarkable for their good qualities as table fowls4 ,the ,white ,silky fowls are a very singular breed1 with divided feathers1 like wool or silk1 black skins1 and black bones4 ,they have their good points1 however3 they are admirable sitters and nurses1 and bring up young partridges and pheasants better than any other fowls4 ,they are also very good to eat1 though their black skin renders them rather unsightly on the table4 ,these varieties offer sufficient choice even to the most particular amateur1 who should make his selection in accordance with his wants and his locality--according as he requires egg-producers or chickens for the table1 and whether he can afford his fowls the advantages of a free range over green fields1 or has to keep them in a confined space1 near a suburban residence4 ,,the ,,pintado1 ,,or ,,guinea ,,fowl4 ,guinea fowls associate readily with the common fowls in a poultry-yard2 but they have this peculiarity1 that the cocks and hens are so nearly alike that it is difficult to distinguish them1 except by the voice1 the hens only uttering the constantly-reiterated cry of 8,go back6 ,go back60 ,the head is covered with a kind of casque1 with wattles under the bill1 and the whole plumage is either black or dark grey sprinkled with regular and uniform white spots4 ,the pintado is a native of ,africa4 ,these birds lay plenty of eggs1 rather smaller than those of the common hen1 and speckled4 ,they may be reared by placing the eggs under a hen2 but the chicks are extremely tender1 and very often a sudden change of the wind in ,march will sweep off a whole brood in a few hours4 ,the young should be fed with custard1 c41 as ordered for fowls4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,ducks4 ,the common wild duck1 or mallard1 is the original stock of the domesticated duck1 and appears to have been reclaimed at a very early period4 ,the mallards come from the north of ,europe1 at the end of autumn1 and1 migrating southward1 arrive at the beginning of winter1 in large flocks1 and spread themselves over all the loughs and marshy waters in the ,british ,isles4 ,the tame duck is a larger bird1 and varies greatly in colour4 ,tame ducks are easily reared3 the best way to get them is to place duck's eggs under a hen1 for the tame duck is often a careless mother2 the hen1 on the contrary1 generally hatches a duckling from every egg with which she is entrusted4 ,she does not conduct her young to the water1 and generally exhibits much anxiety when the young brood take to it2 but she watches over them1 and is ever ready to defend them from danger4 8,the village schoolboy10 as old ,bewick says1 8witnesses with delight the antic movements of the little brood under the charge of a foster-mother1 who with anxious fears paddles upon the brink and utters her unavailing cries or calls1 while the ducklings1 regardless of her warnings1 and rejoicing in the element so well adapted to their nature1 are splashing over each other beneath the pendant foliage1 and diving their heads beneath the water40 ,illustration ,there are many varieties of the tame duck4 ,one of those most in request is the dark-coloured ,rouen1 which is very prolific in eggs4 ,the ,aylesbury1 or white variety1 is large and profitable4 ,the ,muscovy duck is a distinct species1 and not a mere variety1 much larger than the common duck1 and distinguished by a membrane of a red colour1 covering the cheeks and extending behind the eyes4 ,there are also several other foreign species1 as the ,mandarin and ,carolina ducks1 which are kept rather for ornament than use4 ,ducks sit for thirty days4 ,they begin to lay in ,february1 and when not watched will lay abroad and conceal their eggs4 ,they generally lay at night1 or very early in the morning4 ,while sitting1 the duck requires a secluded and soft place4 ,on hatching1 she should be taken1 with her brood1 and put under a coop2 a shallow pan of water should be placed near her for her drink and for that of the young ones1 but it should be very shallow4 ,in a few days she may be let loose1 when1 with her brood1 she will immediately take to the water4 ,young ducks should be fed upon oatmeal or barleymeal1 and kept in a warm place at night time1 and not let out early in the morning4 ,they should at first be kept from water to swim in1 as it always does them harm4 ,when the ducks grow large1 they may be fed upon oats thrown into a pan of water4 ,illustration3 ,,muscovy ,,drake4 ,,the ,,rabbit4 ,of all domesticated animals dear to the ,british schoolboy's heart the rabbit is1 perhaps1 the most general favourite4 ,rabbits may be kept simply as pets or curiosities1 or as a commercial speculation1 and in either or all of these conditions they are sure to answer the expectations of the owner1 provided only that ordinary pains be taken with them4 ,as pets1 they can be made tame1 affectionate1 and playful2 as curiosities1 they can be modified1 by careful breeding1 into the oddest shapes and most eccentric colouring2 while1 as a commercial speculation1 they can1 with proper care and forethought1 be rendered extremely profitable1 and will pay a heavy percentage on the original outlay4 ,as an example of this fact we may mention the case of a young carpenter1 one of those steady1 hardworking1 intelligent men who are sure to get on in the world1 simply because they keep their eyes open to all that passes1 always watch for opportunities1 and always seize them when found4 ,this man used to make a considerable addition to his income by his rabbits1 fattening and selling a large number annually1 besides steadily increasing his stock4 ,he was ever watchful on their account1 and never went to a house where he was employed in his trade without asking for the waste potatoes1 crusts of bread1 and similar substances1 which he used to take home and convert1 by judicious mixture1 into nutritive diet for the rabbits4 ,as1 however1 there are but few boys who keep rabbits for the purpose of making money by them1 we will treat at greater length on their general management than on the method of feeding them at the least cost and selling them at the highest price4 ,before rabbit-keeping is attempted it is necessary to prepare1 very carefully1 a habitation for the future pet1 and in the following pages will be found full instructions for that task4 ,it is hardly possible to take too much trouble about the rabbit-house1 and any abatement in this respect is sure to prove the truth of the old proverb1 that penny wisdom is pound foolishness4 ,two objects are to be considered in this matter2 the first and most important being the comfort and happiness of the creature who is intended to live in the house1 and the second the waste of time1 money1 and patience1 which the constant sickness and ultimate death of the rabbit is sure to inflict upon a neglectful owner4 ,so we advise the intending rabbit-keeper to expend plenty of trouble upon his house or hutch1 and assure him that the healthy and thriving condition of his pets will more than repay the trouble1 and their rapidly-increasing numbers more than defray the expenses originally incurred4 ,should a single rabbit be at first kept--a good method1 by the way1 of experimenting before undertaking the more arduous and responsible task of setting up a regular establishment--a house or hutch like that which is represented in the accompanying illustration will be all that is needed4 ,illustration ,such a one as this may be easily made by any boy of ordinary ingenuity1 as no great neatness in joints is needed1 and the only requisites are strength and compactness4 ,should not the young carpenter possess the wood and tools needed for the entire construction of the hutch1 his best plan will be to purchase an old tea-chest or egg-box from the grocer's1 and modify it into the necessary form4 ,the box will cost about fourpence1 or sixpence at the most2 the wire will cost a penny1 and the nails another penny4 ,if no tools can be borrowed1 a boy can set himself up for ordinary work at a very cheap rate1 the following being all that is really needed3-- ,saw1 one shilling2 hammer1 eightpence2 half-inch chisel1 with handle1 sixpence2 small three-cornered file1 twopence2 two bradawls1 one large1 and the other rather small1 twopence1--these will be without handles1 and the best way is to drive the 8tang0 of the bradawl into the end of a stick of firewood1 then cut the stick into a handle1 shape it with a knife1 and bind the end with string or wire to prevent it from splitting4 ,these handles are just as useful as those which are purchased1 and have the advantage of costing nothing but a few minutes' labour4 ,the whole set of tools need not cost more than half-a-crown or1 at the most1 three shillings4 ,as will be seen from the illustration1 the hutch is divided into two portions1 that on the left hand being much the larger1 and employed by the rabbit as a day-room4 ,that on the right is small1 and is used as a sleeping apartment4 ,these two chambers are separated by a partition of board1 in which is cut a hole1 through which the inmate can pass backwards and forwards4 ,illustration ,as it is often necessary to confine the rabbit in either compartment while the other is being cleansed1 the aperture must be closed by means of a sliding door drawn up and down through the roof1 as seen at ,a4 ,we have found by experience that the purpose was fully answered by substituting a strong iron wire for the wooden handle1 and letting it pass through the hole bored in the roof4 ,we mention this1 because it is always best to know the simplest and easiest plan of proceeding4 ,the wire is firmly secured1 as seen in the engraving4 ,after cutting the sliding door to the proper shape1 bore a hole at a with the little bradawl4 ,sharpen one end of an iron wire 7the same as that of which the open front is made7 and push it firmly into the hole4 ,now bend the wire upwards1 until it lies flat upon the wood1 and then bend it over the edge1 as seen at b4 ,cut off an inch of wire1 sharpen both ends1 bend them so as to form a staple1 and drive the staple over the wire at b1 so as to hold it firmly in its place4 ,two small holes should be made with the little bradawl in the proper direction1 and the hammer must do the rest4 ,bend up the wire again1 cut it off to the proper length1 and all is ready for fixing1 which is done as follows3-- ,take the board which is to form the partition1 and which is easiest made from the lid of the box1 and cut out a round1 arched1 or square hole near the bottom1 the hole being about an inch narrower every way than the sliding door4 ,lay the door over the hole1 and place on each side of it a strip of wood a trifle thicker than the door4 ,these slips are technically called guides1 because they guide the door in the right direction3 try whether the door will slide easily up and down them1 and1 if so1 nail them firmly in their places4 ,then get a second pair of wooden slips1 not so thick1 but about half an inch wider than the first pair2 lay them on the guides so that they overlap the door1 and then nail them down4 ,the door will then slide up and down when pulled or pushed by the wire4 ,to make this part of the proceedings quite clear a section of the door and slide is given below3 g represents the guides2 f the board and their slips which overlap the door2 and the door itself is shown by the dotted lines b994 ,when fitted together the partition-board1 with its door and slides1 is shown in the engraving4 a1 a1 a represents the board itself2 b is the sliding door1 and c the wire by which it is worked2 d is the hole of communication1 which is opened or closed as the door is moved up or down2 which is here shown as half closed4 ,illustration ,the dividing-board being thus completed1 mark the place where the wire c is to come through the roof1 and bore a hole about half as large again as the wire1 so as to allow it to play freely4 ,by the simple plan of making a large nail or waste bit of wire red hot1 and charring this hole1 the swelling by damp and consequent sticking of the wire will be prevented4 ,all being ready1 slip the dividing-board into the box1 taking care to insinuate the wire into its proper place1 get it quite upright and square1 make sure that the sliding door plays without hitching1 and then nail it all tight4 ,bend the top of the wire into a loop1 and the most troublesome part of the business is over4 ,the young carpenter must remember that the dividing-board1 with its sliding door1 must be made and fixed before anything else is done1 as it not only strengthens the box and keeps it in shape1 but would demand twice as much trouble after the door and front have been made4 ,we now come to an easier and more ornamental part of the work4 ,in the engraving both doors open from the front1 the one being wired and the other plain wood2 but it is best to have the larger door open from behind1 as the wire-work is then twice as strong1 and all the trouble of making a hinged frame is dispensed with4 ,put the box on the ground1 and draw a line from one end to the other1 just half an inch from the edge4 ,mark the line off in half-inches1 and bore holes quite through the wood1 one hole coming at every half-inch4 ,repeat the same process immediately below1 but be careful only to bore the holes half through the wood1 or the wire will of course fall through4 ,then cut your wire into lengths1 measuring them by the depth of the box1 and cutting them about one-third of an inch shorter than the total depth4 ,laying them against the end is a simple method of getting the precise length4 ,sharpen one end of each piece of wire1 push the sharpened end through the hole at the top1 draw the wire down1 insinuate the point into the hole below1 and then1 holding the middle of the wire with the fingers of the left hand1 in order to keep it from bending1 drive it down with the hammer until quite level with the top of the box4 ,when all the wires are thus driven home1 nail a strip of wood over them at the top1 and they can never come out again4 ,it will be better to strengthen it further by passing a similar wire horizontally across the others1 driving each end into the wood1 and binding all together with fine wire4 ,this will be a protection through which not even a rat could crawl1 and which no cat could tear away with her hooked claws4 ,the door of the sleeping apartment is easily made of a single piece of board1 cut to the requisite shape1 affixed by leathern or metal hinges1 and fastened by a simple hasp4 ,the door of the day-room is made in a similar manner1 but opens from behind4 ,a row of deep notches should be cut at the bottom of this door1 and corresponding holes bored through the back of the sleeping-room floor1 in order to let all the wet drain away and keep the rabbit dry4 ,the hutch should be made to slant a little backwards so as to aid in the drainage4 ,slate floors have been suggested1 in order to prevent the ill-drained moisture from soaking into the substance--a result which is sure to take place1 sooner or later1 with a wooden floor4 ,slate1 however1 is rather expensive1 but it is easily cleaned1 and can be thoroughly washed2 so that the suggestion is worthy of notice4 ,having completed the hutch1 we must next see about a feeding-trough4 ,the ordinary troughs are nothing more than long wooden boxes2 those who use them generally find that the food is much wasted by being scraped out with the fore feet1 and that the rabbit contracts a habit of sitting in the trough1 which1 in course of time1 renders it very offensive1 and makes the food unwholesome4 ,but by a little exercise of ingenuity both these annoyances can be prevented4 ,to check the scratching out of the food1 run a strong wire from one end of the trough to the other1 about half an inch below the edge1 and one inch from the side4 ,when the rabbit begins to scratch1 the paws come against the wire1 and get so jarred that the creature soon relinquishes the bad habit4 ,illustration ,the habit of squatting in the trough is easily prevented by a very simple plan4 ,a strong wire1 about three or four inches long1 according to the depth of the trough1 is set upright in the centre4 ,another wire is arranged as seen in the illustration1 the ends being driven firmly into the wood of the trough1 and the middle passing through a loop at the end of the central wire4 ,in the engraving1 a represents the wire which prevents the animal from scratching1 and b that which keeps it from getting into the trough4 ,the edges1 whether of the trough1 the sliding door1 or the guides1 must be either bound with tin or edged with zinc wire1 the latter being rather preferable4 ,the reader will observe that in the engraving of the hutch it is shown standing on a table1 the top of which projects far beyond the legs4 ,the object of this precaution is to keep off rats1 which are the bane of all rabbit-owners1 and can climb up almost anything4 ,they1 cannot1 however1 walk like a fly1 in a reversed position1 on a flat surface1 and in consequence1 a projecting board of five or six inches in width is an effectual protection against these pests4 ,the hutch is easily kept clean by attending to each apartment separately4 ,first close the sliding door1 so as to confine the rabbit in the apartment in which it happens to be1 and with a hoe or similar implement scrape the floor quite clean1 afterwards rubbing it with a wisp of straw4 ,take care that every scrap of refuse food has been removed4 ,then close the outer door1 open the slide1 drive the rabbit into the clean apartment1 close the slide1 and scrape and rub the second chamber4 ,the trough should be removed when the day-room is cleaned1 and carefully examined before it is replaced4 ,the hutch being clean1 the slide may be opened1 and the animal allowed to run about4 ,the hutch should be cleansed at least every day1 and if a second cleaning be added it will not come amiss4 ,this continual cleaning will involve some trouble2 but no one ought to keep a rabbit who neglects this essential duty1 or to undertake the charge of an animal unless he intends to make it as happy as it can be in a state of imprisonment4 ,a supply of straw should be placed in the sleeping-room for a bed1 and should be changed daily4 ,if possible1 the rabbit should be allowed to take a half-hour's run every day2 but precautions must be taken against its burrowing habits and the chance of finding and eating something poisonous4 ,in the wild state1 a rabbit never eats anything that is injurious1 but when domesticated many of its instincts are in abeyance1 and it will eat many substances which it would reject when wild4 ,the best defence against burrowing is to have a brick floor for the animal to run about on4 ,there is also a substance called1 ,i believe1 ,parker's cement1 which1 when laid down1 becomes rapidly dry1 and is so hard that not even the teeth of a rat1 much less the claws of a rabbit1 can work their way through it4 ,this cement is mixed with water and sand to the consistency of thick cream1 and while settling is 8flatted0 with boards1 and makes an admirable level flooring1 easily washed and as hard as stone4 ,on this substance the rabbit can be allowed to amuse itself without danger1 and when its time of recreation has expired it should be caught and replaced in its hutch4 ,we may here mention that the proper method of taking up a rabbit is to hold it by the ears with the right hand1 and to support the body by placing the left hand under it4 ,should a number of rabbits be kept1 it is as well to allow each family to have a run in succession4 ,it is very pretty to see the playful antics of the young rabbits1 the races they run with each other1 the scufflings they have in the corners1 and the staid manner in which the mother sits and looks on1 and when they become too noisy silences them by a stamp of her foot4 ,this gesture is used either as a signal of alarm or defiance1 and the force of the rabbit's hind foot is really astonishing4 ,we have known a buck rabbit vanquish a large cat in a fair fight simply by jumping over her back and kicking fiercely as he passed4 ,he struck out whole bunches of pussy's fur1 and the cat1 unaccustomed to such treatment1 ran away and left her antagonist victorious and triumphant4 ,it is necessary to separate the rabbits in their exercise1 and not to permit two families to occupy the same ground at the same time1 as they are very quarrelsome animals1 and will fight desperately among themselves4 ,in any case the buck rabbits should not be allowed to mix with the others1 for they are terrible bullies1 and will assault and kill even their own children1 without the least remorse4 ,when properly tended1 the rabbit becomes quite tame and familiar1 and will come to its owner at the sound of its name4 ,the food of rabbits is easily obtained1 and consists of bran1 pollard1 grain1 and various vegetables4 ,parsley is an especial favourite1 but cabbage leaves should be avoided as far as possible1 as they are apt to have a bloating and puffy effect1 and are often injurious1 especially to young rabbits1 giving them the disorder that is well known under the expressive term of 8potbelly40 ,the following is a list of vegetables which rabbits can always eat in safety3-- ,grasses of the finer sorts--the coarse1 large-bladed grasses are not to a rabbit's taste--lettuce1 parsley1 carrots and their green tops1 turnip-tops1 green ears of corn1 sow or milk thistles1 clover1 tares1 vetches1 beet-root and leaves1 vine leaves occasionally1 green furze tops1 potatoes1 and ,jerusalem artichokes4 ,cow-parsley1 as it is popularly called 7,myrrhis temulenta71 is a very favourite vegetable with the rabbit3 but unless the gatherer is perfectly acquainted with its form and leafage1 he will be wise to leave it standing2 for it marvellously resembles the common hemlock 7,conium maculatum71 which is extremely poisonous2 and unless the two plants be thoroughly known1 the rabbit may be poisoned through the mistaken kindness of the owner4 ,as this plant is a really valuable one1 we will give a few simple and plain directions for distinguishing it from hemlock4 ,cow-parsley is about three feet in height1 the leaves are greatly branched1 and the stem is ribbed1 spotted with purple1 and covered with numerous short hairs slightly bent downwards4 ,the hemlock in general shape resembles the cow-parsley1 but it may be known by the smooth reddish purple spots and its unpleasant smell when the leaves are grasped in the hand4 ,various dry grains1 such as barley1 oats1 and ,indian corn1 are useful to the rabbit2 and dry peas are also beneficial if sparingly given when the creature has been partaking largely of green food4 ,very little water is needed2 but it is better to put into the hutch a small pan with a few spoonfuls of water in it4 ,a very little oil-cake is useful in the winter4 ,at first the rabbits do not like it1 but they soon become accustomed to its taste1 and are then very fond of it4 ,before proceeding to the mode of breeding rabbits1 we will glance at the varieties into which these creatures are modified by careful management4 ,the three chief points in a 8fancy0 rabbit are the ears1 the dewlap1 and the curve of the back4 ,the ears must in every case be exceedingly long1 and must never stand upright1 as in the common rabbit of the warren4 ,the most perfect and valuable form is the ,full1 ,flat1 or ,perfect ,lop4 ,in this variety the ears lie as if hinged to the head at their bases1 and bent downward1 so that when the animal is reposing the tips should quite or nearly touch the ground4 ,the convex part of the ear must be upwards1 or the value of the creature is deteriorated4 ,the next valuable variety is termed the ,oar-,lop1 because the ears spread horizontally from the head1 like the oars of a waterman's boat4 ,a really good ,oar-,lop rabbit is seldom seen1 and when found is thought by some to be equal to the ,perfect ,lop1 of which1 indeed1 it seems to be the preliminary stage4 ,in all cases the measurement across the ears from tip to tip ought never to be less than sixteen inches2 the more they exceed that measurement1 the more valuable is the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,perfect-,,lop ,,rabbit4 ,illustration3 ,,oar-,,lop ,,rabbit4 ,the ,horn-,lop is another very curious variety1 deriving its name from the position of the ears1 which fall completely over the face1 with their points directed to the front4 ,in some specimens they fall so completely over the face that the edges pass over the eyes1 and must act as a partial barrier to perfect sight1 like the leather blinkers that are so absurdly attached to draught horses4 ,illustration3 ,,horn ,,rabbit4 ,the lopped ears do not show themselves when the rabbit is young1 and for the first month or two it is not easy to decide whether the little creatures belong to the straight or the lop-eared variety4 ,moreover1 it often happens that one or two of each family retain the upright ears throughout their whole existence2 and it is of not unfrequent occurrence that the 8lop0 is delayed for a very long time1 and then suddenly makes its appearance4 ,sometimes one ear will exhibit the lop most perfectly1 while the other remains upright or very slightly bent4 ,some fanciers attach a piece of lead to the recusant ear in order to make it coincide with the other1 but we do not agree with the practice4 ,the ear never looks quite natural1 and as the rabbit will have or1 as the phrase is1 throw young ones with perfect lops1 it may be kept for breeding if a doe2 if a buck1 it can be fattened for the table4 ,the second point of interest is the dewlap1 the large double pouch which is seen under the chin and throat1 and which is peculiar to the fancy rabbit4 ,if the dewlap be not large and full1 with its two lobes well developed1 and sufficiently firm to form a cushion for the head while the animal reclines1 the rabbit will be thought worthless by fanciers4 ,the shape of the fancy rabbit is very different from that of the common variety4 ,it is altogether on a larger scale1 and the back rises so much1 that its summit ought to be two inches higher than the top of the head4 ,the colour1 again1 is very important4 ,it may be white1 black1 mottled1 tortoiseshell1 blue1 and in fact any colour except the plain grey4 ,whatever it be1 it must be arranged after a special position4 ,on each side of the nose must be a patch of the darker colour of the body1 forming what is called the 8butterfly smut40 ,a large patch on the back is called the 8saddle10 and a row of spots termed the 8chain0 is drawn in front of the body and seems to hang over the shoulder4 ,the legs must be white1 and the tail and snout of the same colour4 ,very few rabbits possess all these qualities2 but even the combined excellences of smut1 chain1 and saddle will fail to gain a high rank for any rabbit which does not possess a good 8carriage10 i4 e4 whose back is not at least two inches above its head1 and whose nose and ear-tips do not nearly touch the ground4 ,some writers say that the fancy rabbits are more delicate of health and less easy to rear than the common variety2 but we have bred many families of them1 and never found any difficulty in rearing them4 ,their superior size renders them valuable for culinary purposes1 and1 as out of every family the greater number are deficient in the requisite marks of a fancy rabbit1 the table can be well supplied with these fat and well-flavoured creatures4 ,the last variety we shall mention is the beautiful ,angola rabbit1 remarkable for its long silken hair1 a speaking likeness of which may be seen in ,landseer's wonderful picture of ,titania4 ,we will now devote a few words to the breeding of rabbits4 ,the rabbit will breed at a very early age1 i4 e4 from eight months upwards2 but those who want healthy young ought not to allow the rabbits to breed before they are one year old1 or after they have completed their fourth year4 ,the buck and doe should be always kept in different hutches1 out of each other's sight1 and only allowed to remain together for a very short time4 ,the rabbit usually breeds four times in the year1 or even oftener2 but as a general rule it is not advisable to allow more than three breeds in the year4 ,when the doe rabbit feels the time approaching for her young to be born1 she begins to bite in little pieces the hay of her bed1 and when she does so a supply of very fine soft hay should be placed within her reach4 ,she then pulls this together in her sleeping-chamber1 and mixes it with downy fur plucked from her own body1 ready for the reception of the expected family4 ,it is as well to put a pan of water within reach1 as the animal generally thirsts after the young are born1 and unless she can get at water1 is apt to eat the young merely on account of the moisture4 ,one of my own rabbits acted in a very odd manner4 ,she called to one of her family1 telling it to come to her4 ,the disobedient child refused1 and the mother accordingly seized it by one ear and dragged it along4 ,unfortunately1 she pulled so hard in one direction1 and the young one pulled so hard in the other1 that the ear was fairly dragged from the head4 ,the mother treated the matter very easily1 ate the severed ear1 caught hold of the other1 and succeeded in reducing her offspring to obedience4 ,while engaged in maturing her young1 the mother requires a very ample supply of food1 eating nearly twice as much as at other times4 ,she must have plenty of green food1 and a mash of barley meal and milk will be found beneficial4 ,for the first week or ten days the door of the sleeping-room should not be opened1 as the mother-rabbit is very jealous of her young1 and if they are handled1 or even looked at1 will sometimes eat them4 ,this is a terrible habit1 and if a rabbit once act in that manner1 provided that she is well supplied with food and drink1 the best plan is to fatten her for the table4 ,the young are suckled for about five weeks1 when the mother weans them1 and they learn to eat tender grass-blades1 and other green food4 ,if the family be very large1 there is sure to be at least one small and weakly among the number4 ,this should be removed and destroyed1 so as to ensure that only the strong and healthy are reared4 ,there are several diseases to which domestic rabbits are liable1 but these ailments are nearly all caused through negligence2 and in a really well-appointed and carefully-tended rabbitry a sickly animal is hardly ever seen4 ,except in the case of valuable fancy animals1 the trouble and expense of attempting the cure of a diseased rabbit are so great1 that few will find themselves repaid1 even by the recovery of the invalid4 ,recovery1 however1 is so very dubious1 that in almost every case it is cheaper and more humane to kill the animal at once1 which is performed instantaneously and painlessly by holding the creature up by the hind legs1 and with the edge of the right hand striking it a sharp blow behind the ears4 ,let the young rabbit-keeper rest assured1 that if one of his pets should fall ill1 the sickness will in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred be chargeable to some negligence of his own4 ,,the ,,raven4 ,all the members of the ,crow tribe have a decided family likeness2 and1 as a general fact1 the relationship can be recognised as long as they belong to the ,british species4 ,but as there are several foreign birds which bear a decided resemblance to this tribe1 though really belonging to other families1 it is needful to give a few hints as to the method by which these may be distinguished4 ,the young observer must look first at the beak1 then at the wings1 and lastly at the legs4 ,in all these birds the beak is strong and conical1 arched on the keel1 i4 e4 the ridge along the upper surface1 with the sides rather flattened as far as the tip4 ,the nostrils are set at the base of the beak1 and hidden by plumes4 ,the wings are never very large1 and mostly pointed4 ,the tarsi1 i4 e4 the long1 straight leg-bones1 are of moderate length1 and covered with strong1 shield-like scales4 ,the ,british representatives of this large family are the carrion crow1 the rook1 the ,royston or hooded or grey crow1 the chough1 the raven1 the jackdaw1 the jay1 and the magpie4 ,the ,raven1 once so plentiful over ,england1 is now nearly extinct1 except in some of the wild uncultivated districts1 where it still lingers1 uttering its hoarse1 loud cry1 flapping its broad wings1 and committing no small havoc among the young or feeble animals that have the misfortune to dwell in its neighbourhood4 ,to procure a raven is now a difficult task1 and can seldom be accomplished except by giving an order to the regular dealers4 ,we do not advise any of our young readers to possess themselves of a raven unless they have ample space for the bird1 and are quite certain that it cannot get into any mischief4 ,either a magpie1 a jay1 or a jackdaw1 seems to be possessed with an incessant spirit of mischief1 but the raven seems to have enough for the three1 and as it possesses enormous muscular power and irrepressible audacity1 it is a peculiarly unsafe inmate of a house or garden4 ,for our own part1 we have been for some months undecided whether we shall have a raven or not4 ,we should greatly like to possess one of these birds1 but then we know that he would pull up all our newly-sown seeds1 bully our cat1 peck the servants' heels1 get into the milk-pail1 tear our papers to pieces1 and1 in short1 spoil everything within his reach4 ,we could1 of course1 chain him up1 and clip his wings1 or put him into a metal cage1 but we think all such proceedings to be needlessly cruel1 especially in the case of a bird like the raven1 whose instinct teaches it to roam far and wide1 and whose opportunities of exercise ought never to be confined to the limited space comprehended by a chain or a cage4 ,when treated properly1 the raven possesses a very mine of amusing and companionable qualities1 at all events to those who treat it kindly1 and whom it does not suspect of any intention to injure4 ,it is a capital talker1 equalling the parrot in that respect1 except that the voice is very gruff and low1 as if spoken from under a feather bed4 ,the raven is not long in taking the measure of its companions1 and has a supreme contempt for those who display weakness of mind or resources4 ,nothing seems to make a raven so happy as frightening somebody4 ,he likes to come quietly behind a nervous person1 deliver a heavy dab at the ankle with his iron bill1 and then walk away as if he knew nothing about the assault4 ,he will frighten dogs half out of their senses1 chase the cats1 drive the fowls about1 and as to the horses1 he mostly takes a fancy to them1 sitting on their backs1 or walking calmly and deliberately among their legs4 ,indeed the raven always has a great affection for stable life4 ,he likes to saunter in and out of the stalls1 to flap his way from one horse to another1 to peck at strangers1 to patronise the helpers1 to be on speaking terms with the grooms1 and1 we regret to say1 has a strange talent for picking up all the evil language which is too often found in and about the stable-yard4 ,he encourages the presence of dogs and cats1 because he always steals their dinners2 and if he can find an opportunity of making a sly raid upon the luncheon of a groom1 he is sure to seize it4 ,he becomes the patriarch of the yard1 and stands by his dignity as such4 ,he won't die1 but lives on1 year after year2 sees successive generations of horses1 grooms1 and proprietors pass away1 and seems to despise them for not living as long as himself4 ,time seems to have little power with him4 ,his feathers take a greyer hue when he is a century or two old1 but in disposition he remains ever young1 malicious1 crafty1 active1 quaint1 and voracious4 ,he will eat anything1 and can be taught to devour the most remarkable substances1 provided that he thinks them very valuable1 and not intended for food4 ,raw meat is perhaps his favourite diet1 and he is greatly pleased with rats1 mice1 small birds1 fat beetles1 big grubs or worms1 and similar delicacies4 ,but he will eat bread when he cannot get meat2 and if he can only be got to believe that the article is extremely valuable1 he will make a breakfast on a newspaper or a shirt-collar4 ,he can be easily induced to swallow even a black-lead pencil or a pocket-handkerchief1 by a very simple process4 ,drop the article as if accidentally1 search for it anxiously1 go away without seeming to see it1 and hardly will your back be turned when the raven will have snatched up the missing article and conveyed it to his storehouse4 ,if watched from a spot where the observer cannot be seen1 he will be noticed to proceed in a very methodical manner4 ,he will first pick up his prize1 and walk about solemnly with it in his beak1 as if displaying a captured trophy of war4 ,he will then put his foot on it1 seize one corner of the paper or handkerchief in his beak1 and deliberately tear it into strips1 which he will probably swallow4 ,as to the pencil1 he pegs at it with the point of his beak at a wonderful pace1 making the splinters fly in all directions1 and ever and anon looking round1 to see that no one is watching him4 ,clever as is the raven1 and intelligent beyond the wont of birds1 his very superiority in this respect often has the effect of rendering him a victim to superior powers4 ,there is scarcely any bird that can be hoaxed more readily than a raven1 or that can be 8drawn out0 with greater ease4 ,those who humour his ways can make a perfect puppet of him1 and induce him to play most undignified antics1 without giving him the least idea how thoroughly he is being imposed upon4 ,our last advice is that1 unless the reader can afford plentiful space for his bird1 and assure it a kind treatment1 he will act wisely not to attempt to procure a raven4 ,should1 however1 he be able to afford it these necessaries of existence1 by all means let him procure one of these most amusing birds4 ,ravens require scarcely any trouble1 and when they have fairly established themselves1 will not desert their homes under any circumstances4 ,they ought to be fed once1 and once only1 per diem1 for they will find plenty of insects1 worms1 and other little delicacies1 without giving any trouble4 ,they should always be furnished with a place of retreat into which they can retire whenever they feel tired of the world1 and they like the hermitage to be deep1 dark1 and warm1 sheltered from wind and rain1 and out of the way of inquisitive eyes4 ,finally1 a raven is an excellent judge of character1 and if he is really appreciated1 he will become a firm and faithful friend4 ,illustration ,,silkworms4 8,the proudest king ,may thank the silkworm for his robe of state40--,,akenside4 ,the rearing and management of silkworms is an innocent and agreeable pastime both to boys and girls1 and it is very interesting in many points of view4 ,one fact is1 that while the caterpillars of all the other tribes of moths and butterflies1 when they have arrived at a certain state of maturity1 show a restless disposition1 and wander about and hide themselves in a variety of places in order to spin their cocoons1 the silkworm1 on the contrary1 is content to remain stationary in the open tray or box in which it may be placed4 ,after consuming its immediate supply of mulberry leaves1 it waits for a further quantity1 and when the period arrives for spinning its cocoon1 instead of showing any migratory disposition1 it seems to place itself with confidence under the care of man to provide it with a suitable place for its convenience and protection4 ,the silkworm is systematically known under the name of the ,bombyx ,mori of ,linnus1 or the ,mulberry-tree ,moth1 which in the winged state is of a cream colour1 with several transparent bands of a darker colour across the anterior wings and a crescent-shaped central mark4 ,the caterpillar when full grown is nearly three inches in length1 and is too well known to our young friends to need any particular description4 ,the eggs when good are of a pale slate or dark lilac colour2 they may be purchased in ,covent ,garden market for about ten shillings per ounce2 and care should be taken to obtain them of a proper colour1 because those that are of a pale yellow are imperfect4 ,the silkworm when first hatched is black1 and does not exceed in length one-fourth of an inch4 ,the desire for food is the first symptom it exhibits of life1 and at this period it is more active than at any other4 ,when about eight days have elapsed after its hatching1 its head becomes considerably enlarged1 and it turns sick1 refuses food1 and remains in a state of lethargy for about three days4 ,this sickness would appear to arise from the pressure of the animal's skin1 which has become too tight for the increased bulk of its body4 ,indeed1 the very great difference in the size of the worm from the beginning to the end of the caterpillar state is so great1 that ,nature has furnished it with several skins1 each of which it casts in succession4 ,illustration ,the body of the caterpillar is begirt by twelve rings1 which approach to or recede from each other according to its motion2 there are nine breathing-holes on each side of the body1 seven eyes on each side of the head1 and two small orifices below the jaws1 through which the worm ejects its silken filament4 ,the art of using this filamentous substance seems to have originated with the ,chinese1 and to have been discovered at a very early period1 and the raw material was purchased by the ,persians1 ,tyrians1 and ,indians for a long time before it was introduced into ,europe4 ,for many ages silk bore an enormous price at ,rome1 but about the middle of the sixth century two monks arrived at ,constantinople from ,india1 bringing with them the white mulberry and the eggs of the silkworm1 which have since been reared in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 and other parts of ,europe4 ,,food ,,of ,,the ,,silkworm4 ,the silkworm feeds1 as every one knows1 on the leaves of the white mulberry2 or1 when these cannot be obtained1 upon those of the black mulberry2 or1 in lieu of these1 upon the leaves of the common garden lettuce4 ,the white mulberry is especially cultivated for the value of its leaves1 its fruit being insipid and very inferior to that of the common species1 the leaves of which are equally good in this country for the food of the silkworm4 ,there has been a variety lately introduced from the ,philippine ,isles 7,morus multicaulis71 which has larger leaves1 and which is easily propagated by cuttings put into a cucumber frame in ,october1 and transplanted in the following ,may2 yet1 still1 to ensure success in the rearing of silkworms the young naturalist should stick to the old black mulberry1 as such trees are to be found in various vicinities4 ,to propagate this1 a branch from another tree may be set in the earth1 which will frequently grow4 ,the amiable ,sir ,john ,philipport of ,hammersmith1 so celebrated for his 8,elysian groves and fountains fair10 and for his sterling ,english qualities1 has in his grounds a fine mulberry-tree1 which he reared by placing a very loose branch in the ground in the autumn of #ahej1 which threw out roots1 and started at once into a tree4 ,the story of a gate-post made of a mulberry trunk becoming1 and now remaining1 a fruitful tree1 is well authenticated4 ,the leaves to be used should be those of a large and well-grown1 prolific tree1 and they should be gathered with care1 so that the young buds of future leaves should in no way be injured2 moreover1 a tree should never be stripped twice in a year4 ,,hatching1 ,,feeding1 ,,and ,,temperature4 ,illustration ,having procured the eggs1 which should be obtained about the latter end of ,april--they are generally bought on slips of paper just as they were laid by the moth--they should be placed in trays made of stout cartridge or thin pasteboard of the form seen in the cut1 and there should be provided to go over the case some thin gauze4 ,the trays may be placed in a window facing the south1 where they are fully exposed to the rays of the sun2 there they should remain undisturbed till they begin to hatch2 and as the young worms appear they should be removed into other trays1 and fed with the mulberry leaves4 ,the temperature should be regulated from sixty-six to seventy degrees1 and the room ventilated1 and preserved equally free from damp or too much dryness4 ,they should be kept particularly clean1 dead leaves and dung cleared carefully away1 and in lifting them from one tray to another they should not be touched by the fingers1 but removed by threads of cotton passed under their bodies1 or with a camel's-hair pencil4 ,,moultings4 ,the caterpillar has four moultings1 which may be all accomplished in the period of four days each1 if the heat of the room be increased to from ninety-five to one hundred degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,when the heat is regulated to a lower standard1 the first moulting takes place on the fourth or fifth day after hatching1 the second in four days more1 the third in five or six days more1 and the last in about eight days4 ,ten days more are required after this moulting1 so that in about thirty-two days after hatching the caterpillar has attained its full size4 ,during all these changes of the worm it requires the nicest attention4 ,illustration ,,the ,,cocoon4 ,at the end of the time mentioned above the worms change to a clear pink or flesh colour1 and look semi-transparent2 they refuse their food1 become restless1 and prepare to spin or form their cocoon4 ,at this time care should be taken to raise the walls of their tray habitation1 or they will climb over them and be lost4 ,what is called the cocoon nest should now be prepared by twisting the corners of a piece of writing-paper1 and raising its edges into the form of the lower shell of an oyster4 ,a number of these should be prepared and affixed to a piece of tape1 with their pointed ends downwards2 and into each one a single worm should be placed when it quits its food1 and seems ready to spin3 it will then dispose its web in such a manner as to leave a cavity within4 ,the cocoon consists of three distinct layers of silk3 the first is loose and flossy1 and is unserviceable for the silk manufacture2 the second is closer1 the silk crossing from side to side2 and the third is still finer1 and is glued strongly together1 so as to form a compact inner coating4 ,,the ,,aurelia4 ,when the cocoon is completed1 the enclosed caterpillar again casts its skin1 with the head and jaws attached to it1 when it appears under the form of a conical chrysalis of the ordinary shape4 ,at first the chrysalis1 when opened1 exhibits only a yellowish fluid1 but by degrees the various parts of the future moth appear1 and in about a fortnight or three weeks a slight swelling of the chrysalis indicates the approach of another change2 a rupture down its back succeeds1 and by degrees the moth bursts through its horny coating into the hollow chamber of the cocoon1 and if left to itself would soon eat its way out4 ,illustration ,,winding ,,the ,,silk4 ,the chrysalis1 however1 must be prevented from eating through the cocoon2 and previous to the egress of the moth from its aurelian state1 the silk must be wound off4 ,when1 by taking up the cocoon1 it is found that the caterpillar has passed into the aurelian state--which may easily be known by shaking it1 as then the aurelia1 from its harder texture and shrunken size1 will be heard to rattle--then it is time to wind off the silk4 ,the cocoon is placed in a cup of warm water1 after the loose outward silk has been removed1 and then1 an end being taken1 the whole continuous filament may be wound off on a piece of card4 ,the length of the thread of a cocoon varies from #fjj to #a1jjj feet2 yet the whole does not weigh more than three grains and a half4 ,an ounce of eggs will produce about #dj1jjj caterpillars1 which will consume #a1jgc lbs4 of leaves1 and produce from #hj lbs4 to #ajj lbs4 of cocoon1 or about eight pounds of raw silk4 ,illustration ,,the ,,moth4 ,when the silk is wound off the aurelia presents itself1 and being put in a separate case1 it remains motionless for about twenty days1 when suddenly it appears as a pale yellow moth1 with wings which seem scarcely adapted for flight4 ,it crawls heavily about the place where it has been hatched1 having a slight tremor in its wings1 and eats nothing3 the male speedily dies2 the females hover about a while without flying1 and lay their eggs on the slips of paper presented to them for that purpose4 ,they then soon perish4 ,the female moth generally produces about #cjj or #djj eggs4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,moth4 ,,general ,,remarks4 ,the place where silkworms are bred1 should persons wish to pursue their rearing upon a larger scale1 must be free from noisome smells1 cattle1 and all noises4 ,persons attending them must be scrupulously clean in their persons1 and wash themselves after every meal4 ,great attention must also be paid to the temperature of the apartment in which they are kept1 which must also be free from all dust or smoke2 and the most thoughtful and tender care is requisite in everything connected with their treatment and management4 ,illustration ,,the ,,squirrel4 ,the pretty little squirrel has long held a high place in the affections of pet-lovers1 and there are few who have not admired the brisk lively movements1 the full intelligent eye1 and the soft bushy tail of this creature4 ,to possess a tame squirrel is often a legitimate object of boy ambition1 not unfrequently shared by their elders4 ,in order to give our readers a few hints as to the procuring1 management1 and taming of this pretty playmate1 we offer the following suggestions4 ,the first care of every intending possessor of a squirrel should be to prepare a comfortable home for the expected guest1 so that the little creature may find its first association with captive life as agreeable as it can be made4 ,in point of fact1 the young naturalist should try to give to the squirrel's future home the greatest possible resemblance to the native domicile4 ,the very best house for a squirrel is an unused room1 fitted up with strong tree-branches1 and furnished with a cosy little box1 filled with hay and dry mosses1 by way of a bedchamber4 ,as1 however1 such accommodation is not readily found1 we will just describe the mode of making a very strong1 sightly1 and cleanly cage1 at a comparatively small expense1 and possessing the advantage of coming to pieces when needed1 and being packed flat like a portfolio for removal4 ,it will be much cheaper than a purchased cage1 quite as handsome1 and more easily cleansed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,make1 or1 if you are not a good workman1 get a carpenter to make1 a shallow wooden tray about two inches deep1 lined with tin1 which should be turned fairly over the edges1 or sundry difficulties will appear in course of time4 7,see fig4 #a47 ,then go to a wire-worker's1 and order him to make two frames of galvanized iron wire1 like fig4 #b1 and two more like fig4 #c1 each being about half an inch shorter than the interior length and width of the tray1 into which they are intended to fit easily4 ,also have another piece of similar wire made large enough to bend over the arched tops of the end-pieces1 so as to make a roof like the transepts of the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the edges of the side and end-pieces should be very stout1 but those of the roof only moderately strong1 or it will not bend easily4 ,it will be better to have a square opening at each end1 which should be closed by a door of similar materials4 ,as this wirework will be of coarse manufacture1 and have tolerably wide intervals1 the cost will be very moderate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,after these frames have been procured1 fit them together1 and fasten them by twisting bits of wire round the edges at intervals of three inches or so4 ,put this frame into the tray1 and the cage is complete4 ,the staples at the ends are useful for receiving the hooked end of a slight iron rod1 looped at the other end to the edging-wire1 as seen in fig4 #d4 ,these rods act as braces to keep the whole structure firm1 and also hold it down to the tray4 ,some suitable sticks or branches should be fastened to the wires1 as the squirrel is fond of playing about on them4 ,this is the day-room of the squirrel1 and its bedroom is merely a proper-sized box1 with wire-work substituted for the wooden bottom1 a hinged lid1 and a hole cut in one end4 ,this should be supported on four legs2 a nail at each corner 7not a brass-headed nail7 will answer the purpose perfectly well4 ,this box is simply placed in the tray at the back of the cage4 ,if it can be managed1 a duplicate tray will be exceedingly convenient1 as the cage needs the extremest cleanliness1 and can be simply purified by changing the tray every morning1 washing very carefully the one just removed1 and leaving it in the air till the next day4 ,a duplicate sleeping-box will be equally serviceable4 ,the box should be furnished with perfectly clean hay1 mosses1 lichens1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the cage should never be less than two feet long1 two high1 and one foot wide4 ,all should be thus particular about the size of the cage1 because we hold it to be a cruel deed to take an active little creature like the squirrel from its fields and wide woods1 where it can sport at will over unlimited space1 and coop it up in a close1 evil-smelling1 little cage1 where its only exercise can be obtained by driving a wheel round1 and its wonderful faculty of leaping wholly checked4 ,how much wheel-work would the squirrel do if it had the choice of a tree or a wheel for its exercise8 ,even in a cage1 provided it be of a proper size1 the little creature would not trouble itself to get into a wheel1 but prefer clambering about the wires1 and jumping from one side to another1 in the exuberance of its activity4 ,many persons assert that the squirrel is quite fond of the wheel1 and delights in driving it2 but they forget that the poor little creature is driven to that as its last resource for needful exercise2 and it no more delights in pulling a wire wheel than the caged lion and tiger delight in their restless pacing of their dens4 ,the exercise of the powers with which it is so liberally gifted is essential to the health of the squirrel1 and its health must suffer if it be not permitted to leap4 ,look at it in a tree1 and just see what astonishing jumps the pretty creature takes2 how it will spring fairly from the ground to the trunk of a tree1 making a jump of some six or seven feet in length and four in height2 how it gallops up the perpendicular stem1 with its tail laid behind it1 like a fox's brush2 how it scuttles up the branches1 always contriving to keep the bough between itself and the spectator2 and then how1 when it has arrived at the topmost branch1 and considers itself safe1 it sits up in its own charmingly impertinent position1 spreads its tail over its head1 and looks down with a calmly supercilious contempt on the clumsy two-legged animal below1 who cannot run up a tree1 and has no bushy tail for a parasol4 ,no one who has once witnessed this sight could ever be guilty of such a cruel act as penning up a squirrel in a small cage1 where it has no room to perform its pretty tricks2 and if the reader cannot furnish his pet with a proper house1 we earnestly dissuade him from keeping a squirrel at all4 ,having prepared the house1 the next business is to procure the inhabitant4 ,be ever wary of those wandering dealers who carry a squirrel about for sale in their arms1 stroke its head1 and put their fingers to its mouth to show its tameness4 ,in almost every case the man is a cheat1 and in many instances a cruel one4 ,the apparent tameness of some of these little creatures is caused by a small dose of strychnine1 which renders the animal dull and spiritless1 and is generally fatal in the course of a day or two2 so that the disappointed purchaser finds his pet dead and stiff at the bottom of its cage before he has possessed it for many hours4 ,some of these men are said to employ a preparation of opium for the same purpose4 ,in cases where these impostors wish to sell an old and cross-grained squirrel as a gentle1 young one1 they pull out its front teeth1 so that the poor creature not only cannot bite1 but feels such pain in its jaws that it recoils whenever the cruel owner puts his finger to its mouth as a proof of its good education and gentle disposition4 ,as all rodent animals depend solely on their beautifully-formed and chisel-shaped fore teeth for their subsistence1 the unfortunate squirrel is unable to eat1 and dies miserably of hunger4 ,taking warning1 therefore1 of these hints1 let every intending purchaser of a squirrel be very wary respecting the seller1 and examine the squirrel's eye1 to see if it be bright and lively1 and its mouth1 to see if the teeth be perfect4 ,the age of the squirrel may also be known by its teeth3 if young1 they are nearly white2 if old1 of a deep yellow4 ,squirrels when taken after they have reached their full age are nearly always vicious and ill-tempered4 ,the best way1 therefore1 to obtain a good squirrel is either to order it from a respectable dealer1 who will be sure to supply a young and healthy animal1 or to be independent of dealers1 and take the creature out of the nest4 ,for this purpose the young naturalist should go into the woods about the middle of summer1 and look carefully among the branches for the home of the squirrel1 called either a 8cage0 or a 8drey10 according to the locality4 ,the nest is made on the exterior of leaves and fine twigs1 and lined with moss1 lichens1 and similar soft substances4 ,there are two kinds of nests1 one used in summer and the other in winter4 ,the winter nest is very carefully concealed1 being placed at the junction of several large branches with the trunk1 so as to shield it from prying eyes below1 the blasts of the keen winter wind1 and to support its large dimensions4 ,the summer cage1 on the contrary1 is not so carefully concealed1 but is placed upon a considerable elevation1 and often upon boughs so slender that they bend in a most alarming manner beneath the weight4 ,still1 it often happens that a nest can be reached without danger1 in which may be found one or two young squirrels of just the proper age4 ,when captured at an early age1 the squirrel often becomes extremely tame and confiding1 and will play with its owner as if they had both lived in the same nest4 ,it is a pretty sight to witness the gambols of a squirrel with its human playfellow1 to see the active little animal jump on the shoulders1 run all over the body1 perch on the head1 poke its wise little head into a pocket1 and then with a quick dive of the ready paw bring out a nut1 which it straightway cracks and eats as merrily as if in its native woods4 ,such a sight is pleasant for many reasons2 not the least being that it proves the kindly disposition of the boy with whom a squirrel1 though naturally timid1 will thus fearlessly play1 and it gives promise of more extended sympathies when he attains to riper years and more matured faculties4 ,the squirrel when in confinement is best fed on the substances which it eats while in the wild state1 such as nuts1 acorns1 corn1 and similar substances4 ,it will also eat bread-and-milk1 and likes to nibble a biscuit by way of a treat4 ,as the squirrel is known to be carnivorous to a certain degree1 it may be useful to give it occasionally a young bird1 or a few eggs of the thrush1 sparrow1 or any other common bird4 ,we cannot1 however1 give personal testimony to the good effect of this diet4 ,hard shell-fruits1 such as nuts1 acorns1 c41 are absolutely necessary to this animal1 as the structure of the teeth compels it to be continually nibbling4 ,in all the rodent animals the front teeth are four in number1 flat1 slightly curved1 and edged like a chisel4 ,they play against each other in such a manner that they mutually keep each other sharp2 and in order to supply the constant wearing away to which they are subject1 they grow throughout the whole lifetime of the animal1 being pushed forward by fresh growth at the base4 ,it sometimes happens that a rodent animal1 such as a rat or a rabbit1 loses one of its teeth1 and the consequence is that the corresponding tooth in the jaw1 finding nothing to check it1 grows so long that it has been known to reach even the forehead1 to form a complete ring1 and sometimes to penetrate the other jaw4 ,in all these cases the poor creature was miserably thin1 and would probably have died from gradual starvation at no distant period4 ,the last-mentioned point in squirrel-keeping1 though of course the most important1 is the absolute necessity for the most scrupulous cleanliness4 ,in their native state1 all animals are clean to a degree that might shame many a human being1 and their instinctive sanitary customs are most praiseworthy4 ,even the pig1 for instance1 so often cited as an example of filthy habits1 is when wild a model of cleanliness1 and when domesticated absolutely revels in a thorough scrubbing with soap and hot water4 ,the squirrel1 in like manner1 though perfectly sweet and clean in a wild state1 is sure to be most offensive in captivity1 unless the cage be carefully purified daily4 ,it is for this reason that we are so particular in recommending galvanized iron for the materials of the cage1 avoiding wood altogether1 as an evil odour readily penetrates wood1 and can never be totally expelled4 ,the duplicate tray and sleeping-box will prove to be of the greatest service in keeping the cage clean1 and will save much trouble to the proprietor and annoyance to the inhabitant4 ,should the squirrel-rearer prefer to employ wood in any part of the cage1 he must be sure to bind with sheet-tin every edge and angle of the woodwork1 as the little creature will nibble at the exposed edges so continually with its chisels of teeth1 that it will speedily render the article useless4 ,before closing these remarks1 let us enjoin on every intending rearer of a pet to consider well before he undertakes the sole guardianship of any creature1 and to assure himself that he will perform with punctuality and completeness the many little offices required by animals when taken from their natural state of existence1 debarred from the exercise of their ordinary capacities1 and rendered incapable of procuring food or keeping themselves in that state of cleanliness which is the ordinary condition of creatures in a state of nature4 ,he must make up his mind that the task will be somewhat troublesome1 and will now and then interfere with contemplated projects2 but at the same time he must rigidly determine that nothing shall cause him to forget1 or induce him to omit1 one single duty towards the little creature under his care4 ,it is dumb1 and has no language to declare its wants or proclaim its injuries2 and this very dumbness ought to incite in every right-feeling heart a strong compassion for the helpless state in which the creature is placed1 an unshakeable resolution to make it as happy as it can be under the circumstances4 ,it is possible to elevate the character of a kindly-treated pet to such a degree1 that it will voluntarily forsake the society of its own kind for that of man1 and even if granted its liberty1 will refuse to avail itself of the gift1 and return to the protection of the sheltering hand4 ,by humane and sympathetic treatment a pet may be made happier than in its native state1 and be saved many pangs of suffering by a kindly owner4 ,all animals when wild have to pass through a sort of schooling1 and get sadly knocked about and bullied by their elders before they attain maturity and strength to become bullies in their turn2 but if reared in gracious captivity1 they will escape the ordeal through which they must have passed4 ,lastly1 let the owner remember that his little favourite is wholly dependent on him for every necessary and comfort of life1 and that it will be a piece of arrant cruelty--or1 at all events1 of inexcusable thoughtlessness--to permit the captive to feel the pangs of hunger or thirst1 or to suffer the discomfort of an unclean home4 ,illustration ,,white ,,mice4 ,the mouse is a lively little animal1 and one of the most timid1 although he eats in the trap as soon as he is caught4 ,the brown mouse can very rarely be tamed2 but white mice are bred and brought up in a state of domestication1 and the young fancier can obtain a pair for a shilling at any of the fanciers4 ,the female has frequently six or eight broods in a year1 but at these times she must be separated from the buck1 who very frequently destroys the young ones4 ,cages for white mice may be easily purchased by those who have the money--mark that--and you may indulge yourselves1 my young friends1 to any tune1 from the sweet jingle of sixpence to the respectable clink of a golden sovereign4 ,the best kind of cage is that like a squirrel's1 but on a small scale4 ,some boys who have ingenuity will construct pretty little houses for their white mice4 ,we remember seeing one on which there was a mill1 by which the white mice1 very much like millers in their looks1 ground their own corn by means of a turnabout fixed on a post of the dormitory1 and it was very amusing to see the little creatures come out of the chimney and look about as unlike chimney-sweeps as white is to black4 ,the principal food for white mice is bread-and-milk1 oatmeal grits1 and any other common food1 except cheese1 which is bad for them4 ,they should be kept particularly clean1 and their cages ought to be arranged1 and beds made up every day1 or they will give out a most disagreeable smell4 ,piebald mice are sometimes produced by a union of the common field-mouse with a white mouse3 there are also some expensive varieties1 such as the black mouse1 and the black and white mouse1 which the young gentlemen who have more money than wit may purchase for a few shillings each2 but we say sixpence3 sixpence apiece is enough for any pets of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,,miscellaneous4--,,conjuring1 ,,chess1 ,,etc4 ,,part ,v4 ,miscellaneous3 ,,including ,,bagatelle4 ,,billiards4 ,,boat-,,building4 ,,carpentering4 ,,chess4 ,,conjuring4 ,,cryptography4 ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet4 ,,dominoes4 ,,draughts4 ,,fireworks4 ,,gardening4 ,,mimicry ,,and ,,ventriloquism4 ,,puzzles4 ,,shows4 ,,stamp-,,collecting4 ,,tinselling4 ,,bagatelle4 ,whatever diversity of opinion there may be with respect to the skill required to excel at bagatelle1 there can be none with regard to its popularity4 ,the familiar long green table1 with its round end and nine numbered cups let in level with the cloth1 is found nearly everywhere4 ,the games played on a bagatelle board are various1 the principal of which are1 ,english bagatelle 7which is the ordinary game71 ,french bagatelle1 ,sans ,egal1 ,mississippi1 ,tron ,madame1 the ,cannon game or ,bagatelle versus ,billiards4 ,many of the strokes at billiards will be found useful at bagatelle1 but much less strength will be required4 ,,english ,,bagatelle ,may be played by any number of persons4 ,the order of precedence is settled by each person striking a ball up the board1 and whoever gets the highest number takes the lead and possession of the whole nine balls4 ,he places his ball on the white spot nearest the striking point1 and the black ball 7which counts double7 on the spot nearest the holes4 ,the black ball must be struck at the commencement of every round1 but afterwards the player can either play for the holes direct or by striking the other balls4 ,the mace or cue may be used1 as agreed upon4 ,any number of rounds may be played1 and the score is counted from the marked holes into which the balls are driven4 ,the sides of the table are filled with holes and pegs to mark the progress of the game4 ,,the ,,french ,,game ,differs from the ,english in two or three essential particulars4 ,it is generally played by two or four persons1 who1 instead of playing with the whole nine balls1 take it in turn to strike1 and score all they make until a hole is missed4 ,the player forfeits one point if he misses the black ball1 which counts double1 as in the ,english game4 ,a hundred up is the usual score1 and occasionally different values are given to coloured balls1 so that a black counts double1 a red the same1 or adds two to the score otherwise made4 ,,sans ,,egal ,is a favourite game for two persons4 ,the lead is decided as in the ,english game1 and each player has four balls of different colours4 ,the black ball is placed as in the ,english game1 and the players take alternate strokes4 ,the one that holes the black ball counts it towards his game1 as well as all he may hole of his own2 but should he hole any of his adversary's1 the number is scored to the owner of them4 ,the game is played #ba or #ca up1 and the winner of one round takes the lead in the next4 ,,the ,,cannon ,,game4 ,this is also called 8,billiards v4 ,bagatelle10 and is played by two persons1--#aja up4 ,three balls of different colours are used--black1 red1 and white3 the choice of the two last1 and the lead1 is determined as in the ,english game4 ,the game is commenced by placing the black ball on the spot2 but should the player miss it1 his opponent scores five2 and if the ball is holed at the same time1 the number of the cup is also counted to his opponent1 who then takes the turn4 ,the black ball invariably counts double1 and is taken out of the cup every time it is holed and placed on 8the spot10 as at the commencement4 ,if the player's ball is holed after contact with the black ball1 or after having made a cannon1 it counts the number of the cup1 and is returned to him1 when he continues to play until he misses4 ,a cannon scores two to the game1 but the black ball must be struck first1 or else five is added to the adversary's score4 ,there are a few other points to be observed4 ,the player continues playing after making a cannon1 or after holing his own or adversary's ball1 if he has struck the black ball first4 ,should any ball rebound beyond the centre of the table or be forced off the board1 it must not be played that round1 unless it is the black ball1 which must be placed on 8the spot10 as at the commencement of the game4 ,,mississippi4 ,this is a variation of the game by means of a wooden perforated bridge1 each arch of which bears a particular number4 ,the bridge is placed close up to the circle1 and each player strikes up one ball2 he who gets the highest number takes the lead1 and plays the nine balls successively4 ,the balls must strike one of the cushions previous to entering the bridge1 otherwise the number will be scored to the adversary4 ,the game may be played #cj1 #fj1 or #ajj up1 as may be agreed on4 ,,billiards4 ,of all indoor games1 billiards ranks highest4 ,it is without doubt the king1 and reigns triumphant over chess1 backgammon1 parlour croquet2 and since those delightful miniature billiard tables have been introduced1 it is rapidly superseding bagatelle as a parlour game4 ,these miniature tables possess all the advantages of the larger and more aristocratic tables4 ,the same principles operate1 the practice is similar1 and the laws which govern the play are alike2 need it be a matter of wonder that billiards is fast becoming as popular and universal as it is excellent8 ,when a boy first tries his hand at billiards1 he is generally confounded by the apparently erratic conduct of the balls4 ,they are apt to diverge into the strangest places1 and somehow manage to remain precisely in those spots where a practised player can make a good break from them4 ,this arises first from the want of a knowledge of the laws which regulate moving bodies1 the general principles of billiards1 and an acquaintance with the various 8strokes10 and the effects they produce4 ,thus to become a good billiard-player requires a nicety of touch1 a good eye1 and sound judgment4 ,these are to be acquired if the player attends to the following principles and points of the game4 ,most boys are aware that billiards is played on an oblong table twelve feet long by six feet wide1 inside the cushions3 the smaller tables preserve these general proportions4 ,in ,france1 for instance1 the table is some four feet by eight feet1 and without pockets1 it being used solely for the cannon game2 but ,english tables have invariably six pockets1 one at each corner and two at the sides4 ,no good table is now made without a slate bed1 perfectly level1 and covered with fine green cloth4 ,the old list cushions are now superseded by those made of vulcanized india-rubber1 which not only resists the deteriorating influence of the weather1 but increases the 8speed0 of the table4 ,the surface of the cloth is marked with three 8spots40 ,the first 8spot0 is placed about twelve inches from the upper end or top of the table1 and is known as 8the spot40 ,the second is placed two feet six inches from the top1 and the third is in the centre of the table4 ,two feet six inches from the bottom of the table is the 8baulk line10 on which is inscribed a semicircle1 called the 8striking point10 shown on figs4 #d to #g4 ,the position of the semicircle is also marked by three spots1 one at each end and one at the centre4 ,the moveable adjuncts to the table are cues1 balls1 butt1 and a rest or jigger4 ,with respect to these one or two words of advice4 ,see that your cue is well balanced2 beware of fancy cues2 let the leathered tip be moderately broad1 and keep it always well chalked4 ,the balls are perfect spheres turned out of the centre of the tusk4 ,it may be mentioned that the ordinary length of a cue is four feet nine inches1 and the diameter of 8match balls0 is two inches and a sixteenth4 ,the 8butt0 is a stiff1 thick cue1 well leathered at the butt end1 and is used occasionally for pushing the ball when it is necessary to come off a cushion at an exact angle4 ,the uses of the 8rest0 and long cues are obvious4 ,ere touching on the game itself1 there are a few essential points which claim the attention of a young player4 ,they are these3 #a4 ,the attainment of a good position4 #b4 ,the making of a firm 8bridge40 #c4 ,the acquirement of a good1 easy1 but firm1 stroke4 ,the last two essentials depend in a great measure on the first4 ,it is obvious that the billiard player requires an easy play for his right arm1 and firmness in his left to give solidity to the 8bridge40 ,to ensure this he must stand firmly on his right leg1 so that it supports the weight of his body4 ,the left leg should be placed slightly in advance1 and pressed gently to balance the body only4 ,this will throw additional weight on the left arm1 which rests on the table1 and leave the right arm free4 ,if the position is a good one1 the left leg may be lifted from the floor without disturbing the body4 ,to form the 8bridge10 the left hand must be first extended on the table1 and the fingers drawn up straight towards the wrist1 so as to elevate the knuckles4 ,if well done1 the tips of the fingers1 the wrist1 and ball of the thumb will touch the table4 ,the point of the thumb must be then kept slightly apart from the fingers to form a groove1 in which the cue can rest1 as shown in fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,bridge4 ,the bridge should be formed almost six inches from the ball4 ,to strike well1 surely1 and firmly1 the cue must be held in the grasp of the right hand4 ,this is essential1 for unless the cue is so held it will be impossible to make a good1 and therefore a sure1 stroke4 ,all fancy modes of holding the cue by the tips of the fingers should be avoided4 ,the cue may be laid on the groove of the bridge1 and drawn back1 and then firmly and steadily send it forward in a straight line1 keeping the right hand well down behind you1 so that the force of the blow comes from the shoulder1 not the elbow4 ,the eye must be educated to guide the hand1 and1 hit or miss1 the stroke should be given at once4 ,there should be no hesitation1 no see-sawing of the cue to and fro1 and no violent motions whatever4 ,the body should be so placed as to give firmness to the bridge1 ease to the right arm--which should be kept straight1 with the point of the cue slightly above the surface of the cloth--and a general freedom from constraint1 which is highly essential to success4 ,the best method of practice for a young beginner is to place a ball before his cue and strike it firmly and gently into different pockets1 or at different marked points of the cushion1 until he can pocket the ball and hit a given point with freedom and precision4 ,the ball must be fairly struck with the tip of the cue1 not pushed or jerked forward2 and hence it will be necessary to draw back the point of the cue five or six inches ere striking the ball4 ,the stroke1 though firm1 must not be violent1 lest the natural angles of the table should be destroyed4 ,if the ball is watched carefully after it has struck the cushion1 it will be found to return at an exactly equal angle to the one at which it was struck4 ,in other words1 8the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence40 ,this is the first and most important rule of billiards1 and one that should never be forgotten4 ,the variation of the strength and direction of the stroke will be found to materially affect this law1 and enables the skilled player to make those formidable and seemingly impossible strokes which secure him his victory4 ,this peculiarity of the angles is best illustrated1 and the practice of the student advanced1 by placing another ball at a little distance before the player1 which we will call the object ball4 ,if we place them in a line with one of the marked places on the cushion1 and strike the first ball fair in the centre1 and cause it to strike the object ball full1--if this is done1 it will strike the marked spot1 and come off at the same angle as your first ball would have done4 ,for the purposes of play the object ball is divided thus3-- ,illustration3 #a4 ,full ,ball4 #b4 ,three-quarter ,ball4 #c4 ,half ,ball4 #d4 ,quarter ,ball4 #e4 ,eighth ,ball4 #f4 ,very fine ,ball4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,dividing ,,the ,,object ,,ball4 ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #a1 shows the object ball struck full1 fig4 #b1 ,no4 #b1 the three-quarter ball1 and so on4 ,the half ball is the most important in practice1 as by it the natural angle is made1 an angle that is of the greatest importance at billiards1 though each have their particular uses1 which the young player should endeavour to understand4 ,he will find that the balls diverge at different angles1 more or less acute1 according as the object ball is struck 8full0 or 8fine20 the fine ball being precisely the reverse of the three-quarter ball4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,the ,,player',s ,,ball ,,divided ,,for ,,the ,,side-,,stroke4 ,there are many ordinary hazards and cannons which can be made by simply dividing the object ball1 but the motion which the striking ball obtains after contact with the object ball will be modified by the position of the cue and the manner in which it is struck4 ,first let us take the position of the cue4 ,for the full centre stroke or straight hazard the ball must be struck well in the centre1 and produce what is termed the retard1 or stop ball1 if the object ball is struck full likewise4 ,if the striker's ball is struck considerably above its centre1 it produces the following stroke4 ,to make the ball jump1 it must be struck sharply on the top with a 8downward1 forward motion10 and this1 if carefully done1 will cause the ball to jump over a neighbouring and intervening ball4 ,when the ball is struck low1 it produces the recoil1 and the striker's ball will return from the object ball to the player4 ,this leads the beginner to the greatest of all modern improvements in the game1 the side-stroke4 ,it is found that it is much easier to divide the striker's ball with accuracy than the object ball1 but when both balls are divided with judgment the highest scientific play is obtained4 ,the application of side and twist to the striker's ball is often misapplied by beginners1 and is frequently the cause of mischievous results2 for all students should remember that 8the harder you strike the balls the more rapidly they fly apart20 and frequently a modification of the strength of the stroke will achieve the desired result better than the application of 8side10 which may fail4 ,it should always be remembered that the ball must be struck on the side on which it is intended to go after contact with the object ball1 and that the effect is not produced until after it has come in contact with another ball or the cushion4 ,it is used for the same purpose as the division of the object ball1 and accomplishes the same object4 ,in order that it may be properly understood we give in fig4 #c the player's ball divided for the side-stroke4 ,the student can only acquire a knowledge of the effect of the strokes given at these varied points by practice1 or from the instruction of an expert teacher2 all that a writer can do is to lay down well-defined and easily-understood axioms1 rules1 and cautions4 ,thus1 if the ball is struck at c c1 at the top1 it becomes the following ball2 at the bottom c c1 a recoil2 at f f it will give a strong side to the ball at the lower angles1 the screw or twist1 which causes the balls to twist back2 the upper angles will give high right-hand side or left-hand side1 according to the side they are struck4 ,,the ,,angles ,,of ,,the ,,table ,should never be forgotten4 ,they change infinitely1 and if the student has made good use of the hints given as to the elementary practice with one ball1 he will have acquired some valuable information1 and soon see the truth of the axiom1 that the 8angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence20 and the advantage of a knowledge of the angles of the table will be best seen in making cannons1 for many players will make them off one1 two1 three1 and even four cushions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,angles ,,of ,,the ,,table4 ,fig4 #d shows a series of very useful angles1 which may be advantageously studied4 ,the black lines represent the course of the ball before reverberation1 the dotted lines its course after the first reflexion1 and the faint lines its course after the second reflexion4 ,in these examples the ball is supposed to be struck fairly in the centre with moderate force1 except in case #a1 where the effects of different strengths is shown4 ,an ordinary1 moderate stroke would bring the ball into the left-hand corner pocket1 while a harder stroke would produce the angles a b3 if played with greater strength the angles c d will result4 8,bricole0 angles are made across the table1 and are of course proportionately more acute4 ,the ,bricole game is being obliged to strike a cushion1 and make the ball reverberate or recoil from it previous to hitting the adversary's ball4 ,this is a very great disadvantage1 and is used principally in 8cramp games10 where the advantage of one player is neutralized by this2 or by playing cannons against cannons and hazards1 or four pockets to two1 or five to one1 or cannons and winning hazards against the whole game4 ,all strokes at billiards are distinguished by the name of cannons or hazards4 ,cannon is a contraction of carambole1 and is a stroke in which the player strikes both balls in succession with his own4 ,the 8losing hazard0 is when the player's own ball is forced into either of the six pockets1 after contact with the other ball4 ,the 8winning hazard0 is made by forcing the ball played upon into either pocket after contact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,cannons4 ,here are a few examples of cannons made from the cushion1 without the use of the side-stroke4 ,they only indicate the infinite variety that can be made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,winning ,,hazards4 ,some rather difficult1 but useful1 winning hazards are shown in fig4 #f4 ,the stroke ,a is termed the 8spot stroke40 ,this stroke is sometimes made a score or more times in succession by a good player4 ,it is one of the best of winning hazards4 ,it requires a nearly full ball of moderate strength1 and to repeat it from one side to the other you should slightly divide your own ball by putting on a little side 7see ,d e in fig4 #c72 and you will find your ball in the right position to repeat the stroke4 ,sometimes it may be made by a slow hoist1 which causes the ball to come back to the starting-point2 or the ball may be stopped a little behind the object ball1 and thus make a succession of hazards from the same pocket4 ,the champion billiard-player1 ,roberts1 makes tremendous breaks from the 8spot stroke40 ,get a good player to show the variety of ways in which it can be made1 and practise it4 ,here are a few examples of the effect of dividing the object ball4 ,strokes #a to #ad are made from the baulk into the top end pockets by dividing the object ball from a nearly full ball1 as in #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 to an eighth in #a and #i4 ,stroke #e represents a half ball vulgarly called a pair of breeches4 ,stroke #aa should be made to hug the cushion4 ,strokes #ae and #af must be played gently with a half ball1 and #ag with a quarter ball4 ,strokes #ah to #cc show a variety of cuts made by striking the ball in the direction shown by the line between the white ball and the red4 ,now for a few losing hazards4 ,they require a little different treatment4 ,here are a few4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,losing ,,hazards4 ,the first eight strokes require a screw1 and more or less side1 according to their position2 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab require strong side1 as shown2 and in #ac the striker's ball must first strike the cushion gently1 rebound1 hit the other ball1 and fall into the corner pocket4 ,stroke #ad is an ugly position for a beginner1 yet it frequently occurs4 ,you must put on plenty of side to your own ball1 which will remove the object ball1 and your ball will then roll along the cushion into the pocket4 ,stroke #bb alone requires a word in explanation4 ,it shows now the losing hazard is made from baulk off the red on the spot4 ,put on a strong-side twist1 and practise it well4 ,remember that practice can alone make perfect4 ,be always decided1 play steadily1 and do not lose your temper4 ,now for a few hints with respect to the games to be played4 ,with every billiard table a set of rules is supplied1 and these must be studied and obeyed1 as regulating the game2 but an endless variety of games may be extemporised to suit the various parties and skill of the professors4 ,,the ,,american ,,game ,is played with four balls1 a light red1 or pink1 and dark red4 ,the balls are placed on the spots in the centre between the pockets4 ,the baulk is not confined to the semicircle1 but you can place your ball anywhere within the line which is extended level with the winning-hazard spot4 ,the game is usually played #fc up1 and consists of winning hazards and cannons4 ,in this game 8doubles0 are of great advantage4 ,doubles are so called when a player strikes his own or an object ball at a certain angle of the cushion1 so as to cause it to come off at an equal angle and go into a pocket at the opposite side of the table4 ,it is called a 8double double0 if the ball returns and goes into a pocket on the side of the table it first struck2 and there is a game in which no score is made unless the cushion is first struck with the ball4 ,,pyramids1 ,,or ,,pyramid ,,pool1 ,is played with fifteen red and one white ball4 ,the red balls are arranged in a triangle1 thus3-- o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ,the first ball is placed on the winning-hazard spot4 ,the white ball is placed in baulk4 ,the game is placed by holing all the red balls4 ,a great deal will depend in this on keeping the white ball safe1 so that your adversary may have to play a cramp stroke4 ,it is a pretty game to play with friends4 ,pyramids can be so modified as to suit a number of players1 each striking in succession1 and scoring according to the number of balls pocketed4 ,a small stake is placed on each ball to give an interest in the game4 ,when played in this manner1 the winner who scores the greatest number takes the stakes4 8,,winning ,,and ,,losing ,,carambole ,,game0 ,is played by either two or four persons4 ,winning and losing hazards1 cannons1 and forfeits1 go to make the score1 which is usually #ej4 ,if four players make a match1 and play side against side1 they play #fc up1 and the partners may instruct each other4 ,this plan is open to objection1 and a far better one is for each to play his own game1 and handicap the inferior players by giving them ten or fifteen points at the commencement4 ,in this case1 if either party gives a miss1 it is far better that he should lose one point than the others should take one each4 ,the white and spot white balls are then played alternately1 as if only two were playing4 ,the game commences by stringing for the lead and the choice of balls4 ,the player must place his ball within the striking ring1 and stand within the limits of the corner of the table4 ,he whose ball rests nearest to the cushion at the baulk end of the table wins the lead1 and chooses his own ball4 ,a few general hints respecting the rules only is necessary4 ,the red ball is placed on the lower of the two spots at the bottom of the table1 and replaced there when it is holed 7i4 e4 pocketed7 or forced over the edge of the table1 or when the balls are broken or1 in other words1 placed as at the commencement of a game4 ,whoever breaks the balls leads off4 ,with respect to scoring3 if the striker holes the white ball 7called a white winning hazard71 or if he holes his own ball from the white ball 7called a white losing hazard71 he gains two points2 if he does both1 he gains four points4 ,if he holes the red ball1 he wins three2 and if by the same stroke he holes his own from the red1 he wins three more4 ,,pool4 ,there are several ways of playing pool4 ,there is the ordinary game1 with as many balls as there are players1 or with two balls only1 the players playing in turns1 and playing with alternate balls2 playing with the nearest ball2 playing at the last player2 or the player playing at whichever ball he chooses4 ,the most popular game is that in which the player plays at the last player4 ,when coloured balls are used1 they are played as the colours are placed on the marking board4 ,each player has three lives at starting4 ,but there is this drawback to pool3 if the player happens to lose all his lives in rapid succession1 he is condemned to inglorious idleness until the pool is played out1 and then the same thing may happen4 ,this may be obviated by allowing the lives to be unlimited1 and paying nothing into the general pool1 so that if a player's ball be pocketed1 he has only to pay his stake and remain on hand until his turn comes round again4 ,in this manner the players may continue their game for an unlimited period1 and a new-comer may join the game at any time4 ,there is a cannon game which affords excellent practice4 ,all the pool or pyramid balls are ranged in a line against the top and bottom cushion1 having the plain white ball in the middle4 ,a cue is then laid flat against them1 and they are pushed along the table1 so as to strike the opposite cushion4 ,the object of the player is to take the white ball and make as many consecutive cannons as possible4 ,should his own ball run into a pocket1 he is obliged to stop and let the next player in2 and if any of the coloured balls run into a pocket1 it must stay there1 and of course decrease the chances of a long series of cannons4 ,this is much more difficult than it looks4 ,there is a cannon game with one red and the two white balls4 ,in this pocketing either of the white balls causes two to be deducted from the score1 and pocketing the red ball loses three4 ,the regular ,french game consists of cannons only2 misses and pockets do not count either way4 ,it is usually played on a ,french table1 without pockets1 with two and a half inch balls1 and a heavy one4 ,the baulk is not confined to the semicircle4 ,at the commencement the red is placed on the winning spot1 and the non-striker's ball on the centre spot in baulk4 ,,italian ,,skittle ,,pool ,is an excellent game for boys4 ,it is played thirty-one points up4 ,four balls are used1 two being white1 one red1 and one blue2 and five skittles are placed in the centre of the table4 ,each of the skittles is numbered in the following order3--,the first opposite the baulk is numbered #a2 the one to the right #b2 the one opposite to the first #c2 the opposite to the second1 on the left1 #d2 and the one in the centre #e4 ,the red ball is placed as in the cannon game1 the blue one beneath it4 ,the two white balls are kept by the two players who have to play first4 ,there is a peculiarity in this game1 from the fact that a number1 from one to sixteen1 is chosen by the player at random1 and the marker secretly adds it to the score1 and in order to win the pool the player must make between the points of the game and those on the hidden ball thirty-one points1 neither more nor less3 if he makes more he is technically dead1 and out of the game4 ,the first player has to strike the red ball1 the second the blue one1 while the following players may use either4 ,the points are made by knocking down the skittles1 each of which counts as many points as its number1 and by whatever ball these skittles are knocked down they always count4 ,if a ball is knocked out of the table1 it destroys all the points made by the stroke4 ,any player reaching twenty-nine or thirty points has a right to stop on his declaring so1 only the points he makes in his subsequent play count to the advantage or disadvantage1 whichever it may be1 of the previous player4 ,the survivor from amongst all the players who have died by overstepping the thirty-one points wins the pool4 ,he who knocks down the four outside skittles1 leaving the centre one only standing1 makes what is called the royal1 and wins the pool4 ,there are some minute rules about stopping1 which must be declared immediately on reaching twenty-nine or thirty points1 and only one person can stop4 ,the advantage of stopping is the chance of being the survivor4 ,on a wet day1 in a country house1 the best round game is ,penny ,pot1 played like pool1 and for every ball pocketed the player receives a small stake1 and plays until he ceases to score4 ,after making a winning hazard1 the nearest ball is played on4 ,a life is forfeited for every miss1 coup 7i4 e4 playing a ball into a pocket without its touching another ball71 or losing hazard1 and paid to the owner of the ball played on4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,building ,this truly ,english amusement cannot be too highly extolled1 as it is calculated to incite boys to emulate each other in acquiring proficiency in an art which exercises their ingenuity and taste1 while it inculcates habits of patient industry4 ,a good sailing ship is rather a troublesome thing to construct2 but when a lad sees it 8walk the waters like a thing of life0 he experiences feelings which fully repay him for all his labour4 ,every boy ought to learn to swim1 if only to prevent anxious parents including boat-sailing with dangerous pastimes that ought not to be encouraged4 ,we are always pleased to see boys sailing their miniature vessels1 and we cannot think that an occasional ducking ought to interfere with an occupation so befitting to the youth of a great maritime nation4 ,as long as ,french boys amuse themselves with playing at soldiers1 we trust ,english boys will continue to build and sail their model ships4 ,illustration ,if you wish to possess a good ship1 you must make it yourself1 as the smartly-painted vessels of the toy-shops are usually made to sell1 and not to sail4 ,to form the hull you will require a few carpenter's tools1 such as a couple of chisels1 a gouge1 and a saw1 in addition to that invaluable instrument1 a good pocket-knife4 ,having procured a suitable piece of good white deal1 with a straight grain1 mark a line down the middle1 on the upper and lower sides1 and at both ends2 then mark out with pencil the shape of the intended vessel1 which should be broad in proportion to length1 and deep in proportion to the width4 ,most boys shape their vessels before scooping them out1 but it is far better to reverse the process1 and hollow out the wood before commencing the outside4 ,the deck is to be made of a thin piece of deal1 and must be fitted very accurately1 so that no water may enter the hold4 ,a flush deck1 without a raised edge or gunwale1 is to be preferred1 as such a deck does not hold the water4 ,the mast should be made of strong1 light wood2 should be tapering1 and rather long4 ,the less rigging there is the better2 two shrouds and a few stays will be enough4 ,the best models for miniature ships are those vessels that are rigged 8fore and aft10 such as cutters and schooners2 square-rigged ships are unmanageable unless made very large4 ,illustration3 ,,cutter4 ,our first illustration shows a model cutter1 with her sails set4 ,the principal sail is termed the mainsail1 the one above it the gaff topsail1 and the triangular sail attached to the bowsprit the foresail or jib4 ,the blocks used in rigging a model ship are to be made of boxwood or alder4 ,the latter is a softer wood than the former1 and can be more readily fashioned into shape with a penknife4 ,the holes for the cords should be bored through the pieces of wood before they are shaped into blocks1 as it is not easy to drill the blocks without splitting them4 ,the rudder should be attached to the keel by bent pins4 ,the little staples on the keel1 in which the bent pins work1 are to be formed of brass wire4 ,the stem of the rudder passes through a hole in the stern of the vessel1 and is provided with a tiller4 ,before launching the ship1 the tiller must be fixed so as to keep the rudder at the required angle4 ,many boys fear to launch their ships in large ponds2 but if a ship is properly rigged1 and answers to her rudder1 there need be no doubt as to her safe arrival at port4 ,illustration3 ,,smack4 ,the smack is not so graceful as the cutter1 but is a capital sailer4 ,the large sail is called a spritsail1 from the spar or sprit which crosses it diagonally from the mast to the upper aftmost corner4 ,illustration3 ,,schooner4 ,a schooner is a vessel with two masts1 and fore-and-aft sails like those of a cutter4 ,the schooner-rig is not suited to very small boats4 ,illustration3 ,,lugger4 ,the lugger is shown in the annexed engraving4 ,the lug-sail which distinguishes this rig is a square sail fastened to a yard that hangs obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length4 ,a lug-sail may be fitted to a single-masted boat4 ,the lugger is an excellent boat for sailing1 but it lacks the trim appearance of the cutter4 ,cutters or schooners intended for fast sailing should have but one foresail1 as a large balloon-jib rigged with a boom holds more wind than an ordinary jib and staysail4 ,the ships should be well ballasted to prevent the wind capsizing them1 and their topmasts should be made moveable1 as in rough weather it will be found necessary to 8strike0 them4 ,each boat may have two sets of sails--one set large1 for light winds1 and the other considerably smaller1 to be set up when the wind is high4 ,the sails should be made of very light stuff--thin calico is best--and should have a line run round them1 with loops for hooking them on to the spars4 ,beware of putting too many blocks and useless ropes about your boats1 as the lighter the upper part of a vessel is the better she will sail4 ,in conclusion1 spare no pains in finishing your work neatly1 so that your boats may bear witness to your skill and patience4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,raw ,,material4 ,illustration ,,carpentering4 8,all made out of my own head4 ,and wood enough left for another40 ,nothing is more useful to a youth than to be able to do a little carpentering4 ,to be handy with a chisel and saw1 a nail and a hammer1 saves many a pound in the course of the year4 ,if you call in a carpenter for a little work he is sure to spin out a 8regular job40 ,i remember once buying some oak saplings1 which cost me eightpence a stick2 and wanting to build a summer-house1 ,i required eight of them to be sawn through1 so ,i applied to a carpenter1 and the sticks were cut1 but to my astonishment1 sixteen shillings was charged for this little 8job10 although the wood cost me only five shillings and fourpence4 ,i found out afterwards that the proper price for sawing would have amounted to about four shillings1 so that twelve shillings profit was clapped on for the benefit of my experience4 ,i just mention this to show my young friends1 that if they wish to make summer-houses for their gardens1 cages for their birds1 fowl-houses1 rabbit-hutches1 or boxes for their books1 they must learn to make them for themselves4 ,i shall therefore offer them a little advice upon 8carpentering40 ,,the ,,shop ,,and ,,bench4 ,endeavour to procure some small outhouse1 in which you may erect what is called a carpenter's or joiner's bench4 ,these may very often be bought second-hand1 or if not1 can easily be procured at a reasonable rate4 ,i am very particular in recommending a bench1 as without it you will find many obstacles to your work4 ,you must also provide yourself with a set of tools1--gimlets1 hammers1 planes1 saws1 gouges1 files1 nails1 screws1 and such articles of use4 ,illustration ,the bench is composed of a platform or top1 supported by four stout legs2 ,a is what is called the bench hook2 this ought to be fitted in tight1 so as to move up and down with a hammer only4 ,the use of it is to keep any wood steady you may have to plane3 ,b is the bench screw1 used for keeping any wood firm and steady you may have to saw1 which is to be put in the grip and screwed tight4 ,sometimes the edges of wood require to be planed1 and then the wood is put in the grip or cheeks of the bench and held tight while you plane it4 ,the holes in the side of the bench1 ,c ,c1 are for the insertion of a movable pin to support the end of the board you have to plane or saw1 which is not in the screw4 ,the height of your bench should be about #b feet #h inches4 ,the common length is from #aj to #ab feet1 and the breadth about #c feet #f inches4 ,,of ,,planes4 ,illustration ,c is what is called the jack plane1 which is the first to be used4 ,it is about #ag inches in length1 and is used to take the rough parts from a piece of wood4 ,it should be held steadily by fixing the right hand at the handle 7h71 and the left over the top and side at 7s71 and pushed forward on the wood1 when the knife 7k7 will take off a shaving which runs through the hole 7o71 and falls on the side4 ,in using the plane the endeavour should be to take off a clean shaving1 which is done by using the instrument uniformly and steadily over every surface to be planed4 ,illustration ,d is another kind of plane1 called the trying plane1 having a double top or handle4 ,it is used to regulate and smooth1 to a higher degree1 the surface of the wood that had previously been smoothed from the rough by the jack plane4 ,its length is about #bb inches1 and it is broader than the jack plane4 ,there is another plane called the long plane1 which is used for facing a piece of stuff1 which it does with the greatest exactness2 its length is about #b feet #d inches4 ,there is also the joiner's plane1 which is the longest of all the planes1 being #cj inches long4 ,but the most handy of the planes to the boy carpenter is the smoothing plane1 ,e4 ,it is the last plane used in joining1 and gives the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of a piece of finished work2 it is about #g inches in length1 the sides of the stock are curved1 and resemble in figure a coffin2 it is used in a similar way to the other4 ,illustration ,,saws4 ,illustration ,there are many kinds of saws1 but the most useful one is what is called the 8hand saw40 ,it has a blade or plate about #bh inches long2 the teeth of which are so formed as to allow you to cut the wood crossways as well as lengthways4 ,the handle of the saw is made so as to allow a full yet free grasp of the hand1 either for a pull or a thrust4 ,the panel saw4 ,this saw has a plate nearly of the same size as a hand saw1 and is used for cutting very thin boards1 which the rough teeth of the hand saw would not cut through without breaking them4 ,illustration ,the tenon saw is of a different shape to the others1 and is made to cut across the grain of the wood so as to leave the ends nicely even1 that it may fit to the piece it is joined to1 which is called a shoulder1 being that part which comes in contact with the fibre of the wood thus3 ,illustration ,to do this it requires that the teeth should be much smaller1 and they are therefore placed so close as eight or ten to the inch1 according to the length of the blade4 ,illustration ,the dovetail saw4 ,there is another most useful saw it would be of advantage for the young carpenter to have1 namely1 the dovetail saw4 ,it is about #i inches long1 and contains at least fifteen teeth in the inch4 ,it is used for cutting the dovetails of boxes4 ,its plate is very thin1 and it requires some care in using4 ,it has a back for the purpose of strength1 formed of a thin piece of brass or iron1 let in so as to give the blade the requisite firmness necessary in using it4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the compass saw4 ,the plate of this kind of saw is very narrow1 and not more than one inch wide at the broadest part1 gradually diminishing to about a quarter of an inch at the lower end4 ,it is about #ae inches in length1 and is used for cutting a piece of wood into a circular form1 and the plate being narrow allows it to follow the foot of the compass to a very small diameter4 ,the keyhole saw4 ,the keyhole saw is much smaller than the above4 ,it is used for cutting short curves1 small holes1 c41 such as a keyhole4 ,the handle is the same form as that of the chisel1 a small slit being cut through from end to end4 ,it has a screw on one side1 in order that the blade may be set to any length1 according to the circumference of the hole to be cut4 ,illustration ,,the ,,spoke ,,shave4 ,illustration ,this is a very useful tool4 ,it is employed for smoothing the edges of round pieces1 or other ends requiring to be shaved down4 ,it is a narrow plane made of boxwood1 and has generally a steel blade let into it to cut2 it is used by taking hold of each end with a hand1 and moving it to and fro over the wood to be shaved down4 ,,stock ,,and ,,bits4 ,illustration ,there are about thirty-six bits to a set1 all of different shapes and sizes2 but our young friends need not get quite so many3 if they provide themselves with a couple of a medium size1 this will be sufficient1 such as the centre bit and the auger bit4 ,the centre bit will cut holes varying from a quarter of an inch to three quarters of an inch in diameter1 and is used by pressing the knob end against the chest1 and twirling the centre part round with the hand4 ,it cuts a hole very clean1 leaving it quite smooth inside4 ,the auger bit is for the same purpose1 and is used in the same manner4 ,another bit1 called the taper shell bit1 is used for making holes wider1 and is a very useful implement4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,wheelbarrow4 ,illustration ,one of the handiest things in a garden is a wheelbarrow1 and one of the prettiest for the young carpenter to exercise his ingenuity upon4 ,to make one1 take a wide plank or board about an inch and a quarter thick4 ,proceed to your bench1 and having fitted it to its proper position1 take your jack plane and plane off the rough1 next use your smoothing plane to make it smooth4 ,then take your pencil and draw upon its side the following figure1 ,a4 ,then take your compass saw and cut round the marks you have made3 to do this you will have to fix your board in the screw of your bench4 ,when this is done take your spoke shave1 and shave the edges all round till they are very smooth and even1 and you have one side of your barrow4 ,lay this on another piece of board1 and mark the shape of it with your pencil2 cut and shave it exactly as you did the first side1 so that when finished the two will exactly correspond2 then cut a piece off another board for the back and front of the barrow1 of the subjoined shape1 by the same method you cut the sides1 and plane and finish them up in a similar way4 ,cut some tenons at the end of each exactly to correspond with the mortices shown on the sides1 ,d ,d2 let them be a trifle larger than the mortices1 so that they will drive in tight4 ,then cut the bottom out neatly1 and nail it to the sides4 ,having proceeded thus far1 cut out the legs of your barrow1 ,b1 and nail one on each side as shown in the figure4 ,give each leg a shoulder for the sides to rest upon4 ,illustration ,to make the wheel4 ,take a piece of board1 ,a1 and strike a circle upon it the size you wish your wheel to be of1 ,b1 and with the compass saw cut close round to the stroke2 cut out a square hole1 ,c1 in the centre for the nave to join4 ,then get the blacksmith to put an iron rim round the wheel to keep it from splitting1 and a round pin in each side of the nave1 and put a staple in each side of the barrow to keep the wheel in its place4 ,paint the whole of any colour you choose1 and you will have ,,punch',s ,,coach4 ,illustration ,,the ,,way ,,to ,,make ,a ,,box4 ,first ascertain the size you wish your box to be of4 ,then cut off your stuff1 but take care to cut it a quarter of an inch longer than the size of your box from outside to outside4 ,should you want it deeper or broader than the length of a deal1 the widest of which is generally only eleven inches2 suppose1 for instance1 you wish your box to be #ah inches deep1 and you have only #i-;inch deal to make it with1 you will of course have to join two together1 or make what is called in carpentering a glue joint4 ,first1 then1 after you have cut off your stuff1 take your jack plane and 8scuffle the rough off20 then put your board edgeways into the bench-screw1 and take your trying plane or long plane to get the edge of the deals that are to be glued together perfectly straight and even2 and lastly1 use the joiner plane1 which will take off a nice uniform shaving of the whole length of the board4 ,proceed exactly in the same manner with the other board to be joined to the first4 ,then1 after having made each thoroughly smooth1 clap the two together and see if they will lie close in every part1 if not1 you must plane them till they do1 taking care to plane the edges perfectly square1 or at right angles to the surface of the board1 for if you are not careful in this particular1 when your boards are glued together they will be of this form4 ,when you have joined them properly for glueing1 let your glue be nicely hot and not too thick1 and hold both edges of the boards together so that you can with a brush put the glue on both at one time1 put the two together very quickly1 let one of them be in the bench-screw1 and while there rub the other backwards and forwards till the glue sets1 which it will soon do if well joined4 ,let the whole dry1 and then the glued part will be as strong as any other part of the board4 ,illustration ,after your sides1 ends1 bottom1 and top are thus prepared1 you must then plane them up nicely1 so that they are perfectly smooth and straight4 ,use first the jack plane1 then the trying plane4 ,when this is done you have to proceed to a nice little job1 namely1 to dovetail the corners together1 so as to form your box4 ,in this process much depends upon the planing and squaring of the stuff1 for if you have not done this nicely the dovetailing will be very imperfectly performed4 ,assuming that everything has been well done1 then take the two ends of the box1 and see that each is perfectly square and true to the other4 ,then allow one-eighth of an inch more than the thickness of your sides1 and set out the ends1 squaring it over on both sides1 which when the dovetails are cut out will form the inside of the box4 ,,to ,,cut ,,the ,,dovetails4 ,take one 8end-piece0 of the box and place it endways into the bench-screw1 and mark out the dovetails on the edge of the board inside1 thus3 ,illustration then with your dovetail saw cut in into the marks down to the lines squared over on the flat side like this-- ,illustration ,then with a chisel cut out that part of the wood that is crossed1 and leave the other part1 this being the part which will form the pins or tails4 ,then take one side of your box and lay it flat on the bench1 the inside uppermost2 then place the end you have cut on it1 keeping the edges flush1 and mark round the shape of the pins1 which will leave them after this form-- ,illustration the black places being the mortices which are to be cut out4 ,in cutting out these you must be careful to cut within side of the stroke1 so that the mortices will be a little smaller than the pins1 which will admit of their being driven in quite tight1 and will allow the glue to adhere to them 7for you have to glue these when you fix them74 ,when you have thus put the ends and sides together let them stand till the glue gets dry1 then take your planes and plane the quarter of an inch off the pins which you allowed to be a little longer than the length of the box1 and you have then made the body of your box4 ,,the ,,bottom ,,of ,,the ,,box4 ,illustration ,cut your bottom the exact size of the box1 nail the bottom on1 and 8get out0 a piece of wood 7by cutting and planing in the usual manner7 to nail round so as to form a skirting to it1 and at the same time hide the joints of the bottom2 8get out0 a similar piece of wood to nail round the top which will form the lid4 ,then get a pair of box joints and a lock1 and having put them on by a stroke of your own ingenuity you will have a 8box40 ,illustration ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,chess4 ,it is the principal aim of this little treatise to assist the young player in his examination of the theory of the openings in the game of chess--a branch of study that to the beginner generally appears to be of a most dull and uninviting character1 but which1 nevertheless1 is of the highest importance to all those who are ambitious of attaining to any degree of proficiency in the game4 ,before proceeding further1 we would presume that the young player possesses at least an elementary knowledge of the game1 such as the moves and value of the various pieces1 the laws of checking1 c4 ,should he not be thus fortunate1 we would strongly advise him to have recourse to the assistance of some chess-friend for an explanation of the elementary principles2 for1 thanks to the almost daily increasing knowledge of the game1 there are few localities so remote that cannot produce a brother of the free-masonry of chess4 ,though1 in compliance with the time-honoured custom of all writers on chess1 we subjoin a brief description of the various pieces and their moves1 yet it is our firm conviction that no beginner has ever succeeded in mastering by the assistance of 8the books0 alone1 the mere elementary principles of the game4 ,in the following pages we have endeavoured to give a brief synopsis of the most important of the openings1 collected from the most approved authorities1 and at the same time to present to the tyro as it were a passing glimpse of the chief modern discoveries4 ,if we have occasionally strayed from the beaten path1 or insensibly diverged into any of the as yet unexplored regions of chess1 we would fain crave the reader's kind indulgence for any of those errors which almost invariably find their way into variations that have not undergone the 8lim labor10 or the test of actual play4 ,finally1 should we have had the good fortune by the following pages to assist a single beginner in mastering any of the elementary difficulties which beset the rough road that only leads to proficiency in chess--should there1 through our means1 have been added but a single recruit to the ranks of ,caissa1 well will our labour have been repaid6 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,game4 ,i4--,the chess-board must be so placed that each player has a white corner square nearest his right-hand4 ,if the board have been improperly placed1 it must be adjusted1 provided four moves on each side have not been played1 but not afterwards4 ,,ii4--,if a ,piece or ,pawn be misplaced at the beginning of the game1 either player may insist upon the mistake being rectified1 if he discover it before playing his fourth move1 but not afterwards4 ,,iii4--,should a player1 at the commencement of the game1 omit to place all his men on the board1 he may correct the omission before playing his fourth move1 but not afterwards4 ,,iv4--,if a player1 undertaking to give the odds of a ,piece or ,pawn1 neglect to remove it from the board1 his adversary1 after four moves have been played on each side1 has the choice of proceeding with or recommencing the game4 ,v4--,when no odds are given1 the players must take the first move of each game alternately1 drawing lots to determine who shall begin the first game4 ,if a game be drawn1 the player who began it has the first move of the following one4 ,,vi4--,the player who gives the odds has the right of moving first in each game1 unless otherwise agreed4 ,whenever a ,pawn is given1 it is understood to be always the ,king's ,bishop's ,pawn4 ,,vii4--,a ,piece or ,pawn touched must be played1 unless at the moment of touching it the player say 8,j'adoube0 or words to that effect2 but if a ,piece or ,pawn be displaced or overturned by accident1 it may be restored to its place4 ,,viii4--,while a player holds the ,piece or ,pawn he has touched1 he may play it to any other than the square he took it from2 but1 having quitted it1 he cannot recall the move4 ,,ix4--,should a player take one of his adversary's ,pieces or ,pawns1 without saying 8,j'adoube0 or words to that effect1 his adversary may compel him to take it2 but if it cannot be legally taken1 he may oblige him to move the ,king2 should his ,king1 however1 be so posted that he cannot be legally moved1 no penalty can be inflicted4 ,x4--,should a player move one of his adversary's men1 his antagonist has the option of compelling him--#ast1 to replace the ,piece or ,pawn and move his ,king2 #b;d1 to replace the ,piece or ,pawn and take it2 #c;d1 to let the ,piece or ,pawn remain on the square to which it had been played1 as if the move were correct4 ,,xi4--,if a player take one of his adversary's men with one of his own that cannot take it without making a false move1 his antagonist has the option of compelling him to take it with a ,piece or ,pawn that can legally take it1 or to move his own ,piece or ,pawn which he touched4 ,,xii4--,should a player take one of his own men with another1 his adversary has the option of obliging him to move either4 ,,xiii4--,if a player make a false move1 i4 e4 play a ,piece or ,pawn to any square to which it cannot legally be moved1 his adversary has the choice of three penalties2 viz41 #ast1 of compelling him to let the ,piece or ,pawn remain on the square to which he played it2 #b;d1 to move correctly to another square2 #c;d1 to replace the ,piece or ,pawn and move his ,king4 ,,xiv4--,should a player move out of his turn1 his adversary may choose whether both moves shall remain1 or the second be retracted4 ,,xv4--,when a ,pawn is first moved in a game1 it may be played one or two squares2 but in the latter case the opponent has the privilege of taking it en passant with any ,pawn which could have taken it had it been played one square only4 ,a ,pawn cannot be taken en passant by a ,piece4 ,,xvi4--,a player cannot castle in the following cases3-- #a4 ,if the ,king or ,rook have been moved4 #b4 ,if the ,king be in check4 #c4 ,if there be any ,piece between the ,king and ,rook4 #d4 ,if the ,king pass over any square attacked by one of the adversary's ,pieces or ,pawns4 ,should a player castle in any of the above cases1 his adversary has the choice of three penalties2 viz41 #ast1 of insisting that the move remain2 #b;d1 of compelling him to move the ,king2 #c;d1 of compelling him to move the ,rook4 ,,xvii4--,if a player touch a ,piece or ,pawn that cannot be moved without leaving the ,king in check1 he must replace the ,piece or ,pawn and move his ,king2 but if the ,king cannot be moved1 no penalty can be inflicted4 ,,xviii4--,if a player attack the adverse ,king without saying 8,check10 his adversary is not obliged to attend to it2 but if the former1 in playing his next move1 were to say 8,check10 each player must retract his last move1 and he that is under check must obviate it4 ,,xix4--,if the ,king has been in check for several moves1 and it cannot be ascertained how it occurred1 the player whose ,king is in check must retract his last move and free his ,king from the check2 but if the moves made subsequent to the check be known1 they must be retracted4 ,,xx4--,should a player say 8,check10 without giving it1 and his adversary1 in consequence1 move his ,king1 or touch a ,piece or ,pawn to interpose1 he may retract such move1 provided his adversary have not completed his last move4 ,,xxi4--,every ,pawn which has reached the eighth or last square of the chess-board1 must be immediately exchanged for a ,queen or any other ,piece the player may think fit1 even though all the ,pieces remain on the board4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that he may have two or more ,queens1 three or more ,rooks1 ,bishops1 or ,knights4 ,,xxii4--,if a play remain1 at the end of the game1 with a ,rook and ,bishop against a ,rook2 with both ,bishops only2 with ,knight and ,bishop only1 c41 he must checkmate his adversary in fifty moves on each side at most1 or the game will be considered as drawn2 the fifty moves commence from the time the adversary gives notice that he will count them4 ,the law holds good for all other checkmates of ,pieces only1 such as ,queen1 or ,rook only1 ,queen against a ,rook1 c4 c4 ,,xxiii4--,if a player agree to checkmate with a particular ,piece or ,pawn1 or on a particular square1 or engage to force his adversary to stalemate or checkmate him1 he is not restricted to any number of moves4 ,,xxiv4--,a stalemate is a drawn game4 ,,xxv4--,if a player make a false move1 castle improperly1 c4 c41 the adversary must take notice of such irregularity before he touches a ,piece or ,pawn1 or he will not be allowed to inflict any penalty4 ,,xxvi4--,should any question arise1 respecting which there is no law1 or in case of a dispute respecting any law1 the players must refer the point to the most skilful disinterested bystanders1 and their decision must be considered as conclusive4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,knight',s ,,opening4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,black has now only three satisfactory methods of defence2 viz41 #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d2 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d2 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,he may1 however1 adopt five other modes of play2 viz41 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d2 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d2 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d2 ,p4 to ,q's #dth2 and ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 ,of these the first three are utterly untenable1 and the last two are highly dangerous4 ,should he play #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d1 you reply with #c4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p41 checking with ,q4 at ,k4 ,r's #eth1 if the ,kt4 be taken4 ,should he play #b4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d1 or ,b4 to ,q's #c;d1 you equally reply with ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 with the advantage4 ,if he adopt #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 you play #c4 ,p4 takes ,p41 following it up with ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 if he retake with ,queen4 ,if he play #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 you reply #c4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p41 or ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 and obtain the better game shortly4 ,having disposed of these unsafe defences1 we will now return to the examination of the three satisfactory replies3--,p4 to ,q's #c;d2 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d2 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,for the last two1 see ,games ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,,game ,i4--,,philidor',s ,,defence4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,this is your best reply2 if instead you play1-- #c4 ,b4 to ,q's ,b's #dth1 he plays-- #c4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 7best47 #c4 ,p4 takes ,p4 7best47 #d4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,if you play #d4 ,kt4 takes ,p41 probably his best reply is ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #e4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 #e4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #f4 ,q4 to ,q's sq4 #f4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d1 or ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #g4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 with the better position4 ,you may also1 instead of #d4 ,q4 takes ,p41 try ,k's ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,black's best reply seems to be ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,,game ,,ii4--,,petroff',s ,,defence4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,this defence was brought into notice by ,petroff some years ago1 and has been approved of by many of the leading players4 ,it is an excellent defence when receiving the odds of a piece4 #c4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #d4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 7or ,var4 ,a47 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 #f4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d1 7not to ,q's #c;d47 #g4 ,castles4 #g4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #h4 ,q's ,b4 to ,k's #c;d4 #i4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's4 #c;d4 #i4 ,castles4 #aj4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #b;d1 with a slightly better game4 ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #eth ,move4 ,white has another move at this point1 which seems at least as good as #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth2 viz41 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #e4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,kt4 takes ,kt4 #f4 ,q's ,p4 takes ,kt4 #f4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,white has the better opened game4 ,,game ,,iii4--,,the ,,giuoco ,,piano4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,this is recommended by nearly all authors1 as ,black's best reply4 ,of late1 however1 there has been an opinion prevalent among many of our best players1 that it is inferior to ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 or even ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,for our own part1 we incline to the old move of ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 but doubt whether there is any defence by which ,black can acquire a perfectly even game4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 7best47 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 7best47 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #f4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth1 7or ,var4 ,a47 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 7best47 #g4 ,k's ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 #g4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #eth4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 7best47 #i4 ,castles4 #i4 ,q's ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #aj4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 7ch47 #aj4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #aa4 ,q's ,b4 to ,k's #c;d1 or ,q's ,kt4 #aa4 ,castles4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,these are the moves given in the ,handbook1 and the game is dismissed as equal4 ,in actual play1 however1 we should take ,black's game for choice4 ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #fth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #f4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth 7ch47 ,white's #fth move is recommended by the ,german masters1 and in our opinion is preferable to ,p4 to ,k's #eth2 ,black's best reply is to check1-- #g4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #g4 ,b4 takes ,b4 7ch47 #h4 ,q's ,kt4 takes ,b4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,kt4 takes ,p4 #aj4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #aa4 ,k's ,r4 to ,k's sq4 ,we much prefer ,white's game4 ,,game ,,iv4--,,the ,,evans' ,,gambit4 ,it would be impossible1 in the narrow limits assigned to our treatise1 to enter into the merits of this opening2 we shall therefore give one or two of the leading variations1 and refer learners1 who may be desirous of a more comprehensive analysis1 to ,mr4 ,walker's excellent articles on this popular opening1 in ,vol4 ix4 of the 8,chess ,player's ,chronicle10 the 8,handbook10 and ,mr4 ,boden's useful little work1 entitled 8,a ,popular ,introduction to ,chess40 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 takes ,q4 ,kt4's ,p4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #f4 ,castles4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 7best47 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #g4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #i4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #b;d4 #i4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,instead of #i4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #b;d1 you may adopt several other modes of play2 viz41 #i4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,r's #c;d2 #i4 ,r4 to ,k's sq42 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d2 #i4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,to the two first of these1 ,black equally replies with ,q's ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth1 with the better game4 7,for #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d1 and #i4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 see ,variations ,a4 and ,b47 #aj4 ,p4 to ,q's #eth4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 7best47 #aa4 ,b4 takes ,k's ,kt4 #aa4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #ab4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,q's #dth4 ,white has rather the better game4 ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #ith ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 #i4 ,kt4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 ,this is the move usually recommended for the defence4 ,black may however adopt1 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d1 apparently with little disadvantage4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 #aj4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #aa4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #aa4 ,castles4 #ab4 ,r4 to ,q4 ,r's #b;d4 #ab4 ,k4 to ,r's sq4 #ac4 ,r4 to ,k's #b;d4 #ac4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 ,the game is about equal4 ,variation ,b4 on ,white's #ith ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #i4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,we have long suspected that the force of this form of the attack has been vastly underrated4 ,the following variations are taken from an able analysis by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,fraser1 of ,dundee1 who has kindly presented the result of his labours in the investigation of this attack at our disposal3-- #i4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 ,this move is considered by all the modern writers on ,chess to be ,black's best reply4 #aj4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #aj4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 ,in reply to ,white's last move1 ,black may play either #aj4 ,q4 to ,q's #b;d1 or #aj4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d1 instead of the move in the text4 ,if he adopt #aj4 ,q4 to ,q's #b;d1 ,white replies with ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth1 apparently winning a piece4 ,it has been suggested to us that perhaps ,black's best move is #aj4 ,k4 to ,b's sq41 to which ,white might reply with ,k4 ,kt4 to his #eth2 and on ,black's moving ,k4 ,kt4 to ,r's #c;d1 advance the ,p4 to ,q's #eth4 7,for ,b4 to ,q's #b;d1 see ,variation ,a47 #aa4 ,p4 to ,q's #eth4 #aa4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 7best47 #ab4 ,p4 takes ,q's ,kt4 #ab4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,black might play also ,q's ,r4 to ,q4 ,kt4's sq41 whereupon follows1-- #ac4 ,p4 takes ,p4 7dis4 ch47 #ac4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #ad4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d1 and wins4 #ac4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 ,white might also with advantage take the ,q4 ,b's ,p4 checking1 although the move in the text seems stronger4 #ac4 ,b4 to ,k's #c;d4 ,if he play1-- #ac4 ,q4 to ,q's #b;d4 #ad4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ad4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ae4 ,kt4 to ,q's #eth1 and wins4 #ad4 ,b4 takes ,b4 #ad4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #ae4 ,q4 takes ,p4 7ch47 #ae4 ,k4 to ,b's sq4 #af4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,r's #c;d1 with a winning game4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #ajth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #aa4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #aa4 ,kt4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 7best47 #ab4 ,b4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 #ab4 ,k4 to ,b's sq4 #ac4 ,q4 to ,q's #eth4 #ac4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #ad4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #ad4 ,k4 takes ,b4 #ae4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 #ae4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 ,this is ,black's best reply4 ,if he retire the ,kt4 to his square1 or to ,k's square1 or ,k4 ,kt4's #eth1 ,white will obtain a winning game1 by #af4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 7ch47 #af4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #af4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 7best47 #ag4 ,q4 to ,q's #b;d4 ,this seems ,white's most promising move4 ,he may also play #ag4 ,q4 takes ,kt41 upon which ,black exchanges ,queens with the better game4 #ag4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,r's #b;d4 #ah4 ,p4 to ,q's #eth4 #ah4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 ,black might also take ,pawn with ,pawn1 and the game would probably be continued thus3-- #ah4 ,p takes ,p4 #ai4 ,kt4 takes ,p4 7ch47 #ai4 ,k4 to ,kt4's #b;d4 #bj4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #b;d4 #bj4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #ba4 ,k4 to ,r's sq4 #ba4 ,r4 to ,k's sq4 #bb4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 and will win4 #ai4 ,p4 to ,k's #fth4 7ch47 #ai4 ,k4 to ,k's #b;d4 #bj4 ,kt4 to ,q's #dth4 #bj4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #ba4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 with a fine attack4 ,instead of retiring his ,bishop to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 as in ,game ,,iv41 ,black may1 though apparently less advantageously1 play him to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 takes ,p4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 7best47 #f4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,castles4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #h4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #h4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 7best47 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p41 with a very fine game4 ,n4,b4--,should ,black at his #gth move1 instead of #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 play ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's ,p41 or ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 you1 in reply1 advance ,p4 to ,k's #eth1 with a powerful attack4 ,,the ,,gambit ,,declined4 ,we now come to consider the consequences of ,black's not accepting the gambit pawn at move #d4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d #e4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #b;d4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q',s #dth4 ,we prefer ,white's game4 ,there is also another method of declining the ,gambit1 which1 although hitherto unanalysed1 seems to present some interesting features4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,q's ,p4 #e4 ,kt4 takes ,q4 ,kt4's ,p4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #f4 ,kt4 takes ,q's ,p4 #g4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 #h4 ,q4 takes ,b4 7best47 #i4 ,q4 takes ,q4 #i4 ,q4 takes ,q4 #aj4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 ,even ,game4 ,it is very possible some of ,white's moves may be improved upon1 but the foregoing variation seems satisfactorily to demonstrate that ,black can gain no advantage4 ,before taking our leave of this beautiful opening1 we would again remind the young player1 that it is perfectly immaterial1 whether ,black at move #e captures the gambit pawn with ,b4 or ,kt41 if with the latter ,white equally replies with ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d2 and on ,black's retiring the ,kt4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d 7best71 the position becomes the same as given in a previous variation4 ,,game ,v4--,,ruy ,,lopez ,,knight',s ,,game4 ,we will now proceed to examine this1 perhaps1 the strongest and most embarrassing attack the board affords4 ,it is through fear of this variation1 that many of our best players have abandoned the usual defence of #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 and turned to the ,king's ,knight's defence1 or the old move of ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,by playing your ,bishop thus1 you again threaten to win his ,k's ,p4 ,the move in the text1 commonly known as the ,berlin defence1 is perhaps as good a reply as the position admits4 ,he has1 however1 three other plausible moves2 viz41 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth2 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d2 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 which will be touched upon hereafter4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,this move 7or perhaps still better1 #d4 ,castles7 appears to yield a far stronger attack than the old move of ,q4 ,k's #b;d4 ,black1 instead of ,p4 takes ,p41 might either reply with #d4 ,k's ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p41 or #d4 ,q's ,kt4 takes ,q's ,p4 ,if the former1 perhaps castling at once is your best reply2 if the latter1 you take ,kt4 with ,k's ,kt41 and then play ,p4 to ,k's #eth1 as in the present variation4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 #e4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth4 #f4 ,castles4 #f4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 7best47 #g4 ,kt4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,kt4 takes ,kt4 7or ,var4 ,a47 #h4 ,q4 takes ,kt4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 en passant4 #i4 ,kt4 takes ,p4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,white has a very fine game4 ,we will now turn our attention to the other modes of play ,black may adopt at his #c;d move1 instead of ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d2 viz41 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth2 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d2 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 7see ,variations ,b4 ,c47 ,variation ,b4 on ,black's #c;d ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 7best47 #e4 ,castles4 #e4 ,castles4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q's #eth4 #h4 ,q's ,kt4 to his sq4 ,white may also play #h4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d with advantage4 #i4 ,p4 to ,q's #fth4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #aj4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #b;d4 #aa4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,r's #c;d4 #aa4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #ab4 ,k's ,r4 to ,q's sq4 #ab4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,the move #ab4 ,k4 ,r4 to ,q's sq4 is recommended in the ,handbook as giving ,white an advantage of position4 ,the reply1 however1 in the text1 which occurred to the writer in actual play1 seems calculated to free ,black from his embarrassment4 ,variation ,c4 on ,black's #c;d ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #e4 ,castles4 ,black has a tolerably safe though constrained position4 ,n4,b4--,for #c4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d1 see the games illustrative of this opening4 ,,game ,,vi4--,,the ,,scotch ,,gambit4 ,this opening derives its name from having been adopted in the great match by correspondence between the ,london and ,edinburgh ,chess ,clubs4 ,the attack consequent on this opening at one time considerably embarrassed ,mr4 ,cochrane1 who considered there was no satisfactory defence to it4 ,major ,jaenisch1 however1 with characteristic patience and analysis1 has proved the contrary4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,if he play #d4 ,kt4 takes ,p41 you reply with either ,kt4 takes ,kt41 or ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p41 and obtain the better position4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,this is now acknowledged to be ,black's best move2 for #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 see ,variation ,a4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 7best47 ,and the position is the same as given in the leading variation of the ,giuoco ,piano1 see page #fbb4 ,should ,black instead play3 ,p4 takes ,q4 ,b's ,p41 you take his ,k4 ,b's ,p4 with your ,b4 7ch472 and if he takes the ,bishop with ,king1 play ,q4 to ,q's #eth 7ch471 and then take his ,bishop4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #f4 ,castles4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #gth4 ,instead of #f4 ,castles1 you might adopt ,mr4 ,cochrane's method of continuing the attack1 by #f4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,n4,b4--,it would be very bad play of ,black to take the ,q4 ,kt4's ,p41 instead of the move in the text4 #g4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #h4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #i4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #i4 ,b4 to ,kt4's #c;d4 #aj4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d1 with a fine game4 ,there is another not uninteresting method of attack1 which ,white might adopt at his fifth move1 instead of #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d2 viz41 ,k's ,kt4 to his #eth4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to his #eth4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,r's #c;d4 7best47 #f4 ,kt4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 #f4 ,kt4 takes ,kt4 #g4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 7ch47 #g4 ,k4 takes ,b4 #h4 ,q4 to ,r's #eth4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #i4 ,q4 takes ,b4 #i4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,black's #ith move was first suggested in an able analysis on this variation by ,messrs4 ,jaenisch and ,schummoff1 in the 8,chess ,player's ,chronicle0 for ,july1 #ahej4 ,it is far superior to the old move of ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 and without great care on your part will give him an irresistible attack4 #aj4 ,castles4 #aj4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,this is your strongest move1 and appears to have been overlooked by the talented authors of the article in question3-- #aj4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 7best47 #aj4 ,r4 to ,k's sq4 ,if ,black play #aj4 ,p4 to ,q's #fth1 you reply with ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth 7ch471 winning the ,king's ,pawn4 #aa4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #aa4 ,q4 to ,q's #c;d4 #ab4 ,q4 takes ,q4 #ab4 ,p4 takes ,q4 #ac4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ac4 ,kt4 takes ,p4 #ad4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,and ,black will have great difficulty in avoiding the loss of a ,pawn4 ,there is another variation of this opening hitherto1 we believe1 unanalysed1 which1 although it presents many points of interest1 seems altogether unknown to the majority of amateurs4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #b4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #e4 ,castles4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to his #eth4 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,r's #c;d4 #g4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #fth4 7dis4 ch47 ,if he play #g4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth1 your best reply seems to be ,q4 to ,k's sq41 although you might obtain a strong but hazardous attack by playing ,q4 to her #c;d1 and afterwards1 on his attacking her1 with ,q's ,kt4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #h4 ,k4 to ,r's sq4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,q's #eth4 #aj4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 ,and although minus a ,pawn1 you have a fine game4 ,if he now play ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d1 you reply with ,b4 to ,k's #c;d4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,bishop',s ,,opening4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,k4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,by this move you attack his weakest point1 viz4 the ,k4 ,b's ,p4 ,most of the classical writers on ,chess concur in recommending the same move as ,black's best reply4 ,major ,jaenisch and the ,german authors unanimously recommend #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d in preference1 the move generally adopted in actual play4 7,see ,game ,,iii47 ,white has now several methods of continuing the attack4 ,he may play the move recommended by ,philidor1 viz4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 to which ,black may reply with either ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 or ,q4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth1 or ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 in every case with at least an equal game4 ,you may also play ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 and upon ,black's bringing out his ,q's ,kt41 the position is resolved into the ,giuoco ,piano4 ,if you play ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth1 7a move frequently adopted by young players17 ,black will reply with ,q4 to ,k ,b's #c;d1 or to ,k's #b;d1 with no inferiority of position4 ,besides these moves you have two others at command1 viz4 ,q4 to ,k's #b;d1 and ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth1 which we will proceed to examine4 ,,game ,i4--,,the ,,lopez ,,gambit4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,k4 ,b to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,q4 to ,k's #b;d4 #c4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,by playing thus you threaten at once to take his ,k4 ,b's ,p4 7ch471 and if ,k4 takes ,b1 to win his ,bishop in return by the check of the ,q4 ,the move in the text is ,black's best reply1 any other move would leave you with at least an even position4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,instead of ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 you may take the adverse ,k4 ,b's ,p 7ch472 see ,variation ,a4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #e4 ,b4 takes ,k's ,kt4 #f4 ,r4 takes ,b4 #f4 ,castles4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,with a superior game4 ,variation ,a4 on ,white's #dth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #d4 ,b4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 7ch47 #d4 ,k4 takes ,b4 #e4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 7ch47 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,q4 takes ,b4 #f4 ,p4 takes ,k's ,p4 #g4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth 7ch47 #g4 ,b4 to ,k's #c;d4 #h4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,black has by far the better game4 ,,game ,,ii4--,,the ,,double ,,gambit4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,his best move4 ,if1 in lieu of ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 he adopt ,p4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p41 you reply with ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 and obtain a fine attack4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,q's ,p4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 ,if you play ,b4 takes ,p41 ,black replies with ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 with the better game4 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #g4 ,castles4 #g4 ,castles4 #h4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,q's ,kt4 takes ,p4 ,black has the better game1 thereby proving that the ,double ,gambit1 if correctly met1 is disadvantageous to the first player4 ,,game ,,iii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 7best47 ,your third move is probably the best on the board2 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 and #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 seem much inferior1 as ,black immediately gains the attack4 #d4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,your fourth move was introduced two or three years ago1 and was first analysed by ,mr4 ,boden1 in his 8,popular ,introduction10 where ,black's reply1 of #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 is recommended as his best2 we believe1 however1 he can at least as advantageously play #d4 ,kt4 takes ,q's ,kt41 or1 as has been suggested to us1 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth42 see ,variation ,a4 #e4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,equal game4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #d4 ,kt4 takes ,q's ,kt4 #e4 ,q's ,p4 takes ,kt4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 ,he may also play #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d1 by which he preserves his ,pawn1 though with a somewhat inferior position4 #f4 ,kt4 takes ,k's ,p4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 #h4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,castles4 #i4 ,castles4 ,black has no inferiority of position4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,gambit4 ,,game ,i4 ,this beautiful and brilliant dbut1 which1 as ,mr4 ,staunton observes1 gives birth to the most intricate and beautiful combinations the chess-men are susceptible of1 has been a universal favourite with every class of players from the earliest stages of ,european ,chess up to the present day4 ,in order to facilitate the analysis of this opening1 as far as our narrow limits will permit1 we shall divide it into its three principal heads2 viz41 ,the ,king's ,knight's ,gambit1 ,the ,allgaier ,gambit1 and the ,king's ,bishop's ,gambit1 and afterwards devote a few words to the ,gambit ,declined4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 ,this is ,black's best move1 indeed the only one to retain the gambit pawn4 ,he1 however1 may obtain a nearly equal game by #c4 ,p4 to ,q1's #dth4 ,if he play #c4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d1 commonly known as the ,cunningham ,gambit1 ,white replies with ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 and on ,black's checking with ,b4 at ,r's #eth1 plays ,k4 to ,b's sq41 with a much better game4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #b;d 7best71 or ,var4 ,a4 #e4 ,p4 to ,q ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 7best47 ,should ,black play the obvious-looking move of #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 ,white gains a striking advantage by the following mode of play3-- #f4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #f4 ,q4 to ,k's #b;d4 #g4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 #g4 ,b4 on ,p4 interposes4 #h4 ,q4 takes ,k4 ,kt4's ,p41 c4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #g4 ,castles4 #g4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,q's #b;d4 ,this is usually considered his best move1 though ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 or ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d1 are perhaps equally good4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 ,if he takes ,p4 with ,p41 you get a fine attack by ,b4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 7ch47 #i4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth1 7or to ,k's #i4 ,kt4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 sq47 #aj4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #aj4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #fth4 ,he has a ,pawn more1 and a strong position4 ,n4,b4--,instead of #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 you may also play #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth1 with a good attack4 ,,the ,,salvio ,,gambit4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #dth ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #e4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth4 #e4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth4 7ch47 ,instead of #e4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth1 you may castle1 for which see ,game ,,ii4 7,the ,muzio ,gambit47 #f4 ,k4 to ,b's sq4 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,r's #c;d4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #g4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #fth4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #i4 ,b4 takes ,k's ,kt4 #i4 ,q's ,p4 takes ,kt4 ,and ,black has a fine ,game4 ,you seem to have no better move than #i4 ,b4 takes ,k's ,kt42 if you play ,kt4 to ,q's #c;d1 he replies with ,k4 ,kt4's ,p4 takes ,p41 and your game is gone4 ,,game ,,ii4--,,the ,,muzio ,,gambit4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #e4 ,castles4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,kt4 ,this sacrifice of the ,kt41 daring as it may appear at first sight1 is1 nevertheless1 considered by modern analysis to be quite sound4 #f4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #f4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 7best47 #g4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 #g4 ,q4 takes ,k's ,p4 ,your #gth move is given by most of 8the books0 as the best4 ,we have found ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d at this point a strong move in actual play4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #h4 ,k's ,b4 to ,r's #c;d4 #i4 ,q's ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #i4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #aj4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 ,some authors recommend ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d as more attacking than the move in the text4 ,it has however been proved untenable in the 8,handbook0 7page #bha47 #aa4 ,q's ,r4 to ,k's sq4 #aa4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 7ch47 #ab4 ,k4 to ,r's sq4 #ab4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,mr4 ,staunton recommends #ab4 ,r4 to ,k4 ,b's #b;d1 instead of retiring the ,king to ,r's sq4 ,we have tried this move in actual play1 following it up with ,q's ,r4 to ,k4 ,b's sq41 which seems to give ,white an overwhelming attack4 #ac4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth4 #ac4 ,q4 to ,q's #c;d4 #ad4 ,b4 takes ,q4 ,p4 #ad4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #ae4 ,kt4 takes ,q's ,p4 #ae4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #af4 ,q's ,b4 to his #c;d4 #af4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #ag4 ,r4 takes ,kt4 7ch47 #ag4 ,k4 to ,b's sq4 ,the moves up to this point1 both for attack and defence1 are given by ,jaenisch and the 8,handbook0 as the best the board affords2 with the best play1 probably the game ought to be drawn4 ,we much regret that our space will not allow of a more elaborate analysis of this beautiful gambit2 we trust1 however1 that the above variations will show the young player the difficulty and resource of this opening4 ,we cannot quit the subject without alluding to a defence lately introduced by ,messrs4 ,kling and ,horwitz1 which consists in ,black's playing ,q4 to ,k's #b;d at his #eth move1 instead of taking the ,kt4 ,with all deference and respect for the wonderful and almost inexhaustible power of analysis displayed by these two eminent players1 we must confess that we have our doubts as to the soundness of the move in question4 ,the young players1 however1 will find it full analysed in ,kling and ,horwitz's 8,chess ,studies10 one of the most valuable and interesting works on ,chess of modern days1 which needs not our recommendation to find its way to the book-shelf of every lover of ,chess4 ,,game ,i4--,,the ,,allgaier ,,gambit4 ,this opening1 the invention of which is erroneously ascribed to ,allgaier1 has of late years become a favourite with all classes of players1 though we agree with ,mr4 ,boden in considering that its resources have been considerably overrated1 although not perhaps from the same reason as adduced in his 8,popular ,introduction40 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 ,you may here play your ,kt4 to ,k's #eth1 or to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 ,modern authorities agree in recommending the former1 as giving a more lasting attack4 ,as1 however1 some very embarrassing positions may arise from playing the ,kt4 to his #eth1 we will examine the consequences resulting from it at present1 leaving the move of #e4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth for after examination1 7,game ,,ii474 #e4 ,kt4 to ,kt4's #eth4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 7best47 #f4 ,kt4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 #f4 ,k4 takes ,kt4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 7ch47 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,your #gth move gives a far more embarrassing attack than the old move of ,q4 takes ,k4 ,kt4's ,p41 to which ,black replies1 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 with a winning position4 ,in the present game ,black's reply of ,p4 to ,q's #dth is his only move4 ,if he retire ,k4 to ,kt4's sq41 you must gain some advantage by ,q4 takes ,k4 ,kt4's ,p41 c4 #h4 ,b4 takes ,p4 7ch47 #h4 ,k4 to ,k's sq4 ,in our opinion the move of ,k4 to ,k's sq4 is preferable to ,k4 to ,kt4's #b;d4 ,at all events the defence seems much simpler1 and at least as satisfactory4 #i4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #fth4 7best47 #aj4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 ,with a winning game4 ,,game ,,ii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,k4 ,kt4's to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #f4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth4 ,black's #eth move has been recommended by almost all the authorities as the correct reply2 although the moves #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d2 #e4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d2 or #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 seem1 to say the least1 equally advantageous for the second player4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #f4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 #g4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #g4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #fth4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 7best47 #h4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #i4 ,kt4 to ,q's #c;d4 #i4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,k's #c;d4 ,this is the move given by the 8books20 ,b4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 however1 appears at least as good4 #aj4 ,b4 takes ,k4 ,r's ,p4 7ch47 #aa4 ,k4 to ,q's #b;d4 #aa4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ab4 ,q4 takes ,p4 #ab4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #ac4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #ac4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,one of the advantages of the move #aj4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 as suggested above1 seems to be that the ,white ,q4 could not be played to ,k's #c;d1 instead of the more assailable part of ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #ad4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,and the game1 in spite of the formidable appearance of the adverse ,bishops1 seems in ,white's favour1 from the disposition of his forces1 so well calculated for a vigorous assault4 ,n4,b4--,it would be very unadvisable for ,black to reply to ,white's move of ,kt4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 with ,kt4 takes ,q's ,p4 #ad4 ,kt4 takes ,q's ,p4 #ae4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 #ae4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #af4 ,b4 takes ,k's ,r4 #af4 ,b4 takes ,q4 7ch47 #ag4 ,kt4 takes ,b4 ,and ,white has a more than ample equivalent for his lost ,queen1 and a considerable superiority of position4 ,,game ,i4--,,the ,,bishop',s ,,gambit4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth4 7ch47 ,black's #c;d move is the one generally recommended at this point4 ,he has1 however1 the option of several other moves1 the most important of which seems to be ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 7,see ,game ,,ii47 #d4 ,k4 to ,b's sq4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 7best47 ,if ,black1 instead of the move in the text1 play ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 a move frequently adopted by young players1 you reply with ,p4 to ,q4's #dth and ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 with a fine position4 #e4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #b;d4 7best47 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #g4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #g4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #dth4 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 #i4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,major ,jaenisch1 to whom we owe almost all our knowledge of this fine opening1 at one time we believe recommended #i4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth for ,black1 instead of ,p4 takes ,p41 but has we believe qualified his opinion in favour of the move in the text4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,q's #eth4 #aj4 ,k4 to ,q's sq4 #aa4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #aa4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 #ab4 ,k4 to ,kt4's sq4 #ab4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #ac4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ac4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ad4 ,r4 takes ,r4 #ad4 ,b4 takes ,r4 #ae4 ,k's ,kt4 takes ,p4 #ae4 ,q4 takes ,k's ,kt4 ,this sacrifice is the invention of ,petroff1 the great ,russian master2 and without the greatest care in the defence1 will give you an overpowering attack4 #af4 ,q's ,b4 takes ,p4 #af4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 7best47 #ag4 ,p4 to ,k's #fth4 #ag4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #ah4 ,kt4 takes ,q4 ,b's ,p4 #ah4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #ai4 ,kt4 to ,k's #fth4 7ch47 ,,game ,,ii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,we would recommend this defence to the young player1 7especially when receiving the odds of a piece17 as it leads at once to at least an even game1 and avoids an intricate and difficult series of moves1 the least error in which would be fatal4 #d4 ,b4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,q4 to ,k's #b;d4 #e4 ,kt4 takes ,b4 ,this is probably your best move1 though ,kt4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 may be played without danger4 #f4 ,p4 takes ,kt4 7dis4 ch47 #f4 ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 #g4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 7best47 #g4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth4 7ch47 #h4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #h4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #i4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,the game is about even4 ,instead of ,black's #hth move of ,p4 takes ,p41 ,mr4 ,staunton suggests the highly ingenious move of castling2 and the game would probably be continued thus3-- #h4 ,castles4 #i4 ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 7best47 #i4 ,r4 to ,k's sq4 ,this is your best reply1 if you capture either ,b4 or ,p4 you lose in a few moves4 7,see the 8,handbook10 p4 #cce47 #aj4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #aj4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 ,we do not see that ,black has anything better4 #aa4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,k's #dth4 ,and ,white has some little advantage4 ,it is worth while remarking1 that if ,black now adopt the tempting move of ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth1 ,white will win at least a pawn4 ,we leave the 8modus operandi0 for the investigation of the young player4 ,we cannot take our leave of this inexhaustible opening1 without once more recommending the amateur who is ambitious of becoming initiated into the mysteries of the ,bishop's ,gambit1 to study the admirable articles on this dbut1 published by ,major ,jaenisch1 in the late volumes of the 8,chess-,player's ,chronicle10 which exhibit1 perhaps1 the most patient and profound analysis the annals of ,chess have ever produced4 ,,the ,,gambit ,,refused4 ,the refusal of the gambit1 though it may be done with perfect safety1 generally leads to a dull and uninteresting game2 we would therefore advise the young player to accept the proffered pawn1 more especially when receiving the odds of a piece1 as he will gain more knowledge of the game by observing the manner in which a fine player pursues his attack1 than can be obtained from all the works that have ever been written on the subject4 ,,game ,i4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,this has usually been received as the best method of declining the gambit1 though a preference has sprung up lately in favour of ,p4 to ,q's #dth 7,see ,game ,,ii474 ,major ,jaenisch recommends ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 to which you reply with ,p4 takes ,p42 and upon his taking ,k's ,p4 with ,kt41 you play ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth4 #e4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 #e4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 ,we believe your #eth move is now more generally preferred to ,b4 to ,k's #b;d4 ,you may also play #e4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth41 though it is somewhat hazardous4 #f4 ,q4 takes ,b4 #f4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #g4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 or ,kt4's #eth4 ,and the game is about even4 ,,game ,,ii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #c4 ,p4 takes ,q's ,p4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 7best47 ,you may also play #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d41 apparently without danger4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #d4 ,q4 takes ,q's ,p4 ,your #dth move seems far stronger than the usually received play of ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 #e4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #e4 ,q4 to ,q's sq4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,you have the better game4 ,,the ,,centre ,,gambit4 ,this opening1 though passed over by many of the books1 frequently gives birth to many beautiful and critical positions1 and unless properly opposed1 is very embarrassing4 ,,game ,i4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,you may also play here ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 a move as yet1 we believe1 unanalysed4 7,see ,game ,,ii47 ,black's reply is the correct one1 whereby he reduces the game to a position similar to one in the ,k4 ,kt4's defence to the ,king's ,bishop's game4 7,for ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 see ,variation ,a47 #d4 ,p4 to ,k's #eth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #e4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #e4 ,kt4 to ,k's #eth4 ,retiring the ,bishop thus is far better than taking the ,kt4 with ,k's ,p4 7,see the ,giuoco ,piano for a similar position47 #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,if you play #f4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d41 ,black will gain some advantage by ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 #g4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #g4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #dth4 #h4 ,kt4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #h4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #eth4 #i4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 7ch47 #i4 ,kt4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #aj4 ,b4 takes ,kt4 7ch47 #aj4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #aa4 ,q4 takes ,p4 ,even game4 ,these are the moves given by ,jaenisch1 who seems to consider the position in ,black's favour4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #c;d ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #eth4 7ch47 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #e4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #f4 ,p4 takes ,b4 #f4 ,q4 takes ,q's ,r4 ,perhaps your soundest move at this point is #f4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d1 as recommended in the ,german ,handbook1 although1 by the mode of play in the text1 you get an attack that amply compensates for the loss of the 8exchange40 #g4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #g4 ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,afterwards playing ,kt4 to ,k's #b;d1 with a fine position4 ,,game ,,ii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth4 #c4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,this appears to be his best reply4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d4 ,by your last move you threatened to take his ,k4 ,b's ,p4 7checking7 and if he took your ,bishop with ,king1 to play ,q4 to ,k4 ,r's #eth4 7ch47 c4 ,if ,black1 instead of ,p4 to ,q's #c;d1 play ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d1 you reply with ,p4 to ,k's #eth2 and upon his playing ,p4 to ,q's #dth1 you must gain some advantage by capturing his ,kt4 with ,k's ,p4--a mode of play not feasible in a similar position in the ,giuoco ,piano4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 ,if he play ,b4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #eth1 you reply with ,p4 to ,k's #eth1 and should he take ,p4 with ,p4 you get a winning position by ,b4 takes ,k4 ,b's ,p4 7ch47 #f4 ,castles4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q's #fth4 #g4 ,k4 to ,r's sq4 #g4 ,p4 takes ,p4 7dis4 ch47 #h4 ,q4 takes ,p4 ,and though minus a pawn1 you have an ample equivalent in the attack4 ,it is highly probable that many moves1 both of attack and defence1 in this somewhat novel variation may be improved upon4 ,i only regret that ,i am precluded1 both by want of time and space1 from going further into the variations4 ,,the ,,queen',s ,,gambit4 ,,game ,i4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 ,it is considered more advisable to decline the gambit4 7,see ,game ,,ii47 ,by taking the ,pawn1 ,black generally subjects himself to some slight inferiority of position4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth4 ,your move of ,p4 to ,k's #c;d1 appears somewhat preferable to ,p4 to ,k's #dth1 as recommended by the 8classical0 writers on ,chess1 to which ,black would equally reply with ,p4 to ,k's #dth1 with an even game4 ,it is worth while remarking1 that if he attempt to sustain the gambit pawn by ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth1 you gain the advantage4 7,see ,variation ,a47 #d4 ,k's ,b4 takes ,p4 #d4 ,p4 takes ,q's ,p4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #f4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #f4 ,b4 to ,q's #c;d4 #g4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #g4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #h4 ,castles4 #h4 ,castles4 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 #i4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,r's #c;d4 ,white has perhaps a slightly better position4 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #c;d ,move4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #c4 ,p4 to ,k's #c;d4 #c4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #dth4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 #d4 ,b4 to ,q's #b;d4 ,if he play ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #c;d1 you take ,pawn with ,pawn1 and on his retaking1 win a piece by ,q4 to ,k4 ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #e4 ,b4 takes ,p4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d4 #f4 ,q4 to ,q's #dth4 #g4 ,p4 takes ,p4 #g4 ,b4 takes ,p4 #h4 ,q4 to ,q4 ,r's #dth4 7ch47 winning a piece4 ,these moves are from ,mr4 ,staunton's ,handbook4 ,,game ,,ii4 ,,white4 ,,black4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 #b4 ,p4 to ,k's #c;d4 ,this is now acknowledged to be his best method of declining the gambit4 #c4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #c4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #d4 ,p4 to ,k's #c;d4 #d4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth4 ,your #dth move is the one given by all 8the books40 ,in the late match between ,messrs4 ,lwenthal and ,harrwitz1 the latter several times adopted the move of #d4 ,q's ,b4 to ,k4 ,b's #dth1 at this juncture1 with advantage1 a sortie hitherto denounced by most of the modern writers on ,chess4 #e4 ,k's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #e4 ,q's ,kt4 to ,b's #c;d4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's #c;d4 #f4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,r's #c;d4 ,there is no advantage on either side4 ,we will now briefly examine those other methods of opening a game1 which either player may adopt in lieu of #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth1 or #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth4 ,the most important of these the second player has at his command to reply to #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #dth1 are1 #a4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,b's #dth1 and #a4 ,p4 to ,k's #c;d4 ,it is true there are other moves1 such as #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #dth2 #a4 ,p4 to ,k4 ,kt4's #c;d42 #a4 ,p4 to ,q4 ,kt4's #c;d42 #a4 ,p4 to ,q's #c;d42 but they are of so rare occurrence in actual play1 we shall hardly be justified in our narrow limits for entering into an analysis of them4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,the ,,young ,,conjuror ,,including ,,sleight ,,of ,,hand ,,with ,,objects ,,or ,,cards1 ,,with ,,and ,,without ,,apparatus4 ,from the very early ages of the world the art of legerdemain1 commonly called conjuring1 has been known and practised4 ,in some of the old heathen ceremonies the priests made use of skilful deceptions1 in order to impose upon the people2 and in ancient ,egypt1 in ,greece1 and in ,rome1 the worship of the gods was frequently associated with mere tricks1 which were used for the purpose of obtaining an influence by a pretence of extraordinary and supernatural powers4 ,among the ,eastern nations juggling was a profession1 and to this day the jugglers of ,hindustan and other ,oriental nations are so skilful that they are able to deceive even the most acute observers4 ,in our own country1 after the ,norman ,conquest1 the juggler 7who was called jongleur1 or joculator7 was a minstrel as well as a conjurer1 a reader of the stars or astrologer1 and at the same time a jester1 a merry-andrew1 and a teller of droll stories4 ,these jongleurs travelled from place to place1 and exhibited at fairs1 feasts1 and merrymakings1 as well as in the houses of noblemen1 where they diverted the company in the great halls4 ,in the fourteenth century they gave more attention to tricks and feats of skill1 and became known as tregetours4 ,the performances of some of these gentry were so marvellous1 that the common people believed them to be the result of witchcraft1 and classed the tregetour with the warlock and the sorcerer4 ,chaucer1 who no doubt had frequently an opportunity of seeing the tricks exhibited by the tregetours of his time1 says1 8,there ,i sawe playenge jogelours1 magyciens1 tragetours1 phetonysses1 charmeresses1 old witches1 and sorceresses20 and the old poet goes on to say of them1 8,sometimes they will bring on the similitude of a grim lion1 or make flowers spring up as in a meadow2 sometimes they cause a vine to flourish1 bearing white and red grapes1 or show a castle built with stone1 and when they please they cause the whole to disappear30 and in another part of his works he says3-- 8,there saw ,i ,coll ,tregetour ,upon a table of sycamour ,play an uncouthe thynge to tell2 ,i sawe hym cary a wyndemell ,under a walnot shale40--,house of ,fame1 book iii4 ,our learned monarch ,james ,i4 was perfectly convinced that these and other inferior feats exhibited by the tregetours of his day could only be performed by diabolical agency4 ,the profession had already fallen very low1 and at the close of the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth the performers were ranked by the moral writers of that time not only with ruffians1 blasphemers1 thieves1 and vagabonds1 but also with ,jews1 ,turks1 heretics1 pagans1 and sorcerers2 and in more modern times1 by way of derision1 the juggler was called a mocus-pocus1 or hokus-pokus1 a term applicable to a pickpocket or a common cheat4 ,the following pages are not intended to make the young reader either a cheat or a trickster2 there is nothing perhaps so utterly contemptible in every-day life as trickery and deceit1 and we would caution our young friends not to cultivate a love of deception1 which is only allowable in such feats of amusement1 because it is in fact not deception at all1 when everybody expects to be puzzled1 and is only left to find out the mystery the best way he can4 ,with this sage advice we shall present a collection of amusing conjuring tricks1 premising that a considerable number of tricks usually embodied in this division will be found in that part of our work relating to ,scientific ,experiments and ,amusements1 as they more properly belong to 8,natural ,magic10 and are to be referred to the various operations of nature in the several departments of art1 science1 and philosophy4 ,,sleight ,,of ,,hand4 ,it is intended in the following pages to lay more stress upon those tricks which require no apparatus than upon those for which special apparatus or the assistance of a confederate is required4 ,no one is nearly so well pleased by a trick whose essence evidently lies in the machinery1 while every one feels pleasure at seeing a sleight of hand trick neatly executed4 ,the audience often despise all the numerous boxes1 bottles1 variegated covers1 and other gimcracks which are generally seen on a conjuror's table2 and are seldom so pleased with any performer as with one who does not even require a table1 but presses into his service articles borrowed from his audience4 ,the spectators should never be able to say1 8,ah6 the trick lies in the box3 he dares not show it to us60 ,the following tricks have almost all been successfully performed1 and have caused some reputation in the magic art4 ,some of them are the invention of one of the most eminent 8conjurors0 of modern times4 #a4 ,,the ,,flying ,,shilling4 ,this trick must be frequently practised before it is produced in public4 ,borrow two coloured silk handkerchiefs from the company1 and have three shillings in your hand1 but only show two1 keeping the other one firmly fixed against the first joint of the second and third fingers4 ,you must also have a fine needle and thread stuck inside the cuff of your coat4 ,then take one of the handkerchiefs1 and put in both shillings1 but pretend that only one is in the handkerchief2 then put the handkerchief into a hat1 leaving one corner hanging out4 ,now hold up the third shilling 7which the spectators imagine is the second71 and ask one of the company to lay the second handkerchief over it4 ,you then ask him to hold the shilling tight between his finger and thumb1 while you twist up the handkerchief4 ,while doing so1 with both hands concealed under the handkerchief1 you pass a few stitches under the shilling1 and replace the needle4 ,this being done1 spread one corner of the handkerchief over the hand of the person who is still holding the shilling1 and1 taking hold of another corner1 tell him to drop the shilling when you have counted three4 ,at the word 8three0 he lets go the shilling1 and you whisk the handkerchief into the air1 when the shilling appears to have vanished1 but is really held in the handkerchief4 ,you then tell the astonished individual to draw the other handkerchief out of the hat by the corner that is hanging out4 ,the two shillings are heard to fall into the hat1 and every one is persuaded that you have conjured one of the shillings out of the person's hand1 and sent it into the hat4 #b4 ,,another ,,method4 ,perhaps the spectators may ask to see it again1 or demand to mark the shilling4 ,in this case1 vary it as follows4 ,ask some one 7always choose the most incredulous of the party7 to mark a shilling of his own and give it you4 ,take the same handkerchief and give him the shilling to hold that is already enclosed in it1 as in the last trick1 dropping the marked shilling into the palm of your hand4 ,twist it up as before1 and then leave it entirely in his hands4 ,direct him to place it on a table1 and cover it with a basin or saucer4 ,ask him to give you a cup or tumbler1 and hold it under the table1 beneath the place where the saucer is4 ,then tell him to knock three times on the saucer1 and at the third knock let the marked shilling fall into the tumbler4 ,hand him the tumbler1 and while he is examining the shilling to see if it is the same one that he marked1 take up the saucer1 and shake out the handkerchief that is lying under it1 as in the last trick4 ,you must then return the handkerchief1 and while you pretend to be searching for the marks1 draw out the thread that held the shilling and drop the coin into the palm of your hand1 taking care to rub between your finger and thumb the spot where the threads had been1 in order to eradicate the marks4 ,this variation seldom fails to confuse the company4 ,you must remember to keep talking the whole time1 and always try to make a joke1 or otherwise to distract the attention of the audience1 while you are executing the necessary changes4 #c4 ,,the ,,beads ,,and ,,strings4 ,illustration ,ask some lady to lend you the beads off her bracelet1 or have by you five or six beads1 which you may hand round for examination4 ,then get some one to cut two pieces of thin string of equal length1 and twist them about your fingers1 appearing to lay them side by side1 but in reality placing them as in the figure1 and then1 by twisting them together with apparent carelessness1 the manner in which they are arranged will not be seen1 particularly if you keep the point of junction hidden either by a finger1 or by throwing the shade of your hand upon it4 ,when the beads are returned1 thread them all1 taking care to pass the centre bead over the point of juncture4 ,you then bring the ends of the string #a and #b together and tie them so1 doing the same with #c and #d4 ,now give the tied ends to two persons1 directing them to hold them tight4 ,you need not fear that the beads will come off1 even if they pull hard4 ,then grasp the beads with both hands1 directing the holders to slacken the strings4 ,you then1 under cover of the left hand1 which is placed above the beads1 slip the centre bead to one side1 and draw out the two loops which have been hidden in it4 ,the beads will then easily come off into your right hand4 ,tell the holders to pull hard1 which they will do1 and the same moment remove your hands1 showing the empty strings and all the beads in your right hand4 ,then hand round the beads and strings as before4 ,remember to rub out the marks in the strings caused by the loops before you remove your hands4 #d4 ,,to ,,get ,a ,,ring ,,out ,,of ,a ,,handkerchief4 ,bend a piece of gold wire into the form of a ring1 having previously sharpened both ends4 ,you have a real ring made of the same piece of wire1 and concealing the false ring in the palm of your hand1 offer the real one to be inspected4 ,when it is returned1 borrow a handkerchief1 and1 while taking it from the lender1 slip the real ring into your left hand1 and take the false one at its point of junction4 ,throw the handkerchief over the ring1 and give it to some one to hold between his finger and thumb4 ,let the handkerchief fall over it1 and give a piece of string to a second spectator1 directing him to tie it round the handkerchief1 about two inches below the ring1 so as to enclose it in a bag1 and tell him to do so as tightly as he can4 ,while he is doing this1 take up your conjuring wand1 a rod of some hard wood1 about eighteen inches long1 and when the knot is tied1 step forward1 passing the rod into your left hand1 taking care to slip over it the real ring1 which has lain concealed there4 ,slip your left hand to the centre of the rod1 and direct each of the two persons to hold one end of it in his right hand4 ,then tell the one who has the ring and handkerchief1 to lay them on your left hand1 which you immediately cover with your right4 ,then tell them to spread another handkerchief over your hands1 and to say after you any nonsense that you like to invent4 ,while they are so doing1 unbend the false ring1 and draw it through the handkerchief by one of its points1 carefully rubbing between the thumb and finger the place where it came through4 ,hang the empty handkerchief over the ring which is on the rod1 and take away your hands1 which you exhibit empty1 as you have stuck the false ring inside your cuff4 ,take away the upper handkerchief1 and let a third person come to examine1 when he will find the ring gone out of the handkerchief1 and hung upon the rod4 #e4 ,,to ,,tie ,a ,,knot ,,in ,a ,,handkerchief ,,which ,,cannot ,,be ,,drawn ,,tight4 ,illustration ,cast an ordinary knot on a handkerchief1 and give the end out of your right hand to some spectator1 and tell him to pull hard and sharp when you count three4 ,just as he pulls1 slip your left thumb under the handkerchief1 as drawn in the cut1 and it will be pulled out quite straight without any knot at all4 ,you must let go the end that hangs over the left hand1 and grasp the handkerchief between the thumb and forefinger4 #f4 ,,the ,,three ,,cups4 ,illustration ,this is an admirable delusion1 but requires very careful management1 and should be practised repeatedly before it is exhibited publicly4 ,you get three tin cups1 of the shape shown in the cut4 ,they should have two or three ridges running round them at the mouth1 in order to give a better hold4 ,four balls should now be made of cork1 and carefully blackened4 ,one of the balls is held concealed between the roots of the third and fourth fingers1 while the other three are handed round for examination1 together with the cups4 ,when they are returned1 the young conjuror begins by placing each ball under a cup1 or1 if he chooses1 asks one of the spectators to do so for him4 ,while this is being done1 he slips the fourth ball to the tips of the second and third fingers4 ,he then lifts up cup ,no4 #a1 replacing it on the table a few inches from its first position1 and at the same time slips the fourth ball under it4 ,he takes up ball ,no4 #a1 and pretends to throw it away1 but in reality he slips it into the place which the fourth ball had occupied4 ,he does the same with the three cups1 and then commences a sham search after the lost balls1 in which he accidentally 767 knocks over one of the cups1 and1 to his pretended astonishment1 finds a ball under it4 ,he then knocks over both the other cups1 and finds in them the two missing balls4 ,he again places the balls under the cups1 taking care to slip the fourth ball under cup ,no4 #c4 ,he then takes up cup ,no4 #a and pretends to throw the ball into ,no4 #c1 but hides it as before4 ,as there are already two balls in ,no4 #c1 the spectators imagine that he really has thrown the ball into it4 ,he replaces cup ,no4 #c over both balls1 and slips among them ball ,no4 #a4 ,he then takes up cup ,no4 #b1 and goes through the same process1 and on knocking over cup ,no4 #c1 all three balls are found together under it1 and while the spectators are being astonished1 ball ,no4 #b can be quickly got rid of4 ,a rather startling termination to this trick can be managed by taking up one of the cups with its mouth upwards1 holding the finger and thumb close to its mouth4 ,then by throwing another cup into it1 letting go the first and catching the second1 you appear to have thrown the second cup through the first4 #g4 ,,to ,,tie ,a ,,handkerchief ,,round ,,your ,,leg1 ,,and ,,get ,,it ,,off ,,without ,,untying ,,the ,,knot4 ,hold the handkerchief by both ends1 lay the centre of the handkerchief on your knee1 and pass the two ends below1 appearing to cross them1 but in reality hitching them within each other1 as represented in the engraving1 which shows the manner in which this is managed4 ,draw this loop tight1 and bring back the ends to the same side on which they were originally1 and tie them above4 ,if the loop is properly made1 it will stand a good pull4 ,then1 after showing the spectators how firmly it is tied1 put your hand under the knot1 and by giving it a sharp pull1 it will come off4 ,illustration ,the engraving represents the manner in which the loop is made1 but it must be made considerably smaller than it is shown1 or it will be seen4 ,in fact1 it ought not to be a loop at all1 as it should be almost concealed under the fold of the handkerchief4 ,do not show this in public until you can tie it with rapidity and precision4 #h4 ,,the ,,magic ,,bond4 ,illustration ,take a piece of string1 and tie the two ends together with a weaver's knot1 as that holds the best1 and arrange it over the fingers as represented in the engraving4 ,having done so1 let the long loop hang loose1 lift both loops off the thumb1 draw them forward until the string is quite tight1 and then put them behind the hand1 by passing them between the second and third fingers4 ,then pull the part of the string that is across the roots of the fingers1 and the whole affair will come off4 #i4 ,,the ,,old ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,chair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,take the same piece of string as in the last trick1 hold your left hand with the palm uppermost1 and hang the string over the palm4 ,spread all the fingers1 and with the right hand bring forward the loop that hangs behind1 by passing it over the second and third fingers4 ,loose the loop1 take hold of the part of the string that crosses the hand1 and pull it forwards4 ,when tight1 pass it to the back of the hand1 the reversal of the movement that brought it forwards4 ,loose the loop1 insert the fore-finger and little finger of the right hand under the string that encircles the left fore-finger and little-finger1 and pass the two loops to the back of the hand1 as shown in the cut1 ,fig4 #a4 ,tuck both loops under the cross-string at the back1 and your preliminaries are completed4 ,then begin your story3 8,there was once upon a time an old man1 who stole a pound of candles4 ,here they are40 ,you then hold your left hand as at the commencement1 hook the right fore-finger under the cross-piece at the back1 and draw it downward until it is long enough to be passed over the second and third fingers to the front4 ,pass it over1 and draw it slowly upwards1 when the similitude of a pound of candles hanging by their string will be seen4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 8,the old man1 being tired1 hung up his candles10 you then hang the long loop over your thumb1 8and sat down in his high-backed chair1 which you see here40 ,you then hitch the right fore-finger and middle finger under the two loops that will be found hanging behind the left hand1 bring them to the front1 raise them perpendicularly1 and the chair will be seen as in ,fig4 #c4 ,the thumb must be raised perpendicularly1 and brought as much as possible into the centre of the hand1 or the chair will be all aside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #a4 ,right fore-finger4 #b4 ,right middle-finger4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,fore-finger of left hand4 #b4 ,little finger of left hand4 #c4 ,fore-finger of right hand4 #d4 ,middle finger of right hand4 ,fig4 #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e #a4 ,right middle-finger4 #b4 ,right fore-finger4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,right fore-finger4 #b4 ,left hand4 ,fig4 #f 8,when the old man was rested1 it began to become dark1 and he took a pair of scissors to cut down a candle for himself4 ,here are the scissors40 ,while you are saying this1 you slip the loop off the thumb1 and you get ,fig4 #d4 ,move the blades and handles of the scissors1 as if cutting something with them4 8,just as he had lighted it1 in came a policeman1 and produced his staff1 with the ,queen's crown at the top40 ,now let go the little finger of the left hand1 and the loop will run up the string towards the right hand1 producing ,fig4 #e4 8,the old man in vain tried to resist1 for the policeman called a comrade to his assistance1 and they tied a cord round the old man's arms in a tight knot1 like this10--slip the right middle-finger out of its loop1 and you will obtain ,fig4 #f1--8;and carried him off to prison40 #aj4 ,,to ,,tie ,a ,,knot ,,on ,,the ,,left ,,wrist1 ,,without ,,letting ,,the ,,right ,,hand ,,approach ,,it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,take a piece of thick pliant string by each end1 and with a quick jerk of the right hand cast a loop on it as in ,fig4 #a4 ,the jerk must be given upwards and towards the left hand1 and its impetus will cause the loop to run up the string until it falls over the left wrist1 as in ,fig4 #b4 ,the moment that the forward jerk is given the right hand should be drawn back1 so that the loop is drawn tight directly it has settled on the wrist4 ,both ends should be let fall when the knot is firm4 ,this is a very nice little sleight of hand to practice in the intervals between more showy tricks1 and1 although rather difficult to learn1 is soon acquired4 #aa4 ,,the ,,handcuffs4 ,illustration ,let two persons1 ,a and ,b1 have their hands tied together with string1 so that the strings cross1 as represented in the engraving4 ,the object is1 to free themselves from each other without untying the knot4 ,it is executed in the following manner4 ,let ,b gather up the string that joins his hands1 pass the loop under the string that binds either of ,a's wrists1 slip it over ,a's hand1 and both will be free4 ,by a reversal of the same process1 the string may be replaced4 #ab4 ,,to ,,pull ,a ,,string ,,through ,,your ,,button-,,hole4 ,take a piece of string about two feet in length1 and tie the ends together4 ,pass it through a button-hole of your coat2 hitch one thumb at each end1 hook the little fingers into the upper strings of the opposite hand4 ,then draw the hands well outward1 and the string will look very complicated1 as in the engraving4 ,illustration ,to get out the string1 loose the hold of the right thumb and left little finger1 and separate the hands smartly1 when the string will appear to have been pulled out through the substance of your coat4 ,it is an improvement of the trick1 if1 immediately on loosing the hold of the right thumb1 you change the string from the right little finger on to the thumb4 #ac4 ,,the ,,cut ,,string ,,restored4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,the twisted string4 #b4 ,the manner of holding it4 ,tie together the ends of a piece of string1 pass one hand through each end1 twist it once round1 and put both ends into the left hand4 ,draw the right hand rapidly along the double strings until you come to the place where the strings have crossed each other1 as seen in the engraving4 ,conceal the junction with the thumb and finger of the right hand2 hold the strings in a similar manner with the left hand1 and tell some one to cut the string between them4 ,you show that the string has been divided into two pieces1 and say that you will join them with your teeth4 ,put all four ends into your mouth1 and remove with your tongue the little loop that has been cut off4 ,when you take the string out of your mouth1 the spectators will not notice the absence of so small a portion of its length1 and will fancy that you really have joined them4 #ad4 ,,the ,,gordian ,,knot4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,take a silk handkerchief1 and lay it on a table4 ,take each of the corners1 and lay them across each other in the middle of the handkerchief1 which will then be square1 as in the cut1 ,fig4 #a4 ,do the same with the new corners1 and go on until the handkerchief is reduced to the size of your hand4 ,then with your left finger and thumb take hold of the centre1 taking care to grasp all the four corners that lie there1 and with the right finger and thumb take hold of the outer layer of silk1 and pull it towards you as far as it will come4 ,then turn it a little on your left hand1 and repeat the operation until it is all screwed up into a tight ball1 as is represented in the engraving1 ,fig4 #b4 ,no ends will be then perceptible1 and a person who is unacquainted with the mode will never be able to untie it4 ,of course you must prepare it previously4 ,when the person to whom you give it has failed to untie it1 you take the ball in your hand1 and holding it behind your back1 you reverse the method by which it was tied1 and when it is loose a good shake will release it4 #ae4 ,,the ,,knot ,,loosened4 ,illustration ,this is a very amusing deception4 ,you ask any one for a handkerchief1 and tie the ends firmly together in a double knot1 allowing him to feel it1 or pull the ends as tight as he pleases4 ,you then throw the centre of the handkerchief over the knot1 and ask the person to hold it tight between his finger and thumb4 ,you ask him if the knot is still there1 to which he will answer in the affirmative4 ,you then take hold of any part of the handkerchief1 and direct the holder to drop the handkerchief at the word 8three40 ,you count1 8one1 two1 three10 at which word he looses his hold of the handkerchief1 and there is no vestige left of the knot4 ,the method of managing this trick is as follows3--,take the handkerchief and tie the ends in a simple knot1 keeping one end tight1 and the other end loose4 ,we will call the tight end ,a1 and the loose one ,b4 ,keep ,a always in the right hand1 and on the stretch horizontally1 and the handkerchief will look as in the cut4 ,do this when you tie it the second time1 and draw ,b tight1 which will then form a double tie round ,a1 but will not hold it firm4 ,when you throw the handkerchief over the knot1 you draw out ,a with the finger and thumb of the left hand1 and the knot will apparently remain firm1 although in reality it is nothing but a double twist of silk1 which of course falls loose when the handkerchief is dropped4 #af4 ,,to ,,put ,,nuts ,,into ,,your ,,ear4 ,take three nuts in the left hand1 show them1 and take out one of them between your right finger and thumb1 and another between the first and third finger4 ,this latter is not seen by the company4 ,you then put one of them in your mouth and retain it there1 unknown to the spectators1 while you exhibit the second as the one that you put into your mouth4 ,this second one you carry to your ear1 as if you meant to insert it there1 and on replacing it in your left hand1 only two nuts will be left instead of three1 the third of which appears to have gone into your ear4 #ag4 ,,to ,,crack ,,walnuts ,,in ,,your ,,elbow4 ,conceal a very strong walnut in your right hand1 and take two other walnuts out of the dish4 ,place one of them on the joint of your arm1 and say that you are going to break it by the power of your muscles4 ,you will now have one walnut in your arm and two in your right hand4 ,close your left arm1 and strike it an apparently violent blow with the right hand1 at the same time clenching the right hand violently1 which will smash the second walnut in it1 and the spectators hearing the crash will be sure to fancy that it is caused by the demolition of the walnut in your arm4 ,then open you arm very gently 7for fear of dropping any of the fragments1 you must say71 and1 when pretending to take out the walnut which you had placed there1 you substitute for it the broken one from your right hand4 #ah4 ,,to ,,take ,,feathers ,,out ,,of ,,an ,,empty ,,handkerchief4 ,procure at the military clothier's four or five large plumes1 such as are worn by officers4 ,take off your coat1 and lay the plumes along your arms1 the stem being toward your hand4 ,now put on your coat again1 and the feathers will lie quite smoothly and unsuspected4 ,borrow a handkerchief from one of the spectators1 and wave it about to show that it is empty4 ,throw it over your left hand1 and with the right draw out one of the plumes from up the coat-sleeve1 at the same time giving it a flourish in the air1 which will loosen all the fibres of the feather1 and make it appear much too large to have been concealed about the person4 ,wave the handkerchief again1 and repeat the operation until all the plumes are gone4 ,you can carry enough plumes under the sleeve to cover a table with1 and if you prepare a board or an ornamental vase full of holes1 you can place the plumes upright as you take them out4 ,,tricks ,,requiring ,,special ,,apparatus4 ,none of the following tricks are wholly managed by the apparatus1 as such performances are unworthy of notice4 ,therefore1 every trick mentioned in the following pages must be carefully practised in private before it is produced in public4 ,the apparatus1 of course1 cannot be inspected by the audience1 and for that reason it is better to mix them with those tricks which have been already mentioned1 in order that suspicious persons may be quieted by an occasional permission to inspect the objects used in the performances4 ,the young conjuror should always vary the mode of performance in the non-essentials1 and should study combinations of one trick with another1 by which means he will produce more astonishing results than if he restricted himself to the methods mentioned in this work4 ,he should also invariably make a little speech1 acknowledging that he is only deceiving the eye and not the mind1 and should therefore request the company not to ask any questions1 or to demand inspection of any of his apparatus4 #ai4 ,,the ,,die ,,trick4 ,get a wooden die about two inches and a half square 7#a71 and a hollow tin die exactly the size of the wooden one1 but without one of the sides 7#b74 ,then paint them both exactly alike1 as in the engraving4 ,it will be better to let an accidental flaw appear on the same side of each4 ,then get a tin cover 7#d7 that exactly fits the dies4 ,now for the trick itself4 ,illustration ,borrow two hats1 and while you turn your back upon the audience as you go to your table1 slip into one of them the false die4 ,place both hats on the table1 and send round the real die and cover for inspection4 ,when they are returned1 say1 8,now1 ladies and gentlemen1 it is my intention to place these hats one above another1 thus40 ,you then place the two hats as in ,no4 #c1 the hollow die being in the bottom hat4 8,i shall then cover the die thus10 which you do1 8and after ,i have knocked on the cover1 ,i shall take it off1 and you will find that the die is not under the cover1 as it is now10 taking it off1 8but inside the hat1 like this40 ,you then put the real die into the hat4 8,you do not believe me1 ladies and gentlemen1 but ,i will soon convince you40 ,you then take out the false die1 and replacing the upper hat1 put the die on the upper hat 7of course1 with the open side downward7 and place the cover over it4 ,pick up your conjuring wand1 give it a few flourishes1 and bring it down on the cover4 ,grasp the cover tightly near the bottom1 when both cover and false die will come up together2 put the end of your wand into them1 and give them a good rattle4 ,then knock off the upper hat with a blow of the wand1 and push the lower one off the table1 so that the die tumbles out of it4 ,always use plenty of gesture about your tricks4 #bj4 ,,the ,,penetrative ,,pence4 ,get a brazier to cut out all the interior of five pence1 only leaving the rims4 ,he must then bore out nearly all the interior of a sixth penny1 merely leaving a shell of copper at the top4 ,a long rivet must then be let into the rim as shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 and a hole must be drilled in each of the five rings1 as in ,no4 #c4 ,the rivet is to be passed through the holes in the rings1 and fastened below1 so that all the rings can play easily upon it4 ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #a1 is a section of the entire apparatus1 the dotted lines representing the rivet4 ,they can then be placed as shown in ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #a1 and no one will imagine that they are only shams1 as you can rattle them or move them about upon each other4 ,a leathern cover1 ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #b1 is then made1 which passes easily over the heap of pence1 but being pliable1 is capable of picking up the hollow pence with it1 when it is held firmly4 ,to the under surface of the table you fasten a little shelf1 ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #c1 which moves on a hinge1 and is let fall by placing the foot on the pedal1 ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #d1 which draws the catch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,to perform the trick1 place six real pence on the little shelf1 and have the sham pence on the table4 ,take them up and rattle them1 and put them down as in ,fig4 #b1 ,no4 #a4 ,keep a sixpence in the palm of your hand1 pick up the sham pence1 and as you put them down1 slip the sixpence under them1 as you do the ball in trick #f4 ,take the cover1 and put it over the sham pence1 make a short speech1 and knock the cover with your wand1 at the same time pressing the pedal with your foot1 which will cause all the six real pence to tumble down with a great crash4 ,take up the cover and false pence together1 put the end of your wand into them and hold them up triumphantly1 showing the spectators that the six pence have been replaced by a silver sixpence4 ,while you are picking up the pence1 slip the sham ones out of the cover into your left hand1 and take some opportunity of letting the empty cover roll towards the audience1 one of whom you ask to pick it up and bring it you4 ,this manuvre generally disarms all suspicion1 for the picker-up is sure to examine it very closely4 ,i have only given mere outlines of this really excellent trick1 which may be varied in a hundred ways1 and is capable of combination with other tricks to a large extent4 ,it will add to its complicity1 if a set of six half-pence is also made like the pence4 ,for the pedal may be substituted a lever running immediately under the surface of the table1 if the performer prefers to have a short cloth on it4 ,there should be always two cloths on the table1--the lower one thick and soft1 to prevent jingling of objects1 and the upper one white1 as it displays everything better than a coloured one4 ,the ingenuity of the young conjuror will easily find methods of varying this trick4 ,illustration #ba4 ,,the ,,doll ,,trick4 ,get a comical looking doll1 and cut off his head diagonally1 taking care to do it very neatly4 ,drive a peg into the neck1 and bore a hole in the body1 into which the peg fits1 as in the cut4 ,paint his body and head carefully1 and if you put a gold chain or two round his neck1 it will conceal the line of junction4 ,make also a coat of silk1 and sew a pocket inside the edge of the skirt4 ,take up the doll1 and say1 8,now1 ladies and gentlemen1 here is a very learned man4 ,observe the development of his forehead1 the sagacity of his nose1 the eloquence of his lips1 the dignity of his spectacles1 and the philosophy of his pigtail4 ,he is professor of astronomy at ,timbuctoo1 and here is his gown of office4 ,see how handsome he looks in it4 ,he is going to ,amsterdam to see the eclipse of the last new comet4 ,he has the honour to wish you all farewell before starting on his journey4 ,now1 professor1 we are waiting to see you go4 ,oh6 you want funds1 do you8 ,i beg your pardon2 here is a shilling for you40 ,so saying1 you take your right hand from under the gown1 taking with it the body1 and put the body into your pocket1 while you jingle some silver4 ,the head is now supported by your left hand4 ,pretend to give him some money1 and then say1 8,what6 you won't go unless you have more6 ,get along60 ,hit the head a hard rap with your right hand1 which drives it into the pocket1 which you hold open for it with your left thumb and little finger4 8,oh dear6 the doctor is dead1 and cannot be found40 ,saying this1 you grasp the gown by the place where the head is1 and shake it about to show that it is empty4 ,if you like1 you can make another oration and hold a dialogue1 making the doctor resuscitate himself1 which is of course done by taking the head out of the pocket with the left hand1 and working it about by the peg4 #bb4 ,,the ,,flying ,,coins4 ,take two sovereigns1 or rather brass imitations1 and grind them down until they are reduced to half their thickness4 ,do the same with two shillings1 and fasten them accurately together1 so that you will have two coins1 each having one silver face1 and one brass face4 ,take one of them in each hand1 showing the silver side of one and the brass side of another1 and offer to change them without moving your arms4 ,shut your hands1 and the coins will turn over4 ,then1 on opening them again1 they will appear to have changed from one hand into the other4 #bc4 ,,the ,,vanished ,,groat4 ,put a little wax on the nail of the middle finger of the right hand1 and take a fourpenny piece into the palm of the same hand4 ,close the hand1 pressing the wax on the coin4 ,then rapidly open it1 and the silver piece will adhere to the wax1 and be quite concealed behind the finger when you hold your hand up4 #bd4 ,,the ,,restored ,,document4 ,make a memorandum book1 and line the cover with paper which has been previously rubbed with a mixture of lamp-black and oil4 ,the paper must be loosely affixed1 so that it can be raised up1 and a leaf from the memorandum book placed under it4 ,you must also make a flat box1 having a double opening4 ,you now take a leaf out of the memorandum book1 and ask some one to write a sentence1 at the same time offering him the book to write upon4 ,the pencil with which you furnish him is very hard1 and he is forced to press upon the paper in order to mark4 ,in so doing1 the black is transferred by the pressure of the pencil from the blackened paper to the white leaf that has been placed under it1 and of course makes an exact copy of the writing4 ,you then give the man his document1 put the memorandum book in your pocket1 and go out of the room to fetch your box1 which you have forgotten4 ,while you are out of the room1 you take out the leaf from under the black paper1 and put it into one side of the flat box1 and shut down the cover that hides it4 ,you bring in the box1 apologising for your absence1 and give the box1 open at the other side1 into the writer's hands4 ,tell him to burn his writing in a candle1 and to place the ashes in the box4 ,he does so1 and closing the box1 returns it to you4 ,you then flourish about a little with the box1 wave it in the air1 bring it down with a bang on the table1 strike it with your wand1 and then1 opening it as at first1 you produce the duplicate leaf1 which the writer acknowledges to be his own hand-writing4 ,if the lamp-black should have come off and smeared the paper1 you can account for it by observing that it is very difficult to get rid of all traces of the burning4 #be4 ,,the ,,magic ,,rings4 ,get a blacksmith to make a number of rings1 about six or seven inches in diameter1 as in the cut4 ,a is made with a spring opening on one side1 ,b is a set of two rings forged permanently within each other1 ,c is a set of three rings formed in the same manner1 and ,d ,d are two simple rings4 ,the rings should be about the thickness of a rather large blacklead pencil4 ,illustration ,lay the rings on one another1 and they will all appear to be separate and distinct2 ,d ,d should be the uppermost rings1 then ,b1 then ,a1 and then ,c4 ,hand round ,d for inspection1 and if any more are desired1 hand round the other ,d4 ,when returned1 you hang them over your left arm1 or grasp them in your hand1 and tell the company that you are going to weave all the rings together4 ,you clash them together1 and after going through some complicated movements1 bring out ,b1 which the spectators will think you have just fastened together4 ,hand them round4 ,when they are returned1 mix them all up1 and bring out ,c4 ,then take ,a in your hand1 and passing one of the outer rings of ,c through the opening1 you have four rings together4 ,then add ,d and you have five4 ,take off ,d and substitute ,b1 which will give you six4 ,so you go on1 weaving them into all kinds of fantastic shapes4 ,you must always conceal the joint in ,a with your thumb1 and contrive as often as you can to have one at least of the rings ,d at liberty4 ,this is a capital trick1 and may be diversified to any extent1 especially if the number of rings is increased4 #bf4 ,,the ,,fish ,,and ,,ink ,,trick4 ,this is really a first-rate delusion4 ,you bring before the spectators a glass vase1 full of ink4 ,you dip a ladle into it1 and pour out some of the ink upon a plate1 in order to convince the audience that the substance in the vase is really ink4 ,you then throw a handkerchief over the vase and instantly withdraw it1 when the vase is found to be filled with pure water1 in which a couple of gold fish are swimming4 ,this apparent impossibility is performed as follows4 ,to the interior of the vessel is fitted a black silk lining1 which adheres closely to the sides when pressed by the water1 and which is withdrawn inside the handkerchief during the performance of the trick4 ,the ladle has a hollow handle with an opening into the bowl4 ,in the handle is a spoonful or so of ink1 which runs into the bowl when it is held downwards during the act of dipping it into the vase4 #bg4 ,,the ,,cannon ,,balls4 ,the performer of this trick borrows a number of hats1 and places them on the table4 ,he then returns each person his hat1 and on turning it over1 a thirty-two pounder cannon ball rolls out4 ,the method of performing this delusion is as follows4 ,get a turner to make a number of wooden balls1 each the size of a thirty-two pounder cannon ball1 and let a hole be bored in each which will admit the middle finger4 ,the balls are arranged hole upwards on a shelf on your table on the side opposite to the audience1 so that the balls are nearly level with the top of the table4 ,when you take a hat off the table1 you slip your fore or middle finger into the ball just as you would into a thimble1 and by bending the finger1 bring the ball into the hat4 ,illustration ,any object may be brought into a hat in this manner1 a great cabbage1 for instance1 having a hole cut in the stalk4 #bh4 ,,the ,,shilling ,,in ,,the ,,ball ,,of ,,cotton4 ,get a tinman to make a flat tin tube1 which will just allow a shilling to pass through it4 ,wind a quantity of worsted round it1 so as to make it into a ball4 ,these preliminaries having been accomplished1 perform any trick that will get a shilling out of sight1 such as ,no4 #a or #b4 ,then tell the spectators that you will bring the marked shilling into the middle of a ball of worsted4 ,take down the ball from the place where it is lying1 drop the shilling into the tube1 and withdraw the tube1 leaving the shilling in the ball4 ,a good squeeze or two will hold it tight1 and obliterate every mark of the tube4 ,place the ball in a tumbler1 take the end of the worsted1 and give it to some one to unwind4 ,this being done1 the shilling will be found in the very centre of the ball1 with the end of the worsted wrapped tightly round it4 #bi4 ,,the ,,egg ,,and ,,bag ,,trick4 ,get a chintz or cloth bag made double1 and between the two bags make six or seven pockets1 each of which will hold an egg1 and having an opening into the bag4 ,fill the pockets with eggs1 and you are ready for the performance4 ,hold the bag by the place where the eggs are1 shake it1 turn it inside out and show that there is nothing in it4 ,then tell the spectators that you are sure that there is a hen in the bag4 ,put your head near the mouth of the bag1 and make a clucking like a hen4 ,you then say1 8,i knew ,i was right1 and she has laid an egg40 ,so saying1 you put your hand into the bag and take out one of the eggs1 taking care to pretend to grope in one of the corners for it4 ,this is repeated until all the eggs but one are gone4 ,you then1 after taking out the last egg1 say that some people think that the eggs are not real1 but you will convince them by ocular inspection4 ,saying this1 you break the egg in a saucer with your right hand1 and while the people are occupied with it1 you drop the bag behind your table1 or hang it on a hook out of sight1 and take up another exactly like it1 into which you have put a hen4 8,these are real eggs10 you then say1 8and if any one doubts their reality1 they cannot doubt that this is a real hen40 ,you then turn the bag upside down1 and shake out the hen4 ,if any one wishes to inspect that bag1 he can do so without being much wiser for it4 #cj4 ,,the ,,dancing ,,egg4 ,send for some eggs1 and take care to place among them one which has been emptied of its contents1 and to which is fastened a long hair1 at the other end of which is tied a crooked pin4 ,borrow a small stick from one of the spectators1 and as you go behind your table contrive to hook the bent pin into your coat1 passing it over the stick4 ,then place the egg on an inverted hat1 and ask for some music1 and directly it begins to sound1 a slight and imperceptible depression or elevation of the stick will cause the egg to twist and roll about upon it as if it had life4 ,you must be careful to turn gently round now and then1 so as apparently to vary the distance of the egg from the body4 #ca4 ,,bell ,,and ,,shot4 ,get a wooden bell made1 so thick that there is a considerable space between the outer and inner surfaces1 especially on the upper part of the bell4 ,a hollow must be cut in this1 and the handle so made1 that when it is at rest1 it is forced upwards by a spring1 and draws up the round piece of wood to which the clapper chain is attached1 and closes the aperture1 as shown in the engraving4 ,illustration ,you have a cardboard measure1 which is of precisely the same capacity as the cavity in the bell1 and just wide enough to hold a farthing4 ,into this you privately put a farthing1 and then fill up the measure with shot1 heaping it a little1 to compensate for the farthing4 ,you make up a tale about a man going out shooting1 and ringing the bell of the gunmaker's shop4 7,you then ring your wooden bell47 ,how the man bought a measure full of shot for a farthing1 7you pour the shot into the bell and back again two or three times17 but was so long haggling over three shots1 that the gunmaker took away the shot1 7here you again pour the shot into the bell1 and by pressing on the handle1 allow them all to run into the hollow17 and kept the farthing for his trouble4 ,the man went out of the shop1 but soon came in again1 and rang furiously4 7,here you again ring the bell1 which is now apparently empty1 and invert the measure on the table4 ,the farthing not being held by the finger and thumb will now fall on the tablecloth47 ,then finish the story with an account of the manner in which the man got back his farthing4 ,when you have finished1 invert the bell over the empty measure1 and on pressing the handle1 the shots will refill it4 ,do not touch1 it until you have done another trick or two1 and then1 when you put the bell aside1 ring it again1 and remark that the purchaser was a silly fellow after all1 for here are his shots in his measure4 #cb4 ,,the ,,burned ,,handkerchief ,,restored4 ,illustration ,get a tinman to make a double canister1 such as is shown in the cut1 with an opening at each end4 ,this must so slide within a tin tube1 that either end can be concealed within it alternately1 as seen in the engraving1 where the end ,a is shown1 and ,b is concealed4 ,in this position it looks like an ordinary canister4 ,the interior is divided into two parts4 ,into ,b put a piece of cambric made to look like a handkerchief4 ,borrow a cambric handkerchief1 and say1 8,now1 ladies and gentlemen1 ,i shall burn this handkerchief to ashes1 place them in this canister0 7so saying1 you put it into ,a71 8and when ,i have uttered a spell1 it will be restored perfectly whole4 ,will the owner say what mark it has80 ,while the audience are looking towards the owner1 you turn the canister over1 and push up the canister until the shoulder of ,b is on a level with the top of the tube4 ,when the mark has been declared1 you open ,b1 take out the cambric1 and pretend to verify the mark4 ,you then put it into a candle flame1 and when it has burnt entirely to ashes1 put the ashes into ,b1 shut it up1 and rapidly reverse it as you turn round to your audience1 so that ,a is uppermost again4 ,then1 utter any nonsense you like1 open ,a and take out the handkerchief uninjured4 ,it rather adds to the trick if you drop a little eau de cologne into ,a before commencing4 #cc4 ,,the ,,fire-,,eater4 ,if the young conjuror is desirous of appearing in the character of a fire-eater1 it is very easily managed4 ,he must prepare a piece of thick string1 by soaking it in a solution of nitre1 and then drying it4 ,he cuts off a piece about an inch in length1 lights one end1 and wraps it up in a piece of tow which he holds in his left hand4 ,the trifling smoke will be concealed by a huge bundle of loose tow also carried in the left hand4 ,he takes a handful of tow in his right hand1 puts it into his mouth1 chews it up1 and appears to swallow it4 ,he then takes another handful1 and with it the piece in which is the string4 ,as he puts this into his mouth1 he takes out the piece which he has already chewed4 ,by taking breath through the nostrils1 and breathing it out through the mouth1 smoke begins to issue forth1 and the whole interior of the mouth is soon lighted up with a glow4 ,when the mouth is shut1 and the tow pressed together1 the fire goes out1 except the piece of prepared string4 ,more tow is then taken into the mouth1 and treated in the same manner4 ,in this short account of conjuring1 ,i have purposely avoided such tricks as require expensive apparatus4 ,such apparatus is either entirely beyond a boy's reach1 or at all events he ought not to be encouraged in the notion of spending much money on objects of no real use4 ,a boy of any ingenuity will make the greater part of the apparatus himself1 or at least he can do the painting and polishing of his machinery4 ,i have mentioned no machinery that need cost more than two or three shillings at the outside1 and not that1 if a boy is acquainted with the use of tools4 ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards4 ,in accordance with the previous rule1 the principal stress is laid on card tricks that require no apparatus1 and may be performed with ordinary cards4 #a4 ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,pass4 ,this is a necessary beginning for card tricks4 8,making the pass0 is the technical term for shifting either the top or the bottom card to any place in the pack that you like4 ,it is almost impossible to describe it1 and ,i can only say that it will be learnt better in five minutes from a friend1 than in as many hours from a book4 ,as1 however1 a friend is not always to be found who can perform the pass1 ,i will endeavour to describe it4 ,illustration ,the cards are held in both hands1 right hand underneath and left above1 as in the engraving1 where1 as the bottom card is to be raised to the top1 the little finger is seen between that card and those above it4 ,by a quick movement of the right hand1 the bottom card is slipped away towards the left1 and is placed upon the top card1 under shadow of the left hand1 which is raised for the moment to allow of its passage4 ,this movement must be assiduously practised before it is exhibited in public1 as nothing looks more awkward than to see it clumsily performed1 in which case two or three cards generally tumble on the floor4 #b4 ,,to ,,tell ,a ,,card ,,by ,,its ,,back4 ,while shuffling the pack1 cast a glance at the bottom card1 make the pass1 and bring it to the top4 ,continue to shuffle1 and lay upon it by degrees as many cards as you like1 say six4 ,then lay the pack on the table1 face downwards1 and divide it into seven heaps1 beginning at the bottom1 and leave the seventh heap larger than any of the others4 ,when you have done this1 take one card from the top of the seventh heap1 appear to calculate1 and lay it1 face upwards1 on one of the other heaps4 ,do so with five more cards1 thus leaving your slipped card at the top of the seventh heap4 ,you then announce that by the aid of the six cards you will name the seventh4 ,you name it accordingly1 after carefully studying the other cards1 and on asking a spectator to take it up1 it will be seen that you are right4 ,if you place five cards above the slipped card1 you will lay out six heaps1 and if eight cards1 there will of course be nine heaps4 #c4 ,,the ,,card ,,named ,,without ,,being ,,seen4 ,as in the last trick1 cast a glance at the bottom card1 say the ace of spades4 ,lay out the pack in as many heaps as you like1 noting where that one is laid which contains that bottom card4 ,ask any one to take up the top card of any heap1 look at it1 and replace it4 ,you then gather up the heaps apparently by chance1 but you take care to put the heap containing the bottom card upon the card which has been chosen4 ,you then give any one the cards to cut1 and on counting them over1 the card that immediately follows the ace of spades is the card chosen4 ,if by any accident the two cards should be separated when cut1 the upper card of the pack is the chosen one1 and can be picked out with seeming care4 #d4 ,,the ,,card ,,told ,,by ,,the ,,opera ,,glass4 ,make out a table1 such as is given on the next page1 ,fig4 #a1 and place it in an opera-glass1 so that the figures will be visible when you look through it4 ,for convenience1 ,i have made mine as seen in ,fig4 #b1 the numbers #a1 #b1 #c in each series being understood4 ,the best plan is to write the numbers1 or cut them out of a book1 and paste them on a circular piece of cardboard1 which must then be soaked in oil1 so as to make it semi-transparent4 ,the light will then easily pierce through it1 and the figures will be better visible than if it were opaque4 ,it will be seen that ,fig4 #b contains as much matter as ,fig4 #a1 and that two-thirds of the figures are saved by it4 --------------------------------------- #a4 #aca #aj4 #acb #ai4 #acc #b4 #bca #aa4 #bcb #bj4 #bcc #c4 #cca #ah4 #ccb #ba4 #ccc --------------------------------------- #d4 #aba #ac4 #abb #bb4 #abc #e4 #bba #ad4 #bbb #bc4 #bbc #f4 #cba #ae4 #cbb #bd4 #cbc --------------------------------------- #g4 #aaa #af4 #aab #be4 #aac #h4 #baa #ag4 #bab #bf4 #bac #i4 #caa #ah4 #cab #bg4 #cac --------------------------------------- ,,fig4 #a4 -------------- _/ _/ _/ _/ #a4 #ca4 #aj4 #cb4 _/ _/ #d4 #ba4 #ac4 #bb4 _/ _/ #g4 #aa4 #af4 #ab4 ----------------------------- #ai4 #cc4 _/ _/ #bb4 #bc4 _/ _/ #be4 #ac4 _/ _/ _/ _/ --------------- ,,fig4 #b4 ,these preliminaries being arranged1 tell any one to take any twenty-seven cards out of a pack1 and to think of any one of them4 ,deal them into three heaps1 and ask him in which heap it is1 and what number from the top he would like it to come after the third deal4 ,suppose he chooses it to be the twenty-sixth card1 you take up your opera-glass1 and look for the number #bf4 ,this you will find last but one1 arranged thus1--#bf4 #bac4 ,the meaning is1 that if the chosen card is to be the twenty-sixth1 the heap in which it was found must be for the first time placed second1 the second time first1 and the last time third4 ,so you pick up the cards1 taking care to keep that heap number two4 ,you again deal them in three heaps1 and this time you place the heap in which is the chosen card at the top1 being number one4 ,deal them a third time1 and on gathering up the heaps1 place it at the bottom4 ,then1 on counting from the top1 the chosen card will be found to be the twenty-sixth4 #e4 ,,the ,,four ,,kings4 ,take the four kings out of a pack of cards1 and also two other court cards1 which are not to be shown4 ,spread out the kings before the spectators1 but conceal the two court cards between the third and fourth kings4 ,lay the cards face downwards on the table4 ,take off the bottom card1 which is of course one of the kings2 show it as if by accident1 and place it on the top4 ,take the next card1 7which is one of the court cards17 and place that in the middle of the pack4 ,take the third card1 7i4 e4 the second court card17 and place that also near the middle of the pack4 ,there will then be one king at the top and three at the bottom4 ,ask any one to cut the cards1 and to examine them when he will find all four kings together in the middle of the pack4 ,it is better to use court cards to place between the third and fourth kings1 because if the cards should slip aside1 they would not be so readily distinguished as common cards4 ,,audacity4 ,several tricks may be successfully played by sheer audacity4 ,a whole party has been astonished by the performer holding a pack of cards over his head1 and naming each4 ,the fact was1 that he was standing exactly opposite a large mirror1 in which the cards were reflected1 while the spectators1 having their backs to the mirror1 suspected nothing4 ,here are one or two tricks that depend on audacity for success4 #f4 ,,the ,,card ,,found ,,at ,,the ,,second ,,guess4 ,offer the cards to any one1 and let him draw one4 ,you then hold the cards behind your back1 and tell him to place his card on the top4 ,pretend to make a great shuffling1 but only turn that card with its back to the others1 still keeping it at the top4 ,then hold up the cards with their faces towards the spectator1 and ask him if the bottom card is his4 ,while doing so1 you inspect his card at your leisure4 ,he of course denies it1 and you begin shuffling again furiously4 8,let me do that10 he will probably say2 so1 as you are perfectly acquainted with his card1 you let him shuffle as much as he likes1 and then1 when you get the cards back again1 shuffle until his card is at the bottom4 ,then pass them behind your back1 make a ruffling noise with them1 and show him his own card at the bottom4 #g4 ,,the ,,card ,,found ,,under ,,the ,,hat4 ,have a needle stuck just inside your sleeve4 ,hand the cards1 c4 just as in the preceding trick1 and tell the taker to put the card on the top4 ,take out the needle1 and prick a hole nearly through the top left-hand corner4 ,replace the needle1 shuffle the cards1 or let any one shuffle them4 ,place the pack on the table1 cover them with a hat1 and the marked card will be known by a little raised knob on the right-hand top corner4 ,draw out card by card1 saying whether it is that card or not1 until you come to the marked one1 which you throw on the table carelessly1 and when you are about taking out another card1 stop suddenly1 and pretend to find1 by some magic process1 that it is the chosen card4 #h4 ,,to ,,call ,,the ,,cards ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,pack4 ,tell the spectators that you will call six cards out of the pack4 ,secure a card1--say the ace of spades1--in the palm of your hand4 ,throw the pack on the table1 face downwards1 spread out the cards1 give one of the spectators your conjuring wand1 and tell him1 when you name a card1 to touch one1 which you will take up4 ,first name the ace of spades4 ,he touches a card1 which you take up without showing the face of it4 ,this card may be1 say the eight of diamonds4 ,put it into your left hand1 and place it upon the ace of spades which is already there1 so that the two look like one card4 ,then call for the eight of diamonds4 ,another card is touched1 say the queen of clubs4 ,this you put with the others1 and1 after pretending to calculate1 call for the queen of clubs4 ,proceed in this manner until six cards have been drawn4 ,then substitute the last card drawn 7which is of course a wrong one7 for the ace of spades1 and conceal it in the palm of your hand4 ,then strew the others on the table1 and while the eyes of the spectators are fixed upon them1 get rid of the card in your left hand4 ,it is a good plan to ask some one to write down the names of the cards as they are called1 and then to have the list called over1 in order that every one may see that there has been no mistake4 #i4 ,,heads ,,and ,,tails4 ,while you are shuffling the cards1 contrive to arrange quietly all their heads one way1 or as many as possible1 rejecting all the diamonds except the king1 queen1 knave1 and seven1 and passing them to the bottom4 ,put the pack upon the table1 take off a number of the upper cards1 and offer them for some one to choose a card from4 ,while he is looking at it1 turn the cards round1 and offer them to him1 in order that he may replace it4 ,shuffle the cards1 and on looking them over1 the chosen card will be standing with its head one way1 while the others are reversed4 #aj4 ,,the ,,surprise4 ,when you have discovered a card1 the following plan will make a striking termination to the trick4 ,get the card to the bottom of the pack1 and tell one of the spectators to hold the cards by one corner as tightly as he can4 ,give them a sharp rap with your finger1--not with your hand1--and all the cards will be struck out of his hold1 and fall on the floor1 except the bottom card1 which will remain between his finger and thumb4 ,it has a rather more dashing effect1 if you put the chosen card at the top1 and strike them upwards1 when the whole pack will fly about the room1 like a flock of butterflies1 only leaving the top card in the person's grasp4 #aa4 ,,the ,,revolution4 ,another neat way of finishing a trick is as follows4 ,get the card to the top of the pack2 and taking care that all the cards are even1 drop the pack on the floor1 taking care just as you let go1 to slip the top card a little off the rest of the pack4 ,in falling1 the resistance of the air will turn the card over1 and it will rest with its face upwards on the top of the pack4 #ab4 ,,the ,,slipped ,,card4 ,ascertain the bottom card of the pack2 hold the cards in your left hand1 with their faces downwards4 ,place your right hand upon them1 and with your right fore-finger slide them slowly over each other1 asking some one to stop any card he chooses1 by putting his finger upon it4 ,when he has done so1 open the pack at that card1 but while opening it1 make the pass1 and bring the bottom card under the one touched4 ,hold up the cards1 and ask the chooser to be sure of his card2 hand all the cards to him1 and let him shuffle as much as he chooses4 ,afterwards discover the card in any manner that you prefer4 ,the following is a good plan4 #ac4 ,,the ,,nailed ,,card4 ,take a flat-headed nail1 and file it down until its point is as sharp as a needle1 and the head quite flat4 ,the nail should be about half an inch long1 or even shorter if anything4 ,pass the nail through the centre of any card1--say the ace of spades1--and conceal it in your left hand4 ,take another pack of cards1 get the ace of spades to the bottom1 and perform the preceding trick4 ,when the cards are returned1 shuffle them about1 and exchange the pierced card for the other4 ,put the pierced card at the bottom of the pack1 and throw the cards violently against a door1 when the nail will be driven in by the pressure of the other cards against its head1 and the chosen card will be seen nailed to the door4 ,the nail should be put through the face of card1 so that when the others fall on the floor1 it remains facing the spectators4 #ad4 ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,points ,,on ,,three ,,unseen ,,cards4 ,in this amusement the ace counts eleven1 the court cards ten each1 and the others according to the number of their spots4 ,ask any one to choose any three cards1 and lay them on the table1 with their faces downwards4 ,on each of these he must place as many as with the number of the card will make fifteen4 ,he gives you the remaining cards1 and when you have them in your hand1 you count them over on the pretence of shuffling them1 and by adding sixteen1 you will have the number of points on the three cards4 ,for example1 the spectator chooses a four1 an eight1 and a king4 ,on the four he places eleven cards1 on the eight seven1 and on the king five4 ,there will be then six cards left4 ,add to these six sixteen1 and the result will be twenty-two1 which is the number of points on the three cards1 the king counting ten1 added to the eight and the four4 #ae4 ,,to ,,tell ,,the ,,numbers ,,on ,,two ,,unseen ,,cards4 ,as in the preceding trick1 the ace counts eleven1 and the court cards ten each4 ,let the person who chooses the two cards lay them on the table with their faces downward1 and place on each as many as will make their number twenty-five4 ,take the remaining cards and count them1 when they will be found to be just as many as the points in the two cards4 ,for example1 take an ace and a queen1 i4 e4 eleven and ten1 and lay them on the table4 ,on the ace you must put fourteen cards1 and on the queen fifteen4 ,there will be then fifteen cards in one heap and sixteen in the other3 these added together make thirty-one cards3 these subtracted from the number of cards in the pack1 i4 e4 fifty-two1 leave twenty-one1 the joint number of the ace and the queen4 #af4 ,,the ,,pairs ,,re-,,paired4 ,tell out twenty cards in pairs1 and ask ten people to take a pair each1 and remember them4 ,take up the pairs in their order1 and lay them on the table in order1 according to the accompanying table1 which forms a memoria technica1 and may be construed4 ,mutus gave a name to the ,coci1 7a people who have yet to be discovered47 ,m ,u ,t ,u ,s #ad #a #b #c #b #d ,d ,e ,d ,i ,t #e #f #e #g #c ,n ,o ,m ,e ,n #h #i #a #f #h ,c ,o ,c ,i ,s #aj #i #aj #g #d #ad ,the figures represent the pairs1 i4 e4 the #a under ,m signifies that ,m belongs to the first pair4 ,arranging these words in your mind on the table1 take the first card of the first pair1 lay it on ,m in ,mutus1 and the second on the ,m in ,nomen4 ,the next pair goes entirely in ,mutus1 being two ,u's4 ,the first card of the second pair goes on ,t in ,mutus1 and the second on ,t in ,dedit2 and so on until all the cards are laid in their places4 ,ask each person in succession in which rows his cards are1 and you can immediately point them out4 ,for example1 if he says the second and third row1 you point out the second and fourth cards in those rows1 because they both represent the letter ,e4 ,if another says the first and last rows1 you point out the last card in each1 because the cards represent ,s in ,mutus and ,s in ,cocis4 ,it will be seen that the whole table consists of ten letters1 each repeated4 #ag4 ,,the ,,queen ,,digging ,,for ,,diamonds4 ,select from a pack the aces1 kings1 queens1 and knaves1 together with four common cards of each suit4 ,lay down the four queens in a row1 and say1 8,here are four queens going to dig for diamonds4 7,lay a common diamond over each queen47 ,they each took a spade with them 7place a common spade on each diamond7 and dug until they were nearly tired4 ,their four kings1 thinking that they might be attacked by robbers1 sent four soldiers to keep guard4 7,lay an ace on each spade47 ,evening came1 and the queens had not returned1 so the kings1 fearing that they might have come to harm1 became uneasy and set off themselves4 7,place a king on each ace47 ,they were only just in time1 for as they came along1 they met their queens being carried off by four villains 7lay a knave on each king71 who1 although only armed with clubs 7place a common club on each knave71 had overpowered the guards and driven them off4 ,but the four kings1 being possessed of bold hearts 7lay a common heart over each king71 soon vanquished the villains1 and bound them40 ,gather up the cards1 place the heaps upon each other and direct some one to cut them4 ,have them cut four or five times1 and continue to do so until a common heart appears at the bottom4 ,then continue the tale1 and say1 8,the party then returned home in the following order4 ,first the queen 7lay down the top card7 with the diamonds which she had found 7lay down the second card1 which will be a diamond7 in one hand1 and her spade 7the third card will be a spade7 in the other1 c4 c40 ,you continue dealing out the cards in that manner1 and it will be found that they will be in precisely the same order as when they were taken up4 #ah4 ,,the ,,triple ,,deal4 ,take any twenty-one cards1 and ask some to choose one from them4 ,lay them out in three heaps1 and ask the person who took the card in which heap it is4 ,you may turn your back while he searches4 ,gather them up and put that heap between the other two4 ,do this twice more1 and the chosen card will always be the eleventh from the top4 #ai4 ,,the ,,quadruple ,,deal4 ,this is a variation of the preceding4 ,take twenty-four cards1 and lay them in four heaps4 ,act as in ,no4 #ah1 putting the heap in which is the chosen card second4 ,the tenth card will be the one thought of4 ,,tricks ,,with ,,cards1 ,,that ,,require ,,apparatus4 ,one or two of these tricks must suffice1 because1 in general1 the apparatus required for cards is exceedingly expensive4 ,those that are here given require but little apparatus1 and any boy with the use of his hands can make it4 #bj4 ,,the ,,cards ,,in ,,the ,,vase4 ,make a vase with five divisions1 two of which hold an entire pack of cards1 and the remaining three are only large enough just to admit one card each1 as in the figure4 ,a strong silk thread is fastened at ,a1 passes over the three little compartments1 through the bottom of the vase1 and running over two pulleys1 terminates in the weight at ,b4 ,illustration ,take three cards1 say the ace of spades1 the ten of diamonds1 and the king of hearts1 out of a pack of cards1 and put one into each of the little divisions1 pressing the thread down into the bottom of each division4 ,if the cards are left1 the weight will descend1 and the string being tightened1 will push the cards upwards4 ,so a kind of trigger shelf is made1 on which the weight rests4 ,the remainder of the pack you put into division #b4 ,when you show the trick1 you take another pack of cards exactly like that which is already in the vase1 and handing it to three persons successively1 compel them to choose the ace of spades1 the ten of diamonds1 and the king of hearts4#ae ,let some one shuffle the cards1 and when this is done1 put the pack into division #a4 ,tell the spectators that when you have struck three times on the table1 the cards will come out of the vase4 ,at the third stroke1 loosen the catch on which the weight stands1 by means of a string that communicates with your table1 and the three cards will rise slowly up4 ,in order to show that the cards have really vanished from the pack1 take the pack out of division #b and let any one examine it4 #ae ,this may be done by making the pass4 ,if you prefer1 you can draw the thread yourself1 by having a kind of pedal under your table1 to which the other end of the string is attached1 instead of being fastened to the weight ,b4 ,if you prefer the weight1 you must have a small shelf for the weight to rest upon1 when it has descended sufficiently low1 or the cards will be forced entirely out by the thread4 ,c is a representation of one of the divisions1 showing the semi-circular cut that is made in them for the convenience of taking out the cards4 #ba4 ,,the ,,metamorphosis4 ,in this most excellent trick you choose from the pack the four eights and the two of diamonds2 you put the four eights in the left hand and the two on the table2 you take in the two1 placing an eight on the table1 and they are all two's4 ,you exchange the two for the eight1 and they all become black cards2 you again exchange the eight for the two1 and they all turn red2 and after again exchanging1 you have1 as before1 the four eights and the two of diamonds4 ,the method of accomplishing this trick is as follows3 ,get three plain white cards1 exactly like playing cards1 and paint them as in the engraving4 ,mix them with an ordinary pack1 and when you are searching for the four eights1 with which you say you are going to perform a trick1 take them from the pack1 and with them an ordinary eight of clubs and a two of diamonds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,show the cards as in ,fig4 #b1 making the spectators observe that there are the four eights4 ,put the two of diamonds behind the eight of clubs1 and lay the eight on the table4 ,the two must be inserted before the eight is removed1 or the mystery of the marking will be apparent4 ,close the cards1 turn them over1 and spread them out1 when they will appear as in ,fig4 #c4 ,take in the eight and lay the two on the table2 close the cards1 and while shuffling them1 turn card ,no4 #b the other way upwards4 ,the cards will then all appear black1 as in ,fig4 #d4 ,take in the two and remove the eight1 turn them over1 and spread them out1 when they will appear all red1 as in ,fig #e4 ,finally1 take in the eight1 replacing the two on the table1 reverse ,no4 #b1 and you will have the four eights and the two of diamonds just as they were at first4 ,you must invent plenty of talk during your changes4 ,if the spectators say that the cards are double1 spread them out1 and hold them up to the light1 7for the light cannot penetrate through the places where the cards are placed over each other17 and if they are still sceptical1 hand them the two of diamonds to look at1 and in a moment or two hand them the eight of clubs1 asking them whether they would like to examine a black card also4 ,this will effectually disarm suspicion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e #bb4 ,,to ,,change ,a ,,card ,,in ,a ,,person',s ,,hand4 ,cut very neatly the spots from a three of spades4 ,lay the pierced card on an ace of diamonds1 and rub pomatum on the ace of diamonds through the places which the spades occupied4 ,remove the pierced card1 and sprinkle the ace of diamonds with jet powder1 which adhering to the pomatum1 will transform the card into a three of spades4 ,place the transformed card at the bottom of the pack1 and show a person what card it is4 ,make him declare it that every one may hear1 then place it on the table1 face downwards1 and push it over the cloth to the spectator1 which action will rub off all the jet powder4 ,tell him to place his hand on the card4 ,let a three of spades be at the top of the pack1 and an ace of diamonds the second from the bottom4 ,show another person the ace of diamonds1 and ask him to tell the name of the card openly4 ,put the pack down1 face downwards1 ,and in so doing1 make the pass1 and bring the three of spades to the bottom4 ,tap the hand of the person who is guarding the card1 and then tell him to take up the card and show it to the spectators1 when it will be seen to be the ace of diamonds4 ,simultaneously1 you take up the pack1 and show the three of spades at the bottom4 ,,cryptography4 ,the meaning of the word 8,cryptography0 is1 as is well known1 8hidden or secret writings10 and was used in ancient times1 when conspiracies were common1 and murders an every-day occurrence1 as the means of communicating from one person to another in such a manner that it could not be read by any one save those who were admitted into the secret of its construction4 ,a widespread conspiracy1 or1 as it would be more properly termed1 rebellion1 could not be carried on between persons at a distance from each other unless they resorted to cryptography2 in fact1 the means of correspondence was in those times of so slow and dangerous a nature1 that without the utmost care and secrecy in the arrangement of the cipher it would certainly have been discovered1 and then death would be the consequence4 ,in order to mature their designs in safety1 and to throw off all suspicion1 men were obliged to put their wits to work and invent some way of informing each other of everything that did transpire1 so that no one else should be the wiser for it3 thus was cryptography discovered2 and wonderful cunning and ingenuity were displayed in its construction1 as will be seen by the examples that are given4 ,it was also used in former times in transacting affairs of state1 in communicating messages from one general to another in time of war1 and in many other ways of a more innocent nature1 too numerous to mention4 ,now1 at the present time1 when all is peace and prosperity1 and news is brought to our very doors by post and telegraph1 cryptography is only interesting as a curious study1 or to amuse ourselves in an idle hour by finding out its hidden mysteries4 ,the first and most common form of cryptograph we read of was by the transposition of letters1 and is1 as we may see1 capable of great improvement2 indeed1 it is the basis on which most of the letter ciphers are formed at the present day4 ,we give the following as an example3-- ,for--a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z4 ,use--d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c4 ,the sentence1 8,we meet to-night10 in this cipher would become1 8,zh phhw wr-qljkw40 ,the next is formed on the principle of the above1 but is rather more intricate3 for instance1 if we wanted to inform some one that1 8,all going on well1 send supplies as soon as possible10 we should put it down in the following order3-- a g s p s o l o e l o s l n n i o s g w d e n i o e s s a b i l u a s l n l p s p e ,you must read it down the first perpendicular column1 then down the second1 and so on4 ,you must then form the letters in the horizontal columns into imaginary words1 and place them down on paper as you would a common sentence1 thus3--8,ag spso loelos lnn iosgwden ioes sab iluas lnlp spe40 ,you must arrange with your correspondent beforehand that the width of the horizontal column should consist of six letters 7or more1 if you like72 so by placing the letters six in a line1 one under the other1 without regard to words1 the puzzle is easy to solve4 ,another good cipher is by using the figures #a and #b differently arranged for every letter in the alphabet1 as will be seen by the following key3-- a b c d e f g h i #aaaaa #aaaab #aaaba #aaabb #aabaa #aabab #aabba #aabbb #abaaa j k l m n o p q r #abaab #ababb #abbaa #abbab #abbba #abbbb #baaaa #baaab #baaba s t u v w x y z #baabb #babaa #babab #babba #bbbbb #bbbab #bbbba #bbabb ,now if we wanted to write the words 8,come now10 we should do it in this way1 knowing that there are five figures to every letter1 and when a word is formed there is a comma3-- #aaabaabbbbabbabaabaa1 #abbbaabbbbbbbbb4 ,the next was a favourite of that unfortunate king1 ,charles ,i43-- ,illustration ,the next is rather good and somewhat difficult3-- ,divide a piece of cardboard into twenty-six departments1 and in each place a letter2 then take another piece 7small enough that the letters on the first piece can be seen71 and fit it into the centre of the first1 dividing this into the same number of departments2 then put a piece of thread through the centre of both1 so that you can turn the smallest card round1 filling the spaces up with letters in any way you like4 ,thus3 ,illustration ,in using the dial1 turn it round until1 say1 the letter m in the middle card comes under the letter ,a in the outer circle2 next take what you want to write1 and find it letter by letter in the outer circle1 putting down on paper what appears directly under it in the inner circle4 ,now if you want to write 8,i shall come soon10 first write the letters ,a m1 so as to enable your correspondent to fix his dial like your own1 as the ,a is in the outer circle and the m under it in the inner--8,am d ufmyy rjxi ujjk40 ,you may arrange your dial in any way you like1 but must be sure to place what letter is under the ,a at the beginning of your cipher4 ,the next is something like the last3-- ,illustration ,now if you want to tell some one that 8,they are all coming over10 you must write it down and place the figures #e1 #d1 #c over every letter in succession4 ,thus3-- #e #d #c #e #d #c #e #d #c #e #d #c #e #d #c #e #d #c #e #d4 ,t h e y a r e a l l c o m i n g o v e r4 ,then look for the letter ,t in the dial2 the figure #e being over it1 you must look for the fifth letter from it1 which is ,o3 put it down1 and go on to the next letter in the message1 ,h2 find ,h in the circle1 and as #d is over it1 put down the fourth letter from it1 ,d3 for ,e1 with the #c over it1 we must write down the third letter from ,e2 and for the next letter1 ,y1 #e being over it1 the fifth letter2 and so on1 always counting in the direction of the arrows4 ,the cipher will run eventually3 8,odbt woz wig ylhekb kszn40 ,the way to read this cipher is to put #edc down the same as before1 and to count them on the circle in the opposite way to which the arrows are pointing4 ,the most famous and complex cipher perhaps ever written was by ,lord ,bacon4 ,it was arranged in the following manner3-- aaaaa stands for a aaaab b aaaba c aaabb d aabaa e aabab f aabba g aabbb h abaaa i j abaab k ababa l ababb m abbaa n abbab o abbba p abbbb q baaaa r baaab s baaba t baabb u v babaa w babab x babba y babbb z ,now1 suppose you want to inform some one that 8,all is well20 first place down the letters separately according to the above alphabet-- aaaaa ababa ababa abaaa baaab babaa aabaa ababa ababa4 ,then take a sentence five times the length in letters of 8,all is well10--say it is1 8,we were sorry to have heard that you have been so unwell40 ,then fit this sentence to the cipher shown above1 like this-- a a a a a a b a b a a b a b a a b a a a b a ,w e w e r e s o r r y t o h a v e h e a r d --- --- --- --- --- --- a a b b a b a a a a b a a a b a b a a b a b a4 t h at y o u h a v e b e e n s o u n w e l l4 ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- ,marking with a dash every letter that comes under a ,b4 ,then put the sentence down on your paper1 printing all marked letters in italics1 and the others in the ordinary way1 thus-- 8,we were sorry to have heard that you have been so unwell40 ,the person who receives the cipher puts it down and writes an ,a under every letter except those in italics2 these he puts a ,b under2 he then divides the cipher obtained into periods of five letters1 looks at his alphabet1 and finds the meaning to be1 8,all is well40 ,here is a specimen of a music cryptograph3-- ,illustration ,the next is good1 but rather lengthy3-- a b c d e f g h 43444 34443 43344 44434 44443 43433 44344 34444 i j k l m n o p 33444 44334 43434 34344 44433 44343 33344 43334 q r s t u v w x 33333 33433 34343 33443 34334 33334 43333 33343 y z 34333 43343 ,here is the key of another3-- #a #b #c #d #e a b e d e--#a f g h i k--#b l m n o p--#c q r s t u--#d v w x y z--#e ,in picking out the letter you want1 you must see under what number it stands1 then see what number is at the end of the line1 then put those two figures together1 and they will represent the letter3 thus1 #ae represents ,v2 #bc1 ,m2 #dc1 ,o2 and #ee1 ,z4 ,the sentence1 8,we meet to-night10 would be--#beea1 #bceaeadd1 #dddc1 #ccdbbbcbdd4 ,the next is a very difficult and complex cryptograph to decipher4 ,draw a table of four columns1 like the figure below4 ,in the first column place the six different arrangements of the figures #a1 #b1 #c1 and number the other columns #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d respectively3-- -------------------------------- #ast4 #b;d4 #c;d4 -------------------------------- #abc t y c n h r e m e a o i #acb b e f s y h i s g t r t #bac e r e e t m x w a e n t #bca e r m c k m a r a h h y #cba l m r t i c i h l o e g -------------------------------- ,you must agree with your correspondent how many letters wide each of the three columns shall be--we will say four4 ,then take your sentence--say it is1 8,they are coming by the first steamer next week from ,america2 we hope they will come right40 ,you must then place every letter down separately1 writing the figures in the first column in succession over them1 thus-- #a #b #c #a #c #b #b #a #c #b #c #a #c #a #b #c #b #a #a #b #c #a #c #b #b #a #c #b ,t h e y a r e c o m i n g b y t h e f i r s t s t e a m #c #a #c #a #b #c #b #a #a #b #c #a #c #b #b #a #c #b #c #a #c #a #b #c #b #a #a #b #c #a e r n e x t w e e k f r o m ,a m e r i c a w e h o p e t h e #c #b #b #a #c #b #c #a #c #a #b #c #b #a4 y w i l l c o m e r i g h t4 ,over the first letter1 8t10 stands 8#a10 therefore write 8t0 in the column marked first2 over 8h0 is 8#b10 therefore write 8h0 in the second column2 over 8e0 is 8#c10 then put 8e0 in the third column1 and so on2 but when four letters are written abreast you must begin a new line4 ,after doing the above1 you must take the letters in each column separately 7beginning with the first71 and form them into imaginary words1 putting a dot under the last letter of each column to show your correspondent that the column ends there2 thus-- ,tycnb efse ree ermc w pee lmrt4 hrem yhistmx wk mar eot wi cih4eaoi gtrtae ntfoei ah hyl oeg44 ,the person receiving the message knows the width of the column 7four letters71 the arrangement of the figures #a1 #b1 #c1 and the use of the dots1 and reconstructs his table directly2 he then puts the letters in order by a backward process to the one we have gone through1 and reads the message4 ,the next is a cipher of a different kind3-- ,o ,p ,a ,b ,c ,d 4 4 4 --------------- ,m ,n 4 ,q ,r 4 ,e ,f 4 --------------- 4 4 4 ,k ,l ,i ,j ,g ,h ,s ,t _/ _/ 4 _/ ,w ,x 4 - 4 ,u ,v _/ 4 _/ _/ ,y ,z ,the dots stand for the last letter in each square3 thus ,o would be 1 and ,p the same with a dot put in the middle1 thus 44 ,a and ,b 4 ,the sentence1 8,,routledge',s ,,magazine ,,for ,,boys10 would be --- _/ _/ --- --- --- --- _/ 4 4 _/ 4 4 _/ --- --- _/ --- --- --- _/ 1 --- --- _/ --- --- --- _/4 4 --- --- --- _/ --- --- 1 --- --- 4 4 --- --- ---1 _/ _/ 4 _/ _/ --- --- _/ _/ 4 ,in finding out the meaning of a cryptograph1 you must first settle in your mind to what class of cipher it belongs1 whether it is written by means of letters1 figures1 or signs2 having done so1 you must go to work with patience1 and try to find out1 by means of perseverance and study1 what each figure1 sign1 or letter represents2 as even the above specimens of cryptography can be so altered and improved upon1 yet continuing in their original form to some extent1 that it would be impossible to give positive rules to enable any one to decipher any kind of cryptograph2 in fact1 it can only be done by those who have made it their study for years1 and consequently have had great experience in the matter4 ,most of the examples given will only enable one to decipher the most simple kinds1 such as are generally found in magazines1 c42 for if that intricate cipher of ,lord ,bacon's were put in a book for boys1 it would be a waste of paper1 as we will venture to say that not one in a thousand would be able to find it out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is another class of cryptographs which we have not yet noticed1 and which are done by means of sympathetic inks1 a list of which will consequently be interesting4 ,inks which appear when heated1 and become invisible when cooled3-- ,solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt2 when heated turns green4 ,solution of acetate of cobalt1 with a little nitre2 rose-colour when warm4 ,inks which remain visible when heated1 but do not disappear when cooled3-- ,onion-juice1 yellow2 equal parts of copper and sal-ammoniac in water1 yellow2 aquafortis1 spirits of salt1 oil of vitriol1 and salt and water1 yellow or brown4 ,inks which appear when exposed to light3-- ,diluted solution of nitrate of silver4 ,diluted solution of terchloride of gold4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,pounce1 ,,the ,,first ,,teacher ,,of ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb1 ,,instructing ,a ,,boy4 ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb ,,alphabet4 ,amongst the many useful inventions which have been planned for the solace of individuals deprived of some portion of their senses1 the art by which deaf and dumb persons are taught to express their own thoughts1 and to comprehend those of others1 is one of the most noble4 ,the earliest attempt at a method of teaching the deaf and dumb was made in ,spain1 towards the end of the sixteenth century1 by a ,benedictine monk named ,peter ,pounce2 and without doubt he must have formed his idea from observing the natural propensity of the dumb to supply the want of the organs of speech by making signs4 ,after the essay of ,peter ,pounce many successful trials were made1 and in #afib ,john ,conrad ,amman1 a ,swiss physician1 reduced the plans to a fixed method1 or art1 and published the scheme of it at ,amstelod4 ,the first asylum for the deaf and dumb in ,london was founded in the year #agib4 ,,the ,,alphabet4 ,illustration3 ,a ,illustration3 ,b ,illustration3 ,c ,a is expressed by touching the top of the thumb of the left hand with the forefinger of the right4 ,b4 ,join the forefinger and thumb of each hand1 and place the backs of the forefinger nails together4 ,c4 ,bend the fingers and thumb of the left hand1 so as to form three parts of a circle4 ,illustration3 ,d ,illustration3 ,e ,illustration3 ,f ,illustration3 ,g ,d4 ,bend the fingers and thumb of the right hand into a semicircle1 and then join them to the forefinger of the left1 which keep in a straight line4 ,e4 ,touch the top of the forefinger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right4 ,f4 ,place the forefinger of the right hand across the backs of the first and second fingers of the left4 ,g4 ,clench both hands1 and put one fist upon the other4 ,illustration3 ,h ,illustration3 ,i ,illustration3 ,j ,h4 ,pass the palm of the right hand across that of the left1 sweeping it along to the tips of the fingers1 as if brushing something off4 ,i4 ,touch the top of the second finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right4 ,j4 ,clench the hands together1 as directed for the letter ,g4 ,illustration3 ,k ,illustration3 ,l ,illustration3 ,m ,k4 ,form a semicircle with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand1 and join it to the forefinger of the left1 which must be kept straight out2 both forefingers must meet at the second joints4 ,l4 ,place the forefinger of the right hand across the centre of the palm of the left1 so that the top of the finger may be exactly in the middle of the palm4 ,m4 ,place three fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left4 ,n4 ,place two fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left4 ,o4 ,touch the top of the third finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right4 ,illustration3 ,n ,illustration3 ,o ,illustration3 ,p ,illustration3 ,q ,p4 ,place the tips of the forefinger and thumb of the left hand in a semicircular form against the first and second joints of the forefinger of the right1 which should be kept straight4 ,q4 ,form a circle with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand1 and then curve the forefinger of the right into the shape of a hook1 and place it exactly where the other fingers join4 ,illustration3 ,r ,illustration3 ,s ,illustration3 ,t ,r4 ,bend the forefinger of the right hand and rest it on the palm of the left4 ,s4 ,bend the little finger of each hand and lock them together4 ,t4 ,fix the tip of the forefinger of the right hand against the middle of the lower edge of the left4 ,illustration3 ,u ,illustration3 ,v ,illustration3 ,w ,illustration3 ,x ,illustration3 ,y ,illustration3 ,z ,u4 ,touch the top of the little finger of the left hand with the forefinger of the right4 ,v4 ,place the first and second fingers of the right hand1 apart1 upon the palm of the left4 ,w4 ,lock the fingers of one hand between those of the other4 ,x4 ,cross the forefingers at the second joints4 ,y4 ,extend the thumb and forefinger of the left hand1 and at the lower part of the fork so made place the forefinger of the right hand4 ,z4 ,elevate one hand towards the face1 and rest the elbow upon the palm of the other4 ,the end of every sentence is indicated by snapping the second finger and thumb of the right hand4 ,this result is requisite to avoid the confusion which might result from running the sentences into each other4 ,,the ,,numbers ,are denoted by holding up one finger to signify #a1 two fingers for #b1 the open hand for #e1 both hands for #aj1 and so on4 ,,dominoes4 ,there was a time when dominoes was a much more favourite game than at present4 ,in many old houses beautifully finished sets of dominoes are yet kept1 a memento of the favour in which the game was once1 and still deserves to be1 held4 ,for boys it is second to none1 as it improves their power of calculation1 exercises their judgment1 and leads them to acquire a habit of estimating chances in connexion with numbers1 which is exceedingly useful in after-life4 ,the ordinary game of dominoes is played with twenty-eight pieces1 which include every combination of numbers1 from double-blank to double-#f2 but boxes of dominoes are not uncommon which have fifty-two pieces1 or even eighty-five pieces1 one including double-#i's1 and the latter double-#ab's4 ,these are more used in the north than the south4 ,the dominoes are usually made of oblong pieces of ivory1 frequently cemented to an ebony back2 whilst on the front they are divided into two parts by a fine line across the middle1 and marked with round black spots4 ,these are #a and #a1 #a and #b1 and so on to #f2 then #b and blank1 #b and #a1 and so on4 ,where a set of dominoes is not handy1 a pack of what printers call third-large cards may be made available1 if they are marked with a pen1 and the backs kept perfectly clean4 ,these may be shuffled and dealt in a similar manner to playing cards2 but the dominoes must be placed face downwards on the table and 8shuffled0 by being well mixed together4 ,the turn to commence is called 8the pose10 and is the same in all games of dominoes4 ,after the players have drawn from the bulk the number of dominoes each requires1 double-#f is called for1 and he who has it plays first4 ,if it is not in hand1 then the highest double plays2 if no doubles are out1 then the call is from the highest domino to the lowest1 as #f--e1 #f--d1 and so on4 ,,the ,,ordinary ,,boy',s ,,game ,is played in two modes4 ,the first is called the ,french game4 ,after the dominoes are well shuffled1 each player 7usually two7 draws from the bulk the number of dominoes agreed upon4 ,seven is the common number1 and this leaves fourteen dominoes on the table4 ,the dominoes are either held in the hand1 or set on their sides on the table1 so that the pips are visible to the player only4 ,in the north of ,england a small tin1 angular frame is used to hold the dominoes4 ,the player holding the highest double then plays first1 and then each plays in turn by placing a domino of the same number of pips to the domino played at either end when you both have played4 ,if your opponent cannot do this it is called 8a go10 and you can then play for him1 until he can play4 ,if you can play to both ends1 do not do so until you have exhausted your hand at one end1 and be sure to get out your doubles at the earliest opportunity1 unless by so doing you close both ends against yourself4 ,by pursuing this plan you can1 when pressed1 play at the ends closed against your adversary the domino you have reserved for that purpose4 ,when you have played all your dominoes out1 you win the game2 or when neither can play1 he that has the lowest number of pips1 not pieces1 wins the game4 ,it is best1 however1 to play a definite number up1 such as #cj1 #ej1 or #ajj4 ,in these cases the game is better played by the ,second mode1 which is commenced in the same manner2 but when you play a double1 and it is your turn1 you can play it out and still keep your turn4 ,when your adversary cannot play1 you play for him1 and for yourself too1 before he can play again4 ,the game is counted thus3--,when one has played all his dominoes out1 he counts the number of pips in his adversary's hand1 and scores them in his favour2 if neither can play1 the one who has the fewest left counts the other's numbers1 and subtracts the number of his own1 and scores the balance in his own favour4 ,formerly the whole number was scored1 but this is dispiriting to the loser4 ,in this game it is better to try to play so that neither can go on again than to play out all the dominoes4 ,by a little practice it will be seen that heavy dominoes do not always lose1 or light ones win4 ,in playing these and any game at dominoes it should be understood that a domino once played should not be recalled1 as it frequently destroys all interest in the game4 ,sometimes it is understood that if the domino is not placed on the table you may recall it2 but it is better to play it at once1 as a skilful player can easily calculate the chances in his favour4 ,there are two or three variations on the first method4 ,in one the winner of the game scores all the points left in his own hand 7if any71 as well as those in his opponent's4 ,another method is1 when one player cannot go1 the other is not bound to proceed1 even if able1 but can at once shut the game and count1 if he likes to do so4 ,another variation is to permit the second player1 if he chooses1 to take all the dominoes but two left on the board4 ,if he does not choose1 the next player may draw as many as he chooses 7always excepting two72 and if one cannot play1 he must draw until he can do so4 ,the pose in this game is alternate1 or is taken by the winner4 ,,all ,,fives ,is a game played by four persons1 two against two1 each player taking five dominoes4 ,it may1 however1 be played by two persons only1 when seven dominoes are given to each1 and none are afterwards added4 ,the score seldom exceeds #ca1 or any smaller number1 and is marked on a cribbage-board4 ,the object of this game is to play so that the two ends of the dominoes1 after you have played1 are a multiple of five4 ,thus the first player endeavours to make a point by putting down a #e and blank1 #d and #a1 #c and #b1 each of which counts #e3 if he has the double-#e it counts #b4 ,the other players follow on in the same way1 endeavouring to make #e1 #aj1 #ae1 or #bj1 for which they score #a1 #b1 #c1 or #d respectively4 ,this game requires great caution1 so as to prevent your opponent from scoring1 if you cannot do so yourself4 #bj is the largest number that can be made3 thus1 if there is a #d at one end and a #f at the other end1 the next player1 having the double-#f1 plays it to the #f1 and the following player1 having the double-#d1 plays it to the #d2 doubles in this1 as in all other games of dominoes1 being laid across1 there are #ab at one end and #h at the other1 making #bj1 or four fives4 ,when one hand is played out1 or neither can go1 the lowest number counts one towards game4 ,this is peculiarly a game of stratagems1 and when one holds the double-#e1 he generally tries to keep it until there is a #e at each end1 when he plays it and scores #c1 and generally1 in that case1 #a for game as well4 ,,the ,,matadore ,,game ,is on an entirely different principle4 ,you do not fit the same numbers together1 as in other games at dominoes1 but you must add a number which1 when joined to one already there1 makes seven4 ,the double-blank1 the #d--c1 #f--a1 and #e--b1 are termed matadores1 and can be played at any stage1 and either end turned outward at will1 for your opponent to play to4 ,three dominoes only are taken at the outset1 and if one of the players cannot 8go10 he must draw until he can do so1 unless the number of dominoes left on the board is reduced to two4 ,the game is played #cj1 #ej1 or #ajj up1 and the winner counts to his score his opponent's pips4 ,,all ,,threes ,is a capital game for boys1 and exercises the players in the four rules of arithmetic4 ,it is played similarly to the ,all ,fives1 only #c is the multiple instead of #e3 thus1 #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 and #ah points count #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f1 respectively4 ,,tidley-,,wink ,is a good round game4 ,any number can play1 so long as there are two or more dominoes left on the board1 after three dominoes each have been taken4 ,the pose is settled as before2 but the leader has the privilege of playing to his double1 if he can do so1 and any person having a double in his turn can play to it1 if he can4 ,the game runs round1 and the first person who plays out pronounces himself 8,tidley-,wink10 and is the winner4 ,,the ,,fortress4 ,when four persons are playing1 this will be found one of the most amusing of games4 ,it is sometimes called 8,sebastopol40 ,all the dominoes are divided equally amongst the players4 ,the double-#f is played first1 and then every person must play a #f to the double1 and thus form a cross4 ,the person who has not a #f loses his turn4 ,the play then proceeds in the usual way1 only that the player can choose which corner he likes to play at4 ,the result is a curious irregular figure resembling the ground-plan of a fortress1 with bastions1 c42 hence its name4 ,,whist ,,dominoes ,is also played by four persons1 seven dominoes being given to each4 ,the persons in this case are partners1 and sit opposite to each other4 ,this game is led off as all others1 but requires considerable powers of memory to play it properly1 for it is necessary to remember not only the numbers played1 but who played it1 and under what circumstances1 so as to help your partner's hand and checkmate your opponent's4 ,several other games of dominoes may be played2 but the foregoing1 with their numberless variations1 will enable any one to master the principles of any other introduced4 ,illustration ,,draughts4 8,white to black and black to white4 ,now give the challenge--wage the fight40--,,clarkson4 ,illustration ,draughts is a modern invention1 and is a good preliminary to chess4 ,it is not so intricate a game1 for the pieces are of equal value till they become kings1 and can only move one way2 but like chess1 success depends entirely upon skill1 and one false move frequently occasions the loss of the game4 ,draughts seems to have come into vogue in ,europe about the middle of the fourteenth century1 and for a long time there were two methods of playing it2 the one commonly used in ,england being the ,french game1 which is played upon a chess-board1 and the other the ,polish game1 which requires a board with ten squares or chequers in each row1 and twenty men4 ,the men in the ,polish game can only move forwards as they do in the ,french game1 but they have the privilege of taking backwards and forwards1 and the king1 when made1 if not opposed by two men close together1 can move from one corner of the board to the other ,the ,polish game admits of most variety1 and is in our opinion infinitely the best1 but it is little played in this country1 except by foreigners1 many of whom during the ,great ,exhibition year proved themselves adepts at the game4 ,,how ,,to ,,play ,,the ,,game4 ,the draughtboard consists of sixty-four squares1 black and white1 and there are twelve men1 or pieces1 of a white colour1 and twelve of a black colour to be used4 ,the board should be placed with an upper white corner towards the right hand4 ,the players select each twelve men of the colour they prefer4 ,the pieces1 or men1 are to be thus placed on the board3 the black pieces on the first twelve white squares1 and the white on the last twelve white squares4 ,when they are thus placed the game begins4 ,,the ,,moves4 ,the pieces move forward diagonally1 and it is the object of the players to take all each other's men2 the player who has the black pieces taking the white1 and the player who has the white men taking the black4 ,the first player--say ,black--moves his piece angularly to the first white square1 and then1 if nothing intervenes between his piece and that of his opponent1 and there is a vacant square in his line left behind him1 the white can pass his piece over him to the space so unoccupied1 and take his man1 which is withdrawn from the board4 ,the same may be repeated by the adversary2 and thus the players go on taking each other's pieces till one or the other cannot move1 or all the pieces are taken4 ,when a piece1 however1 arrives at the last row of the enemy's ground1 it becomes what is called a king1 and is crowned by another piece being placed on it4 ,it may then be moved backwards and forwards at pleasure1 and can take both ways4 ,when a player neglects to take a piece1 he is what is called huffed1 that is1 he loses the piece that ought to have been moved4 ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,game4 #a4 ,the moves are alternate1 the first move being determined by lot4 #b4 ,the choice of men to be also decided by lot1 but they should be changed every three games4 #c4 ,whichever piece is touched must be played4 #d4 ,no player can remain more than five minutes without playing4 ,he may be warned at the end of five minutes4 #e4 ,neither player must leave the room without permission of his adversary4 #f4 ,in case of huff1 the opponent1 in lieu of taking a piece for the omission1 can insist on his being taken4 #g4 ,each party must sit free so as not to obstruct a view of the board1 and no pointing at pieces is allowed4 #h4 ,when a false move is made1 the piece must be moved to whatever square the opponent dictates4 #i4 ,all disputes between players to be referred to a third party4 #aj4 ,bystanders must make no remarks during the game4 ,,games ,,for ,,practice4 ,playing draughts is a game which is best learned by experience and repeated defeats4 ,it requires circumspection and caution1 and especially demands calculation of the effects of the different moves upon the fortune of the game4 ,the moves should be calculated mentally4 ,the men should be kept as much in the centre of the board as possible2 and the gentlemanly player will consider all drawn games as won by his opponent1 and never triumph over the vanquished4 ,the following games will give the young player a good general idea of draughts1 but his success as a player will depend entirely upon his own application and habit of thought3-- ,,game ,i4 ,no4 ,colour4 from to #a4 ,b4 #aa #ae #b4 ,w4 #bb #ah #c4 ,b4 #ae #bb #d4 ,w4 #be #ah #e4 ,b4 #h #aa #f4 ,w4 #bi #be #g4 ,b4 #d #h #h4 ,w4 #be #bb #i4 ,b4 #ab #af #aj4 ,w4 #bd #bj #aa4 ,b4 #aj #ae #ab4 ,w4 #bg #bd #ac4 ,b4 #af #ai #ad4 ,w4 #bc #af #ae4 ,b4 #ae #ai #af4 ,w4 #bd #ae #ag4 ,b4 #i #ad #ah4 ,w4 #ah #i #ai4 ,b4 #aa #be #bj4 ,w4 #cb #bg #ba4 ,b4 #e #ad #bb4 ,w4 #bg #bc #bc4 ,b4 #f #aj #bd4 ,w4 #af #ab #be4 ,b4 #h #aa #bf4 ,w4 #bh #bd #bg4 ,b4 #be #bi #bh4 ,w4 #cj #be #bi4 ,b4 #bi #bb #cj4 ,w4 #bf #ag #ca4 ,b4 #aa #ae #cb4 ,w4 #bj #af #cc4 ,b4 #ae #ah #cd4 ,w4 #bd #bj #ce4 ,b4 #ah #bg #cf4 ,w4 #ca #bd #cg4 ,b4 #ad #ah #ch4 ,w4 #af #aa #ci4 ,b4 #g #af #dj4 ,w4 #bj #aa #da4 ,b4 #ah #bc #db4 ,w4 #aa #h #dc4 ,b4 #bc #bg #dd4 ,w4 #h #d #de4 ,b4 #bg #ca #df4 ,w4 #d #h #dg4 ,b4 #ca #bg #dh4 ,w4 #bd #bj #di4 ,b4 #bg #bc #ej4 ,w4 #h #aa #ea4 ,b4 #bc #ah #eb4 ,w4 #aa #h #ec4 ,b4 #ah #ae c4 ,white loses4 ,,game ,,ii4 ,no4 ,colour4 from to #a4 ,b4 #aa #ae #b4 ,w4 #bb #ah #c4 ,b4 #ae #bb #d4 ,w4 #be #ah #e4 ,b4 #h #aa #f4 ,w4 #bi #be #g4 ,b4 #d #h #h4 ,w4 #be #bb #i4 ,b4 #ab #af #aj4 ,w4 #bd #bj #aa4 ,b4 #aj #ae #ab4 ,w4 #ba #ag #ac4 ,b4 #g #aj #ad4 ,w4 #bg #bd #ae4 ,b4 #h #ab #af4 ,w4 #ag #ac #ag4 ,b4 #i #ad #ah4 ,w4 #ah #i #ai4 ,b4 #e #ad #bj4 ,w4 #bd #ai #ba4 ,b4 #ae #bd #bb4 ,w4 #bh #ai #bc4 ,b4 #ad #ag #bd4 ,w4 #cb #bg #be4 ,b4 #aj #ad #bf4 ,w4 #bg #bd #bg4 ,b4 #c #g #bh4 ,w4 #cj #be #bi4 ,b4 #f #i #cj4 ,w4 #ac #f #ca4 ,b4 #a #aj #cb4 ,w4 #bb #ac #cc4 ,b4 #ad #ah #cd4 ,w4 #bc #ad #ce4 ,b4 #af #cj #cf4 ,w4 #be #ba #cg4 ,b4 #aj #ag #ch4 ,w4 #ba #ad #ci4 ,b4 #cj #be #dj4 ,w4 #ad #i #da4 ,b4 #aa #ae #db4 ,w4 #i #f #dc4 ,b4 #b #i #dd4 ,w4 #ac #f #de4 ,b4 #ae #ah #df4 ,w4 #f #b #dg4 ,b4 #g #aj #dh4 ,w4 #b #f #di4 ,b4 #aj #ad #ej4 ,w4 #f #i #ea4 ,b4 #be #ba #eb4 ,w4 #ca #bf #ec4 ,b4 #ad #ag c4 ,drawn4 ,,fireworks4 ,our book is intended for the gratification of boys4 ,we know full well the intense delight taken by boys in risking their limbs or their lives1 especially when such risk is accompanied with noise4 ,boys always have done so1 and always will do so in spite of the very best of advice or precautions4 ,as1 therefore1 it is impossible to keep them from making noises and endangering themselves1 we have in the following pages endeavoured to show them how to make as much noise as possible with as little danger as possible4 ,what is there that makes the most noise and is most dangerous8 ,gunpowder1 of course4 ,therefore1 we have given descriptions of the best methods of employing this material1 feeling quite sure that of accidents with gunpowder nine out of every ten are caused by ignorance4 ,we knew a boy who lost the use of a thumb1 and took all the skin off the palm of his right hand1 by ignorant management of powder4 ,he had read of blasting rocks1 and nothing would satisfy him but blasting a bank4 ,so he bored a deep hole in it with a stick1 filled the hole with gunpowder1 and then poked a lighted lucifer into the powder4 ,the consequence was1 that his face was so scorched as not to be recognised1 all his eyebrows and eyelashes and most of his hair were burned off1 while his right hand was injured as has been already mentioned4 ,now that boy had been studiously kept out of the way of powder by female relatives1 and was naturally profoundly ignorant of its effects4 ,had he been taught to handle it1 he would not now be forced to keep his right hand closed1 or to write by holding the pen between the fingers of his clenched hand4 ,,gunpowder4 ,it will not be very advisable for the firework boy to make his own powder1 but still it will not be amiss that he should know how it is prepared4 ,pulverise separately #e drams of nitrate of potass1 #a dram of sulphur1 and #a dram of newly burnt charcoal1 mix them together in a mortar with a little water1 so as to make the compound into a dough1 which roll out into round pieces of the thickness of a pin upon a slab4 ,this must be done by moving a board backwards and forwards until the dough is of a proper size4 ,when three or four of these pieces are ready put them together thus1-- ,illustration and cut them off into small grains4 ,place these grains on a sheet of paper in a warm place where they will soon dry1 but away from a fire4 ,during granulation the dough must be prevented from sticking by using a little of the dry compound powder4 ,this mode of granulation1 though tedious1 is the only one to be used for so small a quantity for the sake of experiment4 ,in making powder in a large way it is granulated by passing the composition through sieves4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,touch-,,paper4 ,dissolve in a little spirits of wine or vinegar a little saltpetre1 then take some purple or blue paper1 and wet it with the above liquor and it will be fit for use4 ,when pasting paper on any of the following works take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn4 ,the method of using this paper is to cut it into slips long enough to go once round the mouth of a serpent1 cracker1 c4 ,,cases ,,for ,,squibs1 ,,flower-,,pots1 ,,rockets1 ,,roman ,,candles1 ,,etc4 ,procure a hard wooden cylinder1 or1 if possible1 one made of metal1 whose diameter corresponds with that of the interior of the proposed case4 ,roll round it several folds of cartridge paper1 and paste the edges well1 so that it may be held securely4 ,tie it round until dry4 ,illustration ,,to ,,choke ,,the ,,cases4 ,when the cases are thus made they will require to be tied at the lower end4 ,this is called choking them1 and as much force is required it is necessary4 ,fix a wire into a small solid cylinder 7d74 ,take another short piece 7b7 an inch or two long1 with a hole up it to admit the other end of the wire1 fit it on and pass it up the case4 ,then having fastened a piece of whipcord to a post1 wind it round the part left hollow by the wire1 which should be about half an inch from the end2 pull it tight with the right hand and work the case round with the left4 ,cut out a piece of touch paper two inches long and an inch and a half broad1 wind it round the choke1 and tie it on with a piece of fine string--twist it to a point4 ,the cases are best choked while damp4 ,illustration ,,composition ,,for ,,squibs1 ,,etc4 ,gunpowder half a pound1 charcoal #a ounce1 brimstone #a ounce1 or in like proportion2 grind them in a muller or pound them in a mortar4 ,or you may take #a part steel filings1 #a charcoal1 #a sulphur1 and #d powder1 which is a very good mixture1 and can be rubbed together in a mortar4 ,,how ,,to ,,fill ,,the ,,cases4 ,your cases must be very dry when ready1 and should be put into an iron or wooden mould2 first put in a thimble full of your powder1 and ram it down very hard with your ruler1 then put in a little more till the case is full1 ramming it down hard every time4 ,if you have no mould1 hold the case in your left hand with the twisted touch-paper downwards1 and fill it after the same manner4 ,when you have filled within an inch of the top1 fill up this with loose powder not rammed1 for a bang1 and fold in the ends2 after filling a dozen or two melt some pitch in a small ladle1 and smear the ends of the case with it by means of a small brush4 ,,to ,,make ,,crackers4 ,cut some stout cartridge-paper into pieces three inches and a half broad and one foot long1 fold down one edge of these pieces lengthwise about three quarters of an inch broad1 then fold the double edge down a quarter of an inch1 and turn the single edge back half over the double fold4 ,open it1 and lay all along the channel which is formed by the folding of the paper some meal powder1 then fold it over and over till the paper is doubled up1 rubbing it down at every turn2 this being done bend it backwards and forwards two inches and a half1 or thereabouts1 at a time1 as often as the paper will allow4 ,hold all these folds flat and close1 and with a small pinching cord give one turn round the middle of the cracker and pinch it close2 bind it with packthread as tight as you can1 then in the place where it was pinched prime one end and cap it with touch-paper4 ,when these crackers are fired they will give a loud report at every turn of the paper2 if you want a great number of these1 you have only to cut the paper longer1 or join it on to a greater length2 but if they are made very long you must have a piece of wood with a groove in it deep enough to let in half the cracker1 which will hold it straight while you are pinching it4 ,illustration ,,roman ,,candles ,,and ,,stars4 ,illustration ,these are best made with the following ingredients3 #a ounce of powder1 #a ounce of sulphur1 and #b ounces of nitre4 ,some persons1 however1 prefer #a part sulphur1 #a charcoal1 #a iron filings1 #d of powder1 and #h of nitre4 ,the composition being made1 in filling the cases fill the contrary way to a squib--stop up the choke by driving down a piece of paper4 ,put in #a quill of gunpowder loose and #a star made in the following manner3 #a ounce of camphor1 #a of sulphur1 #b of meal powder1 #a ounce of the coloured fires1 moisten them with oil of turpentine1 and work them into little round balls4 ,having placed a star within the case1 put in above it #c quills of the composition1 ram down1 then powder1 star1 and composition alternately1 till the case is full4 ,paste touch-paper round the top and twist to a point4 ,,rockets4 ,illustration ,there are several recipes for making rockets1 the best of which is #c ounces of charcoal1 #f of sulphur1 #h of nitre1 #cb of meal powder4 ,another very good one is1 #c ounces of iron filings1 #d of powdered charcoal1 #h of sulphur1 #af of nitre1 and #fd of meal powder4 ,if a smaller quantity is wanted divide each proportion by #b1 if a still smaller divide by #d4 ,in this cut s is the loose gunpowder with eight or ten stars upon it2 c is that part of the rocket in which the composition is to be rammed hard1 p the priming or quick match1 t the touch paper4 ,the cases are to be put into a mould and the composition must be well rammed4 ,the cases should be four times the thickness of those for squibs4 ,,rains4 ,illustration ,sometimes gold or silver rains are added to rockets1 which give them a very beautiful appearance4 ,a gold rain is made of #b parts sawdust1 #d sulphur1 #d meal powder1 #f glass dust1 #af nitre1 in all #cb parts4 ,a silver rain may be made of #b parts salt prunella1 #h sulphuret of antimony1 #h sulphur1 #h meal powder1 and #ad nitre1 in all #cb parts4 ,,catherine ,,wheels4 ,these are very pretty fireworks1 and are made to turn on a pivot4 ,there are many recipes for the composition of which they are formed2 #a part camphor1 #a sulphur1 #a nitre1 #b meal powder4 ,another is1 #c parts iron filings1 #d sulphur1 #ab nitre1 #af meal powder4 ,this composition is to be rammed into small cases1 and bound round a small wheel1 having a hole for a pivot in the centre4 ,,various ,,coloured ,,fires4 ,the following recipes will give the young firework maker a great variety of the most beautiful fires4 ,they should never be fired in a room1 however1 and always away from a dwelling4 ,,crimson ,,fire4 ,the principal ingredient in this is nitrate of strontium1 of which #dj parts are taken1 with #ac of sulphur1 #ae of chlorate of potass1 #d of sulphuret of antimony1 and #b of lamp-black4 ,these1 as all the ingredients for the other fires1 should be rubbed in a ladle1 and they may be used in a ladle or iron dish set on the ground4 ,,blue ,,fire4 ,the ingredients of blue fire are #bj parts2 #ab of nitre1 #d of sulphur1 #b of sulphuret of antimony1 and #b of lamp-black4 ,,green ,,fire4 ,the ingredients for green fire are in #ed parts2 #db of nitrate of barytes1 #h of sulphur1 #c of chlorate of potass1 and #a of lamp-black4 ,,purple ,,fire4 ,the best recipe for purple fire is of #fj parts2 #be of nitre1 #be of nitrate of strontium1 #g of sulphur1 #b of realgor1 and #a of lamp-black4 ,,white ,,fire4 ,the best and purest white fire is made of #bd parts of nitre1 #g of sulphur1 #b of red arsenic1 and #a of lamp-black4 ,,spur ,,fire4 #i parts of nitre1 #d of sulphur1 and #c of lamp-black1 well rubbed together4 ,,blue ,,lights4 ,these are made of #d parts of sulphur1 #b of nitre1 and #a of powder1 and are rammed into squib-cases the contrary way4 ,,port ,,or ,,wildfires4 ,saltpetre #d parts1 meal powder #f parts1 and sulphur #c parts4 ,the composition to be moistened with linseed oil4 ,,slow ,,fire ,,for ,,wheels4 ,saltpetre #d parts1 sulphur #b parts1 and meal powder #b parts4 ,,dead ,,fire ,,for ,,wheels4 ,saltpetre #e parts1 sulphur #a part1 lapis calaminaris #a part1 and antimony #a part4 ,,cautions4 ,such are the principles and methods by which fireworks may be made2 but we would advise our young friends to be very cautious1 and never to attempt making any fireworks by candle-light2 always to select some outhouse for their operations2 to see that no iron or steel implements are about the place in which their fireworks are being manufactured1 or they may go off before they wish it2 to use wooden or brass implements in the bruising1 grinding1 and sifting of their mixtures2 and never to bring the fireworks1 or any of their ingredients1 into the dwelling-house1 or they may suddenly receive a 8,heavy blow and great discouragement40 ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,illuminated ,,spiral ,,wheel4 ,illustration ,procure a circular horizontal wheel two feet in diameter with a hole quite through the nave1 then take four thin pieces of deal three feet long each1 and three-quarters of an inch broad each4 ,one end of each of these pieces is to be nailed to the felloe of the wheel at an equal distance from one another2 and the other end nailed to a block with a hole in its bottom1 which must be perpendicular with that in the block of the wheel1 but not so large4 ,the wheel being thus made1 a hoop planed down very thin must be nailed to the felloe of the wheel1 and wound round the four sticks in a spiral line from the wheel to the block at the top2 on the top of this block a case of ,chinese fire must be fixed1 and on the wheel any number of cases1 which must incline downwards and burn two at a time4 ,the axis of the wheel must be a little longer than the cone1 and made very smooth at the top1 on which the upper block is to turn and the whole weight of the wheel to rest4 ,the entire framing of the wheel1 with its connecting tubes1 is shown in the above cut4 ,,the ,,grand ,,volute4 ,illustration ,should my young friends wish to prepare a grand volute illuminated with a revolving wheel2 the first step is to procure a large circular wheel1 and on its rim lay as many four-ounce cases as will complete the circle1 only allowing a sufficient distance between the cases that the fire may pass free1 which may be done by cutting the upper part of the end of each a little shelving4 ,on each spoke fix a four-ounce case about three inches from the rim of the wheel4 ,these cases are to burn one at a time4 ,on the front of the wheel form a spiral line with strong wire1 on which tie port-fires1 placing them on a slant with their mouths to face the same way as the cases on the wheel2 all these port fires must be fired with the second cases of the wheel4 ,let there be a series of wooden spokes all made to screw into a block into the centre4 ,when the large wheel begins to discharge the fireworks1 the spiral wheel will of course revolve and produce a very beautiful illuminated cone4 ,a ,,brilliant ,,yew-,,tree4 ,to prepare a brilliant yew-tree1 a frame like the one represented in the drawing must be firmly attached to the ground4 ,when the branches are fixed1 place illuminating port-fires on the top of each1 as many as is convenient2 behind the top of the stem fasten a gerb or white fountain1 which must be fired at the beginning of the illumination on the tree4 ,a series of these1 varying in the angular directions taken by the boughs1 produce a very fine effect4 ,illustration ,such are a few general directions respecting the making of fireworks2 but we have again to advise our young friends to be cautious of the gunpowder1 and to keep away from the fire1 or from a light1 or from flames1 steel1 iron1 or any other matter likely to cause a spark4 ,illustration ,,gardening4 8',tis a delightful task ,to rear the tender flower1 to see the bud ,put forth its bloom1 the little seedling sprout ,from its dark grove1 to meet the sunbeams1 and ,to drink the gracious rain4 ,here ,innocence ,may well amuse herself1 and blithe ,industry ,make mate with ants1 and bees1 and busy things1 ,from morn to evening daily40--,,martin4 ,gardening is one of the most delightful occupations for young persons4 ,it combines innocent amusement1 exercise of the healthiest kind1 skill1 forethought1 method1 taste1 and is full of instruction1--leading the mind1 not only to the wonderful operations of nature1 but to the great ,originator and ,preserver of all things4 ,gardening was the first of the arts4 ,before man had fallen from his 8high estate10 and lost his heirship of heaven1 he was placed by his ,creator in a garden1 and ordered to dress it and to keep it4 ,the sustenance of man in all countries is derived1 directly or indirectly1 from the vegetable kingdom3 it is supposed that he first made his appearance in that fertile and fruitful land from whence we get our best grasses4 ,it was natural1 then1 that some rude kind of gardening should first occupy the attention of primitive man4 ,in a savage state1 now1 in many countries1 plants supply all the wants of man to an extent greater even than we are apt to suppose1 from the necessity and possibility of a greater variety of animal food in our own climate4 ,illustration3 ,,miscellaneous4--,,gardening1 ,,fencing1 ,,etc4 ,from the earliest times of profane history1 gardens are alluded to4 ,the gardens of the ,hesperides abounded with fruit of the most delicious kind1 and the hanging gardens of ,babylon were among the wonders of the world4 ,the gardens of the ,persians are called by ,xenophon1 8delightful places1 fertile and beautiful20 and the gardens of ,alcinous abounded with fruits1 grapes1 and various horticultural wonders4 ,the philosophers of ,athens walked in ornamental gardens1 among shady groves1 statues1 and fountains4 ,there are many so-called styles of gardening1 but these are readily divisable into two varieties--the geometrical and natural style4 ,in the first may be comprised all gardens laid out with straight or geometrical lines4 ,in the second1 which is often called the ,english style1 we include gardens and parks where the irregularity that we observe in pretty wild places1 or in ,nature's own gardens1 are preserved more or less judiciously and tastefully4 ,on the one hand1 we take ,nature for a model2 on the other1 we merely apply geometrical lines to the garden and its contents4 ,as the geometrical garden is merely a thing of straight lines1 it is very much easier to dispose than the natural1 with which a great many people make sad mistakes1 and then blame the style instead of their own taste4 ,it is very much easier to make straight walks1 and circles1 and figures of all kinds in a garden1 than to imitate on a small scale the variety1 and indefinite1 ever-pleasing character exhibited by ,nature where she most attracts us with floral beauty4 ,however1 to see some specimens of the various styles of gardens will give a better idea of their worth1 and main features1 than any reading4 ,we will indicate a few of the places where good examples are to be seen4 ,the ,crystal ,palace is perhaps the best place to observe their differences1 particularly as most boys visit that attractive place4 ,the great terraces and fountains are1 of course1 in the geometrical style2 while the more remote1 or outer parts of the grounds1 are a good example of the natural or ,english style of laying out grounds4 ,the irregular 8lakes10 surrounded by vegetation1 the rock cropping out here and there1 the natural-looking grouping of fine trees1 and the freely rolling beautiful green grass mounds1 c4 are1 though perhaps not the most frequented1 certainly among the best features of the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens in the ,regent's ,park is also a good1 a very good example of the best method of laying out gardens in the ,english style4 ,it is disfigured1 however1 by a small1 mean kind of geometrical garden1 which we must not be supposed to praise4 ,on the other hand1 the garden of the ,royal ,horticultural ,society at ,south ,kensington is a capital example of a completely opposite style--the ,italian and geometrical2 and once having seen these1 any boy can at once distinguish between the two1 and probably say which he most admires4 ,in ,france1 during the reign of ,louis ,,xv41 the bad and artificial method was carried to excess2--clipped hedges1 always laid out in straight lines--flower-beds tortured into fantastic shapes--trees cut into the form of pyramid haystacks1 animals1 c4 ,the gardens were like the manners and dress of that period1 in which scarcely anything natural was left4 ,the ,dutch imitated the ,french3 and this kind of gardening continued to prevail till attacked by ,addison1 in the 8,spectator10 and ,pope1 in his ,fourth ,moral ,epistle4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,garden ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,louis ,,xv4 ,however1 the boy's garden is so small as a rule1 that to attempt any kind of ambitious 8laying out0 would be nonsense2 and having thus explained what is meant by different 8styles0 in gardening1 we proceed to show how the boy's garden should be laid out4 ,,on ,,laying ,,out ,a ,,small ,,garden4 ,illustration ,the size of a piece of ground which we should recommend to the young gardener ought to be about #cc yards long1 and about #be broad4 ,it should be divided into four portions1 as in the diagram4 ,a ,b ,c ,d are four paths1 #e feet wide1 which might be gravelled1 and the edges should be planted with box1 or some neat and tiny flowering plant4 ,the borders should be about #b feet in width2 and this1 with the breadth of the path1 will take #i feet1 or #c yards1 from the #be yards of width2 which will leave #aa yards1 or #aa yards broad1 for each of the four compartments4 ,the length of the four compartments--reduced by #i feet1 or #c yards1 as before1 for the cross-path and two borders--will allow each of the four compartments to be #ae yards in length2 so that each quarter of the garden would contain #ae yards multiplied by #aa yards1 and would equal #afe square yards1 which again multiplied by #d1 would give #ffj square yards of surface1 which would be amply sufficient for a young person to obtain something like an idea of gardening1 and at the same time be a profitable advantage4 ,this will be found too large1 however1 except for those who wish to work at gardening in earnest1 and have1 moreover1 plenty of time and thought to give to the matter4 ,one half the size will be found to suit a greater number4 ,in such1 the same plan and proportioning may be carried out4 ,,planting ,,the ,,ground ,,with ,,trees1 ,,flowers1 ,,etc4 ,in the foregoing diagram1 the borders are for flowers1 and the other parts of the compartments for the raising of vegetables2 but here and there a space should be left for the planting of fruit-trees1 rose-trees1 currants1 gooseberries1 raspberries1 c4 ,the places marked by dots 7997 are where fruit-trees may be planted1 which should consist of some of the best sorts of apple1 cherry1 pear1 and plum-trees1 which ought to be planted from four to five yards apart4 ,in the borders1 rose-trees1 both of the standard and common kind1 might be planted1 as indicated by the dots 79972 and at the four corners1 where the paths intersect1 climbing-roses should be placed1 having strong poles upon which their tendrils and branches may run4 ,the spaces in the border may be appropriated to the various kinds of flowers1 at the choice of the young gardener4 ,,the ,,noblest ,,kind ,,of ,,gardening ,,for ,,boys4 ,there is one kind of gardening the results of which will afford a higher satisfaction to boys1 when they become men1 than any other pastime or exercise they can possibly engage in1 and that is the planting of fine hardy trees4 ,these will not require much attention1 or any beyond the planting4 ,they will grow freely and vigorously when you are at school or asleep1 soon find their own supply of moisture by striking their roots deeply into the ground1 and are able to withstand our cold and cloudy climate at all seasons4 ,nearly all intelligent and educated men are admirers of fine trees4 ,many who care nothing about our ordinary low-lying plants1 take the highest interest in fine hardy trees--the late ,prince ,consort and the present ,emperor of the ,french1 for instance4 ,generally we display this interest in trees by planting them extensively when we come to be men2 but how much would many lovers of trees not give to have commenced their tree-planting at an early age1 so that they might walk under giant groves of their own planting6 ,the ,indian says1 8,he has not lived in vain who has planted a tree20 and certainly it is a noble thing to embellish the earth with its finest ornaments1 and plant tiny shoots that will in time become great trees1 and shed leaves over the graves of our children for ages4 ,and it is well to observe in the beginning1 that a tree of thoroughly hardy and vigorous disposition is one of the most lasting things on earth4 ,though a living thing1 susceptible1 like ourselves1 of almost every change of atmosphere1 cold or heat1 it often survives great monuments of stone1 and may live and see extinguished not only many generations of men but even the lives of nations4 ,the age of many trees has been computed upon fair proof to be greater than that of the ,pyramids of ,egypt4 ,there are trees in ,america which were of colossal development ere that country was discovered1 so that the growth of a mighty nation may require but little time compared to that witnessed by the giant ,wellingtonia1 whose bark you may have seen at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,in our own country the age of many oaks and yews is proverbial4 ,but apart altogether from the mighty age which our finest trees attain1 let us venerate them for their beauty1 dignity1 and utility4 ,what so full of life and change1 so inexhaustive in their well-built and subtle ramifications1 as the branches and branchlets of a fine tree6 8,the pillars of the valleys1 the fringes of the hills10 as an eloquent writer calls them1 8so stately1 so eternal0 are1 while the most useful of all things to man1 at the same time the most beautiful natural objects which he can contemplate4 ,nothing adds so much to the beauty of park1 pleasure ground1 or garden1 as the planting of handsome and suitable trees3 in fact1 they are the only true and pleasing ornaments of such4 ,what constitutes the difference between the aspect of naked1 blast-swept1 and desolate-looking heaths1 or lowland--monotonous ground of any kind1 in fact--and one of those grand parks of old ,england1 say ,goodwood1 or ,richmond1 or indeed any pleasure ground such as you may see in almost every parish1 with every shady ferny corner1 or lane opening1 or tree-fringed sloping grass mound1 a picture of fresh and changeful loveliness8 ,why1 simply the presence of trees4 ,with them you may impart every charm to the wildest heath or flattest prairie--with them the highest and grandest beauty may be imparted to the charmingly undulated surface of a great part of the ,british ,isles4 ,so much for the trees and their attractions4 ,what is next to be done8 ,it is to be hoped that every boy fond of gardening has already made up his mind to plant a tree1 or several4 ,we have seen a great many little boys' gardens1 but it was the fate of most of them to become disused and neglected1 dug up or forgotten1 when the little gardeners had arrived at the 8big boy10 or manhood stage4 ,the inmates being small and fleeting1 of course every trace soon departed4 ,but by adopting the kind of gardening here recommended1 a pleasing and stately souvenir of pleasant early days will be the result4 ,it must not1 however1 be attempted in the ordinary little boy's garden1 which is usually a small patch under a wall1 or in some obscure spot totally unfit for trees4 ,if you once make up your mind to plant a tree1 the first thing to do is to choose a good position for it4 ,it should be one in which it will grow well1 and in which the tree will not be in the way of anything else4 ,this will save it from being disturbed after it gets to some size1 and your hopes from being disappointed in a way you least expected4 ,and lastly1 it will be very desirable to so place the tree that its effect when grown up may be a good and beautiful one4 ,it is1 for instance1 very bad management to plant the noble ,wellingtonia1 or ,cedar of ,lebanon1 near a house4 ,this is very often done in suburban and villa gardens1 but if the trees attain their natural size they spoil the house1 or must be cut down4 ,the finest cedar of ,lebanon we know of is planted within twenty feet of a house1 and completely overshadows it2 yet so noble is the tree that the owner would not touch it on any account3 he would give a great deal1 however1 to have it in a proper position4 ,the planting of a large kind of tree where it may1 when grown up1 stop a pleasant view1 is also a great mistake4 ,from these instances it will be seen that the position is a subject of the highest importance in tree-planting4 ,now1 as of course every boy cannot be a judge of tree-planting1 it will be found the best plan to consult papa or the gardener about it4 ,they will be so well pleased at the idea of your planting a tree instead of a geranium or a wallflower1 that you are sure to be encouraged with advice and assistance4 ,to plant it in the ordinary boys' garden would be a great mistake4 ,it should be at once put in a position in which it might flourish undisturbed for ages4 ,generally1 hardy trees are not fastidious as to soil4 ,mere planting is all the noble hardy ash1 the graceful birch--the lady of the woods--the spreading beech1 and others of our native trees require4 ,but when we come to plant the grandest of all trees--the ,wellingtonia and the ,cedar of ,lebanon1 with many of the nobler pines of ,north ,america--if the soil be not naturally very good1 we must make a preparation for the young plant4 ,this is to be done by digging out a hole and taking the bad soil out at the bottom1 leaving the top spit at one side1 and then filling in the opening1 say six feet wide or so1 with good soil taken from a pasture and chopped up with a spade4 ,this should be raised above the surface to allow for subsequent sinking1 and also to keep the neck of the young tree a little above the level ground4 ,the part meant by the neck1 is the base of the stem1 or1 in other words1 the part where root begins and stem terminates4 ,as most gardens or pleasure grounds are well drained1 the little planter is not likely to have much to contend with on that score1 but where the bottom or lower soil is of a disagreeable nature1 gardeners very often place a quantity of broken bricks or rough stones in the bottom of the hole1 and over them place turf to prevent the top soil from falling down4 ,the best time for planting is in the autumn--say ,september1 ,october1 or ,november2 but any time through the autumn1 winter1 or early spring will do1 provided the ground be not saturated with rain1 and all other circumstances be favourable4 ,the choosing of a good young tree is an important point4 ,do not have anything to do with those grown in pots2 the roots of such are usually contorted round the ball1 and in a very bad condition to make good trees4 ,nice symmetrical plants growing in a nursery1 say at about from two to four feet high1 are the best4 ,the price of even the best of such will not amount to more than that of an ordinary toy1 while in the case of the common native trees1 and such things as the willows1 that grow freely from a sucker1 it is a mere trifle4 ,indeed1 in the case of boys who live where there is anything like an extensive garden or grounds1 most probably good young trees will be at hand ready to plant4 ,it will be well to have the assistance of the gardener in planting a rare thing like the ,wellingtonia1 though after a little practice an intelligent boy can do it easily4 ,the main points are1 to place the roots of the tree on soil made pretty firm1 to spread the roots out carefully before covering them1 and finally1 if the weather or soil should happen to be very dry1 to give the ground a thorough soaking of water4 ,this will refresh the little root fibres1 make them 8take kindly to the earth10 and1 in short1 put the little tree in a fair way for its long life4 ,and as boys may frequently have occasion to water their gardens1 as well as other people1 we may assure them that one thorough good watering is better than a dozen bad ones4 ,a bad watering is one in which the surface of the soil is merely wetted1 and if you poke down a little way you find the soil quite dry3 a good watering is one in which the water descends deep and far into the soil1 as deep or deeper than the roots go1 in fact4 ,the dragging about of water in pots is a very laborious and awkward affair4 ,if the little gardener can secure the loan of the water-barrel on wheels1 and have it filled quite full1 and the contents gently supplied to the root of his tree1 he will save himself much trouble1 and probably have no further attention to pay to it in that way during the course of his life4 ,by the way1 have you ever heard the little story about the famous ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau and his little tree8 ,if not1 here it is4 ,when he was a little pupil about ten years of age1 his master planted a walnut-tree to give a grateful shade to a place immediately outside the house4 ,the planting of this walnut-tree was attended with some ceremony1 little ,rousseau and his friend1 a fellow-boarder1 acting as godfathers1 singing songs of triumph around it4 ,the master and his assistants formed a kind of basin around the tree1 or1 in other words1 made a little embankment of earth around it1 so that the water could not escape4 ,jean ,jacques and his companion saw and were much interested in all this1 made up their minds that it was a nobler thing to plant trees than to plant colours on a breach1 and at once became very anxious to plant4 ,this they soon did by cutting a slip of willow1 and planting it with due ceremony on the terrace near the august walnut-tree that had been planted by the master4 ,they made a basin of earth round it in imitation of the bigger one1 and then came their grand difficulty--how to water it4 ,they were not permitted to fetch any1 or they would have gladly done so1 though it was at a distance4 ,the tree was safe for a short time from some cause or other1 and began to put forth a few leaves1 which they hoped would in due time afford them shelter and shade2 but hot days came1 and it was apparent that unless the little tree had water it would surely die4 ,what was to be done8 ,well1 it is pretty evident that either of them could think a little1 even at that age1 for the little rogues made up their minds to make a tiny grass-covered canal between the large basin and their little one1 so that when the master came to water his big tree1 the water might run from his basin to theirs6 ,their first essay failed2 the earth fell in1 and they were miserable for a moment1 but soon set to work again4 ,this time they cut an old box into narrow planks1 and lined the furrow with them1 made the slope so that the water would be sure to run as desired1 and covered the trench over so that nobody could see it1 putting a grating of twigs over the upper end1 so as to hide appearances and keep out rubbish1 and waited in hope and fear for the result4 ,the master and his men came and poured in the water1 which soon ran through the furrow to the little tree4 ,this was too much for our otherwise sagacious little gardeners4 ,they roared with delight at the success of their plan1 and betrayed it to the master1 who immediately sent for a pick-axe1 and cut up their little trench1 shouting at the same time1 8,an aqueduct6 an aqueduct60 ,they were of course sorry1 but soon took heart1 and planted another tree1 which lived to be a big one4 ,to have set this slip in competition with a large one1 ,rousseau tells1 gave him a degree of glory he had not known before1 and says that he had a juster idea of it at that age than ,csar had at thirty4 ,we will next turn to the selection of trees1 and to the various wants of those who are likely to plant4 ,the most popular trees in ,england at present are those noble evergreen pines4 ,they are not all suited for town gardening1 but very much so for most parts of the country4 ,around the beautiful mausoleum raised to contain the remains of the late ,prince ,consort at ,frogmore1 there is a row of these trees1 mostly tapering and slender in habit1 and very dark green4 ,they have been planted by the various members of the ,royal family in memoriam4 ,the late ,prince was very fond of these pine-trees1 and many country gentlemen take the greatest interest in their planting4 ,we merely tell you this to point out that the planting of trees is an object of ambition with many of the best and the highest in the land4 ,when ,her ,majesty1 and many other distinguished persons1 visit a nobleman's place or a public park1 one of the most graceful acts they can do is to plant a tree2 and the custom is very general4 ,let us hope1 then1 that many boys will imitate the example of ,rousseau1 and say1 why should not we too plant trees8 ,but to return to our pines1 or conifers1 as they are called4 ,the race is a wonderfully beautiful one--so much so1 that you must take care1 or you may plant things that will do very well for a few years1 perhaps1 but get quite killed by the first very severe frost4 ,it is a sad sight to see a tree which has perhaps grown to considerable size and beauty killed to the very ground by a frost such as we had in ,january1 #ahff--some of our noblest pines perished then2 and therefore a list of the most thoroughly hardy kinds must prove useful4 ,the giant ,wellingtonia of ,california is fortunately hardy in all parts of these islands4 ,so is the great arbor-vit of ,nootka ,sound 7,thuja gigantea71 a specimen of which obtained the first prize for trees of this kind at the great ,paris ,exhibition4 ,one of the most beautiful of all pines1 one which has its 8leaves10 or little branchlets rather1 as graceful as those of a fern1 is ,thujiopsis borealis1 and it too is perfectly hardy4 ,we regret that hard names must be used1 but then1 as thousands of our plants are not natives of ,england1 they have of course no recognised ,english name1 and to translate the scientific one would simply produce an awkward barbarism4 ,in addition to the above1 the following trees of this fine family may be planted with the confidence that we shall not see them perish in the vigour and beauty of youth3--,lawson's cypress 7we give you the ,english name where possible74 ,nearly all kinds of juniper4 ,picea ,pinsapo1 nobilis1 and ,nordmanniana1 all noble trees--also amabilis and cephalonica4 ,abies ,albertii1 ,morinda1 ,menziesii1 the ,cedar of ,lebanon1 and the ,deodar cedar--these are hurt now and then1 but on the whole are hardy enough generally4 ,the common spruce fir2 the ,scotch fir1 always a picturesque tree4 ,the deciduous cypress1 a fine tree for the margins of water1 where after a time its roots send up most curious knobs1 in many cases nearly as big as a beehive1 above the ground4 ,it is quite extraordinary to see the specimens of this noble tree in the pleasure grounds at ,syon1 the ,duke of ,northumberland's fine place near ,brentford4 ,the new ,japanese larch 7,l4 ,kmpferi71 the ,austrian pine1 the ,swiss nut pine 7,p4 ,cembra71 the ,corsican pine4 ,the youthful gardener1 who lives near a large nursery1 park1 or place like ,kew1 ,glasnevin ,botanic ,gardens1 near ,dublin1 the ,botanic ,gardens at ,edinburgh1 the gardens of the ,crystal ,palace1 at ,sydenham1 or many places of this kind1 would do well to examine specimens of the kinds named1 or indeed any others1 so that he may take his choice2 making sure to inquire1 however1 that the particular kind he selects is perfectly hardy3 a tree may be quite hardy in one part of the country1 and quite tender in another4 ,the curious and fine monkey puzzle 7,araucaria imbricata71 for instance1 has been killed in some parts by severe frosts1 in others it has always escaped with impunity4 ,it is always easy to ascertain facts of this kind in a neighbourhood1 and of course we should make a point of cultivating the things that are best suited to our climate and soil4 ,so much for coniferous trees4 ,we will next turn to a far nobler group1 so far as regards our wants--deciduous trees1 or those that lose their leaves in winter4 ,these are generally quite hardy1 and make large and long-lived trees4 ,they may be grown in many places where the pines would not live1 and are therefore admirably suited for places in and near towns4 ,they should be preferred by all boys who live in suburban gardens1 as in such the leaves of pines and evergreens are sure to be soiled and disfigured1 if not half-killed1 by smut4 ,many of these deciduous trees flower beautifully1 and in not a few the leaves1 even in our dull clime1 assume rich and varied tints in autumn4 ,the following list includes the noblest1 best1 and hardiest known3--,the great ,columbian maple1 the silvery maple 7,a4 eriocarpum71 the red maple 7,a4 colchicum rubrum71 the ,norway maple1 the purple-leaved sycamore1 and the variegated negundo2 the double horse chesnut 7the flower of this lasts very much longer than the single kind71 the red chesnut1 the ,hungarian lime-tree1 and the ,mississippi lime1 the tree of heaven 7,ailanthus glandulosa71 the tulip-tree1 the ,japanese sophora 7a noble tree1 fine for dry soils71 the ,kentucky coffee-tree 7not a large tree1 but with very graceful leaves71 the hawthorns in variety1 both red and white4 ,some of the hawthorns bear handsome fruit1 and of such the most distinct is ,aronia1 ,layi1 ,celsiana and ,douglasii4 ,the flowering ash1 the showy ,chinese ,pyrus spectabilis1 the ,american ash1 the ,canadian ash or lancewood2 the ,cornish1 ,chichester1 and ,irish elms 7the last being a tree of large growth7 and also most particularly the weeping variety of the wych elm2 the black walnut1 and the yellow-twigged willow2 the silver-leaved poplar1 the ,carolina poplar1 and of course the ,lombardy poplar2 the splendid western plane1 which does so well in towns1 the ,eastern plane1 and the ,spanish plane4 ,lastly1 we will name the noble oaks1 both the ,american and our own4 ,the ,american oaks are among the finest trees of the world4 ,the best of them are ,q4 ambigua1 ,prinus1 the champion oak1 the scarlet oak1 the black oak1 and the willow oak4 ,any of these will form long-lived and noble trees4 ,the preceding remarks and instructions generally apply to the wants of boys whose parents have gardens of some size4 ,but a very large class are not so fortunate--have not sufficient space to develop a good tree1 and perhaps live in or near towns1 where it may be difficult to grow a good one4 ,for convenience sake1 we will divide these into two classes--those who have small gardens in the country1 and those who have small gardens in or near towns or cities4 ,in the former1 it will be better to pay full attention to subjects of a comparatively dwarf though hardy and long-lived habit1 and to fine hardy shrubs like the hollies1 c4 ,except on the very margins of a small country place1 it is a mistake to plant great trees1 as at some time they are pretty sure to become an overshadowing nuisance1 too near the house to be seen to advantage1 and also too near to be agreeable or healthful4 ,of beautiful dwarf evergreen trees suited for such1 there is nothing better than the comparatively new ,retinosporas1 which are at once graceful1 hardy1 and beautiful4 ,they are natives of ,japan1 and in any large nursery various handsome and comparatively dwarf pines may be selected suitable for the same purpose4 ,for the town or suburban garden the best things are decidedly beautiful dwarf and free-flowering deciduous trees1 like the almond1 the various finely coloured double peaches1 the beautiful double cherries1 the ,chinese crab1 the silvery eleagnus1 the better kinds of hawthorn1 and if there be room for a large tree1 the plane is the best4 ,of course there is great difference in the climate and atmosphere of what are called suburbs4 ,thus1 in many of the suburbs of ,london it is nearly impossible to get a pine-tree to live1 while in the suburbs of many other towns and cities the choicest trees flourish freely4 ,but ten or twelve years' increase of smoke and increase of houses may make a sad difference to the pleasantest of suburbs1 and things that flourished healthfully at one time may gradually perish from increasing smut and vileness of atmosphere4 ,the best trees of the pine tribe for town planting are the dwarf and beautiful ,thuja aurea1 well suited1 from its dwarf size1 for the pleasure ground or flower garden2 the ,austrian pine1 the common arbor-vit1 and perhaps a few others2 but as a rule1 it is better not to plant pines where they will be exposed to the evil effects of a city atmosphere4 ,on the other hand1 all trees that lose their leaves in winter are likely to do well in such places1 because they are leafless and quite at rest in the winter1 when every chimney is vomiting forth poison1 and the air is thick with filth4 ,then1 when the atmosphere begins to clear1 and the spring returns1 they put forth their leaves and expose them during the best of the year1 while the poor pine or evergreen has to stand exposed at all seasons4 ,,the ,,boy',s ,,flower ,,garden4 ,of course every boy who cares about gardening will have a little flower garden4 ,that is the first thing he is likely to attempt1 and1 perhaps1 on the whole1 that which he may attempt with the greatest certainty of success4 ,a nice little varied flower garden is a source of interest and pleasant exercise for a boy nine months out of twelve4 ,but it is not by imitating the common style of flower garden that a boy can make his little piece pretty and interesting for the length of time we have named4 ,nothing can be more bald and awkward-looking1 more miserable in aspect1 than most flower gardens he is likely to see at the present day2 and therefore he must not attempt to imitate them1 but follow the instructions to be presently given4 ,the reason why the greater number of flower gardens of the present time are bad and miserably vulgar-looking1 is that those who arrange them simply use a few sorts of plants1 and many of them in great excess1 so that an oppressive kind of monotony is produced1 which is anything but agreeable in the flower garden2 and1 besides1 nearly every flower garden you enter is very like every other--no life or interest to be seen in them as a rule2 but1 on the other hand1 a great deal of mere gaudiness4 ,in addition to these demerits1 the ordinary type of flower garden is usually filled with tender plants--plants which must be put out in the ground when the frosts are quite gone1 in the beginning of ,june1 and taken up again as soon as they reappear in autumn--leaving the ground bare for the winter and long spring4 ,now1 even if this were the most beautiful way of managing a flower garden1 it would not suit the boy gardener4 ,he has1 as a rule1 no time to attend to tender plants1 and if he once plants his garden1 keeps it clean1 and adds a new member to it now and then1 it is perhaps as much as can be expected1 considering how many other things he has to do4 ,besides1 he goes away to school now and then1 and what is to become of his tender plants then8 ,most boys will be proud to take care of their own things1 and will be much better satisfied with a hardy little plant1 which cannot suffer when they go away for six weeks at a time1 than with one that may go off with the first frost4 ,clearly the best thing for the young gardener to do is to cultivate the most interesting and pretty of the hardy flowers of all seasons4 ,usually these are infinitely more interesting than the tender exotics of the grand flower garden4 ,many of them are ,english plants1 notably the beautiful lily of the valley1 the pink1 the carnation1 the graceful ,solomon's seal1 the various lovely primroses and polyanthuses1 and a host of others4 ,yes1 you will do most wisely by adopting all those charming old inmates of our gardens1 which1 independently of their associations1 are not to be surpassed for their beauty by any tenderlings4 ,it will be our pleasant duty to point out to you the kind that you may grow with the greatest ease1 and pick out for you the most beautiful kinds known4 ,it is most essential to be very careful about the plants you put in your little flower garden1 for your space is generally small1 and there is in consequence the greater necessity to take care that every spot of it is occupied with a 8good thing10 as gardeners are wont to say4 ,there are hundreds of plants mentioned in garden books1 and sold in nurseries1 that are little better than weeds1 and which would1 therefore1 sadly disfigure your garden4 ,presently we shall write you a list1 which may be implicitly depended upon--every plant being beautiful1 hardy1 and in all respects suited to your wants4 ,as boys are usually allotted but a small portion of border for their flower garden1 it is better to adopt the mixed border system1 that is1 a mixture of different kinds1 tastefully arranged1 and have nothing to do with what is called 8bedding-out10 or planting great masses of one thing4 ,by the mixed system1 you will be enabled to enjoy a little of everything1 and at all seasons1 from the time that the crocus opens its brightly-burnished golden blossoms in early spring1 till the ,christmas rose ventures to show its large white flowers in the depth of winter4 ,do you like exquisitely coloured little flowers in the dawn of spring--little brightly blue things that 8come before the swallow dares80 ,you can grow such without expense or trouble in your little parterre4 ,the charming bushes of dwarf shrubs1 and large border flowers1 which bloom in ,may1 must have charms for you as for all of us1 and these too you may have in perfection2 while the roses of ,june and ,july1 the lilies of ,august1 and the grand gladiolus of the autumn1 will all be perfectly at home in your borders1 as will every good and beautiful flower garden plant4 ,in laying out your small patch of flower garden1 it is best to confine yourself to a central bed 7which may be square1 round1 or oval71 and borders around that1 and not to attempt anything elaborate in the way of laying4 ,attempts to lay out small bits of ground in a geometrically elaborate or ,lilliputian imitation of the natural style1 is almost sure to end in the production of something ridiculous or cockneyfied4 ,confine your attention chiefly to the plants1 laying out the ground in a convenient manner4 ,let the design be subordinate altogether to the plants4 ,all trivial artificial ornaments1 in the way of shells1 coloured gravel1 statuettes1 sundials1 c4 should be left out of the plan altogether4 ,the most beautiful gardens are those in which plant-beauty1 and that alone1 is conspicuous4 ,if you can make the visitor forget all about design--forget everything but the fact that he is in a beautiful and varied garden1 with nature's own gems1 free and healthy1 on every side1 you will attain the highest success of which the ancient art of gardening is capable4 ,we will suppose1 then1 that you have selected your little bit of ground4 ,the next thing to do is to prepare it thoroughly4 ,now1 in ordinary cases this is not half done4 ,we are going to recommend you to plant permanent things1 plants which will not require removal for many years1 and you will not have a thorough opportunity of preparing the ground after you once plant4 ,therefore1 the preparation of the ground is of tenfold greater importance in your case than in that of the ordinary gardener1 whose beds of geraniums1 or suchlike1 are empty in winter1 so that he has an opportunity of dressing and digging them every year4 ,before marking the walks or anything of the kind1 when1 in fact1 your little piece of ground comes into your hands at first1 remove all matters from its surface1 add manure to it in abundance1 and have the whole dug as deep as you can go1 without bringing up the bad subsoil at the bottom4 ,if the ground be sandy1 so much the better2 then all you have do is to give it plenty of cow1 or any other rich manure that comes to hand4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it be of a clayey1 stiff1 tenacious nature1 like much of the ground to the north side of ,london1 you must act quite differently4 ,most pretty border plants like a light1 warm1 free or sandy soil1 and abhor a heavy1 wet one4 ,the way to cure1 if we may so speak1 or1 in other words1 improve the very stiff soil1 is to add plenty of sand1 leaf-mould1 horse manure1 or gritty scrapings from roads1 or any other loosening material of this kind that you can obtain4 ,dig it in deep1 and dig the ground over again1 so that it may be thoroughly incorporated with the soil4 ,all this should be done in autumn1 if you have the time--in early autumn1 if possible4 ,when well done1 and the ground levelled1 then you may mark your little walks--with a line--and your central bed2 and if in this operation you can get the gardener to assist you1 do so by all means4 ,in many cases the gardener gets ready the boys' garden1 and presents it to him ready for planting1 and that is the best way2 for the planting and attention required afterwards will be as much as you can do1 if you do it well4 ,a word or two as to edgings for the borders and the bed4 ,don't have anything to do with those nasty stone edgings1 so much advertised of late1 as they look very ugly and out of place in a garden4 ,the neat little edging of box is1 perhaps1 the prettiest as well as the oldest in existence4 ,but we are inclined to think that little edgings of plants that flower are the best for your case4 ,try to be original with your edging as with everything else1 if possible1 and whatever may be used as an edging near your garden1 avoid1 and have something distinct4 ,we know of about one hundred pretty plants for making edgings1 but can only mention such here as you are likely to be able to obtain without difficulty4 ,the best are the rosy thrift 7,armeria vulgaris rubra71 a lovely spring plant2 the pretty little white and blue campanula pumila1 and its white variety2 the large blue gentian of the ,alps 7,g4 aculis71 this is plentiful in ,scotland1 but not about ,london2 the pretty little blue aubrietia1 to be obtained everywhere2 the variegated cocksfoot grass 7,dactylis glomerata variegata2--what a pity it is that we are obliged to use such names72 and the double daisy in various colours4 ,should you make a box edging1 use the dwarfest and best kind2 and if you happen to notice any other dwarf hardy plants that make tasteful edgings1 use any you fancy1 by all means4 ,the more variety we have the better1 and the only thing that it is particularly desirable you should avoid is any forms of those crockery wares1 or artificial stone edgings1 as they are all as bad and ugly as need be4 ,we will now follow with a list of the most suitable plants for your garden4 ,to each plant a figure will be attached1 to indicate the position it should occupy in your beds or borders4 ,we will1 for convenience sake1 throw the various heights of the plants used into three classes--#a1 for the smallest plants1 or those fitted for the front of the border2 #b1 for the medium-sized1 or those suitable for the middle parts2 and finally1 #c1 for the taller kinds1 which require to be placed at the back1 or near the back of the border4 ,doubtless you will make a point of growing the rose2 that is deservedly everybody's favourite4 ,you may plant the rose either in the back part of your border1 as a standard in the middle1 as a dwarf bush1 or on the front edge1 pegged down close to the earth--not a bad way of growing it1 by the way4 ,but avoid the standard rose1 if you can2 it is ugly1 awkward1 and by no means so satisfactory as a rose 8growing upon its own roots30 that means1 a kind not grafted upon another1 but quite on its own resources4 ,roses generally are grafted upon free growing common kinds1 known as stocks4 ,the most pleasing in the end1 and by far the most satisfactory1 are the roses upon their own roots4 ,they make dwarf but long-lived and vigorous bushes--the very best things you can employ in the middle parts of your borders4 ,if there be sufficient room1 have a dozen kinds of roses1 each different4 ,every spring1 from deaths during the winter1 and changes of one kind or another1 you will have to look over your borders to fill up vacancies4 ,it is best done about the end of ,may1 when you may exactly see the state of the plants in the border1 by filling up the majority of these vacancies with the better kinds of bedding plants1 c4 ,by doing so you may enjoy both phases of gardening--the beautiful and interesting hardy flowers1 to be presently named1 and the brilliant and common flowers of the summer parterre1 the pretty kinds of verbenas1 the dwarf and neat lobelias1 the variegated and other geraniums1 and in fact1 any kind of bedding plant that comes to hand4 ,next1 for the selection of the more valuable and more uncommon hardy flowers1 leaving out all such as are difficult to obtain4 ,among all the flowers of spring1 few are better known than some of the anemones--apennina 7#a71 fulgens 7#a71 coronata 7#a71 sylvestris 7#a71 and ,honorine ,iobert 7#b71 are the very best4 ,among them we have the sweetest blue1 the brightest scarlet1 and the purest white4 ,of the columbines 7,aquilegias71 the best for your purposes are the common border varieties4 ,they are mostly fitted for the central line of the border4 ,of the magnificent delphiniums1 so richly blue1 tall1 and stately1 there are many beautiful new kinds--so many that ,i need not enumerate them1 but most nurserymen are pretty sure to have varieties of them4 ,being tall1 they are mostly suited for the back1 or nearly the back portions of the borders3 if you have a central bed1 they will also look very well towards the middle of it4 ,by the way1 the middle of such bed might well be devoted to a choice shrub or two1 say a good rhododendron or kalmia--that is1 if the soil would suit such4 ,the peony is almost too big for such little gardens2 but a plant or two may be ventured in some unimportant spot4 ,the yellow bachelor's button 7,ranunculus acris1 fl4 pl4 #b71 is very pretty1 and so exceedingly is ,dielytra spectabilis 7#b74 ,baptisia australis 7#c74 ,coronilla varia 7#b74 ,galega officinalis alba 7#c74 ,lathyrus grandiflorus 7#c71 a climbing plant1 very fine for going up a low trellis4 ,the white and red everlasting peas 7#c71 also climbers4 ,orobus vernus 7#b74 ,the perennial ,lupin 7#c74 ,achillea gyptiacum 7#b71 ,a4 aurea 7#a71 ,a4 ,eupatorium 7#c71 and ,a4 millefolium roseum 7#b7--;all fine and free4 ,of ,michaelmas daisies 7,asters71 ,a4 versicolor 7#a71 elegans 7#c71 turbinellus 7#b71 ,amellus 7#b71 will be found highly beautiful4 ,the ,pyrethum in fine variety of beautiful colour and size3 they have been raised of late years in great quantity by ,mr4 ,salter of the ,hammersmith nurseries1 and are admirably suited to the middle line of borders1 therefore the figure #b will indicate their position to a ,t2 their colour is rich and distinct in the extreme4 ,the fine autumnal flowering ,phlox 7#c7 is also sold in great and beautiful variety1 and should have a place in every good collection4 ,six or eight of the best kinds should be in the boy's garden4 ,nearly every nurseryman supplies them cheap4 ,in the harebell family 7,campanulas7 we will find some very fine1 particularly pumila 7#a71 carpatica 7#a71 persicifolia 7#c71 and ,p4 alba 7#c71 grandis 7#b71 macrantha 7#c71 rotundifolia 7#b74 ,the fleur-de-lis1 or ,iris1 has some beautiful varieties1 of which the best are germanica 7#b71 florentina 7#b71 pallida 7#b71 ,de ,bergii 7#b71 pumila 7#a74 ,tritoma grandis 7#c71 and glaucescens 7#c71 are noble things for the back of a border4 ,the double wallflowers 7#b71 the alpine wallflower 7#a7 7,cheiranthus alpinus74 ,the ,potentillas 7#b74 ,veronica amethystina 7#b71 and corymbosa 7#b74 ,the ,virginian tradescantia 7#b72 the crimson loose-strife 7#c72 ,lythrum roseum superbum4 ,i give you the hard names so that you may have the less difficulty in procuring the plants1 for many may know them by their ,latin name1 who would not know them by their common one1 and vice vers4 ,the ,american cowslip 7#a73 this being a very chaste and pretty plant1 have as much as you can of it4 ,salvia argentea 7#b74 ,this plant has grand silvery leaves1 and should be in every collection4 ,perennial candy tuft1 #a 7,iberis74 ,there are three kinds of this--corrafolia1 saxatilis1 and ,garrexiana1 all good1 hardy1 and beautiful4 ,arabis alpina 7#a72 ,aubrietia purpurea 7#a72 ,alyssum saxatile 7#a73 all three very easy to grow1 and very common4 ,the beautiful little ,hepaticas in various colours1 blue1 white1 and red4 ,you must secure a stock of these1 above all things2 they are among the prettiest of spring flowers1 and will 8set off0 charmingly the front parts of your borders4 ,there is a fine new kind of hepatica 7,h4 angulosa71 a noble kind1 which you will also do well to obtain3 give it a rather shady position in light soil4 ,one or two tufts of the ,christmas rose will be quite enough4 ,when this begins to show its flowers1 a few weeks before ,christmas1 you will do well to cover the plant with a hand-glass1 leaving a little air at the top4 ,this will prevent the flowers from being injured or hurt by rain2 they will grow very much larger and whiter than if left exposed4 ,of ,pentstemons 7#b71 a good variety should be grown1 especially if the soil be light and good1 such as they delight in4 ,sedum fabaria 7#b71 is a fine autumnal flowering plant1 which must not be forgotten4 ,rudbeckia ,newmannii 7#c71 a very fine autumnal bloomer4 ,lithospermum fruticosum 7#a71 a wonderfully pretty plant for the fronts of borders4 ,any kind of pink 7#a7 that you can conveniently obtain1 should be grown2 they are sweet1 hardy1 neat1 and1 in a word1 perfect for your purposes4 ,they are considerably varied of late years1 and highly useful for cutting for bouquets1 c4 ,the front of the border is the best place for them4 ,immediately behind them1 and scarcely so far back as the line of the second row1 is the place for the carnations and picotees1 which of course you will be sure to cultivate4 ,there is nothing more beautiful in our gardens than many of these1 so beautifully and richly coloured1 and so delicately and exquisitely margined and striped4 ,linum narbonense 7#b71 and ,perenne album 7#b71 noble kinds of hardy flax1 are also good4 ,the nothera tribe will furnish some beauty3 notably the sweetly coloured 4 acaulis 7#a71 which opens its very large flowers in the evening1 and keeps them open till nearly breakfast-time in the morning2 the noble yellow macrocarpa2 and the large evening primrose 74 ,lamarkiana74 ,some dwarf tiny shrubs1 that flower freely1 will look beautiful in your border1 and of such you cannot find one more beautiful than the early spring flowering heath1 #a 7,erica carnea72 it is a mass of handsome bloom1 and very hardy and neat in habit4 ,other capital little shrubs are ,daphne ,cneorum1 sweet and pretty--various dwarf kinds of native heaths1 and ,genista tinctoria 7#a71 and sagittalis 7#a74 ,in addition to the above1 it need hardly be added1 that such universally esteemed plants as the lily of the valley 7#a71 the primrose 7#a71 and the polyanthus1 should be well represented4 ,latterly there have been raised considerably varied kinds of primrose and polyanthus1 and nothing can be more charming than mixed masses of such4 ,from a packet of seed of each 7ask for that of the ordinary mixed kinds71 you may raise a considerable variety of beautiful kinds4 ,double daisies 7#a71 too1 in various colours1 will be found very pretty in the spring1 as will the numerous kinds of pansy 7#a71 the gentian1 and the forget-me-not4 ,by the way1 you must not forget some tufts of the common forget-me-not2 it does very well as a border plant in all but the driest soils4 ,at ,trentham it is tastefully employed to form a margin round some pretty little gardens1 dedicated to the various younger members of the family2 and we have known people to be so full of gratitude to a departed dog1 as to plant a ring of it round the little monumental slab which indicated his place of burial in the garden border4 ,the various pretty and very dwarf kinds of saxifrage 7#a71 and ,sedum 7#a71 too1 you will find neat and distinct for the very front of your border1 in which you will of course arrange the dwarfest plants4 ,one word more4 ,it would be a pity to confine you to this or any other selection4 ,the more varied your garden is1 and the more distinct from that of your friends or neighbours1 the better4 ,the selection above given is as good as can be made1 and may save you from getting a lot of ugly weeds in your garden1 under the name of flowers2 but in addition to these1 you would do well to add any other pretty plant met with in your rambles1 and which seems to you worthy of a place2 while with friends who cultivate plants1 you may exchange any that you have plenty of1 for new varieties1 or anything that you may fancy4 ,,the ,,boy',s ,,fruit ,,garden4 ,there are few boys who cannot appreciate the virtues of a delicious melting pear or good apple2 and our object in writing this paper is to tell them how to grow such in a comparatively short space of time4 ,in old times1 and1 indeed1 generally at present1 people plant for those who come after them--8plant for their heirs10 in fact1--plant trees that will come into bearing in twelve years or so2 and therefore some may say1 why offer the boys such a far-off treat8 ,but times change1 and the system which produces the finest fruits now in our markets1 happens to be exactly suited to the boy's garden4 ,large and beautiful apples have been sold in ,paris during the past spring for as much as three francs a-piece6 ,these were in many1 or in nearly all cases1 grown upon little trees not more than a foot from the ground1 and several of them not more than two or three years old6 ,the ,french are the best growers of apples and pears in existence2 and in ,france originated this dwarf method of growing them4 ,the way they do it is as follows3--,the best kinds of apples are grafted on a variety known as the ,paradise1 which induces a very dwarf growth and early fertility in the kinds grown upon it4 ,we have seen these fruiting1 this year1 at two years of age1 bearing fine fruit1 much better than you see on trees developed to full size4 ,they are grown in two ways1 generally as cordons1 and occasionally as little standards4 ,the 8cordon0 is simply a single plant of apple1 trained along a wire1 supported about a foot from the ground4 ,the little standard1 or bush1 is simply a diminutive ,lilliputian kind of tree--just such as a boy would wish for in his garden4 ,not taller1 if as tall as himself1 he can shorten the shoots and gather the fruit with the greatest ease4 ,the culture of these little trees is so simple that no boy need fail with them4 ,a sunny spot should in the first instance be chosen1 that is1 if the young gardener can get it2 and it is not often that he is allowed any but a bye nook of some kind or other2 and no wonder1 because hitherto boys' gardens have simply been short-lived little exhibitions of untidiness1 never yielding any result and very little beauty4 ,but the young gardener who manages well his fairy part of fruit garden1 will soon produce a little feature that any place might be proud of4 ,next1 as to how to do it4 ,very little ground is required4 ,a small patch will afford space for a great number of little trees4 ,a sunny open spot should be selected1 where the trees will have all the advantages of sun and air to perfect their fruit1 and render their shoots short1 firm1 and fertile1 instead of sappy1 gross1 and useless4 ,the soil should be of a slightly sandy or loamy nature1 and not wet4 ,if the ground be badly drained1 and water lies in it much1 it is almost hopeless to attempt fruit-growing1 and the little gardener had in that case better turn his attention to something with which his soil and circumstances are likely to agree4 ,one of the chief points in gardening is to choose the course most suited for your own soil1 climate1 and position4 ,thus the boy who lives in a great city1 or the suburb of one1 and who has to contend with the smoke and other evils incident to such1 must pursue a very different plan of gardening to the boy who lives in the country1 and has all the advantages of pure1 sweet air for his plants4 ,the best of all soils for our little fruit-trees1 is one moderately sandy1 yet not too loose and free1 with what we may term a free bottom1 that is1 a sandy or other subsoil beneath1 which will permit the water to pass off freely from the fertile or upper earth4 ,but although this is the best soil1 there are few others that we need reject--the worst1 perhaps1 being deep1 stiff1 soap-like clay4 ,the best time to plant is in the autumn4 ,be sure you ask for the young apple-trees grafted on the 8,paradise10 and the pears on the ,quince stock4 ,both apples and pears may be grown as little standard trees or as cordons4 ,in planting1 do not put the roots deep1 and spread them out even1 forming first a rather firm and slightly convex surface1 on which to place the little plant4 ,this will be found to suit very much better than making a loose sort of hole into which to put the roots4 ,it should be borne in mind that when fruit-trees send their roots deep into rich or cold ground1 they produce a lot of coarse1 useless wood1 barren of fruit1 or nearly so4 ,to counteract this tendency1 what is called root-pruning has been resorted to4 ,it simply consists in taking up the trees once in two years or so1 and replanting them--at least1 this is the way with our little trees4 ,it may not be necessary on many soils2 but where it is1 it may be readily done during pleasant dry weather in autumn4 ,the check given to the tree by the disturbance1 causes it to form fertile buds and a stubby habit4 ,it is well that the young amateur gardener should know this1 so that he may apply a remedy if his fruit-trees grow too strong and prove barren4 ,but generally they are fertile enough1 and even sometimes produce a successful crop the first year after planting2 the second year they should bear well4 ,the accident of a severe frost while the trees are in flower1 will of course always do mischief1 and may ruin a crop2 but all are liable to this1 as well as our ,lilliputians4 ,it is best to plant the erect little trees in a small square--pears and apples separate1 for uniformity sake--and to place the cordons around this1 just as the ,french make a sort of edging of them in their gardens4 ,indeed1 if the boy cannot obtain a neat little sunny square for his tiny trees1 he will hardly fail to succeed in getting permission to arrange a few in cordon fashion along the edge of some border4 ,it is simply done by either driving down a strong wooden post1 or an iron one1 so as to support a wire at about ten inches or a foot from the ground4 ,beneath that1 the trees are to be planted1 say at a distance of six or eight feet1 and tied along the wire4 ,when once this is done there is no further trouble1 except to pinch back the shoots in summer so as to keep them close and compact4 ,this operation requires a little attention4 ,the main stem1 which is of course tied carefully but not too tightly to the wire sends out side shoots in the summer4 ,when these are about four1 or say from three to five inches long1 they are to be pinched back1 or in other words1 nipped off1 within about an inch of the base of the young shoot1 in the case of apple-trees--in the case of pear-trees it should be left somewhat longer4 ,this is for the summer pruning2 in winter it may be necessary to go over the trees with a knife1 and remove or shorten awkward spurs1 or cut out dead bits here and there2 but the summer pinching is the chief thing to be done in the matter4 ,when the trees produce too plentiful a crop of fruit1 these should be thinned when very young1 so that those left may assume the splendid flavour and size which makes fruit grown in this way superior to that grown in the old and large tree system4 ,i will now give you a list of the best kinds to use in this way1 and which can be bought in any respectable nursery4 ,of apples the very best are ,colville ,blanche and ,reinette de ,canada1 ,cox's orange pippin1 ,hawthornden1 ,herefordshire ,pearmain1 ,greaves' pippin1 or any other first-class kind of apple4 ,of pears1 ,marie ,louise1 ,winter ,nelis1 ,beurr ,diel1 ,jargonelle1 ,beurr d',amanlis1 and ,josphine de ,malines1 will be found very suitable for the dwarf bush or cordon style1 as will most first-class pears4 ,cropping the ,ground4 ,,digging4 ,when land is first brought under the spade it should be well dug1 and it ought to be trenched up2 that is1 a full spit or spadeful should be taken and thrown somewhat higher than the general level of the ground1 and turned1 so that the under part of the soil is brought to the surface2 in doing this effectually a sort of trench will be left at the part where the spade goes in1 and at the end of digging a piece of ground in this manner this trench will be required to be filled up4 ,it is usual for gardeners to provide for this at the onset by bringing a barrow full of the mould from the part at which the spade is first put in1 and filling up the trench so left at the end of the process4 ,common digging1 when the ground is not to be trenched1 consists in turning it over regularly and evenly with the spade4 ,when manure is necessary1 it is either hoed over the ground and dug in as the digger proceeds1 or in trenching it may be laid in each successive trench as it is made1 which will of course be covered by the next line of digging4 ,flower-beds are best turned up with a small three-pronged spade-fork2 and it is often necessary to use the same instrument when digging between strawberry and other roots1 which is technically called forking4 ,the earth in this process is not turned over1 but only broken up and loosened1 and the handle of the fork not turned in the process1 but drawn gently backwards with a kind of knock1 which can be easily acquired by practice4 ,,hoeing4 ,illustration ,the hoe is of very great use in a garden4 ,there are generally three kinds of hoes3 #ast1 the narrow2 #b;d1 the broad2 and #c;d1 the ,dutch hoe4 ,the small hoe is used for hoeing in flower-beds2 the broad one for earthing up peas1 potatoes1 c41 and the ,dutch hoe is of service in dry weather in clearing the ground quickly of weeds4 ,the two former hoes are used by drawing the handle to you1 and hence called draw hoes2 but the ,dutch hoe is used by thrusting forward1 when the weeds cut up by it fall through the hollow portion at 7a7 clear of the operation4 ,in hoeing the hoer should be particularly careful to go quite to the roots of the weeds1 and clear of the roots of the plants4 ,in hoeing up peas he should be careful to draw the earth nicely among the haulms2 and in hoeing up cabbages not to sprinkle the dirt among the tender leaves forming the heart of the plant4 ,,raking4 ,there are two kinds of rakes1--the broad and narrow4 ,the broad rake is for raking over seed beds1 and the narrow one for raking borders among flowers1 c4 ,in the use of the rake the gardener should first lightly drag off all the weeds and stones from the soil4 ,in holding the handle of the rake high1 all the loose stones1 weeds1 c41 will be easily drawn from the ground without the mould2 when the handle is held low1 the teeth of the rake enter the ground and scratch it up1 which is sometimes necessary to be done2 but the little gardener should be careful not to rake away his soil2 and the little hard balls of earth that come over with the stones1 c4 should be pulverised by the back of the rake4 ,,weeding4 ,the garden should always be kept perfectly clear of weeds2 a weed in a garden is a disgrace to the gardener1 and unless a young person makes up his mind to be very particular in this he had better never think of gardening4 ,chickweed1 dandelion1 plantain1 bindweed1 and every other description of extraneous growth should be quickly removed1 and that worst of all weeds1 called the gardener's plague1 8couchgrass10 should be extirpated entirely1 as should all suckers from the roots of trees4 ,weeds1 if not in seed1 should be thrown into the manure pit1 but sticks or stones should never be mixed with them4 ,,sowing ,,seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,dibber4 ,the ground having been dug and raked1 and otherwise prepared1 is fit for the reception of the seed4 ,radishes1 carrots1 parsnips1 are sown by the hand broadcast2 the way of sowing carrot seed is to mix it with the earth in a large flower-pot1 and then to scatter it very thinly over the bed3 at least1 that way is suited to the boy's garden2 in the open garden and the field they sow carrots and parsnips in drills4 ,peas are sown in drills about three inches deep and four feet apart4 ,broad beans are put in with a dibber in straight lines about five inches apart1 the rows being four feet from each other4 ,french beans are sown thinly in drills about four feet apart4 ,scarlet runners are put in by the dibber singly about three inches apart1 and should have bean sticks placed near them as soon as they appear1 upon which to climb4 ,cabbage-plants should be put in by the dibber about nine inches apart1 in rows about four feet distant from each other4 ,cauliflowers should be planted eighteen inches apart either way1 as should ,scotch kale and sprouting brocoli4 ,spinach may be sown thinly in drills three feet apart1 or broadcast in beds4 ,lettuce-seed1 cabbage-seed1 cauliflower-seed1 and all kinds of flower-seeds should be first sown in warm situations in good mould very thinly1 and then the plants should be transplanted as they grow of sufficient size4 ,potatoes should be planted with the dibber nine inches apart1 in rows three feet apart1 as should ,jerusalem artichokes4 ,onions should be sown broadcast1 in beds about six feet wide and fifteen or twenty long4 ,the beds for parsnips and carrots may be six feet wide and thirty long4 ,,transplanting4 ,illustration3 ,,trowel4 ,this is a most important operation1 and is indispensable in the art of gardening4 ,a vast number of seeds must be sown in beds1 and afterwards transplanted into their final situations2 this is particularly the case with regard to flowers4 ,the instrument with which transplanting is performed is called a trowel1 of which there are both small and large4 ,in using it the principal thing to be attended to1 is to take the best and most vigorous of the plants raised in the seedbed1 without injuring their roots1 and with the earth around them1 and placing them1 with as little disturbance of their roots as possible1 in their new situations4 ,in transplanting shrubs1 c4 from pots1 the planter should very slightly break the earth round the roots of the plant1 so that its fibres may have free play in the new earth4 ,in transplanting shrubs1 c4 particular care should be taken in digging them up1 so that the young fibres of the roots are not injured4 ,when shrubs1 c4 are first transplanted1 they should be moderately watered1 and of course it is bad management to plant shrubs at a time when they are likely to suffer from sun4 ,the right time to transplant is in the autumn and spring1 when the ground is nice and dry1 and 8in good working order10 as gardeners term it4 ,,watering4 ,nature is the best waterer of plants1 and it is good policy to leave the matter as much as possible in her hands2 but we must assist her now and then by applying it ourselves4 ,in watering1 pond water is much better than pump water2 and in warm weather1 if no pond water can be procured1 it is well to pump the water into some large tank or tub1 and let it stand for some hours exposed to the sun and air before using it4 ,morning and evening are the proper times for watering2 the middle of the day1 or during a hot sunshine1 is a very improper time for using the watering-pot in summer-time1 although it is the best time for using it in the winter4 ,in watering plants in flower-pots the finger should be first passed round the pot where the mould joins the sides of the pot1 so as to close up the little crack or crevice between them1 otherwise the water will pass down this crack1 and go out at the hole at the bottom of the pot without affording it any benefit4 ,in watering1 never let the water pass from the watering-pot close to the stem1 but rather turn up the earth in a little circular space for a few inches round the plant1 so that the water may soak down to the extremities of the roots1 where the spongelets are which draw up the nutriment from the earth to support the plant4 ,when you water1 water well and thoroughly1 and then there will be little need to do it often4 ,to water frequently1 and give a little at a time1 is very bad gardening4 ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,propagation4 ,plants are reproduced or propagated in various ways2 some by seeds1 some by offsets1 as tulips and hyacinths2 some by dividing the root1 some by layers1 some by cuttings4 ,currant and gooseberry-trees1 as well as rose-trees1 and also the vine1 are propagated by cuttings2 i4 e4 pieces of the young last-year branches are cut off about six inches in length1 and1 the top being taken off1 are placed with the thickest end in the ground4 ,strawberries are reproduced by dividing the root1 or by taking the runner which the plant has itself fixed in the ground as the nucleus of a new plant1 and putting it in a proper situation4 ,raspberries give out suckers from the parent root1 which may be taken off and replanted1 like the lilac1 the rose1 and many other plants2 but in taking them off1 which is generally done by a spade1 they should be taken pretty near to the parent stem1 and should have fibrous roots attached4 ,in taking offsets1 such as those of bulbous roots1 it is only necessary to take those which nature herself separates from the parent bulb2 in tubers1 such as the artichoke and potato1 the tubers of middle size are to be taken and planted2 or in regard to the latter root1 the eyes or shoots only are sometimes planted1 the root being cut into various portions4 ,,layers4 ,if we observe the strawberry plant1 we find that at a certain season of the year it throws out offsets1 and at certain distances a knob or knot arises1 from which roots shoot into the earth1 while from its upper centre a bud appears1 and then a new plant is formed4 ,the process of layering is to artificially produce this1 and similar operations of nature4 ,some plants throw out roots whenever their stump or branches come in contact with the soil1 but others require the assistance of art4 ,the art of layering1 therefore1 consists in taking the shoot of a growing plant as near the root as possible2 this is first to be cut half through1 and then a slit is made in an upward direction1 and1 a piece of twig being placed in the divided part1 the shoot is pegged down with the joint buried in the ground4 ,after a time this joint begins to throw out roots1 and when these are firmly established and begin to draw nutriment from the earth1 the shoot may be detached from its parent stem1 and it then becomes a new plant4 ,layers may be made in the spring months1 and also in the month of ,july4 ,,pipings ,are cuttings of carnations1 pinks1 c4 ,they are tubular stems1 having joints at certain distances1 and they are pulled asunder by the fingers at these joints2 the lower leaves are then pulled off1 and the pipe is placed in some nicely prepared soil1 leaving its upper portion1 consisting of the sprouting leaf bud1 to grow1 while the lower pipe shoots into a root4 ,,grafting4 ,grafting1 inarching1 and budding1 are generally performed in the month of ,march4 ,the operation of inarching is sometimes performed by nature4 ,when two branches of a tree lie in contact1 the rough winds of winter often cause them to rub against each other1 so that a wound is produced in one or both1 and the juices that flow from the wounded parts gradually cause an incorporation of the substances1 so that the two branches become united into one4 ,this is not to be wondered at in branches of the same tree1 or in those of the same kind1 but it is a matter of some surprise to find that a tree bearing small and unpalatable fruit may be cut down1 and the remaining part grafted with a scion from a species bearing large and delicious fruit1 instead of the small sour fruit of the stalk4 ,thus it is then that by grafting1 we preserve and multiply a favoured variety of trees which could not be propagated from seeds with any certainty of success4 ,in order to the full success of this operation1 grafting must be performed according to the rules that experience has laid down4 ,the first is to graft or unite only such species as have a relationship subsisting between them4 ,the operation never succeeds unless this union of nature is attended to1 and the plants belong to the same genus4 ,the next rule requires that the inner bark of the scion1 and the inner bark of the stalk1 be exactly united together1 in order to facilitate the free course of the sap4 ,the most common method of grafting is whip-grafting1 or tongue-grafting4 ,the name of whip-grafting is given from the method of cutting the stock and the scion sloping on one side so as to fit each other1 and then tying them together in the manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle4 ,the scion and stock are cut obliquely1 and as nearly as possible at corresponding angles4 ,the top of the stock is then cut off nearly horizontally1 and a slit is made near the centre of it downwards1 and a similar one in the scion upwards4 ,the tongue1 or wedge-like process forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion1 is then inserted downwards in the cleft of the stock1 the inner barks being brought closely to unite on one side so as not to be displaced by tying1 which ought to be done immediately with a riband1 or matting1 or bass1 brought in a neat manner several times round the stock4 ,the next operation is to clay the whole over an inch thick all round1 for about half an inch or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch over the top of the stock1 finishing the coat of clay in a kind of oval form1 closing it effectually1 so that no light1 wet1 nor wind1 may penetrate4 ,,tongue-,,grafting4 ,tongue-grafting is not very different to whip-grafting1 and is performed as follows4 ,the stock being ready1 cut it off at three or four inches from the ground1 and1 with a very sharp1 straight1 and narrow-bladed knife1 cut a thin slip of wood and bark upwards from about two inches below the top of the shortened stock4 ,make this cut at one pull of the knife1 inserting the edge rather horizontally1 and when it has gone through the bark and into the wood a little short of the middle1 pull straight upwards4 ,then at less than half-way down this cut a thin tongue1 not more than three-eighths of an inch long4 ,proceed in the same way with the thick part of the scion1 making a sloping cut of about the same length as the cut of the stock1 and make a tongue to correspond with that in the stock4 ,bring the four edges of the bark1 that is1 the two edges of the cut in the top of the stock and the two corresponding edges of the cut in the bottom of the scion1 to meet precisely1 which can never be the case unless the first cut in the stock and that in the scion is even as a die1 and performed with a knife as sharp as a razor4 ,the two parts thus formed1 the tongues and the stock clasping one another must be bound up as before4 ,,budding4 ,budding is the art of taking a bud from one tree and making it grow on another4 ,a bud can only be planted upon a tree of the same kind as itself1 and the operation is generally performed in the month of ,august4 ,the bud should be taken from a shoot of the same year's growth1 and1 in taking it1 should be neatly cut out by incisions made above it1 below it1 and longitudinally on either side1 and the piece taken should include the bud1 without injury to the bark1 and a small piece of wood of an oblong form pointed at its extremity4 ,a place is now cut to receive the bud in the shoot of a stock1 and the best place is near the fork of a branch2 the method of cutting is similar to that adopted for taking out the bud1 and the bark is open on both sides of the slit1 and the piece of bark to which the bud is attached is then filled in1 and the bark of the stock closed over it2 the two parts are then bound together with strips of fresh matting tied in bows and ends1 for the purpose of being easily loosened as the bud increases in growth4 ,the operation of budding requires the aid of a budding-knife1 which may be readily purchased1 and the success of the operation depends upon the care and nicety with which it is performed4 ,,inarching4 ,we have already mentioned how nature performs what is called inarching4 ,the gardener's art consists simply in bending a branch partly cut through1 and inserting the belt thus formed into a slit made downwards in the stock to receive it4 ,the parts being nicely fitted are bound with matting4 ,in five or six months the head of the stock may be cut off1 and the plant removed4 ,,grafting-,,clay4 ,most of the operations of grafting require clay to be put round the parts4 ,this is made of three parts of stiff yellow clay to one of horse-dung fresh as it falls1 with a little cut hay1 well mixed together2 another kind of clay is made of a pound of pitch and a pound of yellow wax1 mixed with two pounds of cow-dung4 ,the use of them in covering the grafting posts is to keep them moist and cool till a proper union has taken place4 ,,pruning4 ,the proper time for pruning trees is in ,december or ,january1 for then the sap is down1 and no injury can be done2 and the art in pruning consists in cutting away the 8water shoots10 or non-bearing wood1 8dead wood10 and 8superfluous wood40 ,the water shoots1 as they are called1 appear to be strong growing branches1 but generally produce neither flowers nor fruit2 the superfluous wood are those shoots which grow in the way of each other1 or cross each other1 which should always be removed4 ,the great principle in pruning a fruit tree is to leave all the tree free and open1 so that the air and sunshine may pass through it1 and to preserve the buds of the bearing wood4 ,the shoots should be cut off as near to the stem or branch as possible1 and all growths or suckers which appear below the crown of the tree should be taken off4 ,the present practice of thumb-pruning is very excellent2 by this means the superfluous shoots1 c41 are removed by the thumb nail as soon as they appear1 and thus the tree does not exhaust itself by the growth of useless wood4 ,the young pruner should be very careful in cutting away1 and recollect that what he cuts off he cannot put on again4 ,,training4 ,the training of trees applies principally to those that are fastened to wooden trellises1 to poles1 or to walls4 ,the principle of the art is to extend the bearing branches of a tree or plant1 so as to improve its growth1 its beauty1 and its produce4 ,peaches1 nectarines1 apricots1 vines1 c41 are trained against walls by shreds of cloth being placed round the branches1 and the two ends nailed to the wall4 ,in doing this1 care should be taken to give the branch room to play1 and yet to confine it1 not to hurt the tender fruit-shoots in the operation1 and to let all the branches be free of each other4 ,roses and jasmines are often trained round verandahs by their different parts being tied with ropes' end or tarred twine to different parts of the trelliswork4 ,sometimes flowers are trained by being tied to stakes or long poles1 and others are brought to pass through the round of an ornamental ladder1 or through the meshes of wirework of different forms4 ,but in every kind of training the principle is the same1 namely that of keeping the branches clear of each other1 and of preserving the flowering and bearing shoots4 ,neatness and taste are also indispensable requisites to the training and management of trees and flowers1 whether for use or ornament4 ,,insects ,,and ,,depredators4 ,there are various kinds of depredators which find their way into gardens2--worms1 slugs1 caterpillars1 moles1 ants1 birds1 butterflies1 snails1 c4 ,these must be got rid of1 or kept down1 otherwise the gardening labours are soon at an end4 ,in wild nature all the above 8vermin10 as some people designate them1 are of the greatest service in some way or other2 even worms and moles1 which are very destructive in gardens1 are of great service on commons1 and therefore in destroying them we should always do so with as little pain as possible to the individuals2 and1 as prevention is better than cure1 the young gardener should look out in winter for the eggs of various moths and butterflies1 which may be often seen encircling the twigs of trees1 or under the eaves of paling1 c41 and destroy them4 ,caterpillars are best got rid of by picking them from the plants2 and slugs1 and snails1 and worms1 are often eradicated by turning a brood of young ducks into the ground for a short time1 where they can do no injury to the beds4 ,they may also be entrapped by laying cabbage leaves in different parts of the garden1 under which they will creep in the night time4 ,moles must be caught with a mole-trap set in the line of their march4 ,it consists simply of a bent stick1 and a wire formed into a noose1 slightly attached to the neck of a peg1 into which the animal runs his head and gets strangled1 by the elasticity of the rod drawing up the noose when the peg is disturbed4 ,ants are best got rid of by destroying their nest and eggs1 the latter of which are excellent food for young chickens1 pheasants1 c4 ,the most destructive insect is the aphis1 which attacks the rose1 and this is best destroyed by the fumigation of tobacco-smoke1 either through a pair of common bellows1 or by means of the whirl-fumigator1 which may be purchased for a few shillings2 but the most certain mode of destruction is to obtain a few 8golden beetles10 and put near the plants infected by aphides2 these are their natural enemies1 and where they are placed the aphides will soon become extinct4 ,illustration ,,protection ,,from ,,frost4 ,the common trees and fruits of the garden require but little care as regards frost in our comparatively mild winters1 but many plants1 trees1 and shrubs1 coming originally from warmer climates1 require much attention during winter to keep them alive4 ,it is useless to attempt preserving geraniums1 myrtles1 and a great many of our common summer plants1 without keeping them through the winter in a greenhouse of some kind or other4 ,a small greenhouse may now be cheaply erected1 but for the preservation of a small number of plants the greenhouse pit is the cheapest and most convenient substitute4 ,it consists only of a hole twelve feet by four dug in the ground to the depth of six feet1 having at the top a skylight4 ,it should if possible be dug in a sheltered situation1 open to the south and well backed behind1 and the glass-top1 which should merely consist of one frame laid in a slanting position to the south over the top of the hole1 the back of which is raised to support it1 the front being slightly lowered4 ,the entrance to the pit is at the side1 to which a stout wooden door nailed over with straw bands should be attached1 and two or three steps should lead to the interior of the pit1 where a few shelves may be arranged upon which to place the flowers1 c4 ,in this pit flowers1 cuttings1 bulbs1 and a variety of other things1 may be preserved through the winter1 with very little cost or trouble1 and it will be of a great deal of use in many other respects4 ,illustration ,,the ,,young ,,gardener',s ,,calendar ,,for ,,the ,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done ,,in ,,all ,,the ,,months ,,of ,,the ,,year4 ,,january4 ,in ,january1 if the weather will permit1 manure the ground1 and dig the manure in4 ,plant out some strong early cabbage in warm situations3 plant early kinds of ,windsor beans4 ,sow peas1 early ,warwick1 in drills two feet and a-half asunder2 sow a first early crop of spinach2 sow early radishes1 and cover them with straw two inches thick1 then uncover every mild day1 and cover again in the evening4 ,plant in the flower border the various bulbs1 such as snowdrops1 crocuses1 daffodils1 jonquils1 c41 and also their offsets4 ,plant also the hardy herbaceous plants1 such as asters1 golden rods1 campanulas1 ,canterbury bells1 c4 ,keep gravel walks clean4 ,,february4 ,peas1 beans1 spinach1 lettuce1 carrots1 parsnips1 beet1 c41 may now be sown2 and in hotbeds cucumbers1 small salading1 melons1 lettuce1 c4 ,give air to plants under frames in the natural ground4 ,dig and prepare the compartments of beds and borders2 sow many sorts of hardy annual flower seeds2 the tender sorts in hotbeds1 such as larkspurs1 candy-tuft1 yellow lupines1 pansies1 virgin stock1 sweet scabious mignonette1 ten-weeks stock1 c4 ,and for edgings of border1 plant box1 thrift1 daisies1 parsley1 strawberries1 c4 ,,march4 ,still continue to prepare an appropriate ground by digging and manuring1 sow again peas1 beans1 c41 if necessary1 and especially a bed of turnips4 ,now is the time also to sow small herbs1 as thyme1 savory2 you may also now plant various slips or cuttings of rosemary1 rue1 wormwood1 and lavender4 ,these should be the outward shoots produced last year1 five or six inches long1 and should be planted in a shady border1 six inches apart4 ,now also may be sown nasturtiums1 which may be sown in patches1 dibbed in six inches apart1 or in drills1 near a rail or running fence4 ,potatoes may also be now planted in open weather4 ,in planting them1 take care to get the best sorts1 and pick out some of the finest of a moderately large size1 and then divide the tubers into two or three parts1 leaving an eye or two to each2 plant the pieces in rows about eighteen inches from each other1 and about four inches deep4 ,now also is the time for pruning the various fruit trees1 planting fresh sets of raspberries1 strawberries1 c4 ,in the flower garden the tender annuals are to be sown in hotbeds1 such as cockscomb1 balsam1 china-aster1 tobacco1 convolvulus1 c4 ,ranunculuses1 anemones1 and the hardy annuals1 may be sown in the open ground1 and transplanting of all kinds of plants1 shrubs1 c41 may now be performed4 ,,april4 ,this is a transplanting month1 particularly for cabbages and cauliflowers1 all which should be now taken and put out for summer use4 ,celery should also now be pricked out4 ,continue to plant1 if necessary1 pot herbs and sweet herbs1 such as rooted slips of balm1 penny royal1 and camomile4 ,it is a good time also to plant out slips of mint from the roots2 other crops of peas may also now be sown1 as also a late crop of beans4 ,now also you may sow gourds and pumpkins in a frame4 ,all pruning must be finished4 ,insects must be looked after on fruit trees4 ,vines may be laid down in layers2 wall-fruit thinned2 strawberry beds weeded1 and kept very clean2 new-budded and new-grafted trees well examined to see if the clay keeps close to the grafts4 ,in the flower garden or borders some of the tender annuals may now be pricked out1 and some of the others sown in the frame1 such as ,prince's feather1 capsicum1 love-apples1 ,indian corn1 gourds1 sweet balsam1 marvel of ,peru2 stocks1 and the hardy annuals1 may now be sown in the open ground1 as ,adonis poppy1 sweet peas1 catch-fly1 annual sunflower1 larkspur1 lupines1 ,venus's looking-glass4 ,the best way to sow sweet peas is in pots1 and protect them well from the birds1 who will otherwise not leave one4 ,inarching may now be performed on evergreens and other plants1 which you may wish to propagate this way4 ,,may4 ,lettuces will now want tying up4 ,peas will require sticking4 ,do not tie your lettuces up too tightly1 and when you stick your peas put in the stick in a slanting direction4 ,clear and thin carrots and parsnips1 leaving the largest plants at least four inches from each other2 thin also onions2 plant out cauliflowers4 ,sow brocoli seeds for the crop to come in on the following winter and early spring4 ,sow and plant savoys2 top the broad beans that are now in blossom1 which will make the pods set sooner and swell faster4 ,plant the various kinds of ,french beans1 such as the white speckled1 in drills about three feet apart1 and sow them thin4 ,prick out and plant celery2 continue to sow radishes and small salading for daily use4 ,water new planted crops1 and now let more than common care be taken to destroy weeds amongst crops of every kind2 and now is the time for using your ,dutch hoe freely among the rows of peas1 beans1 and spinach2 but do not leave your weeds about in the drills or borders2 clear all carefully away1 and keep the garden clean and neat4 ,,june4 ,look after your melons1 pumpkins1 gourds1 and cucumbers1 in frames2 let them be well supplied with fresh air and water4 ,to save cauliflower seed1 mark some of the best and earliest plants1 with the largest and whitest and closest flower heads1 which should not be cut1 but left to run to seed4 ,peas may still be sown1 and ,french beans also1 as may cabbage and colewort seed4 ,gather mint1 balm1 and other aromatic herbs1 towards the end of this month1 for drying4 ,examine any new planted trees1 see that they are not too dry1 and that they are well secured4 ,water should be given to those that show any symptoms of flagging2 water them well1 but not frequently4 ,take care that your strawberry beds are also well watered4 ,hang up nets before early cherry-trees against walls1 and over small trees1 to protect them from the birds4 ,most of the tender annuals may be now finally planted out1 and now is the time to take up the roots of tulips1 crown imperials1 jonquils1 c41 and to take away the offsets4 ,continue to support with sticks all the tall growing flowering plants4 ,cut box-edgings1 and regulate your flower borders1 keeping your plants well watered if the weather should be very dry4 ,,july4 ,you may now sow a batch of turnips for winter or autumn use1 and also some carrot seed to raise young carrots for use later in the autumn4 ,celery may be transplanted1 winter spinach may be sown1 lettuces may be planted out1 coleworts may be sown4 ,gather your cucumbers as they appear1 and gather all sorts of seeds as they ripen in dry weather1 pulling up the stems with the seed where it can be done4 ,bring out the cockscombs1 double balsams1 and all other curious annuals kept till this time in frames4 ,transplant annuals into the borders4 ,lay carnations and sweetwilliams2 propagate pinks by pipings2 transplant perennial plants4 ,take up bulbous roots1 cut box-edgings1 regulate your flower borders4 ,plant cuttings and slips of succulent plants2 shift geraniums and other plants into larger pots1 if necessary4 ,,august4 ,cauliflower seed must be sown between the #ahth and the #bdth4 ,celery should now be transplanted into trenches1 and lettuce planted out4 ,in the end of the month the dry flower stems of aromatic plants1 such as hyssop1 sage1 lavender1 should be cut down4 ,now look well out for various seeds as they ripen1 which gather by cutting or pulling off the seed-stalks1 then place them in the full sun against a hedge or wall to get them thoroughly dry4 ,all flowers should now be carefully attended1 and watered when necessary4 ,the pink pipings should now be planted out in beds1 and the seeds of many bulbous flowers1 such as tulips1 hyacinths1 lilies1 may be sown to obtain new varieties4 ,flower borders should occasionally be gone over with a sharp hoe1 after which they should be raked over neatly1 and all weeds and litter cleared away4 ,,september4 ,lettuces may now be planted in frames1 or in very warm borders1 for winter use4 ,brocoli1 cabbage and savoy plants may also be planted out1 and young plants pricked out into nursery beds4 ,celery should be earthed up1 and you should tie up the leaves of endive to blanch the plants white4 ,the spinach sown in ,august should be thinned and cleared out1 and small salading should be sown once a-week or fortnight4 ,gather ripe seeds as before1 and see that the birds do not devour them4 ,now is a good time to plant the strong runner plants into separate beds1 and at about fifteen inches asunder either way4 ,towards the end of the month hyacinth and tulip roots may be planted1 as well as any other bulbous root4 ,anemone and ranunculus seed may be sown1 and perennial plants transplanted4 ,continue to keep the flower borders always very clean1 and begin digging vacant beds and borders for future planting4 ,,october4 ,now the apples and pears begin to ripen4 ,seeds are still to be looked for and preserved1 vacant spaces of ground are to be dug up and manured4 ,fruit trees may now be transplanted1 and currant and gooseberry-trees may be planted4 ,recollect that the currant-trees may be cut close down to the fruit buds1 but the gooseberry only half way down the last year's wood4 ,cut out irregular growths and suckers1 and keep them trained to a single stem below4 ,strawberry beds should this month have their winter dressing of manure1 and all the runners cleared away close to the head of the main plants4 ,raspberry plants may be pruned1 the old stems cut away1 and the last year's suckers' stems selected for the next year's bearings1 and each of them shortened one-third in height4 ,in the flower-garden the borders should be nicely dressed1 and all kinds of plants may be transplanted1 or their roots divided1 and bulbs not yet planted may be put into the earth4 ,plant all kinds of shrubs and evergreen trees4 ,,november4 ,now is the time for digging up potatoes1 and taking up carrots1 parsnips1 onions1 c41 and storing them for winter use4 ,winter spinach should be weeded1 and the red beet-root dug up4 ,onions may be pricked out to come in early in the spring4 ,trees may be pruned2 all sorts of fruit trees and bulbous roots planted4 ,now tender plants should be removed to the pit or greenhouse4 ,,december4 ,peas may be sown in a warm sheltered spot to come in early in the spring1 as may ,windsor and broad beans4 ,celery should be well earthed up1 and all vacant ground manured1 dug1 or trenched4 ,secure the roots of newly planted trees from the frost by laying dungy litter round them1 and the same may be done to the spots in which hyacinths1 tulips1 anemones1 and ranunculuses are planted4 ,small young tender seedling flower plants also require care at this season4 ,the borders may now be finally cleared and laid nice and smooth1 the remainder of pot plants removed to the greenhouse or pit1 which should be closed during the night1 and only opened in fine mild weather2 as the frost comes on place mats above the glass during the night1 which should be removed in the morning4 ,all leaves from trees1 c41 should be collected in a pit for manure1 free from sticks or stones1 and the whole garden put into order for the frost4 ,,mimicry ,,and ,,ventriloquism4 8,how can ,i become a ventriloquist80 is the frequent thought of a boy2 and he is told1 probably1 that it is an exceptional faculty1 and cannot possibly be acquired4 ,this is not so2 perseverance and practice are alone necessary to produce those wonderful results which never fail to captivate the public1 if the student has a fair musical ear1 and a talent for imitation which few boys are without4 ,the deceptive nature of the sounds are the result of certain natural principles1 which are called in to aid the experimenter4 ,those who have seen any professors of the ventriloquial art now living must have been struck by the apparent ease with which the effects are produced4 ,this is not only the result of practice1 but the careful attention to certain acoustic principles which regulate the direction of sounds4 ,a sudden change in the direction of sound is oftentimes very perplexing to the ear1 even when the eye can assist the other organs4 ,the change of direction of the sound of a peal of bells1 which is often interrupted by intervening buildings1 is a familiar instance of this1 their sound appearing to come from different places as the hearer changes his position4 ,we can easily imagine that when the hearer is still1 and the source of the sound moves1 the deception becomes much greater1 if skilfully applied to the purpose4 ,the first great secret is to take a full and deep inspiration1 so that the lungs may be well filled1 to be used as a ,highlander uses the windbag of his bagpipes1 as required4 ,if we remember that the larynx1 which is the cavity in the throat behind the tongue1 is capable of considerable flexibility1 as well as the trachea or windpipe1 we have good materials for ventriloquial effect2 thus the mouth and tongue have really1 but not apparently1 a great deal to do with the modifications of the assumed voice4 ,a clever ventriloquist recommends the mouth to be kept closed1 and the tongue rolled back1 so as to regulate1 as it were1 the sound which is formed in the larynx4 ,this may be done by strengthening the abdominal muscles2 and it is probably from this being so frequently done1 that the name of 8belly-speaking0 arose4 ,the highest perfection of ventriloquism is speaking with the lips closed1 and apparently without an effort of any kind4 ,some old and some modern professors had this marvellous power in perfection4 ,it has been recently observed that by constant practice the veil of the palate can be so exercised that it can be raised or depressed at will1 so as to dilate or contract the inner nostrils4 ,the effect of this contraction is the same as ,mr4 ,hardy's rolled tongue2 it muffles1 as it were1 the sound1 renders it weak and dull1 as if coming from a distance4 ,on the other hand1 if the nostrils are dilated to any extent1 the sound gradually becomes apparently closer and closer1 because it is more distinct4 ,the uncertainty of the direction of sound greatly aids the ventriloquist4 ,if a man and a woman are placed at either end of a tolerably large room1 and each imitates with tolerable success the voice of the other1 the confusion between the eye and the ear is so great that it becomes next to impossible to know which it was that spoke4 ,it is thus necessary that the ventriloquist should either by word or gesture direct the attention of his hearers to the spot from whence they expect the sound to proceed4 ,really1 in practice1 there is little difference between the sound of a muffled voice1 whether it is outside the door1 above the ceiling1 or down in the cellar4 ,it is possible to acquire such a knowledge of the modifications of sound by distance1 obstructions1 or other causes1 as to imitate them with wonderful accuracy4 ,the late ,mr4 ,love used to carry on a dialogue with a person in a box1 and by a masterly modulation of his voice he gave it a muffled tone when he sat upon the box1 and different degrees of sharpness as he gradually opened the lid4 ,the best practice is to begin with imitations only of different voices1 until some progress is made4 ,then commence to practise the muffled voice until the audience are satisfied that it is done tolerably well1 for the operator cannot judge of the effect it is producing save by experience4 ,the voice may now be changed until the second voice is marked by some distinguishing characteristic1 such as bass1 alto1 gruff1 or speaking4 ,then the distant voice may be tried1 to be modulated as before as success is attained4 ,a well-known ventriloquist used to make some excellent effects by speaking with a closed mouth when drawing an inspiration1 instead of the usual method of speaking during the expiration of the breath4 ,we will suppose a ventriloquist about to give an illustration of his art4 ,he first takes care that none of his audience are between the line of his mouth and the spot from which the sound appears to proceed4 ,thus the simplest cause of ventriloquial effect is produced by standing with your back to the audience and your face to the door4 ,with closed jaws you direct a muffled voice against the door4 ,the sound which reaches the ears of the audience is a voice apparently outside the door1 but in reality it is an echo of the artificial voice only4 ,take a simple example4 ,you knock at the door1 and in your natural voice you inquire if anyone is there4 ,assuming the muffled tone1 you say that 8it's a friend10 and then inquire his name and business4 ,the answers being given1 you slightly open the door and the corner of your lips at the same time1 and then the voice loses its muffled tone1 and appears more distinct as it comes closer4 ,the deception is more difficult to maintain1 and the ventriloquist suddenly turns round and shows that the voice is in reality a mere shade4 ,if we try the ceiling voice1 or the familiar 8man on the roof10 we should use the upper notes1 and reserve the lower notes for the 8man in the cellar40 ,in either of these illusions the lips should not be opened at all4 ,the modulation of tones should be managed in the larynx1 by the action of the tongue only1 unless the voice is supposed to come down the chimney into the room4 ,in either case the mouth should be turned to the place from whence the sound is supposed to proceed2 and when speaking in his natural tones1 the performer should address himself directly to the audience2 always using appropriate gestures to signify the ascent or descent of the owner of the fictitious voice4 ,these two voices are in reality the only true ventriloquial voices4 ,the variation of tone and accent depends more on the organs of imitation than on true ventriloquism1 though when both arts are combined the effect is so much enhanced as to become perfectly marvellous4 ,one of the simplest sounds to produce is that of the humming-bee1 wasp1 or bluebottle fly4 ,the first sound is produced in the chest1 the latter by the lips4 ,it is always well to attempt to catch the insect after it has indicated its presence4 ,this enables the sound to be raised in tone1 and occasionally muffled when the offending suppositious insect is inclosed in the handkerchief4 ,the imitation of a knife-grinder is easily done1 the grinding being produced by a sharp hissing sound through the teeth1 and the 8buffing0 or polishing1 by gently closing the lips and drawing the breath through them until they vibrate--a not uncommon schoolboy accomplishment4 ,the sawing of wood1 the frying of a pancake1 the uncorking of a bottle1 and the gurgling noise of pouring out the liquid1 may all be successfully imitated2 but these are much less striking and ingenious than true ventriloquism4 ,illustration ,,puzzles4 #a4 ,,the ,,divided ,,garden4 ,a person let his house to several inmates1 who occupied different floors1 and having a garden attached to the house1 he was desirous of dividing it among them4 ,there were ten trees in the garden1 and he was desirous of dividing it so that each of the five inmates should have an equal share of garden and two trees4 ,how did he do it8 ,illustration #b4 ,,the ,,vertical ,,line ,,puzzle4 ,draw six vertical lines1 as below1 and1 by adding five other lines to them1 let the whole form nine4 #c4 ,,the ,,cardboard ,,puzzle4 ,take a piece of cardboard or leather1 of the shape and measurement indicated by the diagram1 cut it in such a manner that you yourself may pass through it1 still keeping it in one piece4 ,illustration #d4 ,,the ,,button ,,puzzle4 ,in the centre of a piece of leather make two parallel cuts with a penknife1 and just below a small hole of the same width2 then pass a piece of string under the slit and through the hole1 as in the figure1 and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends of the string4 ,the puzzle is1 to get the string out again without taking off the buttons4 ,illustration #e4 ,,the ,,circle ,,puzzle4 ,get a piece of cardboard1 the size and shape of the diagram1 and punch in it twelve circles or holes in the position shown4 ,the puzzle is1 to cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size1 each piece to be of the same shape1 and to contain three circles1 without cutting into any of them4 ,illustration #f4 ,,the ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,cut three pieces of paper to the shape of ,no4 #a1 one to the shape of ,no4 #b1 and one to that of ,no4 #c4 ,let them be of proportional sizes4 ,then place the pieces together so as to form a cross4 ,illustration #g4 ,,three-,,square ,,puzzle4 ,cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal lengths1 and place them on a table to form six squares1 as in the diagram4 ,it is now required to take away five of the pieces1 yet to leave but three perfect squares4 ,illustration #h4 ,,cylinder ,,puzzle4 ,illustration ,cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long1 of the shape of the diagram1 and make three holes in it as represented4 ,the puzzle is1 to make one piece of wood pass through1 and also exactly to fill1 each of the three holes4 #i4 ,,the ,,nuns4 ,twenty-four nuns were arranged in a convent by night by a sister1 to count nine each way1 as in the diagram4 ,four of them went out for a walk by moonlight4 ,how were the remainder placed in the square so as still to count nine each way8 ,the four who went out returned1 bringing with them four friends2 how were they all placed still to count nine each way1 and thus to deceive the sister1 as to whether there were #bj1 #bd1 #bh1 or #cb1 in the square8 ,illustration #aj4 ,,the ,,dog ,,puzzle4 ,the dogs are1 by placing two lines upon them1 to be suddenly aroused to life and made to run4 ,query1 ,how and where should these lines be placed1 and what should be the forms of them8 ,illustration #aa4 ,,cutting ,,out ,a ,,cross4 ,how can be cut out of a single piece of paper1 and with one cut of the scissors1 a perfect cross1 and all the other forms as shown in the cuts8 ,illustration #ab4 ,,another ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,with three pieces of cardboard of the shape and size of ,no4 #a1 and one each of ,no4 #b and #c1 to form a cross4 ,illustration #ac4 ,,the ,,fountain ,,puzzle4 ,a is a wall1 ,b ,c ,d three houses1 and ,e ,f ,g three fountains or canals ,it is required to bring the water from ,e to ,d1 from ,g to ,b1 and from ,f to ,c1 without one crossing the other1 or passing outside of the wall ,a4 ,illustration #ad4 ,,the ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,puzzle4 ,a cabinet-maker had a circular piece of veneering1 with which he has to veneer the tops of two oval stools2 but it so happens that the area of the stools1 exclusive of the hand-holes in the centre1 and the circular piece1 are the same1 7as that of the circle47 ,how must he cut his stuff so as to be exactly sufficient for his purpose8 #ae4 ,,the ,,string ,,and ,,balls ,,puzzle4 ,get an oblong strip of wood or ivory1 and bore three holes in it1 as shown in the cut4 ,then take a piece of twine1 passing the two ends through the holes at the extremities1 fastening them with a knot1 and thread upon it two beads or rings1 as depicted above4 ,the puzzle is to get both beads on the same side1 without removing the string from the holes1 or untying the knots4 ,illustration #af4 ,,the ,,double-,,headed ,,puzzle4 ,cut a circular piece of wood as in the cut ,no4 #a1 and four others1 like ,no4 #b4 ,the puzzle consists in getting them all into the cross-shaped slit1 until they look like ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration #ag4 ,,the ,,row ,,of ,,halfpence4 ,place ten halfpence in a row on the table4 ,then take up one of them and place it on another1 never in any case passing over more than a penny 7that is to say1 two halfpence74 ,repeat the operation until no halfpenny remains by itself in the row4 #ah4 ,,typographical ,,advice4 ,you are to read the following directions3-- ,if your ,b m t put 3 ,when your ,,is 4 putting 3 #ai4 ,,the ,,landlord ,,made ,,to ,,pay4 ,a well-known miser once invited his tenants to dinner at an inn1 and to the surprise of the landlord1 asked him to join the party4 ,when the bill was brought in1 the miser proposed that they should cast lots who should pay the whole score for the twenty-one persons who had dined4 ,it was agreed that they should be counted by the days of the week1 and that every time the counter called 8,saturday10 the person so named should leave the room until there was only one man left1 and he should be paymaster4 ,how did the miser contrive to throw the expense on the landlord8 #bj4 ,,father ,,and ,,son4 ,an old country squire planted a number of oaks when his son was born1 and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man there was a tree for every year1 and yet though there were only #bg trees1 there were ten rows and six trees in each row1 which made sixty1 the age of the squire himself4 ,how did he manage it8 ,,answers ,,to ,,puzzles4 #a4 ,,the ,,divided ,,garden ,,answer4 ,illustration #b4 ,,answer ,,to ,,vertical ,,line ,,puzzle4 --- #c4 ,,answer ,,to ,,cut ,,card ,,puzzle4 ,double the cardboard or leather lengthways down the middle1 and then cut first to the right1 nearly to the end 7the narrow way71 and then to the left1 and so on to the end of the card2 then open it and cut down the middle1 except the two ends4 ,the diagram shows the proper cuttings4 ,by opening the card or leather1 a person may pass through it4 ,a laurel leaf may be treated in the same manner4 ,illustration #d4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,button ,,puzzle4 ,draw the narrow slip of the leather through the hole1 and the string and buttons may be easily released4 #e4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,circle ,,puzzle4 ,illustration #f4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,illustration #g4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,three-,,square ,,puzzle4 ,take away the pieces numbered #h1 #aj1 #a1 #c1 #ac1 and three squares only will remain4 ,,answer ,,to ,,no4 #h4 ,illustration ,take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular hole1 and of the height of the square hole4 ,having drawn a straight line across the end1 dividing it into two equal parts1 cut an equal section from either side to the edge of the circular base1 a figure like that represented by the woodcut in the margin would then be produced1 which would fulfil the required conditions4 #i4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,nuns' ,,puzzle4 ,illustration #aj4 ,,the ,,dogs' ,,puzzle ,,answered1 ,,see ,,dotted ,,lines ,illustration #aa4 ,,answer ,,to ,,cutting ,,out ,a ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,illustration ,take a piece of writing paper about three times as long as it is broad1 say six inches long and two wide4 ,fold the upper corner down1 as shown in ,fig4 #a2 then fold the other upper corner over the first1 and it will appear as in ,fig4 #b2 you next fold the paper in half lengthwise1 and it will appear as in ,fig4 #c4 ,then the last fold is made lengthwise also1 in the middle of the paper1 and it will exhibit the form of ,fig4 #d1 which1 when cut through with the scissors in the direction of the dotted line1 will give all the forms mentioned4 #ab4 ,,answer ,,to ,,another ,,cross ,,puzzle4 ,illustration #ac4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,fountain ,,puzzle4 ,illustration #ad4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,puzzle4 ,illustration ,the cabinet-maker must find the centre of the circle1 and strike another circle1 half the diameter of the first1 and having the same centre4 ,then cut the whole into four parts1 by means of two lines drawn at right angles to each other1 then cut along the inner circle1 and put the pieces together as in the above diagram4 #ae4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,string ,,and ,,balls ,,puzzle4 ,draw the loop well down1 slipping either ball through it4 ,push it through the hole at the extremities1 pass it over the knot1 and draw it through again4 ,the same process must be repeated with the other ball2 the loop can then be drawn through the hole in the centre1 and the ball will slide along the cord until it reaches the other side4 ,the string is then replaced1 having both balls on the same side4 ,this plan of passing the loop over the knot is a key to all the puzzles of this nature4 ,there is another and perhaps a neater way of performing this trick4 ,draw the loop through the central hole1 and bring it through far enough to pass one of the balls through4 ,having done this1 draw the string back1 and both balls will be found on the same side4 #af4 ,,answer ,,to ,,the ,,double-,,headed ,,puzzle4 ,arrange them side by side in the short arms of the cross1 draw out the centre piece1 and the rest will follow easily4 ,the reversal of the same process will put them back again4 ,illustration #ag4 ,,the ,,row ,,of ,,halfpence4 ,to perform this trick successfully1 you must place the fourth on the first1 seventh on the third1 fifth upon the ninth1 the second upon the sixth1 and the eighth upon the tenth4 #ah4 ,,typographical ,,puzzle4 ,this puzzle should be read thus3-- ,if your grate be 7great ,b7 empty1 put coal on4 ,when your grate is 7great ,,is7 full1 stop putting coal on4 #ai4 ,,the ,,landlord ,,made ,,to ,,pay4 ,the counting1 which stopped at every seventh man1 was made to begin at the sixth from the landlord1 who sat at the end of the table4 #bj4 ,,father ,,and ,,son4 ,the trees were planted in this form3-- ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,shows4 ,under this head we describe those shows which may be exhibited by any ingenious youth for the amusement of a large circle of friends4 ,parents frequently employ the itinerant ,punch-and-,judy man to astonish and delight a juvenile party with his comical puppets2 and we are convinced that they act wisely1 as children of all ages enjoy nothing so much as a good show4 ,the reader1 by following our directions1 may exhibit the freaks of ,punch and ,judy1 the dancing figures of the ,fantoccini1 the grotesque shadows of the ,gallanty ,show2 in fine1 he may become quite an expert showman4 ,illustration3 ,,punch ,,judy ,by following our directions1 the reader may1 with comparatively little trouble1 construct some comical puppets1 and acquire sufficient skill in working them1 to give private representations of the celebrated drama of 8,punch and ,judy10 which never fails to excite the laughter of old and young4 ,in carving the heads of the puppets1 the ingenuity of the reader will be most severely taxed4 ,each head must be fashioned out of a piece of soft wood1 with a sharp penknife1 and then painted with oil colours4 ,an old wooden doll will be a capital model for the reader to work from1 only he must cut much deeper1 in order to make the features of his puppets sufficiently prominent4 ,punch's nose and chin may be formed of separate pieces of wood1 and then fastened on to the face with a little glue4 ,our artist has drawn a full-length figure of ,punch 7see next page71 and the faces of the other characters in the drama--namely1 #a4 ,judy2 #b4 ,beadle2 #c4 ,foreigner2 #d4 ,ghost2 #e4 ,doctor2 #f4 ,clown2 #g4 ,jones2 #h4 ,hangman4 ,the carver should study these illustrations attentively1 and endeavour to imitate them4 ,the eyes of the ,ghost are two black beads1 which may be fixed by pins1 or loosely attached by short pieces of thread1 so that they may roll about in their saucer-like sockets4 ,the eyes of the other puppets may be formed of white beads1 fixed by black-headed pins in small cavities made to receive them4 ,the hair and beard of the ,foreigner1 and the ,clown's three tufts1 may be made of any kind of fur2 the ,hangman's wig1 and the ,doctor's scanty locks1 of worsted4 ,each head should be about the size of an ordinary hen's egg1 and should have a hole made at the bottom1 large enough to receive the tip of the showman's finger4 ,illustration ,punch is the only puppet that exhibits his legs to the audience1 and therefore the only one requiring lower limbs2 these legs1 as well as the hands of all the characters1 are to be cut out of wood and painted4 ,the cloth figures of the puppets must be so constructed1 that the exhibitor can easily slip them over his hand and wrist2 to these hollow bodies the heads and hands are to be securely fastened with a little glue1 or some small tacks4 ,punch's figure may be formed of red merino1 or any other gay-coloured stuff2 the 8goodly hunch0 and prominent stomach must not be forgotten2 these important appendages may be stuffed with cotton or tow4 ,judy's dress may be made of cotton print2 the ,beadle's1 of blue cloth1 edged with gold lace2 the ,foreigner's1 of almost any kind of stuff2 the ,doctor's1 of black cloth2 and the dresses of ,jones and the ,hangman1 of any sober-coloured stuffs4 ,the ,ghost must be enveloped in a long white linen gown2 and the popular favourite1 the ,clown1 must be arrayed in the true pantomimic style4 ,in constructing the dresses1 the reader will have his patience sorely tried1 unless he can persuade a few young ladies to aid him with their nimble fingers4 ,motion is given to each of the puppets by the showman's hand1 the forefinger of which moves the head1 while the thumb and second finger work the two arms2 the annexed engraving will elucidate this operation4 ,illustration ,we have not yet alluded to two important characters in the drama--namely1 the ,baby and the eccentric dog ,toby4 ,any little doll may be dressed in long-clothes to represent the ,baby1 so the reader may be spared the trouble of carving another head4 ,the part of ,toby is generally filled by a living performer1 but as we do not suppose the reader to be the owner of a properly-trained cur1 we recommend him to procure one of those barking or squeaking dogs which are sold at the toy-shops2 with such a ,toby1 the fun of the piece will be increased rather than diminished4 ,punch's stick must be about a foot long1 and quite half an inch thick2 it must be formed of tough wood1 as some rough work is performed with it during the progress of the drama4 ,the gallows must be of the letter ,f form1 and must have two holes bored through the end of the projecting beam2 the cord having been knotted at one end1 is to be passed through each hole4 ,having described the puppets1 we will now say a few words about the show in which they are to be exhibited4 ,the dingy curtains which conceal the street performer of ,punch1 are supported by a tall rectangular frame of wood1 which the reader could not imitate without considerable labour and some knowledge of carpentry4 ,the show we recommend is simply a box about three feet square1 open in front and at bottom2 this is hung upon nails against the wall1 above the head of the amateur showman1 who is hidden from view by curtains which reach from the box to the floor4 ,the box may be a large tea-chest inverted1 with the lid and one of its sides removed4 ,the inside of the box should be hung with green-baize1 or any other dark-coloured stuff4 ,a proscenium cut out of pasteboard1 and tastefully painted1 should be fastened in front of the box1 so as to conceal the unsightly edges of the wood4 ,a shelf of wood about four inches wide should project beyond the proscenium1 so as to form a little stage upon which ,punch may drum his legs1 lay down his stick1 and place the dead bodies of his victims2 this shelf may be fixed by screws passing through the two sides of the box4 ,during the performance the puppets must be kept in an open box hanging against the wall within reach of the showman4 ,the reader having prepared everything1 should learn the drama1 and practise the different voices which he intends to give to the different characters4 ,he will probably be some time before he can acquire the peculiar squeak of ,punch1 which is generally supposed to be produced by an instrument called a 8squeaker40 ,with none of squeakers we have seen could any distinct words be uttered1 and we therefore recommend the reader to trust to his own powers of mimicry4 ,with regard to the musical accompaniments1 the amateur showman should get some kind sister or cousin to sit at the piano1 the notes of which are much more pleasing than those of the ,pandean pipes and drum4 ,illustration3 ,,fantoccini ,about sixty years ago1 a puppet-show was exhibited at the west-end of ,london1 with the ,italian title of ,fantoccini1 which greatly attracted the notice of the public1 and was spoken of as an extraordinary performance2 it was1 however1 nothing more than a revival of the old puppet-show1 which drew crowded and fashionable audiences during the reign of ,queen ,anne1 and rivalled the more pompous exhibitions of the larger theatres4 ,in the present day ,fantoccini are exhibited in the open streets by the itinerant showman1 whose ragged coat and battered hat show how puppets have fallen in the estimation of the fashionable public4 ,any ingenious youth may amuse and astonish a large circle of friends with an exhibition of dancing puppets1 as the different figures are not difficult to construct1 and their motions are very easily managed4 ,the puppets may be common wooden dolls dressed up in appropriate costumes4 ,the arms and legs are to be loosely attached to the bodies1 so that they may be moved about in any direction by threads fastened to their extremities4 ,these threads may be formed of black sewing-silk1 or strong black cotton4 ,all the threads proceeding from the different limbs and joints of a puppet are to be attached to a stick in such a manner as to allow the figure to stand in a natural attitude2 the annexed engraving shows two puppets thus supported4 ,illustration ,the puppet-show may be formed in the following simple manner3--,take a tall1 three-sided clothes-horse1 and place its outer edges against the wall so that it may inclose a square space2 then hang curtains or shawls over the horse1 leaving no part uncovered except a rectangular space close to the floor in front2 to this opening you may1 if you think proper1 fix a painted proscenium4 ,now place a small towel-horse1 hung with black stuff1 at the distance of a foot behind the proscenium1 to serve as a background to the stage1 and to conceal your legs while you are engaged in working the puppets3 having done this1 lay down a little green-baize carpet on that part of the floor which represents the stage1 and your puppet-show will be complete4 ,the puppets may be illuminated by candles placed on the floor in front of the proscenium4 ,the spectators are to be stationed as far from the show as possible1 so that they may not perceive the threads4 ,the performer takes his seat behind the small horse1 and holding the stick to which the threads are fastened in his left hand1 he manages the motions of the puppet with the fingers of his right hand4 ,when the motions are very complicated1 the showman may attach the stick to a string hanging from a rod placed across the top of the show1 and employ the fingers of both hands in working the figure4 ,with very little practice the amateur puppet-man may acquire great proficiency in the art of giving lifelike movements to the dolls4 ,the reader may dress up his puppets in any fancy costumes1 but he must endeavour to give to each its appropriate action4 ,the following characters may perhaps be allowed to figure in his ,fantoccini3-- ,,the ,,sailor4 ,this puppet1 which is represented in our illustration1 is a popular favourite4 ,the doll should have whiskers of ,berlin wool glued on its cheeks1 and a trim black silk pigtail attached to the back of the head4 ,it is to be dressed in the conventional naval costume1 namely1 a blue jacket1 loose white trousers1 and a straw hat4 ,on its entrance it should be made to bow to the audience in a characteristic manner1 by inclining its body and kicking one leg behind it4 ,the ,sailor's ,hornpipe is then to be struck up by the pianist1 and the puppet made to dance to the music4 ,if the showman can manage six strings at once1 two threads1 not shown in our illustration1 may be attached to the knees4 ,,the ,,juggler ,may be dressed in a fanciful ,eastern costume2 a string is to be attached to the head1 and another to each of the hands4 ,a gilded ball1 having a hole pierced through it1 is strung on each hand-thread1 and to each ball a fine silken thread is attached4 ,our illustration shows how the five threads are to be attached to the supporting-stick4 ,a little practice will enable the showman to work this puppet so dexterously that the spectators will be fairly puzzled to tell how the rapid tossing and catching of the balls is managed4 ,,the ,,headless ,,man4 ,this puppet may be dressed according to the reader's fancy2 its head is not fastened to the body1 but is strung on a thread attached to the neck4 ,when the showman has made the doll dance for a short time1 he pulls the head from the body by means of a thread fastened to it1 and makes the headless puppet dance on as if nothing had happened4 ,,the ,,milkwoman4 ,a puppet1 dressed like a woman with a yoke of milkcans1 makes its appearance and performs a country jig4 ,before the dance is concluded a little white doll jumps out of each can4 ,the milkwoman tries to catch the dolls1 but they fly out of sight4 ,the trick is easily managed2 to the head of each little doll is fastened a thread1 which the showman pulls at the proper time4 ,the yoke may be cut out of a piece of soft deal1 and the cans may be made of pasteboard covered with tinfoil4 ,illustration ,,postage ,,stamp ,,collecting1 ,,or ,,philately4 ,our young readers may vainly turn over the pages of any existing dictionary to find the scientific alias of the heading of this article4 ,we trust the omission will be soon supplied1 ,philately1 or ,postage ,stamp ,collecting1 having reached the dignity of a recognised science4 ,the word is the ,english rendering of the ,french term ,philatlie1 bestowed by a distinguished ,parisian amateur in substitution for what was called timbromania1 the latter portion of which word caused an unpleasant association of ideas1 and gave rise to many a sneer from the wiseacres who had not sense enough to understand the real utility of the pastime4 ,it is derived from the ,greek and 1 the nearest equivalent traceable in classical lore to a modern postage stamp4 ,to schoolboys in general be ascribed the honour of introducing the elegant and instructive fancy forming the subject of our dissertation4 ,the young students of the college of ,louvain in particular claim to have been the earliest collectors3 thence the fancy spread over ,france and ,germany1 inoculating many an ,english pupil in continental seminaries1 by whom it was transmitted home4 ,some ,louvain scholars informed us last year that it had been long prohibited by the professors1 as tending to induce inattention to their regular tasks6 ,we think this a mistaken notion2 convinced that a knowledge of geography1 history1 and the values of foreign coins is materially facilitated by the study of postage stamps2 which1 moreover1 induces neatness1 regularity1 and a sure refuge from ennui on a rainy day4 ,before the reign of postage stamps1 who ever heard of the obscure city whence emanates that unit of a strange set of five1 engraved at page #gei1 or the equally mysterious ,thurn and ,taxis8 ,what can give a better idea of the chances and changes fewer than ten years have produced in the vast tract of land known as the ,danubian ,principalities1 whose stamps are representatives of ,moldavia alone1 of ,moldo-,wallachia united1 and of the same countries resuming their ancient denomination of ,roumania1 first under ,prince ,couza1 now under ,prince ,charles of ,hohenzollern8 ,illustration ,at the head of this paper is a reprint of an engraving taken from an old work on ancient and modern posts1 printed at ,paris in #agjh4 ,it portrays the various methods of transmitting news in use before the present almost universal system4 ,the left-hand tower bears a lighted beacon2 on the top of the right and central towers are men supposed to be shouting messages to be passed onwards from place to place1 in the way some of our young classical scholars will remember is mentioned by ,csar1 book vii4 chapter #c4 ,the carrier pigeon above1 and the dog in the foreground1 represent other well-known modes4 ,the former was1 and still is1 common in the ,east1 and by no means disused here in the case of races1 prize-fights1 c42 the latter was employed by the ,portuguese during their ,east ,indian conquests1 and has been used until a late period by the ,peruvians and other ,americans4 ,an early anticipation of the modern post-paid envelope is still in existence1 appropriately addressed to the celebrated authoress of 8,cyrus the ,great10 the originator of 7angara71 or posting-stations2 but1 strange to say1 ,persia1 the earliest postal pioneer1 has not yet adopted the stamp system1 though essays have been submitted to the ,state4 ,illustration ,the ,californian ,pony ,expresses1 and the earliest emission of ,buenos ,aires1 are exemplars of this primitive way of communication4 ,the last-named stamp has been supposed merely an essay2 but we have seen it post-marked4 ,a modification of the same is the ,humboldt ,express of ,langton and ,co4 and a sort of travestie1 the ,united ,states local of ,d4 ,o4 ,blood4 ,other methods of transmitting correspondence1 c4 are typified by the sailing vessels of ,british ,guiana1 the steamers on the extinct stamps of ,buenos ,aires1 and the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company2 those of ,la ,guaira and the ,russian for the ,levant sea-ports4 ,an ,american idea1 even too go-ahead for the reckless ,yankees1 for we cannot hear that it was ever put in practice1 is also here embodied4 ,illustration ,nearly two centuries after the plan was broached in ,paris appeared the well-known absurd ,mulready envelope1 an extraordinary evidence of official vagaries1 that such an abortion should have received preference over hundreds of essays1 of which the cut pictures by no means the best6 ,illustration ,the current envelopes for ,great ,britain1 simple and compound1 comprising every value from one penny to one shilling and sixpence1 excepting only elevenpence and one shilling and fivepence1 are certainly perfection2 but are so little known or used that few are aware of other than the penny ones4 ,we think our undeservedly vaunted penny label far surpassed in its own style by that of the islands of ,antigua or ,st4 ,vincent1 and the ,st4 ,kitt's essay here given4 ,illustration ,in the third year after the introduction of postal labels in ,great ,britain1 the canton of ,zurich would appear to have entertained the idea of imitating our example1 the wonderfully rare if not unique pair of essays bearing the date of #ahdc testifying visibly to that intention4 ,brazil1 however1 in the same year actually produced its first set1 and is entitled to all the merit of seconding this marvellously successful move of ours4 ,this was the large figure series1 continued in the same style till those lately superseded1 of which the red #bhj and the yellow #dcj reis alone remain in use4 ,although the ,zurich above alluded to was never in circulation1 a pair something like it was so1 either in the same or following year4 ,the canton of ,geneva next followed the lead4 ,one of its stamps is unique on account of the custom of dividing it when but half value was needed4 ,the canton of ,basle next joined the philatelic ranks1 followed after three years' interval by ,vaud and ,neufchatel4 ,a twelvemonth previously our transatlantic brethren in the ,united ,states started the #e cents bronze bearing the head of ,franklin1 and the large #aj cents with that of ,washington4 ,in the same year 7#ahdg7 a decree for the adoption of postage stamps in ,belgium was made1 which was carried into effect a year and a half afterwards4 ,six months in advance appeared the beautifully engraved effigies of the ,french ,republic2 during the course of twenty years followed the counterfeit presentments of the ,presidency1 the uncircled1 and the laurelled heads of the ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,illustration ,the ensuing year witnessed emanations from ,austria1 ,bavaria1 ,lombardo-,venetia1 ,prussia1 ,saxony1 ,sardinia1 and the first of the interminable issues of ,spain3 also the long solitary pair recording the abortive insurrection of ,schleswig ,holstein in #ahdh-ej4 ,the postal representatives of ,schleswig1 of ,holstein1 and of the two ,states in combination1 now number two dozen6 ,this succession of stamps will ever possess a strong historical interest in consequence of their country's connexion with the startling events attendant on the continental convulsions of #ahff4 ,a similar value in relation to ,european annals1 entitling them to the style and title of ,paper ,medals1 must be laid on the now extinct hosts of ,hanoverian labels and envelopes1 with those of the defunct office of ,thurn and ,taxis1 overwhelmed by the needle-guns of ,prussia1 after an existence of more than three hundred years4 ,an approximate idea of the number of postage stamps1 current and extinct1 may be obtained from the latest edition of any good catalogue4 ,that of ,oppen's ,album 7#ajth edition7 contains about #b1hjj distinct individual stamps1 but includes no varieties of colour other than those recognised by the most fastidiously disposed collectors1 such as the light and dark blues of ,thurn and ,taxis1 first issue2 neither does it take much note of proofs or essays1 or any of railway or local ,british labels1 or of differences in watermark or mode of perforation2 which latter variations are now considered important by the higher order of philatelists4 ,the stamp-issuing localities amount at present to #abb1 #ea being in ,europe2 of these no fewer than seven have enlisted within the past twelvemonths1 viz4 ,servia1 the ,virgin ,islands1 ,guatemala1 ,salvador 7see p4 #geh71 ,heligoland1 ,breslau1 and ,turk's ,island4 ,the latter is exquisitely engraved1 but with the exception of the pink1 the colours are execrable4 ,the first two1 and the ,breslau local are appended4 ,illustration ,excluding the ,united ,states locals1 whose name is legion1 as well as those of ,hamburg1 most of which are spurious1 the emissions of ,spain count the highest4 ,they amount to nearly ninety impressions for general postal purposes1 besides several telegraphic and exclusively official issues4 ,the later portraitures of ,her ,catholic ,majesty1 if correct1 prove how very well she carries her age1 with the assistance1 perhaps1 of some ,spanish ,madame ,rachel4 ,compare one of the current set with those depicted at pages #gei and #gfg and note the dates4 ,the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 and those of ,colombia1 or the ,granadine ,confederation1 afford us each the liberal allowance of between fifty and sixty varieties in colour1 device1 or value3 the stamps of the former country1 which are usually models of choice engraving1 bear almost invariably the heads of their worthies1 such as the late ,president ,lincoln1 and ,general ,thomas 7,stonewall7 ,jackson4 ,illustration ,the memory of the great ,confederate struggle will be ever preserved by the postage stamps issued from various cities in the revolting ,states2 such as ,memphis1 ,baton ,rouge1 ,mobile1 ,charleston1 ,new ,orleans1 c4 ,these had fancy devices1 but the features of ,jefferson ,davis and ,j4 ,c4 ,calhoun will reach posterity on two of the ,confederate issues4 ,on one of them also figures 8,hickory0 ,jackson1 a hero of the war in #ahab4 ,it is a singular fact that the illustrated postage stamp magazines1 c4 are purchased by non-philatelic collectors for the purpose of cutting out the miniature portraits of celebrities1 whose effigies are otherwise less conveniently attainable4 ,illustration ,the palm of beauty will be assigned nem4 con4 to the current pair of ,nova ,scotia types4 ,there are three of each1 one representing the full front bust of our gracious ,queen in state attire2 the other ,her ,majesty's profile3 the former in scarlet1 green1 and black2 the latter in lilac1 blue1 and black4 ,of these the pair of black are by far the most effective4 ,one of them is more or less perfectly rendered by the ,newfoundland #ab cents1 and the ,south ,australian two shilling1 and fourpenny stamps2 the other by the #bd cents of the former colony4 ,there are numerous other exquisite specimens of the engraver's art to be found in a collection of postage stamps4 ,the ,french republics1 the ,greek ,mercuries1 the ,russian and ,polish adhesives1 and the ,hong ,kongs are admirable4 ,the current ,saxons1 ,bavarians1 all the ,portuguese1 and the lately emitted ,heligolands are the best examples of the relief or cameo style3 engravings of these give but a poor idea of the original4 ,the same method of type is much less effective in the ,prussians1 ,oldenburgs1 ,schleswigs and ,holsteins2 but radiates in full effulgence in the faultless envelopes of our own country1 in those of ,baden1 ,hanover1 and the extinct ,saxons and ,prussians2 with our colonials of ,ceylon and the ,mauritius4 ,the ,american ,bank ,note ,company1 we must perforce1 most unpatriotically1 admit to be unrivalled in plain engraving2 of which the ,nova ,scotias1 and some others noted above are instances3 the trio of large newspaper and periodical labels issued last year in the ,united ,states1 which bear the profiles of ,washington1 ,franklin1 and ,lincoln respectively1 and the ,central-,fair locals too1 are wellnigh perfection4 ,the symbolical ,newfoundlands are equally noteworthy4 ,to the same1 or a branch firm1 we believe ourselves indebted for the lovely landscapes of ,guatemala1 ,nicaragua1 ,costa ,rica1 and ,salvador4 ,illustration ,the swans of ,western ,australia1 repeated in such variety of colour1 ever attract attention2 as do the keys of ,bremen1 the castles of ,hamburg1 the compounds of mysterious ,bergedorf1 the eagles of ,lubeck1 the quaint emissions of the ,argentine ,confederation1 and the crossed keys and tiara of the ,papal ,states1 after the eye is wearied by the incessant array of heads and armorial bearings exhibited by the majority of stamp-emitting countries4 ,the adhesives of the kingdoms once composing the ,two ,sicilies are both equally remarkable2 that of ,naples for its singularity1 that of ,sicily from its peculiar boldness of design and rich colouring4 ,illustration ,the first stamps of ,luxembourg1 those of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 and ,holland1 exhibit marvellous variations in the portraiture of one and the same individual sovereign4 ,illustration ,the marketable value of a postage stamp for collections does not1 however1 by any means1 depend upon its beauty or deformity4 ,the greater portion of the more attractive in appearance are purchasable at a very low figure3 the most beautiful of all1 the ,nova ,scotian black profile1 can be had at its natal place for one cent1 or an ,english halfpenny4 ,the circular specimen of meagre ugliness below may be worth a couple of sovereigns1 even when cancelled2 a moderately well-stored juvenile album could be purchased for the price of an unused specimen1 were such existing1 which we strongly doubt4 ,that of ,romagna and the early ,van ,diemen's ,land are little better4 ,illustration ,some of the frightful libels on the august countenances of the ,emperor ,napoleon1 the ,queen of ,spain1 and our own ,sovereign1 fetch also exorbitant fancy prices4 ,the ,french affair goes by the name of the ,cayenne essay2 possibly because its concoctor was1 or at least1 deserved to be1 transported thither for his impudence4 ,the ,queens' profiles on their colonial stamps for the ,philippines and the ,mauritius are mere caricatures4 ,slight improvement on the ,british ,guiana stamp is made by some of the ,honolulu emissions2 also the local ,bavarian2 the ,bollo ,straordinario of ,tuscany2 the #aj and #ae centimes percevoir of ,france2 and the ,land ,post trio of ,baden4 ,the latter have the advantage of being printed on yellow paper4 ,some of the ,sandwich ,islands stamps1 nevertheless1 far outstrip the productions of some countries that were highly civilized long ere the full dress of one of their natives consisted of aught save a few beads4 ,portraits of the great1 the late1 and the regnant kings bearing the joint name of ,kamehameha exist on stamps3 the one given does but scant justice to its chastely designed original4 ,illustration ,the ,french labels just alluded to are placed by the postal authorities on insufficiently paid letters4 ,they are only surreptitiously purchasable at the post-offices1 not being for public use2 but this bit of red-tapeism is easily evaded for a con-sid-er-ation4 ,of similar character are the ,bavarian before-mentioned1 and the ,italian segnatassa1 figured above4 ,a collector in ,leghorn1 unable to procure one of these latter1 wrote a letter to himself without stamping it1 expecting one of the then new labels to be affixed before delivery4 ,such was the case2 but the letter lying on the hall-table1 a friend of ours innocently abstracted the stamp and inclosed it to ourselves as the last new postal curiosity4 ,besides such slightly abnormal deviations from the general run of postage stamps1 may be enumerated the 8too late0 label formerly used by the colony of ,victoria1 now particularly recherch by philatelists1 especially in an uncancelled state4 ,this individual is unique in its application2 but there are several impressions exclusively devoted to the registration of letters4 ,those of ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,queensland 7like the cut1 but the word 8registered0 substituted for the value7 are well known2 and the recently emitted ,prussians1 one of which is given on the next page1 are of somewhat kindred nature4 ,the quaint centre device is an offshoot from that fertile field for philatelists1 ,new ,granada1 alias the ,united ,states of ,columbia2 the ,r standing for registrados 7registered74 ,illustration ,besides strictly governmental issues1 many private firms and individuals have been tacitly allowed to issue postage stamps1 more or less partaking of the character of regular official emanations4 ,such are those of the ,united ,states1 amounting to upwards of five hundred2 some of which1 though catalogued1 never did duty1 and were only concocted for sale4 ,they are now1 we believe1 all extinct4 ,some of them are represented on previous pages4 ,the ,city of ,hamburg has produced upwards of a hundred1 of which the greater part are impostors4 ,an unimpeached one will be found depicted farther on4 ,the pages devoted to the ,u4 ,s4 locals by those who collect them1 present a most varied and extraordinary appearance1 from the endless varieties of device and colour employed4 ,profiles1 busts1 figures of men and animals1 numerals1 plain inscriptions1 symbolical and allegorical representations meet the eye1 varied with all the colours in and out of the rainbow4 ,illustration ,dresden1 ,breslau1 ,montreal1 ,shanghai1 ,constantinople1 ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 and ,london1 also contribute their quota towards the ranks of locals4 ,these are all emissions of private firms3 those of the third place mentioned are more than doubtful2 the latter are now prohibited by law4 ,to these may be added those of ,throndhjems 7,drontheim71 ,tammerfors1 ,helsingfors1 with the ,levant1 ,danubian1 and ,pacific ,steam ,companies4 ,the legally authorised issues of ,malta1 the ,danish ,west ,indies1 c4 and the very low values of continental stamps1 may be likewise termed locals2 not being available out of their own birthplace4 ,the ,la ,guairas1 one of which is figured at page #ged1 must not be omitted from the list4 ,illustration ,still farther than the unaccredited locals from a strictly legitimate postal collection are the numerous labels issued by the several railroads4 ,they amount to a considerable number altogether1 ranging in value from one farthing to five shillings4 ,many of the foreign telegraph stamps are extremely tasty1 especially the ,belgian and ,spanish3 these1 however1 are not usually admitted into collections4 ,still less are our own now disused 8,customs0 labels1 which far exceed the postals in beauty2 as do our receipt1 bill1 and legal adhesives1 some of which are as high as #el4 or more in value4 ,the 8needle-gun0 war of #ahff introduced quite a novel genus of postage envelopes4 ,they were employed in ,prussia1 ,saxony1 c42 some for the use of civilians writing to their friends or relatives at camp2 others for the exclusive service of the military4 ,some ,brazilian youths1 of more ingenuity than probity1 concocted an imitation of these1 and passed them off at a price among dealers and amateurs1 as being employed for a similar purpose in the conflict between the ,brazilians and ,paraguayans4 ,the highest priced postage stamps were the once rare ,pony ,expresses 7see page #gec71 one of which cost #d dollars 7#afs4 #h;d47 ,the #b dollar one ranks next2 then the five shilling of ,new ,south ,wales1 the ,mauritius1 and our own2 the #if cents of ,hong ,kong1 the #h reales of ,mexico1 the #ij cents of the ,united ,states1 the #a scudo of ,rome1 and the #be piastres of ,turkey4 ,the ,ceylons are the most numerous in varieties of value1 having no fewer than thirteen1 from one halfpenny to two shillings4 ,from four to six is the average number of monetary denominations for the same country4 ,some have more1 as ,hong ,kong1 which counts ten4 ,the ,united ,states have the same number1 besides four additional values in envelopes4 ,new ,south ,wales has eight1 and ,victoria nine values4 ,france has nine at present1 but a higher priced stamp is announced4 ,liberia1 ,turk's ,island1 and ,british ,honduras have only three2 ,grenada1 ,nicaragua1 ,british ,columbia1 and ,antigua1 issue but two2 and ,vancouver's ,island1 ,malta1 ,sierra ,leone1 and ,corrientes1 only one4 ,the last-named locality1 being a small province of the ,argentine ,republic1 has issued the same die for two several values4 ,it was originally marked un real1 but this was subsequently erased1 no designation of value appearing4 ,three centavos was then its price4 ,it is impressed in black1 on blue1 as well as green paper4 ,like the ,new ,caledonian1 it was printed in sheets from a single block1 each impression slightly differing4 ,this is one of the few exceptions to the rule of postage stamps bearing a facial value4 ,the earlier issues of the ,mauritius1 ,trinidad1 and ,barbadoes partake of the same defect1 being distinguishable by colour only4 ,the ,ionian ,islanders were in a like category3 but the sole existing specimens of this inconvenience are the halfpenny and penny ,barbadians1 and the whole set of ,st4 ,lucias4 ,the result of this is1 that the values of more than one of the early stamps of the ,mauritius are still a subject of debate among some erudite philatelists4 ,one of these stamps is sometimes found endorsed with 8eightpence0 in black letters1 another with 8fourpence40 ,this clumsy method is even yet being adopted in a few instances1 we suppose to save the expense of a new plate4 ,the original sixpenny of ,st4 ,helena is printed in three different colours besides its own blue1 and does duty in green1 carmine1 and red1 cruelly tattooed with printed characters according to the stated value4 ,the ninepenny of ,south ,australia1 doffing its modest hue for a bright orange1 hand-stamped with black1 is worth a penny more than heretofore4 ,in like manner1 the ,italian government1 wishing to put the screw on its faithful subjects1 raised the tariff on home letters from #ae to #bj centesimi1 and barred out the original value4 ,the provisional ,east ,indian may be joined to this uncomely group of disfigured identities1 as also the newly emitted set for ,singapore4 ,illustration ,the impressions of ,nevis2 those now current of the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 and what are termed the ,sydney stamps of ,new ,south ,wales1 are elegantly symbolical of their respective localities4 ,the adhesives of ,british ,columbia1 ,sierra ,leone1 and ,british ,honduras1 claim a very high rank for elegance of design and correctness of execution among our colonials4 ,the extinct shilling stamp of ,victoria may worthily dispute with its lately superseded sixpenny the unenviable distinction of ugliness4 ,excluding the railway stamps1 and the ,united ,states newspaper labels1 ,liberia produces the largest stamps2 ,mecklenberg ,schwerin and ,brunswick the smallest4 ,the latter two countries present the singularity of allowing the four small stamps to be used singly or in combination4 ,the inscriptions on stamps being of course in the language of their native country1 many impressions necessarily bear a particularly quaint appearance2 as those of ,egypt1 ,turkey1 ,cashmeer1 ,shanghai1 ,poland1 ,moldavia 7see page #gfe71 and ,servia 7see p4 #gef74 ,the early emission of the ,argentine ,confederation is also an oddity4 ,illustration ,the shapes of postage stamps present but little variation2 a very large majority being more or less unequally sided rectangles4 ,few are perfectly square4 ,the set of ,bergedorf1 and the disused ,danish and ,thurn and ,taxis adhesives are instances1 the former showing the further peculiarity of different sizes in regular gradation according to value4 ,the impressions run sometimes on upright1 sometimes on oblong rectangles4 ,the narrowest of the latter is one of those of ,wells1 ,fargo1 and ,co42 of the former1 a very rare ,english essay1 too elaborate for description4 ,illustration ,some few are octagonal1 more or less irregular2 some oval2 some perfectly round2 some indescribable1 as the one-and-ninepenny ,ceylon2 and the ninepenny envelope of the ,mauritius4 ,the earlier emissions of ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick were printed in such a way as to render the stamp lozenge-shaped4 ,illustration ,a small minority are triangular2 the superseded stamps of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 a solitary type of ,newfoundland1 and one of ,new ,granada1 are the only ones we can recollect ever seeing1 except a black ,austrian newspaper adhesive4 ,the ,langton local is unique in form4 ,illustration ,many stamps have been issued exclusively for newspapers1 feuilletons1 and printed matter in general1 such as some ,austrian and ,venetian impressions4 ,the ,b4 ,g4 and tassa gazzette of ,modena1 the #f c4 and #i centesimi of ,parma1 and others1 were of like nature2 as are the lower priced ,french1 ,italians1 and ,belgians4 ,that of ,frankfort is not adhesive1 but hand-stamped1 like those on our own newspapers1 and is by some considered inadmissible in strictly postal collections4 ,the returned letter stamps must not pass unmentioned4 ,that of ,wurtemberg was long 8alone in its glory20 but ,munich1 ,augsburg1 ,nuremberg1 and other ,bavarian cities1 have lately adopted them4 ,those forming the seal on returned letters in our own country are collected by some amateurs4 ,illustration ,the enormous accumulation of proofs and essays1 all which are ignored by many philatelists1 are not to be lightly rejected4 ,the former are certainly articles de luxe or fantaisie1 being simply veritable stamps printed in abnormal colours1 as some of the ,united ,states1 c4 ,of the latter are three sorts--those by authorisation2 those proposed by enterprising individuals to various governments2 and those invented for sale to entrap the unwary4 ,the best1 as in the case of ,england1 were not always chosen3 look at the essay of ,pellas the ,genoese1 and admire ,italian discrimination--if you can4 ,the ,sicilian1 on the other hand1 is indubitably inferior to the adopted design4 ,in the centre lies the audacious offspring of the ,fenian rebellion4 ,illustration ,several essays proposed for ,governments which have not yet instituted the postage stamp system1 are surpassingly beautiful in device and execution4 ,those by ,m4 ,riester1 of ,paris1 are particularly elegant1 ,bolivia for example4 ,the ,poisson d',avril 7,april ,fool7 stamp is a curiosity in philatelic lore2 it was gravely chronicled as emanating from ,moresnet1 and deceived the very knowing ones4 7,see cut at foot of next page47 ,the longest reign in postal annals is twelve years2 the defunct ,dutch having lasted that period4 ,of the ,spanish sets only two have outlived a twelvemonth unchanged4 ,the #a franc of the ,french empire1 and the first issue of ,schleswig-,holstein 7see p4 #gee71 were current rather more1 the #be centimes of the ,empire and the ,italian 7represented below7 less than a year4 ,the tornese1 ,neapolitan arms1 and the same transmogrified into the ,cross of ,savoy1 endured each about a month4 ,the schilling violet1 and #c sch4 rose of ,bergedorf1 were a nine days' wonder4 ,illustration ,among the notabilities of a choice postage-stamp collection may be chronicled the ,connel essay4 ,a ,new ,brunswick postmaster of that name took the liberty of having his own physiognomy transferred to a sheet of postage stamps2--the result was his resignation4 ,the tenpenny above depicted is unique1 and was long supposed to be from ,van ,diemen's ,land2 but we rather believe it an ,english essay4 ,the space allowed us compels an abrupt conclusion4 ,we had intended touching on the eight various distinct modes of perforation1 besides variations2 and the distinguishing watermarks of various issues4 ,we should also have liked to describe the amusing and exciting humours of #8,change1 which many of our readers may remember witnessing in ,lombard ,street and its neighbourhood1 or in the gardens of the ,luxembourg and the ,tuileries in ,paris1 during the early days of stamp-collecting2 but we trust enough has been written to excite the interest of many who have purchased this volume on other accounts1 yet may thus be induced to become votaries to the interesting and instructive pursuit of ,philately4 ,illustration ,,tinselling4 ,should the reader feel inclined to try his hand at tinselling1 he must procure one of those full-length theatrical portraits that are sold at the shops for a penny each4 ,he ought to select one of the best-known figures1 as he will then have no difficulty in procuring the embossed gold and silver work with which it is to be adorned4 ,the whole figure must be carefully painted with water-colours1 and the artist should take pains with those parts which are not intended to be covered or cut away4 ,having finished the preliminary operation of colouring1 the artist should neatly cut away those parts of the engraving which represent drapery1 and place under the spaces thus formed1 satin1 silk1 or velvet of the proper colour1 which may be secured to the back of the picture with a little gum4 ,many tinsellers employ regular print-colourers to shade their silks and satins1 but we strongly advise the reader to trust to his own abilities1 and boldly set work to indicate the folds of the drapery by proper shadows4 ,the pieces cut out of the engraving will show him where the different shadows ought to fall1 and as for the colours to be used1 we may state as a general rule that silk1 satin1 or velvet of a certain colour ought to be shaded with darker tints of the same colour4 ,gum-water should be mixed with the colours used in shading1 to prevent them running when applied to the woven fabric4 ,the artist may now proceed to the work of tinselling1 which consists in gumming little spangles and embossed ornaments over certain parts of the picture4 ,every piece of armour1 every button1 every jewel1 and every weapon1 should be represented in embossed work4 ,all the pieces required for tinselling a figure may be purchased at the proper shops4 ,in the figure of the warrior1 the breastplate1 shield1 sword1 and jewels would have to be formed of pieces of gilt or silver paper cut and stamped into proper shapes and patterns4 ,the price of each piece of embossed work depends of course upon its size or elaborateness4 ,when the picture is finished1 it should be mounted on fine card-board1 and placed in a neat frame4 ,,the ,,american ,,game ,,of ,,base-,,ball4 ,the national game of ball of the ,american people1 though having its origin in the ,english game of rounders1 nevertheless possesses sufficiently marked features to entitle it to the distinction claimed for it4 ,unlike the schoolboy pastime from which it originated1 it requires manly qualities in a high degree to excel in it4 ,in fact1 the difference between base-ball as played in ,america1 and rounders as played in ,england1 is as great as the contrast between the graceful and daring movements of an accomplished skater of the present time1 and those of the skaters who1 with pieces of ivory fastened to their feet1 used to strive to glide over the ice in the year #afjj4 ,in base-ball1 as in rounders1 you use a bat and a ball and run round bases2 but there all resemblance ceases4 ,the ,american game of base-ball1 as now played1 is not more than ten years old1 for its date only extends back to the period just previous to the organization of the ,national ,association of ,base-,ball ,players1 which ,association formed the present code of rules1 and is the only authorized body having any supervisory power over the game4 ,in fact1 the history of the game commences with the formation of the ,national ,association1 inasmuch as the rules previously in vogue were crude and irregular1 and different in one locality from what they were in another4 ,since the organization of the ,national ,association and the meeting of the first annual convention1 however1 the game has spread throughout the country1 and entirely superseded every other game of ball as a national pastime4 ,at first the ,association consisted of delegates from clubs1 but now it is composed of a congregation of representatives from ,state base-ball associations1 governed by the ,national ,association proper1 each ,state association having immediate control of the affairs of its own clubs1 and possessing its own judiciary committee to settle disputes1 but no supervisory control over the playing rules of the game1 that matter being placed in the hands of a committee of rules of the parent ,association1 to which is also attached a judiciary committee1 forming a court of appeal from the decisions of ,state judiciary committees1 and also a court to adjudicate upon disputes between clubs of two ,states4 ,at the last convention of the 8,national ,association of ,base-,ball ,players10 which was held in ,philadelphia1 ,dec4 #aa1 #ahfg1 and in which clubs from all sections of the country1 from ,maine to ,iowa1 and ,michigan to ,kentucky1 were represented1 the following code of rules was adopted to govern the play during the season of #ahfh3-- ,,rules ,,and ,,regulations ,,adopted ,,by ,,the ,,national ,,association ,,of ,,base-,,ball ,,players4 ,,rule ,i4--,,the ,,ball1 ,,bat1 ,,and ,,bases4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,the ball must weigh not less than five1 nor more than five and one-quarter1 ounces avoirdupois4 ,it must measure not less than nine and one-quarter1 nor more than nine and one-half1 inches in circumference4 ,it must be composed of india-rubber and yarn1 and covered with leather1 and1 in all match games1 shall be furnished by the challenging club1 and become the property of the winning club as a trophy of victory4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,the bat must be round1 and must not exceed two and a half inches in diameter in the thickest part4 ,it must be made of wood1 and shall not exceed forty-two inches in length4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,the bases must be four in number1 placed at equal distances from each other1 and securely fastened upon each corner of a square whose sides are respectively thirty yards4 ,they must be so constructed and placed as to be distinctly seen by the umpire1 and must cover a space equal to one square foot of surface4 ,the first1 second1 and third bases shall be canvas-bags1 painted white1 and filled with some soft material2 the home base and pitcher's points to be each marked by a flat plate1 painted white4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,the base from which the ball is struck shall be designated the home base1 and must be directly opposite to the second base2 the first base must always be that upon the right-hand side1 and the third base that upon the left-hand side of the striker1 when occupying his position at the home base4 ,and in all match games a line connecting the home and first base1 and the home and third base1 shall be marked by the use of chalk1 or other suitable material1 so as to be distinctly seen by the umpire4 ,the base-bag shall be considered the base1 and not the post to which it is1 or should be1 fastened4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,the ,,pitching ,,department4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,the pitcher's position shall be designated by two lines two yards in length1 drawn at right angles to the line from the home to the second base1 having their centres upon that line at two fixed iron plates1 placed at points fifteen and sixteen and one-third yards distant from the home-base4 ,the pitcher must stand within these lines1 and must deliver the ball as near as possible over the centre of the home base1 and fairly for the striker4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,should the pitcher repeatedly fail to deliver to the striker fair balls1 for the apparent purpose of delaying the game1 or for any cause1 the umpire1 after warning him1 shall call one ball1 and if the pitcher persists in such action1 two1 and three balls2 when three balls shall have been called1 the striker shall take the first base2 and should any base be occupied at that time each player occupying it or them shall take one base without being put out4 ,all balls delivered by the pitcher1 striking the ground in front of the home base1 or pitched over the head of the batsman1 or pitched to the side opposite to that which the batsman strikes from1 shall be considered unfair balls4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,the ball must be pitched1 not jerked or thrown1 to the bat2 and whenever the pitcher moves with the apparent purpose or pretension to deliver the ball1 he shall so deliver it1 and must have neither foot in advance of the front line at the time of delivering the ball2 and if he fails in either of these particulars1 then it shall be declared a balk4 ,the ball shall be considered jerked1 in the meaning of the rule1 if the pitcher's arm touches his person when the arm is swung forward to deliver the ball2 and it shall be regarded as a throw1 if the arm be bent at the elbow1 at an angle from the body1 or horizontally from the shoulder1 when it is swung forward to deliver the ball4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,no player shall be put out on any hit ball on which a balk or a ball has been called2 and neither shall a strike or a foul ball be called1 or a base run on such a hit ball4 ,but bases can be taken on third-8called0 balls1 and on 8balked0 balls1 in accordance with ,section #b of ,rule ,,ii4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,the ,,batting ,,department4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,the striker1 when about to strike the ball1 must stand astride of a line drawn through the centre of the home base1 not exceeding three feet from either side thereof1 and parallel with the front line of the pitcher's position1 and he must not take any backward step when striking at the ball4 ,the penalty for an infringement of this rule shall be the calling of one strike2 and when three such strikes have been called1 the striker shall be declared out4 ,if a ball on which such a strike is called be hit and caught1 either fair or foul1 the striker shall be declared out4 ,no base shall be run on any such called strike1 and any player running the bases shall be allowed to return to the base he has left1 without being put out4 ,as soon as the striker has struck a fair ball1 he shall be considered 8a player running the bases40 ,,sec4 #b4 ,players must strike in regular rotation1 and1 after the first innings is played1 the turn commences with the player who stands on the list next to the one who was the third player out4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,should a striker stand at the bat without striking at fair balls1 for the apparent purpose of delaying the game1 or of giving advantage to a player1 the umpire1 after warning him1 shall call one strike1 and1 if he persists in such action1 two1 and three strikes4 ,when three strikes are called1 and the ball be caught1 either before touching the ground or upon the first bound1 the striker shall be declared out1 provided the balls struck at are not those on which balls or balks have been called1 or not those struck at for the purpose of wilfully striking out4 ,if three balls are struck at and missed1 and the last one is not caught1 either flying or upon the first bound1 the striker must attempt to make his run1 and he can be put out on the bases in the same manner as if he had struck a fair ball4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,the striker is out if a foul ball is caught1 either before touching the ground or upon the first bound2 or if a fair ball is struck1 and the ball be held before touching the ground2 or if a fair ball is struck1 and the ball be held by an adversary on first base1 before the striker touches that base4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,running ,,the ,,bases4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,players must make their bases in the order of striking2 and when a fair ball is struck1 and not caught flying1 the first base must be vacated1 as also the second and third bases1 if they are occupied at the same time4 ,players may be put out on any base1 under these circumstances1 in the same manner as when running to the first base4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,any player running the bases is out1 if at any time he is touched by the ball1 while in play1 in the hands of an adversary1 without some part of his person being on the base4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,no run or base can be made upon a foul ball4 ,such a ball shall be considered dead1 and not in play1 until it shall first have been settled in the hands of the pitcher4 ,in such cases players running bases shall return to them1 and may be put out in so returning1 in the same manner as when running to first base4 ,neither can a run or base be made when a fair ball has been caught without having touched the ground2 but such a ball shall be considered alive and in play4 ,in such cases1 also1 players running bases shall return to them1 and may be put out in so returning1 in the same manner as when running to first base2 but players1 when balls are so caught1 may run their bases immediately after the ball has been settled in the hands of the player catching it4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,when a balk is made by the pitcher1 every player running the bases is entitled to one base1 without being put out4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,a player making the home base shall be entitled to score one run4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,if two hands are already out1 no player running home at the time the ball is struck can make a run to count in the score of the game1 if the striker is put out4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,players running bases must touch them1 and1 so far as possible1 keep upon the direct line between them1 and must touch them in the following order--first1 second1 third1 and home2 and if returning1 must reverse this order2 and should any player run three feet out of this line1 for the purpose of avoiding the ball in the hands of an adversary1 he shall be declared out2 or if he fail to touch each base he runs to he shall be declared out1 unless he return to such base before the ball be held on it4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,if the player is prevented from making a base by the intentional obstruction of an adversary1 he shall be entitled to that base1 and shall not he put out4 ,any obstruction that could readily have been avoided shall be considered as intentional4 ,,rule ,v4--,,the ,,game4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,the game shall consist of nine innings to each side1 when1 should the number of runs be equal1 the play shall be continued until a majority of runs1 upon an equal number of innings1 shall be declared1 which shall conclude the game4 ,an innings must be concluded at the time the third hand is put out4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,in playing all matches1 nine players from each club shall constitute a full field2 and they shall be members of the club which they represent4 ,they also must not have been members of any other club1 either in or out of the ,national ,association1 for thirty days immediately prior to the match4 ,positions of players and choice of innings shall be determined by captains previously appointed for that purpose by the respective clubs4 ,every player taking part in a regular match game1 no matter what number of innings are played1 shall be1 in the meaning of this section of the rules1 considered a member of the club he plays with4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,when a club sends a challenge to play a first-nine match game of base-ball1 and the same is accepted1 the first game shall be played upon the grounds of the challenging club1 within fifteen days from the date of the acceptance of the challenge2 the second game shall be played upon the grounds of the challenged club within fifteen days thereafter2 and if a third game be necessary1 it shall be played upon grounds to be mutually agreed upon1 within fifteen days from the date of the second game2 provided3 that the above arrangement may be varied by mutual consent4 ,and when a first-nine match game is to be played1 the contestants shall present on the field their recognized first-nines1 as far as practicable4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,whenever a match shall have been determined upon between two clubs1 play shall be called at the exact hour appointed2 and should either party fail to produce their players within thirty minutes thereafter1 the party so failing shall admit a defeat1 and shall deliver the ball before leaving the ground1 which ball shall be received by the club who are ready to play1 and the same shall be considered as won1 and so counted in the list of matches played2 and the winning club shall be entitled to a score of nine runs for any game so forfeited1 unless the delinquent side fail to play on account of the recent death of one of its members1 and sufficient time has not elapsed to enable them to give their opponents due notice before arriving on the ground4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,no person who shall be in arrears to any other club than the one he plays with1 shall be competent to take part in any match game4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,no player1 not in the nine taking their positions on the field in the third innings of a game1 shall be substituted for a player1 except for reason of illness or injury4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,no match game shall be commenced when rain is falling2 and neither shall any such game be continued after rain has fallen for five minutes4 ,no match game shall be postponed unless by the mutual consent of the contesting clubs4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,every match game shall be decided by the best two games out of three1 unless a single game shall be mutually agreed upon by the contesting clubs2 and all matches shall terminate before the close of the season4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,no person who shall be in arrears to any other club1 or who shall at any time receive compensation for his services as a player1 shall be competent to play in any match4 ,no players1 who play base-ball for money1 shall take part in any match game2 and any club giving any compensation to a player1 or having1 to their knowledge1 a player in their nine playing in a match for compensation1 shall be debarred from membership in the ,national ,association2 and they shall not be considered by any club belonging to this ,association as a proper club to engage in a match with2 and should any club so engage with them1 they shall forfeit membership4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,miscellaneous4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,if an adversary stops the ball with his hat or cap1 or if a ball be stopped by any person or persons not engaged in the game1 no player running the bases can be put out unless the ball shall first have been settled in the hands of the pitcher while he stands in the line of his position4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,any player who shall intentionally prevent an adversary from catching or fielding the ball1 shall be declared out2 or if any player be prevented from making a base by the intentional obstruction of an adversary1 he shall be entitled to that base1 and shall not be declared out1 even if touched with the ball4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,if a fair ball be held by a player before touching the ground1 after rebounding from the hands or person of a player1 it shall be considered a fair catch4 ,and if a foul ball be similarly held after touching the ground but once1 it shall be considered a fair catch4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,if the ball1 from the stroke of a bat1 first touches the ground1 the person of a player1 or any other object1 behind the line or range of home and the first base1 or home and the third base1 it shall be termed foul1 and must be so declared by the umpire1 unasked4 ,if the ball first touches the ground either upon or in front of the line or range of those bases1 it shall be considered fair4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,clubs may adopt such rules respecting balls knocked beyond or outside of the bounds of the field1 as the circumstances of the ground may demand2 and these rules shall govern all matches played upon the ground1 provided that they are distinctly made known to the umpire previous to the commencement of the game4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,the captains of each nine shall alone be allowed to appeal for the reversal of a decision of the umpire4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,no base can be run1 or player be put out1 on a dead ball4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,umpire4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,the umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the ball1 bats1 bases1 and the pitcher's and striker's positions1 are strictly observed1 and he shall require the challenging club to furnish a ball1 on which the size1 weight1 and the name of the manufacturer shall be stamped4 ,he shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play1 and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during the game4 ,he shall take special care to declare all foul balls and balks1 immediately upon their occurrence1 in a distinct and audible manner4 ,he shall1 in every instance1 before leaving the ground1 declare the winning club1 and shall record his decision in the books of the scorers4 ,the umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a scorer for each of the contesting clubs4 ,in all matches the umpire shall be selected by the captains of the respective sides1 and shall perform all duties above enumerated4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,the umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be suspended2 and1 if the game cannot be fairly concluded1 it shall be decided by the last equal innings1 provided five innings have been played2 and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be declared the winner4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,when the umpire calls 8play10 the game must at once be proceeded with2 and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game4 ,when the umpire calls 8time10 play shall be suspended until he calls 8play0 again4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,when the umpire 8calls0 a game1 it shall end2 but when he merely suspends play for any stated period1 it may be resumed at the point at which it was suspended1 provided such suspension does not extend beyond the day of the match4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,no person engaged in a match1 either as umpire1 scorer1 or player1 shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet upon the game4 ,nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the ,national ,association1 or of a ,state branch thereof4 ,neither shall the umpire or scorer be changed during a match1 unless with the consent of both parties1 except for reason of illness or injury1 or for a violation of the above rules4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,no decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the testimony of any player2 and no decision whatever shall be reversed1 except for a palpable infringement of the rules1 and then only on an appeal by the captain4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,no person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the umpire1 scorers1 or players1 or in any manner to interrupt or interfere during the progress of the game1 unless by special request of the umpire4 ,any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules adopted by the ,national ,association1 shall be considered null and void1 and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the information of clubs desirous of joining the ,national ,association1 or of organising a ,state branch thereof1 we give below those portions of the constitution of the ,association bearing upon the subject3-- ,,article #c1 ,,section #a4 ,this ,association shall be composed of delegates from the several ,state base-ball associations which have been duly admitted to a representation in the convention forming this constitution1 or which may be admitted to a representation in the manner hereinafter provided4 ,each ,state association shall be entitled to one delegate for every ten clubs1 or fractional part of ten clubs1 belonging to such association4 ,no individual club shall be entitled to representation in this ,association unless located in a state1 territory1 or district1 where there are not sufficient clubs to form a ,state association4 ,each delegate shall be entitled to one vote1 and no vote by proxy shall be allowed4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,any ,state base-ball association desiring to be represented in this ,association shall present to the recording secretary1 at least thirty days previous to the annual meeting of this ,association1 a written official certificate1 signed by the president and secretary of the ,state association they represent1 giving the names and number of the clubs composing said association1 date of their organization1 names of their officers1 and number of members belonging to each club2 also the date of organization of the ,state association1 and the names of their delegates4 ,territories and the district of ,columbia shall be considered as states within the meaning of this section4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,all applications shall be immediately submitted to the committee on nominations2 but no such application shall be received by said secretary unless presented thirty days previous to the annual meeting4 ,said committee shall thereupon ascertain the condition1 character1 and standing of such ,state base-ball association1 and report the same at the annual meeting1 with the said application and their opinion thereon2 and a ballot shall thereupon be had at such meeting1 upon the admission of such ,state base-ball association1 when1 if two-thirds of the members present vote in favour thereof1 such ,state base-ball association shall be declared duly entitled to representation in this ,association4 ,any informality or irregularity in the form or substance of the application may be waived by a two thirds vote of the members present at the annual meeting4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,no ,state association shall be represented in the ,association unless composed of ten clubs1 numbering at least eighteen active members each1 or by any delegate under twenty-one years of age2 nor shall any ,state base-ball association be so represented until its delegates have paid a fee hereinafter designated4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,any ,state association organized after the adjournment of the annual meeting of this ,association1 may be elected probationary members thereof1 after conforming to the requirements of sections second1 third1 and fourth1 by the nominating committee4 ,they shall be liable to the payment of dues and assessments1 and be eligible to all the privileges of regular members of the ,association until the next annual meeting1 at which time they must be duly elected in the same manner as all regular members4 ,,the ,,game ,,of ,,base-,,ball4 ,as before asserted1 the ,american game of base-ball requires a high degree of physical ability1 and the possession of manly characteristics to excel in it2 for although in theory a schoolboy could easily comprehend the system1 in practice an amount of manly vigour1 courage1 and physical endurance is requisite1 surprising to those who regard the game in the light only of an improved edition of the old ,english school-game of rounders4 ,the theory of base-ball is as simple as that of any field sport in vogue1 and therein lies one of its attractive features4 ,but yet to play the game up to its highest point of excellence requires as great a degree of mental ability1 and the possession of as many manly physical attributes1 as any known game of ball4 ,the theory of base-ball is as follows3--,in the first place1 a level field for play is selected1 about three hundred feet wide and five hundred long4 ,a space of ground is then marked out in the form of a square1 with one corner as the position of the home base1 and the other corners for the first1 second1 and third bases1 the first base being on the right of the batsman1 as he stands at home base1 and the third base on the left4 ,the contestants in a game consist of nine players on each side1 and these nine players occupy the following positions3 catcher1 pitcher1 first1 second1 and third basemen1 short-stop1 and left1 centre1 and right fielders4 ,the first six players above-named form the 8in-fielders10 and the last three the 8out-fielders10 the nine taking the field being known as the 8out-hand10 or 8field40 ,after the parties toss for the innings1 the losing side go to the bat1 and the winning party to the field1 and each man to his position4 ,the pitcher then delivers the ball to the batsman of the opposite nine1 who endeavours to send it out of reach of the opposing field party1 and far enough into the field to admit of his running round the four bases1 in which case he scores one run1 provided he is not put out in the interim4 ,he is followed by his companions1 one after the other in regular rotation1 until three of the batting side are put out1 when the field side take the bat and have their innings4 ,nine innings constitute a full game1 and no game is considered as played unless five full innings have been completed4 ,the ball--the only trophy in a match--goes to the party making the most runs in a full game1 or in any number of even innings played not less than five4 ,in case of a tie at the close of the ninth innings1 the game1 unless by mutual consent1 must be prolonged innings after innings1 until one or other of the contesting sides obtains the most runs4 ,and if anything occur to interrupt or put a stop to the game before five innings on each side have been played1 the game must be drawn4 ,the rules and regulations of the game define all further particulars in reference to it4 ,,how ,,to ,,play ,,each ,,position4 ,,general ,,rules4 ,there are nine positions in a base-ball field1 two less than in a field of cricketers in a match4 ,the catcher plays behind the batsman to receive the ball from the pitcher4 ,the pitcher stands near the centre of the in-field1 forty-five feet from home base1 and he is allowed only to 8pitch0 the ball to the bat1 not to throw it1 jerk it1 or bowl it4 ,the first base man attends to balls fielded to him on the base1 his principal duty being to hold the ball1 while having one foot on the base1 before the batsman reaches it4 ,the second and third basemen have not only to hold the ball1 but also to touch players running to the bases before they can touch the bases4 ,the short-stop attends to the duties of backing up the pitcher and basemen generally1 and of stopping balls from the bat1 and sending them to the bases1 when the ball happens to come within reach4 ,the principal duties of the three out-fielders are to catch long high balls1 and to return in ground balls sent to their positions4 ,but the following are special instructions to occupants of each position in the nine3-- ,,the ,,catcher4 ,this player is expected to catch or stop all balls pitched or thrown to the home base4 ,he must be fully prepared to catch all foul balls1 especially 8tips10 and be able to throw the ball accurately and swiftly to the bases1 and also to keep a bright look-out over the whole field4 8,foul balls0 are those high balls which are hit so as to fall to the ground back of the line of the bases1 from home to first base and home to third4 8,tips0 are also foul balls1 coming sharply from the bat to the catcher4 ,when a player has made his first base1 the catcher should take a position nearer the striker1 in order to take the ball from the pitcher before it bounds2 and the moment the ball is delivered by the pitcher1 and the player runs from the first to the second base1 the catcher should take the ball before bounding1 and send it to the second base as swiftly as possible1 in time to cut off the player before he can touch the base4 ,in throwing to the base it would be as well1 in the majority of cases1 to send the ball a little to the right of the base4 ,the same advice holds good in reference to a player running from the second base to the third4 ,the catcher should have a thorough understanding with the pitcher in regard to a code of signals by means of which he can not only direct the pitcher to throw to a base to catch a player napping off the base--as a wicket-keeper does the batsman when out of his ground in cricket--but also so as to direct him where to send a ball to the bat1 high or low1 in or out1 as the peculiarity of the batsman's play may require4 ,the catcher needs to be a swift and accurate thrower to the bases1 a plucky player in facing and stopping swiftly-pitched balls1 and a patient player in his efforts to prevent passed balls from inaccurate pitching4 ,when facing a swift pitcher1 his aim should be to stop the ball1 and to be on the qui vive for sharp 8tips40 ,off slow pitching more activity is required1 as the chances offered for difficult catches from foul balls are greater4 ,as the position occupied by the catcher affords him the best view of the field1 the person filling it is generally chosen captain1 although the pitcher is sometimes selected for that position4 ,we would suggest1 however1 that some other player than the pitcher be chosen for captain1 from the fact that the physical labour attached to that position tends to increase the player's excitement1 especially if the contest is a close one1 and it is requisite that the captain should be as cool and collected as possible4 ,the catcher1 whenever he sees two or more fielders running to catch a ball1 should designate by name the one he deems most likely to catch it1 in which case the others should refrain from the attempt to catch the ball on the fly1 and strive only to catch it in case of its being otherwise missed4 ,,the ,,pitcher4 ,more skill and judgment is requisite in this position than in any other in the game4 ,in fact1 half the battle almost in a contest depends upon the ability of the pitcher2 and yet the best man in the position is comparatively useless in a nine unless he be well supported in the field4 ,in cricket a bowler can take wickets when unassisted by a good field party1 but in base-ball a pitcher's skill is entirely thrown away unless well supported in the field1 especially by the in-field portion of the nine4 ,the pitcher's position is within the lines of a space of ground six feet by four in extent1 located on the line between home and second base1 the front line of the position being distant forty-five feet from the home base4 ,the pitcher1 in delivering the ball to the bat1 is prohibited from either throwing1 jerking1 or bowling the ball1 and he is also prohibited from making any motion in his delivery which will admit of a ball being thrown1 such as bending his arm outward at the elbow1 c4 ,and if he makes any one of the series of motions he uses in delivering the ball1 and fails to deliver it1 then he incurs the penalty of a 8balk10 in which case players running the bases1 but not the striker1 are allowed to take one base4 ,the rules governing the delivery of the ball also require the pitcher to deliver the ball over the home base--which is sixteen inches in width--and 8fairly for the striker10 viz4 within the legitimate reach of the bat1 and as near as possible to the point indicated by the batsman1 the boundary line in question extending from within a foot of the ground to the height of the batsman's head4 ,the pitcher in his style of delivery1 may adopt any movement he likes1 provided he moves to deliver while standing within the lines of his position4 ,it is regarded as throwing the ball1 however1 if it be delivered in any way except by a straight arm1 swinging perpendicularly with the body2 and it is considered as 8jerked10 if the arm touches the side of the body in delivery4 ,he should remember that the rules define unfairly-pitched balls to be those pitched over the head of the batsman2 to the side opposite to that he strikes from2 on the ground before reaching the home base1 or pitched so as to hit the batsman when he is standing in his legitimate position--viz4 astride the line of the home base1 and distant one foot from it4 ,the pitcher should be exceedingly cautious1 and on the alert in watching the bases when the players are attempting to run1 and in such cases should endeavour his utmost to throw a swift and true ball to the basemen4 ,when a player attempts to run in to the home base while he is pitching1 he should follow the ball to the home base as soon as it leaves his hand1 and be ready at the base to take it from the catcher4 ,the pitcher will frequently have to occupy a base on occasions when the proper guardian has left it to field the ball4 ,and in cases where a foul ball has been struck1 and the player running a base endeavours to return to the one he has left1 he should be ready to receive the ball at the point nearest the base in question1 in order to comply with that section of the rules wherein in such cases it is required that the ball be settled in the hands of the pitcher before it is in play4 ,the pitcher has to face the most dangerous balls sent from the bat1 and therefore he requires to be a plucky1 courageous fellow1 not afraid of being hurt4 ,he should also be an accurate thrower at short distances1 and a sure catch4 ,but the most important requisite in the position1 next to the ability to pitch the ball accurately1 is good judgment in pitching according to the skill and peculiarities of his opponents at the bat4 ,,the ,,base ,,players4 ,,the ,,first ,,baseman4 ,the principal duty of this fielder is to hold the ball in hand1 with some part of his person touching the first base1 before the batsman reaches it4 ,if held simultaneously with the base runner's touching the base1 the latter is not out4 ,the first baseman's position1 in the beginning of an innings1 is about twenty feet back of his base and towards second base1 but not too far away from the foul ball line or from his base1 as the majority of balls1 which come anywhere near enough for him to field1 are hit within twenty feet of his base4 ,the moment the ball is struck1 and he finds that it does not come near him1 he should promptly return to his base1 and stand in readiness1 with one foot on the base1 to receive the ball from any player who may have fielded it4 ,as we said before1 the striker can be put out at this base without being touched by the ball1 provided the fielder1 with the ball in hand1 touches the base with any part of his person before the striker reaches it4 ,the player will find it good practice to stand with one foot on the base1 and see how far he can reach and take the ball from the fielder2 this practice will prepare him for balls that are thrown short of the base4 ,in the same manner he should learn to jump up and take high balls4 ,this position requires the player filling it to be the very best of catchers1 as he will be required to hold very swiftly-thrown balls4 ,the moment he has held the ball1 he should promptly return it to the pitcher1 or to either of the other bases a player is running to1 as in some instances two1 and sometimes three1 players are put out by promptitude in this respect4 ,,the ,,second ,,baseman4 ,this position requires its occupant to be a very active fielder indeed1 and especially a good judge of fly balls1 and a sure catch4 ,he should also be a swift and accurate thrower at short distances4 ,his position1 in the beginning of an innings1 is at 8right short10 that is1 about twenty or thirty feet back of his position and towards the foul ball line1 in fact nearly opposite the short-stop's position on the other side4 ,but he should take his position according to the known peculiarities of the batsman he faces4 ,he should back up the pitcher well1 allowing no balls to pass both that player and himself too4 ,when the striker reaches the first base1 the second baseman should immediately return to his base and stand prepared to receive the ball from the catcher1 and put out his opponent by touching him with the ball1 which it is requisite to do on this base as well as on the third and home bases1 except in the cases of balls caught on the fly1 or foul balls1 in both of which instances a player can be put out in returning to the base he has left1 in the same manner as when running to the first base1 viz4 by the ball being held by the baseman1 with some part of his person on the base1 before the base runner reaches it4 ,when the catcher fails to throw the ball with accuracy to the second baseman1 the latter should by all means manage to stop the ball1 if he cannot catch it in time to put out his opponent4 ,he should also promptly return the ball to the pitcher4 ,he should be especially on the look-out for a double play when a base runner is on first base1 in which case all that the baseman has to do1 to put two players out1 is to field the ball from the bat sharply1 or receive it from short-stop or the third baseman1 and first touching second base with ball in hand1 to send the ball to first base in time to cut off the player running there4 ,when a base runner1 too1 is on first base1 and a high ball is hit for the second baseman to catch1 if he sees the base runner standing near his first base ready to run back on the catch being made1 he should manage to let the ball pass through his hands1 partly checked in its progress1 but not held1 in which case the base runner being thereby forced from his first base can be easily captured at second4 ,should the second baseman1 however1 see the base runner trying to get to second1 he should hold the fly ball1 and return it promptly to first base1 thereby putting two players out on a double play--one on the catch1 and the other on returning to his base on the catch1 as base runners have to do in such cases4 ,,the ,,third ,,baseman4 ,this position is the most difficult one1 to play skilfully1 of any of the three bases1 as the throwing to first base from this position requires a stronger arm than that from short-stop or second base1 while the third baseman has the most difficult catches to make on foul balls of any in-fielder except the catcher4 ,besides which1 errors in the way of failures to stop balls thrown or batted to this position are more important in their results than at any other base1 as an error at third base gives a run1 while at first or second only a lost base is the result4 ,the third baseman1 after fielding a ball from the bat1 has to throw it generally from a hundred and twenty-five to a hundred and fifty feet to the first base1 while the short-stop has not to throw it a hundred1 and the second base player generally not more than about eighty or ninety4 ,a good third base player can readily play at first or second with comparative ease1 but skilful players on the first and second bases cannot as readily play third base4 ,in fact1 it is a position requiring more practice to excel in it than that of either of the other bases4 ,this position is no place for a left-handed man1 first base being the only suitable place in the infield for such a player4 ,when three men are on the bases1 the third baseman frequently has a fine opportunity afforded him for double plays4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that each base is occupied1 and a ball is sent direct to the third baseman1 his point of play is to throw the ball to the pitcher or catcher at home base1 and for the player receiving it to return it promptly to third base1 and if this is done sharply two players can be readily put out on the one ball4 ,the rule for all basemen is to cut off the player nearest to home base4 ,for instance1 if three men are on the bases1 and a ball is hit to the first baseman1 the latter1 instead of putting the striker out1 should throw the ball home1 unless there was no fielder near enough to take it4 ,so in the case of a ball hit to short-stop1 under similar circumstances1 unless two men are out1 in which case the surest play should be selected4 ,,the ,,short-,,stop4 ,this is the position in the field for the most active of the six in-fielders4 ,of course1 like all in-fielders1 his duties include the stopping of hot ground-balls1 and in throwing the same accurately to the base the striker of the ball happens to be running to1 generally the first base4 ,but his principal work is to back up all the in-fielders4 ,he should be on the alert the moment the ball is hit1 and if it does not come within his reach1 he should be ready to get on a base to receive it1 or to back up the fielder it is thrown in to2 in fact1 the short-stop should be the 8general utility0 man of the nine1 and especially active in saving the pitcher from over work in fielding4 ,the short-stop should be a fearless fielder1 and one ready and able to stop a swift ground-ball2 and if he can throw swiftly and accurately1 it would be as well to be a little deliberate in sending the ball to the first base1 as it is better to be sure and just in time1 than to risk a wild throw by being in too great a hurry4 ,his position is generally in the centre of the triangle formed by the second and third bases and the pitcher's position1 but he should change it according to his knowledge of the striker's style of batting4 ,he must be on the alert to take foul balls on the bound1 that are missed on the fly by either the third baseman or pitcher1 or indeed any other player he can get near enough to be of assistance to in this respect4 ,in doing this1 however1 he should be careful not to interfere with the fielder who is about catching the ball so as to prevent him doing so4 ,an effective short-stop and a good first base player1 especially if they are familiar with each other's play1 will materially contribute to the successful issue of a well-contested game4 ,,the ,,out-,,fielders4 ,a great deal depends upon the skill of the three out-fielders of a nine1 when the pitching is of medium pace1 and plenty of chances for catches are offered off the pitching4 ,the principal qualifications of out-fielders are3 the power to throw a ball in well nearly a hundred yards1 and the ability to judge high fly balls and to catch surely4 ,the three positions require equally good fielders1 though1 if the nature of the ground requires one man better than another1 the best judge of a ball should be placed in the difficult position4 ,out-fielders should watch the batsman closely1 and either lay out well for the heavy hitters1 or get closer in for those who strive to hit 8safe0 balls just over the heads and out of reach of the in-fielders4 ,after the ball has been either caught or stopped1 the out-fielder should promptly return it1 either to the base requiring it1 or to the pitcher4 ,out-fielders should never hold the ball a moment longer than is necessary to throw it4 ,another point of their fielding should be to start the moment the ball is hit1 and try their utmost to take it on the fly1 and not wait until it is about touching the ground4 ,bear in mind that it is easier to run forward to take a ball than1 by being too eager1 to try and take it by running backward2 remember1 however1 that a ball hit high to long field invariably appears to be coming further than it really does4 ,,the ,,batsman4 ,the position of the batsman is expressly defined by the rules1 which require that the striker1 when about to strike the ball1 must stand astride the line of the home base4 ,this line is six feet in length1 running through the centre of the home base1 and parallel with the front line of the pitcher's position4 ,he can take a step forward1 but he is prohibited from taking any backward step4 ,the batsman is known as the 8striker10 and so considered in the rules1 until he has struck a fair ball1 when he immediately becomes 8a player running the bases10 and ceases to be the 8striker40 ,when the batsman takes his position at the home base1 viz4 standing astride the line of the base1 and not less than one foot to the left of it1 the umpire asks him where he wants a ball1 and the batsman responds by saying 8knee high10 or 8waist high10 or by naming the character of the call he wants pitched to him1 the pitcher being required by the rules to deliver to the batsman a ball within the legitimate reach of his bat1 and as near the place indicated as he can1 and also to pitch over the home base2 and if he fails to do this twice1 the umpire1 after first warning him of the penalty he incurs1 is required to call a ball for every unfair ball delivered after the warning has been given1 and when three such balls have been called the batsman drops his bat and goes to first base4 ,in striking at the ball it must be hit fairly to entitle the batsman to run for his first base1 and it is only hit 8fairly0 when sent to the field in front of the lines of the bases reaching from home to first base and home to third base4 ,if the ball from the bat first touches the ground back of these lines1 it is considered 8foul10 and in that case1 though the batsman can be caught out1 he cannot run to his base4 ,the moment the batsman hits a fair ball1 therefore1 he drops his bat and runs to first base1 and if he reaches it before the ball is held by the baseman while touching the base1 the striker escapes being put out2 but if the ball be held by the baseman1 while on his base1 before the batsman reaches it1 the latter is out4 ,the batsman is liable to be put out in the following manner4 ,if the ball he hits 8fair0 should be caught by any of the fielders before touching the ground2 or if a ball he hits 8foul0 should be caught by any of the fielders either 8on the fly0 or on the first bound2 or if he strikes at the ball three times and fails to hit it each time1 and the ball1 on the third strike1 be held on the bound1 or1 if not so held1 it be held on the first base before the striker reaches it1 the batsman is out2 and lastly1 he is out if he takes a step backward three times when striking at a ball4 ,these are the various ways in which the batsman or striker can be put out4 ,after making his first base1 and thereby becoming a 8base runner10 he is liable to be put out as follows4 ,if he be touched by any fielder with the ball in hand and in play1 when he is off a base1 he is out2 also1 if when running to a base on a foul ball1 he fail to get back to the base before the ball1 in play1 is held by the baseman2 or1 if in running to a base on a fair fly ball1 he be similarly off his base when the ball is held by the base player after being caught2 also1 if he fail to reach the next base to the one he occupies when a fair ball is hit1 and not caught1 and the ball be held on the base he is running to before he reaches it1 he is out4 ,,base-,,running4 ,the moment the striker hits a fair ball he ceases to be the 8striker10 and becomes at once 8a player running the bases10 and he then becomes liable to be put out in the several ways alluded to under the head of 8,the ,batsman10 viz4 by being 8forced off0 his base2 by being 8run out20 and by being put out in returning on a fly or foul ball4 ,we will now illustrate more particularly the manner in which the base-runner can be thus put out4 ,when1 as above referred to1 the striker has made his first base1 and become a 8base-runner10 and he is occupying the first base when a fair ball is hit1 the moment such a ball be struck that moment he ceases to have any right to occupy the first base1 he being what is termed 8forced off0 by the batsman4 ,in such case he must try and make his second base before the ball is held by a fielder on the base4 ,if he fails to do this he is out4 ,when occupying the first base1 too1 when a fair ball is hit and is held on the fly1 he is required to return and touch the base before he can legally run for the next base2 but the moment he has touched the base1 after the catch has been made1 he can then run for the next base4 ,if1 however1 the ball that is hit be a foul ball1 then he must not only return to the base he left when the ball was struck1 but he must remain on it until the ball has been settled in the hands of the pitcher before he can again attempt to run to the next base4 ,if at any time1 too1 when the ball is in play1 he be caught off a base1 and be touched by the ball in the hands of any fielder1 he is also out4 ,if1 too1 in running round the bases at any time he should fail to touch any of the bases1 he must return and touch the base he failed to touch when first running round1 and in such case1 if the ball be held on the base before he can touch it1 he is out2 and he must also return to touch the base1 in such case1 the same way as he ran round1 he not being allowed to cross over from home base to second1 or from third to first4 ,base-runners should1 however1 remember that they have a right to return to the base they have left--except when 8forced off0 by the batsman--until they touch the next base2 and no base-runner1 occupying a base1 can force another off the next base1 unless he himself be forced off by the batsman1 or by a base-runner who is forced off by the batsman4 ,that is1 a player occupying the second base1 when there is no one on the first base1 cannot force a base-runner off the third4 ,when all the bases are occupied1 and the batsman hits a fair ball which is not caught1 then each base-runner is obliged to vacate the base he occupies and run to the next1 and in this case all that is necessary to put either base-runner out1 is simply for any fielder to hold the ball on the base the base-runner is trying to reach before the latter reaches it4 ,it should be borne in mind that the moment the batsman is put out by a fair fly catch1 or put out at first base1 that moment the base-runners preceding him cease to be 8forced0 to leave their bases1 and in this case they must be touched by the ball1 in the hands of a fielder1 before they can be put out4 ,base-runners1 too1 when high balls are hit into the outer field1 and in such way as to make a catch apparently certain1 should stand on their bases in readiness to run to the next base the moment the ball is held by the out-fielder4 ,when a base-runner is on the first base1 and a high ball is 8popped up10 which looks as if it would surely be caught by the short-stop or pitcher1 or indeed by any in-fielder1 the base-runner has a double difficulty to escape from1 inasmuch as1 if the ball is caught on the fly1 he has to return to the base he left when the ball was hit2 but should the ball1 instead1 be purposely dropped before being held1 he then becomes obliged to run for his second base1 and is in such case liable to be easily put out from being forced off his first base4 ,either horn of the dilemma is bad1 but the safest way generally is to anticipate the ball being caught1 and to stand ready to get back to first base easily1 as the effort to drop the ball for a double play is one not often successful4 ,a base-runner1 when on first base at a time when another is on the third1 can safely run down to second1 except where two hands are out1 as the catcher in the former case sacrifices the one base to prevent the player on the third from getting a chance to run home4 ,when two hands are out1 however1 it does not matter so much1 as the catcher can far easier put the third hand out by a throw to second than can the base-runner at the third get home before the third hand be put out4 ,in the position in a game when two hands are out and a base-runner is running home1 the run he would otherwise make does not count1 if the batsman be put out before he makes his first base2 and neither does it count in such case1 if the base-runner in question fails to touch the home base before the third hand is put out4 ,players who desire to become expert as base-runners should not only familiarise themselves with the theory of base-running by attentive study of the rules1 but they must realize by practical experience all the points of play above alluded to before they can successfully exemplify their theoretical knowledge1 or derive any advantage from it4 ,it is one thing to be thoroughly acquainted with the manner in which any special object in view should be attained1 but it is altogether a more difficult matter to practically illustrate your theory2 and an afternoon's experience in running bases against a field of practical experts would soon show you the fallacy of trusting to thorough theoretical knowledge for success4 ,,on ,,fielding ,,generally4 ,skill in fielding is the first requisite of an expert base-ball player4 ,what is called a 8muffin0 player is one who is a mere tyro in handling the ball4 ,muffins can bat well1 and yet not be anything but 8muffins40 ,occasionally1 too1 we find an effective pitcher who is a 8muffin0 in fielding4 ,but a player who can field well1 though he may not be a skilled batsman1 or even able to pitch effectively1 is nevertheless eligible to a position in the first nine of a club1 when a good batsman who is not a good fielder would be very properly ruled out4 ,among the requisites of a first-class fielder are3 first1 the moral qualifications of courage1 nerve1 control of temper and coolness of judgment in emergencies1 together with perseverance in the face of difficulties and in contending manfully against large odds4 ,the physical ability necessary consists of the strength to throw a ball a hundred yards2 the agility to catch a flying ball close to the ground1 or two or three feet above your head2 the activity to pick up a ball while running2 the quickness of the eye to judge the fall of a high ball1 or the rebound of a foul one2 and the endurance to stand the fatigue of a long game4 ,among the general rules worthy the attention of fielders are the following3-- ,the most important rule is the one which commands obedience to the directions of the captain of the nine4 ,fielders should also bear in mind that the captain of the nine is alone the spokesman of the party and the commander of the field4 ,secondly4 ,no out-fielder should hold a ball a moment longer than it is necessary for him to handle it in throwing4 ,in the in-field1 however1 a ball can be sometimes held by the fielder with safety and advantage4 ,thirdly4 ,never stand still in your position simply because the ball happens to go in another direction than the position you occupy1 but always be on the move to aid the other fielders or to back them up4 ,activity in the field1 and judgment in being prompt in support1 is one of the important requisites of a first-class fielder4 ,fourthly4 ,play earnestly at all times1 whether in an ordinary practice game or in a match4 ,get into the habit of doing your best on all occasions4 ,it is invariably the mark of a vain and conceited ball player to walk on the field and play in a game as if he was conferring a favour by participating in the contest2 and players who play with an air of indifference as to the result of the game1 or who become despondent when the odds are against them1 are no players for a first class nine4 ,fifthly4 ,next to seeing a man field well1 the most attractive thing is to see a player take things easily and good-naturedly4 ,if you miss a fly ball1 allow an important ball to pass you1 or fail to handle a ball in time on a base1 nothing is more boyish than to vent your ill-temper on some one who may have balked you in catching it1 or thrown it to you badly4 ,control yourself and take it smilingly1 or if you lack the moral courage to do that1 keep your tongue still at least4 ,your good-natured fellows1 who play their best all the time1 and yet take everything bad or good with a good-natured smile1 are as desirable as companions on a ball field as your growlers are to be detested4 ,sixthly4 ,when an error of play is committed1 do your best at once to remedy the evil by using your best efforts to get at the ball either after 8muffing0 it1 letting it pass you1 or failing to hold it4 ,some players after missing a ball will walk after it like an ill-tempered1 sulky ten-year old4 ,seventhly4 ,there is no habit fielders have that is more characteristic of school-boys1 or which leads to more unpleasantness and ill-feeling in a match1 than that of finding fault with those who commit errors of play in the field4 ,every man in the field tries to do his best for his own credit sake1 and if he fails censure but adds to his chagrin without in the least improving his play2 on the contrary1 fault-finding is only calculated to make him play worse4 ,in no game are the amenities of social life more necessary to a full enjoyment of the pastime than in base-ball4 ,particularly acceptable are words of commendation for good play and remarks calculated to remove the annoyance arising from errors in the field1 to young ball players1 and these form some of the strongest incentives to extra exertion on their part1 besides promoting kindly feelings on the field and during the game4 ,the fact is1 such men as your constitutional grumblers are the nuisances of a ball field1 and destroy all the pleasure which would otherwise result from the game4 ,every manly player will keep silent when he sees an error committed1 or if he makes any remark at all1 will apologize for it in some way4 ,those who find fault and growl at errors of play are of the class who prefer to gratify their malice and ill-temper at the expense of the unlucky fielder who happens to 8muff0 a ball or two in a game4 ,lastly4 ,remember that the winning of the trophy is one of the main objects in view1 and as it is not the most important thing in life to win it1 or a very great disaster to lose it1 the less you act as if it was1 the less likelihood of the spectators suspecting you of having some ulterior object in view1 such as the winning of a sum of money1 for instance4 ,to conclude1 however1 let it be remembered by every player in a match that a creditable victory abides only with that party who1 in winning the match1 have marked their play as much by their courtesy of demeanour1 liberality of action1 and the good-nature they have displayed in the contest1 as by their skill in the several departments of the game4 ,,the ,,umpire ,,and ,,his ,,duties4 ,the position of an umpire in a base-ball match is one marked by onerous and important duties4 ,before proceeding to comment on what these duties are particularly1 we will first give the rules of the game applicable to the position which are included in ,rule ,,vii4 of the code of rules and regulations3-- ,,sec4 #a4 ,the umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the ball1 bats1 bases1 and the pitcher's and striker's positions1 are strictly observed1 and he shall require the challenging club to furnish a ball1 on which the size1 weight1 and the name of the manufacturer shall be stamped4 ,he shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play1 and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during the game4 ,he shall take special care to declare all foul balls and balks immediately upon their occurrence1 in a distinct and audible manner4 ,he shall1 in every instance1 before leaving the ground1 declare the winning club1 and shall record his decision in the books of the scorers4 ,the umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a scorer for each of the contesting clubs4 ,in all matches the umpire shall be selected by the captains of the respective sides1 and shall perform all the duties above enumerated4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,the umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be suspended2 and if the game cannot be fairly concluded1 it shall be decided by the last equal innings1 provided five innings have been played1 and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be declared the winner4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,when the umpire calls 8play10 the game must at once be proceeded with2 and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game4 ,when the umpire calls 8time10 play shall be suspended until he calls 8play0 again4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,when the umpire 8calls0 a game1 it shall end2 but when he merely suspends play for any stated period1 it may be resumed at the point at which it was suspended1 provided such suspension does not extend beyond the day of the match4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,no person engaged in a match1 either as umpire1 scorer1 or player1 shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet upon the game4 ,nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the ,national ,association1 or of a ,state branch thereof4 ,neither shall the umpire or scorer be changed during a match1 unless with the consent of both parties1 except for reason of illness or injury1 or for a violation of the above rules4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,no decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the testimony of any player2 and no decision whatever shall be reversed1 except for a palpable infringement of the rules1 and then only on an appeal by the captain4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,no person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the umpire1 scorers1 or players1 or in any manner to interrupt or interfere during the progress of the game1 unless by special request of the umpire4 ,any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules adopted by the ,national ,association shall be considered null and void1 and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost4 ,it will be seen by the above rules1 that among the most important are those requiring each player first1 to be a member of a club belonging to the ,national ,association1 or a ,state branch thereof4 ,secondly1 that he is to be considered the sole judge of fair and unfair play1 and one from whose decision there is no appeal1 except in certain instances where the rules are grossly misinterpreted1 in which case the injured parties can appeal for redress to the judiciary committee of their ,state association4 ,also1 that from the time 8play0 is called until the period the umpire either suspends play by calling 8time10 or closes the game by 8calling0 it1 the game must be proceeded with1 or otherwise the party failing to play forfeits the ball4 ,also that the umpire is required to see that the ball played with is one having the maker's name stamped on it1 and likewise the figures indicating the size and weight of the ball4 ,,hints ,,to ,,umpires4 ,the umpire should invariably render his decision in accordance with the first impressions of the point of play made on his mind4 ,if he hesitates at all1 the influence of any particular bias he may have will affect his judgment1 and very likely make his decision a partial one4 ,be prompt1 therefore1 to decide according to the very first impression made4 ,promptness in deciding is strong testimony in favour of impartial judgment1 and is always satisfactory to contestants4 ,he should also see that the foul ball posts are in position1 and especially that the rule requiring chalk lines from home to first base1 and home to third1 be complied with4 ,he should keep silent when a fair ball is struck1 but if asked if it be a fair ball1 he can of course say so2 but he is not required to call fair balls4 ,the umpire1 before calling 8play10 should see that the captains of the contesting sides are mutually agreed upon what the rules of the ground are for the match4 ,thus1 for instance1 that a ball going over a fence shall give but one base1 or that a ball taken on the fly from a tree1 or the roof of a house1 or the side of a fence1 shall be regarded as a bound catch1 and only legitimate in the case of a foul ball2 or that a ball passing the catcher1 and being stopped by a fence too close to the home base1 shall give one base1 c4 ,one of his most difficult duties is that of calling balls for unfair delivery in pitching1 and also in calling strikes on the batsmen for not hitting at fair balls4 ,the umpire should first instruct himself in regard to the definition of unfair balls1 and the following rules will give him the required information3-- ,firstly4 ,a ball that strikes the ground in front of the home base is not a fair ball2 as1 in the first place1 by striking the ground before reaching the baseman1 it becomes a 8bowled0 ball1 and secondly1 because it is not pitched 8over the home base10 and 8fairly for the striker20 for unless it goes over the home base before touching the ground1 it is not 8pitched10 but 8bowled0 over1 and unless so pitched1 it cannot be 8fairly for the striker40 ,secondly4 ,a ball that is pitched on the side opposite to that the batsman habitually strikes from is not a fair ball1 because not pitched 8for the striker40 ,thirdly4 ,a ball that is pitched so as to hit the striker--provided he is standing in his legitimate position1 viz4 astride the line of the home base1 and one foot to the left of the base--is not a fair one1 for the same reason4 ,the striker should1 however1 stand far enough from the base to admit of the ball being pitched over it without its striking him4 ,fourthly4 ,balls1 too1 which are pitched beyond the legitimate reach of the batsman1 either in front of him or over his head1 are1 for the same reason1 not fair balls4 ,all of the above balls are 8unfair0 balls1 and must be called when it is legitimate to call a ball at all1 that is1 first1 after two unfair balls have been pitched1 and secondly1 after the pitcher has then been warned of the penalty--this warning being given in the form of the words1 8ball to the bat10 or some exclamation of similar purport4 ,should the striker not stand in his position1 as required by the rules1 or should he hit at balls at a different height to that he calls for1 in such case the umpire is not required to call any of the above delivered balls as unfair balls except those out of the batsman's reach4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now proceed to close our instructions in the game with a chapter on scoring1 which is a part of base-ball requiring a considerable degree of statistical and analytical talent to do it well4 ,,on ,,scoring ,,in ,,base-,,ball4 ,the present system of scoring was first introduced by the writer in #ahfg1 and since then has been adopted by every competent scorer in the country4 ,the scorer of a base-ball match has either a simple task to perform1 or a duty requiring his close attention to every movement of the players in the field4 ,to record the 8outs0 and 8runs0 in a match requires simply the use of the figures #a1 #b1 #c for the score of outs in each innings1 and dots for each run scored1 and at the close of the game these are added up and the total of each placed opposite the name of the batsman making them2 the score of runs made each innings being recorded at the foot of each column of the innings4 ,to score a game properly1 however1 considerable work is necessary1 as will be seen by the following4 ,,instructions ,,to ,,scorers4 ,the following diagrams show the blank forms of the score-sheets used in recording the play1 and also the total result1 in a match game of base-ball2 and we present these blanks before proceeding with our instructions in scoring3-- ,no4 ,i4 ,diagram of ,score ,sheet used to record the ,movements of the ,players in a ,match ,game4 ,the ,score of the ,club of ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,base ,bases,bases run- on on ,total ,play ,played at 44444444444444 #ahf4 ning4 er- hits4score4 called4 rors4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,h4,l4,b4,m4,b4,t4,o4,r4,,batsmen4#a4b4c 4d4e4f4g4h4i4aj4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #a4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #b4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #c4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #d4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #e4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #f4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #g4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #h4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #i4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total ---------------------------------------- ----- ,grand total ---------------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------------- - ,game ,posi- ,good ,plays in ,total,as- ended4 tion4 the ,field4 put sist- out4 ing4 --------- ------------ ,,fielders4 ,b4,f4,l4,d4,k4,r4 ------------------------------------ #a4 ------------------------------------ #b4 ------------------------------------ #c4 ------------------------------------ #d4 ------------------------------------ #e4 ------------------------------------ #f4 ------------------------------------ #g4 ------------------------------------ #h4 ------------------------------------ #i4 ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------ ,winning ,club 44444444444444444444 ,scorers 4444444444444444444444 ,umpire 44444444444444444444444444 ,duration of game 4444444444444 ,the letters on the left refer to the batting score1 as follows3--,r1 for runs2 ,o1 for outs2 ,t1 for the number of times the first base is made on hits2 ,b1 for number of bases on hits2 ,m1 for first base on muffs2 ,b1 for first base on called balls2 ,l1 for left on bases after clean hits2 and ,h1 for home-runs4 ,on the right1 the letters refer to the fielding only3 ,b1 for outs on bases2 ,f1 for fair fly-catches2 ,l1 for foul fly-catches2 ,d1 for foul bound catches2 ,k1 for outs on strikes2 ,r1 for run out2 the last two columns being for the record of the total number of players put out by each fielder1 and the total number of times each assisted in putting out players4 ,the following diagram presents the blank form used to record the particulars of a match game at its close3-- ,no4 ,,ii4 ,batting ,score4 ,club4 ,club4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,players4 ,,pos4 ,o4 ,r4 ,b4 ,,players4 ,,pos4 ,o4 ,r4 ,b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #a4 #a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #b4 #b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #c4 #c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #d4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #e4 #e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #f4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #g4 #g4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #h4 #h4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #i4 #i4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,totals ,totals ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,innings4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,clubs4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #e4 #f4 #g4 #h4 #i4 ,,totals4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,home runs ,no4 of times first base on hits times times4 ,no4 of times first base by errors times times4 ,no4 of times first base on three balls times times4 ,total bases on hits ,times left on bases after clean hits ,fielding ,score4 ,base play--put out by ,fly catches ,foul bound catches ,catches on strikes ,double plays ,outs on bases times times4 ,outs on foul balls times times4 ,total errors of play ,umpire1 ,mr4 of the ,club1 of ,owners1 ,messrs4 and ,time of game hours minutes4 ,in recording a game on score-sheet ,no4 #a we proceed as follows3--,under the heading of 8,batsmen0 we place the names of the batting nine1 and under the heading of 8,fielders0 we place the names of the opposing nine4 ,these names are recorded on the two score-sheets of the score-book2 the names of the two nines thus appearing on the book twice1 once as batsmen and once as fielders4 ,over the heading 8,batsmen0 we record the time of commencing the game1 and this is done only on the page of the nine who first go to the bat2 the figures of the hour of closing the game being recorded over the heading 8,fielders10 on the page of the nine who last go to the bat2 and over the figures of the 8innings0 we record the name of the grounds the match was played on1 and the date of the game4 ,each fielder is numbered from #a to #i1 and in recording by whom players are put out these figures are used to indicate the name of the fielder4 ,in recording the positions of the fielders we simply use the initials of the words of the position1 thus ,c for 8catcher10 ,p for 8pitcher10 c4 ,instead of using ,c for 8centre field10 we use ,m for 8middle field10 as ,c is used for 8catcher40 ,the figures #a1 #b1 #c are used to indicate the outs of each innings1 and a dot thus 747 for each run4 ,dots only are used in recording the details of the batting on the left hand of the score-sheet1 and also for recording the particulars of the fielding on the left4 ,thus1 if the batsman secures his first base by a 8clean hit0--that is1 not by means of a wild throw1 a dropped fly ball1 or a palpably muffed ball--we place a dot in the square of the column of 8times bases on hits0 opposite the batsman's name2 and if instead he be put out on the fly1 we place a dot in the square of the column headed 8fly catches10 on the right1 and opposite the fielder's name4 ,now the above score only gives the data for estimating the skill of the batsman as far as his score of bases on hits1 or on muffs1 c4 is concerned1 and of the skill of the fielder as far as the record of the totals of his work in the field is concerned4 ,to complete the score1 however1 something more has to be done1 and that is1 to record how and by whom each batsman is put out2 and how this is to be done we now proceed to show4 ,the scorer must first make himself familiar with the following abbreviations of words used to indicate the various movements and actions of the fielders1 and these abbreviations will be found very easy to commit to memory4 ,they are as follows3-- ,a1 ,put out at first base4 ,b1 second base4 ,c1 third base4 ,h1 home base4 ,f1 ,put out on fly catch4 ,k1 three strikes4 ,r ,o1 ,put out between bases4 ,l ,f1 on foul fly4 ,l ,d1 on foul bound4 ,t ,f1 on tip fly4 ,t ,d1 on tip bound4 ,h ,r1 for home run4 ,as before stated1 the figures #a1 #b1 #c are used for recording the outs1 and dots for runs2 with small figures thus1 #ast1 #b;d1 #c;d1 to indicate being left on the bases4 ,the key to the above abbreviations is as follows4 ,the first three letters of the alphabet indicate the first three bases1 and we use the initial letters of the words ,home1 ,fly1 ,run ,out1 and ,tip1 and the last letter of the words ,struck1 ,foul1 and ,bound4 ,thus ,l stands for foul and ,f for fly1 and both together for 8foul fly40 ,the above system will be found to include everything necessary in recording the important details of a game1 to the extent of showing the good plays made at the bat and in the field4 ,in 8reporting0 the details of a match1 however1 we necessarily require a still more elaborate system1 and our short-hand system for the use of reporters will be found in detail in our 8,,book ,,of ,,reference10 published in ,new ,york4 ,in order to illustrate fully the working of the system of scoring above described1 we will proceed to score an imaginary game as follows3-- ,suppose the fielders in their places and the batsman in his1 and the scorers ready to record the game4 8,play0 is called1 and the time of beginning the game at once recorded4 ,the first striker then hits a ball1 which is caught on the fly by the left-fielder1 who is the seventh striker1 we will say1 on the other side4 ,on the square of the first innings opposite the name of the first striker you first write down the figure #a1 indicating the first hand out1 and above it write the figure #g and the letter ,f1 and your record will then appear thus3 4444444 3 #g ,f 3 3 #a 3 4444444 the #g representing the name of the fielder1 and the letter ,f the initial of the word fly1 showing by whom and in what manner the player was put out4 ,opposite the name of the seventh fielder1 too1 under the head of 8,on fair fly10 you write down a dot1 which gives him credit for the fly catch in the score of good plays4 ,the second striker now takes the bat1 and1 hitting a low grounder to centre-field1 makes his second base just before the ball is well fielded in to the second baseman4 ,to record this properly you place a dot opposite the batsman's name to the left under the head of 8number of times0 bases are made on hits2 and in the next column you place two dots1 showing the number of bases made on the hit2 or1 if you like to be more particular1 you can write the figure #b in place of the two dots1 and then you will know the bases he made on each hit4 ,the third striker now comes to the bat1 and hits a ball to short-stop1 who passes it to the first baseman in time to put the player out4 ,you now have to record the second hand out1 and you do it thus3 first1 the figure #b for second hand out1 and the figure #c for the name of the short-stop1 who is the third striker on the list of names on the other side1 and then #d for the first baseman1 who is the fourth striker4 ,the square will then appear thus3 4444444 3#c-d ,a3 3 #b 3 4444444 thereby showing that the batsman was the second hand out by a ball fielded to the first base player by the short-stop4 ,you then1 opposite the fielders' names to the right1 under the head of 8number of times assisting10 place a dot opposite the third fielder's name1 and under the head of 8on bases10 a dot opposite the name of the fourth fielder1 thus crediting the short-stop with the assistance rendered and the first baseman with putting the batsman out4 ,the fourth striker now takes the bat and strikes out1 and you then record the out by the figure #c for the third hand out1 and the letter ,k for struck out 7in this instance1 as in one or two others1 as we have shown1 we use the last letter of the word71 and under the head of 8on third strike10 opposite the fielder's name acting as catcher1 we place a dot4 ,this closes the innings4 ,when the game is closed1 we add up the total outs and runs charged and credited to each batsman1 and place the totals under the heading of 8,outs and ,runs0 to the left of the batsmen's names4 ,the above will suffice to show the general plan of scoring we adopt in this system4 ,the statistics of the batsman's play1 to the left of the batsmen's names1 include his total score of outs and runs1 the total number of times the first base is made1 and the number of bases made on clean hits2 and a similar record of bases made on 8muffed0 and wildly thrown balls1 and on balked and called balls1 together with the number of times base-runners are left on bases1 and the number of clean home runs4 ,the statistics of the fielding1 to the right of the fielders' names1 include the totals of outs on bases1 on fair fly catches1 on foul fly and foul bound catches1 on three strikes1 from being run out1 the totals of the players put out1 and of times assisting to put them out4 ,the ,american game of base-ball will be found an excellent substitute for cricket in ,england1 for those who have not the leisure time for the ,english game1 as a full game of nine innings a side can be played in three hours at most4 ,it is a more vigorous exercise than cricket1 and in a closely contested match1 fully as exciting to spectators1 when understood4 ,for boys1 after school hours1 it is far better than cricket1 owing to the short time required to play a game4 ,,american ,,billiards4 ,the four ball1 or 8,american game0 of billiards1 differs both from the ,english and ,french game1 and in a measure combines the merits of both4 ,though it does not require the skill the ,french game does1 it avoids1 by custom1 the simple1 mechanical 8hazard0 feature of the ,english game1 as first-class ,american billiard-players at the hazard and carom game never hole the spot ball consecutively1 as in the ,english game4 ,in fact1 the hazard feature of the ,american game is rapidly falling into disuse1 the four ball carom game taking its place4 ,the ,american tables now are made without side pockets1 and no saloon has any tables of this kind1 except for playing pool2 the four pocket tables and carom tables without pockets being the only style in vogue now4 ,the four pocket tables were introduced by ,michael ,phelan1 ,esq41 the 8father0 of the game in ,america4 ,the general principles of the ,american game1 which unites those of all others1 are as follows3-- ,,the ,,carom4 ,to make a carom1 the player must cause his own ball to strike two or more balls in the same shot4 ,when he strikes his adversary's ball1 and either the light or dark red1 he scores two4 ,when he strikes the two red balls1 or1 in billiard phrase1 caroms on them1 he scores three4 ,,the ,,hazard4 ,there are two sorts of hazards--winning and losing4 ,a ,,winning ,,hazard is made by pocketing the adversary's ball1 or either of the red balls4 ,in the first case1 the player scores two2 in the second1 he scores three4 ,when the player pockets his own ball it is a ,,losing ,,hazard4 ,if his ball is pocketed after having struck the white or adversary's ball1 two points are added to the adversary's score4 ,if the ball is pocketed after having struck either of the red balls1 three points are added to the adversary's score4 ,if the ball be pocketed after having made a carom or winning hazard1 the player cannot score the count he may have made4 ,a miss1 or a failure on the part of the player to strike any other ball with his own1 counts one for the opponent4 ,the word carom1 used in this portion of the work1 is derived from the ,french word 8carombolage40 ,in ,england the word 8cannon0 is used1 an evidently corrupt derivation4 ,in learning all games of billiards practical experience is the best teacher4 ,no amount of intellectual study can impart to a novice the manual dexterity and adroitness essential to the display of the beauties of the game4 ,but months of labour and learning by practical experience alone may be avoided by learning thoroughly beforehand the principles of the science afterwards to be practised as an art4 ,among the most important things in billiards is a good attitude1 and to attain this should be the student's first effort4 ,good attitude is the #8groundwork' of a player's success4 ,if his attitude be ungraceful1 viz4 strained or unnatural1 his playing will assuredly be unreliable4 ,the student's attitude must1 in the first place1 be perfectly easy and natural4 ,his left foot should be slightly advanced1 in a straight line1 the right drawn backwards and pointing outwards1 to the extent and at the angle most familiar and convenient to the player4 ,the left arm should be extended and supported on the table by the tips of the fingers and the junction of the palm and the wrist 7which position of the hand constitutes the natural bridge74 ,his body should be perfectly balanced1 and should form an acute angle with the side of the table at which he stands4 ,the tapering end of the cue should rest in the natural groove formed by the elevation of the thumb2 the thick end should be grasped in the right hand1 loosely while being drawn back preparatory to the stroke1 and firmly at the moment of contact with the ball4 ,the cue should be held in a perfectly horizontal position1 except in the case of some particular strokes1 which will be described in the proper place4 ,beginners should pay especial attention to this4 ,it should be impelled chiefly by the fore-arm1 while the body should remain perfectly steady1 as the slightest swaying motion of it will give a false direction to the stroke4 ,the speed of the cue1 and not the weight of the body1 gives strength to the stroke4 ,in the instructions in the game contained in the body of this work1 the fundamental principles of the game are fully exemplified and enlarged upon4 ,but there are exceptions to these fundamental rules to which we now briefly refer1 and among them may be prominently named the results of the different degrees of strength with which the cue ball is struck1 inasmuch as important modifications of the angles of incidence and reflexion are produced by the varieties of strength in the impulsion of the ball4 ,it is a general law that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflexion2 this law is1 however1 modified in billiards by the degree of strength with which the cue ball is struck4 ,the angle which the cue-ball will take after striking a cushion1 being materially altered by the force imparted to it1 the greater the strength the more acute will the angle of reflexion become4 ,when the ball1 instead of being played against a fixed and inert body1 such as a cushion1 is played against a moveable sphere1 such as itself1 the angle formed by the line of direction of the object-ball1 and the line of the subsequent course of the cue-ball1 will be more obtuse the greater the strength communicated to the cue-ball4 ,without an approximate knowledge of the different degrees of strength to be imparted in order to produce different angles1 the pupil labours through a maze of uncertainty2 and if not of a patient and reflective tendency1 is inclined to arrive at the hasty and erroneous conclusion1 that chance constitutes an important element in successful billiard playing4 ,before commenting further on the game we will proceed to give the rules of the ,american four ball game1 and also of the ,french three ball game as played in ,america2 and here we would acknowledge our indebtedness to ,messrs4 ,phelan and ,collender1 the great billiard-table manufacturers of the ,united ,states1 for the privilege of quoting from their complete publications on the science and practice of the game of billiards4 ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,four ,,ball ,,game1 ,,by ,,michael ,,phelan1 ,,esq4 ,,on ,,stringing ,,for ,,the ,,lead4 ,whoever1 playing from within the 8string-line0 against an outside cushion1 brings the returning cue-ball nearest the head cushion1 which is the one at which the players stand1 is entitled to choice of balls and lead4 ,provided-- #a4 ,that1 in stringing1 the player's ball has not touched his opponent's while the latter was at rest4 #b4 ,nor has fallen into any of the pockets4 ,in either case the player loses choice and lead4 #c4 ,should the cue-balls1 both being in motion1 come in contact1 the strokes are invalid1 and must be played over4 #b4 ,in 8stringing10 it is required that both cue-balls shall be struck simultaneously1 or so nearly together that one ball cannot reach the lower cushion before the other has been put in motion4 ,,note4--,it will be well for players to bear in mind also that in 8stringing0 for the lead both cue-balls should be struck1 if not simultaneously1 at least so near together that one ball cannot reach the lower cushion before the other has been put in motion4 ,,on ,,leading4 #a4 ,the player who wins the choice of balls and lead must either roll his ball down towards the lower cushion1 as an object for his adversary to play at1 or else compel his adversary to lead off as above described4 #b4 ,in leading1 the player's ball must be played from within the string-line1 and struck with sufficient strength to carry it beyond the deep-red ball on its appropriate spot at the foot of the table4 ,but it must not be played with such strength as to repass1 after coming in contact with the lower cushion1 the deep-red ball4 ,nor yet must it touch either red ball1 nor lodge on the cushion1 nor fall into a pocket1 nor jump off the table4 ,in any of the cases mentioned in this section1 or in case the cue-ball is not struck with sufficient strength to pass beyond the deep-red1 it shall be optional with the adversary 7,player ,no4 #b7 to make ,no4 #a spot his ball on the pool spot nearest the lower cushion1 or lead again3 or he may take the lead himself4 #c4 ,no count or forfeiture can be made or incurred until two strokes have been played4 #d4 ,once the lead is made1 the game is considered as commenced1 and neither player can withdraw except under circumstances specified on page #hjc4 ,,on ,,opening ,,the ,,game4 #a4 ,the game is opened by player ,no4 #b playing on the white ball at the foot of the table4 #b4 ,should he fail to hit the white first1 or fail to hit it at all1 he forfeits one point1 which shall be added to his adversary's score4 ,should he pocket himself after hitting a red ball first1 he loses three points1 even though he may have subsequently hit the white4 ,,on ,,forfeitures4 #a4 ,if the striker fails to hit any of the other balls with his own1 he forfeits one point1 which1 as well as other forfeitures1 must be added to his adversary's score4 7,see note1 page #hab47 #b4 ,the striker forfeits two when the ball that he plays with is pocketed1 or lodges on the cushion1 or goes over the table1 after having struck or been in fixed contact with the other white1 no matter whether it has touched one or both of the reds4 ,an exception to this clause will be found in ,sec4 #b1 on 8,opening the ,game40 #c4 ,the striker forfeits three when the ball that he plays with is pocketed1 or lodges on the cushion1 or goes over the table1 after having come in contact with one or both of the reds1 and not the white4 ,the same applies if neither red nor white be struck4 #d4 ,if the player cause any ball to jump off the table1 and should it1 by striking any of the bystanders1 be flung back upon the table1 it must still be treated as if it had fallen to the floor4 ,if a red ball1 it must be spotted2 if a white1 held in hand4 ,should it be the last striker's ball1 he forfeits two or three1 the same as if he had gone into a pocket4 ,,on ,,foul ,,strokes4 ,the penalty of a foul stroke is1 that the player cannot count any points he may have made by such stroke1 and his adversary is entitled to the next play4 ,the following1 in addition to those already mentioned1 are foul strokes3-- #a4 ,if either player plays with his opponent's ball1 the stroke is foul2 and1 if successful1 he cannot count1 provided the error is found out before a second shot is made4 #b4 ,should two or more strokes have been made previous to the discovery1 the reckoning cannot be disturbed1 and the player may continue his run with the same ball1 or he may have the balls changed4 ,the same privilege is extended to the opposing player when his turn comes to play4 #c4 ,should it be found that both players have used the wrong ball successively1 he who was first to play with the wrong ball cannot put in a claim of foul against his opponent1 as the latter1 in using the wrong ball1 was simply playing from his proper position on the table4 ,it is the position of the cue-ball1 and not its mere colour or designation1 that governs4 ,aside from this1 before one player can charge another with error1 it must be shown that no act of his contributed to that error4 #d4 ,though the striker1 when playing with the wrong ball1 cannot count what points he may make1 except in those cases mentioned above1 nevertheless1 whatever forfeitures he may incur while playing with the wrong ball1 he is bound to pay1 as if he had been playing with his own4 #e4 ,should1 however1 both the white balls be off the table together1 and should either player1 by mistake1 pick up the wrong one and play with it1 the stroke must stand1 and he can count whatever he has made4 ,as he plays from his proper position1 it is immaterial1 because no advantage is to be gained1 which ball he uses4 ,in this case1 as in the others where it is permitted to play with the wrong ball1 the balls should be changed at the conclusion of the run4 ,this will prevent confusion and disputes4 #f4 ,if the striker play at a ball before it is fully at rest1 or while any other ball is rolling on the table1 the stroke is foul4 #g4 ,if1 after going into a pocket1 a cue-ball or an object-ball should rebound and return to the bed of the table1 it must be treated as a ball not pocketed4 #h4 ,if the player1 when playing with the butt or side of his cue1 does not withdraw the butt or side before the cue-ball touches the object-ball1 the stroke is foul4 #i4 ,a stroke made while a red ball is off the table1 provided its spot is unoccupied1 is foul4 ,when its proper spot is occupied1 the red must remain off the table until its spot is vacated and all the balls have ceased rolling4 ,see following rule4 #aj4 ,if the game being played is one in which hazards1 or pockets1 do not count1 a red ball that has been pocketed or forced off the table shall be spotted on another spot1 provided its own is occupied1 and provided also the non-striker's ball is off the table at the time4 ,if the light-red1 it shall be placed on the dark-red spot2 and if that spot is occupied1 the light-red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of the table4 ,if the dark-red1 it shall be placed on the light-red spot1 c4 ,if both reds are off the table at the same time1 and their spots are occupied by the two whites1 one of the reds may be placed on the pool spot4 ,the other must remain off the table until its proper spot is vacant4 ,,note4--,in the full game1 or when pockets are counted1 the old rule applies1 and the red ball1 when its spot is occupied1 must remain off the table until its spot is uncovered and all the balls have ceased rolling4 #aa4 ,if1 after making a successful stroke1 the player obstructs or otherwise affects the free course of any ball in motion1 the stroke is foul1 and he cannot score the points made thereby4 #ab4 ,a touch is a shot4 ,and if1 while the balls are at rest1 a player touches or disturbs any ball on the table other than his own1 it is foul4 ,he has1 however1 the privilege of playing a stroke for safety1 provided his own ball has not been touched1 but he can make no count on the shot4 #ac4 ,in playing a shot1 if the cue leaves the ball and touches it again1 the stroke is foul4 #ad4 ,if the striker1 through stretching forward or otherwise1 has not at least one foot on the floor while striking1 the shot is foul1 and no points can be reckoned4 #ae4 ,if1 when the player's ball is in hand1 he does not cause it to pass outside the string before touching any of the object-balls or cushion 7except in the case mentioned in the following rule71 the stroke is foul1 and his opponent may choose whether he will play with the balls as they are1 have them replaced in their original positions1 or cause the stroke to be played over2 or1 should the player make a losing hazard under such circumstances1 the penalty may be enforced4 #af4 ,playing at a ball whose base or point of contact with the table is outside the 8string10 is considered playing out of the 8string20 and the stroke is a fair one1 even though the side which the cue-ball strikes is hanging over1 and therefore within the 8string40 #ag4 ,playing directly at a ball that is considered in the 8string0 is foul1 even though the cue-ball should pass wholly beyond the 8string0 line before coming in contact4 #ah4 ,giving a miss inside the 8string10 when the player is in hand1 is foul4 ,but he may1 for safety1 cause his ball to go out of the 8string0 and return4 #ai4 ,if a player alters the stroke he is about to make1 at the suggestion of any party in the room1--even if it be at the suggestion of his partner in a double match1--the altered stroke is foul4 #bj4 ,placing marks of any kind whatever1 either upon the cushions or table1 is foul2 and a player1 while engaged in a game1 has no right to practise a particular stroke on another table4 ,,on ,,cases ,,where ,,the ,,balls ,,are ,,in ,,contact4 ,at the request of a majority of the leading players1 amateur and professional1 the rule observed since #aheh1 under which no count could be effected unless the striker first played upon some ball other than that with which his own was in contact1 has been amended as below4 ,the new rule came into effect ,january #a1 #ahfg4 #a4 ,when the cue-ball is in contact with any other ball1 the striker may effect a count either by playing first upon some ball other than that with which his own is in contact1 or by playing first against the cushion1 or by a masse4 ,in either of the two last-mentioned cases1 it is immaterial which ball the returning cue-ball strikes first4 #b4 ,should the cue-ball be in contact with all the other balls on the table1--or1 if with two balls only1 while the remaining ball is on the table1 in such a way that the striker cannot play either on the free ball or the cushion first1--it shall be optional with him to have all the balls taken up and the reds spotted as at the commencement of the game4 ,it shall also be at his option to take the lead himself or compel his opponent to lead4 ,this is the same as starting the game anew1 except that there is no occasion to 8string0 for the lead and choice of balls4 ,,on ,,withdrawing ,,from1 ,,without ,,finishing ,a ,,game4 #a4 ,the player may protest against his adversary standing in front of him1 or in such close proximity as to disarrange his aim4 #b4 ,also1 against loud talking or any other annoyance by his opponent1 while he is making his play4 #c4 ,also1 against being refused the use of the bridge1 or any other of the instruments used in that room in playing1 except when a special stipulation to the contrary was made before commencing the game4 #d4 ,or in case his adversary shall refuse to abide by the marker's1 referee's1 or company's decision on a disputed point1 which it was agreed between them to submit to the marker or company for arbitration4 ,in any one1 or all of the foregoing cases1 if the discourtesy be persisted in1 the party aggrieved is at liberty to withdraw1 and the game shall be considered as drawn1 and any stakes which may have been depending on it must be returned4 #e4 ,should the interruption or annoyance have been accidental1 the marker1 if so requested by the player1 who is entitled to repeat his stroke1 must replace the balls as near as possible in the position they occupied before the player made the stroke in which he was interrupted4 ,,on ,,cases ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,marker ,,must ,,replace ,,the ,,balls1 ,,if ,,called ,,on1 ,,as ,,nearly ,,as ,,possible ,,in ,,their ,,former ,,position4 #a4 ,in the case mentioned in the #eth paragraph of the preceding rule4 #b4 ,where any of the balls1 when at rest1 are moved by accident4 #c4 ,where any of the balls1 while rolling1 are suddenly obstructed either by accident or design on the part of any person other than the player4 ,in this case1 the marker1 if so requested by the players or referee1 shall place the interrupted ball as nearly as possible in the situation which it would apparently have occupied had it not been stopped4 #d4 ,where the cue-ball1 resting on the edge of a pocket1 drops into it before the striker has time to play4 #e4 ,where the object-ball1 in a similar position1 is rolled back into the pocket by any of the ordinary vibrations of the table or atmosphere4 #f4 ,in all the cases aforementioned where it is specified that in consequence of a foul stroke the player's opponent shall have the option either of playing at the balls as they are1 or causing them to be replaced by the marker4 #g4 ,when either or both of the red balls are pocketed1 or forced off the table1 it is the marker's duty to spot them before another stroke is played--except 7the game being played is caroms and pockets7 the spot appropriate to either be occupied by one of the playing balls1 in which case the red one must be kept in hand until its position is uncovered4 #h4 ,if1 after playing a ball1 the player should attempt to obstruct or accelerate its progress by striking it again1 blowing at it1 or any other means1 his opponent may either play at the balls as they stand1 or call upon the referee or marker to replace them in the position they would otherwise have occupied4 #i4 ,it is the duty of each player to see that a ball is properly spotted before the next stroke is made4 ,as in the case where a player is in hand1 a claim of foul1 after the cue-ball has been struck in the one instance1 and the red ball disturbed in another1 cannot be entertained4 ,all claims to the effect that the red ball is not on its spot1 or that the striker's ball is not inside the 8string0 when he is about to play after having been in hand1 should be made before the stroke is played1 as it can seldom be decided after the stroke1 whether there was any ground for the claim4 ,,on ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,,the ,,players ,,to ,,each ,,other4 #a4 ,each player must look after his own interest1 and exercise his own discretion4 ,his opponent cannot be compelled to answer such questions as1 8,is the ball outside or inside the string80 8,are the balls in contact80 and so forth4 ,these are questions for the player's own judgment to decide4 #b4 ,when the cue-ball is very near another ball1 the player must not play directly upon that ball without having warned his adversary that they do not touch1 and given him or his umpire time to be satisfied on that point4 #c4 ,it is obligatory upon the adversary or umpire to call 8time60 or give some other notice of his approach1 if1 while the player is preparing to make a stroke1 either of them desires to look at the balls1 or submit a question to the referee4 #d4 ,each player should attend strictly to his own game1 and never interfere with his adversary's1 except in the cases mentioned in ,section #i1 on p4 #hjd1 or when a foul stroke or some other violation of these rules may call for forfeiture4 ,,on ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,,the ,,marker ,,and ,,the ,,spectators ,,to ,,the ,,players4 #a4 ,in a single game1 no one1 except the player and his umpire1 has a right to interfere with the play1 or point out an error which either has been or is about to be committed4 ,the player to whose prejudice the foul stroke is being or has been made1 should find that out for himself4 #b4 ,even after a stroke has been made1 no one in the room has any right to comment upon it1 either for praise or blame3 for the same stroke may occur again in the course of the game1 and the player's play may be materially altered by the criticism to which he has just been listening4 #c4 ,let the marker and spectators keep their places as much as possible1 for if they crowd or move around the table they are liable to interfere with the players1 and certain to distract their attention4 #d4 ,when the spectators are appealed to by the marker or referee for their opinion on a point which he has been asked1 but finds himself unable to decide1 such of them as are well acquainted with the game should answer according to the best of their knowledge and belief4 ,those who know little or nothing of the game would oblige themselves and others by at once confessing their incompetency4 ,either they may not have seen the disputed stroke1 or1 seeing it1 may not have been familiar with its merits4 ,,the ,,three-,,ball ,,carom ,,game4 ,this is considered by many the finest and most scientific game of billiards in vogue4 ,the game is played with three balls only1 two white and one red1 and on a carom table4 ,the red is placed on the spot assigned to the dark-red in the ,american four-ball game4 ,at the commencement of the game one of the white balls is placed on the light-red1 or upper spot1 connected with which is a described radius or semicircle of six inches1 usually marked on the cloth with chalk4 ,the other white ball1 being 8in hand10 may be played from any part of this semicircle1 which answers for what is known as the 8string0 in the four-ball game1 and whenever the cue-ball is 8in hand0 the player has the right of playing it from this half circle4 ,points are reckoned by caroms1 which ordinarily count one point each2 but when the rule of counting1 as in the four-ball game1 is allowed1 then misses count1 but not otherwise4 ,in ,france1 where the three-ball game had its origin1 there is no standard code of rules to govern it4 ,in ,america the following rules are observed3-- #a4 ,the game is begun by stringing for the lead and choice of balls1 as in the four-ball game1 the same regulations governing4 ,in 8stringing10 the players should endeavour to strike the cue-balls simultaneously1 and he whose ball stops nearest the cushion at the head of the table shall have the choice either of playing first or of making his adversary do so--a privilege which thereafter shall belong to both players alternately4 #b4 ,unless a special agreement be entered into between the players and the table-keeper1 the game commonly consists of twenty-one points1 if each carom counts one only1 and of forty-five when each carom counts two1 and misses are scored4 #c4 ,the first to play places his ball in any part of the semicircle1 at his option4 ,he then plays at the ball on the deep-red spot1 and has no right to hit the white first without having caused his ball to touch the cushion at some point outside of the 8string40 #d4 ,player ,no4 #b1 whose ball has been placed on the spot1 plays in his turn4 ,on a carom table he has the right to play on either ball1 even though both should be within the 8string40 ,on a pocket table it is his privilege to have the red placed on its appropriate spot1 or he may elect to play the balls as they are4 ,should he adopt the latter course in this instance1 or at any other time he happens to be in hand on a pocket table1 he must1 before hitting either of the balls in the 8string10 cause his own to pass outside4 #e4 ,when a player is in hand on a carom table1 and the other balls are within the 8string10 he may play directly upon either4 ,but on a pocket table1 he can only play as described in ,section #d4 ,furthermore1 he must confine his ball to the semicircle1 and not let the lower half of his body pass beyond the right line which the edge of the side cushion would describe if prolonged4 #f4 ,the player must have at least one foot on the floor4 #g4 ,a ball exactly on the 8string line0 is considered within the string4 #h4 ,the carom is good1 and the points count for the player1 even though his ball should be lost2 and he continues to play4 ,a ball is considered lost which goes into a pocket1 jumps off the table1 or remains on a cushion4 #i4 ,a pushing stroke subjects the player to the loss of the point or points he may have made by that stroke1 and puts his ball out of hand4 #aj4 ,a player who plays before all the balls have ceased rolling loses his stroke1 and his hand is out4 #aa4 ,when the cue-ball is in contact with one or more balls1 all are taken up and placed as at the commencement of the game2 and the player1 being considered in hand1 continues his play4 #ab4 ,if the balls are disturbed accidentally1 through the medium of any agency other than the player himself--as1 for instance1 through the interference of his opponent1 or the marker1 or other outside party--they must be replaced1 and the player allowed to play4 #ac4 ,if1 in playing1 or after having played1 the player disturbs any ball other than his own1 he cannot make a counting stroke1 but he may play for safety4 ,but if he touches his own ball1 except with the cue1 or if he touches it more than once with that instrument1 the stroke is foul1 and he cannot play for safety4 #ad4 ,a player has no right to disturb the balls1 and ought not to do it without the consent of his adversary4 #ae4 ,when the cue-ball is very near another ball1 the player ought not to play without warning his adversary that they do not touch1 and giving him time to satisfy himself on that point4 #af4 ,playing with the wrong ball is foul4 ,the rules as to playing with the wrong ball in the four-ball game are applicable to the three-ball game4 #ag4 ,blowing on a ball1 or using any other means to alter its course or position1 is foul4 ,if the player so offending is in play1 he must yield the table to his adversary1 should the latter demand it4 ,in all cases1 the opposing player shall have the privilege either of having the ball or balls replaced1 or played with as they are4 #ah4 ,if a lost ball1 on being put back on the table1 disturbs another1 the ball so disturbed must be put in its place again by the marker or referee1 and the player whose turn it is to play shall proceed4 #ai4 ,the red ball being lost1 and its spot being occupied1 it shall be placed on the 8string0 spot2 if this latter should happen to be occupied also1 then the red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of the table4 ,a white ball being lost and its spot being occupied1 shall be placed on the deep-red spot1 or if that is occupied1 on the pool spot1 provided that it is not the turn of the player whose ball is lost to play4 ,in that case1 there is no occasion for spotting the lost ball4 #bj4 ,on a carom table1 a lost white ball that has been placed on the 8string0 spot cannot be moved after the opposing player has played a stroke while the ball was in this position2 but on a pocket table1 where the owner of a white ball that has been lost is compelled to play outside of the 8string10 he can1 when his turn comes1 play from any point within the semicircle1 provided that his ball has not been struck by another4 ,on a pocket table1 it is held that a ball is in hand until it has been struck or moved from its position1 it having been placed on the spot simply to afford the in-striker a chance to count4 ,on the contrary1 on a carom or pocket-less table1 custom has made the rule that a lost ball ceases to be in hand after one stroke has been played2 and1 in consideration of this ruling1 the player1 instead of being allowed to shift the position of his ball1 is privileged1 in this country1 to play at any ball irrespective of its being in or out of the 8string10 and regardless1 also1 of whether he stands at the head or at either side of the table4 ,explanation4--,the two rules last preceding may be further explained in this wise3 ,either on a pocket or a carom table1 a ball that rolls on to and occupies the 8string0 spot in the course of play cannot be moved aside to permit the spotting of a white ball that has become 8lost40 ,the lost ball must be spotted on the dark-red1 or the pool spot1 as directed in rule #ai1 if its owner is not entitled to the next play1 or within the semicircle if he is4 ,but when1 on a carom table1 a white ball has been placed on the 8string0 spot by either player1 instead of having rolled thereon1 it may be moved aside to accommodate a 8lost0 white ball1 provided that subsequent to the placing of the ball as mentioned no stroke has been played4 ,in marked contrast with this1 a white ball that has been placed on the 8string0 spot on a pocket table1 may be moved aside at any time in order to permit the spotting of a 8lost0 white ball1 provided always that the first-mentioned ball has not been touched while occupying the spot4 #ba4 ,a player who abandons a game declares it lost by so doing4 ,there is a pretty variation of this game called the 8,pillet ,game10 in which the above rules are varied only to the extent of requiring the cue-ball to touch the cushion first before a carom can count1 the score in this game being ten points up only4 ,,hints ,,to ,,amateurs4 ,the old adage1 8,experience is a great teacher10 holds equally true in billiards as in any other of the many occupations of life4 ,there is no royal road to learning1 but the student of the present day enjoys vast facilities over his ancestors in the acquirement of every variety of knowledge4 ,every new fact promulgated aids in the development of additional facts1 which1 though ever existent1 have but just been discovered4 ,bearing these axioms in mind1 we propose to embody in the present article a few hints to billiard players1 which will enable the tyro at once to benefit by the information which the proficient has only obtained by years of practice and observation4 ,remember that all players have equal rights1 and that no gentleman will take any advantage of an antagonist excepting such as he may be fairly entitled to by superiority of judgment or of skill4 ,never make any remark or unnecessary noise when your adversary is about to play1 but stand away from the table and not opposite the pocket at which he may be playing4 ,do not play carelessly1 or strike at random1 but with some definite object in view2 and if no eligible stroke presents itself1 endeavour to leave the balls as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit4 ,never despair of winning a game2 care and caution frequently insure success1 even against apparent impossibilities4 ,fortune may seem to be against you1 but remember that in the long run luck will invariably succumb to skill4 ,attempt only strokes which seem to be within the compass of your abilities1 except the necessities of the case require a deviation from this rule4 ,this1 however1 is only to be considered a general law1 and not by any means imperative4 ,effecting the stroke at hand is but a part of the game1 and the player should endeavour1 in making this shot1 to leave the balls in a position where a second count can be secured4 ,by way of illustration of some of the 8points0 in the game of billiards1 we present below a few diagrams1 and the first is that illustrative of the method of taking advantage of the chances for making points4 ,the following is an explanation of abbreviations used in describing diagrams3-- ,a4 stands for above the centre of the ball2 ,b4 for below it2 ,r4 to the right of it2 ,l4 to the left2 and ,d4 for diagonal4 ,q4 ,p4 means the strength or quantity of power with which the cue-ball must be struck4 ,we describe as follows3 ,q4 ,p4 ,no4 #a1 strength enough to make the ball roll from the string to the lower cushion and back to the head cushion4 ,q4 ,p4 ,no4 #b1 from the string to the lower cushion1 back to the head cushion1 and from that to opposite the centre pocket4 ,to propel it from the string to the opposite cushion1 thence back to the head1 and from that back to the lower cushion is ,q4 ,p4 ,no4 #c4 ,q4 ,p4 ,no4 #d1 is sufficient force to propel the ball from the string to the lower cushion1 back to the head cushion1 back to the lower cushion again1 and thence half way down the table4 ,in playing billiards we frequently find the balls in a position where a count can be effected in several different ways4 ,in such cases1 it is advisable for the player to take into consideration the probabilities of effecting the stroke1 and the position of the balls thereafter4 ,if the stroke be at all doubtful1 he should play where he would have the greatest prospect of success1 or1 in other words1 8take the chances40 ,we will suppose the cue-ball to be in hand1 and the player desirous of securing a good 8break40 ,the diagram below illustrates the position4 ,illustration ,if1 in the above case1 the student is playing the usual game1 it would be advisable for him to play on the object-ball1 so as to pocket it and return over line #a1 in this way taking three chances to make a count4 ,if he is playing caroms alone1 it would be better for him to play on the left of the object-ball1 so as to draw it back in the string1 as near the other balls as possible4 ,to make the first stroke3 strike the cue-ball ,a41 ,r41 with ,q4 ,p4 #b2 and if the object-ball be pocketed in the corner1 as represented1 the carom will be made on one of the balls numbered #b and #c4 ,to make the second stroke3 strike the cue-ball ,a41 ,r41 with ,q4 ,p4 #b1 the object-ball to be hit ,l4 ,,bringing ,,the ,,balls ,,together4 ,the grand strength and science of the game consists in managing the balls so as to leave them in a favourable position for the next play1 or if the player considers it impossible to count1 to leave them as safe as may be for his antagonist4 ,we cannot insist too strongly upon a perfect mastery of this art4 ,after the player has acquired a thorough practical knowledge of the philosophy of the follow1 the force and the twist1 the next great essential is the exercise of judgment with regard to the feasibility of strokes and their relative relation to the game4 ,the term judgment is applied to the choice of strokes4 ,the player1 for instance1 may have two apparent shots2 the first may recommend itself to him because it is more facile1 but if made will leave the balls safe1 while the second1 although more difficult1 will1 if successful1 leave the balls in a position where a second count or even a run can be effected4 ,judgment1 therefore1 would dictate that he should attempt the second1 rather than the first4 ,the diagram annexed will illustrate our remarks4 ,illustration ,strike the cue-ball ,b41 ,l41 with ,q4 ,p4 #b1 the object-ball to be hit so as to make it roll over the lines1 as represented1 and the player will have a break of balls1 which1 with judicious management1 will enable him to effect a long run4 ,with one more illustration of this feature of scientific play we close our article4 ,to play the balls as shown in the illustration following the player must strike the cue-ball a little below the centre1 and with a deadened stroke1 caroming gently on the second ball2 the object-ball about one-third to the right4 ,this carom should be practised until each position has become familiar to the player4 ,illustration ,in either practice or ordinary play the beginner should never play carelessly1 or strike at random1 but with some definite object in view2 and if no eligible stroke presents itself1 endeavour to leave the balls as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit4 ,note4--,there are two exceptions to this rule4 ,the first occurs in leading off1 and has already been explained4 ,the second is where the cue-ball1 while at rest1 is in contact with another ball4 ,then the player does not forfeit4 ,it is impossible to cause the cue-ball to hit1 by a direct stroke1 the ball with which it is in contact1 and the player should not be penalized for failing to accomplish an impossibility4 ,but1 as it is possible for him to count by playing away from that ball--for example1 by striking some other ball1 or a cushion1 first1 or by taking up all the balls if his own is in contact with two or more--it is a settled ruling that1 in case he should pocket his ball either by accident or design1 or send it over the table1 or cause it to lodge upon the cushion1 he must pay forfeit--two points1 if his ball was in contact with a white1 and three if with a red4 ,,the ,,canadian ,,game ,,of ,,la ,,crosse4 ,the game of ,la ,crosse1 now known as the 8,national game0 of the new dominion of ,canada1 is of ,indian origin1 and is the oldest and only legitimate ,american game of ball now in vogue4 ,la ,crosse was played among the ,american ,indians before the tread of a 8pale face0 invaded the 8native heath0 of the red man1 and consequently our ,british friends cannot claim the credit of even originating the basis of this game1 as in base-ball1 though ,la ,crosse resembles the ,scotch game of ,golf4 ,an attractive feature of ,la ,crosse is that it can be played when base-ball or cricket cannot4 ,no rolling or levelling of grounds are required1 and but a merely nominal expense for materiel4 ,the rules of ,la ,crosse are simple enough for a child to comprehend them2 but yet it is a game capable of yielding a great degree of exciting sport1 both to the young and old as participants1 and to both sexes as spectators4 ,moreover1 wherever there is an ordinary field or common1 if the grass be not too long1 a ground is ready for a match4 ,as regards the physical requisites and advantages1 the former are the possession of pedestrian skill and endurance to a more or less degree1 with considerable activity of movement1 while the latter consist of the benefits the excitement of a contest and the rapid exercise the game yields1 agility1 speed1 and endurance being developed in the process of becoming a skilful player in the game4 ,la ,crosse is played by twelve men on each side4 ,these twelve players occupy the following positions1 viz43 goal-keeper1 point1 cover-point1 centre1 home1 and seven fielders4 ,the goal-keeper's duty is to defend the goal2 point is the player occupying the position out in the field1 and nearest the goal-keeper2 cover-point fronts the latter's position2 the 8centre0 is the player who faces the playing party in the centre of the field2 home is the position of the player who stands nearest the goal of the opposing twelve2 and the fielders skirmish round generally4 ,each contesting twelve elect a captain to superintend the game1 and they choose umpires and toss for choice of goal4 ,there are two umpires1 and these select a referee1 whose decision on disputed points is final4 ,the 8crosse0 is a species of battledore1 the ball being in the place of the shuttlecock1 the difference being1 that the portion of the bat formed by network is of a similar form to an ,english kite 7see diagram74 ,the network requires to be strung tightly together1 so as not to 8bag10 but to be quite level4 ,the ball is made of soft spongy rubber1 not exceeding eight inches in circumference4 ,the goals consist of flag-poles1 with flags1 the poles standing six feet above the ground1 and six feet apart generally1 but the distance is optional on mutual agreement by the captains of the contesting sides4 ,in front of each goal1 and distant six feet therefrom1 is drawn a line1 called the 8goal crease10 and within this line the players of the opposite side to that the goal belongs to are prohibited from standing1 unless the ball is near the flags4 ,the position of the umpires is behind the above goal flags4 ,the goal-keeper1 while defending the goal1 may stop the ball in any manner he chooses4 ,the game consists of each party striving1 by means of the crosse1 or netted bat each player uses1 to send the ball to the goal of their adversaries2 and in doing this the ball must not be handled1 or even touched by the hand1 except it falls into a hole1 in which case the man handling it must bat it direct to the nearest opponent2 and except by the goal-keeper while defending his goal4 ,but the appended rules describe all further laws of the game4 ,it was not until #ahfg that a regular code of rules was adopted for the government of all regular ,la ,crosse clubs4 ,these laws were enacted at the ,convention of ,la ,crosse ,clubs1 ,september #bf1 #ahfg1 and are now the rules of play for ,canada4 ,a ,canadian writer on the game says3--8,although our early days were devoted to cricket1 we must confess to a decided preference for our own game1 with its athletic struggles4 ,there is nothing like ,la ,crosse4 ,no other game throws such a fascination over the spectator1 who seems riveted to the spot in admiration of the dashing and skilful play of the champion twelve4 ,for beauty and variety1 skilful play and sober excitement1 it has no equal40 ,any information required about the game by those desirous of forming clubs1 will be furnished by addressing the ,secretary of the ,montreal ,la ,crosse ,club1 ,montreal1 ,canada4 ,the following are the recognised code of rules governing ,la ,crosse in the ,canadas1 where it has been adopted as the 8,national game0 of the new dominion3-- ,,laws ,,of ,,la ,,crosse4 ,,the ,,crosse4 ,,rule #a4--,the 8crosse0 may be of any size to suit the player1 but the network must not be bagged3 it must be flat when the ball is not on it4 ,a leading or outside string1 above the level of the others1 may be used4 ,it may rest on the top of the stick1 but must not have anything under to increase its height4 ,,the ,,ball4 ,,rule #b4--,the ball shall be india-rubber sponge1 not less than eight1 and not more than nine1 inches in circumference4 ,in matches it shall be furnished by the challenged party4 ,,the ,,goals4 ,,rule #c4--,the goals may be placed at any distance from each other1 and in any position agreeable to the captains of both sides4 ,the top of the flag-pole shall be six feet above the ground1 including any top ornament1 and six feet apart1 and in a match may be furnished by either party4 ,,the ,,goal ,,crease4 ,,rule #d4--,there shall be a line or crease1 to be called the goal-crease1 drawn in front of each goal1 at a distance of six feet from the flags1 within which no opponent shall stand1 unless the ball is actually near or nearing the flags4 ,,spectators4 ,,rule #e4--,spectators must stand at least twenty feet from the goals4 ,,umpires4 ,,rule #f4--,there shall be two umpires at each goal1 one for each side4 ,unless otherwise agreed upon by the captains1 they shall not be members of either club engaged in a match1 nor can they be changed during a match1 except for reasons of illness or injury4 ,they must be thoroughly acquainted with the game1 and in every way competent to act4 ,before a match begins1 they shall see that all the regulations respecting the crosse1 ball1 goal1 goal-crease1 c4 are strictly complied with1 and in deciding whether or not a crosse is bagged they shall take the opinion of the captains and the referee4 ,during the game they shall stand behind the flags1 and shall have power to decide all disputes1 subject to ,rule #g1 and suspend from play any player infringing these laws4 ,no umpire shall1 either directly or indirectly1 be interested in any bet upon the result of the match4 ,no person shall speak to the umpires1 or distract their attention when the ball is near or nearing their goal4 ,,referee4 ,,rule #g4--,the umpires shall select a referee1 to whom all disputed games whereon they are a tie may be left for decision4 ,he shall take the evidence of the players particularly interested1 the respective opinions of the different umpires1 and1 if necessary1 the opinions and offers of the captains1 in cases where the discontinuance of the game is threatened4 ,his decision shall in all cases be final4 ,,captains4 ,,rule #h4--;,field captains1 to superintend the play1 may be appointed by each side previous to a match1 who shall toss up for choice of goal1 and select umpires4 ,they shall report any infringement of the laws to the umpires4 ,they shall be members of the club by whom they are appointed1 and may or may not be players in a match2 and if not1 they shall not carry crosses4 ,,designation ,,of ,,players4 ,,rule #i4--,the players of each side shall be designated as follows3-- #a4 ,goal-keeper1 who defends the goal4 #b4 ,point1 who is first man out from goal4 #c4 ,cover-point1 who is in front of point4 #d4 ,centre1 who 8faces0 in the centre of the field4 #e4 ,home1 who is nearest the opponent's goal4 ,the remaining players shall be termed 8fielders40 ,,number ,,of ,,players4 ,,rule #aj4--,twelve players on a side shall constitute a full field1 and they must have been regular members of the club they represent1 and of no other club1 for thirty days prior to a match4 ,,change ,,of ,,players4 ,,rule #aa4--,no change of players shall be made after a match has been commenced1 except for reasons of accident or injury during the match4 ,when a match has been agreed upon1 and one side is deficient in the number of players1 their opponents may either limit their own players' numbers to equal them1 or compel them to fill up the complement4 ,,spiked ,,soles4 ,,rule #ab4--,the players shall not wear spiked soles to their shoes4 ,,touching ,,the ,,ball ,,with ,,the ,,hand4 ,,rule #ac4--,the ball must not be touched with the hand1 save in the cases of ,rules #ad and #ae4 ,,goal-,,keeper4 ,,rule #ad4--,the goal-keeper1 while defending the goal within the goal-crease1 may stop balls in any manner4 ,,ball ,,taken ,,up ,,with ,,the ,,hand4 ,,rule #ae4--,whenever the ball is taken up1 or out of a hole1 with the hand1 during the progress of a game1 it must be faced for with the nearest opponent4 ,,accidental ,,game4 ,,rule #af4--,should the ball be accidentally put through a goal by one of the players defending it1 it is game for the side attacking that goal4 ,should it be put through a goal by any one not actually a player1 it shall not count for or against either side4 ,,holding1 ,,striking1 ,,and ,,pushing4 ,,rule #ag4--,players shall not hold each other1 nor grasp an opponent's crosse2 neither shall they deliberately strike or trip each other1 nor push with the hand4 ,,changing ,,sides4 ,,rule #ah4--;,after each game the players shall change goals1 unless otherwise agreed upon4 ,,penalties ,,for ,,foul ,,play4 ,,rule #ai4--;,any player convicted of deliberate foul play1 or infringement of these rules1 shall be suspended from play by the umpires1 at request of his captain4 ,,deciding ,a ,,match4 ,,rule #bj4--;,a match shall be decided by winning three games out of five1 unless otherwise agreed upon4 ,,amending ,,laws4 ,,rule #ba4--;,any amendment1 revision1 or alteration1 proposed to be made in any part of these laws1 shall be made only at the ,annual ,conventions of 8,the ,national ,la ,crosse ,association of ,canada10 and by a three-fourths' vote of the members present4 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,son1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,this text follows the original work as much as possible4 ,inconsistencies in lay-out1 spelling1 hyphenation1 capitalisation1 etc4 have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,the ,table of ,contents in the original work usually does not show all levels2 this has not been changed4 7,sub-7section headers show different levels1 based on the text4 ,the sub-sections under ,baseball1 ,american ,billiards and ,la ,crosse are not mentioned in the original ,table of ,contents1 these have not been added4 ,remarks on the text3 ,page #ge1 hang from the strong downwards3 possibly typographical error4 ,page #abg1 orbele poplar3 possibly error or variant spelling of abele poplar 7white poplar74 ,page #acj1 table3 ,smith's scores are not according to the calculation given in the text2 this has not been changed4 ,page #chi1 illustration plate electrical machine3 reference letters ,b are not visible in the original illustration4 ,page #dei1 first illustration3 reference letters ,d1 ,e and ,f are not visible in the original illustration4 ,page #dhg1 spectra3 the scans available of this edition show a fraction of letters in the right-hand margin of the page4 ,a later edition 7#ahha7 of the book shows the same illustration1 the symbols for the elements have been taken from that edition4 ,the 8metal discovered by ,professor ,bunsen0 is rubidium4 ,page #dij lists the same elements4 ,page #efi3 ,angola rabbit it possibly a misspelling of ,angora rabbit2 the word occurs in other publications of the same period1 and has not been changed4 ,page #fae3 8they will be of this form40 ,illustration moved to under paragraph2 444 on the edge of the board inside1 thus3 illustration moved to before paragraph4 ,page #fbg1 7or ,var4 ,a473 there is no ,var4 ,a4 for this game in the original work4 ,page #fej1 ,fig4 #f3 reference number #a is missing from the original illustration4 ,page #fgj1 444 and ask some to choose 4443 possibly 7part of7 a word is missing 7someone1 some person or similar74 ,page #fhb1 ,amstelod43 ,amstelodanum 7,amsterdam74 ,page #fig1 realgor3 possibly error or variant of realgar4 ,page #gbd1 ,in order to the full success 4443 possibly a word is missing 7,in order to achieve 444 or similar74 ,page #gfd3 ,mecklenberg ,schwerin3 possibly error or ,english variant spelling for ,mecklenburg ,schwerin4 ,page #gih1 carombolage3 the ,french word is carambolage4 ,page #hab1 a similar form to an ,english kite 7see diagram73 the diagram is not present in the original work ,changes made to the text3 ,some missing punctuation1 repeated words and typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,footnotes have been moved to underneath paragraph they refer to4 i4e4 and i4 e4 have been standardised to i4 e4 ,some illustrations have been moved from within text to underneath_/above paragraph4 ,several tables and forms have been moved and re-arranged2 therefore page numbers referring to illustrations are not necessarily correct in this text4 ,parts of some illustrations have been enhanced for better visibility4 ,page vii3 ,snow-,ball changed to ,snow-,balls2 ,will you ',list changed to ,will you ,list 7both as in text7 ,page viii3 ,the ,hoop added 7as in text7 ,page ix3 ,under-hand-hand bowling changed to ,under-hand bowling2 ,single ,wicket changed to ,the ,laws of ,single ,wicket 7as in text7 ,page x3 ,the ,britzschaka1 ,new ,brougham and ,the ,family ,coach deleted from ,to,c1 these are illustrations1 not sections2 ,,broadswords treated as hierarchically higher level section1 as in the text ,page xiii3 ,phantasmacope changed to ,phantasmascope ,page xv3 ,to crack ,walnuts on your ,elbow changed to ,to crack ,walnuts in your ,elbow 7as in text7 ,page xvi3 ,the ,row of ,halfpence added ,page #a3 ,heading ,,part ,i added for consistency with other parts ,page #af3 ,national-school doys changed to ,national-school boys ,page #ag3 water slashed over changed to water splashed over ,page #ca3 the second mode changed to ,the second mode ,page #abd3 fixed their staes changed to fixed their stakes ,page #aee3 snooters changed to shooters ,page #aff3 alloted changed to allotted ,page #agj3 illustration rotated #ij ,page #agb3 illustration 7post7 rotated #ij ,page #ahi1 illustration3 d changed to ,d as in text ,page #bjh3 coup sur peint changed to coup sur point ,page #bab1 figure ,target3 inverted ,r changed to #a ,page #bah3 ,page #fje changed to ,page #bai ,page #bfe1 illustration3 #g changed to #d as in text ,page #cjb3 proportionably changed to proportionally ,page #caj3 not two high changed to not too high ,page #cae1 first illustration3 text paragraph changed to caption ,page #cbh3 free from noles changed to free from holes ,page #cei3 ,is is a powerful supporter changed to ,it is a powerful supporter ,page #cgj1 sal ammoniac3 ,,nh,c changed to ,,nh,cl ,page #cga3 section title ,,iodine--,,bromine--,,fluorine changed to ,,iodine as in ,to,c 7sections on ,bromine and ,fluorine follow on same and next page7 ,page #cha3 hickel changed to nickel ,page #cia1 illustration ringing bells3 reference letter ,a added ,page #cib3 the knob ,e changed to the knob ,f ,page #dje3 jet-d'eau changed to jet d'eau ,page #djf3 jet-d'-eau changed to jet d'eau ,page #djh3 superscripts in chemical formula changed to subscripts as elsewhere ,page #ddh3 a open umbrella changed to an open umbrella ,page #dec3 representatation changed to representation ,page #dhi3 ,kirchoff changed to ,kirchhoff2 fraction #a_/b1ejj1jj3 the numerator was lacking in the original1 numerator #a has been added ,page #dij3 ,kirchoff's changed to ,kirchhoff's ,page #die3 combe changed to combs ,page #eje1 ,frequently the claws 4443 8former0 and 8latter0 reversed ,page #edi1 illustration ,tumbler3 moved to before section1 caption deleted for consistency with other breeds ,page #eea1 illustration ,fantail3 moved to before section1 caption deleted for consistency with other breeds ,page #eed3 hither and hither changed to hither and thither2 crve cur changed to crve cur ,page #eeg3 crve cur changed to crve cur ,page #eic3 indiarubber changed to india-rubber as elsewhere ,page #fdj1 ,variation ,a4 on ,black's #c;d ,move3 column headers ,,black and ,,white changed to ,,white and ,,black ,page #fdb1 ,,game ,,ii1 ,white's second move3 #a4 changed to #b4 ,page #fgf1 ,charles ,i4 code3 letter r inserted ,page #fgh3 coded messages corrected to be in agreement with cipher given and coding procedure ,page #gji3 ,mississipi changed to ,mississippi ,page #gab3 ,liliputian changed to ,lilliputian ,page #gai3 ,beurre ,diel changed to ,beurr ,diel 7as in ,beurr d',amanlis1 same sentence7 ,page #gcg1 ,cross ,puzzle illustration3 pieces renumbered according to solution ,page #gfj3 perevoir changed to percevoir ,page #gfg3 ,van ,dieman's ,land changed to ,van ,diemen's ,land