,,the ,,edinburgh ,,new ,,philosophical ,,journal1 ,,exhibiting ,a ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,progressive ,,discoveries ,,and ,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,sciences ,,and ,,the ,,arts4 ,,conducted ,,by ,,robert ,,jameson1 ,,regius ,,professor ,,of ,,natural ,,history1 ,,lecturer ,,on ,,mineralogy1 ,,and ,,keeper ,,of ,,the ,,museum ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh2 ,fellow of the ,royal ,societies of ,london and ,edinburgh2 ,honorary ,member of the ,royal ,irish ,academy2 of the ,royal ,society of ,sciences of ,denmark2 of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences of ,berlin2 of the ,royal ,academy of ,naples2 of the ,geological ,society of ,france2 ,honorary ,member of the ,asiatic ,society of ,calcutta2 ,fellow of the ,royal ,linnean1 and of the ,geological ,societies of ,london2 of the ,royal ,geological ,society of ,cornwall1 and of the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society2 of the ,antiquarian1 ,wernerian ,natural ,history1 ,royal ,medical1 ,royal ,physical1 and ,horticultural ,societies of ,edinburgh2 of the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland2 of the ,antiquarian and ,literary ,society of ,perth2 of the ,statistical ,society of ,glasgow2 of the ,royal ,dublin ,society2 of the ,york1 ,bristol1 ,cambrian1 ,whitby1 ,northern1 and ,cork ,institutions2 of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,northumberland1 ,durham1 and ,newcastle2 of the ,imperial ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,petersburgh2 of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,wetterau2 of the ,mineralogical ,society of ,jena2 of the ,royal ,mineralogical ,society of ,dresden2 of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,paris2 of the ,philomathic ,society of ,paris2 of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,calvados2 of the ,senkenberg ,society of ,natural ,history2 of the ,society of ,natural ,sciences and ,medicine of ,heidelberg2 ,honorary ,member of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,new ,york2 of the ,new ,york ,historical ,society2 of the ,american ,antiquarian ,society2 of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia2 of the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history of ,new ,york2 of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,montreal2 of the ,franklin ,institute of the ,state of ,pennsylvania for the ,promotion of the ,mechanical ,arts2 of the ,geological ,society of ,pennsylvania2 of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history of the ,united ,states2 of the ,south ,african ,institution of the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 ,honorary ,member of the ,statistical ,society of ,france2 ,member of the ,entomological ,society of ,stettin1 c4 c4 c4 ,,april #ahej 444 ,,october #ahej4 ,,vol4 ,,xlix4 ,,to ,,be ,,continued ,,quarterly4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,adam ,,and ,,charles ,,black4 ,,longman1 ,,brown1 ,,green1 ,,longmans1 ,,london4 #ahej4 ,,edinburgh3 ,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,company1 ,,old ,,fishmarket4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,art4 ,i4 ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals4 ,by ,professor ,,louis ,,agassiz3-- ,different ,views on the ,subject4--,results of ,geological ,observations4--,facts and ,suppositions4--,natural ,limits for ,animals4--,limitations and ,adaptations4--,influence of ,heights and ,depths4--,distribution of ,mammalia4--,creations on each ,continent4--,zoological ,provinces4--,general ,conclusion1 #a-be ,additional ,illustrations of the ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals3-- #a4 ,geographical ,distribution of ,sturgeons1 #be #b4 ,fishes of ,lake ,superior compared with those of the other great ,canadian ,lakes1 #bg #c4 ,general ,observations2 all ,fresh-water ,fishes of ,north ,america different from those of ,europe--,lake ,superior and the ,lakes north of it constitute a distinct ,zoological ,district--,these ,fishes have been created where they now live--,deductions from this fact1 #cj ,,ii4 ,on the ,geography and ,geology of the ,peninsula of ,mount ,sinai1 and the adjacent ,countries4 ,by ,,john ,,hogg1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s42 ,honorary ,secretary of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 c4 7,with a coloured ,geological ,map47 ,communicated by the ,author4 7,continued from ,vol4 xlviii41 p4 #bai71 #cc ,,iii4 ,synopsis of ,meteorological ,observations made at the ,observatory1 ,whitehaven1 ,cumberland1 in the year #ahdi4 ,by ,,john ,,fletcher ,,miller1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 c4 ,communicated by the ,author1 #ec ,,iv4 ,the ,completed ,coral ,island4 ,by ,,james ,d4 ,,dana1 ,geologist to the ,american ,exploratory ,expedition1 c41 c41 #fe ,v4 ,biographical ,notice of ,leopold ,pilla1 the ,geologist4 ,by ,h4 ,,coquand4 ,communicated by the ,author1 #fh ,,vi4 ,on the ,chronological ,exposition of the ,periods of ,vegetation1 and the different ,floras which have succeeded each other on the ,earth's surface4 ,according to the views of ,m4 ,,brongniart4 7,concluded from ,vol4 xlviii41 p4 #ccj73-- ,fossil ,plants of the ,permian ,period4--,vosgian ,period4--,jurassic ,period4--,tertiary ,period1 #gb-ig ,,vii4 ,glacial ,theory of the ,erratics and ,drift of the ,new and ,old ,worlds4 ,by ,professor ,,agassiz3-- ,glacialists and ,antiglacialists4--,erratic basins of ,switzerland4--,similar phenomena observed in other parts of ,europe4--,points necessary to be settled2 first1 the relation in time and character between the ,northern and the ,alpine erratics4--,traced in ,north ,america4---,not yet settled whether any local centres of distribution in ,america2 but the general cause must have acted in all parts simultaneously4 ,this action ceased at #ce north latitude2 this incompatible with the notion of currents4--,in both hemispheres a direct reference to the ,polar ,regions4 ,difficulty as to so extensive formation of ,ice1 removed2 difficulties on the theory of ,currents1 the effects contrary to experience of ,water-,action4--,erratic phenomena of ,lake ,superior4--,the ,iceberg theory4--,description of appearances at ,lake ,superior4--,drift3 contains mud1 and is without fossils4--,example of juxtaposition of stratified and unstratified ,drift1 at ,cambridge4--,date of these phenomena not fully determined1 but doubtless simultaneous all over the ,globe4--,the various periods and kinds of ,drift distinguished4--,accompanied by change of level in the ,continent1 #ig-ih ,,viii4 ,description of the ,marine ,telescope4 ,by ,,john ,,adie1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4,a4 ,communicated by the ,author1 #aag ,,ix4 ,experimental ,investigations to ,discover the ,cause of the ,change which takes place in the ,standard ,points of ,thermometers4 ,by ,,john ,,adie1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4,a4 ,communicated by the ,author1 #abb ,x4 ,observations on the ,discovery1 by ,professor ,lepsius1 of ,sculptured ,marks on ,rocks in the ,nile ,valley in ,nubia2 indicating that1 within the historical period1 the river had flowed at a higher level than has been known in ,modern ,times4 ,by ,,leonard ,,horner1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4 ,l4 ,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 c4 ,communicated by the ,author4 ,with a ,plate1 #abf ,,xi4 ,on the ,salmon ,tribe 7,salmonid72 their ,classification1 ,geographical ,distribution1 c41 #add ,,xii4 ,results of ,observations made by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,,fallows1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in the years #ahdi-cj-ca4 ,produced under the superintendence of ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 ,esq41 ,astronomer ,royal1 #adh ,,xiii4 ,discovery of the ,great ,lake ,ngami of ,south ,africa1 #aej ,,xiv4 ,,dr ,,davy',s ,brief ,sketch of the ,geology of the ,west ,indies4 ,communicated for the ,philosophical ,journal1 #aeh ,,xv4 ,on the ,differences between ,progressive1 ,embryonic1 and ,prophetic ,types in the ,succession of ,organized ,beings through the whole range of ,geological times1 #afj ,,xvi4 ,on a ,new ,analogy in the ,periods of ,rotation of the ,primary ,planets discovered by ,,daniel ,,kirkwood of ,pottsville1 ,pennsylvania1 #afe ,,xvii4 ,,scientific ,,intelligence3-- ,,meteorology4 #a4 ,use of ,coloured ,glasses to assist the ,view in ,fogs4 #b4 ,ozone1 #agj-aga ,,hydrography4 #c4 ,on the ,phenomena of the ,rise and ,fall of the ,waters of the ,northern ,lakes of ,america4 #d4 ,water ,thermometer4 #e4 ,on the ,falls of ,niagara4 #f4 ,on the ,existence of ,manganese in ,water4 #g4 ,arsenic in ,chalybeate ,springs1 #agb-age ,,geology4 #h4 ,the ,coal ,formation of ,america4 #i4 ,river ,terraces of the ,connecticut ,valley1 #age-agg ,,zoology4 #aj4 ,fossil ,crinoids of the ,united ,states4 #aa4 ,discovery of ,coral ,animals on the ,coast of ,massachusetts4 #ab4 ,on the ,circulation and ,digestion of the ,lower ,animals4 #ac4 ,distribution of the ,testaceous ,mollusca of ,jamaica4 #ad4 ,metamorphoses of the ,lepidoptera4 #ae4 ,on the ,zoological ,character of ,young ,mammalia4 #af4 ,the ,manatus or ,sea ,cow1 the ,embryonic ,type of the ,pachydermata4 #ag4 ,fossil ,elephant and ,mastodon from ,africa4 #ah4 ,cauterization in the case of ,poisonous ,bites4 #ai4 ,dental ,parasites1 #agg-ahd ,,arts4 #bj4 ,the ,steamboat ,new ,world4 #ba4 ,use of ,parachutes in ,mines4 #bb4 ,adulterations of ,drugs4 #bc4 ,to restore ,decayed ,ivory4 #bd4 ,ivory as an ,article of ,manufacture4 #be4 ,flexible ,ivory4 #bf4 ,air-,whistle4 #bg4 ,curious ,electrical ,phenomenon1 #ahd-ahh ,,xviii4 ,list of ,patents granted for ,scotland from #bb;d ,march to #bb;d ,june #ahej1 #ahi 99 99 99 99 99 ,memorandum4--,new ,publications will be noticed in our next ,number4 ,,memorandum4 ,owing to the large space occupied by the ,proceedings of the ,british ,association for the ,promotion of ,science1 held at ,edinburgh in the month of ,august1 #ahej1 various interesting communications are delayed until the next number of the ,philosophical ,journal4 ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,new ,,philosophical ,,journal4 ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals4 ,by ,professor ,,louis ,,agassiz4 ,the greatest obstacles in the way of investigating the laws of the distribution of organized beings over the surface of our globe1 are to be traced to the views generally entertained about their origin4 ,there is a prevailing opinion1 which ascribes to all living beings upon earth one common centre of origin1 from which it is supposed they1 in the course of time1 spread over wider and wider areas1 till they finally came into their present state of distribution2 and what gives this view a higher recommendation1 in the opinion of most men1 is the circumstance1 that such a method of distribution is considered as revealed in our sacred writings4 ,we hope1 however1 to be able to shew that there is no such statement in the ,book of ,genesis2 that this doctrine of a unique centre of origin1 and successive distribution of all animals is of very modern invention2 and that it can be traced back for scarcely more than a century in the records of our science4 ,there is another view to which1 more recently1 naturalists have seemed to incline2 viz41 the assuming several centres of origin1 from which organized beings were afterwards diffused over wider areas1 in the same manner as according to the first theory1 the difference being only in the assumption of several centres of dispersion instead of a single one4 ,we have recently been led to take a very different view of the subject1 and shall presently illustrate the facts upon which the view rests4 ,but before we undertake to introduce more directly this subject1 there is another point which requires preliminary investigation1 which seems to have been entirely lost sight of by all those1 without exception1 who have studied the geographical distribution of animals1 and which seems to us to be the keystone of the whole edifice1 whenever we undertake to reconstruct the primitive plan of the geographical distribution of animals and plants4 ,the distribution of organized beings over the surface of our globe in its present condition cannot be considered in itself2 and without an investigation1 at the same time1 of the geographical distribution of those organized beings which have existed in former geological periods1 and had become extinct before those of the present creation were called into being4 ,for it is well ascertained now that there is a natural succession in the plan of creation--an intimate connection between all the types of the different periods of the creation from its beginning up to this day2 so much so1 that the present distribution of animals and plants is the continuation of an order of things which prevailed for a time at an earlier period1 but which came to an end before the existing arrangement of things was introduced4 ,the animal kingdom1 as we know it in our days1 is therefore engrafted upon its condition in earlier periods2 and it is to the distribution of animals in these earlier periods that we must look1 if we would trace the plan of the ,creator from its commencement to its more advanced development in our own time4 ,if there is any truth in the view that animals and plants originated from a common centre1 it must be at the same time shewn that such an intimate connection between the animals existed at all periods2 or1 at least1 we should1 before assuming such a view for the animals living in our days1 discover a sufficient reason for ascribing to them another mode of dispersion than to the animals and plants of former periods4 ,but there is such a wonderful harmony in all the great processes of nature1 that1 at the outset1 we should be carefully on our guard against assuming different modes of distribution for the organized beings of former periods1 and for those which at present cover the globe4 ,should it be plain that the animals and plants did not originate from a common centre at the beginning of the creation1 and during the different successive geological periods1 we have at once a strong indication that neither has such been the case with the animals of the present day2 and1 on the other hand1 if there were satisfactory evidence that the animals and plants now living originated from a common centre1 we should consider the matter carefully before trusting to the views derived from geological facts4 ,let us1 therefore1 examine first the value of the evidence on both sides4 ,we have already expressed1 and we repeat here1 our earnest belief that the view of a unique centre of origin and distribution rests chiefly upon the supposed authority of the ,mosaic record2 and is in no way sustained by evidence derived from investigations in natural history4 ,on the contrary1 wherever we trace the animals in their present distributions1 we find them scattered over the surface of our globe in such a manner1 according to such laws1 and under such special adaptations1 that it would baffle the most fanciful imagination to conceive such an arrangement as the mere results of migrations1 or of the influence of physical causes over the dispersion of both animals and plants4 ,for we find that all animals and plants of the arctic zones agree in certain respects and are uniform over the three continents which verge towards the northern pole1 whilst those of the temperate zone agree also in certain respects1 but differ somewhat from each other within definite limits1 in the respective continents4 ,and the differences grow more and more prominent as we approach the tropical zone1 which has its peculiar ,fauna and ,flora in each continent2 so much so1 that it is impossible for us to conceive such a normal arrangement1 unless it be the result of a premeditated plan1 carried out voluntarily according to predetermined laws4 ,the opinion which is considered as the ,biblical view of the case1 and according to which all animals have originated in a common centre1 would leave us at a loss for any cause by which to account for the special dispersion of animals and plants beyond the mere necessity of removing from the crowded ground to assume wider limits1 as their increased number made it constantly more and more necessary and imperative4 ,according to this view1 the animals of the arctic zone as well as those of the tropics1--those of ,america as well as those of ,new ,holland1--have been first created upon the high lands of ,iran1 and have taken their course in all directions1 to settle where they are now found to be strictly limited4 ,it does not appear how such migrations of polar animals could have taken place over the warmer tracts of land which they had to cross1 and in which they cannot even be kept alive1 in our days1 with the utmost precautions3 nor how the terrestrial animals of ,new ,holland1 which have no analogies in the main continents1 could have reached that large island1 nor why they should have all moved thither4 ,and1 indeed1 it is impossible1 with such a theory1 to account1 either for the special adaptation of types to particular districts of the earth's surface1 or for the limited distribution of so many species which are found only over narrow districts in their present arrangement4 ,it is inconsistent with the structure1 habits1 and natural instincts of most animals1 even to suppose that they could have migrated over any great distances4 ,it is in complete contradiction with the laws of nature1 and all we know of the changes our globe has undergone1 to imagine that the animals have actually adapted themselves to their various circumstances during their migration1 as this would be ascribing to physical influences as much power as to the ,creator himself4 ,and1 again1 the regular distribution1 requiring precise laws1 as we find it does1 cannot be attributed either to the voluntary migration of animals1 or to the influence of physical causes1 when we see so plainly that this distribution is in accordance with the geographical distribution of animals and plants in former geological periods4 ,but about this presently4 ,we will only add1 that we cannot discover in the ,mosaic account anything to sustain such a view1 nor even hints leading to such a construction4 ,what is said of animals and plants in the first chapter of ,genesis1 what is mentioned of the preservation of these animals and plants at the time of the deluge1 relates chiefly to organized beings placed about ,adam and ,eve1 and those which their progeny had domesticated1 and which lived with them in closer connection4 ,let us now look at the results of geological investigations respecting the origin of earlier races of animals and plants4 ,it is satisfactorily ascertained at present1 that there have been many distinct successive periods1 during each of which large numbers of animals and plants have been introduced upon the surface of our globe1 to live and multiply for a time1 then to disappear and be replaced by other kinds4 ,of such distinct periods1 such successive creations1 we now know at least about a dozen1 and there are ample indications that the inhabitants of our globe have been successively changed at more epochs than are yet fully ascertained4 ,but whether the number of these distinct successive creations be twelve or twenty1 the fact stands in full light and evidence1 that animals and plants which lived during the first period disappeared1 either gradually or successively1 to make room for others1 and this at often-repeated intervals2 and that the existence of animals and plants which live now is of but recent origin1 is equally well ascertained4 ,there is another series of phenomena1 not less satisfactorily established1 which go to shew that the extent of dry land rising above the surface of the ocean has neither been equally extensive at all times1 nor has it had the same outline at all periods4 ,on the contrary1 we know that1 early in the history of our globe1 there has been a period1 when but few low groups of islands existed above the surface of the ocean1 which1 through successive elevation and depression1 have gradually enlarged and modified the extent and form of the mainland4 ,again1 in examining the remains of organized beings preserved in the different strata constituting the solid crust of our globe1 we find that at each period1 animals and plants were distributed in the ocean and over the mainland in a particular manner1 characteristic of every great epoch4 ,a closer uniformity in their distribution is found in the earlier deposits1 so much so that the oldest fossils discovered in the southern extremity of ,africa1 on the eastern and southern shores of ,new ,holland1 and in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 in ,north ,america1 or in various parts of ,europe1 are almost identical1 or at least so nearly related1 that they resemble each other much more than the animals and plants which at present live in the same countries2 shewing that uniformity in the aspect of the surface of the globe1 as well as in the nature of animals and plants1 was at first the prevailing rule1 and that1 whatever was the primitive region of these animals and plants1 their types occupied much more extensive districts than any race of living beings during later periods4 ,are we to infer from this fact1 that1 at that period1 these animals and plants originated from one common centre1 and were distributed equally all over the globe8 ,by no means4 ,though slight1 we find nevertheless such differences among them in distant parts of the world as would rather sustain the view of an adaptation in the earliest creations to more uniform circumstances1 than that of one centre of origin for all animals and plants of those days4 ,during later periods1 indeed1 we find from geological evidence that large islands had been formed1 more extensive tracts of land elevated above the surface of the ocean1 and the remains both of the animals and plants derived from these different regions present already marked differences when we compare them with each other1--varieties similar to those which exist between the respective continents at present1 though perhaps less marked4 ,shall we here again assume that animals and plants originated from another centre1 or from the same centre as those of former periods1 to migrate over those different parts of the world1 through the sea as well as over land8 ,it is impossible to arrive at such a conclusion1 when we consider the distribution of fossil remains in the more recent geological deposits1 or in those strata which were formed during the latest geological periods1 immediately before the present creation4 ,for we find in these comparatively modern beds a distribution of fossil remains which agrees in a most remarkable manner with the present geographical arrangement of animals and plants4 ,for instance1 the fossils of modern geological periods in ,new ,holland are of the same types as most of the animals now living there4 ,again1 the recent fossils of ,brazil belong to the same families as those prevailing at present in ,brazil2 though1 in both cases1 fossil species are distinct from living ones4 ,if1 therefore1 the organized beings of the recent geological periods had arisen from one central point of distribution1 to be dispersed and finally to become confined to those countries where their remains are found in a fossil condition1 and if the animals now living had also spread from a common origin over the same districts1 and had then been circumscribed within equally distinct limits1 we should be led to the unnatural supposition1 that animals of two distinct creations1 differing specifically throughout1 had taken the same lines of migration1 had assumed finally the same distribution1 and had become permanent in the same regions1 without any other inducement for their removal and final settlement than the mere necessity of covering more extensive ground after they had become too numerous to remain any longer together in one and the same district4 ,this were to ascribe to the animals themselves1 or to the physical agents under which they live1 and by which they may be influenced1 as much wisdom1 as much providential forethought1 as is evinced throughout nature1 both in the distribution of animals1 and in their special adaptation to particular portions of the globe in which they are closely circumscribed at present1 and to which they were limited under similar circumstances during those periods which preceded immediately the present arrangement of things4 ,now these facts in themselves leave not the shadow of a doubt in our mind1 that animals were primitively created all over the world1 within those districts which they were naturally to inhabit for a certain time4 ,the next question is--were these organized beings created in pairs1 as is generally thought and believed8 ,the opinion1 that all animals must be referred to one single1 primitive pair1 is derived from evidence worthy of consideration1 no doubt1 but the value of which may fairly be questioned by naturalists2 since this point1 at least if we except ,adam and ,eve1 is entirely of human construction1 and only assumed because it is thought to shew a wise economy of means in the established order of things which exists4 ,it is supposed1 that1 if one pair were sufficient1 there is no reason why the ,creator should have introduced at one time a greater number of each kind1 as economy of means is always considered an indication of high wisdom4 ,but are not these human considerations8 ,and if they are1 and if we are entitled to question their value1 let us see how they answer the object which was intended1 namely1 the peopling of the whole world with various races of organized beings4 ,whenever we consider the economy of nature1 we observe great varieties in the habits of different animals4 ,there are1 indeed1 some which live constantly in pairs1 and which by nature are designed to perpetuate their races in that way1 and to spread generation after generation over their natural boundaries1 thus mated4 ,but there are others to which it is equally natural to live in herds or shoals1 and which we never find isolated4 ,the idea of a pair of herrings1 or of a pair of buffaloes1 is as contrary to the nature and habits of those animals1 as it is contrary to the nature of pines and birches to grow singly1 and to form forests in their isolation4 ,but we can go further4 ,there are animals in which the number of individuals of different sexes is naturally unequal1 and among which there are either constantly more males or constantly more females born1 as the result of their peculiar nature and habits in the creation4 ,a bee-hive never consists of a pair of bees2 and never could such a pair preserve the species1 with their habits4 ,for them it is natural to have one female and many males devoted to it1 and thousands of neutral bees working for them4 ,and this is the natural original mode of existence among that species of animals1 which it would be utterly contrary to the laws of nature to consider as derived from a single pair4 ,there are a number of birds1 on the contrary1 in which only a few males are universally found with many females1 living together in companies1 such as the pheasants1 and our domesticated fowls4 ,it were easy to multiply examples in order to shew that a creation of all animals in pairs would have been contrary to their very nature1 as we observe it in all4 ,to assume that they have changed this nature would be to fall back upon the necessity of ascribing to physical influences a power which they do not possess1--that of producing changes in the very nature of organized beings1 and of modifying the primitive plan of the ,creator4 ,again1 there are animals which1 by nature1 are impelled to feed upon other animals4 ,was the primitive pair of lions to abstain from food until the gazelles and other antelopes had sufficiently multiplied to preserve their races from the persecution of these ferocious beasts8 ,were all animals1 and the innumerable tribes of ferocious fishes which live upon smaller ones1 to abstain from food till these had been multiplied to a sufficient extent to secure their preservation8 ,or were1 perhaps1 the carnivorous animals created only at a later period8 ,but we find them everywhere together4 ,they constitute natural1 harmonious groups with the herbivorous tribes1 both in the waters and on land1 preserving among each other such proportions as will maintain for ages an undisturbed harmony in the creation4 ,again1 we find animals and plants occurring in distinct districts1 unconnected with each other1 in such ways that it would seem almost impossible for either to migrate from any point of their natural circle of distribution over its whole surface4 ,have1 for instance1 such animals as are found identical both in ,america and ,europe been created either in ,europe or in ,america1 and wandered from one of the continents over to the other8 ,have those species which occur only in the far north1 and upon the higher summits of the ,alps1 been created either in the ,alps or in the north1 and wandered from one place to the other8 ,we are at a loss for substantial arguments for believing that either one or the other place has been the primitive location of such animals1 or for denying their simultaneous creation in both4 ,evidence could be accumulated to shew1 we will not say the improbability only1 but even the impossibility1 of supposing that animals and plants were created in single pairs1 and assumed afterwards their present distribution4 ,but the facts mentioned will be sufficient to introduce our argument1 and from all we know of the laws of nature and of the distribution of animals1 we conclude that they could neither originate from a single pair1 nor upon a single spot4 ,and as for plants1 we would ask naturalists whether it were not superfluous to create more than a single stalk of most plants1 as vegetables1 with a few exceptions1 may multiply extensively from a single stem4 ,but if it is granted that animals could not originate from a single pair1 nor upon a single spot1 what is the more natural view to take of the subject8 ,without entering fully into this question1 we may as well state that we have been gradually led to the conclusion1 that most animals and plants must have originated primitively over the whole extent of their natural distribution4 ,we mean to say that1 for instance1 lions1 which occur over almost the whole of ,africa1 over extensive parts of ,southern ,asia1 and were formerly found even over ,asia-,minor and ,greece1 must have originated primitively over the whole range of these limits of their distribution4 ,we are led to these conclusions by the very fact1 that the lions of the ,east ,indies differ somewhat from those of ,northern ,africa2 these1 again1 differ from those of ,senegal4 ,it seems more natural to suppose that they were thus distributed over such wide districts1 and endowed with particular characteristics in each1 than to assume that they constituted as many species2 or to believe that1 created anywhere in this circle of distribution1 they have gradually been modified to their present differences in consequence of their migration4 ,we admit these differences to be primitive and contemporaneous1 from the fact1 that there are other animals of different genera extending over the same tracts of land which have different representatives in each1 circumscribed within narrower bounds1 and this particular combination in each special district of the wider circle covered by the lion1 seems1 in our opinion1 the strongest argument in favour of the view1 that the particular districts of distribution have been primitively ascribed1 with definite limits1 to each species4 ,why should the antelopes north of the ,cape of ,good ,hope differ from those of ,arabia1 or those of the ,senegal1 or those of the ,atlas1 or those of the ,east ,indies1 if they were not primitively adapted with their special modifications to those districts1 when we see the lion cover the whole range8 ,and why should the varieties we notice among the lions within these boundaries not be primitive1 though not constituting distinct species1 when we see the herbivorous species of the same genus differ from one district to another8 ,and why should the differences in that one species of lion be the result of changes in its primitive character1 arising from its distribution into new districts1 when we see that the antelopes are at once fixed as distinct species over the same ground8 ,this argument cannot be fully appreciated by those who are not extensively acquainted with natural history1 but we may1 perhaps1 make it plainer by alluding to some other similar facts4 ,our fresh waters teem everywhere with animals and plants4 ,fishes and mollusca are among the most prominent of their animals4 ,let us compare for a moment the different species which occur in the ,danube1 in the ,rhine1 and in the ,rhone1 three hydrographic basins entirely unconnected with each other throughout their whole extent4 ,they spring from the same mountain chain1 as we may take the ,inn as the source of the ,danube4 ,these three great rivers rise within a few miles of each other4 ,nevertheless1 most of their fishes differ1 but there are some which are common to the three4 ,we find the pickerel1--the ,european pickerel1 in the three basins4 ,the eel is also common to them all4 ,one kind of trout occurs in the three4 ,but how strange the distribution of some others6--for instance1 the perches4 ,in the ,rhine we find ,perca fluviatilis1 and ,acerina cernua2 in the ,rhone1 ,perca fluviatilis1 and ,aspro vulgaris2 in the ,danube1 ,perca vulgaris1 ,lucio-perca ,sandra1 ,acerina cernua1 ,a4 ,schraitzer1 ,aspro vulgaris1 and ,a4 ,zingel4 ,if these animals had not originated in these rivers separately1 why should not such closely-allied species1 some of which occur in the three basins1 have all spread equally into them8 and if they originated in the separate basins1 we have within close limits a multiple origin of the same species4 ,and that this multiple origin must be admitted as a fact is shewn by the following further evidence4 ,among the carpes we find1 for instance1 ,barbus1 ,gobio1 ,carpio1 common to the three4 ,but the ,danube has three ,gobios1 whilst the others have but one1 one of the ,danube being identical with the one of the other two rivers4 ,the most striking fact1 however1 occurs in the genus ,leuciscus4 ,leuciscus dobula is common to the three2 but in addition to it1 the ,danube has several species which occur neither in the ,rhine nor in the ,rhone4 ,the basin of the ,rhone1 again1 has several species which occur neither in the ,danube nor in the ,rhine2 and in the ,rhine1 there are species which belong neither to the ,rhone nor to the ,danube4 ,now1 we ask1 could all these species of ,leuciscus have been created in one of the basins1--in the ,danube for instance1--and have migrated in such a way1 that a certain number of the species should remain solely in the ,danube1 while some others left the ,danube altogether to settle finally only in the ,rhone1 and others to settle only in the ,rhine2 that one accompanying those species peculiar to the ,rhone1 remained in the ,danube with those species peculiar to it1 and settled also in the ,rhone1 with those species peculiar to that river1 and also in the ,rhine with the species peculiar to the ,rhine8 ,and whether we assume the ,rhone as the primitive centre1 instead of the ,danube or the ,rhine1 the argument holds equally good4 ,we have one species common to the three rivers1 and several species peculiar to each1 which could never have migrated 7if migration took place7 in such a manner as to assume their present combinations4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 we suppose that all the species originated in the rivers where they occur1 then we have again a multiple origin of that species which is common to the three1 for it were wonderful if that one alone had migrated1 when they are all so closely allied4 ,here1 again1 we arrive at the conclusion1 that the same species can have a multiple origin1 in the same manner as1 from the considerations alluded to before1 we have decided that species do not originate from single pairs1 but in their natural proportion with the other species with which they live simultaneously over the whole ground which they cover4 ,and this is the view which we take of the natural distribution of animals1 that they originated primitively over the whole extent of their natural distribution2 that they originated there1 not in pairs1 but in large numbers1 in such proportions as suits their natural mode of living1 and the preservation of species2 and that the same species may have originated in different unconnected parts of the more extensive circle of their distribution4 ,we are well aware that there are very many species which are known to have spread beyond what we would call their natural limits2 species which did not occur in ,north ,america before the settlement of the whites1 that are now abundant here over very extensive tracts of country2 other species which have been introduced from ,america into ,europe1 and also into other parts of the world1 in different ways4 ,but these are exceptional facts2 and1 what is more important1 these changes in the primitive distribution of organised beings1 both animals and plants1 have taken place under the influence of man1--under the influence of a being acting not merely from natural impulses1 or under the pressure of physical causes1 but moved by a higher will4 ,so that these apparent exceptions to the rule would only go to confirm it2 as1 within the limits of these secondary changes1 we see a will acting1 just as we consider that the primitive distribution of all organized beings has been the result of the decrees of the ,creator1 and not the result of mere natural influences4 ,having thus led the way to what we would consider as a fairer ground for investigating the natural geographical distribution of animals and plants1 let us now examine the natural lines which seem to regulate this distribution4 ,nothing can be more striking to the observer than the fact1 that animals1 though endowed with the power of locomotion1 remain within fixed bounds in their geographical distribution1 although an unbounded field for migration is open to them in all directions1 over land1 through the air1 and through the waters4 ,and no stronger argument can be introduced to shew that living beings are endowed with their power of locomotion to keep within general boundaries1 rather than to spread extensively4 ,there is another fact which shews that animals are made to remain within these natural limits4 ,we would allude especially to the difficulty we experience whenever we attempt to transport animals from their native country into other countries1 even if we secure for them as nearly as can be the same conditions in which they used to live4 ,again1 observe the changes which animals undergo when they are once acclimatized to countries different from their native land4 ,there can be no more striking evidence of this than the endless variety of our domestic animals1 and there is no subject which more requires a renewed and careful investigation than this4 ,we do not1 however1 feel competent to introduce this point more fully to the notice of our readers4 ,some facts bearing upon the question may best be mentioned in a reference to the different animals which man has thus made subservient to his social condition4 ,we shall here allude only to the laws of distribution of wild animals in their natural condition4 ,it has already been stated1 that the present distribution of animals agrees with the distribution of extinct types belonging to earlier geological periods1 so that the laws which regulate the geographical distribution of animals seem to have been the same at all times1 though modified in accordance with the successive changes which the animal kingdom has undergone from the earliest period of its creation to the present day4 ,the universal law is1 that all animals are circumscribed within definite limits4 ,there is not one species which is uniformly spread all over the globe1 either among the aquatic races or among the terrestrial ones4 ,of the special distribution of man1 who alone is found everywhere1 we shall speak hereafter4 ,the special adaptation of animals to certain districts is not merely limited to the individual species4 ,we observe a similar adaptation among genera1 entire families1 and even whole classes4 ,for instance1 all ,polypi1 ,medus1 and ,echinoderms1 that is to say all ,radiata1 without exception1 are aquatic4#a ,that large group of animals has not a single terrestrial representative upon any point of the surface of the globe2 and during all periods of the history of our earth1 we find that they have always been limited to the liquid element4 ,and they are not only aquatic1 they are chiefly marine1 as but exceedingly few of them are found in fresh waters4 ,among ,mollusca we find almost the same adaptation4 ,their element also is the sea4 ,the number of fresh-water species is small1 compared with that of marine types2 and we find terrestrial species in only one of their classes4 ,in former periods1 also1 ,mollusca were chiefly marine2 fluviatile and terrestrial types occurring only in more recent periods4 ,footnote #a3 ,the following statements have been strictly considered1 and are made in reference to a revised classification of the animal kingdom1 the details of which must1 however1 be omitted here1 as they would extend this article beyond our allotted bounds4 ,with the ,articulata1 we find another state of things4 ,two of their classes1 the worms and ,crustacea1 are chiefly marine1 or at least aquatic1 as we have a number of fresh-water worms1 and some fresh-water ,crustacea4 ,but insects are1 for the most part1 chiefly terrestrial1 feeding upon terrestrial plants1 at least in their full-grown condition2 though a large number of these animals are fluviatile1 and even some marine1 during their earlier periods of life4 ,in the ,vertebrata1 the adaptations are more diversified4 ,only one class of these animals is entirely aquatic--the fishes2 and the number of the marine species is far greater than that of the fresh-water kinds4 ,among reptiles there are many which are aquatic1 either throughout life1 or through the earlier period of their existence4 ,but1 as if animal life rose to higher organization1 as it leaves the ocean to inhabit dry land or fresh waters1 we find that the greater number of the aquatic reptiles are fluviatile1 and but a few marine4 ,this fact agrees wonderfully with the natural gradation of the classes already mentioned4 ,the lower type of animals1 the ,radiata1 is almost exclusively marine4 ,among ,mollusca1 we have a greater number of marine types1 a large number of fluviatile species1 and fewer terrestrial1 and these are the highest in their class4 ,again1 among ,articulata1 the lower classes1 worms and ,crustacea1 are marine1 or at least fluviatile1 whilst the highest class1 that of insects1 is chiefly terrestrial or fluviatile1 during the earlier periods of their growth4 ,among the ,vertebrata we see the lowest form1 that of fishes1 entirely aquatic1 and the same rule applies partially to the reptiles2 but as the class rises1 the number of the fluviatile species is greater than that of the marine types4 ,next1 among birds1 which by their structure are exclusively adapted to live in the atmospheric air1 we find the larger number to be terrestrial1 and only the lower ones to live upon water1 or dive occasionally into it1 always seeking the surface1 however1 to breathe and to perform their most important vital functions4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 not a little strange1 that this class should by nature be adapted to rise into the air1 just as if the first tendency towards liberating them from the aquatic element had been carried to an excess1 and gave them a relation to the earth which no other class1 as a whole1 holds to that degree1 except1 perhaps1 the insects1 which are placed among the ,articulata in the same relation to the lower classes and the natural element1 which the class of birds maintains among ,vertebrata4 ,the highest class of ,vertebrata affords us examples of these three modes of adaptation1 the lowest of these being entirely aquatic1 and even absolutely marine2 next1 we have fluviatile types of the large terrestrial mammalia1 in the family of ,manatees1 again1 a swimming family among ,carnivora1 another flying1 most of them however walking upon their four extremities on solid ground1 but at the head of all1 man1 standing upright1 to look freely upwards1 and to contemplate the whole universe4 ,this wonderful adaptation of the whole range of animals1 as it exists at present1 shews the most intimate connection with the order of succession of animals in former geological periods4 ,the four great types1 ,radiata1 ,mollusca1 ,articulata1 and ,vertebrata1 were introduced at the beginning simultaneously4 ,however1 the earliest representatives of these great types were all aquatic4 ,we find in the lowest beds which contain fossils1 ,polypi1 together with star-fishes1 bivalve shells1 univalves1 chambered shells1 cases of worms1 and ,crustacea1 being representatives of at least seven out of nine classes of invertebrate animals1 if we are not allowed to suppose that ,medus existed also1 and if insects were still wanting for a time4 ,but1 in addition to these1 fishes among ,vertebrata are introduced1 but fishes only1 all of which are exclusively marine4 ,at a somewhat later period insects come in4 ,we find next reptiles in addition to fishes--the lower classes1 or invertebrates1 continuing to be represented through all subsequent epochs1 but by species changing gradually at each period1 as all classes do after they have been once introduced4 ,the first representatives among reptiles are marine1 next huge terrestrial ones1 some1 perhaps1 flying types1 and with them1 and perhaps even before them1 birds1 allied to the wading tribes3 still later1 ,mammalia1 beginning again with marine and huge terrestrial types1 followed by the higher quadrupeds2 and1 last only1 ,man1--at the head of the creation1 in time as well as in eminence1 by structure1 intelligence1 and moral endowments4 ,besides the general adaptation of animals to the surrounding media1 there is a more special adaptation1 which seems not less important1 though it is perhaps less striking4 ,animals1 as well as plants1 do not live equally at all depths of the ocean1 or at all heights above its surface4 ,there must be a deep influence upon the geographical distribution of animals in a vertical direction derived from atmospheric pressure above the surface of the waters1 and from the pressure of the water itself at greater and greater depths1--the level of the ocean1 or a small elevation above its surface1 or a shallow depth under its surface1 being the field of the most extensive and intensive development of animal life4 ,and it is not a little remarkable that in the same classes we should find lower types at greater depths in the ocean1 and also lower types at greater heights above4 ,we will quote a few examples1 to shew how much we may expect from investigations pursued in this direction1 for at present we have but little information which can aid us in ascertaining the relationship between atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure and the energies of animal life4 ,among ,polypi1 the higher forms1 such as ,actini1 are more abundant in shallow water than the lower coral-forming types4 ,among ,medus1 the young are either attached to the bottom1 or grow from the depth1 while the perfect free forms of these animals come to the surface4 ,among ,echinoderms1 the ,crinoids are deep-water forms2 free star-fishes and ,echini1 and1 above all ,holothuri1 living nearer the surface4 ,among ,mollusca1 the ,acephala1 which are lowest1 have their lower types1--the ,brachiopods1 entirely confined to deep waters2 the ,monomyarians appear next1 and1 above them1 the ,dimyarians2 among these latter1 the highest family1 the ,nayades1 rises above the level of the ocean into the fresh waters1 and extends even to considerable heights above the sea1 in lakes and rivers4 ,a number of examples of all classes should be mentioned1 to shew that this is the universal case2 as1 for instance1 among ,crustacea the ,macrura are1 in general species of deeper water than the true crabs1 of which some come even upon dry land4 ,again1 on the slopes of our mountains1 the highest forms among ,mammalia which remain numerous are the ,ruminants and ,rodents4 ,there are no ,carnivora living in high regions4 ,among birds of prey1 we have the vultures1 rising above the highest summits of mountains1 while eagles and falcons hover over the woods and plains1 by the water sides1 and along the sea-shores4 ,among reptiles1 salamanders1 frogs1 and toads occur higher than any turtles1 lizards1 c4 ,but the same adaptation may be traced with reference to the latitudes under which animals are found4 ,those of the higher latitudes1 the arctic and antarctic species1 resemble both the animals of high1 prominent mountain chains1 and those of the deep sea-waters1 which there meet in the most unexpected combinations 7and it is surprising to see how extensively this is the case72 while1 in lower latitudes1 towards the tropics1 we find everywhere the higher representatives of the same families4 ,for instance1 among ,mammalia we observe monkeys only in warm latitudes1 and they die out in the warmer parts of the temperate zone4 ,the great development of ,digitigrades--lions1 tigers1 c41 takes place within the tropics1 smaller species1 like wolves and foxes1 weasels1 c41 occurring in the north1 whilst the ,plantigrades1 which come nearer and nearer to the seal1 follow an inverse progression1 the largest and most powerful of them being the arctic ice bear1 which meets there his family relations1 the ,pinnipedia1 that are so numerous in the polar regions4 ,again1 the families of ,ruminants and ,pachyderms seem to form an exception1 for though belonging to the lower types of ,mammalia1 they prevail in the tropical zone2 but let us remember that they were among the earlier inhabitants of our globe1 and the fact of their occurring more extensively in warm climates is rather a reminiscence of the plan of creation in older times1 than an adaptation to the law regulating at present the distribution of organized beings4 ,the gradation of animals among birds being less satisfactorily ascertained1 we do not venture to say anything respecting their geographical distribution1 in relation to climates4 ,but among reptiles1 we cannot overlook the fact1 that the crocodiles1 which are the highest in structure1 are altogether tropical1 and the ,batrachians1 which rank lowest1 especially the salamandroid forms1 are rather types of the colder temperate zone than of the warm1 c4 ,from these facts it is plain1 that the geographical distribution of all groups has a direct reference to atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure on one side1 and also to the intensity of light and heat over the surface of the globe4 ,the special adaptation of minor groups begins very early in the history of our globe1 and extends at present all over its surface4 ,in the same manner as animals are adapted to natural limits in their large primitive groups which we call classes1 we find also the minor divisions more closely adapted to particular circumstances of the physical condition of all parts of the globe4 ,among ,mammalia1 the great type of ,marsupialia is placed in ,new ,holland1 and extends little beyond that continent into the adjacent islands4 ,a very few representatives of that family are found in ,america4 ,asia1 ,africa1 the colder parts of ,north ,america1 and its southern extremity1 are entirely deprived of this type4 ,the family of ,edentata1 again1 has its centre of development in ,south ,america1 where the sloth1 dasypus1 ant-eaters1 c41 form characteristic types1 of which a few analogues occur in ,africa1 along its southern extremity and western coast4 ,now it is a fact upon which we cannot insist too strongly1 that the same districts of ,new ,holland and ,south ,america were1 during an earlier geological period comparatively recent1 the seat of an equally wide development of the same animals in the same extensive proportion as at present4 ,we need only refer to the beautiful investigations of ,dr ,lund1 upon the fossil mammalia of ,brazil1 and to those1 no less important1 of ,professor ,owen1 upon the fossil remains of mammalia of ,new ,holland1 to leave not a shadow of doubt upon this adaptation1 which indicates distinctly these two regions1 at two distinct periods remote from each other1 as the points of development of two distinct families1 which have never spread over other parts of the globe at any period since the time of their existence1 indicating at least two distinct foci of creation1 with the same characters1 at two successive epochs2 a fact which1 in our opinion1 can never be reconciled to the idea of a unique centre of origin of the animals now living4 ,but though other families have never been and are not now localized in so special a manner1 we nevertheless find them circumscribed within certain limits1 in particular districts1 or1 at least1 in particular zones4 ,as already mentioned1 the monkeys are entirely tropical4 ,but here1 again1 we notice a very intimate adaptation of their types to the particular continents1 as the monkeys of tropical ,america constitute a family altogether distinct from the monkeys of the ,old ,world1 there being not one species of any of the genera of ,quadrumana1 so numerous on this continent1 found either in ,africa or in ,asia4 ,the monkeys of the ,old ,world1 again1 constitute a natural family by themselves1 extending equally over ,africa and ,asia2 but the species of ,africa differ from those of ,asia2 and there is even a close representative analogy between those of different parts of these two continents2 the orangs of ,africa1 the chimpanzee and gorilla1 corresponding to the red orang of ,sumatra and ,borneo1 and the smaller long armed species of continental ,asia4 ,and what is not a little remarkable is the fact1 that the black orang occurs upon that continent which is inhabited by the black human race1 whilst the brown orang inhabits those parts of ,asia over which the chocolate-coloured ,malays have been developed4 ,there is again a peculiar family of ,quadrumana confined to the ,island of ,madagascar--the makis--which are entirely peculiar to that island1 and the eastern coast of ,africa opposite to it1 and to one spot on the western shore of ,africa4 ,but in ,new ,holland1 and the adjacent islands1 there are no monkeys at all1 though the climatic conditions seem not to exclude their existence any more than those of the large ,asiatic islands1 upon which such high types of this order are found4 ,and these facts more than any other1 would indicate that the special adaptation of animals to particular districts of the surface of our globe is neither accidental1 nor dependent upon physical conditions1 but is implied in the primitive plan of the creation itself4 ,whatever classes we may take into consideration1 we shall find similar adaptations1 and though1 perhaps1 the greater uniformity of some families renders the difference of the types in various parts of the world less striking1 they are none the less real4 ,the ,carnivora of tropical ,asia are not the same as those of tropical ,africa1 or those of tropical ,america4 ,their birds and reptiles present similar differences4 ,the want of an ostrich in ,asia1 when we have one1 the largest of the family1 in ,africa1 and two distinct species in ,southern ,america1 and two cassowaries1 one in ,new ,holland1 and another in the ,sunda ,islands1 shews this constant process of analogous or representative species repeated over different parts of the world to be the principle regulating the distribution of animals1 and the fact that these analogous species are different1 again1 cannot be reconciled to the idea of a common origin1 as each type is peculiar to the country where it is now found4 ,these differences are more striking in tropical regions than anywhere else4 ,the rhinoceros of the ,sunda ,islands differs from those of ,africa1 and there is none in ,america4 ,the elephant of ,asia differs from that of ,africa1 and there is none in ,america4 ,one tapir is found in the ,sunda ,islands1 there is none in ,africa1 but we find one in ,south ,america1 c4 ,everywhere special adaptation1 particular forms in each continent1 an omission of some allied type here1 when in the next group it occurs all over the zone4 ,as we ascend into the temperate zone1 we find1 however1 the similarity greatly increased4 ,the difference between the species of the same family in temperate ,asia1 temperate ,europe1 and temperate ,america is much less than between the corresponding animals of the tropical zone1 and no doubt it is to this great assemblage of more uniform animals1 living originally within the main seat of human civilization1 that we must ascribe the idea of their common origin1 which has so long prevailed and been so serious an obstacle to a real insight into these natural phenomena4 ,what1 indeed1 could be more natural for man1 when for the first time reflecting upon nature around him1--when seeing1 as far as he could extend his investigations1 all things alike1--than to imagine that every thing arose from a common centre1 and spread with him over the world1 as it has been the fate of the white race1 and of that only1 to extend all over the globe1 and that1 influenced by the phenomena of the zone in which he lived and wandered1 and from which he extended farther1 he took it for granted that all animals followed the same laws4 ,but now that we know the whole surface of our globe so satisfactorily1 there can no longer be a question about the difference between animals and plants in the lower latitudes in all continents4 ,besides1 we see them equally striking in the southernmost extremities of the three great continents1 so that there can no longer be any doubt about the primitive adaptation of these various types to the continents where they live1 as we do not find a single one naturally diffused everywhere over all continents4 ,notwithstanding1 therefore1 the slighter differences we notice between the animals of different continents in the temperate zone1 we are thus led step by step to ascribe to them also a special origin upon those continents where they now occur4 ,but as soon as we rise to the highest latitudes1 the uniformity becomes so close1 that there is no longer any marked difference noticed between the animals about the arctic regions1 either in ,america1 ,europe1 or ,asia2 and we are naturally led to restrict the idea of a common centre of origin1 or at least of a narrow circle of primitive development1 to those animals which spread equally over the icy fields extending around the northern pole upon the three continents which meet in the north4 ,the phenomena of geographical distribution which we observe there among the terrestrial animals are repeated in the same manner among the aquatic ones4 ,the fishes in the arctic seas do not materially differ on the shores of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 and through the northern ,atlantic and through ,behring's ,straits they extend more or less towards the colder temperate zone1 or migrate into it at particular seasons of the year1 as do most birds of the arctic regions also4 ,but in the temperate zone we begin to find more and more marked differences between the inhabitants of different continents1 and even between those of the opposite shores of the same ocean2 as1 for instance1 the fishes of ,europe 7some of the northern species excepted7 are not identical with those of the temperate shores of ,north ,america1 notwithstanding the very open field left for their uniform distribution across the ,atlantic4 ,such is also the case between the fishes of ,western ,africa and those of ,central ,america1 and between those of the southern extremities of these continents4 ,the fishes of the ,indian ,ocean1 and the fishes of the ,pacific vary greatly1 and1 though some families have a wider range1 there are many which are circumscribed within the narrowest limits4 ,it is one of the most striking phenomena in the geographical distribution of aquatic animals1 to find entire families of fishes completely circumscribed within particular groups of islands1 such1 for instance1 as the ,labyrinthici1 which are peculiar to the ,sunda ,islands1 and the family of ,goniodonts1 which are found only in the rivers of ,south ,america4 ,a similar narrow limitation occurs also among the terrestrial animals1 as the family of ,colubris is entirely circumscribed within the boundaries of the warmer parts of the ,american continent4 ,the appearance during the warmer season of the year of a few species of that family in the ,northern ,states1 does not make this case less strong4 ,examples might be multiplied without end to shew everywhere special adaptation1 narrow circumscription1 or representative adaptation of species in different parts of the world2 but those mentioned will be sufficient to sustain the argument that animals are naturally antochthones wherever they are found1 and have been so at all geological periods2 that in northern regions they are most uniform2 that their diversity goes on increasing through the temperate zone till it reaches its maximum in the tropics2 that this diversity is again reduced in the aquatic animals towards the antarctic pole1 though the physical difference between the southernmost extremities of ,america1 ,africa1 and ,new ,holland1 seems to have called for an increased difference between their terrestrial animals4 ,we are thus led to distinguish special provinces in the natural distribution of animals1 and we may adopt the following division as the most natural3 ,first1 the arctic province1 with prevailing uniformity4 ,second1 the temperate zone1 with at least three distinct zoological provinces--the ,european temperate zone1 west of the ,ural ,mountains1 the ,asiatic temperate zone east of the ,ural ,mountains1 and the ,american temperate zone1 which may be subdivided into two1 the eastern and the western--for the animals east and west of the ,rocky ,mountains differ sufficiently to constitute two distinct zoological provinces4 ,next1 the tropical zone1 containing the ,african zoological province1 which extends over the main part of the ,african continent1 including all the country south of the ,atlas and north of the ,cape ,colonies2 the tropical ,asiatic province1 south of the great ,himalayan chain1 and including the ,sunda ,islands1 whose ,fauna has quite a continental character1 and differs entirely from that of the ,islands of the ,pacific1 as well as from that of ,new ,holland2 the ,american tropical province1 including ,central ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 and tropical ,south ,america4 ,new ,holland constitutes in itself a special province1 notwithstanding the great differences of its northern and southern climate1 the animals of the whole continent preserving throughout their peculiar typical character4 ,but it were a mistake to conceive that the ,faun or natural groups of animals are to be limited according to the boundaries of the mainland4 ,on the contrary we may trace their natural limits into the ocean1 and refer to the temperate ,european ,fauna the eastern shores of the ,atlantic1 as we refer its western shores to the ,american temperate ,fauna4 ,again1 the eastern shores of the ,pacific belong to the western ,american ,fauna1 as the western ,pacific shores belong to the ,asiatic ,fauna4 ,in the ,atlantic ,ocean there is no purely oceanic ,fauna to be distinguished1 but in the ,pacific we have such a ,fauna1 entirely marine in its main character1 though interspread with innumerable islands extending east of the ,sunda ,islands and ,new ,holland to the western shores of tropical ,america4 ,the islands west of this continent seem1 indeed1 to have very slight relations in their zoological character with the western parts of the mainland4 ,south of the tropical zone we have the ,south ,american temperate ,fauna1 and that of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 as other distinct zoological provinces4 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 however1 does not constitute a zoological province in itself1 but belongs to the province of ,new ,holland1 by its zoological character4 ,finally1 the antarctic circle encloses a special zoological province1 including the antarctic ,fauna1 which1 in a great measure1 corresponds to the arctic ,fauna in its uniformity1 though it differs from it in having chiefly a maritime character1 while the arctic ,fauna has an almost entirely continental aspect4 ,the fact that the principal races of man1 in their natural distribution1 cover the same extent of ground as the great zoological provinces1 would go far to shew that the differences which we notice between them are also primitive2 but for the present we shall abstain from further details upon a subject involving so difficult problems as the question of the unity or plurality of origin of the human family1 satisfied as we are to have shewn that animals1 at least1 did not originate from a common centre1 nor from single pairs1 but according to the laws which at present still regulate their existence4 ,additional ,illustrations of the ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals4 ,i4--,geographical ,distribution of ,sturgeons4#b ,footnote #b3 ,agassiz's ,lake ,superior1 p4 #bfd4 ,the sturgeons are generally large fishes1 which live at the bottom of the water1 feeding with their toothless mouths upon decomposed organized substances4 ,their movements are rather sluggish1 resembling somewhat those of the cod-fish4 ,their geographical distribution is quite peculiar1 and constitutes one of their prominent peculiarities4 ,located as they are1 in the colder portions of the temperate zone1 they inhabit either the fresh waters or the seas exclusively1 or alternately both these elements1--remaining during the larger part of the year in the sea1 and ascending the rivers in the spawning season4 ,although adapted to the cold regions of the temperate1 they do not seem to extend into the arctic zone1 and ,i am not aware that they have been observed in any of the waters of the warmer half of the temperate zone4 ,the great basin of salt-water lakes or seas which extends east of the ,mediterranean1 seems to be their principal abode in the ,old ,world1 or at least the region in which the greater number of species occur2 and each species takes a wide range1 extending up the ,danube and its tributaries1 and all the ,russian rivers emptying into the ,black ,sea4 ,from the ,caspian they ascend the ,wolga in immense shoals1 and are found further east in the lakes of ,central ,asia1 even as far as the borders of ,china4 ,the great ,canadian lakes constitute another centre of distribution of these fishes in the ,new ,world1 but here they are not so numerous1 nor do they ever occur in contact with salt water in this basin4 ,northwards1 there is another great zone of distribution of sturgeons1 which inhabit all the great northern rivers emptying into the ,arctic ,sea1 in ,asia as well as in ,america4 ,they occur equally in the intervening seas1 being found on the shores of ,norway and ,sweden1 in the ,baltic and ,north ,seas1 as well as in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 from which they ascend the northern rivers of ,germany1 as well as those of ,holland1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain4 ,even the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic have their sturgeons1 though few in number4 ,there are also some on the ,atlantic shores of ,north ,america1 along the ,british possessions as well as the northern and middle ,united ,states4 ,they seem to be exceedingly numerous in the ,northern ,pacific1 being found everywhere from ,behring's ,straits and ,japan to the northern shores of ,china1 and on the north-west coast of ,america1 as far south as the ,columbia ,river4 ,again1 the so-called western waters of the ,united ,states have their own species1 from the ,ohio down to the lower portion of the ,mississippi1 but it does not appear that these species ascend the rivers from the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,i suppose them to be rather entirely fluviatile1 like those of the great ,canadian lakes4 ,beyond the above limits southwards there are nowhere sturgeons to be found1 not even in the ,nile1 though emptying into a sea in which they occur2 and as for the great rivers of ,southern ,asia and of tropical ,africa1 not only the sturgeons1 but another family is wanting there1--,i mean the family of ,goniodonts1 which in ,central and ,southern ,america takes the place of the sturgeons of the north4 ,again1 all the species in different parts of the world are different4 ,it is a most extraordinary fact1 which will hereafter throw much light upon the laws of geographical distribution of animals and their mode of association1 viz41 that certain families are entirely circumscribed within comparatively narrow limits1 and that their special location has an unquestionable reference to the location of other animals2 or1 in other words1 that natural families1 apparently little related to each other1 are confined to different parts of the world1 but are linked together by some intermediate form1 which itself is located in the intermediate track between the two extremes4 ,in the case now before us1 we have the sturgeons extending all around the world in the northern temperate hemisphere1 in its seas as well as in its fresh waters1 all closely related to each other4 ,neither in ,asia nor in ,africa is there an aberrant form of that type1 or any representative type in the warmer zones2 but in ,north ,america we have the genus ,scaphirhynhus1 which occurs in the ,ohio and ,mississippi1 and which forms a most natural link with the family of ,goniodonts1 all the species of which are confined exclusively to the fresh waters of ,central and ,south ,america4 ,the closeness of this connection will be at once perceived by attempting to compare the species of true ,sonicari with the ,scaphirhynhus4 ,i know very well1 that the affinities of ,goniodonts and ,siluroids with sturgeons are denied1 but ,i still strongly insist upon their close relationship1 which ,i hope to establish satisfactorily in a special paper1 as ,i continued to insist upon the relation between sturgeons and gar-pikes1 at one time positively contradicted and even ridiculed4 ,i trust then to be able to shew1 that the remarkable form of the brains of ,silurid comes nearer to that of sturgeons and ,lepidostei than to that of any other family of fishes4 ,this being the case1 it is obvious that there must be in the physical condition of the continent of ,america some inducement not yet understood1 for adaptations so special and so different from what we observe in the ,old ,world4 ,indeed1 such analogies between the organized beings almost from one pole to another1 occur from man down to the plants in ,america only1 among its native products2 while1 in the ,old ,world1 plants as well as animals have more circumscribed homes1 and more closely characterized features1 in the various continents1 at different latitudes4 ,as for the species of sturgeons which occur in the ,canadian lakes1 ,i know only three from personal examination1 one of which was obtained in ,lake ,superior1 at ,michipicotin1 another at the ,pic1 and the third at the ,sault2 though ,i know that they occur in all other ,canadian lakes1 yet it remains to be ascertained how the species said to be so common in ,lake ,huron1 compared with those of ,lake ,superior1 and with those in the other great lakes and the ,st ,lawrence itself4 ,as for the ,atlantic species1 ascending the rivers of the ,united ,states west and south of ,cape ,cod1 ,i know them to differ from those of the lakes1 at least from those which ,i possess from ,lake ,superior4 ,the number of species of this interesting family which occur in the ,united ,states is1 at all events1 far greater than would be supposed from an examination of the published records4 ,upon close comparison of the specimens in my collection from different parts of the country1 and in different museums1 as those of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,boston1 of ,salem1 of the ,lyceum of ,new ,york1 my assistant1 ,mr ,charles ,giran1 and myself1 have discovered several species not described4 ,for this comparison ,i was the better prepared1 as ,i had an opportunity in former years of studying almost all the ,european species in a fresh condition1 during a prolonged visit in ,vienna4 ,,ii4--,fishes of ,lake ,superior compared with those of the other great ,canadian ,lakes4 ,besides the interest there is everywhere in studying the living animals of a new country1 there is a particular interest to a naturalist in ascertaining their peculiar geographical distribution1 and their true affinities with those of other countries4 ,it is only by following such a course1 that we can hope to arrive at any exact results as to their origin4 ,in this respect the fresh-water animals have a peculiar interest1 as from the element they inhabit1 they are placed under exceptional circumstances4 ,marine animals1 as well as those inhabiting dry land1 seem to have a boundless opportunity before them to spread over large parts of the earth's surface1 and their locomotive powers would generally be sufficient to carry them almost anywhere2 but they do not avail themselves of the possibility2 notwithstanding their facilities for locomotion1 they for the most part remain within very narrow limits1 using their liberty rather to keep within certain definite bounds4 ,this tendency of the higher animals especially1 to keep within well-ascertained limits1 is perhaps the strongest evidence that there is a natural connection between the external world and the organised beings living upon the present surface of our globe4 ,the laws which regulate these relations1 and those of geographical distribution in particular1 have already been ascertained to a certain extent1 and will receive additional evidence from the facts recorded during our journey4 ,the fresh-water animals are placed in somewhat different circumstances4 ,their abode being circumscribed by dry land1 within limits which are often reduced to a narrow current of water1 and being further1 for the most part1 prevented by structural peculiarities from passing from the rivers into the ocean1 they are confined within narrower limits than either terrestrial or marine types4 ,within these limits again they are still further restricted2 the shells and fishes of the head waters of large rivers1 for instance1 being scarcely ever the same as those of their middle or lower course1 few species extending all over any fresh-water basin from one extreme of its boundary to the other2 thus forming at various heights above the level of the sea1 isolated groups of fresh-water animals in the midst of those which inhabit the dry land4 ,these groups are very similar in their circumscription to the islands and coral reefs of the ocean2 like them1 they are either large or small1 isolated and far apart1 or close together in various modes of association4 ,in every respect they form upon the continents1 as it were1 a counterpart of the ,archipelagos4 ,from their circumscription1 these groups of lakes present at once a peculiar feature in the animal kingdom1 their inhabitants being entirely unconnected with any of the other living beings which swarm around them4 ,what1 for instance1 is there apparently in common between the fishes of our lakes and rivers1 and the quadrupeds which inhabit their shores1 or the birds perching on the branches which overshadow their waters8 ,or what connection is there between the few hermit-like terrestrial animals that live upon the low islands of the ,pacific and the fishes which play among the corals1 or in the sand and mud of their shores8 ,and nevertheless there is but one plan in the creation2 fresh-water animals under similar latitudes are as uniform as the corresponding vegetation1 and however isolated and apparently unconnected the tropical islands may seem1 their inhabitants agree in their most important traits4 ,the best evidence that in the plan of creation animals are intended to be located within circumscribed boundaries1 is further derived from their regular migrations4 ,although the arctic birds wander during winter into temperate countries1 and some reach even the warmer zones2 although there are many which1 from the colder temperate climates1 extend quite into the tropics1 there is nevertheless not one of these species which passes from the northern to the southern hemispheres2 not one which does not return at regular epochs to the countries whence it came from4 ,and the more minutely we trace this geographical distribution1 the more we are impressed with the conviction that it must be primitive2 that is to say1 that animals must have originated where they live1 and have remained almost precisely within the same limits ever since they were created1 except in a few cases1 where1 under the influence of man1 those limits have been extended over large areas4 ,to express this view still more distinctly1 ,i should say the question to be settled is1 whether for instance the wild animals which live in ,america originated in this continent1 or migrated into it from other parts of the world2 whether the black bear was created in the forests of ,new ,england and the northern states1 or whether it is derived from some ,european bear1 which by some means found its way to this continent1 and being under the influence of a new climate1 produced a new race2 whether the many peculiar birds of ,north ,america which live in forests composed of trees different from those which occur either in ,europe or ,asia1 whether these birds1 which themselves are not identical with those of any other country1 were or were not created where they live2 whether the snapping turtle1 the alligator1 the rattlesnake1 and other reptiles which are found only in ,america1 have become extinct in the ,old ,world after migrating over the ,atlantic1 to be preserved in this continent2 whether the fishes of the great ,canadian lakes made their appearance first in those waters1 or migrated thither from somewhere else8 ,these are questions which such an inquiry into the geographical distribution of animals involves2 it is the great question of the unity or plurality of creations2 it is not less the question of the origin of animals from single pairs or in large numbers2 and1 strange to say1 a thorough examination of the fishes of ,lake ,superior1 compared with those of the adjacent waters1 is likely to throw more light upon such questions1 than all traditions1 however ancient1 however near in point of time to the epoch of creation itself4 ,in order to proceed methodically in this investigation1 our first step must be to examine minutely1 whether the fishes of ,lake ,superior are the same as those of other lakes1 in this or any other country2 and1 if not1 how they differ4 ,to satisfy ourselves in this respect1 we shall successively examine all the families of fishes1 which have representatives in those great fresh-water seas4 7,agassiz on ,lake ,superior1 p4 #bdf47 ,professor ,agassiz1 after admirable histories of the fishes of ,lake ,superior1 concludes with the following excellent observations3--#c ,footnote #c3 ,lake ,superior1 p4 #cgc4 ,,iii4--,general ,observations2 all ,fresh-water ,fishes of ,north ,america different from those of ,europe--,lake ,superior and the ,lakes north of it constitute a distinct ,zoological ,district--,these ,fishes have been created where they now live--,deductions from this fact4 ,such a critical revision of the fishes of ,lake ,superior1 and the other great ,canadian lakes1 was the first necessary step in the investigation ,i am tracing1 in order to ascertain the natural primitive relations between them and the region which they inhabit4 ,before drawing the conclusions which follow directly from these facts1 ,i should introduce a similar list of the fishes living in similar latitudes1 or under similar circumstances1 in other parts of the world2 and more particularly of the species of ,northern ,europe4 ,but such a list1 to be of any use1 should be throughout based upon a critical comparative investigation of all the species of that continent1 which would lead to too great a digression4 ,the comparison of the fresh-water fishes of ,europe1 which correspond to those of ,north ,america1 has been carried so far1 that ,i feel justified in assuming1 what is really the fact1 that all the species of ,north ,america1 without a single exception1 differ from those of ,europe1 if we limit ourselves strictly to fishes which are exclusively the inhabitants of fresh water4 ,i am well aware that the salmon which runs up the rivers of ,northern and ,central ,europe1 also occurs on the eastern shores of the northern part of ,north ,america1 and runs up the rivers emptying into the ,atlantic4 ,but this fish is one of the marine arctic fishes1 which migrates with many others1 annually further south1 and which migratory species is common to both continents4 ,those species1 however1 which never leave the fresh waters1 are1 without exception1 different on the two continents4 ,again1 on each of the continents1 they differ in various latitudes2 some1 however1 taking a wider range than others in their natural geographical distribution4 ,the fresh-water fishes of ,north ,america1 which form a part of its temperate fauna1 extend over very considerable ground2 for there is no reason to subdivide into distinct faun the extensive tracts of lands between the arctics and the ,middle ,states of the ,union4 ,we notice over these1 considerable uniformity in the character of the fresh-water fishes4 ,nevertheless1 a minute investigation of all their species has shewn that ,lake ,superior proper1 and the fresh waters north of it1 constitute in many respects a special zoological district1 sufficiently different from that of the lower lakes and the northern ,united ,states1 to form a natural division in the great fauna of the fresh-water fishes of the temperate zone of this continent4 ,we have shewn that there are types1 occurring in all the lower lakes1 which never occur in ,lake ,superior and northwards1 and that most of the species found in ,lake ,superior are peculiar to it2 the ,salmonid only taking a wider range1 and some of them covering almost the whole extent of that fauna1 while others appear circumscribed within very narrow limits4 ,now1 such differences in the range which the isolated species take in the faun1 is a universal character of the distribution of animals2 some species of certain families covering1 without distinction1 extensive grounds1 which are occupied by several species of other families1 limited to particular districts of the same zone4 ,but after making due allowance for such variations1 and taking a general view of the subject1 we arrive1 nevertheless1 at this conclusion2 that all the fresh-water fishes of the district under examination are peculiar to that district1 and occur nowhere else in any other part of the world4 ,they have their analogues in other continents1 but nowhere beyond the limits of the ,american continent do we find any fishes identical with those of the district1 the fauna of which we have been recently surveying4 ,the lamprey eels of the lake district have very close representatives in ,europe1 but they cannot be identified4 ,the sturgeons of this continent are neither identical with those of ,europe nor with those of ,asia4 ,the cat-fishes are equally different4 ,we find a similar analogy and similar differences between the perches1 pickerels1 eelpouts1 salmons1 and carps4 ,in all the families which occur throughout the temperate zone1 there are near relatives on the two continents1 but they do not belong to the same stock4 ,and in addition to these1 there are also types which are either entirely peculiar to the ,american continent1 such as ,lepidosteus and ,percopsis1 or belong to genera which have not simultaneous representatives in the two worlds1 and are therefore more or less remote from those which have such close analogues4 ,the family of ,percoids1 for instance1 has several genera in ,europe1 which have no representatives in ,america2 and several genera in ,america which have no representatives in ,europe1 besides genera which are represented on both continents1 though by representatives specifically distinct4 ,such facts have an important bearing upon the history of creation2 and it would be very unphilosophical to adhere to any view respecting its plan1 which would not embrace these facts1 and grant them their full meaning4 ,if we face the fundamental question which is at the bottom of this particular distribution of animals1 and ask ourselves1 where have all these fishes been created1 there can be but one answer given which will not be in conflict and direct contradiction with the facts themselves1 and the laws that regulate animal life4 ,the fishes1 and all other fresh-water animals of the region of the great lakes1 must have been created where they live4 ,they are circumscribed within boundaries over which they cannot pass1 and to which there is no natural access from other quarters4 ,there is no trace of their having extended further in their geographical distribution at any former period1 nor of their having been limited within narrower boundaries4 ,it cannot be rational to suppose that they were created in some other part of the world1 and were transferred to this continent1 to die away in the region where they are supposed to have originated1 and to multiply in the region where they are found4 ,there is no reason why we should not take the present evidence in their distribution as the natural fact respecting their origin1 and that they are1 and were from the beginning1 best suited for the country where they are now found4 ,moreover1 they bear to the species which inhabit similar regions1 and live under similar circumstances in ,europe and ,asia1 and the ,pacific side of this continent1 such relations1 that they appear to the philosophical observer as belonging to a plan which has been carried out in its details with reference to the general arrangement4 ,the species of ,europe1 ,asia1 and the ,pacific side of this continent1 correspond in their general combination to the species of the eastern and northern parts of the ,american continent1 all over which the same general types are extended4 ,they correspond to each other on the whole1 but differ as to species4 ,and again1 this temperate fauna has such reference to the fauna of the arctic1 and to that of the warmer zones1 that any transposition of isolated members of the whole plan would disturb the harmony which is evidently maintained throughout the natural distribution of organized beings all over the world4 ,this internal evidence of an intentional arrangement1 having direct reference to the present geographical distribution of the animals1 dispersed over the whole surface of our globe1 shews most conclusively1 that they have been created where they are now found4 ,denying this position were equivalent to denying that the creation has been made according to a wise plan4 ,it were denying to the ,creator the intention of establishing well-regulated natural relations between the beings he has called into existence4 ,it were denying him the wisdom which is exemplified in nature1 to ascribe it to the creatures themselves1--to ascribe it even to those creatures in which we hardly see evidence of consciousness1 or1 worse than all1 to ascribe this wonderful order to physical influence or mere chance4 ,as soon as this general conclusion is granted1 there are1 however1 some further adaptations which follow as a matter of course4 ,each type1 being created within the limits of the natural area which it is to inhabit1 must have been placed there under circumstances favourable to its preservation and reproduction1 and adapted to the fulfilment of the purposes for which it was created4 ,there are in animals peculiar adaptations which are characteristic of their species1 and which cannot be supposed to have arisen from subordinate influences4 ,those which live in shoals cannot be supposed to have been created in single pairs4 ,those which are made to be the food of others cannot have been created in the same proportions as those which feed upon them4 ,those which are everywhere found in innumerable specimens1 must have been introduced in numbers capable of maintaining their normal proportions to those which live isolated1 and are comparatively and constantly fewer4 ,for we know that this harmony in the numerical proportions between animals is one of the great laws of nature4 ,the circumstance that species occur within definite limits where no obstacles prevent their wider distribution1 leads to the further inference that these limits were assigned to them from the beginning and so we would come to the final conclusion1 that the order which prevails throughout the creation is intentional1--that it is regulated by the limits marked out on the first day of creation1--and that it has been maintained unchanged through ages1 with no other modifications than those which the higher intellectual powers of man enable him to impose upon some of the few animals more closely connected with him1 and in reference to those very limited changes which he is able to produce artificially upon the surface of our globe4#d ,footnote #d3 ,the above view of the geography of animals appeared partly in an ,american periodical and partly in ,professor ,agassiz's beautiful and important work 7just received7 on ,lake ,superior4 ,on the ,geography and ,geology of the ,peninsula of ,mount ,sinai1 and the adjacent ,countries4 ,by ,,john ,,hogg1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s42 ,honorary ,secretary of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 c4 ,communicated by the ,author4 7,continued from page #bai47 ,this town is named in ,scripture ,elath or ,eloth2 in the ,septuagint ,ailath1 and ,ailn2 ,ailas1 ,aeila1 or ,aila by the ,greeks2 lana by the ,romans2 and ,ailah by the ,arabians3 it is described in #a ,kings ix4 #bf1 as on the shore of the ,red ,sea in the land of ,edom2 and in #b ,chron4 viii4 #ag1 at the sea-side in the land of ,idumea4 ,from ,procopius1 in the #fth century1 we learn the following exact account1#e which agrees very well with the site of those mounds--the eastern limits of ,palstina 7including of course that part of the peninsula which he elsewhere relates#f was called ,palstina ,tertia71 reach along the ,red ,sea4 ,on the shore is placed the town ,alas1 where1 the sea ending1 it is contracted into a very narrow bay4 ,footnote #e3 ,procopii de ,bell4 ,pers41 lib4 i41 cap4 #ai4 ,footnote #f3 ,procop4 de dificiis ,justiniani1 lib4 v41 cap1 #h4 ,tom4 ii4 ,edit4 ,par4 #affc4 ,edrisi1 in the #abth century1 terms the steep descent from the ,desert ,el ,tyh by ,el ,nakb to ,akaba--,akaba ,ailah--i4e41 the ,descent of ,ailah2 and ,makrisi1 in the #adth century1 as cited by ,burckhardt 7p4 #eaa71 speaks of the ,akaba1 or steep mountain before ,aila4 ,consequently1 ,i take it to be correct that these mounds indicate the former position of ,elath1#g on the shore of the ,sea of ,edom or ,idumea--an arm of the ,red ,sea4 ,footnote #g3 ,ailah was in the middle ages considered 7,robinson1 i41 p4 #beb1 and ,lepsius' ,tour1 p4 #bj71 as ,elim1 the sixth station of the ,israelites after they passed the ,red ,sea4 ,but ,i apprehend that the error very likely arose from the word ,ailam occurring in the ,alexandrine ,,ms41 7#b ,kings xvi4 #f2 and #b ,chron4 viii4 #ag71 for ,ailath1 which is used in the ,,lxx41 in those verses4 ,so ,ailam had here been mistaken for ,aileim1 ,elim1 the word which is found in ,exodus1 xvi4 #a2 of the ,,lxx4 ,at a short distance from them1 but westward1 a large space1 like a marsh1 seemed to be impregnated with nitre1 which is left incrusted in some spots upon their surface4 ,from hence1 going up the extensive valley ,el ,araba1 it is found to be full of sand drifts1 with here and there a few trees scattered about2 the torrents1 after rain1 flow along the west side1 and their waters1 which are not absorbed by the sand1 enter the sea at the north-west angle4 ,the width of this part of the ,wadi is near #e miles1 but in advancing farther to the north it becomes wider4 ,the mountains on the east are high--from #bjjj to #bejj feet2 being of granitic1 or rather porphyritic formation1 they are highly picturesque1 and have fine1 lofty1 jagged peaks3 but those on the west1 which are sandstone and chalk1 are lower2 rising to about a level with the desert ,el ,tyh1 they do not exceed #aejj1 or in places #ahjj feet in elevation4 ,not far from ,wadi ,ghadyan1#h towards the west side1 a great marsh-like tract1 apparently impregnated with nitre1 exhibits an incrustation on its surface4 ,and the water in the spring itself is1 according to ,m4 ,de ,bertou1 strong of sulphur4 ,footnote #h3 ,how ,robinson could suppose that this might afford a trace of ,eziongaber1 ,i cannot imagine4 ,see ,bib4 ,res41 vol4 i41 pp4 #bea1 #bfh4 ,passing the opening of ,wadi ,beianeh1 and still ascending1 the most elevated table-land or small plateau of the ,wadi-,el-,araba is reached at about the line of #cj north latitude1 and #ce #ae' east longitude nearly1 which is very near #ejj feet higher than the level of the ,gulf of ,akaba1 according to ,herr ,schubert4 ,about that point the water-shed occurs2 some of the waters of the ,araba flow south into the sea of ,akaba1 but most are carried off north by the tributaries of the ,wadi-el-,jeib into the ,dead ,sea4 ,the same traveller 7,schubert7 found the depression of the bed of that deep ,wadi at about #d miles south of ,el ,weibeh 7hole with water17 to be #ia ,paris feet1 or #ig ,english feet below the level of the ,red ,sea2 the commencement1 or most southern limit of that depression taking place at about #ae miles northward of ,gebel ,harun in ,wadi-el-,araba4 ,consequently1 the ,dead ,sea1 ,asphaltic ,lake 7,bahr ,lut7--the ,sea of ,lot--must lie considerably lower than the level of the ,gulf of ,akaba2 indeed1 ,herr ,schubert gives the level of the ,dead ,sea as being #eih ,paris feet1 and ,m4 ,russegger even more than #acjj ,english feet below that of the ,mediterranean4 ,these geographical facts then afford1 as some authors have supposed1 sufficient evidence that the ,river ,jordan1 although taking its source at an elevation of #ahjj feet in the north ,syrian mountains--has not flowed through the entire valley ,el ,araba into the ,gulf of ,akaba2 or rather1 into the ,red ,sea1 beyond what is now the ,strait of ,tiran4 ,and certainly these facts are decisive that it never has done so--if the natural conformation of this region has always been the same1 as it now exists with regard to depth and height4 ,but against its having continued the same1 ab initio1 up to the present time1 much reasonable hypothesis1 and several remarkable appearances may be fairly advanced4 ,of the latter1 some are the volcanic phenomena apparent around the ,dead ,sea and ,el ,ghor1#i on the north2 in the basaltic cliffs and creeks nearly opposite the ,isle of ,kureiyeh2 the frequent displacements of strata and rocks in many places on the north-west side of the ,gulf of ,akaba2 the coincidences exhibited by the strata in the ,isle of ,tiran1 with those of the ,arabian and ,sinaic shores2 and the volcanic remains and crater-like hills between them and ,sherm on the south4 ,moreover1 it may be collected from ,scripture1 that certain changes had actually been effected in the vicinity of the ,dead ,sea 7,gen4 xix4 #be72 and that they were caused by fire 7,ibid4 xxiv4 #bh72 if then1 at that period1 the southern part of the valley of the ,jordan1 the plain of the ,dead ,sea1 and ,el ,ghor had1 through igneous1 or volcanic1 or other agency1 sunk much below their former levels1 it is possible that a corresponding elevation of the land in ,wadi-el-,araba might have taken place at the same 7or perhaps at another7 time1 by the same 7or by a subsequent similar7 agency4 ,footnote #i3 ,ghor signifies a long valley between two mountains4 ,refer to some of these volcanic indications1 p4 #abb of ,dr ,kitto's ,physical ,geography of the ,holy ,land4 ,el ,ghor1 on the south of the ,dead ,sea1 abounding in salt1 is most probably the valley of salt mentioned in #b ,kings xiv4 #g4 ,again1 it seems probable from ,scripture1 that the ,dead ,sea and ,wadi-el-,araba had been once continued1 or more connected in their levels2 because in ,joshua iii4 #af1 and xii4 #c1 the former is called the sea of the plain 7even7 the ,salt ,sea2 and in ,deut4 iv4 #di1 only the sea of the plain2 the original ,hebrew expression in all three verses is1 ,yam ha ,arabah2 that is1 the ,sea of the ,araba2 and the ,septuagint renders it h thalassa ,araba4 ,ha ,arabah1 in ,hebrew1 signifies the same as ,el ,arabah in ,arabic--a desert-plain1 or a plain4 ,so1 likewise1 we find in ,deut4 ii4 #h1 the children of ,edom described as dwelling in ,seir1 through the way of the ,plain from ,elath1 and from ,eziongaber2 the ,hebrew and ,greek words for the plain are here also the same1 viz41 ,arabah4 ,consequently1 these passages from ,scripture1 shewing that both extremes1 north and south1 of this great plain or ,wadi1 bore the same appellation1 prove that it was esteemed one entire valley in its whole extent1 from the ,dead1 or ,salt ,sea1 to ,elath and ,eziongaber on the ,red ,sea1 or lanitic ,gulf1 in the land of ,edom 7#a ,kings ix4 #bf1 and #b ,chron4 viii4 #ag47 ,and1 indeed1 according to ,dr ,robertson1 no such division of it1 as ,m4 ,de ,bertou and some other travellers assert1 into ,wadi-el-,akaba1 and ,wadi-el-,araba1#aj at this day exists4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see ,m4 ,de ,bertou's paper in the ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bhb4 ,after having attained the highest point1 or short table-land of the ,wadi-el-,araba1 the descent in fact begins in a direct line nearly due north to the ,dead ,sea2 it is in places more elevated1 rougher1 and more sandy than in others2 and its width also becomes greater4 ,gebel-el-,beianeh appears the loftiest of the chain on the west2 but this is scarcely two-thirds as high as the east range1 ,gebel-el-,shera 7,mount ,seir72 the former is entirely sterile and arid1 whilst the latter is covered with herbs and occasional trees1 and seems to have a sufficiency of rain4 ,the east ,wadis also1 which are numerous1 are filled with trees1 shrubs1 and flowers2 and their eastern and higher portions1 being well cultivated1 yield good crops4 ,so ,strabo1 calling the district ,nabatha1 states it abounded in pastures2 h ,nabataia polyandros ousa h chra kai eubotos2#aa and being the country of ,esau1 it was of the fatness of the earth1 and of the dew of heaven from above4--,gen4 xxvii4 #ci4 ,footnote #aa3 ,strabo ,geog41 vol4 ii41 lib4 #af-ce1 p4 #aajc4 ,edit4 ,falconer4 ,the range of ,mount ,seir1 ,gebel-el-,shera1 i4e41 the mountains of a region or tract1 under which ,i have only included those mountains1 commencing with ,mount ,seir itself on the north1 and extending to ,gebel-el-,ithm on the south4 ,on the eastern side is now sandstone1 veined with oxide of iron2 and those mountains still further to the east1 forming a part of the ,nabathan chain1 are limestone with flints1 of the same cretaceous series as that of the ,sinaic ,peninsula2 they present many varied forms and shapes4 ,el ,araba1 in the approach to ,wadi ,gharandel1 is more covered with shifting sands1 broken by innumerable undulations1 and low hills2 into these sands the waters of ,wadi ,gharandel1 which1 according to ,burckhardt1 have a sulphureous taste1 lose themselves4 ,in the ascent of this ,wadi 7,gharandel7 towards ,gebel ,kula1 a mountain is climbed which is composed of calcareous rocks1 sandstone and flints1 lying over each other in horizontal layers4 ,gebel ,kula is covered on its summit1 with a chalky surface4 ,but in ,wadi ,dalegheh the mountains are calcareous1 with some flints1 and perfectly bare4 ,east of these valleys1 and distant about six miles1 are said to be the vestiges of a ,roman road1 which probably led near ,usdaka--the ,szadeke of ,burckhardt--to ,petra4 ,near that place is a hill with some considerable ruins1 very possibly the remains of what the ,peutingerian ,table calls ,zadagasta2 which word seems to have been corrupted into ,zadeka1 and ,sudaka1 or ,usdaka4 ,a fine spring1 or ,ain1 is there much noted4 ,also1 further north five or six miles1 at ,ain ,mefrak1 some ruins are visible4 ,and the same traveller noticed1 a few miles north of the present picturesque village of ,eljy--situate a little east of ,petra1 in a more fertile spot--the substructions of walls and paved roads1 all constructed of flints4 ,the present road1 traversed by the ,hadj1 or pilgrims1 from ,syria to ,mecca1 passes about five miles more eastwards1 through ,maan 7,maon1 ,judges x4 #ab71 placed in a rocky district4 ,this town is divided by two hills1 on each of which stands a portion of it4 ,the fruits1 especially pomegranates1 peaches1 apricots1 and grapes1 are there excellent1 and are much sought after by the ,syrian pilgrims4 ,burckhardt 7p4 #dcf71 says here1 are several springs1 to which the town owes its origin2 and ,i presume the word itself1 ,ma'an1 is abbreviated by use from ,mayan1 signifying a fountain4 ,fourthly4--,petra1 the ,greek appellation of the capital of the ancient ,nabatha1 or territory of the ,nabathi1 and the ,edom of ,scripture1 was called in ,hebrew1 ,sela2 both words meaning a rock1 and the first of which gave its name to the country--,arabia ,petra4 ,it is also called ,joktheel1 in #b ,kings xiv4 #g4 ,strabo has distinctly recorded that ,petra was the capital of the ,nabathans who were ,idumans4 7,lib4 xvi47 ,the former appellation having been bestowed upon this people as descendants of ,nebaioth1 7#a ,chron4 i4 #bi71 or ,nebajoth 7,gen4 xxv4 #ac71 who was ,abraham and ,hagar's grandson1 and ,ishmael's first-born son4 ,petra is correctly described by the same ,greek geographer1 as well as by the ,roman naturalist4 ,the short account of the last ,i here transcribe3 ,nabati oppidum includunt ,petram nomine in convalle1 paulo minus duum mill4 passuum amplitudinis1 circumdatum montibus inaccessis amne interfluente4#ab ,i will not add here any description of the very magnificent remains of this remarkable city1 the city of the ,rock--or rather excavated and carved out of the natural rock--whose dwellings are said to have been in the clefts of the rock1 7,obadiah #c71 since they are now so well known4 ,footnote #ab3 ,plin4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,lib4 vi41 cap4 #bh4 ,coming to ,petra from ,eljy1 on the east1 the body of the regular mountain on that side is limestone1 and higher than the red sandstone1 where the tombs in ,wadi ,mousa are excavated4 ,the cliffs at ,petra are of red sandstone1 which is soft and easily cut1 causing the sculptures to decay quickly1 unless where they may have been protected from the weather4 ,this formation extends far to the north and south1 and rests on the lower masses of porphyry4 ,the colour of the sandstone rocks in ,wadi ,mousa is not a dull monotonous red1 but a variety of bright hues1 from the deepest crimson1 as ,dr ,robinson writes 7vol4 ii41 p4 #eca71 to the softest pink2 verging also sometimes to orange and yellow4 ,these varying shades are often distinctly marked by waving lines1 imparting to the surface of the rock a succession of brilliant and changing tints1 like the hues of watered silk1 and adding greatly to the imposing effect of the sculptured monuments4 ,the site of ,petra1 in the high ravine1 is called by the ,arabs1 ,wadi ,mousa2 most likely corrupted from ,moseroth1 or ,mosera 7,deut4 x4 #f71 where ,aaron died and was buried4 ,it is extremely interesting1 and is well watered by a flowing stream--the ,el ,syk of ,burckhardt4 ,the sandstone rocks1 with their craggy and precipitous sides1 have their summits resembling rounded peaks2 peaks1 probably owing to the softness of the stone1 rounded by the effects of weather4 ,the height of this ,wadi is estimated at near #bbjj feet above the adjoining ,wadi-el-,araba4 ,to the west of ,petra1 ,mount ,hor1 ,gebel ,harun constitutes the loftiest point of this sandstone tract4 ,it stands out conspicuously1 and is a cone irregularly truncated with three rugged peaks1 of which that to the ,,ne4 is the highest1 and has upon it the ,mahommetan ,wely2 or the tomb of ,aaron1 called ,neby ,harun4 ,this peak rises to about #bgjj feet above ,wadi ,mousa1 or to #ecjj feet above the sea4 ,captains ,irby and ,mangles1 the first ,europeans who ascended ,gebel ,harun1 thus describe the view from the summit4 ,it is extremely extensive in every direction2 but the eye rests on few objects which it can clearly distinguish1 and give a name to1 although an excellent idea is obtained of the general face and features of the country4 ,the chain of ,idumean mountains1 which form the western shore of the ,dead ,sea1 seem to run on to the south1 though losing considerably in their height4 ,they appear in this point of view1 barren and desolate4 ,below them is spread out a white sandy plain1 seamed with the beds of occasional torrents1 and presenting much the same features as the most desert parts of the ,ghor4 ,where this desert expanse approaches the foot of ,mount ,hor1 there arise out of it1 like islands1 several lower peaks and ridges1 of a purple colour1 probably composed of the same kind of sandstone as that of ,mount ,hor itself1 which1 variegated as it is in its hues1 presents in the distance one uniform mass of dark purple4 ,towards the ,egyptian side there is an expanse of country without features or limit1 and lost in the distance4 ,the lofty district which we had quitted in our descent to ,wadi ,mousa1 shuts up the prospect on the south-east side2 but there is no part of the landscape which the eye wanders over with more curiosity and delight than the crags of ,mount ,hor itself1 which stand up on every side1 in the most rugged and fantastic forms1 sometimes strangely piled one on the other1 and sometimes as strangely yawning in clefts of a frightful depth4 ,under the term ,nabathan ,chain1 or the chain of the mountains of ,edom1 ,i have restricted those mountains beginning north of #cj ,n4 ,lat41 and which then tend round northward1 by the east of ,petra4 ,they are the loftiest on the east1 attaining probably to an altitude of #cjjj feet above the ,wadi-el-,araba4 ,this chain presents to the view1 on the east1 long elevated ranges of limestone1 sometimes with flints1 but of more easy slopes1 without precipices1 being smooth and rounded4 ,further still to the east1 the high plateau of the ,great ,eastern ,desert--of which ,el ,nejd is a portion--stretches out to an almost indefinite extent4 ,to the west and north1 and around ,mount ,hor1 lofty party-coloured sandstone ridges and cliffs prevail2 then succeed high masses of porphyry1 constituting the body of the mountains1 but lower than the sandstone4 ,and1 lastly1 more northwards1 the chain sinks down into low hills of argillaceous rock1 or of limestone4 ,the entire breadth of the ,seir range seems not to exceed eighteen ,english miles1 between ,wadi-el-,araba and the ,eastern ,desert2 whilst that of the more northern1 or ,nabathan chain1 does not exceed twenty-two miles between those districts4 ,going west from ,petra1 the valley of the ,araba is again entered1 where the deeper ,wadi-el-,jeib is seen to wind along1 very near the middle of it1 from the south1 then sweeping off ,,nw41 it meets the ,wadi-el-,jerafah1 which comes in from the ,,sw4 ,afterwards1 it is called only ,wadi-el-,jeib2 and being a deep valley within a larger valley1 it forms the chief water-course of the greater portion of the ,araba1 and carries down to the ,dead ,sea1 in the wet season1 an immense body of water4 ,el ,araba1 more to the north of ,gebel ,harun1 is much wider2 in parts of it there are gravel hills2 and here and there1 masses of porphyry lie about in the sand1 having been washed down by the torrents4 ,eleven or twelve miles north of that ,mount 7,hor71 occurs the pass of ,nemela among low hills of limestone1 or rather a yellowish argillaceous rock1 the dark steep mass of the mountain being porphyry1 as before described2 thence the ,wadi ascends between the porphyry and limestone formations2 and on the top is a little basin of yellow sandstone capping the porphyry4 ,coming back southward through the ,wadi-el-,araba1 as far as the embouchure of the valley of the ,jerafah--meaning gullying1--which is about a mile wide1 the mountains on this west side are found to be composed of chalk and limestone2 and1 in many places1 with large pieces of black flint4 ,on the north1 and to the east of ,lussan1 the mountains of ,iduma are lofty1 consisting of precipitous limestone ranges2 the solitary conical mount1 about #fjj feet above the plain1 named ,gebel ,araif-el-,naka--the crest of a she-camel1 forms a conspicuous object2 it is calcareous1 and strewed with flints4 ,low ridges extend from it westward and eastward2 the latter terminating in a headland or bluff1 called ,gebel ,makrah4 ,the wide sandy ,wadi-el-,ghudhagidh--the ,ghudhaghidh of ,robinson--is probably the ,gudgodah2 or1 as it is written in ,hebrew1 ,ghudghodah1 mentioned in ,deut4 x4 #g1 whither the ,israelites journeyed from ,mosera 7,wadi ,mousa7 after ,aaron's death4 ,after this valley were some low chalky cliffs1 and then succeeded a barren flinty tract4 ,towards the ,,nw4 and ,w41 a broad open district stretches out apparently to ,gebel ,jaraf1 said to be #acjj feet above the sea level1 through which is the course of the ,wadi ,khereir1 elevated about #ajjj feet at its nearest point to that mount1 and flowing northward into the large ,wadi-el-,agaba1--upon one side1 and to ,gebel ,yelak1 the white mountain1 on the other side2 but it is broken in some places by limestone or chalk hills4 ,the ,wadi ,ghudhagidh1 and the more southern tributaries of the ,jerafah1 flow to the ,,ne4 to the ,dead ,sea1 as already explained2 and they1 with some smaller winter torrents that unite with them1 are the only water-courses in this part of ,arabia ,petra which supply that sea4 ,on the ,,se4 of the upper ,jerafah1 some low limestone ridges present themselves2 but1 on the other side is the sandy plain ,el ,adhbeh3 beyond this1 northwards1 follows a level plain covered with pebbles and black flints4 ,the high ,west ,desert1 called by the ,arabs ,el ,tyh1 the wandering1 and so named in ,edrisi and ,abul-feda1 near its centre at ,nakhl1 signifying date trees 7at which station there exists a grove of those trees71 at an elevation of near #aejj feet above the sea1 consists of vast plains1 or plateaux of varying1 mostly higher1 altitudes1 a sandy1 flinty1 or gravelly soil1 and limestone hills of the cretaceous or secondary formation1 having very irregular ridges disposed in different directions4 ,the numerous ,wadis1 or water-courses1 and winter torrents of this enormous desert1 all run to the ,n4 or ,,nw41 and pour their waters into the ,mediterranean ,sea2 while those ,wadis that lie on the other side of the ,great ,mountain range1 which bounds the desert in its western and southern extremities--,gebel-el-,rahah and ,gebel-el-,tyh--divide their waters1 and so supply1 in part1 the ,gulf of ,suez1 and in part the ,gulf of ,akaba4 ,of the former ,wadis1 two are the principal2 namely1 ,wadi-el-,agaba1 which rises somewhat to the east of the line of #cd ,e4 long42 and ,wadi-el-,arish1 which ,russegger and later authors affirm as springing to the west of it1 and of ,gebels ,heiyalah1 ,yelak1 and ,mishea1 and of which ,wadi ,nesil seems to me to be only a tributary4 ,the chain called ,gebel-el-,egmeh1 or ,el ,odjme by ,burckhardt1 appears1 as he says1 chalky2 and such1 also1 is the soil of the plain1 and frequently covered with black pebbles 7flints72 it unites with the higher chain of the ,gebel-el-,tyh1 about the centre of the ,peninsula1--that is to say1 of the ,peninsular ,triangle1 and where the branches ,north-el-,tyh and ,south-el-,tyh separate4 ,there the height of the summit of ,el ,tyh is given by ,russegger as #dcbb ,paris feet1 or #dfae ,english feet1 above the sea2 descending thence by the pass of ,mureikhi1 into the sandy plain of ,debbet-el-,ramleh1 the elevation of that plateau1 just about the middle of it1 and about half way to the head of ,wadi-el-,sheikh1 is near #djjj feet above the sea level2 ,alahadar being a little to the east4 ,in the ,wadi ,el ,sheikh1 meaning the ,valley of the ,elder1 or ,chief1 which is one of the principal valleys in the ,peninsula1 before coming to ,moses' seat 7,mokad ,seidna ,mousa71 occurs a range of low hills of a substance called ,taffal1 chiefly a detritus of the felspar of granite1 like pipe clay4 ,the easiest approach to the present ,sinaic district is by the east side of this ,wadi1 which leads into the wider ,wadi1 or plain ,el ,raha1 i4e41 a plain surrounded by hills4 ,the view of ,gebels ,el ,deir 7,the ,convent71 the now-termed ,horeb1 ,humer 7red71 and others1 from thence is very striking4 ,the lower granitic mountains of the present ,sinai are more regularly shaped than the upper2 being less rugged1 they have no insulated peaks2 and their summits terminate in smooth curves4 ,whilst in the ascent to the higher mountains1 peaks on peaks arise1 of the form of sharp cones1 and of various altitudes4 ,gebel ,mousa1 or ,moses' ,mount1 is of red granite for about half-way up2 all the rest being a yellowish granite1 with small black grains1 and from ,wadi ,leja 7asylum71 these colours appear most distinct4 ,the height of the apex of ,g4 ,mousa peak1 which does not exceed fifty yards in width1 was ascertained by ,lieutenant ,wellsted1 from the mean of observations1 to be #geje feet above the sea of ,akaba2 and that late1 able1 and lamented officer1 who was upon that summit in ,january1 and enjoyed the advantage of a clear serene atmosphere1 which1 in a more advanced season of the year1 would have been hazy1 with a blue mist1 arising from the powerful sun1 was thereby enabled1 by means of angles taken to the hills on the ,arabian coast1 ninety miles distant1 to correctly fix the geographical position of the mountain4 ,he has also well described the most extensive view from that peak1 as follows3-- ,the ,gulfs of ,suez and ,akaba are distinctly visible2 from the dark-blue waters of the latter1 the island of ,tiran1 considered by the ancient geographers as sacred to ,isis1#ac rears itself4 ,mount ,agrib 7,garib71 on the other hand1 points out 'the land of bondage4' ,before me is ,st ,catherine1 its bare1 conical peak now capped with snow4 ,in magnificence and striking effect1 few parts of the world can surpass the wild1 naked scenery everywhere met with in the mountain-chain which girds the sea-coast of ,arabia4 444 ,the monkish ,mount ,sinai itself1 and the hills which compose the district in its immediate vicinity1 rise in sharp1 isolated1 conical peaks4 ,from their steep and shattered sides huge masses have been splintered1 leaving fissures rather than valleys between their remaining portions4 ,these form the highest part of the range of mountains that spread out over the ,peninsula1 and are very generally1 in the winter months1 covered with snow1 the melting of which occasions the torrents which everywhere devastate the plains below4 ,the peculiarities of its conical formation1 render this district yet more distinct from the adjoining heights that appear in successive ridges beyond it1 while the valleys which intersect them are so narrow that few can be perceived4 ,no villages and castles1 as in ,europe1 here animate the picture2 no forests1 lakes1 or falls of water1 break the silence and monotony of the scene4 ,all has the appearance of a vast and desolate wilderness1 either grey1 darkly-brown1 or wholly black4#ad ,footnote #ac3 ,isis is supposed to be the same as ,io1 and the island of ,tiran is evidently1 as ,i have already stated in a preceding note1 that which ,procopius names ,itab1 ,iotabe4 ,this word is probably derived from ,ious ta abata1--the shrine1 or sacred place1 of ,io4 ,footnote #ad3 ,travels in ,arabia1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ig4 ,and ,dr ,lepsius remarks on this mountain1 that-- ,although it is certainly a high mountain1 still it is a secondary one1 and almost eclipsed by others of the ,great ,southern ,chain1 the geographical centre of which is neither in ,gebel ,mousa1 nor the loftier ,gebel ,katherin1 but in the more southern1 and considerably more elevated ,gebel-um-,schomar4 ,gebel ,katherin1 composed principally of a coarse red granite1 presents the same conical peaks4 ,but in ,wadi ,owasz1 ,s4 by ,w41 from the last mountain1 ,burckhardt noticed a small chain of white and red sandstone hills in the midst of granite4 ,gebel-um-,schomar 7,mount ,mother ,schomar71 also consists chiefly of granite2 the lower part red1 but the top is almost white4 ,in its middle1 between the granite1 occur broad layers of brittle black slate1 mixed with veins of quartz and felspar1 and with micaceous schist4 ,its extreme peak1 about #hhjj feet above the sea1 is sharp pointed1 and seems to be inaccessible1 owing to its perpendicular and smooth sides4 ,burckhardt1 in his attempt to ascend it1 was obliged to halt at about #bjj feet below it4 ,this was1 until recently1 esteemed the highest point in the ,peninsula2 but1 according to ,herr ,russegger1 two or three other peaks1 to the south of it1 are about #ejj feet more lofty2 the extreme elevation of this last group1 which seems not to bear any distinct appellation1 he estimates at #icjj ,english feet4 ,i here add1 after the latter author1 a sketch of the granite peaks of the high ,modern-,sinaic mountains1 from north to south1 as they present so interesting and remarkable an appearance4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of granite peaks ,in the narrow valley1 a little south of ,gebel ,mohala1 which is all granite1 on the east side of1 or opposite to1 the ,schomar1 is a spring named ,tabakat1 where beautiful porphyry is observed4 ,the south side of ,mount ,schomar is very abrupt1 and there is no secondary chain between it and the other lofty southern mountains1 and the long gravelly plain ,el ,kaa4 ,from that plain1 entering ,wadi ,hebron--a ravine about #ajj yards wide--fragments of rocks1 principally of granite and porphyry washed down by torrents1 are frequent2 a small stream is seen flowing among them2 in spots1 some date trees occur1 and likewise the manna-producing tamarisk4 ,continuing to ascend1 a moderately-steep pass is reached2 afterwards1 a descent of about #gjj feet leads into the sandy ,wadi ,solaf wine valley2 and then1 gaining1 with some difficulty1 the summit of a steeper pass1 the north-west angle of the extensive ,wadi ,raha is come to4 ,here1 again1 the present ,sinaic group1 beyond the plain1 exhibits its rugged mountains of dark granite1 with stern1 naked1 splintered peaks1 and ridges of indescribable grandeur4 ,next1 turning to the north down the narrow declivity called ,nakb ,hawi1 the windy pass1 of which the stupendous granite walls or cliffs elevate themselves to about #hjj feet1 passing to the west end of ,wadi ,solaf1 where it meets ,wadi ,firan and ,wadi-el-,sheikh1 and following the last valley as far as ,el ,szaleib1 that ascent is attained4 ,there the formation consists of granite1 on the upper beds of which run layers of red felspar4 ,north-east of ,wadi-el-,ush is situate ,gebel ,sheyger1 which affords some native cinnabar4 ,the three principal passes leading from the sandy ,debbet-el-,ramleh on to the great desert over the ,tyh range1 are1 ,el ,mureikhi near the centre and near ,gebel-el-,egmeh2 then ,el ,warsah1 said to be of too rapid an ascent for caravans2 and the third1 which is most to the west1 ,el ,rakineh 7the painted47 ,afterwards1 at some distance to the ,,nw41 is the valley opening past ,ras ,wadi ,gharandel1 that has already been described4 ,proceeding1 again1 across the plain ,el ,ramleh1 and over the pass ,mureikhi on to the ,desert-el-,tyh1 in the approach to the castle of ,nakhl1 on the east1 a few miles off1 low chalky hills appeared2 and in places there were holes wherein rock-salt had been dug4 ,the water at ,nakhl is brackish1 and the ground chalky1 covered with loose pebbles4 ,wadi ,nesil was observed to be overgrown with green shrubs4 ,gebel-el-,thughar1 signifying the mouths1 presents a mountainous tract1 in which followed a valley with calcareous hills3 here deep sands were lodged1 and large insulated rocks of a porous tufa1 called by ,burckhardt tufwacke1 lie scattered in many places4 ,the termination of the vast gravelly plain we had been crossing from ,nakhl was now at hand2 but we could yet see it spreading out wide to our left1 the mirage giving its distant portions the appearance of a succession of blue lakes2 directly in front were the mountains which close it in2 and far to the right we could see1 stretching away1 a still higher range running to the north1 and on the left the tops of the mountains about ,wadi ,gharandel1 the ,taset 7cup7 ,soddur being conspicuous afar4 ,we entered these mountains by a slight ascent1 which struck soon after the head of a long winding valley descending towards ,suez3 the immense plain we had traversed1 floated away in mist1 and we had now done with the plateau of the ,great ,desert4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,bartlett's ,forty ,days in the ,desert1 p4 #afg4 ,thence a plain1 which is below the level of the ,desert-el-,tyh1 and covered with moving sands1 extends as far as the sea-shore4 ,these sands are collected by the winds1 in many spots1 into hills #cj or #dj feet high4 ,the wells at ,mabuk afford good water by digging to the depth of #aj or #ab feet4 ,fifthly1 ,once more leaving ,suez2 after having passed over a small piece of marine and alluvial formation near the sea1 and taking a westerly direction1 a narrow tract of tertiary sandstone1 so designated by ,russegger1 is observed2 it is a plain which gradually ascends from the shore of the ,gulf1 and in it is placed the ,castle of ,ajroud2 the water obtained there is very bitter4 ,beyond this to the west1 the plain becomes sandy1 and covered with black flints4 ,but the soil and hills at ,wadi ,emshash1 which signify the ,valley of the ,waterpits1 near ,ajroud1 are calcareous3 the well there1 called ,bir ,emshash1 yields after rain good drinking water4 ,the hills around ,ajroud consist of tertiary limestone and marl4 ,more to the south1 ,gebel ,ataka divides this formation1 itself being a secondary limestone belonging to the cretaceous series1 and1 according to ,dr ,robinson1 is strewed thickly with flint pebbles4 ,it terminates in ,ras ,ataka1 or ,cape ,deliverance1 on the ,gulf4 ,the sandy and gravelly plain1 ,el ,baidea1 the ,wadi ,tawarik of others1 has been named by some1 the ,valley of ,moses1 ,wadi ,mousa2 it communicates on the west with ,wadi-el-,tyh4 ,gebel ,deraj 7steps7 is limestone of the same cretaceous series as ,mount ,ataka2 and this formation stretches out southwards to a great distance1 constituting a large portion of the ,east ,egyptian ,desert4 ,then on the south of the former mountain1 a band of granite1 which forms the northern ridge of ,gebel ,kallala1 is observed1 wherein there exist remains of old copper mines4 ,those called ,reigatamerih1 situate among low hills1 have evidently been worked by the ancients1 as well from the quantity of pottery and scori there1 as from the remains of miners' houses1 and the regular manner in which the caverns have been cut1 following up the veins4#af ,footnote #af3 ,mr ,j4 ,wilkinson on the ,eastern ,desert of ,upper ,egypt1 p4 #cb1 vol4 ii4 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,near1 on the ,,se41 there is a well 7bir7 named ,horreh1 whose water is bad1 owing to the sulphur which it contains4 ,this is placed in ,wadi ,araba1 an extensive valley1 running in a direction nearly due ,w4 and ,e41 and descending from ,wadi ,chaderat very rapidly to the shore of the gulf1 which is here termed by the ,arabs ,mersa ,zafraneh1 i4e41 ,harbour of ,saffron4 ,the coast itself is flat and marshy4 ,the headlands on the south are a conglomerate1 or breccia rock1 of the ,tertiary formation1 composed of shells1 stones1 and other substances1 held together by a calcareous cement4 ,the ,arabs report1 that a carriage-road anciently existed through the ,wadi ,araba1 and led to the ,bay of ,zafraneh4 ,this1 ,i conceive1 might have been the road of communication to the ,egyptian colonies and copper mines on the opposite ,sinaic peninsula1 in ,wadi ,maghara1 ,sarbut-el-,chadem1 c41 and over which the produce of those mines1 having been shipped from the harbour of ,zelime to the ,mersa ,zafraneh1 might have been conveyed in waggons to the ,nile4 ,but1 whether or not the ,araba mountains that rise a little to the south of the opposite coast of the ,peninsula had received the same appellation from this valley1 there seems to be no testimony to decide4 ,the ,monastery of ,st ,antony--,deir ,antonios--distant about #ag miles from the sea1 is a fortified convent of ,copts1 surrounded by a strong wall1 of about #ce feet in height1 the entrance to which is by a trap-door1 wherefrom a rope descends1 as in the present ,sinaic convent4 ,the keep1 or place of safety1 is an insulated tower1 defended by a drawbridge4 ,according to common statement1 this was the abode and place of burial of ,st ,antony1 the founder of ,monachism4 ,the mountains to the south1 at the northern end of which stands the convent1 are calcareous 7of the same cretaceous formation71 containing in places a great deal of salt4 ,they are known to the ,arabs by the term of ,gebel ,kallala1 and1 in fact1 constitute the southern ridge of that chain4 ,another large and similarly protected convent1 called ,deir ,bolos 7,paul71 distant from the former#ag about #ae miles in a direct ,,se4 line1 is situate in a picturesque place1 and about #aj miles from the nearest point of the ,gulf of ,suez4 ,an adjoining garden abounds in date and other fruit-trees4 ,on the east1 between this convent and the sea1 ,wadi ,girfeh is approached1 among low hills3 on the tops of some of these the substructions of houses are visible1 having been built with uncemented stones4 ,also some chambers1 or catacombs1 are cut in the rock3 in the larger were found crystals of rock-salt2 the strata are composed of limestone1 and contain many fossils4 ,broken pieces of terra cotta vases1 chiefly red1 are everywhere observed2 and they1 with other vestiges1 probably point out the site of a ,roman colonial town4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see the ,views of the ,convents of ,st ,paul and ,st ,anthony1 plate #ea1 p4 #abh1 chap4 vi41 book ii41 vol4 i41 in ,pococke's ,description of the ,east4 ,proceeding from ,st ,paul's to the ,,se41 for near #ae miles1 the line of the primitive mountains is reached on the left1 whilst the secondary chain of ,gebel ,kallala1 consisting of limestone with ammonites1 is continued on the right1 or west4 ,south of ,wadi ,dthahal micaceous schist approaching to gneiss occurs1 and a little further1 the primitive and sandstone1 or gritstone rocks join4 ,thence the secondary1 or cretaceous mountains1 diverging to the south and south-west1 gradually decrease in altitude4 ,again1 southwards1 some more ancient copper-works are noticed2 and then1 ,gebel ,horvashia1 whose formation is granite1 rises a few miles off to the ,,se42 in its natural basin much good water is retained after rain4 ,wadi ,abu ,hadth next attracts attention from its possessing a good deal of fine herbage1 and many gum-arabic trees4 ,of the granite mountains in this region1 ,gebel ,agrib1 or ,garib1 or ,gharib 7camel's hump7 is the loftiest1 as it elevates itself to about #fjjj feet above the sea level2 and from its position it forms a conspicuous landmark far out at sea4 ,the ascent of this majestic mountain1 from its steepness and numerous ravines1 is found to be fatiguing4 ,mr ,j4 ,wilkinson#ah describes it as follows3-- ,the first evening we reached the base of the highest cone1 where we slept1 and ascended the next morning to the summit1 from which we had a view of the mountains on either side of the sea1 and the different plains4 ,we tracked the gazelles very nearly to the summit1 and every now and then in the ravines found some solitary plants growing under the shade of a projecting stone4 ,the peaks of this mountain resemble the ,aiguilles near ,mount ,blanc2 but1 to equal that mountain in beauty1 it requires the lower parts to be covered with the woods and verdure of the ,alps1 and the desert plain below to be exchanged for the green meadows of ,switzerland4 ,i calculate the height to be #eeac feet above the ravine in the plain below1 which is a few hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,footnote #ah3 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci4 ,about ten miles southward1 ,bir-el-,dara--the ,well of ,dara1 below the mountain of that name1 occurs2 there1 likewise1 copper scori1 smelting furnaces1 and miners' houses1 are observed4 ,further south1 more copper mines are seen in a bare place1 among low hills1 all of which have been examined for the ore4 ,advancing south-eastwards by the plain1 some calcareous rocks are passed1 and afterwards a line of sandstone1#ai with limestone over it1 running parallel to1 and nearly equidistant between the two primitive ridges4 ,wadi-el-,enned succeeds to the eastward1 where a beautifully clear rivulet is found2 but its water is too bad for the use of animals1 being chiefly serviceable for the nourishment of numerous date palms4 ,this spot lies at the foot of some limestone hills of the cretaceous series that join the eastern granitic ridge4 ,footnote #ai3 ,mr ,j4 ,wilkinson 7ibid1 ,note1 p4 #da71 says1 ,judging from the angle of its dip1 it formerly rose over the lower1 or eastern primitive range1 from which1 however1 it is now separated by a valley1 or bed of a torrent4 ,next1 on the south1 comes ,gebel ,kuffra1 where the water is so salt as only to be drunk by camels4 ,gebel ,dochan1 7smoke7--the ,mons ,porphyrites of the ancients--rising about eleven miles more southward1 and in the same line with the supposed site of ,myos ,hormus1 ,myos ,hormos1 the mouse harbour1 is too distant from our proposed limits1 to receive a full description in the present ,memoir4 ,i will only remark that at ,mount ,dochan1 there exist some interesting ruins1 and those vast quarries1 from which ,rome took so many superb pieces of porphyry1 to adorn her baths and porticoes4#bj ,on its southern side1 ,mr ,j4 ,wilkinson adds1 we met with some ,breccia ,verde2 and of other kinds of ,breccia we had observed great quantities and varieties at ,dochan4 ,the sea-shore1 about ,myos ,hormus1 is bare and deserted2 to the west1 at some distance from the harbour1 the granitic chain extends2 on the east1 between it and the sea1 a low ridge of limestone hills1 which unites with the primitive rocks on the north1 comes down towards the shore4 ,and1 in the distance1 on the north1 is seen the mountain ,el ,zeit1 so called from the quantity of petroleum found there2 whence project two small headlands1 forming two gulfs1 at the entrance of which are many long sandbanks4 ,may not this be the 'mons ,eos' of ,pliny8#ba ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid1 p4 #db4--,pliny writes of the quarries1 quantis libet molibus cdendis sufficiunt ,lapidicin4 ,lib4 #cf1 cap4 #g4 ,they produced red porphyry of a most beautiful1 close-grained kind2 so ,pliny says1 rubet porphyrites in eadem ,o,egypto4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid41 p4 #ea4 ,this ,gebel ,zeit1 or ,mount of ,oil1 runs out into a promontory on one side of the ,strait of ,jubal2 at its foot a copious supply of ,petroleum1 or rock oil1 is obtained4 ,it is about as liquid as turpentine1 of a black or dark-brown colour1 and is collected by the ,greek ,christians of ,tur1 who take it there and sell it1 for rheumatism and for healing sores4 ,the ,arabs call it ,zeit-el-,gebel--oil of the mountain4 ,south of this promontory the sea is studded with a number of small islands1 some of which are described by ,strabo2 all1 however1 ,i believe1 except ,shadwan1 which is of secondary limestone1 are of recent marine formation--chiefly of ,coral4 7,conclusion in our next ,number47 ,climate of ,whitehaven ,synopsis of ,meteorological ,observations made at the ,observatory1 ,whitehaven1 ,cumberland1 in the ,year #ahdi4 ,,by ,,john ,,fletcher ,,miller1 ,esq41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,f4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 c4 ,communicated by the ,author4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,standard ,,barometer1#bb ,,corrected ,,and ,,reduced ,,to #cb ,,fahrenheit4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,mean ,mean ,mean ,pres- ,mean #ahdi4 ,max4 ,min4 at at ,atmos- sure ,pres- #c #aj pheric of sure ,range4 ,p4,m4 ,p4,m4 ,pres-,vapor4of ,dry sure ,air4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches ,inches,inches,inches,inches,inches,inch es ,inches ,jan4 #cjagc #bhfhjbifedbifgibifff #jbcfbidcj #adic ,feb4 #cjggdbcbhhijcjjabcjjabcjjab #bfebigdg #ahhd ,march #cjdid #biadjbiidjbiidibiidd #bfdbifhj #aced ,april #cjadg #biabcbieeabiefcbiega #befbicae #ajbd ,may #cjadg #bijebbigdibigfcbiggj #cedbidaf #ajie ,june #cjabb #bieafbihfgbihgcbihhd #cegbiebg #fjf ,july #cjbie #bibafbigfcbiggjbighj #dbfbiced #ajgi ,aug4 #cjahi #biagebighebighhbihjj #dcfbicfd #ajad ,sept4 #cjdfd #bhibdbihbfbihcabihdb #dacbidbi #aedj ,oct4 #cjdhi #biabibigbjbigcabigci #cafbidbc #acfj ,nov4 #cjacg #bhgcgbifcgbiffhbifff #biebicga #adjj ,dec4 #cjgbabdbijghbihdcbihcebihec #bccbifbj #afdc ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,means #cjcdf #bijeebigghbighhbigid #cbabidgcabia #bjid ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,footnote #bb3 ,the readings of the barometer hitherto used required an additive correction of about #jjh inch4 ,all past results will be reduced to the standard instrument4 ,footnote #bc3 ,uncorrected ,maximum1 #cjhbj inches4 ,footnote #bd3 ,uncorrected ,maximum1 #cjgeb inches4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,self-,,registering ,,thermometer4 ,,pluviometer4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,absolute ,mean ,rain #ahdi4 ,mean ,mean,monthly,range and ,snow4 --------- of of ,temper- ,snow4 ,max4,min4 ,max4 ,min4 ature4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,inches,inches ,jan4 #ej #ahgdbadcehb #chihg #cac #efhc ,feb4 #ea #cj #deiadjjg #dbiij #ba #bjde ,march #ed #bh #dfgiciif #dccge #bf #hcg ,april #fb #bi #digcchea #ddabd #cc #adhh #jij ,may #gj #cfefjeadehe #ecahe #cce #cjcg ,june #fgedjefaecdhee #eejdd #bg #abbd ,july #geedf #fcicecgd #ehhce #bie #edgh ,aug4 #gb #dfefdjeeejc #eieda #bee #cgga ,sept4 #gd #dbefbefejdh #efebd #cae #bhad ,oct4 #fd #cd #ebafdcaa #dgfcf #cj #ebeb ,nov4 #ee #bggdghedbgg #decaj #bgc #digd ,dec4 #ebebe #daficeic #chhaj #bge #bcif ---------------------------------------- -------- ,means #fbcccgecbdddae #dhfif #efhchiii #jij ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,wet ,evapor- ,prevailing ,force ,days4 ation ,winds4 ,two of #ahdi4 ,gauge4 ,daily ,wind1 ,observations4 #j-e4 --------------------------------------- ,inches ,jan4 #bj #iji ,,sw4 #cb ,feb4 #ab #ajbd ,,sw4 #ba ,march #ac #aeeh ,,sw4 ,,nw4 #ba ,april #af #bfbj ,easterly4 #be ,may #ad #chhf ,,sw4 #bj ,june #aj #ejgf ,,sw4 #ai ,july #ah #daef ,,nw4 #bc ,aug4 #ai #bfeg ,,sw4 #ad ,sept4 #ab #cccg ,e41 ,variable #ae ,oct4 #ag #agbc ,,sw4 #bc ,nov4 #bd #ifj ,,sw4 #bd ,dec4 #ae #gic ,e41 ,variable #ah --------------------------------------- ,means #aij #bhfii ,,sw4 #ba --------------------------------------- ,,hygrometer4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,at #c;h ,p4,m4 ------------------------------- #ahdi4 ,mean ,mean ,mean ,com- of of ,dew- plete- ,dry ,wet ,point ment of ,bulb4 ,bulb4 ,de- ,dew- duced4#be,point4 ---------------------------------------- ,january #djbh #cijb #cffh #cfj ,february #ddff #dbej #djjh #ddf ,march #dehe #dcag #djjb #ehb ,april #dhff #dcid #ciac #iec ,may #ehgi #ebhe #dhci #ajdj ,june #fjbc #ecdd #dhfh #aaed ,july #fcac #egdg #echb #icj ,august #fbdc #eggg #edei #ghd ,sept4 #faie #efdh #ebhg #ijh ,october #eaag #dhac #deji #fjf ,november #dffe #deaj #dcbc #cda ,december #djbe #chgd #cfdj #cgi ---------------------------------------- ,means1 #ebjj #dhba #ddia #gjg #ahdh1 #eaic #dhbc #ddih #fie #ahdg1 #eaid #ddab #ghb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,,weight ,,of ,,vapour4 -------------- ,degree ,requir- of ,weight #ahdi4 ,in a ed for ,humidity1 of a ,cubic ,satu- 7complete ,cubic foot ration ,satu- foot of of of a ration ,air4 ,air4 ,cubic #ajjj74 foot4 --------------------------------------- ,grains4,grains4 ,grains4 ,january #bhj #jcb #jhii #edfb ,february #cjd #jeg #jhdd #edfh ,march #cjc #jgb #jhaa #edcg ,april #bhg #abc #jgja #ecea ,may #cic #agc #jfif #ebgb ,june #cia #aii #jffc #ebgh ,july #dgj #agg #jgbf #ebbf ,august #dhe #aej #jgfg #ebcb ,sept4 #dee #aga #jgbh #ebcg ,october #ceh #jhg #jhjd #ecch ,november #cda #jdc #jhhh #echh ,december #bga #jda #jhgh #edha --------------------------------------- ,means1 #cfa #aaj #jghd #ecdg #ahdh1 #ahdg1 --------------------------------------- ,footnote #be3 ,from ,mr ,glaisher's ,hygrometrical ,tables1 the accuracy of which my own series of observations made in the years #ahdg and #ahdh1 for the purpose of testing their correctness1 shew in a very striking manner2 and ,i think every meteorologist must feel himself greatly indebted to ,mr ,glaisher for this valuable compilation1 which is also based on observations made under his own superintendence at the ,national ,observatory4 ,in eight months of the year #ahdg1 the difference between the observed and the deduced ,dew-point at ,whitehaven1 is #jaj2 and in #ahdh1 it is only #jjg1 the mean of the two periods comprising #abbj observations1 amounting to the comparatively evanescent fraction of #h_/ajjths of a degree4 ,such satisfactory proofs of the perfection of ,mr ,g4's tables have induced me to abandon ,daniell's ,dew-point ,apparatus1 for that more simple1 less costly1 and equally correct form of ,hygrometer1 the combination of the dry and wet bulb thermometers4 ,,solar ,,and ,,terrestrial ,,radiation4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,key to abbreviations in table headers3 ,six's ,six's ,thermometer1 #d feet above ,ground2 ,o ,g ,on ,grass2 ,o ,w ,on ,wool4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,absolute ,,minima4,,mean ,,nocturnal ,,temperature4 ---------------------------------------- ------ #ahdi4 ,six's ,on ,o ,w ,six's ,naked ,thermometers ,grass ,o ,g ,o ,g ,o ,w ,o ,g ,diff4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,january1 #ahg #d --#bhcehbcjce #bgga #bfd ,february1 #cj #bje #ah #djjgcech #ccjh #bcj ,march1 #bh #aie #adgciifcdhh #cbfj #bbh ,april1 #bi #bac #af #cheacbgb #bhhh #chd ,may1 #cfe #bf #bb #dehecibg #cfbg #cjj ,june1 #dje #bie #be #dheedajf #cghf #cbj ,july1 #df #cc #bi #ecgddeeb #dbdc #cji ,august1 #dfe #ce #caeeejcdibe #dfje #cbj ,september1 #dbe #cah #bh #ejdhdbhd #ciec #cca ,october1 #cd #bde #ahedcaacgae #ccdf #cfi ,november1 #bgg #aie #adedbggcggi #cegb #bjg ,december1 #be #age #aaeceiccjbi #bgjh #cba ---------------------------------------- --------- #ahdi1 #ccg #bce #ahhddaechjd #ceje #bih #ahdh1 #cbe #bjbdcgi #cegc #ahdg1 #ccg #bjedcej #ceie #ahdf1 #cfa #bca ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,terrestrial ,,radiation4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahdi4 ,maximum4 ,minimum4 ,mean4 ,o ,g ,o ,w ,o ,g ,o ,g ,o ,w ,o ,g ,day4 ,o ,g ,o ,w ,o ,g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,january1 #adg #bae #c;d #a #ae #gth#edg #haa ,february1 #aae #ac #agth #ae #ae #c1 #bb;d#dfi #fii ,march1 #ade #af #cast #j #ae #aa1abth#ejh #gcf ,april1 #aae #age #aath #c #c #c;d #egi #ifc ,may1 #ab #age #ast #ae #be #aeth#feh #ieh ,june1 #ad #aie #dth #b #ce #bfth#gdi #ajfi ,july1 #af #bj #af1 #agth #c #d #dth#hbb #aaca ,august1 #ai #bb #dth #b #c #bfth#egh #hih ,september1 #ac #ahe #bgth #b #be #af1 #bjth#gfd #ajie ,october1 #ad #ba #agth #j #a #be1 #cjth#eif #ife ,november1 #aje #acb #bd1 #bhth #ae #ae #hth#dih #gje ,december1 #age #ba #dth #j #je #hth#efd #hhe ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ahdi1 #adj #ahd #adf #baf #faa #iji #ahdh1 #aei #aid #hjf #ahdg1 #aea #aad #bf #gde #ahdf1 #adf #ace #bg #gde ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,in ,,sun',s ,,rays4 --------------------- #ahdi4 ,max4 ,mean4,solar ,rad4#bh ----------------------------- ,january1 #ei #dee #ccg ,february1 #fg #edd #hdi ,march1 #gg #fac #adea ,april1 #ic #fic #aieg ,may1 #acc #hhj #bgdi ,june1 #ajf #hib #bgfg ,july1 #ajf #ifc #cbcg ,august1 #ajd #heh #bage ,september1 #ajb #haa #ahed ,october1 #ge #fdi #abgd ,november1 #fg #eji #cje ,december1 #ef #dda #bda ----------------------------- #ahdi1 #hgj #fib #aeii #ahdh1 #ahdg1 #ijb #gaj #agae #ahdf1 --------------------------------- ,footnote #bf3 ,in #ahdg1 the ,thermometer was on ,cork throughout the year4 ,it is here reduced to the ,standard of ,raw ,wool4 ,footnote #bg3 ,in #ahdf1 the ,thermometer was placed on ,cork in cloudy and wet weather4 ,the results are reduced to the ,standard of ,raw ,wool1 by adding #jbe to the recorded annual mean4 ,footnote #bh3 ,difference between the mean maximum in the ,sun's rays1 and the mean maximum in the shade4 ,form1 c4 of ,instruments4 ,the ,barometer 7the frame of which is brass7 is a standard made by ,barrow1 under the direction of ,james ,glaisher1 ,esq41 of the ,greenwich ,observatory4 ,the adjustment for the difference of capacity of tube and cistern is effected previous to every observation1 and the correction for capillarity and reduction to the temperature of #cb is made at the close of each month4 ,the difference between its readings and those of the ,greenwich standard is scarcely appreciable1 being only #jjjb inch4 ,the ,dry and ,wet ,bulb ,thermometers1 also made by ,barrow1 are considered to have identical readings under similar circumstances1 and both1 too1 agree with the ,greenwich standard thermometer4 ,the ,dew-point apparatus1 now discontinued1 approximates very closely in its readings to the dry and wet bulb thermometers4 ,the ,self-registering ,thermometer is a large ,six made by ,dollond in #ahdj1 and its average difference from the standard is within #b_/ajths of a degree4 ,a duplicate and precisely similar thermometer 7which has also been repeatedly compared with a standard at every part of the scale7 is fixed by its side1 so that in case of ,no4 #a getting out of order1 ,no4 #b can be resorted to without detriment to the results4 ,these instruments all have a northern aspect1 and are placed about #d feet above the ground4 ,the naked thermometers employed for indicating the relative amount of solar and terrestrial radiation1 are precisely similar to those in use at the ,government ,observatories4 ,the ,rain and ,evaporation ,gauges are #h inches in diameter1 and the metres are graduated to the #a_/ajjjth part of an inch4 ,both are read off daily4 ,the aperture of the rain-gauge is about #g feet above the ground4 ,the evaporation dish is mounted on a moveable stand1 #d feet #d inches in height1 and the circular shelf on which the vessel rests1 is just large enough to hold it4 ,the gauge receives a fair proportion of wind and sunshine1 and is always exposed in the open air during the day1 except when rain is falling4 ,at night and in wet weather1 it is placed under a capacious shed1 #i feet in height1 and open in front4 ,thus1 it is conceived that the evaporating surface is freely acted upon by all the circumstances concerned in promoting this important natural process4 ,the direction of the wind is taken twice daily1 and its force is registered on an arbitrary scale from #j to #f2 the highest number is reserved for storms approaching the hurricane in violence1 and is very rarely recorded4 ,remarks on the ,weather in #ahdi4 ,january4--,a damp wet month1 except the first week1 when sharp frost prevailed4 ,the mean temperature is #jfh above the average4 ,on the night between the #b;d and #c;d1 a naked thermometer on the grass fell to #d1 and one on raw wool to #bh below zero1 being the lowest temperature ,i have recorded4 ,the radiation indicated by raw wool was #bae4 ,between one and two o'clock on the morning of the #ajth1 a terrific thunder-storm burst suddenly over the town1 and spread great alarm amongst the slumbering inhabitants4 ,seven or eight dazzling discharges of the electric fluid1 followed by deafening crashes1 succeeded each other in about as many minutes4 ,the storm was almost vertical2 and between several of the flashes and the accompanying thunder1 there was scarcely an appreciable interval1 certainly not more than a single second of time4 ,the war of the elements ceased as suddenly as it commenced1 and altogether1 the storm did not last more than ten minutes4 ,the wind1 which previously blew a heavy gale1 lulled almost to a calm as the last peal died away4 ,the storm was followed by a heavy fall of rain and hail4 ,it appears to have been pretty much confined to this town and neighbourhood4 ,thunder was also heard on the evening of the #adth1 and lightning was seen on the nights of the #bast1 #bfth1 and #bith4 ,saturn's ring was perceived at this ,observatory on the night of the #cast1 after a long continuance of damp1 wet weather4 ,as this singular appendage was readily seen1 and was well and sharply defined1 ,i have no doubt the instrument would have shewn it ten or fourteen days earlier1 had the nights been at all favourable4 ,the ring was also seen on the night of the #aath of ,september #ahdh1 during its temporary reappearance4 ,february4--,a fine1 dry1 and mild month4 ,the temperature #cdi above the average of twelve years4 ,on the #aath1 the barometer attained the remarkably high point of #cjhb at this ,observatory1 which is about #ij feet above the sea level4 ,at the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich 7#dj feet above sea71 the maximum was #cjhe1 being greater than any reading since ,january #ahbe1 when the barometer at the ,royal ,society's apartments attained to #cjhda1 at #ha feet above the sea level2 and there is no other instance recorded in the ,philosophical ,transactions of a reading so high as #cjh1 from the commencement of the series in #aggd4 ,the maxima of pressure recorded on the #aath in various parts of the country1 were all found to give a reading of #cjij at the mean sea level4 ,on the #ahth1 primroses were in flower on the cliffs between ,panton and ,harrington4 ,march4--,similar to ,february4 ,temperature #bbi above the average1 and the complement of the dew-point #bdj below the mean of the two preceding years4 ,,first ,,quarter4--,the temperature of the first quarter of #ahdi is #baf above the average of twelve years1 and the complement of the dew-point is #aeb below that of the corresponding quarter in the unhealthy years #ahdg and #ahdh4 ,the average fall of rain is #aaeic inches2 in #ahdi1 we have had #hefe1 or #cjb inches below the usual quantity4 ,the deaths in the quarter ending ,march #ca1 in the town and suburb of ,preston ,quarter1 are #afh1 being #af above the corrected quarterly average1 which is #aeb4 ,in the corresponding quarters of #ahdh and #ahdi1 the deaths were #bej and #ahg respectively4 ,the deaths exceed the births by #be in number4 ,april4--,a fine1 dry1 but cold month4 ,the temperature #aie below the average4 ,on the #bc;d the cuckoo was heard1 and on the following day the swallow was seen in this neighbourhood4 ,on ,good ,friday1 the #fth1 two parhelia1 accompanied by a halo1 were seen by a friend who was fishing by the river ,calder4 ,the sky was covered with a thin cirro-stratus1 so that the images did not present any defined outline or disc1 but consisted of three circular patches of light of nearly equal intensity1 so much so1 that it was difficult to distinguish the real from the phantom suns4 ,the phenomena were first noticed about #e ,p4,m41 and they remained visible till near six4 ,the ring or halo passed through the centres of the parhelia1 one of which was to the left1 and the other to the right of the sun1 with which they formed a straight line4 ,may4--,a fine month1 with an average mean temperature4 ,the sun shone out on #bi days4 ,the depth of rain is about an inch above the average quantity4 ,june4--,a very dry month1 and by far the coldest ,june ,i have recorded in the last seventeen years4 ,the mean temperature is no less than #cfg below the average4 ,the hay harvest began in this neighbourhood about the #bjth4 ,the thermometer on the grass1 on raw wool1 was below the freezing point on eight nights2 on the nights of the #hth and #ajth it fell to #bge1 and on that of the #aith and #bjth1 to #be4 ,on several mornings ice was seen in the immediate vicinity of the town1 and on the #c;d of the month there was a somewhat heavy fall of snow amongst the mountains4 ,highbell1 ,kentmere1 ,high ,street1 and the mountains around ,mardale1 were covered with the mantle of winter to the depth of #f inches4 ,such an incident has not occurred1 it is said1 since #ahbg1 when several sheep were lost and smothered in snow-drifts on ,mosedale and ,helvellyn2 and ,skiddaw was covered with snow4 ,both snow and hail are recorded on the #ajth in the register kept for me at ,bassenthwaite ,halls1 at the foot of ,skiddaw4 ,what is most remarkable1 this unusual coldness does not appear to have been experienced at all in the southern counties of ,england4 ,at ,greenwich1 the temperature is stated to be of the same value as that of the average from #gj years1 but less than that of the preceding eight years1 by #ai4 ,according to ,mr ,glaisher's tables1 published in the ,registrar-,general's ,report for the ,june quarter1 the mean temperature in ,cornwall and ,devonshire exceeds that of the corresponding month in #ahdg1 by #jg1 and south of lat4 #eb1 it is in excess #i_/ajths of a degree4 ,between the parallels #eb and #ec1 the temperature is #ab below that of ,june #ahdg2 between #ec and #ed1 it is #ba1 and at ,whitehaven1 in lat4 #ed1 it is #bg below that of ,june #ahdg4 ,the extraordinary depression in the temperature has therefore been unparticipated in1 by places situated south of the parallel of #ec4 ,,second ,,quarter4--,the mean temperature of the quarter ending ,june #cj1 is #aib below the average of twelve preceding years2 and the difference between the air and dew-point temperatures is #acb above that of the corresponding quarter in the years #ahdg and #ahdh4 ,the average fall of rain is #hae inches2 in the second quarter of #ahdi1 the fall is #egd inches1 or #bdj inches under the normal quantity4 ,the deaths in the town and suburb are #aci1 being #ba above the corrected average number1 which is #aag4 ,in the ,june quarters of #ahdg and #ahdh the deaths were #agg and #adg respectively4 ,the births exceed the deaths by #ei4 ,july4--,cold and wet4 ,temperature #ahb below the average4 ,the hay harvest began in this neighbourhood about the #bjth ,june2 meadow hay was rather light on the ground1 but the crop generally was well secured4 ,august4--,average temperature and depth of rain1 with a serene and stagnant atmosphere4 ,the complement of the dew point is #agh below the average of the month in the two preceding years4 ,september4--,a fine1 mild1 and rather dry month1 with serene atmosphere4 ,at the close of the month1 several of the public fountains were dry1 and most of the pumps in the town had ceased to yield their supplies4 ,,third ,,quarter4--,the temperature of the quarter ending ,september #cjth is #jcg below the average1 and the complement of the dew-point1 as compared with the two previous years1 is #je below the mean4 ,the depth of rain is #jcf inch under the average quantity1 which is #abdb inches4 ,the deaths in the third quarter of #ahdi1 in the town and suburb1 are #afh1 or #dg above the corrected average number2 and1 except in #ahdf1 a greater number than has occurred in any ,september quarter since the register was begun in #ahci4 ,in the ,september quarter of the last four years1 the deaths are as under3 #ahdf1 #bee2 #ahdg1 #adh2 #ahdh1 #adb2 and #ahdi1 #afh4 ,the births exceed the deaths by six in number4 ,during this quarter we had a few cases of ,asiatic cholera in this town1 chiefly in the month of ,september2 and at the adjacent seaport of ,workington the disease was of a most malignant character1 and exceedingly fatal4 ,the total number of deaths from the commencement of the epidemic on the #acth of ,august1 till it entirely ceased on the #fth of ,november1 was #agb4 ,in #ahda1 the population was #fjda1 which gives a mortality of #bh per cent41 or one death in every #ce persons1 from cholera4 ,it is1 however1 believed that the population of ,workington has decreased since the last census was taken2 and at the time the epidemic was raging1 most of the respectable inhabitants had left the place2 so that the ratio of mortality amongst the then residents must have been considerably greater than is here stated4 ,a singular fact connected with the disease is its sudden cessation for several days1 at the expiration of which it returns with increased virulence4 ,in the week between the #beth and #cast of ,august1 the deaths were #fe2 from the #cast ,august to the #hth ,september there were none2 on the #hth1 #ab2 #ith and #ajth1 none2 on the #aath1 #ac2 and on the #abth only one death2 #acth1 #aa2 from the #adth to the #aith inclusive1 the deaths averaged #be daily1 but on the #bjth they rose to #ac2 and between the #bast and the end of ,september there were only eight deaths1 which occurred on the #bast1 #bb;d1 #beth1 and #bgth4 ,between the #ast and #bjth of ,october the deaths were #cb1 and during that period there were frequently none for three or four consecutive days4 ,there was only one death after the #bjth ,october4 ,it occurred on the #fth of ,november1 when the pestilence ceased4 ,i am informed by a resident medical gentleman1 that at the commencement of the disease the cases were rapidly fatal1 many of them after eight or ten hours' illness1 and it was then almost entirely confined to the lower classes4 ,the proximate cause of the exceedingly fatal character of the disease at this seaport is probably to be found in the effluvia engendered by the extensive tract of marshy land1 called the ,cloffocks1 adjoining the river ,derwent1 and in the immediate vicinity of the town4 ,what is most remarkable1 the first case of cholera at ,workington occurred on the same day of the same month1 in the same house1 and even in the same room in the said house1 where the epidemic first broke out in the summer of #ahcb4 ,there is no peculiarity in the situation of the house1 nor can any reason be assigned for this most singular coincidence4 ,i am informed that very few insects were seen about the river1 and1 during the height of the disease1 the rooks entirely forsook their old-established quarters in the grounds adjoining the ,hall4#bi ,footnote #bi3 ,the cause of this fearful epidemic is still a mystery4 ,the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere1 although slightly abnormal1 are wholly inadequate to account for its induction4 ,it is most probably induced by some gaseous poison diffused through the atmosphere1 but of a nature so subtle that the most delicate analysis fails to detect its presence4 ,according to the experiments of ,dr ,dundas ,thompson of ,glasgow1 no solid matter existed in the air1 but ammonia was obtained from it in the proportion of #jcai grain of caustic ammonia1 or #jgca grain of carbonate of ammonia1 to #ajjj pounds of air4 ,october4--,cold1 with an average fall of rain 7#e inches47 ,the mean temperature is #be below the average4 ,the grain crops were above an average in point of quantity1 and they were got under cover in excellent condition4 ,garden fruit1 as pears1 apples1 c41 were not so plentiful as usual4 ,on the evening of the #bhth1 that rare phenomenon a lunar rainbow1 was seen from the grounds at ,tarn ,bank1 near ,cockermouth1 by ,isaac ,fletcher1 ,esq41 to whom ,i am indebted for the following description of it3-- ,in the early part of the evening the sky was clear1 but at #h;h #cjm a dense mist rose from the river ,derwent and entirely overspread a large segment of the northern horizon2 whilst to the south1 the atmosphere continued comparatively clear1 the moon1 within four days of full1 shining brightly near the meridian4 ,about #i;h #ajm1 there was a faint luminous arch in the north1 which was evidently a lunar rainbow1 or rather a fog-bow1 for no rain whatever was visible at the time4 ,the light reflected by the arch was white1 and perfectly free from prismatic colour4 ,its breadth was considerable1 perhaps #d or #e1 and its centre or highest part1 passed close under the star beta ,urs ,majoris1 so that the extreme altitude of the arch was probably about #ah or #bj4 ,the edges were not sharply defined1 but gradually shaded off4 ,it was noticed that the denser the fog became1 the more apparent was the arch1 and vice versa1 so that the phenomenon could not have been of an auroral character4 ,the phenomenon was watched for ten or fifteen minutes1 when the gradual dispersion of the fog1 by destroying the refracting medium1 put an end to this interesting appearance4 ,november4--,as usual1 a very dull1 damp month1 with but little difference between the temperature of the days and nights4 ,temperature #abj above the average4 ,early on the morning of the #b;d1 a swallow was seen on the wing in the immediate vicinity of this town4 ,the maximum temperature of the day was #ee4 ,between the #ith and #abth inclusive1 the extremes of day and night temperature only varied #b degrees4 ,december4--,a fine dry month with occasional frosty nights4 ,temperature #bae1 and rain #bai inches below the average4 ,two loud peals of thunder and much lightning on the night of the #adth4 ,the remarkable meteor observed at ,edinburgh on the evening of the #aith1 and minutely described by ,professor ,forbes who witnessed it1 was also seen at ,whitehaven under the same circumstances and at the same time4 ,,last ,,quarter4--,the mean temperature of the last quarter of #ahdi is #aae below the average1 and the complement of the dew-point is #jhg below the mean of the two preceding years4 ,the average depth of rain for the quarter is #adfd inches2 in #ahdi the quarterly fall is #abfb inches1 or #bjb inches under the normal quantity4 ,the deaths in this quarter1 in the town and suburbs1 are #aca1 being #d below the average number4 ,it is pleasant to have to announce a favourable change in the sanitary condition of this town1 and to record the termination of an excessive mortality1 which uninterruptedly prevailed for a period of two years and a half2 for this is the only quarterly period wherein the deaths have not exceeded the average since ,march #ahdf4 ,in the corresponding quarters of #ahdf1 #ahdg1 and #ahdh1 the deaths were #bae1 #afa1 and #agf respectively4 ,the births exceed the deaths by #cd4 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis4--,there have been seven exhibitions of the aurora borealis during the year #ahdi1 two of which were sufficiently remarkable to merit something more than a passing notice4 ,the first occurred on the evening of ,january #adth4 ,at #aj ,p4,m41 a well-defined auroral arch1 about #e in width1 extended from ,,nne4 to ,w41 its highest part reaching nearly to ,arided in ,cygnus4 ,at #aa;h there was one complete arch1 and segments of two other arches1 all brilliant1 crossing each other in the ,,nw41 and throwing off intensely bright streamers1 some of which reached the altitude of the ,pointers4 ,the aurora was now exceedingly beautiful1 and emitted considerable light4 ,the streamers appeared to have a duplex lateral motion1 running along the upper edge of the arch from west to north1 and then backwards from north to west4 ,the clear sky beneath the arches was almost black1 from contrast4 ,at #aa;h #cjm the arches had broken up1 and the streamers appeared to emanate from the horizon4 ,february #ah4--;,at #i ,p4,m4 there was a brilliant band of auroral light in the east about #f in width1 which shot upwards towards the zenith1 throwing off short lateral streamers4 ,at times1 a complete arch of varying width extended from the eastern to the western horizon2 at others1 it was broken up into two or more detached portions4 ,at #i;h #dem1 a magnificent rainbow-like arch about #b in width1 spanned the heavens from ,,ene4 to ,,wsw4 ,the altitude of the centre was apparently about #ge2 the lower edge1 at or near the highest point of the arch1 was bounded by the star ,castor4 ,the arch was beautifully defined1 and of perfectly even width throughout its entire extent2 it disappeared in a few minutes after my attention was called to it1 and soon after the sky became overcast4 ,but for the absence of the moon1 it might easily have been mistaken for a lunar rainbow4 ,a precisely similar arch made its appearance here on the evening of the #bast of ,march #ahcc1 and as far as my observation goes1 these perfect rainbow-like arches are of exceedingly rare occurrence4 ,the following phenomenon though unconnected with auror1 is probably of electric origin2 and1 as an unusual atmospheric appearance1 is worthy of being placed on record3--,september #af4--,the sky was mostly overcast throughout the day1 except a segment extending from ,,wsw4 to ,,ene41 which was bright and clear to an altitude of about #ae4 ,the upper boundary of the clear blue space was an elliptical segment formed by a sheet of white cloud1 which was partially illuminated towards the western extremity1 and somewhat resembled an auroral arch4 ,i first noticed this blue arch about #c ,p4,m41 and from that time until it disappeared1 about six o'clock1 there was not the slightest apparent change1 either in its altitude or position4 ,it was observed as early as #g o'clock in the morning1 when it was1 nearer to the horizon4 ,,general ,,remarks4--,the year #ahdi is the driest we have had since #ahdd2 the fall of rain 7#ci inches7 is #gi inches under the average annual depth1 which is #dg inches nearly4 ,from some cause1 the annual quantity of rain at this place is evidently on the decrease1 and the diminution is1 ,i believe1 general all over the north of ,england4 ,probably the large amount of moor and waste marshy land brought into cultivation of late years1 and the more efficient drainage of the country generally1 by diminishing the evaporating surface1 and so interfering with that invisible process of nature which is the source of every kind of atmospheric deposition1 may have led to this and other changes which appear to have occurred in the climate of ,england within the last half century4 ,in the first seven years 7#ahcc-ci7 after ,i began to keep a meteorological record1 the average annual depth of rain was #diic inches1 or #ej inches nearly2 in the last seven years1 ending with #ahdh1 the average is reduced to #dcgd inches4 ,the greatest quantity in the last #ag years is #ei inches1 in #ahcf2 the least1 #cdfi inches in #ahdb4 ,the three driest years in the period are #ahdb1 #ahdd1 and #ahdi1 which yielded #cdfi inches1 #cfgb inches1 and #ci inches4 ,the temperature of the past year 7#dhfi7 is about half a degree below the climatic mean1 which is #dijb4 ,the coldest year of the last #ag was #ahde1 and the mildest1 #ahdf2 the mean temperatures of these years were #dgdi and #ejhe respectively4 ,the naked thermometer on the grass1 placed on raw wool1 has been at or below the freezing point in every month of #ahdi2 viz41 in ,january1 on #ai nights2 in ,february1 on #ad2 in ,march1 on #ac2 in ,april1 on #ah2 in ,may1 on #aa2 in ,june1 on #h2 in ,july1 on #a2 in ,august1 on #b2 in ,september1 on #e2 in ,october1 on #af2 in ,november1 on #ac2 and in ,december1 on #bd nights4 ,the amount of radiant heat thrown off from the earth's crust at night1 in the year #ahdi1 as indicated by naked thermometers placed on raw wool and on grass1 is much greater than usual4 ,the evaporation exceeds the fall of rain in five months of #ahdi2 viz41 in ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 and ,september4 ,in #ahdi1 we have had #ab perfectly clear days2 #afc days more or less cloudy but without rain2 #aij wet days2 #bfa days on which the sun shone out2 #cc days of frost2 #ac of hail2 #g of snow2 #aj of thunder and lightning2 and #g days in which lightning occurred without thunder4 ,there have also been three lunar halos1 one lunar rainbow1 a double parhelion1 and seven appearances of the aurora borealis4 ,the clear days are #ad1 the days of sunshine are #ac1 and the wet days are #h less than the average number4 ,the past year has therefore afforded a smaller share of blue sky and a less amount of sunshine than usual1 although the depth of rain and the number of wet days are both below the average for the locality4 ,the quantity of electricity in the air was extremely small down to the end of ,july1 after which it was restored to its average amount4 ,this fact is strikingly exhibited by the following table of continuous observations taken by ,m4 ,quetelet with ,peltier's electrometer3-- ,average ,mean #ahdd-ahdh4 #ahdi4 ,january1 #ec #ci ,february1 #dg #cf ,march1 #ch #bg ,april1 #bg #bj ,may1 #ba #af ,june1 #ah #ac ,july1 #ai #ad ,august1 #ba #ba ,september1 #bd #bd ,in #ahdi1 the deaths exceed the calculated average number by #gi1 and the births exceed the deaths by #gd4 ,in the seven years ending with #ahde1 the mean annual number of deaths in the town and suburb1 with an assumed population of #ag1hfg1 is #daj1 being #bbi per thousand1 or one death in every #dce persons4 ,in #ahdf1 #ahdg1 and #ahdh 7assumed average population #ah1cbi71 the mean annual number is #fid1 being #cgh deaths per thousand1 or #a in every #bfd persons in those three most unhealthy years4 ,in #ahdi the deaths are #fjf1 which1 assuming the population to be the same as in #ahdh1 give #cbb deaths per #ajjj1 or #a death in every #ca persons4 ,the average annual number of deaths in the ten years #ahci-dh is #die1 which1 with an assumed population of #ag1gac1 gives #bgi per #ajjj1 or #a death in every #ceg inhabitants4 ,so that the mortality in #ahdi1 although still above the average1 shews a marked improvement in the health of the town as compared with any of the three preceding years2 and1 in the last quarter1 the deaths are below the average for the period4 ,,the ,,observatory1 ,,whitehaven1 #acth ,march #ahej4 ,the ,completed ,coral ,island4 ,by ,,james ,d4 ,,dana1 ,geologist to the ,american ,exploratory ,expedition1 c41 c4 ,the ,coral ,island1 in its best condition1 is but a miserable residence for man4 ,there is poetry in every feature2 but the natives find this a poor substitute for the bread-fruit and yams of more favoured lands4 ,the cocoa-nut and pandanus are1 in general1 the only products of the vegetable kingdom afforded for their sustenance1 and fish and crabs from the reef their only animal food4 ,scanty1 too1 is the supply2 and infanticide is resorted to in self-defence1 where but a few years would otherwise overstock the half-dozen square miles of which their little world consists4 ,yet there are more comforts than might be expected on a land of so limited extent1 without rivers1 without hills1 in the midst of salt water1 with the most elevated point but ten feet above high tide1 and no part more than #cjj yards from the ocean4 ,though the soil is light and the surface often strewed with blocks of coral1 there is a dense covering of vegetation to shade the native villages from a tropical sun4 ,the cocoa-nut--the tree of a thousand uses--grows luxuriantly on the coral-made land1 after it has emerged from the ocean2 and the scanty dresses of the natives1 their drinking-vessels and other utensils1 mats1 cordage1 fishing-lines1 and oil1 besides food1 drink1 and building material1 are all supplied from it4 ,the ,pandanus1 or screw-pine1 flourishes well1 and is exactly fitted for such regions3 as it enlarges and spreads its branches1 one prop after another grows out from the trunk and plants itself in the ground2 and by this means its base is widened and the growing tree supported4 ,the fruit1 a large ovoidal mass1 made up of oblong dry seed1 diverging from a centre1 each near two cubic inches in size1 affords a sweetish-husky article of food1 which1 though little better than prepared corn-stalks1 admits of being stored away for use when other things fail4 ,the extensive reefs abound in fish which are easily captured2 and the natives1 with wooden hooks1 often bring in larger kinds from the deep waters4 ,from such resources a population of #aj1jjj persons is supported on the single ,island of ,taputeouea1 whose whole habitable area does not exceed six square miles4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,there are a few islands better supplied with vegetable food1 though the above statements are literally true of a large majority4 ,water is usually to be found in sufficient quantities for the use of the natives1 although the land is so low and flat4 ,they dig wells five to ten feet deep in any part of the dry islets1 and generally obtain a constant supply4 ,these wells are sometimes fenced around with special care2 and the houses of the villages1 as at ,fakaafo1 are often clustered about them4 ,on ,aratica 7,carlshoff7 there is a watering-place #ej feet in diameter1 from which our vessels in a few hours obtained #cij gallons4 ,the ,tarawan ,islands are generally provided with a supply sufficient for bathing1 and each native takes his morning bath in fresh water1 esteemed by them a great luxury4 ,the only source of this water is the rains1 which1 percolating through the loose surface1 settle upon the hardened coral rock that forms the basis of the island4 ,as the soil is white1 or nearly so1 it receives heat but slowly1 and there is consequently but little evaporation of the water that is once absorbed4 ,these islands1 moreover1 enclose ports of great extent1 many admitting even the largest class of vessels2 and the same lagoons are the pearl fisheries of the ,pacific4 ,an occasional log drifts to their shores2 and at some of the more isolated atolls1 where the natives are ignorant of any land but the spot they inhabit2 they are deemed direct gifts from a propitiated deity4 ,these drift-logs were noticed by ,kotzebue1 at the ,marshall ,islands1 and he remarked also that they often brought stones in their roots4 ,similar facts were observed by us at the ,tarawan group1 and also at ,enderby's ,island1 and elsewhere4 ,the stones at the ,tarawan ,islands1 as far as we could learn1 are generally basaltic1 and they are highly valued for whetstones1 pestles1 and hatchets4 ,the logs are claimed by the chiefs for canoes4 ,some of the logs on ,enderby's ,island were forty feet long1 and four in diameter4 ,fragments of pumice and resin are transported by the waves to the ,tarawan ,islands4 ,we were informed that the pumice was gathered from the shores by the women1 and pounded up to fertilize the soil of their taro patches2 and it is so common1 that one woman will pick up a peck in a day4 ,pumice was also met with at ,fakaafo4 ,volcanic ashes are sometimes distributed over these islands1 through the atmosphere2 and in this manner the soil of the ,tonga ,islands is improved1 and in some places it has received a reddish colour4 ,the officers of the ,vincennes observed several large masses of compact and cellular basalt on ,rose ,island1 a few degrees east of ,samoa3 they lie two hundred yards inside of the line of breakers4 ,the island is uninhabited1 and the origin of the stories is doubtful2 they may have been brought there by roots of trees1 or perhaps by some canoe4 ,notwithstanding the great number of coral islands in the ,paumotu ,archipelago1 the botanist finds there1 as ,dr ,pickering informs me1 only twenty-eight or twenty-nine native species of plants4 ,the following are the most common of them3 ,portulacca1 two species2 ,scvola ,konigii4 ,pisonia8 one species2 ,tournefortia sericea2 ,pandanus odoratissimus2 ,lepidium1 one species2 ,euphorbia1 one species2 ,morinda citrifolia2 ,boerhavia1 two species2 ,cassytha1 one species2 ,heliotropium prostratum1 ,pemphis acidula1 ,guettarda speciosa1 ,triumphetta procumbens1 ,sauriana maritima2 ,convolvulus1 one species2 ,urtica1 one or two species2 ,asplenium nidus2 ,achyranthus1 one species2 a species of grass4 ,one or two rubiaceous shrubs4 ,polypodium4 ,on ,rose ,island1 ,dr ,pickering found only the ,pisonia and a ,portulacca4 ,the ,triumphetta procumbens1 a creeping plant1 takes root1 like the ,portulacca1 in the most barren sands1 and is very common4 ,the ,tournefortia and ,scvola are also among the earliest species4 ,the ,pisonia1 a tree of handsome foliage1 the ,pandanus1 or screw-pine1 and the cocoa-nut 7always an introduced species71 constitute the larger part of the forests4 ,in the ,marshall group1 where the vegetation is more varied1 ,chamisso observed fifty-two native plants1 and1 in a few instances1 the banana1 taro1 and bread-fruit4 ,the language of the natives indicates their poverty1 as well as the limited productions and unvarying features of the land4 ,all words1 like those for mountain1 hill1 river1 and many of the implements of their ancestors1 as well as the trees and other vegetation of the land from which they are derived1 are lost to them2 and as words are but signs for ideas1 they have fallen off in general intelligence4 ,it would be an interesting inquiry for the philosopher1 to what extent a race of men1 placed in such circumstances1 are capable of mental improvement4 ,perhaps the query might be best answered by another3 ,how many of the various arts of civilized life could exist in a land where shells are the only cutting instruments8 ,the plants1 in all but twenty-nine in number1--but a single mineral1--quadrupeds1 none1 with the exception of foreign mice1--fresh water barely enough for household purposes1--no streams1 nor mountains1 nor hills6 ,how much of the poetry or literature of ,europe would be intelligible to persons whose ideas had expanded only to the limits of a coral island1--who had never conceived of a surface of land above half a mile in breadth1 of a slope higher than a beach1 of a change of seasons beyond a variation in the prevalence of rains8 ,what elevation in morals should be expected upon a contracted islet1 so readily overpeopled that threatened starvation drives to infanticide1 and tends to cultivate the extremest selfishness8 ,assuredly1 there is not a more unfavourable spot for moral or intellectual development in the wide world than the ,coral ,island1 with all its beauty of grove and lake4 ,these islands are exposed to earthquakes and storms1 like the continents1 and occasionally a devastating wave sweeps across the land4 ,during the heavier gales the natives sometimes secure their houses by tying them to the cocoa-nut trees1 or to a stake planted for the purpose4 ,a height of ten or twelve feet1 the elevation of their land1 is easily overtopped by the more violent seas2 and great damage is sometimes experienced4 ,the still more extensive earthquake waves1 such as those which have swept up the coast of ,spain1 ,peru1 and the ,sandwich ,islands1 would produce a complete deluge over these islands4--7,united ,states' ,exploring ,expedition4--,geology4--,by ,james ,dana1 p4 #ge47 ,biographical ,notice of ,leopold ,pilla1 the ,geologist4 ,by ,h4 ,,coquand4#ca ,communicated by the ,author4 ,footnote #ca3 ,read to the ,geological ,society of ,france1 at their meeting on the #afth of ,april #ahdi4 ,again1 to bring to your recollection the numerous works which have placed ,pilla among the most eminent geologists of ,italy1 is to do honour to the memory of an associate1 whose recent loss we lament1 by bestowing well-merited praises on the greatness of mind in a citizen1 who nobly sacrificed a life already illustrious1 and which the future promised to render still more so1 to the good of his country4 ,yes1 ,italy has always been tellus magna virum6 ,the chances of war1 the rage of civil discord1 the insults of foreign domination1 may have eclipsed its political name1 but they could not extinguish its genius4 ,the blast of revolutions has respected the triple halo with which the sciences1 letters1 and the arts1 have adorned its brow4 ,by entrusting to one of his friends the task of enumerating his scientific labours1 the ,society imposes on him a very painful duty2 but he undertakes it with feeling and gratitude2 for the public homage rendered to the virtues of those whom we have loved1 seems to bring them back to us1 and softens the awards of destiny1 which has too soon snatched them from us4 ,leopold ,pilla was born in the kingdom of ,naples4 ,while still young1 the exciting scenes of ,vesuvius attracted his attention1 and determined his scientific career4 ,in #ahcb1 he undertook to write the annals of this volcano1 and gave its history in two periodical collections4#cb ,it was at this period that he proved the production of flames in volcanic eruptions1 and deduced from thence the ingenious conclusions which you judged worthy of a place in your memoirs4#cc ,this remarkable work1 which of itself would have been sufficient to establish his scientific reputation1 was soon followed by numerous others1 which shed a new lustre on his name4 ,the study of the extinct volcano of ,rocca ,monfina1#cd in the ,campania1 illustrated the theory of craters de soulevement1 and enriched it with facts of the highest importance4 ,footnote #cb3 ,spettatore del ,vesuvio et ,bulletino del ,vesuvio4 ,napoli1 #ahcb4 ,footnote #cc3 ,sopra la produzione delle fiamme nei vulcani1 e sopra le consequenze che se ne possono tirare4 ,atti del ,congresso di ,lucca1 #ahde4 ,footnote #cd3 ,memoires de la ,socit ,geologique de ,france1 t4 i41 #bme serie4 ,with a mind at once philosophical and cultivated1 he was able to generalise and describe1 to unite erudition with good taste1 and to treat questions of deepest science with that grace and picturesqueness of style1 which renders them popular without detracting from their accuracy4 ,his love for geology amounted to enthusiasm2 he was therefore so zealous in propagating his views1 that certain jealous minds could not pardon him1 and led him to atone for his fault1 by a voluntary exile4 ,the apostle of the science1 he likewise was its martyr2 thus nothing was wanting to his fame4 ,it is the privilege of men of genius to be persecuted4 ,obliged to yield to the storm1 ,pilla left ,naples1 but by his writings he belonged to ,italy at large2 and the unanimous acclamation which greeted him in the chair formerly occupied by ,galileo1 conferred on him by the liberality of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 formed at once his triumph and revenge4 ,besides the works mentioned1 we owe to him a ,mineralogical ,treatise on ,rocks2#ce an ,introduction to the ,study of ,mineralogy2#cf and a ,geological ,itinerary from ,naples to ,vienna4#cg ,thus1 by approving the new productions which his activity produced1 and which caused him to be better appreciated by the nation which had adopted him1 the ,tuscans had only to sanction the judgment they had already given of our savant1 founded on his reputation and works4 ,footnote #ce3 ,trattato mineralogico delle ,roccie1 ,napoli4 ,footnote #cf3 ,introduzione allo studio della geologia1 ,napoli4 ,footnote #cg3 ,osservazioni ,geologiche che si possono fare lungo la strada da ,napoli a ,vienna4 ,pilla left his heart at ,naples4 ,that city contained all the objects of his affections--a father1 who had guided his first attempts in the field of science1 and his family--a classical soil which had revealed to him the secret of its revolutions1 a majestic landscape1 which he could not find among the monotonous plains of ,pisa1 and above all his own ,vesuvius4 ,it was in this way that he recalled to his mind the mountain which had been the subject of his daily study1 and from whose summit nature presented herself to his eyes in the most striking contrasts1 revealing to his view its subterranean convulsions1 connected with the delightful picture of the ,gulf of ,baia4 ,all his thoughts brought him back to ,naples4 ,when1 from the height of the terraces of ,campiglia our view extended from the peaks of ,mount ,amiata to the banks of the ,popolonia1 and from the ,tuscan ,archipelago to the distant horizons of ,corsica and ,sardinia1 my poor friend often interrupted our reveries by saying1--,it is almost as beautiful as ,naples1 but my ,vesuvius is wanting2 and then adding1 ,how unfortunate it is that ,werner did not lay the foundation of geology at ,naples2 he would have made it ,plutonian4 ,thus the love of his country1 and the recollection of its wonders1 were confounded in his mind with the cultivation of the science1 and gave to his animated and poetical conversation a touching melancholy which agreeably tempered his vivacity4 ,during the years of his professorship at ,pisa1 ,pilla published1 in succession1 a comparative ,essay on the formations which compose the soil of ,italy2#ch a ,collection of the ,mineral riches of ,tuscany2#ci two ,memoirs on the ,etrurian ,formation2#dj ,history of an ,earthquake felt in ,tuscany1 in #ahdf2da many notices respecting the ,calcare-rosso1 and on the temperature observed in the wells of ,monte-,massi2#db lastly1 the first volume of his ,treatise on ,geology4#dc ,the entire work would have formed four octavo volumes4 ,the materials were prepared1 but death left the work incomplete4 ,as these various writings are in the hands of all geologists1 we give no analysis of them2 which indeed would only be a faint reflection from the pictures present to your memory4 ,i may merely say1 that the elevated considerations of the general physics of the globe to which he has risen in appreciating and investigating the causes of earthquakes1 the comprehensive and methodical plan on which he has projected this geological treatise1 by affording us a proof of the fertility and maturity of his mind1 shew us1 at the same time1 the importance of the part reserved for a philosopher1 whom death has removed from the present scene before he had reached his thirty-sixth year4 ,footnote #ch3 ,saggio comparative dei terreni che compongono il suolo de l',italia1 ,pisa4 ,footnote #ci3 ,breve cenno sopra la richezza mineralogica della ,toscano1 ,pisa4 ,footnote #dj3 ,sulla vera posizione del terreno di macigno in ,italia1 ,pisa2 and ,memoires de la ,socit geologique de ,france1 #bme serie1 t4 ii4 ,footnote #da3 ,storia del tremuoto che ha devastuto i paesi della costa ,toscana1 il di #ad ,agosto #ahdf1 ,pisa4 ,footnote #db3 ,miscellanee di fisica e di ,storia naturale di ,pisa1 anno #a1 ,nos4 #g and #h4 ,footnote #dc3 ,trattato di geologia1 t4 i41 ,pisa1 #ahdg4 ,the war of independence raged at the time when ,pilla was about to visit the north of ,europe1 in order to complete his studies in practical geology1 by comparing the different formations4 ,every generous heart in ,italy beat high at the report of the insurrection of ,milan2 and the ,universities of ,pisa and ,sienna1 by demanding arms and first flying to the scene of danger1 shewed that hearts1 proved in the fire of science1 are prepared for great things4 ,pilla marched at the head of his pupils1 and led them in the path of glory1 as he had done in that of philosophy4 ,the love of country and thirst for independence1 by subjugating his heart1 had stifled the calculation of reason under the impulse and delirium of enthusiasm4 ,he had foreseen the issue of the struggle2 for he said to me some days before setting out for the plains of ,lombardy1 the hour of our fall has struck4 ,italy loses by fourteen ages of servitude the splendour of her early days4 ,they are leading us to slaughter2 but we must teach our children how to die1 in order that they may know how they may one day become free4 ,the ,university legion formed a small corps which was placed on the right wing of the ,piedmontese army1 and occupied the positions of ,curtatone and ,montanara4 ,the principal effort of the ,austrian army was directed against these lines1 in the affair of the #bith ,may #ahdh4 ,attacked by #ac1jjj imperial troops1 the ,tuscans resisted courageously1 and did not fall back till they had left #bej of their men on the field of battle4 ,their heroic resistance paved the way for the success of ,goito4 ,pilla was found among the dead4 ,on the ,chronological ,exposition of the ,periods of ,vegetation1 and the different ,floras which have succeeded each other on the ,earth's ,surface4 ,according to the views of ,m4 ,,brongniart4 7,continued from p4 #ccj of ,volume #dh47 ,,ii4 ,permian ,period4--,the nature of the vegetables which appear peculiar to this epoch1 is far from being determined in a positive manner2 for the few localities where the fossils we consider as belonging to it1 have hitherto been found1 are not perhaps really of a formation very identical and truly contemporaneous4 ,for it may be asked1 whether the bituminous and copper slates of the county of ,mansfield1 classed by all geologists with the zechstein1 and the sandstone of ,russia1 placed by ,m4 ,m4 ,murchison and ,verneuil in their ,permian formation1 are really contemporaneous8 ,finally1 is there greater reason for classifying the slates of ,lodve1 considered by ,m4 ,m4 ,dufresnoy and ,elie de ,beaumont as depending on the variegated sandstone1 but so different from the same sandstone of the ,vosges in its flora1 in this period1 which would thus be a kind of passage from the coal period1 so well characterised1 to the vosgian or variegated sandstone1 which differs from it in so decided a manner8 ,on account of these doubts1 ,m4 ,brongniart indicates these three floras separately2 #ast1 ,the ,flora of the bituminous slates of ,thuringia1 composed of alg1 ferns1 and conifer2 #b;d1 ,the ,flora of the ,permian sandstones of ,russia1 which comprehends ferns1 equisetace1 lycopodiace1 and noeggerathi2 #c;d1 ,the ,flora of the slates of ,lodve1 which is composed of ferns1 asterophyllite1 and conifer4 ,we perceive that there are great specific differences between the plants of these localities1 and that hitherto no species common to them has been found4 ,must we ascribe these differences to the influence of the great diversity of geographical position1 or is there1 besides1 a difference in the period of their origin among these formations8 ,the only character which tends to bring these two latter ,floras near each other1 is the relation which both of them bear to the coal-formations1 of which they seem to be a kind of extract1 reminding us more especially of the most recent beds4 ,with regard to the plants of the bituminous slates of the ,mansfeld district1 they are so few in number1 and appear to have been deposited in conditions so different1 that we can with difficulty compare them with the two other ,floras4 ,yet the species of ,sphenopteris are extremely like each other in the three formations1 and an exact comparison would perhaps establish the identity of many of them4 ,the ,pecopteris crenulata of ,ilmenau1 is only perhaps an imperfect state of the ,pecopteris abbreviata of ,lodve2 lastly1 the ,callipteris of the ,permian formation of ,lodve have a very close connection between themselves and the ,callipteris of the coal-formation4 ,we may add1 with regard to the bituminous slates of ,thuringia1 that many of these fossils appear to be marine plants1 whose numbers would become much more considerable if we did not suppress all the imperfect impressions which have been described as such1 and which are nothing more than fragments of ferns or altered conifer4 ,,ii4 ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,gymnosperms4--,during the preceding periods1 and particularly during the ,carboniferous period1 the ,acrogenous cryptogams predominated1 and the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 less numerous1 shewed themselves in unusual forms1 and sometimes so anomalous that we are in doubt whether to place them in this or the preceding department2 such are the ,asterophyllite4 ,at a later period1 on the contrary1 these anomalous and ambiguous forms1 whose classification is often obscure1 disappear2 ,acrogenous cryptogams and ,gymnospermous dicotyledons evidently enter into families still existing1 differing from them only in generic forms2 the ,ferns and ,equisetace1 which represent the acrogens1 are less numerous2 the ,conifer and ,cycade almost equal them in number1 and usually exceed them in frequency1 especially in the second period2 by their abundance and size they afford the essential character of all these formations2 lastly1 the ,angiospermous dicotyledons are wholly wanting1 and the monocotyledons are in very small numbers4 ,this reign of the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons is divided into two periods2 the first1 in which the ,conifer predominate1 and in which the ,cycade scarcely appear2 the second1 in which this family becomes predominating in the number of species1 in frequency and variety of generic forms4 ,the latter may be divided into many epochs1 each presenting peculiar characters4 ,,iii4 ,vosgian ,period4--,this period1 which does not appear to have been of long duration1 and comprehends only the variegated sandstone properly so called1 presents the following characters2 #ast1 ,the existence of ferns1 pretty numerous1 of forms very often anomalous1 evidently constituting genera now extinct1 and which are not found even in the most recent formations2 such are the ,anomopteris and the ,crematopteris4 ,stems of arborescent ferns are more frequent than during the ,jurassic period2 true ,equisetums are very rare2 the ,calamites1 or rather perhaps the ,calamodendrons1 are abundant4 #b;d1 ,the ,gymnosperms are represented by two genera of ,conifer1 ,voltzia and ,haidingeria1 of which the species and specimens are very numerous4 ,the ,cycade1 on the contrary1 are very rare4 ,m4 ,schimper mentions only two species founded on two unique specimens of a very imperfect character1 and the determination of which may be considered doubtful4 ,this consideration appears to me to separate completely1 in a botanical point of view1 the period of the variegated sandstone from that of the ,keuper1 although both are placed by geologists in the trias-formation4 ,for the ,cycade become very abundant in the ,keuper1 are perfectly characterised1 and often analogous to those of the ,jurassic period2 while the ,conifer of the variegated sandstone are1 on the contrary1 wanting in this formation4 ,,iv4 ,jurassic ,period4--,this period is one of the most extensive by the formations which it comprehends1 and the variety of different special epochs of vegetation which it embraces2 although we cannot refuse to comprehend1 under a common title1 epochs during which very analogous forms have succeeded each other4 ,it thus comprehends from the ,keuper inclusively1 up to the ,wealdean formations4 ,in fact1 we find the ,pterophyllum of the ,keuper appear anew1 with slight specific differences in the ,wealdean formations4 ,the equisetites of the ,keuper extend to the mean oolithic formation2 the baiera of the ,lias likewise recurs in the ,wealdean beds of the north of ,germany2 the ,sagenopteris and the ,camptopteris likewise appear in the ,keuper1 ,lias1 and ,oolite4 ,yet these common characters1 which indicate a great analogy between the ,floras of each of these epochs of formation1 do not prevent each of them having characters of its own1 and often an assemblage of species1 almost all peculiar to each particular epoch4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to distinguish here those various subdivisions1 the number of which will perhaps be afterwards multiplied1 when we become better acquainted with the vegetables of each of the stages of the ,jurassic formations4 ,keupric ,epoch4--,m4 ,brongniart then gives an enumeration of the vegetables of the ,keupric epoch1 which1 in regard to the ,amphigenous cryptogams1 consist of ,alg2 in regard to the ,acrogenous cryptogams1 of ,ferns and ,equisetace2 in the case of the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons of ,cycade and ,conifer2 lastly1 of two doubtful monocotyledons 7,paloxyris and ,preisleria47 ,on comparing this ,flora with that of the variegated sandstone of the ,vosges1 and with that of the ,lias1 we perceive that it has nothing in common with the first except the paloxyris1 which appears very nearly related to that of the variegated sandstone2 on the contrary1 it resembles the ,flora of the ,lias or ,oolite in the ferns1 many of which are specifically identical1 or nearly allied in the ,nilsonia and ,pterophyllum1 which are likewise either identical1 or very nearly connected specifically with the ,lias4 ,lias ,epoch4--,the ,liasic epoch furnishes ,amphigenous cryptogams1 consisting of ,alg1 mushrooms1 and lichens2 ,acrogenous cryptogams1 such as ,ferns1 ,marsileace1 ,lycopodiace1 and ,equisetace2 ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 represented by the ,cycade and ,conifer2 finally1 doubtful monocotyledons1 consisting of ,proacites and ,cyperites4 ,the essential characters of this epoch are therefore1 #ast1 ,the great predominance of ,cycade1 already well established1 and the presence of numerous genera in this family1 particularly ,zamites and ,nilsonia2 #b;d1 ,the existence of many genera among the ferns with reticulated nerves1 which scarcely shew themselves1 and under forms not greatly varied1 in the most ancient formations2 but some of which1 notwithstanding1 already begin to appear in the epoch of the ,keuper4 ,such are the ,camptopteris and ,thaumatopteris4 ,oolitic ,epoch4--,the ,oolitic epoch furnishes1 among ,amphigenous cryptogams1 the ,alg2 among the ,acrogenous cryptogams1 ,ferns1 ,marsileace1 ,lycopodiace1 and ,equisetace2 among the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 ,cycade and ,conifer2 lastly1 among the doubtful monocotyledons1 ,podocarya and ,carpolithes4 ,this list is chiefly founded on the fossils1 so varied in character1 collected on the coasts of ,yorkshire1 near ,whitby and ,scarborough1 in beds which are referred to different parts of the inferior oolite1 and particularly to the great oolite4 ,it likewise contains a small number of species found in the slaty limestone of ,stonesfield1 near ,oxford1 depending on these same beds4 ,in ,france1 the fossils of this formation have been collected in the neighbourhood of ,morestel1 near ,lyon1 by ,dr ,lortet2 at ,orbagnoux and ,abergemens1 near ,nantua1 in the department of the ,ain1 by ,m4 ,itier2 in the vicinity of ,chateauroux1 near ,chtillon-sur-,seine1 by ,colonel ,moret2 at ,mamers1 in the department of ,sarthe1 by ,m4 ,desnoyers2 and1 lastly1 in the greatest quantity by ,m4 ,moreau1 in beds of oolithic limestone of a very pure white1 in the neighbourhood of ,verdun1 and near ,vaucouleurs4 ,some species have likewise been found at other points of the ,jura1 in ,normandy1 near ,valogne1 in the neighbourhood of ,alenon1 in each of these localities in very small number4 ,but the greater part of these species are not yet described and figured1 and they generally differ as species from those of ,england4 ,the ferns are generally less numerous1 and not so well preserved2 we must1 however1 except the ,hymenophyllites macrophyllus1 found in a perfect state at ,morestel1 and likewise observed at ,stonesfield1 and in ,germany4 ,the ,cycade1 the species of which are not greatly varied1 are referrible to the genera ,otozamites and ,zamites2 ,ctenis1 ,pterophyllum1 and ,nilsonia have not yet been observed2 lastly1 the ,conifer of the genus ,brachyphyllum are there particularly abundant1 and more frequent than in the other localities4 ,in ,germany1 it is more especially in the slaty limestone of ,solenhofen1 near ,aichstdt1 that these fossils have been observed1 and particularly those of the family of ,alg4 ,m4 ,gppert likewise notices many ,cycade in the ,jurassic formation of ,ludwigsdorf1 near ,kreuzburg1 in ,silesia4 ,but these localities1 so diverse1 are referrible to very different stages of the ,oolithic series1 and perhaps will constitute1 when they are better known1 and more fully explored1 distinct epochs4 ,the distinctive characters of this epoch1 comprising the whole extent we have assigned to it1 from the ,lias to the ,wealdean formation exclusively1 are2 among the ,ferns1 the rarity of ferns with reticulated nervures1 so numerous in the ,lias2 among the ,cycade1 the frequency of ,otozamites and ,zamites1 properly so called2 that is to say1 ,cycade most analogous to those of the existing period1 and the diminution of ,ctenis1 ,pterophyllum1 and ,nilsonia1 genera much more remote from living species2 finally1 the greater frequency of ,conifer1 viz41 ,brachyphyllum and ,thuites1 much rarer in the ,lias4 ,wealdean ,epoch4--,this epoch affords1 ,amphigenous cryptogams1 the ,alg2 among ,acrogenous cryptogams1 ,ferns1 ,marsileace1 and ,equisetace2 among ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 ,cycade and ,conifer2 lastly1 some ,carpolithes as plants of a doubtful class4 ,this enumeration results principally from discoveries made1 in recent years1 in the ,wealdean formations of the north of ,germany1 at ,osterwald1 ,schaumberg1 ,buckeburg1 ,oberkirke1 c41 of which the fossil plants were first described by ,m4 ,rmer1 and afterwards in a more complete manner by ,m4 ,dunker1 in his monograph of these formations4 ,to these species must be added others1 less numerous and varied1 previously discovered in the ,wealds of ,england1 near ,tilgate ,forest1 and ,hastings in ,sussex1 and which are so well described by ,m4 ,mantell4 ,this same formation has likewise been found in ,france1 near ,beauvais1 by ,m4 ,graves1 who observed there ,lonchopteris ,mantelli1 and some other plants1 of which ,m4 ,brongniart has not seen specimens1 and which he quotes from ,graves on the geology of the department of the ,oise4 ,these species1 #fa in number1 enumerated above1 appear to be all peculiar to this formation1 with the exception1 perhaps1 of ,baiera ,huttoni1 which seems to be identical with the species of the ,bayreuth ,lias and ,scarborough ,lias2 but their generic forms are almost all the same as those of the ,lias and ,oolitic formations4 ,the ,cycade1 however1 already appear less numerous relatively to the ferns4 ,we further observe1 that this fresh-water formation1 which1 according to our view1 terminates the reign of the ,gymnosperms is connected1 by the whole of its characters with other epochs of the vegetation of the ,jurassic formation1 and is distinguished from the ,cretaceous epoch1 which succeeds it1 by the complete absence of every species which could be arranged among the ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 both in ,france and ,england1 as well as in the deposits of northern ,germany1 so rich in varied species4 ,on the contrary1 in the lower chalk1 cretaceous glauconia1 the quadersandstein or planerkalk of ,germany1 we immediately find many kinds of leaves evidently belonging to the great division of ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 as well as some remains of palms1 of which no trace is observable in the ,wealdean deposits4 ,i class among the ,cycade the stems of the ,tilgate forest1 formerly designated by the name of ,clatharia ,lyellii1 and which ,i have considered as a stem related to the ,dracna4 ,the whole of its characters1 although the almost entire absence of the tissues prevents us examining its anatomy1 appear to me to render this connection most probable1 and particularly to indicate the relations between this stem and that of ,zamites gigas found at ,scarborough4 ,the abundance of ,lonchopteris ,mantelli is a character of the ,wealdean formations of the south of ,england and the department of the ,oise1 where this fossil seems to make its appearance1 at least in fragments1 in the greater number of localities1 where these beds are exposed by the excavation of potter's clay in this formation1 near ,savignies4 ,in ,germany1 on the contrary1 this species is wanting1 and ,abietites ,linkii becomes the predominating plant4 ,with regard to ,brachyphyllum1 ,i have not yet had it in my power to study them in a natural state2 but the figures given of them leave little doubt as to their analogy with the species of the ,oolitic epoch4 ,the abundance of the ,cycade likewise forms a distinctive character of the ,wealdean formations of ,germany4 ,still there are1 as has been seen1 many species common to the two basins2 and ,i may add1 that probably the ,sphenopteris ,goepperti1 ,dunk41 does not differ from ,sphenopteris ,phillipsii1 ,mant4 ,i have not included in this list some marine plants mentioned as belonging to the beds of this epoch2 #ast1 because it appears to me doubtful whether they really belong to the ,wealdean and not to the ,glauconian epoch2 #b;dly1 because it still appears to me uncertain1 whether the species mentioned1 ,chondrites qualis and intricatus1 are quite identical1 specifically with the species of this name belonging to the fucoidal sandstone lying above the chalk4 ,,iii4 ,,reign ,,of ,,the ,,angiosperms4--,the dominating character of this last transformation of the vegetation of the globe1 is the appearance of ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 those vegetables which actually constitute more than three-fourths of the vegetable creation of our epoch1 and which appear to have acquired this predominance from the commencement of the ,tertiary formations4 ,for a long period ,i was of opinion that these vegetables did not begin to appear till after the chalk1 with the earliest beds of the ,tertiary formations2 but more recent investigation has shewn that beds belonging to the ,chalk formation present some very distinct examples4 ,these vegetables appear even at the beginning of the ,chalk formation2 for it is certain that many well-determined species exist in the quadersandstein and planerkalk of ,germany1 which appear to correspond to the green sandstone of ,france1 or green sand of ,english geologists2 although this formation in ,france and ,england has never yielded any of them1 but only some examples of ,cycade1 ,conifer1 and marine plants4 ,but in southern ,sweden1 at ,kopingue in ,scania1 some specimens of dicotyledonous leaves appear associated with a species of ,cycade1 in beds which have been referred to the greensand2 so that the whole ,chalk formation would appear to constitute a first period in the reign of the ,angiosperms1 forming1 so to speak1 the passage between the vegetation of the ,secondary and that of the ,tertiary formations1 still presenting1 as the first1 a few ,cycade1 as the following1 some ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 and thus paving the way to the considerable development of these vegetables in the succeeding period4 ,this period is besides characterised by many ,conifer peculiar to it1 and which appear very distinct from those of the ,wealdean formations1 and from those of the ,eocene epoch of the ,tertiary formations2 and such in particular are the ,cunninghamites4 ,we can therefore distinguish two great periods in the reign of the ,angiosperms3 #ast1 ,the ,cretaceous period1 a kind of period of transition4 #b;dly1 ,the ,tertiary period1 presenting all the characters arising from the predominance of ,angiosperms1 ,dicotyledons1 and ,monocotyledons1 and divisible into many epochs1 the characters of which will not be well established until we have removed all doubts as to the agreement of the different local series of the ,tertiary formations4 ,v4 ,cretaceous ,period4--,the ,cretaceous period1 properly so called1 comprehends perhaps many distinct epochs2 but the beds where fossil vegetables have been observed1 not having been always classified with precision in the different subdivisions of this formation1 it is impossible to establish their chronology with certainty4 ,besides1 we must distinguish an epoch which appears immediately to precede this formation1 and one which follows it1 and yet differs from the ,eocene period4 ,we are acquainted with fossil vegetables of the ,cretaceous period3-- #ast1 ,sub-,cretaceous ,epoch4--,in the subcretaceous marine lignites of the ,isle of ,aix1 near ,la ,rochelle1 and of ,pialpinson1 in the department of the ,dordogne2 these are the most ancient beds of the ,cretaceous formation1 or the last of the ,jurassic period4 ,here have been found only marine plants1 wood1 and branches of ,conifer4 #b;d1 ,in the chloriteous chalk or greensand of southern ,england1 the neighbourhood of ,beauvais and ,maus2 only ,cycade and marine plants have been observed there4 #c;d1 ,in the same formation in ,scania1 where ,m4 ,nilson has observed leaves of ,dicotyledons mixed with leaves of ,cycadites4 #dth1 ,at ,niederschoena1 near ,freyberg1 in ,saxony1 beds1 analogous to greensand or quadersandstein1 containing fossils of considerable variety1 ,cycade1 ,conifer1 and ,dicotyledons1 particularly ,credneria4 #eth1 ,in the quadersandstein of ,bohemia and ,silesia1 at ,blankenburg1 at ,teifenfurth1 ,teschen1 c41 where this sandstone is characterised by the presence of dicotyledonous leaves of the genus ,credneria1 by ,cyeade1 and particularly by ,conifer of considerable variety1 described by ,m4 ,corda in ,reuss' work on the ,chalk of ,bohemia4 #fth1 ,in ,france1 in the iron sands connected with the green sandstones1 near ,grand-,pr1 in the department of ,ardennes1 where ,m4 ,buvignier has found two fossil vegetables of a very remarkable character1 a stalk of an arborescent fern1 and a cone previously observed in ,england in the same formation4 ,but in other places1 and in beds belonging to epochs certainly different1 this period has presented only marine vegetables2 such more especially are those fucoidal sandstones or macigno1 characterised by ,chondrites targionii1 qualis1 intricatus1 c41 now designated by the name of fucoidal sandstone or flysch--the geological epoch of which has long been doubtful1 but which observers seem to agree in considering as a distinct formation1 superior to the chalk1 and inferior to the most ancient beds of the ,tertiary formations4 ,these fucoidal sandstones form a very distinct epoch1 which hitherto appears to be characterised only by marine vegetables1 and what1 at least in a botanical point of view1 would form the line of demarcation between the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary formations2 for it is remarkable that the fuci found there in such great numbers have little connection with those of the ,chalk1 properly so called1 and none whatever with those of the most ancient beds of the ,tertiary formations1 such as those of ,monte-,bolca4 ,from the study and comparison of these fossils1 derived from such various sources1 we may divide the ,cretaceous period into three epochs1 of which the middle one is the true ,cretaceous epoch4 ,the others1 characterised almost exclusively by marine vegetables1 are somewhat doubtful with regard to their true geological position2 the one1 more ancient than the ,chalk1 contains only the subcretaceous lignites of the neighbourhood of ,la ,rochelle1 and the ,department of ,dordogne2 the other1 superior to the ,chalk1 corresponds to the ,sandstone with fucoides4 ,the subcretaceous epoch comprehends ,alg1 ,naiade1 and ,conifer4 ,this small ,flora is almost entirely founded on fossil plants1 collected among the marine lignites of the ,isle of ,aix1 near ,la ,rochelle1 long since described by ,m4 ,fleureau de ,bellevue4 ,the difference of the vegetables does not appear to admit of connecting this ,flora with that of the inferior chalk or greensand2 but it would require to be more completely examined1 both with regard to its precise geological epoch and the entire amount of vegetable species which it contains4 ,the most abundant and characteristic of these species is the ,rhodomelites strictus1 whose branches1 crossed and mingled with ,zosterites1 constitute the mass of these lignites with the wood of ,conifer1 which have not yet been studied1 and small branchlets1 very rare1 of ,brachyphyllum orbignianum4 ,i have referred to this period the two ,cystoseirites1 described by ,m4 de ,sternberg1 and mentioned by him as found in the beds between the jurassic slates and the chalk in ,transylvania4 ,does this fossil ,flora correspond to a formation almost entirely marine1 but cotemporary with the ,wealdean epoch8 ,new investigations can alone determine this1 but we may suppose an analogy between the ,brachyphyllum of the epochs4 #b;d1 ,cretaceous ,epoch4--,the ,cretaceous epoch presents us1 among the amphigenous cryptogams1 with ,alg1 some of which are doubtful2 among the ,acrogenous cryptogams1 with ferns2 the ,monoctyledons are here represented by two species of palms2 the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons by the cycade and conifer2 the ,angiospermous dicotyledons by a species of ,acerine1 a betulace1 a cupulifera1 salicine1 an acerine1 and a juglande2 lastly1 a few dicotyledons remain1 but the determination of the families to which they belong is uncertain4 ,we ought1 moreover1 to notice at least from ten to twelve species of dicotyledonous leaves1 indeterminate1 and often imperfect1 figured by ,geinitz1 ,reuss1 ,corda1 and ,goeppert1 or existing in collections4 ,this ,flora1 which contains from sixty to seventy species1 is1 as we perceive1 remarkable in this respect1 that the ,angiospermous dicotyledons nearly equal the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 and in the existence of a pretty considerable number of well characterised ,cycade1 which cease to appear at the ,eocene epoch of the ,tertiary formations4 ,the genus ,credneria1 containing dicotyledonous leaves1 with a very peculiar nervation1 but the affinities of which are doubtful1 is likewise one of the characteristic forms of this epoch1 in a pretty considerable number of localities4 ,with regard to the species of dicotyledonous leaves1 referred to determined families1 ,i may remark that these supposed relations1 founded on very imperfect specimens1 and very few in number1 are still very uncertain1 and incapable of furnishing a basis for comparison with the other ,floras1 nor any certain conclusion4 #c;d1 ,fucoidian ,epoch4--,this epoch1 which seems to me to form the most natural limit between the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary periods1 is characterised by those deposits1 so rich in ,alg1 of a very peculiar form1 that they have been called the sandstones or macignos fucodes1 or the flysch of ,switzerland1--a formation very widely spread1 especially in southern ,europe1 from the ,pyrenees1 as far as the vicinity of ,vienna1 and even to the ,crimea4 ,i have not hitherto found land plants mingled with these marine species4 ,i do not believe that fossil woods have been met with4 ,almost all these ,alg appear to belong to the same group1 the genus ,chondrites2 and although the species are pretty numerous1 they pass from one to another by almost insensible shades4 ,the ,alg of the neighbourhood of ,vienna1 placed in the genus ,munsteria1 are very ill characterised1 and perhaps are not congenerous with those of the jurassic limestone of ,solenhofen2 but they appear to me to have been found in the same formation1 designated by the name of gray calcareous slate1 of the sandstone of ,vienna1 as the ,chondrites of the same country4 ,the ,flora of the fucoidean sandstone is constituted by twelve species of ,alg 7,chondrites and ,munsteria47 ,what is remarkable in this series of species is1 that they have nothing in common1 either with the ,alg of the ,subcretaceous epoch1 or with those of the ,eocene epoch1 and particularly of ,monte-,bolca1 with which this ,flora should be almost cotemporary1 according to many geologists4 ,the identity of these species of ,alg is likewise remarkable in all the localities1 however distant from each other--localities so numerous1 in regard to the greater number of these species1 that ,i have been unable to enumerate them4 ,the ,chondrites targionii1 or perhaps a distinct species1 but very nearly related1 is the only one presented in another formation1 in the greensand and gault of the ,isle of ,wight1 in ,england1 according to ,m4 ,fitton2 and in this same formation1 in the department of the ,oise1 according to ,m4 ,graves4 ,m4 ,kurr has likewise described and figured1 under the name of ,chondrites bollensis1 a fucus of the ,lias--the very varied forms of which are almost identical with the ,chondrites targionii1 qualis1 and difformis4 ,,vi4 ,tertiary ,period4--,considered as a whole1 the vegetables of this period1 cotemporary with all the ,tertiary deposits1 and continued even in the vegetation which now covers the earth's surface1 is one of the best characterised4 ,the abundance of ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 that of the monocotyledons of diverse families1 but especially the ,palms1 during a part at least of this period1 immediately distinguish it from the most ancient periods4 ,yet the observations made on the ,cretaceous epoch have established a kind of transition between the forms of the ,secondary epochs and those of the ,tertiary epochs1 which was not suspected a few years ago4 ,but while1 at this period1 the ,angiosperms appear nearly to equal the ,gymnosperms1 in the ,tertiary period1 they greatly exceed them2 while at the ,cretaceous epoch1 there are still ,cycade and ,conifer allied to the genera inhabiting tropical regions2 during the ,tertiary period1 the ,cycade appear to have been completely wanting in ,europe1 and the ,conifer belong to the genera of the temperate regions4 ,notwithstanding this assemblage of characters common to the whole ,tertiary period1 there are evidently notable differences in the generic and specific forms1 and in the predominance of certain families at different epochs of this long period2 but here we often experience serious difficulties in establishing a uniformity as to time among the numerous local formations which constitute the different ,tertiary formations4 ,in assigning the different localities where fossil vegetables have been observed to the principal divisions of the ,tertiary series1 ,i have not followed exactly the bases admitted by ,m4 ,unger in his ,synopsis2 ,i have approached nearer to the distribution adopted by ,m4 ,raulin1 in his ,memoir on the ,transformations of the ,flora of ,central ,europe during the ,tertiary period 7,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 t4 x41 p4 #aic1 ,oct4 #ahdh71 which refers many of the formations1 classified by ,m4 ,unger in the ,miocene division1 to the ,pliocene1 or most recent epoch4 ,yet1 according to the advice of ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ,i have not placed all the ,lignite formations of ,germany in the ,pliocene division1 as ,m4 ,raulin has done1 nor all of them in the ,miocene division1 like ,m4 ,unger2 but1 conformably to the old opinion of my father1 ,i have left the ,lignites from the shores of the ,baltic1 which include amber1 in the inferior division of the old basins of ,paris1 ,london1 and ,brussels1 considering them cotemporary with the ,soisson ,lignites4 ,those of the banks of the ,rhine1 of ,wetteravia and ,westphalia1 are arranged in the ,miocene division2 those of ,styria1 and part of ,bohemia1 on the contrary1 are placed among the recent or ,pliocene formations4 ,this distribution agrees pretty generally with the nature of the vegetables contained in them4 ,one important point only leaves me in doubt3 this relates to the ,lignites of the environs of ,frankfort or ,wetteravia1 the plants of which are pretty generally analogous to those of ,o,eningen or ,partschlug in ,styria2 although their geological position seems to call upon us to refer them to a more ancient formation4 ,it is probable that a more complete knowledge of these diverse deposits would lead to a division into distinct epochs more numerous2 but ,i think that1 in the meantime1 the division into three principal epochs1 which ,i shall designate1 with the majority of geologists1 by the names ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene1 is sufficient for a comparison of the successive changes of the vegetable kingdom4 ,i shall point out for each of them the localities which ,i think should be comprehended under these different designations4 ,with regard to the general characters which result from the comparative examinations of these ,floras1 we find that the number of species1 in the great divisions1 are thus distributed in these three ,floras3-- ,eocene ,miocene ,pliocene ,epoch4 ,epoch4 ,epoch4 -------- -------- -------- ,cryptogams1 #cc 444 #aj 444 #ac 444 ,amphigenous1 444 #af 444 #f 444 #f ,acrogenous1 444 #ag 444 #d 444 #g ,phanerogams1 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,monocotyledons1 #cc #cc #bf #bf #d #d ,dicotyledons1 #adc 444 #ig 444 #aie 444 ,gymnosperms1 444 #dj 444 #ai 444 #ca ,angiosperms1 444 #ajc 444 #gh 444 #afd --------- -------- -------- ,total1 #bji 444 #bji 444 #bab 444 ,it may only be remarked that1 in the first column1 or ,eocene formation1 the fossil fruits of the ,isle of ,sheppey--a part only of which have been described by ,m4 ,bowerbank--have a great influence on the numbers of the different divisions of ,phanerogams1 and that this locality appears altogether exceptional1 and is1 perhaps1 an example of the effect of currents conveying exotic fruits from remote climates1 and accumulating them on a point of the shores of ,europe4 ,in this point of view1 the enumeration of the plants of this first epoch is in no way comparable to that of the other epochs1 where ,i have refrained even from introducing the small number of fossil plants from the ,tertiary formations of the equatorial regions that are known1 in order to confine myself to a comparison of the ,tertiary ,floras of ,europe4 ,with regard to the characters drawn from vegetable forms during these three epochs1 the most remarkable appear to me1 #ast1 ,in the ,eocene period1 the presence1 but rarity1 of the palms1 limited to a small number of species4 ,the predominance of ,alg and marine ,monocotyledons1 which must be ascribed to the great extent of marine formations during this epoch4 ,the existence of a great number of extra ,european forms1 resulting especially from the presence of the fossil fruits of ,sheppey4 #b;d1 ,in regard to the ,miocene epoch1 the abundance of palms in the greater number of localities belonging1 without doubt1 to this epoch2 the existence of a considerable number of non-,european forms1 in particular of the genus ,steinhauera1 which appears to me to be a rubiace allied to nauclea1 found in many localities of these formations4 #c;d1 ,in regard to the ,pliocene epoch1 the great predominance and variety of ,dicotyledons1 the rarity of ,monocotyledons1 and1 above all1 the absence of ,palms2 lastly1 the general analogy of the forms of these plants with those of the temperate regions of ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and ,japan4 ,a remarkable character of the ,floras of these three epochs1 but which is most striking in regard to the last1 in which the dicotyledonous plants are most numerous1 is the absence of the most numerous and characteristic families of the division of ,gamopetalis4 ,thus1 among the numerous impressions of ,partschlug1 ,o,eningen1 ,hoerring1 ,radoboj1 c41 there is nothing to indicate the existence of the ,composit1 ,campanulace1 ,personne1 ,labiace1 ,solani1 ,boragina1 c4 ,the only ,monopetales mentioned in great numbers are the ,ericace1 ,ilicine1 some ,sapotace1 and ,styrace1 families which belong almost as much to the ,dialypetales as to the ,gamopetales4 ,in the ,miocene flora only have been pointed out many ,apocyne1 and ,rubiace1 which ,i have mentioned above4 #a4 ,eocene ,epoch4--,this epoch1 in the most precise limits1 comprehends plastic clay with its lignites1 the coarse ,parisian limestone and gypsum which lie above it in the same basin2 but ,i have not thought it worth while1 in the meantime1 to separate from it some formations which1 according to the investigations of modern geologists1 are placed between the ,cretaceous formations and the inferior parts of the formations mentioned2 such are the ,nummulitic formations of the ,vicentin1 comprehending the celebrated locality of ,monte-,bolca1 and probably some others near it1 such as ,salcedo1 in the ,vicentin4 ,i have likewise joined to this ,flora of the ,eocene formations a very remarkable locality of the basin of ,paris1 the relations of which with the ,tertiary beds are not yet perfectly determined1--these are the beds of a species of ancient ,travertin which1 near ,sezanne1 contain numerous fossil vegetables still undescribed1 and of which ,i shall here notice the most remarkable4 ,these plants have very peculiar remains1 and belong probably to a special ,flora1 unless the differences can be ascribed to a diversity of station4 ,besides the different members of the ,eocene formation1 properly so called1 of the ,paris basin1 ,i comprehend in this ,flora the fossils of the same formation in ,england1 at the ,isle of ,wight1 and ,isle of ,sheppey in the ,london basin4 ,these latter fossils1 consisting almost solely of fruits transformed into pyrites1 constitute a whole which has no analogue in any other of the ,tertiary basins of ,europe2 not only in the number and diversity of these fruits1 but in their peculiar characters1 which remove them widely from the plants whose leaves occur in the other beds of the same geological epoch4 ,everything1 therefore1 would lead us to suppose that these fruits1 although belonging to plants cotemporaneous with the ,eocene deposits of ,europe1 have been brought from distant countries by marine currents1 just as fruits are still brought from the equatorial regions of ,america to the coasts of ,ireland or ,norway by the great current of the ,atlantic4 ,the deposit in the ,isle of ,sheppey appears therefore to be an accidental case in the ,eocene deposits1 and the ,paris basin presents none of these fossils4 ,the ,tertiary basin of ,belgium1 which follows that of ,london1 has yielded1 near ,brussels1 some fossil fruits in very small numbers1 but which appear identical with one of the genera most abundant at ,sheppey4 ,this is the ,nipadites1 considered at first as a species of ,coco1 under the name of ,cocus burtini4 ,lastly1 following the advice of my learned associate1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ,i have included in the same ,flora the plants contained in the ,lignites of the shores of the ,baltic and ,pomerania1 so rich in amber1 in which these vegetables have often been preserved4 ,it is to the labours of ,m4 ,goeppert that we are indebted for a knowledge of these vegetables1 most frequently represented by very small fragments1 the relations of which he has determined with much skill and accuracy4 ,with materials collected in these various localities1 but of which the greater part are still unpublished1 we may construct the ,flora of the ,eocene epoch2 but the list1 comprehending only the species described1 or at least determined1 is only a mere sketch4 ,m4 ,brongniart then gives the names of the vegetables belonging to the ,eocene epoch2 these are1 for the ,amphigenous cryptogams1 alg1 and mushrooms2 for the ,acrogenous cryptogams1 hepatici1 mosses1 ferns1 equisetace1 and charace4 ,the ,monocotyledons present ,naiades1 ,nipace1 and palms4 ,the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons are represented by ,conifer 7,cupressin1 ,abietine1 ,taxine1 and ,gnetace47 ,lastly1 among the ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 we find examples of ,betulace1 ,cupulifer1 ,juglande1 ,ulmace1 ,proteace1 ,leguminos1 ,o,enothere1 ,cucurbitace1 ,sapindace1 ,malvace1 ,ericace1 and three doubtful families 7,phyllites1 ,antholithes1 and ,carpolithes47 ,the most remarkable characters of this ,flora are1-- #ast1 ,the great quantity of ,alg and marine ,naiades1 characters owing to the extent and thickness of the marine formations of this epoch4 #b;d1 ,the great number of ,conifer1 the greater part belonging to genera still existing1 but among which the ,cupressine appear to predominate1 especially if we admit as positively belonging to this family the various fruits of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 which ,m4 ,bowerbank has described under the name of ,cupressinites1 and of which ,m4 ,endlicher has formed the genera ,callitrites1 ,frenelites1 and ,solenostrobus4 ,if these fruits really belong to ,european vegetation1 they indicate very peculiar generic forms1 probably now wholly extinct4 #c;d1 ,the existence of many large species of palm1 equally shewn by the occurrence of their leaves and stems4 #b4 ,miocene ,epoch4--,this ,eocene or middle epoch of the ,tertiary formations appears to me to comprehend the following localities among those which have furnished materials for the study of the vegetation of the ,tertiary period3 #ast1 ,in the environs of ,paris1 the superior sandstones1 or those of ,fontainebleau and the ,meulieres1 or ,buhrstone1 which crown our coasts2 #b;d1 ,the sandstone1 with impressions1 in the environs of ,mans and ,angers1 and probably those of ,bergerac1 in the department of the ,dordogne2 #c;d1 ,a part of the ,tertiary formations of ,auvergne1 and particularly those of the mountain ,gergovia1 formations which1 by their impressions1 appear more ancient than those of ,menat1 but which perhaps all belong to different stages of the ,pliocene epoch2 #dth1 ,the fresh-water formations of ,armissan1 near ,narbonne1 the ,gypsum of ,aix in ,provence1 the ,lignites of ,provence1 whose vegetable fossils are scarcely known2 finally1 the ,lacustrine formations1 rich in the wood of palms1 and in stems of ,monocotyledons1 from ,upper ,provence1 near ,apt and ,castellane2 #eth1 ,a part of the ,tertiary formations of ,italy1 and particularly those of ,superga1 near ,turin2 #fth1 ,the ,mollasse of ,switzerland1 with its ,lignites1 at ,lausanne1 ,koepfnac1 and ,horgen1 containing the remains of palms2 #gth1 ,the ,lignites of the banks of the ,rhine near ,cologne and ,bonn1 at ,friesborf1 ,liblar1 c41 sometimes enclosing wood of palms1 and those of ,wetteravia at ,nidda1 near ,frankfort1 and other places2 as well as those of ,weisner near ,cassel1 which all appear to be of the same epoch1 although those of ,wetteravia1 by the abundance of certain genera of ,dicotyledons1 such as juglans and acer1 and even by many cases of specific identity1 seem to make a nearer approach to the ,pliocene flora2 #hth1 ,a part of the ,lignites of ,bohemia1 and particularly those of ,altsattel1 whose fossils1 described by ,m4 de ,sternberg and ,m4 ,rossmssler1 generally agree with those of the other localities already mentioned4 ,the other ,lignites of ,bohemia1 those of ,bilin and of ,comothau in particular1 enter completely into the ,pliocene flora2 #ith1 ,hoerring in the ,tyrol1 and ,radoboj in ,croatia1 of which ,m4 ,unger has so well described the numerous impressions in his ,chloris ,protoga1 and which have almost become the type of the ,miocene flora4 ,with the exception of the ,lignite formations of the neighbourhood of ,cassel and ,frankfort--the species of which have often numerous points of connection with those of ,o,eningen and ,parschlug1 and which enter rather into the ,pliocene flora--the different localities ,i have mentioned have numerous relations between them as to their fossil vegetables4 ,thus1 the ,nymphea ,arethus is found in the ,meulires or ,buhrstone of ,paris1 and in the marls of ,armissan2 the ,flabellaria rhapifolia and maxima recur at ,hoering in the ,tyrol1 at ,radoboj in ,croatia1 and in the superior sandstones of the environs of ,angers and ,perigneux4 ,the ,callitrites ,brongniartii1 ,endl41 is likewise met with in the formations of ,armissan1 ,aix1 in ,provence1 at ,hoering and ,radoboj4 ,lastly1 the ,steinhauera globosa of the ,altsattel ,lignites in ,bohemia1 is likewise found in the sandstone of the vicinity of ,maus2 and the ,platanus ,hercules of ,radoboj1 in ,croatia1 has been sent to me from ,armissan1 near ,narbonne1 by ,m4 ,toumal4 ,these facts would probably multiply by a more attentive study of the different localities2 but as it is1 they leave little doubt as to the synchronism of the greater part of these local formations4 ,in the ,flora of the ,miocene formations1 ,amphigenous cryptogams occur1 represented by ,alg and mushrooms2 ,acrogenous cryptogams1 represented by mosses1 ferns1 and ,charace2 ,monocotyledons1 among which we find ,naiades1 ,gramine1 ,liliace1 and ,palms2 of the ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 ,conifer2 and ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 among which occur ,myrice1 ,betuline1 ,cupulifer1 ,ulmace1 ,more1 ,platane1 ,salicine1 ,lawrine1 ,umbellifer1 ,karolange1 ,combretace1 ,calycanthe1 ,leguminos1 ,anacardi1 ,xanthoxyle1 ,juglande1 ,rhamne1 ,acerine1 ,nympheace1 ,apocyne1 and ,rubiace4 ,the most striking characters of this epoch consist of the mixture of exotic forms at present peculiar to regions warmer than ,europe1 with vegetables growing generally in temperate countries2 such as the palms1 a species of bamboo1 ,lawrine1 ,combretace1 ,leguminos of warm countries1 ,apocyne1 analogous1 according to ,m4 ,unger1 to the genera of equatorial regions1 a ,rubiace altogether tropical1 united with erables1 walnuts1 birches1 elms1 oaks1 charmes1 c41 genera proper to temperate or cold regions4 ,the presence of equatorial forms1 and particularly of palms1 appears to distinguish this epoch essentially from the following one4 ,lastly1 we likewise observe the very small number of vegetables with a monopetalous corolla1 limited to species referred to the family of ,apocyne by ,unger1 and to the genus ,steinhauera1 founded on a fruit which has much relation to that of ,nauclea among the ,rubiace4 #c4 ,pliocene ,epoch4--,this epoch1 embracing all the ,tertiary formations superior to the fahluns of ,touraine1 comprehends pretty numerous localities rich in fossil vegetables1 and whose position in these formations is determined as much by the ensemble of the vegetables they contain1 as by their other geological characters4 ,the ,tertiary basins which1 it appears to me1 must serve as the basis of this ,flora1 both by their identity1 and the numerous and carefully-studied vegetables they contain1 are3 #ast1 ,that of ,o,eningen1 near ,shaffouse1 the species of which have been long since studied and well determined by ,m4 ,alex4 ,braun1 whose work1 though unpublished1 has been communicated to many naturalists1 and particularly to ,m4 ,unger4#dd #b;d1 ,that of ,parschlug1 in ,styria1 the numerous impressions of which ,m4 ,unger has collected1 studied1 and determined1 partly published by him in his ,chloris ,protoga1 and presented altogether in a special enumeration of these species recently published under the title of ,flora of ,parschlug4 ,in this locality alone1 ,m4 ,unger has recognised and classified #adj different species2 it is the most numerous local ,flora with which we are acquainted1 and the identity of a great number of species with those of ,o,eningen1 indicates well the synchronism of these two local formations4 ,such other points in ,styria appear likewise to be of the same epoch1 as well as many localities in ,hungary so rich in silicified wood4 ,in ,bohemia1 the tripoli slates of ,bilin and ,comothau1 which contain a pretty considerable number of plants described by ,m4 de ,sternberg1 are no doubt referrible to this epoch1 according to the nature of these plants4 ,lastly1 the ,tertiary hills1 called the sub-appennine hills of ,plaisantin1 of ,tuscany1 and a part of ,piedmont1 as well as the gypseous formation of ,stradella1 near ,pavia1 so rich in impressions of leaves1 form part of this epoch2 but1 with the exception of this latter point1 these formations contain1 in general1 few vegetables4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the following interesting observations on the ,o,eningen formation are by ,professor ,agassiz1 who refers it to the ,miocene not to the ,pliocene class3-- ,this picture would be incomplete did ,i not institute a farther comparison between the present vegetation of those regions and the fossil plants of modern geological epochs4 ,if we compare1 namely1 the ,tertiary fossil plants of ,europe with those living on the spot now1 we shall be struck with the differences of about the same value as those already mentioned between the eastern and western coasts of the continents under the same latitudes4 ,compare1 for instance1 a list of the fossil trees and shrubs from ,o,eningen1 with a catalogue of trees and shrubs of the eastern and western coasts1 both of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,north ,america1 and it will be seen that the differences they exhibit scarcely go beyond those shewn by these different ,flor under the same latitudes4 ,but what is quite extraordinary and unexpected is the fact1 that the ,european fossil plants of that locality resemble more closely the trees and shrubs which grow at present in the eastern parts of ,north ,america1 than those of any other part of the world2 thus1 allowing us to express correctly the differences already mentioned between the vegetation of the eastern and western coasts of the continents1 by saying that the present eastern ,american flora1 and ,i may add1 the fauna also1,a and probably also that of eastern ,asia1 have a more ancient character than those of ,europe and of western ,north ,america4 ,the plants1 especially the trees and shrubs growing in our days in this country and in ,japan1 are1 as it were1 old fashioned2 they bear the mark of former ages--a peculiarity which agrees with the general aspect of ,north ,america2 the geological structure of which indicates that this region was a large continent long before the extensive tracts of land had been lifted above the level of the sea in any other part of the world4 ,the extraordinary analogy which exists between the present ,flora and ,fauna of ,north ,america1 and the fossils of the ,miocene period in ,europe1 would also give a valuable hint with respect to the mean annual temperature of that geological period4 ,o,eningen1 for instance1 whose fossils of all classes have perhaps been more fully studied than those of any other locality1 could not have enjoyed1 during that period1 a tropical or even a subtropical climate1 such as has often been assigned to it1 if we can at all rely upon the indications of its ,flora2 for this is so similar to that of ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 that the highest mean annual temperature we can ascribe to the ,miocene epoch in central ,europe must be reduced to about #fj ,fah42 that is to say1 we infer from its fossil vegetation that ,o,eningen had1 during the ,tertiary times1 the climate of the warm temperate zone1 the climate of ,rome1 for instance1 and not even that of the northern shores of ,africa4 ,we are led to this conclusion by the following argument3--,the same isothermal line which passes at present through ,o,eningen1 at the #dgth degree of northern latitude1 passes also through ,boston1 lat4 #db4 ,supposing now 7as the geological structure of the two continents and the form of their respective outlines at that period seem to indicate71 that the undulations of the isothermal lines which we notice in our days existed already during the ,tertiary period1 or1 in other words1 that the differences of temperature which exist between the western shores of ,europe and the eastern shores of ,north ,america1 were the same at that time as now1 we shall obtain the mean annual temperature of that age by adding simply the difference of mean annual temperature which exists between ,charleston and ,boston 7#ab ,fah47 to that of ,o,eningen1 which is #dh ,fah41 as modern ,o,eningen agrees almost precisely with ,boston1 making it #fj ,fah42 far from looking to the northern shores of ,africa for an analogy1 which the different character of the respective vegetations would render still less striking4 ,the mean annual temperature of ,o,eningen1 during the ,tertiary period1 would not therefore differ more from its present mean than that of ,charleston differs from that of ,boston4--,agassiz1 on ,lake ,superior1 p4 #aej4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the characteristic genera ,lagomys1 ,cheldyra1 and the large ,salamanders with permanent gills1 remind us of the fossils of ,o,eningen1 for the present fauna of ,japan1 as well as the ,liquidambar1 ,carya1 ,taxodium1 ,gleditschia1 c41 c4 ,in ,france1 the ,pliocene epoch probably comprehends a part of the fresh-water deposits of ,auvergne and ,ardche4 ,thus1 the slates of ,menat and those of ,rochesauve appear to me to furnish a ,flora very similar to those of ,o,eningen and ,parschlug4 ,with regard to the marls of ,gergovia and ,merdogne1 near ,clermont1 ,i think they ought rather to be classed in the ,miocene epoch2 but this question can be settled only by a more attentive determination of the species4 ,the ,flora1 which recapitulates all that has been described or named in these formations1 is1 however1 essentially founded1 as may be seen by the indication of localities1 on the two basins of ,parschlug and ,o,eningen4 ,the ,flora of the ,pliocene formations is constituted by ,amphigenous cryptogams1 comprehending alg and mushrooms2 by ,acrogenous cryptogams1 including a muscite1 ferns1 lycopodiace1 and equisitace2 by ,monocotyledons1 naiades1 gramine1 cyperace1 and liliace2 by ,gymnospermous dicotyledons1 conifer1 represented by cupriessine1 abietine1 and taxine2 finally1 by ,angiospermous dicotyledons1 comprehending myrice1 betulace1 cupulifer1 ulmace1 balsamiflu1 salicine1 laurine1 thymale1 santalace1 corne1 myrtace1 calycanthe1 pomace1 rosace1 amygdale1 leguminos1 anacarde1 juglande1 rhamne1 celastrine1 sapindace1 acerine1 tiliace1 magnoliace1 capparide1 sapote1 styrace1 oleace1 ebenace1 ilicine1 and ericace4 ,the ,pliocene epoch1 considered in relation to ,europe1 for ,i have intentionally excluded from the preceding list some fossils of the ,antilles referred to these formations1 offers as peculiar characters an extreme analogy to the existing ,flora of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere2 ,i do not say of ,europe1 for this ,pliocene flora comprehends many genera strangers in the present time to ,europe1 but proper to the vegetation of ,america or temperate ,asia4 ,such are1 if we admit the accuracy of the generic relations established by the botanists to whom these determinations are owing1 taxodium1 salisburia1 comptonia1 liquidambar1 nyssa1 robinia1 gleditschia1 bauhinia1 cassia1 acacia1 rhus1 juglans1 ceanothus1 celastrus1 sapindus1 liriodendron1 capparis1 sideroxylon1 achras1 and symplocos1 all genera foreign to temperate ,europe1 but in which they have been found in a fossil state1 but which1 for the most part1 still occur in the temperate regions of other parts of the globe4 ,as to other genera still existing in ,europe1 but which contain only a small number of species1 we find many more of them in a fossil state2 such are the ,erables1 of which #ad species are enumerated in this ,flora of the ,pliocene epoch1 and the ,oaks1 which are #ac in number4 ,it ought to be remarked1 that these species come from two or three very circumscribed localities which1 in the present time1 probably would not furnish1 in a circuit of many leagues1 more than three or four species of these genera4 ,lastly1 another character1 which ,i have already spoken of1 and which makes this ,flora to differ still further from that of our epoch1 is the absence1 or at least the small number and nature of the plants with ,gamopetalous corollas4 ,thus1 there are only twenty plants of this ,flora arranged in the families of this division1 and all are referrible to this group of ,hypogynous gamopetales1 which ,i have distinguished by the name of ,isogynes2 in the general organization of the flowers1 they approach nearest to the dialypetales4 ,is this absence of ,anisogynous gamopetales1 and with irregular ovaries1 the result of chance2 or does it arise from this1 that many of these plants1 particularly among the species of temperate regions1 are herbaceous1 and that herbaceous plants are generally in conditions less favourable for passing into a fossil state8 ,or1 lastly1 did those families1 which some botanists have been led to consider the most elevated in organization1 not yet exist8 ,these are points which cannot be positively determined in the present state of our knowledge4 ,we may however remark1 that at the ,miocene epoch1 these plants were still less numerous1 but belonging to other families2 and that at the ,eocene period1 no one is mentioned by the authors who have shewn the connection between the fossil and living plants1 without having any preconceived idea on the subject4 ,another fact to be noticed1 but which likewise probably depends on the herbaceous nature of these vegetables1 and their leaves not being shed1 is the almost complete absence of ,monocotyledons1 ferns1 and mosses1 which establishes1 in regard to these families1 a very great difference between the ,pliocene flora and that of modern ,europe4 ,a difference not less important distinguishes this ,flora from that of the most ancient epochs2 namely1 the absence1 in all these formations1 of the family of ,ferns1 which1 on the contrary1 furnishes so prominent a feature in the ,miocene epoch4 ,no trace of them occur in ,europe in the ,pliocene formations ,i have enumerated2 while the woods of this family are very abundant in the formations of the ,west ,indies1 which is considered as an epoch at least as recent as the ,pliocene formation1 which appears to indicate that at this period the zones of vegetation were distributed nearly as at present4 ,indeed1 in these modern formations of the ,antilles1 we find among the fossil woods1 the only portions of their vegetables that have hitherto been collected1 specimens which indicate the existence1 not only of numerous and varied palms1 but of many other families of the equatorial zone1 such as ,lianes1 nearly related to ,bauhinia and ,menisperme1 ,pisonia1 c4 ,the vegetation of the ,antilles had therefore at this period the characters of the equatorial zone1 as in ,europe it had then the characters of the temperate zone4 ,lastly1 and to terminate our observations on this ,flora of the latter geological epoch which preceded the present one1 we would remark that1 notwithstanding the general analogies which exist between the vegetables of these formations and those now living in the temperate regions1 no species appears to be identical1 at least with the plants that still grow in ,europe2 and if1 in some rare cases1 complete identity appears to exist1 it is between these vegetables and ,american species4 ,thus the ,flora of ,europe1 even at the most recent geological epoch1 was very different from the ,european ,flora of the present day4--,l',institut4 ,glacial ,theory of the ,erratics and ,drift of the ,new and ,old ,worlds4#de ,by ,professor ,l4 ,,agassiz4 ,footnote #de3 ,vide ,lake ,superior1 its physical character1 vegetation1 and animals4 ,by ,professor ,louis ,agassiz4 #ahej4 ,glacialists and ,antiglacialists4--,erratic basins of ,switzerland4--,similar phenomena observed in other parts of ,europe4--,points necessary to be settled2 first1 the relation in time and character between the ,northern and the ,alpine erratics4--,traced in ,north ,america4--,not yet settled whether any local centres of distribution in ,america2 but the general cause must have acted in all parts simultaneously4--,this action ceased at #ce north latitude2 this incompatible with the notion of currents4--,in both hemispheres a direct reference to the ,polar ,regions4--,difficulty as to so extensive formation of ,ice1 removed2 difficulties on the theory of ,currents1 the effects contrary to experience of ,water-,action4--,erratic phenomena of ,lake ,superior4--,the ,iceberg theory4--,description of appearances at ,lake ,superior4--,drift2 contains mud1 and is without fossils4--,example of juxtaposition of stratified and unstratified ,drift1 at ,cambridge4--,date of these phenomena not fully determined1 but doubtless simultaneous all over the ,globe4--,the various periods and kinds of ,drift distinguished4--,accompanied by change of level in the ,continent4 ,so much has been said and written within the last fifteen years upon the dispersion of erratic boulders and drift1 both in ,europe and ,america1 that ,i should not venture to introduce this subject again1 if ,i were not conscious of having essential additions to present to those interested in the investigation of these subjects4 ,it will be remarked by all who have followed the discussions respecting the transportation of loose materials over great distances from the spot where they occurred primitively1 that the most minute and the most careful investigations have been made by those geologists who have attempted to establish a new theory of their transportation by the agency of ice4 ,the part of those who claim currents as the cause of this transportation has been more generally negative1 inasmuch as1 satisfied with their views1 they have generally been contented simply to deny the new theory and its consequences1 rather than investigate anew the field upon which they had founded their opinions4 ,without being taxed with partiality1 ,i may1 at the outset1 insist upon this difference in the part taken by the two contending parties4 ,for1 since the publication of ,sefstroem's paper upon the drift of ,sweden1 in which very valuable information is given respecting the phenomena observed in that peninsula1 and the additional data furnished by ,de ,verneuil and ,murchison upon the same country and the plains of ,russia1 the classical ground for erratic phenomena has been left almost untouched by all except the advocates of the glacial theory4 ,i need only refer to the investigations of ,m4 de ,charpentier1 ,escher1 ,von ,derlinth and ,studer1 and more particularly to those extensive and most minute researches of ,professor ,guyot in ,switzerland1 without speaking of my own and some contributions from visitors1--as the ,martins1 ,james ,forbes1 and others1 to justify my assertion1 that no important fact1 respecting the loose materials spread all over ,switzerland1 has been added by the advocates of currents since the days of ,sanssure1 ,de ,luc1 ,escher and ,von ,buch2 whilst ,professor ,guyot has most conclusively shewn that the different erratic basins in ,switzerland are not only distinct from each other1 as was already known before1 but that in each the loose materials are arranged in well-determined regular order1 shewing precise relations to the centres of distribution1 from which these materials originated2 an arrangement which agrees in every particular with the arrangement of loose fragments upon the surface of any glacier1 but which no cause acting convulsively could have produced4#df ,footnote #df3 ,a comparison of the maps1 shewing the arrangement of the moraines upon the glacier of the ,aar1 in my ,systme ,glaciaire1 with the maps which ,professor ,guyot is about to publish of the distribution of the erratic boulders in ,switzerland1 will shew more fully the identity of the two phenomena4 ,the results of these investigations are plainly that the boulders found at a distance from the ,central ,alps1 originated from their higher summits and valleys1 and were carried down at different successive periods in a regular manner1 forming uninterrupted walls and ridges1 which can be traced from their starting-point to their extreme peripheric distribution4 ,i have myself shewn that there are such centres of distribution in ,scotland1 and ,england1 and ,ireland2 and these facts have been since traced in detail in various parts of the ,british islands by ,dr ,buckland1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,mr ,darwin1 ,mr ,m',laren1 and ,professor ,james ,forbes1 pointing clearly to the main mountain groups as to so many distinct centres of dispersion of these loose materials4 ,similar phenomena have been shewn in the ,pyrenees1 in the ,black ,forest1 and in the ,vosges1 shewing beyond question1 that whatever might have been the cause of the dispersion of erratic boulders1 there are several separate centres of their distribution to be distinguished in ,europe4 ,but there is another question connected with this local distribution of boulders which requires particular investigation1 the confusion of which with the former has no doubt greatly contributed to retard our real progress in understanding the general question of the distribution of erratics4 ,it is well known that ,northern ,europe is strewed with boulders1 extending over ,european ,russia1 ,poland1 ,northern ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,belgium4 ,the origin of these boulders is far north in ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,lapland1 and ,liefland2 but they are now diffused over the extensive plains west of the ,ural ,mountains4 ,their arrangement1 however1 is such that they cannot be referred to one single point of origin1 but only in a general way to the northern tracts of land which rise above the level of the sea in the arctic regions4 ,whether these boulders were transported by the same agency as those arising from distinct centres1 on the main ,continent of ,europe1 has been the chief point of discussion4 ,for my own part1 ,i have indeed no doubt that the extreme consequences to which we are naturally carried by admitting that ice was also the agent in transporting the northern erratics to their present positions1 has been the chief objection to the view1 that the ,alpine boulders have been distributed by glaciers4 ,it seemed easier to account for the distribution of the northern erratics by currents2 and this view appearing satisfactory to those who supported it1 they at once went further1 and opposed the glacial theory even in those districts where the glaciers seemed to give a more natural and more satisfactory explanation of the phenomena4 ,to embrace the whole question it should be ascertained3 ,first1 ,whether the northern erratics were transported at the same time as the local alpine boulders1 and if not1 which of the phenomena preceded the other2 and again1 if the same cause acted in both cases1 or if one of the causes can be applied to one series of these phenomena1 and the other cause to the other series4 ,an investigation of the erratic phenomena in ,north ,america seems to me likely to settle this question1 as the northern erratics occur here in an undisturbed continuation over tracts of land far more extensive than those in which they have been observed in ,europe4 ,for my own part1 ,i have already traced them from the eastern shores of ,nova ,scotia1 through ,new ,england and the north-western ,states of ,north ,america and the ,canadas as far as the western extremity of ,lake ,superior1 a region embracing about thirty degrees of longitude4 ,here1 as in ,northern ,europe1 the boulders evidently originated farther north than their present location1 and have been moved universally in a main direction from south to north4 ,from data which are1 however1 rather incomplete1 it can be further admitted that similar phenomena occur further west across the whole continent1 everywhere presenting the same relations4 ,that is to say1 everywhere pointing to the north as to the region of the boulders1 which generally disappear about latitude #ch4 ,without entering at present into a full discussion of any theoretical views of the subject1 it is plain that any theory1 to be satisfactory1 should embrace both the extensive northern phenomena in ,europe and ,north ,america1 and settle the relation of these phenomena to the well-authenticated local phenomena of ,central ,europe4 ,whether ,america itself has its special local circumscribed centres of distribution or not1 remains to be seen4 ,it seems1 however1 from a few facts observed in the ,white ,mountains1 that this chain1 as well as the mountains of north-eastern ,new ,york1 have not been exclusively1--and for the whole duration of the transportation of these materials1--under the influence of the cause which has distributed the erratics through such wide space over the continent of ,north ,america4 ,but1 whether this be the case or not 7and ,i trust local investigations will soon settle the question71 ,i maintain that the cause which has transported these boulders in the ,american continent1 must have acted simultaneously over the whole ground which these boulders cover1 as they present throughout the continent an uninterrupted sheet of loose materials1 of the same general nature1 connected in the same general manner1 and evidently dispersed at the same time4 ,moreover1 there is no ground1 at present1 to doubt the simultaneous dispersion of the erratics over ,northern ,europe and ,northern ,america4 ,so that the cause which transported them1 whatever it may be1 must have acted simultaneously over the whole tract of land west of the ,ural ,mountains1 and east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 without assuming anything respecting ,northern ,asia1 which has not yet been studied in this respect2 that is to say1 at the same time1 over a space embracing two hundred degrees of longitude4 ,again1 the action of this cause must have been such1 and ,i insist strongly upon this point1 as a fundamental one1 the momentum with which it acted must have been such1 that after being set in motion in the north1 with a power sufficient to carry the large boulders which are found everywhere over this vast extent of land1 it vanished1 or was stopped1 after reaching the thirty-fifth degree of northern latitude4 ,now it is my deliberate opinion that natural philosophy and mathematics may settle the question1 whether a body of water of sufficient extent to produce such phenomena can be set in motion with sufficient velocity to move all these boulders2 and nevertheless stop before having swept over the whole surface of the globe4 ,hydrographers are familiar with the action of currents1 with their speed1 and with the power with which they can act4 ,they know also how they are distributed over the globe4 ,and1 if we institute a comparison1 it will be seen that there is nowhere a current running from the poles towards the lower latitudes1 either in the northern or southern hemisphere1 covering a space equal to one-tenth of the currents which should have existed to carry the erratics into their present position4 ,the widest current is west of the ,pacific1 which runs parallel to the equator1 across the whole extent of that sea from east to west1 and the greatest width of which is scarcely fifty degrees4 ,this current1 as a matter of course1 establishes a regular rotation between the waters flowing from the polar regions towards lower latitudes4 ,the ,gulf ,stream1 on the contrary1 runs from west to east1 and dies out towards ,europe and ,africa1 and is compensated by the currents from ,baffin's ,bay and ,spitzbergen emptying into the ,atlantic1 while the current of the ,pacific1 moving towards ,asia1 and carrying floods of water in that direction1 is maintained chiefly by antarctic currents1 and those which follow the western shore of ,america from ,behring's ,straits4 ,wherever they are limited by continents1 we see that the waters of these currents1 even when they extend over hundreds of degrees of latitude1 as the ,gulf ,stream does in its whole course1 are deflected where they cannot follow a straight course4 ,now1 without appealing with more detail to the mechanical conditions involved in this inquiry1 ,i ask every unprejudiced mind acquainted with the distribution of the northern boulders1 whether there was any geographical limitation to the supposed northern current to cause it to leave the northern erratics of ,europe in such regular order1 with a constant bearing from north to south1 and to form1 on its southern termination1 a wide1 regular zone from ,asia to the western shores of ,europe1 north of the fiftieth degree of latitude1 before it had reached the great barrier of the ,alps8 ,i ask1 whether there was such a barrier in the unlimited plains which stretch from the ,arctic seas uninterrupted over the whole northern continent of ,america as far down as the ,gulf of ,mexico8 ,i ask1 again1 why the erratics are circumscribed within the northern limits of the temperate zone1 if their transportation is owing to the action of water currents8 ,does not1 on the contrary1 this most surprising limit within the arctic and northern temperate zones1 and1 in the same manner1 within the antarctic and southern temperate zones1 distinctly shew that the cause of transportation is connected with the temperature or climate of the countries over which the phenomena were produced8 ,if it were otherwise1 why are there no systems of erratics with an east and west bearing1 or in the main direction of the most extensive currents flowing at present over the surface of our globe8 ,it is a matter of fact1 of undeniable fact1 for which the theory has to account1 that1 in the two hemispheres1 the erratics have direct reference to the polar regions1 and are circumscribed within the arctics and the colder part of the temperate zones4 ,this fact is as plain as the other fact1 that the local distribution of boulders has reference to high mountain ranges1 to groups of land raised above the level of the sea into heights1 the temperature of which is lower than the surrounding plains4 ,and what is still more astonishing1 the extent of the local boulders1 from their centre of distribution1 reaches levels1 the mean annual temperature of which corresponds1 in a surprising manner1 with the mean annual temperature of the southern limit of the northern erratics4 ,we have1 therefore1 in this agreement1 a strong evidence in favour of the view that both the phenomena of local mountain erratics in ,europe1 and of northern erratics in ,europe and ,america1 have probably been produced by the same cause4 ,the chief difficulty is in conceiving the possibility of the formation of a sheet of ice sufficiently large to carry the northern erratics into their present limits of distribution2 but this difficulty is greatly removed when we can trace1 as in the ,alps1 the progress of the boulders under the same aspect from the glaciers now existing1 down into regions where they no longer exist1 but where the boulders and other phenomena attending their transportation shew distinctly that they once existed4 ,without extending further this argumentation1 ,i would call the attention of the unprejudiced observer to the fact1 that those who advocate currents as the cause of the transportation of erratics1 have1 up to this day1 failed to shew1 in a single instance1 that currents can produce all the different phenomena connected with the transportation of the boulders which are observed everywhere in the ,alps1 and which are still daily produced there by the small glaciers yet in existence4 ,never do we find that water leaves the boulders which it carries along in regular walls of mixed materials2 nor do currents anywhere produce upon the hard rocks in situ the peculiar grooves and scratches which we see everywhere under the glacier and within the limits of their ordinary oscillations4 ,water may polish the rocks1 but it nowhere leaves straight scratches upon their surface2 it may furrow them1 but these furrows are sinuous1 acting more powerfully upon the soft parts of the rocks or fissures already existing2 whilst glaciers smooth and level uniformly the hardest parts equally with the softest1 and1 like a hard file1 rub to uniform continuous surfaces the rocks upon which they move4 ,but now let us return to our special subject1 the erratics of ,north ,america4 ,the phenomena of drift are more complicated about ,lake ,superior than ,i have seen them anywhere else2 for1 besides the general phenomena which occur everywhere1 there are some peculiarities noticed which are to be ascribed to the lake as such1 and which we do not find in places where no large sheet of water has been brought into contact with the erratic phenomena4 ,in the first place1 we notice about ,lake ,superior an extensive tract of polished1 grooved and scratched rocks1 which present here the same uniform character which they have everywhere4 ,as there is so little disposition1 among so many otherwise intelligent geologists1 to perceive the facts as they are1 whenever they bear upon the question of drift1 ,i cannot but repeat1 what ,i have already mentioned more than once1 but what ,i have observed again here over a tract of some fifteen hundred miles1 that the rocks are everywhere smoothed1 rounded1 grooved and furrowed in a uniform direction4 ,the heterogeneous materials of which the rocks consist are cut to one continuous uniform level1 shewing plainly that no difference in the polish and abrasion can be attributed to the greater or less resistance on the part of the rocks1 but that a continuous rush cut down everything1 adapting itself1 however1 to the general undulations of the country1 but nevertheless shewing1 in this close adaptation1 a most remarkable continuity in its action4 ,that the power which produced these phenomena moved in the main from north to south1 is distinctly shewn by the form of the hills1 which present abrupt slopes1 rough and sharp corners towards the south1 while they are all smoothed off towards the north4 ,indeed1 here1 as in ,norway and ,sweden1 there is on all the hills a lee-side and a strike-side4 ,as has been observed in ,norway and ,sweden1 the polishing is very perfect in many places1 sometimes strictly as brilliant as a polished metallic surface1 and everywhere these surfaces are more or less scratched and furrowed1 and both scratches and furrows are rectilinear1 crossing each other under various angles2 however1 never varying many points of the compass on the same spot1 but in general shewing that where there are deviations from the most prominent direction1 they are influenced by the undulations of the soil4 ,it has been said1 that the main direction of these stri was from north-west to south-east1 but ,i have found it as often strictly from north to south1 or even from north-east to south-west2 and if we are to express a general result1 we should say that the direction1 assigned by all our observations to the various scratches1 tends to shew that they have been formed under the influence of a movement from north to south1 varying more or less to the east and west1 according to local influences in the undulations of the soil4 ,it is1 indeed1 a very important fact1 that scratches which seem to have been produced at no great intervals from each other1 are not absolutely parallel1 but may diverge for ten1 fifteen1 or more degrees4 ,there is one feature in these phenomena1 however1 in which we never observe any variation4 ,the continuity of these lines is absolutely the same everywhere4 ,they are rectilinear and continuous1 and cannot be better compared than with the effects of stones or other hard materials dragged in the same direction upon flat or rolling surfaces2 they form simple scratches extending for yards in straight lines1 or breaking off for a short space to continue again in a straight line in the same direction1 just as if interrupted by a jerk4 ,there are also deeper scratches of the same kind1 presenting the same phenomena1 only1 perhaps1 traceable for a greater distance than the finer ones4 ,these scratches1 instead of appearing like the tracing of diamonds upon glass1 as the former do1 would rather assume the appearance of a deeper groove1 made by the point of a graver1 or perhaps still more closely resemble the scratches which a cart-wheel would produce upon polished marble1 if the wheel were chained1 and coarse sand spread over the floor4 ,the appearance of the rock1 crushed by the moving mass1 is especially distinct in limestone rocks1 where grooves are seldom nicely cut1 but present the appearance of a violent pressure combined with the grooving power1 thus giving to the groove a character which is quite peculiar1 and which at once strikes an observer who has been familiar with its characteristic aspect4 ,now1 ,i do not know upon what the assertions of some geologists rest1 that gravel1 moved by water under strong heavy currents1 will produce similar effects4 ,wherever ,i have gone since studying these phenomena1 ,i have looked for such cases1 and have never yet found modern gravel currents produce any thing more than a smooth surface1 with undulating furrows following the cracks in the rocks1 or following their softer parts2 but continuous straight lines1 especially such crushed lines and straight furrows1 ,i have never seen4 ,when we know how extensive the action of water carrying mud and gravel is on every shore and in every water-current1--when we can trace this action almost everywhere1 and nowhere find it similar to the phenomena just described1 ,i cannot imagine upon what ground these phenomena are still attributed to the agency of currents4 ,this is the less rational as we have at present1 in all high mountain chains of the temperate zone1 other agents1 the glaciers1 producing these very same phenomena1 with precisely the same characters1 to which therefore a sound philosophy should ascribe1 at least conditionally1 the northern and alpine polished surfaces1 and scratched and grooved rocks1 or at least acknowledge that the effect produced by the action of glaciers more nearly resembles these erratic phenomena than does that which results from the action of currents4 ,but such is the prejudice of many geologists1 that those keen faculties of distinction and generalization1 that power of superior perception and discrimination1 which have led them to make such brilliant discoveries in geology in general1 seem to abandon them at once as soon as they look at the erratics4 ,the objection made by a venerable geologist1 that the cold required to form and preserve such glaciers1 for any length of time1 would freeze him to death1 is as childish as the apprehension that the heavy ocean-currents1 the action of which he sees everywhere1 might have swept him away4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,berlin ,academy1 #ahdf4 ,now that these phenomena have been observed extensively1 we may derive also some instruction from the limits of their geographical extent4 ,let us see1 therefore1 where these polished1 scratched1 and furrowed rocks have been observed4 ,in the first place they occur everywhere in the north within certain limits of the arctics1 and through the colder parts of the temperate zone4 ,they occur also in the southern hemisphere1 within parallel limits1 but in the plains of the tropics1 and even in the warmer parts of the temperate zone we find no trace of these phenomena1 and nevertheless the action of currents could not be less there1 and could not at any time have been less there than in the colder climates4 ,it is true1 similar phenomena occur in ,central ,europe1 and have been noticed in ,central ,asia1 and even in the ,andes of ,south ,america1 but these always in higher regions1 at definite levels above the surface of the sea1 everywhere indicating a connection between their extent and the colder temperature of the places over which they are traced4 ,more recently1 a step towards the views ,i entertain of this subject has been made by those geologists who would ascribe them to the agency of icebergs4 ,here1 as in my glacial theory1 ice is made the agent2 floating ice is supposed to have ground and polished the surfaces of rocks1 while ,i consider them to have been acted upon by terrestrial glaciers4 ,to settle this difference we have a test which is as irresistible as the other arguments already introduced4 ,let us investigate the mode of action1 the mode of transportation of icebergs1 and let us examine whether this cause is adequate to produce phenomena for which it is made to account4 ,as mentioned above1 the polished surfaces are continuous over hills1 and in depressions of the soil1 and the scratches which run over such undulating surfaces are nevertheless continuous in straight lines4 ,if we imagine icebergs moving upon shoals1 no doubt they would scratch and polish the rocks in a way similar to moving glaciers4 ,but upon such grounds they would sooner or later be stranded2 and if they remained loose enough to move1 they would1 in their gyratory movements1 produce curved lines1 and mark the spots where they had been stranded with particular indications of their prolonged action4 ,but nowhere upon arctic ground do we find such indications4 ,everywhere the polished and scratched surfaces are continuous in straight juxtaposition4 ,phenomena analogous to those produced by icebergs would only be seen along the sea-shores2 and if the theory of drifted icebergs were correct1 we should have1 all over those continents where erratic phenomena occur1 indications of retreating shores as far as the erratic phenomena are found4 ,but there is no such thing to be observed over the whole extent of the ,north ,american continent1 nor over ,northern ,europe and ,asia1 as far as the northern erratics extend4 ,from the arctics to the southernmost limit of the erratic distribution1 we find nowhere the indications of the action of the sea as directly connected with the production of the erratic phenomena4 ,and wherever the marine deposits rest upon the polished surfaces of ground and scratched rocks1 they can be shewn to be deposits formed since the grooving and polishing of the rocks1 in consequence of the subsidence of those tracts of land upon which such deposits occur4 ,again1 if we take for a moment into consideration the immense extent of land covered by erratic phenomena1 and view them as produced by drifted icebergs1 we must acknowledge that the icebergs of the present period at least1 are insufficient to account for them1 as they are limited to a narrower zone4 ,and to bring icebergs in any way within the extent which would answer for the extent of the distribution of erratics1 we must assume that the northern ice-fields1 from which these icebergs could be detached and float southwards1 were much larger at the time they produced such extensive phenomena than they are now4 ,that is to say1 we must assume an ice period2 and if we look into the circumstances1 we shall find that this ice period1 to answer to the phenomena1 should be nothing less than an extensive cap of ice upon both poles4 ,this is the very theory which ,i advocate2 and unless the advocates of an iceberg-theory go to that length in their premises1 ,i venture to say1 without fear of contradiction1 that they will find the source of their icebergs fall short of the requisite conditions which they must assume1 upon due consideration1 to account for the whole phenomena as they have really been observed4 ,but without discussing any farther the theoretical views of the question1 let me describe more minutely the facts1 as observed on the northern shores of ,lake ,superior4 ,the polished surfaces1 as such1 are even1 undulating1 and terminate always above the rough lee-side turned to the south1 unless upon gentle declivities1 where the polished surfaces extend in unbroken continuity upon the southern surfaces of the hills1 as well as upon their northern slopes4 ,on their eastern and western flanks1 shallow valleys running east and west are as uniformly polished as those which run north and south2 and this fact is more and more evident1 wherever scratches and furrows are also well preserved and distinctly seen1 and by their bearings we can ascertain most minutely1 the direction of the onward movement which produced the whole phenomena4 ,nothing is more striking in this respect than the valleys or depressions of the soil running east and west1 where we see the scratches crossing such undulations at right angles1 descending along the southern gentle slope of a hill1 traversing the flat bottom below1 and rising again up the next hill south1 in unbroken continuity4 ,examples of the kind can be seen everywhere in those narrow inlets1 with shallow waters intersecting the innumerable highlands along the northern shores of ,lake ,superior1 where the scratches and furrows can be traced under water from one shore to the other1 and where they at times ascend steep hills1 which they cross at right angles along their northern slope1 even when the southern slope1 not steeper in itself1 faces the south with rough escarpments4 ,the scratches and furrows1 though generally running north and south1 and deviating slightly to the east and west1 present1 in various places1 remarkable anomalies1 even in their general course along the eastern shore of the lake4 ,between ,michipicotin and ,sault ,st ,marie1 we more frequently see a deflection to the west than a due north and south course1 which is rather normal along the northern shore proper1 between ,michipicotin and other islands1 and from the ,pic to ,fort-,william2 the deep depression of the lake being no doubt the cause of such a deviation1 as large masses of ice could accumulate in this extensive hollow cavity before spreading again more uniformly beyond its limits4 ,to the oscillations of the whole mass in its southerly movement1 according to the inequalities of the surfaces1 we must ascribe the crossing of the straight lines at acute angles1 as we observe also at the present day under the glaciers1 as they swell and subside1 and hence meet with higher and lower obstacles in their irregular course between the ,alpine valleys4 ,in deep1 narrow chasms1 however1 we find now and then greater deviations from the normal direction of the stri1 where considerable masses of ice could accumulate1 and move between steep walls under a lateral pressure of the masses moving onwards from the north4 ,such a chasm is seen between ,spar ,island and the main land opposite ,prince's ,location1 south of ,fort-,william1 where the furrows and scratches run nearly east and west4 ,but here also1 there is no tumultuous disturbance in the continuation of the phenomena1 such as would occur if icebergs were floated and stranded against the southern barrier4 ,the same continuity of even1 polished surfaces1 with their scratches and furrows1 prevails here as elsewhere4 ,the angles which these scratches form with each other are very acute1 generally not exceeding #aj2 but at times they diverge more1 forming angles of #ae1 #bj1 and #be4 ,in a few instances1 ,i have even found localities where they crossed each other at angles of no less than #cj2 but these are rare exceptions4 ,it may sometimes be noticed that the lines running in one direction form a system by themselves1 varying very little from strict parallelism with each other1 but crossing another system1 more or less strongly marked1 of other lines equally parallel with each other4 ,at other times1 a system of lines1 strongly marked and diverging very slightly1 seem to pass over another system1 in which the lines form various angles with each other4 ,again1 there are places1--and this is the most common case1 where the lines diverge slightly1 following1 however1 generally one main direction1 which is crossed by fewer lines1 forming more open angles4 ,these differences1 no doubt1 indicate various oscillations in the movement of the mass which produced the lines1 and shew probably its successive action1 with more or less intensity1 upon the same point at successive periods1 in accordance with the direction of the moving force at each interval4 ,the same variations within precisely the same limits may be noticed in our day on the margin of the glaciers produced by the increase or diminution of the bulk of their mass1 and the changes on the rate of their movement4 ,the loose materials which produced1 in their onward movement under the pressure of ice1 such polishing and grooving1 consisted of various-sized boulders1 pebbles1 and gravels1 down to the most minute sand and loamy powder4 ,accumulations of such materials are found everywhere upon these smooth surfaces1 and in their arrangement they present everywhere the most striking contrast when compared with deposits accumulated under the agency of water4 ,indeed1 we nowhere find this glacial drift regularly stratified1 being every where irregular accumulations of loose materials1 scattered at random without selection1 the coarsest and most minute particles being piled irregularly in larger or smaller heaps1 the greatest boulders standing sometimes uppermost1 or in the centre1 or in any position among smaller pebbles and impalpable powder4 ,and these materials themselves are scratched1 polished and furrowed1 and the scratches and furrows are rectilinear as upon the rocks in situ underneath1 not bruised simply1 as the loose materials carried onward by currents or driven against the shores by the tides1 but regularly scratched1 as fragments of hard materials would be if they had been fastened during their friction against each other1 just as we observe them upon the lower surface of glaciers where all the loose materials are set in ice1 as stones in their setting are pressed and rubbed against underlying rocks4 ,but the setting here being simply ice1 these loose materials1 fast at one time and moveable another1 and fixed and loosened again1 have rubbed against the rock below in all possible positions2 and hence1 not only their rounded form1 but also their rectilinear grooving4 ,how such grooves could be produced under the action of currents1 ,i leave to the advocates of such a theory to shew2 as soon as they shall be prepared for it4 ,i should not omit here to mention a fact which1 in my opinion1 has a great theoretical importance1 namely1 that in the northern erratics1 even the largest boulders1 as far as ,i know1 are rounded1 and scratched and polished2 at least1 all those which are found beyond the immediate vicinity of the higher mountain ranges1 shewing that the accumulations of ice which moved the northern erratics covered the whole country2 and this view is sustained by another set of facts equally important1 namely1 that the highest ridges1 the highest rugged mountains1 at least1 in this continent and north of the ,alps in ,europe1 are as completely polished and smoothed as the lower lands1 and only a very few peaks seem to have risen above the sheet of ice2 whilst1 in the ,alps1 the summits of the mountains stand generally above these accumulations of ice1 and have supplied the surface of the glaciers with large numbers of angular boulders1 which have been carried upon the back of glaciers to the lower valleys and adjacent plains without losing their angular forms4 ,with respect to the irregular accumulation of drift-materials in the north1 ,i may add1 that there is not only no indication of stratification among them1 such1 unquestionably1 as water would have left1 but that the very nature of these materials shews plainly that they are of terrestrial origin2 for the mud which sticks between them adheres to all the little roughnesses of the pebbles1 fills them out1 and has the peculiar adhesive character of the mud ground under the glaciers1 and differing entirely in that respect from the gravels1 and pebbles1 and sands washed by water-currents1 which leave each pebble clean1 and never form adhering masses1 unless penetrated by an infiltration of limestone4 ,another important fact respecting this glacial draft consists in the universal absence of marine1 as well as fresh-water fossils in its interior--a fact which strengthens the view that they have been accumulated by the agency of strictly terrestrial glaciers2 such is1 at least1 the case everywhere far from the sea-shore4 ,but we may conclude that these ancient glaciers reached1 upon various points1 the sea-shore at the time of their greatest extension1 just as they do at present in ,spitzbergen and other arctic shores2 and that therefore1 in such proximity1 phenomena of contact should be observed1 indicating the onward movement of glacial material into the ocean1 such as the accumulation within these materials of marine fossil remains1 and also the influence of the tidal movements upon them4 ,and now such is really the case4 ,nearer the sea-shores we observe distinctly1 in some accumulations of the drift1 faint indications of the action of the tide1 reaching the lower surface of glaciers1 and the remodelling to some extent of the materials which these poured into the sea4 ,a beautiful example of the kind may be observed near ,cambridge1 along ,charles ,river1 not far from ,mount ,auburn1 where the unstratified glacial drift 7a7 presents in its upper masses strictly the characters of true terrestrial glacial accumulation1 but shews underneath faint indications 7b7 of the action of tides4 ,above1 regular tidal strata 7c7 are observed1 formed probably after the masses below had subsided4 ,the surface of this accumulation is covered with soil 7d74 ,illustration3 ,sketch of river bank stratification ,the period at which these phenomena took place cannot be fully determined1 nor is it easy to ascertain whether all glacial drift is contemporaneous4 ,it would seem1 however1 as if the extensive accumulation of drift all around the northern pole in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america was of the same age as the erratic of the ,alps4 ,the climatic circumstances capable of accumulating such large masses of ice around the north pole1 having no doubt extended their influence over the temperate zone1 and probably produced1 in high mountain chains1 as the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 the ,black ,forest1 and the ,vosges1 such accumulations of snow and ice as may have produced the erratic phenomena of those districts4 ,but extensive changes must have taken place in the appearance of the continents over which we trace erratic phenomena1 since we observe in the ,old ,world1 as well as in ,north ,america1 extensive stratified deposits containing fossils which rest upon the erratics2 and as we have all possible good reasons and satisfactory evidence for admitting that the erratics were transported by the agency of terrestrial glaciers1 and that1 therefore1 the tracts of land over which they occur stood at that time above the level of the sea1 we are led to the conclusion that these continents have subsided since that period below the level of the sea1 and that over their inundated portions1 animal life has spread1 remains of organized beings have been accumulated1 which are now found in a fossil state in the deposits formed under those sheets of water4 ,such deposits occur at various levels in different parts of ,north ,america4 ,they have been noticed about ,montreal1 on the shores of ,lake ,champlain1 in ,maine1 and also in ,sweden and ,russia2 and what is most important1 they are not everywhere at the same absolute level above the surface of the ocean1 shewing that both the subsidence and the subsequent upheaval which has again brought them above the level of the sea1 have been unequal2 and that we should therefore be very cautious in our inferences respecting both the continental circumstances under which the ancient glaciers were formed1 and also the extent of the sea afterward1 as compared with its present limits4 ,the contrast between the unstratified drift and the subsequently stratified deposits is so great1 that they rest everywhere unconformably upon each other1 shewing distinctly the difference of the agency under which they were accumulated4 ,this unconformable superposition of marine drift upon glacial drift is so beautifully shewn at the above-mentioned locality near ,cambridge 7see diagram1 p4 #aad47 ,in this case the action of tides in the accumulation of the stratified materials is plainly seen4 ,the various heights at which these stratified deposits occur1 above the level of the sea1 shew plainly1 that since their accumulation the main land has been lifted above the ocean at different rates in different parts of the country2 and it would be a most important investigation to have their absolute level1 in order more fully to ascertain the last changes which our continents have undergone4 ,from the above mentioned facts1 it must be at once obvious that the various kinds of loose materials all over the northern hemisphere1 have been accumulated1 not only under different circumstances1 but during long-continued subsequent distinct periods1 and that great changes have taken place since their deposition1 before the present state of things was fully established4 ,to the first period1--the ice period1 as ,i have called it1--belong all the phenomena connected with the transportation of erratic boulders1 the polishing1 scratching1 and furrowing of the rocks1 and the accumulation of unstratified1 scratched1 and loamy drift4 ,during that period the mainland seems to have been1 to some extent at least1 higher above the level of the sea than now2 as we observe1 on the shores of ,great ,britain1 ,norway1 and ,sweden1 as well as on the eastern shores of ,north ,america1 the polished surfaces dipping under the level of the ocean1 which encroaches everywhere upon the erratics proper1 effaces the polished surfaces1 and remodels the glacial drift4 ,during these periods1 large terrestrial animals lived upon both continents1 the fossil remains of which are found in the drift of ,siberia1 as well as of this continent4 ,a fossil elephant1 recently discovered in ,vermont1 adds to the resemblance1 already pointed out1 between the northern drift of ,europe and that of ,north ,america2 for fossils of that genus are now known to occur upon the northern-most point of the western extremity of ,north ,america1 in ,new ,england1 in ,northern ,europe1 as well as all over ,siberia4 ,to the second period we would refer the stratified deposits resting upon drift1 which indicate1 that during their deposition the northern continent had again extensively subsided under the surface of the ocean4 ,during this period1 animals1 identical with those which occur in the northern seas1 spread widely over parts of the globe which are now again above the level of the ocean4 ,but1 as this last elevation seems to have been gradual1 and is even still going on in our day1 there is no possibility of tracing more precisely1 at least for the present1 the limit between that epoch and the present state of things4 ,their continuity seems almost demonstrated by the identity of fossil-shells found in these stratified deposits1 with those now living along the present shores of the same continent1 and by the fact1 that changes in the relative level between sea and mainland are still going on in our day4 ,indications of such relative changes between the level of the waters and the land are also observed about ,lake ,superior4 ,and here they assume a very peculiar character1 as the level of the lake itself1 in its relation to its shores1 is extensively changed4#dh ,footnote #dh3 ,an interesting account of the natural terraces around ,lake ,superior is given at p4 #dac-daf of ,lake ,superior4 ,description of the ,marine ,telescope4 ,by ,,john ,,adie1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4,a4 ,communicated by the ,author4 ,the instrument which has been popularly named the ,water1 or ,marine ,telescope1 from the power given by its use to see into the water1 consists of a tube of metal or wood1 of a convenient length1 to enable a person looking over the gunnel of a boat to rest the head on the one end1 while the other is below the surface of the water2 the upper end is so formed1 that the head may rest on it1 both eyes seeing freely into the tube4 ,into the lower end is fixed 7water-tight7 a plate of glass1 which1 when used1 is to be kept under the surface of the water4 ,illustration3 sketch of marine telescope ,a very convenient size for the instrument represented in the above figure1 is to make the length ,,ac1 #c feet1 and the mouth ,a1 where the face is applied1 of an irregular oval form1 that both eyes may see freely into the tube1 with an indentation on one side1 that the nose may breathe freely1 not throwing the moisture of the breath into the tube4 ,b is a round plate of glass1 #h inches diameter1 over which is the rim or edge ,c2 this rim is best formed of lead1 of an inch thick1 and #c inches deep2 the weight of the lead serves to sink the tube a little into the water4 ,holes must be provided at the junction of ,b to ,c1 for the purpose of allowing the air to escape1 and bring the water into contact with the glass2 on each side there is a handle for holding the instrument4 ,this size and form is very much that of the instrument brought from ,norway by ,john ,mitchell1 ,esq41 ,belgian ,consul1 of ,mayville1 with the improvement for excluding the breath1 and allowing the water to get into contact with the glass1 which was not provided for in that instrument4 ,the reason why we so seldom see the bottom of the sea1 or of a pure lake1 where the depth is not beyond the powers of natural vision1 is not that the rays of light reflected from the objects at the bottom are so feeble as to be imperceptible to our sense1 from their passage through the denser medium of the water1 but from the irregular refractions given to the rays in passing out of the water into the air1 caused by the constant ripple or motion of the surface of the water1 where that refraction takes place4 ,reflections of light from the surface also add to the difficulty2 and before we can with any just hope expect to see the objects distinctly at the bottom1 these obstructions must be removed4 ,this is done to a very great extent by the use of the instrument which forms the subject of this notice2 the tube serves to screen the eyes from reflections1 and the water being in contact with the glass plate1 all ripple is got rid of1 so that the spectator1 looking down the tube1 sees all objects at the bottom1 whose reflective powers are able to send off rays of sufficient intensity to be impressed on the retina1 after suffering the loss of light caused by the absorbing power of the water1 which obeys certain fixed laws1 proportionate to the depth of water passed through2 for as light passing through pure sea-water loses half its intensity for each #ae feet through which it passes1#di we must1 from this cause alone1 at a certain depth lose sight of objects of the brightest lustre4 ,the perfect purity of the water1 and its freedom from all muddy particles floating in it1 form an important element in the effective use of the water-telescope2 for example1 in the ,frith of ,forth1 and similar estuaries1 where the influx and reflux of the tide keep particles of mud in constant motion1 the instrument is of little or no use2 for these act in exactly the same way in limiting our vision through water1 as a fog does through the air3 it is therefore only in the pure waters of our northern and western shores that this contrivance is applied with any advantage2 and in such situations we can speak of its powers with confidence4 ,in a trial made with the instrument last autumn on the west coast of ,scotland1 the bottom was distinctly seen 7a white bottom7 at a depth of #ab fathoms2 and on a black1 rocky bottom1 at #e fathoms under water1 objects were so distinctly seen that the parts of a wreck were taken up--the exact place of which was not known previous to its use4 ,in these experiments a lenticular form of glass was made use of at the bottom of the tube1 having a plane surface to the water1 but no great or marked advantage was observable from this construction4 ,with respect to the history of this contrivance for viewing the bottom of the sea1 we are unable to assign any particular date3 so far as our information goes1 it has been in use from a very remote period4 ,we are informed that it is in general use in seal-shooting along our northern and western islands1 where1 sometimes in the form of an ordinary washing-tub1 with a piece of glass fixed in its bottom1 the shot-seal was looked for1 and the grappling-hook let down to bring him to the surface4 ,it may not be generally known1 that in seal-shooting1 the shot or wounded seal always seeks the bottom1 from which he never rises after death1 till washed ashore by the action of the sea3 it is only when the fatal ball deprives him of the power of diving that he is ever found at the surface4 ,in such employments1 therefore1 the use of this instrument1 however modified1 must form an important auxiliary to the best rifle4 ,throwing oil over the surface of the water is used in the same pursuits2 but this only so far stills the ripple1 leaving the reflections4 ,our eminent engineer1 ,mr ,robert ,stevenson1 made use of the water-telescope more than #cj years ago1 in works connected with harbour improvement in the north of ,scotland2 it has also been used to examine the sand-banks1 c41 at the bottom of the ,river ,tay1 but in this case the mud prevented its use in any considerable depth of water4 ,to obviate this difficulty1 the construction was modified thus3 by making the tube of considerable length1 and placing the glass at the lower end1 this tube was thrust through the water till within a few feet of the bottom1 acting as a cofferdam to set aside the dirty water1 and enable the bottom to be seen2 but in this method of application it was found very difficult to hold the tube down in the water from its buoyant power1 and we are informed by ,mr ,thomas ,stevenson1 ,c4 ,e41 that1 he understood from this cause its use had been discontinued4 ,he suggested a simple remedy2 viz41 to fill up the empty tube with pure water4 ,we are indebted to ,mr ,mitchell1 the gentleman already mentioned1 for having brought this instrument into notice in the public prints1 under the name of ,norwegian water-telescope1 on the shores of which country it is stated to be much used in fishing--in particular1 that of the herring2 but the herring-fishers on the east coast of ,scotland inform us1 that they require no such auxiliary1 as1 from the surrounding elevated grounds1 they can tell the position of the shoal1 and1 from their motions seen from such situations1 they know where they are to be found when they go out a-fishing4#ej ,footnote #di3 ,leslie's ,elements of ,nat4 ,phil41 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #ej3 ,norwegian ,water-,telescope4 ,the water-telescope is thus noticed in a very promising periodical1 the ,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 just published1 of which a copy reached us a few days ago4--,,ed4 ,phil4 ,journal4 ,the water-telescope is an instrument which the people of ,norway have found of so great utility1 that there is scarcely a single fishing-boat without one of three or four feet in length1 which they carry in their boats with them when they go a-fishing4 ,when they reach the fishing-grounds1 they immerse one end of this telescope in the water1 and look through the glass1 which shews objects some ten or fifteen fathoms deep as distinctly as if they were within a foot of the surface4 ,when a shoal of fish comes into their bays1 the ,norwegians instantly prepare their nets1 man their boats1 and go out in pursuit4 ,the first process is minutely to survey the ground with their glasses1 and where they find the fish swarming about in great numbers1 they give the signal1 and surround the fish with their large draught-nets1 and often catch them in hundreds at a time4 ,without these telescopes their business would often prove precarious and unprofitable2 as the fish1 by these glasses1 are as distinctly seen in the deep1 clear sea of ,norway1 as gold-fish in a crystal jar4 ,this instrument is not only used by the fishermen1 but is also found aboard the navy and coasting-vessels of ,norway4 ,when their anchors get into foul ground1 or their cables warped on a roadstead1 they immediately apply the glass1 and1 guided by it1 take steps to put all to rights1 which they could not do so well without the aid of the rude and simple instrument1 which the meanest fisherman can make up with his own hands1 without the aid of a craftsman4 ,this instrument has been lately adopted by the ,scotch fishermen on the ,tay1 and1 by its assistance1 they have been enabled to discover stones1 holes1 and uneven ground1 over which their nets travel1 and have found the telescope answer to admiration1 the minutest object in twelve feet of water being as clearly seen as on the surface4 ,we see no reason why it could not be used with advantage in the rivers and bays of the ,united ,states4 ,experimental ,investigations to ,discover the ,cause of the ,change which takes place in the ,standard ,points of ,thermometers4 ,by ,,john ,,adie1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4,a4 ,communicated by the ,author4 ,it has long been known to experimentalists that1 in thermometers constructed with the greatest care1 a change takes place after a lapse of time in the standard points1 as given by the melting of ice and boiling of water under a fixed pressure2 on this account it has been recommended by most writers1 where the employment of thermometers is treated of1 that they should from time to time be compared one with another1 and also at the freezing point4 ,this change is a rising of the mercury in the tube1 so that1 after a length of time1 the mercury will not sink to the point laid off in the construction of the instrument4 ,to investigate to what cause this change was due1 formed the object of my experiments3 ,was it a change in the glass of which the bulbs are formed1 or in the mercury with which they are filled8 ,i was aware that thermometers filled with alcohol were not subject to this change1 which would lead to the inference1 that the change was in the mercury and not the glass2 but then1 in the spirit-thermometer1 air is left above the column of spirit1 whereas1 in those constructed with mercury1 the air is expelled1 and there is a vacuum above the column2 consequently1 the bulb is pressed together with the force of an atmosphere on all sides2 might not this force1 acting for a length of time1 cause some small alteration in the arrangement of the particles forming the glass of the bulb8 ,this is the explanation accepted by most of the ,italian and ,french writers on this subject4 ,some suppose that the mercury may contain air and moisture within its particles2 but such a hypothesis ,i think inadmissible1 as in the case of a vacuum over the mercury1 these particles would seek the void1 and cause rather a depression than a rising of the freezing point4 ,mr ,daniell1 in his ,essay on ,climate1 adopts the same view2 and ,sir ,john ,herschel1 in his article ,heat1 in the ,encyclopdia ,metropolitana1 says3 ,the freezing point upon the mercurial thermometer has been supposed to undergo some slight variation1 so as to appear too low upon the scales of those instruments which have been long made2 and it is said that1 in such cases1 the just indication was again recovered by breaking off the end of the stem1 so as to admit atmospheric air4 ,but1 as ,i had observed that the change went on for a time only1 after which it ceased1 and that it affected thermometers sealed with air over the mercury1 as well as those with a vacuum1 ,i undertook the following experiments3-- ,in ,september #ahdh ,i made four thermometers having long degrees1--such that #a_/aj might be easily noted1 constructed of the same draft of glass tube2 two of these ,i placed in boiling water1 and kept them at that temperature for a week3 my object in this was to learn if any change in the form of the bulb would take place from this slow process of annealing1 as glass is known to undergo some change from such exposure4 ,the four thermometers were now filled with pure mercury3 two of these were sealed with a vacuum over the mercury2 one tube that had been boiled1 and the other not3 the other two tubes were sealed with air over their columns1 and the freezing points of all were marked on the tubes2 after which they were placed in a window freely exposed to light1 where they were left till ,january #ahdi--;a space of four months--when they were again placed in melting ice1 and the freezing points marked2 they had risen #bd1 #bd1 #bj1 #jf parts of a degree4 ,the whole four thermometers were now placed in boiling water1 and kept there for a week1 when the freezing points were again observed to have risen respectively #dh1 #da1 #ej1 #de4 ,the instruments were now left exposed to light as at first2 and1 in ,january #ahej1 the freezing points were again observed1 when they were found to have farther risen #ab1 #ah1 #bj1 #ac2 and1 lastly1 they were observed in ,may #ahej1 when no change from last observation was notable4 ,the whole amount of rising of the freezing point in these four thermometers1 after a lapse of eighteen months1 is respectively #hd1 #hc1 #ij1 #fe2 and these changes may be the full amount that would take place were the instruments observed after a greater lapse of time4 ,from my experience1 ,i know that there is a period after which no change takes place2 but1 from the method in which these experiments have been conducted1 ,i am not at present in a condition to assign a time2 moreover1 it is evident that this period will be much modified by circumstances4 ,the results above stated form the following ,table3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,no4 ,description ,value of ,observed ,rise after of one ,degreerise1 ,jan4 having ,rise at ,total ,thermometer4 of ,fahr4 #ahdi4 been boiled ,jan4 #ahej4 rise4 for a week4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,sealed in #a4 vacuum1 #jaff #jbd #jdh #jab #jhd not boiled4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,sealed in #b4 vacuum and #jafh #jbd #jda #jah #jhc boiled4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,sealed with #c4 air1 not #jaii #jbj #jej #jbj #jij boiled4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,sealed with #d4 air1 boiled4 #jaed #jjf #jde #jac #jfe ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,from inspection of the ,table1 no very remarkable difference is observable in the rising of these four instruments4 ,no4 #d appears to have risen less during the first period1 but goes along with the others afterwards4 ,the effect of exposure to the temperature of boiling water shews that1 under high temperature1 the change goes on much faster than at the ordinary temperature of the air2 from the ,table it will be observed1 that about twice the amount of change was caused by the boiling of the thermometers for a week1 than had taken place between the first and second observations1 a period of four months4 ,it does not appear that the boiling of the thermometer tubes for eight days1 previous to their being filled with mercury1 had produced any change on the form of the bulbs2 we should at least infer this from the change in their freezing points keeping pace so nearly with those which had not been boiled4 ,i now come to the concluding experiment with these instruments1 and1 it appears to me most interesting and anomalous4 ,the four tubes being placed in pounded ice1 the columns stood at the points indicated in the last column of the ,table2 in this situation the tops of the tubes were broken off1 so as to admit the free pressure of the air1 and instantly the thermometers fell1 in the order of their numbers1 #ed1 #dc1 #dj1 #ce of a degree1 now indicating on their scales #cj1 #dj1 #ej1 #ce4 ,the remarkable features shewn by this experiment are2 first1 that the two thermometers sealed with vacuum1 and the two having air over their columns1 should have risen nearly equally1 when two had their bulbs pressed with the whole force of an atmosphere1 while the other two had no pressure externally1 farther than that caused from changes in the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,next1 that on being opened1 those with air over them should have started down nearly as much as those with a vacuum2 and on all these appears a permanent change from three to five-tenths of a degree4 ,i confess that ,i am very much at a loss to account for these singular changes2 atmospheric pressure on the bulbs would account for the change in those sealed with a vacuum2 for we can easily suppose that a permanent form had been taken from long exposure to that pressure by the glass forming the bulbs3 besides this permanent form1 there appears to have been a spring inwards1 which instantly sprung out on removal of the pressure by the admission of air over the mercury2 but the same reasoning will not apply to the thermometers having air over the mercury2 and before ,i attempt to make any suggestions as to the cause of these changes1 ,i propose to institute the following experiments4 ,having had three thermometers blown and filled with mercury1 ,i shall make one with a perfect vacuum over the mercury1 the next with air over it1 and the third with air condensed over it2 and1 noting the changes that may go on in these1 ,i hope to be able to assign a cause or causes for the change4 ,it is argued by some continental writers on this subject that the reason why we do not perceive any change in the freezing point in spirit-thermometers is from the great expansion of spirit above mercury1 volume for volume1 thereby requiring a much smaller mass of fluid to give the same length of a degree3 this ,i propose to test by making a thermometer with the same size of tube and bulb as those to be experimented on with mercury4 ,in mentioning these experiments to ,professor ,forbes1 he kindly put me in possession of some spirit-thermometers1 one of these1 made in #ahcg1 having a very large bulb--this1 with three others1 shewed no change in the places of their freezing points4 ,observations on the ,discovery1 by ,professor ,,lepsius1 of ,sculptured ,marks on ,rocks in the ,nile ,valley in ,nubia2 indicating that1 within the historical period1 the river had flowed at a higher level than has been known in ,modern ,times4 ,by ,,leonard ,,horner1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4 ,l4 ,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 c4 ,communicated by the ,author4 ,with a ,plate4 ,the recent archaeological researches of ,professor ,lepsius in ,egypt1 and the ,valley of the ,nile1 in ,nubia1 have given a deserved celebrity and authority to his name1 among all who take an interest in the early history of that remarkable portion of the ,old ,world4 ,while examining the ruins of a fortress1 and of two temples of high antiquity at ,semne1 in ,nubia1 he discovered marks cut in the solid rocks1 and in the foundation-stones of the fortress1 indicating that1 at a very remote period in the annals of the country1 the ,nile must have flowed at a level considerably above the highest point which it has ever reached during the greatest inundations in modern times4 ,this remarkable fact would possess much geological interest with respect to any great river1 but it does so especially in the case of the ,nile4 ,its annual inundations1 and the uniformity in the periods of its rise and fall1 have been recorded with considerable accuracy for many centuries2 the solid matter held in suspension in its waters1 slowly deposited on the land overflowed1 has been productive of changes in the configuration of the country1 not only in times long antecedent to history1 but throughout all history1 down to the present day4 ,of no other river on the earth's surface do we possess such or similar records2 and moreover1 the ,nile1 and the changes it has produced on the physical character of ,egypt1 are intimately associated with the earliest records and traditions of the human race4 ,everything1 therefore1 relating to the physical history of the ,nile ,valley must always be an object of interest2 but the discovery of ,professor ,lepsius is one peculiarly deserving the attention of the geologist2 for he does not merely record the facts of the markings of the former high level of the river1 but he infers from these marks1 that since the reign of ,moeris1 about #bbjj years before our era1 the entire bed of the ,nile1 in ,lower ,nubia1 must have been excavated to a depth of about #bg feet2 and he further speculates as to the process by which he believes the excavation to have been effected4 ,it will be convenient1 before entering upon the observations ,i have to offer upon the cause assigned by ,professor ,lepsius for the former higher levels of the ,nile indicated by these marks1 that ,i should give the description of the discovery itself1 by translating ,dr ,lepsius's own account of it1 in letters which he addressed to his friends1 ,professors ,ehrenberg and ,bckh of ,berlin1 from the island of ,phil1 in ,september #ahdd4ea ,footnote #ea3 ,bericht ber die zur ,bekantmachung geeigneten ,verhandlungen der ,knigl4 ,preuss4 ,akademie der ,wissenshaften zu ,berlin4 ,aus dem ,jahre #ahdd4 ,you may probably remember1 when travelling to ,dongola on the ,lybian side of the ,nile1 and in passing through the district of ,batn el hagr1 that one of the most considerable of the cataracts of the country occurs near ,semne1 a very old fortress1 with a handsome temple1 built of sandstone1 in a good state of preservation2 the track of the caravan passing close to it1 partly over the #djjj-year-old artificial road4 ,the track on the eastern bank of the river is higher up1 being carried through the hills2 and you must turn off from it at this point in order to see the cataract4 ,this ,nile-pass1 the narrowest with which ,i am acquainted1 according to the measurement of ,hr4 ,erbkam1 is #chj metres 7#abdg ,english feet7 broad2#eb and both in itself1 and on account of the monuments existing there1 is one of the most interesting localities in the country1 and we passed twelve days in its examination4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the breadth of the river itself4 ,see ,letter to ,hr4 ,bckh1 p4 #bg4 ,the river is here confined between steep rocky cliffs on both sides1 whose summits are occupied by two fortresses of the most ancient and most massive construction1 distinguishable at once from the numerous other forts1 which1 in the time of the ,nubian power in this land of cliffs1 were erected on most of the larger islands1 and on the hills commanding the river4 ,the cataract 7or rapid7 derives its name of ,semne from that of the higher of the two fortresses on the western bank2 that on the opposite bank1 as well as a poor village lying somewhat south of it1 is called ,kumme4 ,in both fortresses the highest and best position is occupied by a temple1 built of huge blocks of sandstone1 of two kinds1 which must have been brought from a great distance through the rapids2 for1 southward1 no sandstone is found nearer than ,gebel ,abir1 in the neighbourhood of ,amara and the island of ,sai 7between #hj and #ij ,english miles71 and northward1 there is none nearer than the great division of the district at ,wadi ,haifa 7#cj miles distant47 ,both temples were built in the time of ,tutmosis ,,iii41 a king of the #ahth dynasty1 about #afjj years before ,christ2 but the fortresses in which they stand are of a more ancient date4 ,the foundations of these are granite blocks of ,cyclopian dimensions1 resting on the rock1 and scarcely inferior to the rock itself in durability4 ,they were erected by the first conqueror of the country1 ,king ,sesuatesen ,,iii41 of the #abth dynasty1 in order to command the river1 so easily done in so narrow a gorge4 ,the immediate successor of this king was ,amenemha ,,iii41 the ,moeris of the ,greeks3 he who accomplished the gigantic work of forming the artificial lake of ,moeris1 in the ,fayoum1 and from whose time--the most flourishing of the whole of the old ,egyptian kingdom--the risings of the ,nile in successive years1 doubtless by means of regular markings1 as indeed ,diodorus tells1 remained so well known1 that1 according to ,herodotus1 they were recorded in distinct numbers from the time of ,moeris4 ,it appears that this provident king1 occupied with great schemes for the welfare of his country1 considered it of great importance that the rising of the ,nile on the most southern border of his kingdom should be observed1 and the results forthwith communicated widely in other parts of the land1 to prepare the people for the inundations4 ,the gorge at ,semne offered greater advantages for this object than any other point2 because the river was there securely confined by precipitous rocky cliffs on each side4 ,with the same view he had doubtless caused ,nilometers to be fixed at ,assuan and other suitable places2 for without a comparison with these1 the observations at ,semne could be of little use4 ,the highest rise of the ,nile in each year at ,semne1 was registered by a mark1 indicating the year of the king's reign1 cut in the granite1 either on one of the blocks forming the foundation of the fortress1 or on the cliff1 and particularly on the east or right bank1 as best adapted for the purpose4 ,of these markings eighteen still remain1 thirteen of them having been made in the reign of ,moeris1 and five in the time of his two next successors4 ,these last kings discontinued the observations2 for1 in the meantime1 the irruption of the ,asiatic pastoral tribes into ,lower ,egypt took place1 and wellnigh brought the whole kingdom to ruin4 ,the record is almost always in the same terms1 short and simple3 ,ra en ,hapi em renpe 444 mouth or gate of the ,nile in the year4444 ,and then follows the year of the reign1 and the name of the king4 ,it is written in a horizontal row of hieroglyphics1 included within two lines--the upper line indicating the particular height of the water1 as is often specially stated-- ,illustration3 sketch of hieroglyphics ,the earliest date preserved is that of the sixth year of the king's reign1 and he reigned #db years and some months4 ,the next following dates are1 the years #i1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1 #cg1 #dj1 #da1 and #dc2 and include1 therefore1 under this king1 a period of #cg years4 ,of the remaining dates1 that only of the #dth year of his two successors is available2 all the others1 which are on the west or left bank of the river1 have been moved from their original place by the rapid floods which have overthrown and carried forward vast masses of rock4 ,one single mark only1 that of the #ith year of ,amenemha1 has been preserved in its original place on one of the building stones1 but somewhat below the principal rapid4#ec ,footnote #ec3 ,see ,plate ,i4 ,we have now to consider the relation which these--the most ancient of all existing marks of the risings of the ,nile--bear to the levels of the river in our own time4 ,we have here presented to us the remarkable facts1 that the highest of the records now legible2 viz41 that of the #cjth year of the reign of ,amenemha1 according to exact measurements which ,i made1 is #hag metres 7#bf feet #h inches7 higher than the highest level to which the ,nile rises in years of the greatest floods2 and further1 that the lowest mark1 which is on the east bank1 and indicated the #aeth year of the same king1 is still #dad metres 7#ac feet #f inches72 and the single mark on the west bank1 indicating the #ith year1 is #bgg metres 7#i feet7 above the same highest level4 ,the mean rise of the river1 recorded by the marks on the east bank1 during the reign of ,moeris1 is #aiad metres 7#fb feet #f inches7 above the lowest level of the water in the present day1 which1 according to the statements of the most experienced boatmen1 does not change from year to year1 and therefore represents the actual level of the ,nile1 independently of its increase by the falls of rain1 in the mountains in which its sources are situated4 ,the mean rise above the lowest level1 at the present time1 is #aahd metres 7#ch feet #h inches72 and1 therefore1 in the time of ,moeris1 or about #bbjj years before ,christ1 the mean height of the river1 at the cataract or rapid of ,semne1 during the inundation1 was #gcj metres 7#bc feet #aj inches7 above the mean level in the present day4 ,such are the facts recorded by ,dr ,lepsius2 and then follow1 in the same letter1 his views as to the cause of the remarkable lowering of the level of the river4 ,there is certainly no reason for believing1 he says1 that there has been any diminution in the general volume of water coming from the south4 ,the great change in the level can1 therefore1 only be accounted for by some changes in the land1 and these must also have altered the whole nature of the ,nile ,valley4 ,there seems to be but one cause for the very considerable lowering of the ,nile2 namely1 the washing out and excavations of the catacombs 7,answaschen und ,aushlen der ,katakomben72 and this is quite possible from the nature of the rocks themselves1 which1 it is true1 are of a quality that could not well be rent asunder1 and carried away by the mere force of the water1 but might be acted upon directly by the rising of the water-level1 and the consequent effects of the sun and air on the places left dry1 causing cracks1 into which earth and sand would penetrate1 which would then give rise to still greater rents1 until1 at last1 the rocks would of themselves fall in1 by having been hollowed out1 a process that would be hastened in those parts of the hills where softer and earthy beds existed1 and which would be more easily washed away4 ,but that1 in historical times1 within a period of about #djjj years1 so great an alteration should take place in the hardest rocks1 is a fact of the most remarkable kind1--one which may afford ground for many other important considerations4 ,the elevation of the water-level at ,semne must necessarily have affected all the lands above2 and1 it is to be presumed1 that the level of the province of ,dongola was at one time higher1 as ,semne cannot be the only place in the long tract of cliffs where the bed of rock has been hollowed out4 ,it is to be conceived1 therefore1 that not only the widely-extended tracts in ,dongola1 but those of all the higher country in ,mero1 and as far up as ,fasogle1 which1 in the present day1 are dry and barren on both sides of the river1 and are with difficulty irrigated by artificial contrivances1 must then have presented a very different aspect1 when the ,nile overflowed them1 and yearly deposited its fertile mud to the limits of the sandy desert4 ,lower ,nubia also1 between ,wadi ,haifa and ,assuan1 is now arid almost throughout its whole extent4 ,the present land of the valley1 which is only partly irrigated by water-wheels1 is1 on an average1 from #f to #ab feet higher than the level to which the ,nile now rises2 and although the rise at ,semne might have no immediate influence upon it1 yet what has occurred there makes it more than probable1 that at ,assuan there was formerly a very different level of the river1 and that the cataracts there1 even in the historical period1 have been considerably worn down4 ,the continued impoverishment of ,nubia is a proof of this4 ,i have no manner of doubt that the land in this lower part of the valley1 which1 as already stated1 is at present about #aj feet above the highest rise of the ,nile1 was inundated by it within historical time4 ,many marks are also met with here1 that leave no doubt regarding the condition of the ,nile ,valley antecedent to history1 when the river must have risen much higher2 for it has left an alluvial soil in almost all the considerable bays1 at an average height of #aj metres 7#cb feet #i inches7 above the present mean rise of the river4 ,that alluvial soil1 since that period1 has doubtless been considerably diminished in extent by the action of rain4 ,on the #agth of ,august ,hr4 ,erbkam and ,i measured the nearest alluvial hillock in the neighbourhood of ,korusko1 and found it #fia metres 7#bb feet #g inches7 above the general level of the valley1 and #ajbf metres 7#cc feet #g inches7 above the present mean rise of the river4 ,that rise1 which at ,semne1 on account of the greater confinement of the stream between the rocks1 varies as much as #bdj metres 7#g feet #aj inches7 in different years1 varies at ,korusko less than #a metre 7#c feet #c inches74 ,near ,abusimbel1 on the west bank1 ,i found the ground of the temple #fej metres 7#ba feet #b inches7 above the highest water-level4 ,this temple1 it is well known1 was built under ,rameses the ,great1 between #achh and #acbb years before ,christ4 ,near ,ibrim there are1 on the east bank1 four grottoes excavated in the vertical rock that bounds the river1 which belong partly to the #ahth and partly to the #aith dynasties2 the last1 under ,rameses the ,great1 is also the lowest1 and only #bej metres 7#h feet #a inch7 above the highest inundation2 the next in height is #bgj metres 7#h feet #i inches7 above the former1 and was made #bej years earlier1 under ,tutmes ,,iii4 ,although ,i only measured the present level of the valley near ,korusko1 nevertheless it appears to me that1 during the whole of the new kingdom1 that is1 from about #agjj years before ,christ to this time1 the ,nile has not reached to the full height of the low land of the valley4 ,it is1 however1 conceivable that1 at the time when the present low land of the ,nubian ,valley was formed1 the cataracts at ,assuan were in a totally different state2 one that would1 in some degree1 justify the overcharged descriptions of the ancients1 according to whom they made so great a noise that the dwellers near them became deaf4 ,the damming up of the inundation at ,assuan could have no material influence on ,egypt1 any more than that at ,semne1 or the land from thence to ,assuan4 ,it appears therefore1 from the above statements1 that at the time mentioned1 the ,nile1 during the inundations1 stood #bf feet #h inches higher than the highest level to which it now rises in years of the greatest floods2 and that1 to account for this1 ,professor ,lepsius conceives that1 between the time of ,moesis and the present day1 the bed of the ,nile1 from a considerable distance above ,semne to ,assuan1 must have been worn down to that extent4 ,in the index to the volume of the ,berlin ,monatsbericht1 in which the letters of ,professor ,lepsius are inserted1 there is the following line3-- ,,nil1 senkung seines ,bettes um #be ,fuss seit #djjj ,jahren4 ,nile1 sinking of its bed about #be feet 7,paris7 within the last #djjj years4 ,rivers are1 undoubtedly1 among the most active agents of change that are operating on the earth's surface2 the solid matter which renders their waters turbid1 and which they unceasingly carry to the sea1 afford indisputable proof of this agency4 ,but the power of rivers to abrade and wear down the rocks over which they flow1 and to form and deepen their own bed1 depends upon a variety of circumstances not always taken into account2 and although the great extent of that power1 in both respects1 is shewn in the case of many rivers1 to conclude1 as some have done1 from these instances1 that all rivers have excavated the channels in which they flow1 is a generalization that cannot be safely assented to4 ,the excavation of the bed of a river is one of those problems in geological dynamics which can only be rightly solved by each particular case being subjected to the rigorous examination of the mathematician and the physicist4 ,the solid matter which rivers carry forward is in part only the produce of their own abrading power2 and the amount of it must be proportional to that power1 which is mainly dependent on their velocity2 they are the recipients of the waste of the adjoining lands by other combined agencies1 and the carriers of it to the lower districts and to the sea4 ,they often afford the strongest evidence of the vast lapse of time that must be included between the beginning and close of a geological period2 and1 when they flow through countries whose remote political history is known to us1 they supply a scale by which we may measure and estimate that lapse of time4 ,this is especially so in the case of the ,nile4 ,when so startling an hypothesis as that now referred to1 viz41 that the entire bed of so vast a river as the ,nile1 for more than #bej miles1 from ,semne to ,assuan1 has been excavated1 within historical time1 to a depth of #bg feet1 is made by a person whose name carries so much weight in one department of philosophical inquiry1 the statement involves such important geological considerations1 that it becomes the duty of the geologist to examine1 and thoroughly test the soundness of the explanation1 in order that the authority of ,professor ,lepsius1 for the accuracy of the facts observed1 may not be too readily admitted as conclusive for the correctness of his theory of the cause to which they owe their existence4 ,that there has been such an undoubting admission1 appears from the following passage in the work of one of the latest writers on ,nubia3-- ,the translation of the name of this town 7,aswn7 is 'the opening2' and a great opening this once was1 before the ,nile had changed its character in ,ethiopia1 and when the more ancient races made this rock 7at the first cataract7 their watch-tower on the frontier between ,egypt and the south4 ,that the ,nile has changed its character1 south of the first cataract1 has been made clear by some recent examinations of the shores and monuments of ,nubia4 ,dr ,lepsius has discovered water-marks so high on the rocks and edifices1 and so placed as to compel the conviction that the bed of the ,nile has sunk extraordinarily by some great natural process1 either of convulsion or wear4 ,the apparent exaggerations of some old writers about the cataracts at ,syene may thus be in some measure accounted for4 ,if there really was once a cataract here1 instead of the rapids of the present day1 there is some excuse for the reports given from hearsay by ,cicero and ,seneca4 ,cicero says1 that 'the river throws itself headlong from the loftiest mountains1 so that those who live nearest are deprived of the sense of hearing1 from the greatness of the noise4' ,seneca's account is3 ',when some people were stationed there by the ,persians1 their ears were so stunned with the constant roar1 that it was found necessary to remove them to a more quiet place4'#ed ,footnote #ed3 ,miss ,martineau's ,eastern ,life1 vol4 i41 p4 #ii4 ,note4--,the learned author of an article on ,egyptian ,chronology and ,history in the ,prospective ,review for ,may #ahej1 in referring to the contributions of ,professor ,lepsius to ,egyptian history1 says1 ,he has discovered undescribed pyramids1 equal in number to those known before2 has traced the ,labyrinth1 and ascertained its founder4 ,he has detected inscriptions on the banks of the ,nile1 which show that its bed has subsided many feet in historic times4 #ith ,june #ahej4 ,in the assumption of an excavation of the bed of the river1 we have no small amount of wear to deal with1 for the distance from ,semne to ,assuan1 following the course of the river1 is not less than #bej miles2 and if1 as ,professor ,lepsius supposes1 the excavation extended to ,mero1 we have a distance1 between that place and ,assuan1 of not less than #fjj miles4 ,although these records of a former high level of the ,nile at ,semne had not been noticed by any traveller prior to ,professor ,lepsius1 we may rest fully assured of the accuracy of his statements1 from the habitual care and diligence1 and the established character for fidelity1 of the observer4 ,the silence of other travellers may be readily accounted for by this1 that none of them appear to have remained more than a very short time at this spot--not even the diligent ,russegger--whereas we have seen that ,professor ,lepsius passed twelve days in the examination of this gorge in the ,nile ,valley4 ,the theory of a lowering of the bed of the river by wearing1 involves two main considerations1 viz41 the power of the stream1 and the degree of hardness of the rocks acted upon4 ,the power depends upon the volume and velocity of the river--the velocity on its depth1 and the degree of inclination of the bed3 the hardness of the rocks we can form a tolerable estimate of when we know their nature4 ,to judge1 therefore1 of the probability of the hypothesis of ,professor ,lepsius1 we must inquire into the physical and geological features of the ,nile ,valley1 in ,nubia4 ,in the observations ,i have now to offer1 my information has been derived of course entirely from the works of other travellers1 particularly those of ,burckhardt1 ,rppell1 and ,russegger1#ee and especially the latter1 who travelled in ,nubia in #ahcg2 for he not only enters far more into the details of the natural history of the country1 but he is the only traveller in ,nubia who appears1 from previous acquirements1 to have been competent to describe its natural history with any degree of accuracy--,i refer more particularly to the physical and geological features of the country4 ,besides full descriptions in his volumes1 he has given a geological map of ,nubia1 and also several sections1 or what may more properly be called vertical sketches--a term that would1 perhaps1 be a more appropriate designation for all sections that are not drawn to a true scale1 or at least when the proportion of height to horizontal distance is not stated4 ,footnote #ee3 ,reisen in ,europa ,asien und ,afrika1 in der ,jahren #ahce1 bis #ahda4--,stuttgart #ahda-ahdf4 ,the ,physical ,geography of ,lower ,nubia4#ef ,footnote #ef3 ,with reference to the object of this paper4 ,russegger informs us1#eg that he believes he was the first traveller who had succeeded in making a series of barometrical measurements along the ,nile ,valley1 from the ,mediterranean to ,sennaar and ,kordofan1 and thence to the #ajth degree of north latitude4 ,he gives the following altitudes1 above the sea3-- ,paris ,feet4 ,english ,feet4 ,the upper part of the ,cataract of ,assuan1 #cdb #cfdcg ,korusko1 on the right bank of the ,nile1 in ,nubia1 #dej #dgidc ,wadi-,halfa1 #dij #ebbjj ,new ,dongola1 #geg #hjfeb ,abu ,hammed1 #ifc #ajbfjj ,footnote #eg3 ,reisen1 ,bd4 ii41 #ede4 ,i shall now give the length of the ,nile along its course from ,abu ,hammed to the island of ,phil1 at the head of the cataract of ,assuan4 ,i employ for this purpose the map in the atlas which accompanies the work of ,russegger1 which bears the date of #ahdf1 and which1 doubtless1 was constructed on the best authorities4 ,he mentions a map of ,general von ,prokesch with great praise4#eh ,it flows3-- ,german ,m4 ,english ,m4 ,from ,,ne4 to ,,sw41 from ,abu ,hammed to ,mero1 about #ca #aej ,it makes a curve between ,mero and ,old ,dongola1 of about #af #gg ,it flows between ,old and ,new ,dongola1 from ,,se4 to ,,nw41 about #af #gg ,then1 with some short windings1 nearly due north to the island of ,sais1 for about #cj #ade ,and from ,sais to the island of ,phil1 from ,,sw4 to ,,ne41 about #fh #cbg ---- ---- ,making the whole length of the course1 from ,abu ,hammed to ,phil1 about #afa #ggf ,footnote #eh3 ber den ,stromlauf und das zunchst liegende ,uferland des ,nils1 von der zweiten ,katarakte bis ,assuan1 besitzen wir eine vortreffliche ,karte namlich3 ,land zwischen der kleinen und grossen ,katarakten des ,nil4 ,astronomisch bestimmt und aufgenommen in ,j4 #ahbg1 durch v4 ,prokesch4 ,nil ,grundrisse der ,monumente4 ,wien1 #ahca4--,reisen ,bd4 ii41 ,thl4 iii4 #hf4 ,ascending the river1 we have1 between ,phil and ,korusko1 a distance of #bd ,german1 or #aae ,english miles1 and without any rapid1 except one near ,kalabsche4 ,korusko being #aae feet above the head of the cataract of ,assuan1 at ,phil1 we have an average fall of the river between these two places of a foot in a mile4 ,between ,korusko and ,wadi-,halfa there is no rapid4 ,the distance being #bj ,german1 or #if ,english miles1 and the difference of altitude being #db feet1 we have an average fall throughout that part of the river's course of not more than #ec inches in a mile4 ,this very inconsiderable fall need not surprise us2 for the average fall of the ,nile in ,lower ,egypt1 at the lowest water1 is little more than one-third of that now stated4 ,at the time of the highest water the surface of the ,nile1 at ,boulak1 near ,cairo2 that is1 about #aaf miles in a direct line from the coast is only #dcdcg ,english feet above the level of the ,mediterranean1 and at the time of the lowest water1 only #agcc feet4 ,thus1 in the first case1 there is an average fall of about #ejj inches2 in the second1 of not more than #ahj inches in a mile4#ei ,footnote #ei3 ,russegger1 ,reisen1 ,bd4 i41 #beh4 ,between ,wadi ,halfa and ,dale1 a distance of about #id miles1 six cataracts1 or schellals1 as they are called in the language of the country1 are marked in ,russegger's map4 ,and here1 it may be as well to notice1 that there are no cataracts1 in the ordinary sense of the term1 on the ,nile2 no fall of the river over a precipice2 all the so-called cataracts are rapids1 where the river rushes through rocks in its bed2 the rapids varying in their length and degrees of inclination4 ,we have no measurements of their lengths or of their falls1 except as regards the first and second cataracts4 ,the former1 according to ,russegger1 has a fall of about #he ,english feet in a distance of about #h miles2 and he describes the latter as extending from #e to #f stunden2 that is1 from #ab to #ad miles1 but he does not give the height4 ,speaking of the schellals above ,semne1 ,russegger says1 that all may be passed in boats without difficulty for about six weeks1 or two months in the year4 ,this is the case also1 at the cataract or rapid of ,assuan4 ,but between ,wadi-,halfa and ,dale1 with some inconsiderable spaces of free navigable water1 in the ordinary state of the river1 there is an almost uninterrupted series of rapids4 ,we have no measurement of the height of ,dale above ,wadi-,halfa1 near to which the second great cataract of the ,nile occurs2 but this is the part of the river's course where the fall is greatest1 and from ,semne to ,dale there are about #de miles of this more rapid fall4 ,from ,dale to ,new ,dongola1 a distance of #ce ,german1 or about #afh ,english miles1 only three rapids are marked on ,russegger's map--the highest being at ,hannek1 about #bf ,english miles below ,new ,dongola4 ,new ,dongola being #hjf ,english feet above the sea1 and the distance from that place to the rapid of ,hannek being #bf miles only1 we may with probability estimate the surface of the river at the rapid of ,hannek at #ghj feet above the sea4 ,now1 ,wadi-,halfa being #ebb feet1 we have a difference of height1 between these two last-named places1 of #beh feet2 and the length of the river's course between them being #bcf miles1 we have an average fall of #acab inches in a mile2 that is1 in the part of the river's course where nine rapids occur1 in the provinces of ,batn-el-,hadjar1 ,sukkot1 and ,dar-el-,mahass1 where the river flows over granite and other plutonic rocks2 gneiss1 mica-schist1 and other hard rocks1 which ,russegger considers to be metamorphic4 ,but between ,semne and the head of the second cataract at ,wadi-,halfa1 there is not a continuous rapid stream2 for ,hoskins says1 that about two miles above that cataract1 the river has a width of a third of a mile1 and1 when he passed it the water was scarcely ruffled4#fj ,footnote #fj3 ,travels in ,ethiopia1 p4 #bgb4 ,from the rapid of ,hannek to ,abu ,hammed1 the distance is #cbi ,english miles1 and the difference of altitude is #bdf ,english feet4 ,we have thus an average fall in that distance of #ijj inches in a mile4 ,thus1 in the #ggf miles between ,abu ,hammed and ,phil1 we have an average fall of the ,nile ,of #ijj inches in a mile1 for a distance of #cbi miles4 ,of #acab 444444444 444444444 #bcf 444 ,of #ecj 444444444 444444444 #if 444 ,of #abjj 444444444 444444444 #aae 444 ,of the ,breadth1 ,depth1 and ,velocity of the ,nile1 in ,nubia4 ,our information is very scanty respecting the breadth and depth of the river1 either at the time of lowest water or during the inundations4 ,about two miles above ,phil1 it is stated by ,jomard#fa to be #cjjj metres1 or nearly two ,english miles wide4 ,at the second cataract1 or rapid of ,wadi-,halfa1 it spreads over a rocky bed of nearly two miles and a-quarter in width 7#bjjj klafter71#fb but contracts above the rapid to a third of a mile4 ,russegger also states1 that the ,nile1 near ,boulak1 in ,lower ,egypt1 is #bjjj toises1 nearly two-and-a-half ,english miles in breadth1 and yet that it is considerably wider in some parts of ,southern ,nubia2 but ,burckhardt says1 that the bed of the ,nile in ,nubia is1 in general1 much narrower than in any part of ,egypt4 ,near ,kalabsche1 about #cj miles above ,phil1 the river runs through a gorge not more than #cjj paces wide1 and its bed is full of granite blocks4 ,it shortly afterwards again widens for some distance2 but near ,sialla1 #gh miles above ,phil1 it is contracted by the sandstone hills on both sides coming so near each other1 that the river's bed is again not more than from #bej to #cjj paces wide4 ,it is about #fjj yards broad about two miles above the second cataract near ,wadi-,halfa1 but is again very much contracted in the rocky region of ,batn-el-,hadjar4 ,at ,aulike it is only #bjj paces broad4#fc ,footnote #fa3 ,description de l'gypte4--,separate ,memoir entitled1 ,description de ,syne et des ,cataractes4 ,footnote #fb3 ,russegger1 ,bd4 ii41 #c ,thl4 #he4 ,footnote #fc3 ,russegger1 ,bd4 ii41 #c ,thl4 #gf4 ,i have not met with any measurements of the depth of the river in any part of its course in ,nubia2 but ,hoskins describes it as being so shallow at the island of ,sais1 #cbg miles above ,phil1 on the #ith of ,june1 which would be before the commencement of the inundation1 as only to reach the knees of the camels4#fd ,near ,derr1 about #hf miles below the ,cataract of ,wadi-,halfa1 ,norden1 in ,january1 found the river so shallow that loaded camels waded through it1 and his boat frequently struck the ground4 ,in ,may1 ,burckhardt found the river fordable at ,kostamne1 #ec miles above ,phil2 and ,parthey states1 that between ,phil and the island of ,bageh1 to the west of it1 the river is so shallow before the commencement of the inundation1 that it may be waded through4#fe ,burckhardt says1 that from ,march to ,june the ,nile-water1 in ,nubia1 is quite limpid4#ff ,miss ,martineau1 who visited ,nubia in ,december and ,january1 speaking of the river above ,phil says1 that it was divided into streamlets and ponds by the black islets4 ,where it was overshadowed it was dark-gray or deep blue1 but when the light caught it rushing between a wooded island and the shore1 it was of the clearest green4#fg ,at the second cataract she describes the river as dashing and driving among its thousand islets1 and then gathering its thousand currents into one1 proceeds calmly in its course4#fh ,footnote #fd3 ,travels1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #fe3 ,wanderungen durch das ,nilthal1 von ,g4 ,parthey1 ,berlin #ahdj4 #cgh4 ,footnote #ff3 ,travels1 pp4 #i and #aa4 ,footnote #fg3 ,eastern ,life1 i4 #aj4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ib41 #add4 ,although we have no accurate measurements of the velocity of the ,nile in ,nubia1 we may arrive at an approximate estimate of it by comparing its fall with that of a river well known to us4 ,i have stated the fall of the ,nile in different parts of its course to be #ecj1 #ijj1 #abjj1 and #acab inches in a mile4 ,the fall of the ,thames from ,wallingford to ,teddington ,lock1 where the influence of the tide ends1 is as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,fall in ,length of ,fall4 inches course4 per mile4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,miles4 ,f4 ,feet4 in4 ,from ,wallingford to ,reading ,bridge1 #ahj #bda #aegb ,from ,reading to ,henley ,bridge1 #ij #aic #befh ,from ,henley to ,marlow ,bridge1 #ij #abb #afbj ,from ,marlow to ,maidenhead ,bridge1 #hj #aea #bbcb ,from ,maidenhead to ,windsor ,bridge1 #gj #acf #bcaf ,from ,windsor to ,staines ,bridge1 #hj #aeh #bceb ,from ,staines to ,chertsey ,bridge1 #df #ff #agbh ,from ,chertsey to ,teddington ,lock1 #acf #aih #agdj ---------------------------- #ggd #abeaa ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,in general1 the velocity may be estimated at from half-a-mile to two miles and three-quarters per hour2 but the mean velocity may be reckoned at two miles per hour4 ,in the year #agid1 the late ,mr ,rennie found the velocity of the ,thames at ,windsor two miles and a half per hour4#fi ,footnote #fi3 ,rennie1 ,report on ,hydraulics1 in the ,fourth ,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ahcd1 p4 #dhg4 ,it will thus be seen that the velocity of the ,nile is probably greatly inferior to that of the ,thames2 for it appears that1 except during the inundation1 for more than half the year the depth is inconsiderable4 ,the average fall when greatest1 that is1 including the province of ,batn-el-,hadjar1 where the rapids chiefly occur1 is considerably less than that of any part of the above course of the ,thames2 so that there must be long intervals between the rapids where the fall must be far less than #ac inches in a mile4 ,the breadth of the ,nile is vastly greater2 but supposing the depth of the water to be the same as that of the ,thames1 on account of the friction of the bed1 the greater breadth would add very little to the velocity4 ,if we assume the average depth of the ,thames in the above distance to be #e feet1 and that it flows with an average velocity of #b miles in an hour1 and if we assume the average depth of the ,nile in that part of its course where the fall is #acab inches to be #aj feet1 when not swollen by the rise1 the velocity would be #b miles nearly in an hour1#gj if the fall were equal to that of the ,thames4 ,we shall probably come near the truth1 by assuming the velocity of the ,nile on this part at #b miles in an hour4 ,that it must be considerably less in the other divisions of the course ,i have named1 and especially in that part immediately below the second cataract1 where the average fall is only #ecj inches for a distance of #if miles1 is quite evident4 ,footnote #gj3 ,i state this on the authority of my friend1 ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,esq41 of ,cambridge4 ,the power of a river to abrade the soil over which it flows1 so far as water is by itself capable of doing so1 must depend upon its volume and velocity1 and the degree of hardness of the material acted upon4 ,the power is increased when the water has force enough to transport hard substances4 ,but even transported gravel has little action on the rocks with which it comes in contact1 when it is free to move in running water1 unless the fall be considerable1 and1 consequently1 the velocity and force of the stream great4 ,when stones are firmly set in moving ice1 they then acquire a great erosive power1 cutting and wearing down the rocks they are forcibly rubbed against2 but this condition never obtains in ,lower ,nubia1 as ice is unknown there4 ,geological ,structure of ,lower ,nubia4 ,one kind only of regularly stratified rock occurs in the #ggf miles from ,abu ,hammed to ,phil2 viz4 a silicious sandstone1 similar to that which occurs to a great extent on both sides of the ,nile in ,upper ,egypt1 and which ,russegger1 after a very careful examination of it there1 considers to be an equivalent of the greensand of the cretaceous rocks of ,europe4 ,the tertiary nummulite limestone1 so abundant in ,egypt1 has not hitherto been met with in ,nubia4 ,the ,nile flows over this sandstone for nearly #dbf miles of the entire distance1 but not continuously4 ,at ,abu ,hammed1 it flows over granitic rocks1 and these continue from that place for about #abj miles4 ,there is then about #bae miles of the sandstone1 which is succeeded by igneous and metamorphic rocks1 that continue for #aie miles without any interruption1 except a narrow stripe of sandstone of about #ae miles near ,amara4 ,it is in this region of hard igneous rocks that nearly all the rapids occur1 between that of ,hannek and the great or second cataract at ,wadi-,halfa4 ,from the latter place there is sandstone throughout a distance of about #aif miles1 and then commences the granitic region of the ,cataract of ,assuan1 through which the ,nile flows about #ce miles4 ,thus we have about #cej miles of igneous and metamorphic rocks1 and about #dbf of sandstone4 ,the general hard nature of the igneous and metamorphic rocks1 over which the ,nile flows for about #aee miles above ,semne1 and for about #dj immediately below it1 will be recognised by my naming some of the varieties described by ,russegger1 viz4 granites of various kinds1 often penetrated by greenstone dykes2 sienite1 diorite1 and felspar porphyries2 gneiss1 and clay slate1 penetrated by numerous quartz veins4 ,the siliceous sandstone is very uniform in its character2 and in ,nubia1 as in ,egypt1 the only organic bodies which it has as yet been found to contain1 are silicified stems of wood4 ,occasionally1 as in the neighbourhood of ,korusko1 interstratified beds of marly clay are met with4#ga ,footnote #ga3 ,russegger1 ,bd4 ii41 #a ,thl4 #efi to #ehd4 ,when1 therefore1 we take into account the hard nature of the siliceous sandstone1 the durability of which is shewn by the very ancient monuments of ,egypt and ,nubia1 that are formed of it1 and the still greater hardness of the granites and other crystalline rocks1 it is manifest that the wearing action of a river flowing over so gentle a fall1 can scarcely be appreciable4 ,if the occasional beds of marly clay occur in the bank of the river1 they may be washed out1 and blocks of the superincumbent sandstones may fall down2 but such an operation would have a tendency to raise rather than deepen the bed of the river at those places2 unless the transporting power of the stream were far greater than can exist with so moderate a fall1 especially in that part of the river below ,semne1 where1 for #if miles1 it is not more than #ec inches1 and for #aae miles below that1 not more than #ab inches in a mile4 ,even if we suppose the river to have power to tear up its bed for some distance above ,semne and below it1 as far as the rapid of ,wadi-,halfa1 it is evident that the materials brought down would be deposited1 except the finest particles1 in that tranquil run of #if miles1 which may be almost compared to a canal4 ,the drains in ,lincolnshire are inclined #e inches to a mile4#gb ,when the annual inundations commence1 the water of the ,nile comes down the rapid at ,assuan of a reddish colour1 loaded with sand and mud only2 whatever detrital matter of a larger and heavier kind the ,nile may have brought with it1 is deposited before it reaches that point4 ,footnote #gb3 ,rennie1 ,report cited above1 p4 #dbb4 ,from all these considerations1 therefore1 ,i come to the conclusion1 that the bed of the ,nile cannot have been excavated1 as ,professor ,lepsius supposes1 since the date of the sculptured marks on the rock at ,semne4 ,he says1 ,es lsst sich kaum eine andere ,ursache fr das bedentende ,fallen des ,nils denken1 als ein ,answaschen und ,aushlen der ,katakomben4 ,by the word ,katakomben he can only mean natural caverns in the rock2 but such caverns are rarely1 if ever1 met with in sandstones1 and only occasionally in limestones4 ,if the course of the ,nile were over limestone instead of sandstone1 we could not for a moment entertain the idea of a succession of caverns for #bjj miles beneath its bed1 sometimes two miles in width1 the roofs of which were to fall in2 and where the igneous rocks prevail1 this explanation is wholly inapplicable4 ,but besides the objections arising from the nature of the rocks1 and the inconsiderable fall of the river1 there is still another difficulty to overcome4 ,it is to be borne in mind1 that this lowering of the bed of the ,nile1 from ,semne to ,assuan1 is supposed to have taken place within the last #djjj years4 ,between the first cataract at ,assuan and the second at ,wadi-,halfa1 there are numerous remains of temples on both banks of the ,nile1 some of very great antiquity4 ,from ,wadi-,halfa to ,phil1 says ,parthey1 there is a vast number of ,egyptian monuments1 almost all on the left bank of the river1 and so near the water that most of them are in immediate contact with it4#gc ,we may rest assured that the builders of these would place them out of the reach of the highest inundations then known4 ,although we have many accurate descriptions of these monuments1 the heights of their foundations above the surface of the river are not often given2 they are1 however1 mentioned in some instances4 ,i shall describe the situations of some of these buildings relatively to the present state of the river's levels1 and shall begin with those on the island of ,phil4 ,footnote #gc3 ,parthey1 #cah4 ,this island1 according to the measurements of ,general von ,prokesh1 is #abjj ,paris feet 7#abgh ,english7 in length1 and #dbj 7#ddg7 in breadth1 and is composed of granite4 ,lancrot informs us1 that1 l'poque des hautes eaux1 l'le de ,phil est peu lev audessus de leur surface1 mais lorqu'elles sont abaisses elle les surpasse de huit metres4 ,it was formerly surrounded by a quay of masonry1 portions of which may be traced at intervals1 and in some places they are still in good preservation4 ,the south-west part of the island is occupied by temples4 ,according to ,wilkinson1 the principal building is a temple of ,isis commenced by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 who reigned from #bhc to #bdg years before ,christ2 and he adds1 that it is evident an ancient building formerly stood on the site of the present great temple4 ,lancrot1 in referring to this more ancient building1 says3--,il y a des preuves certaines d'une antiquit bien plus recule encore1 puisque des pierres qui entrent dans la construction de ce mme grand temple1 sont des dbris de quelque construction antrieure4 ,rossellini considers that it was built by ,nectanabis4 ,the first king of ,egypt1 of the ,sebennite dynasty of that name1 ascended the throne #cgd years ,b4,c41 the second and last ceased to reign about #cej years ,b4,c4#gd ,footnote #gd3 ,russegger1 ,reison1 ,bd4 ii4 #cjj and #cbj4 ,lancrot1 ,description de l'gypte1 ,memoire sur l'le de ,phil1 #ae-eh4 ,rossellini1 ,i ,monumenti dell',egitto e della ,nubia4 ,monumenti del ,culto1 #ahg4 ,wilkinson's ,thebes and ,general ,view of ,egypt1 #dff4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,biography1 ,arts4 ,ptolemy1 ,ph4 and ,nectanabis4 ,rossellini#ge informs us1 that on the island of ,bageh1 opposite to ,phil1 there are the remains of a temple of the time of ,amenophis ,,ii41 and a sitting statue of granite representing him4 ,he was a king in the earlier years of the #ahth dynasty1 which1 according to the ,chevalier ,bunsen1#gf began in the year #afch1 and ended in #adaj ,b4,c4 ,footnote #ge3 ,p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #gf3 ,egyptens ,stelle in der ,weltgeschichte4--,drittes ,buch1 #abb4 ,,gau1#gg in describing a temple at ,debu1 about #ab miles above ,phil1 which he visited in ,january1 and consequently during the time of low water1 states that he discovered under the sand1 at the edge of the river1 the remains of a terrace leading towards a temple4 ,footnote #gg3 ,antiquits de la ,nubie1 p4 #f4 ,a short distance north of ,kalabsche1 about #cj miles above ,phil1 at ,beil-nalli1 ,rossellini#gh speaks of a small temple in the following terms3--,among the many memorials that still exist of ,ramses ,,ii41 the most important1 in a historical point of view1 is a small temple or grotto excavated in the rock2 and ,wilkinson mentions it as a small but interesting temple excavated in the rock1 of the time of ,rameses ,,ii41 whom ,champellion supposes to be the father of ,sesostris or ,rameses the ,great4#gi ,he was the first king of the #aith dynasty1 which began in the year #adji ,b4,c4#hj ,footnote #gh3 ,tome ,,iii41 ,parte ,,ii41 p4 #f4 ,footnote #gi3 ,thebes1 c41 p4 #dhb4 ,footnote #hj3 ,bunsen1 as above4 ,gau#ha thus describes a monument at ,gerb ,dandour3--,la chaine de montagnes qui borde le ,nil est1 dans cet endroit1 si approche du lit de ce fleuve1 qu'il ne reste que trs peu d'espace sur la rive4 ,cet espace est presque entirement occup par le monument1 et la rivire1 dans ses dbordemens1 arrive jusqu'au pied du mur de la terrasse4 ,footnote #ha3 ,p4 #i4 ,parthey informs us that the temple of ,sebua is about #bjj feet distant from the river1 in which distance there are two rows of sphinxes1 and that the road between them1 from the temple1 ends in wide steps at the water's edge2 and he adds1 that ,champellion refers this temple to the time of ,rameses the ,great4#hb ,footnote #hb3 ,warnderungen1 c41 #ccd4 ,it thus appears that monuments exist close to the river1 some of which were constructed at least #adjj years before our era2 so that taking the time of ,amenemha ,,iii4 to be1 as ,professor ,lepsius states1 #bbjj years ,b4,c41 the excavation of the bed of the ,nile which he supposes to have taken place1 must have been the work1 not of #djjj years but of #hjj4 ,if the erosive power of the river was so active in that time1 it cannot be supposed that it then ceased2 it would surely have continued to deepen the bed during the following #cjjj years4 ,at all events1 the buildings on the island of ,phil demonstrate that the bed of the ,nile must have been very much the same as it is now1 #bbjj years ago2 and even a thousand years earlier it must have been the same1 if the foundation of the temple on the island of ,begh1 opposite to ,phil1 be near the limit of the highest rise of the ,nile of the present time2 so that there could be no barrier at the ,cataract of ,assuan to dam up the ,nile when they were constructed2 and thus the deafening sound of the waterfall recorded by ,cicero and ,seneca must still be held to be an exaggeration4 ,the existence of alluvial soil1 apparently of the same kind as that deposited by the ,nile1 in situations above the ,cataract of ,assuan1 at a level considerably above the highest point which the inundations of the river have reached in modern times1 to which allusion is made by ,professor ,lepsius1 has been noticed by other travellers1 and even at still higher levels than those he mentions4 ,whether that alluvial soil be identical with1 or only resembles the ,nile deposit1 would require to be determined by a close examination1 and especially with regard to organic remains1 if any can be found in it4 ,there is no evidence to shew that it was deposited during the historical period1 and it may be an evidence of a depression and subsequent elevation of the land antecedent to that period4 ,it may not be of fresh-water origin1 but the clay and sand1 or till1 left by a drift while the land was under the sea4 ,for remote as is the antiquity of ,nubia and ,egypt1 in relation to the existence of the human race1 it appears to be of very modern formation in geological time4 ,the greater part of ,lower ,egypt1 probably all the ,delta1 is of post-pliocene age1 and even late in that age2 and the very granite of the ,cataract of ,assuan1 that of which the oldest monuments in ,egypt are formed1 and which1 in the earlier days of geology1 was looked upon as the very type of the rock on which the oldest strata of the earth were founded1 is said to have burst forth during the later tertiary period4 ,we learn from ,russegger1 that the low land which lies between the ,mediterranean and the range of hills that extends from ,cairo to the ,red ,sea at ,suez1 and of which hills a nummulite limestone constitutes a great part1 is composed of a sandstone which he calls a ,meeresdiluvium1 a marine diluvial formation1 and considers to be of an age younger than that of the sub-appennines4#hc ,this sandstone he found associated with the granite above ,assuan1 and covering the cretaceous sandstone far into ,nubia4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that1 in the later ages of the tertiary period1 this north-eastern part of ,africa must have been submerged1 and that very energetic plutonic action was going forward in the then bed of the sea4 ,the remarkable fact of the granite bursting through this modern sandstone is thus described by ,russegger3-- ,we arrived at a plateau of the ,arabian ,chain south-east of ,assuan4 ,it is about #bjj feet above the bed of the ,nile1 and consists of the lower and upper sandstone1 which are penetrated by innumerable granite cones from #bj to #ajj feet in height1 arranged over the plateau in parallel lines1 very much resembling volcanic cones rising from a great cleft4 ,the sandstone is totally altered in texture near the granite1 and has all the appearance as if it had been exposed to a great heat4 ',i cannot refrain1' he says1 'from supposing that the granite must have burst1 like a volcanic product1 through long wide rents in the sandstone1 and that1 in this way1 the conical hills were formed4'#hd ,footnote #hc3 ,reisen1 ,bd4 ,i41 s4 #bgc4 ,footnote #hd3 ,id41 ,bd4 ,,ii41 ,i4 ,thl4 s4 #cbh4 ,an eruption of a true granite during the period of the sub-appennine formations1 one possessing the same mineral structure as that we know to have been erupted during the period of the palozoic rocks1 would be a fact of so extraordinary a kind1 that its age would require to be established on the clearest evidence1 and especially by that of organic remains in the sandstone4 ,having thus ventured--,i trust without any want of the respect due to so eminent a person--to reject the hypothesis proposed by ,professor ,lepsius for the high levels of the ,nile at ,semne1 indicated by the sculptured marks he discovered1 it may perhaps be expected that ,i should offer another more probable explanation4 ,if in some narrow gorge of the river below ,semne1 a place had been described by any traveller1 where1 from the nature of the banks1 a great landslip1 or even an artificial dam1 could have raised the bed to an adequate height2 that is1 proportionate to the fall of the river1 as it was more distant from ,semne1 a bar that1 in the course of a few centuries1 might have been gradually washed away1 ,i might have ventured to suggest such a solution of the problem4 ,but without any information of the existence of such a contraction of the river's channel1 or any exact knowledge of the natural outlets and dams to running water along the #bej miles of the ,nile ,valley1 from ,semne to ,assuan1 it would be idle to offer even a conjecture4 ,these marks are unquestionably very difficult to account for1 in the present imperfect state of our knowledge of the structure of that portion of the ,nile ,valley2 and any competent geologist1 well versed in the questions of physical structure involved1 who may hereafter visit ,nubia1 would have a very interesting occupation in endeavouring to solve the difficulty4 #gth ,april #ahej4 ,illustration3 ,marks of the ,levels of the ,nile near the ,cataracts of ,semne in the time of ,king ,amenemha ,,iii4 7,moeris7 about #bbjj ,years ,b4,c4 compared with the present levels4 ,on the ,salmon ,tribe 7,salmonid47 ,so long as the family ,salmonid remains circumscribed as it was established by ,cuvier1 it seems to be a type almost universally diffused over the globe1 occurring equally in the sea and in fresh-water1 so that we are left almost without a clue to its natural relations to the surrounding world4 ,joh4 ,muller1 working out some suggestions of ,prince ,canino1 and introducing among them more precise anatomical characters1 had no sooner subdivided the old family of ,salmonid into his ,salmonid1 ,characini1 and ,scopelini1 than light immediately spread over this field4 ,limited now to such fishes as1 in addition to the mere general character of former ,salmonid1 have a false gill on the inner surface of the operculum1 the ,salmonid appeared at once as fishes peculiar to the northern temperate region1 occurring in immense numbers all around the ,arctic ,sea1 and running regularly up the rivers at certain seasons of the year to deposit their spawn1 while some live permanently in fresh water4 ,we have thus in the true ,salmonid actually a northern family of fishes1 which1 when found in more temperate regions1 occurs there in clear mountain rivers1 sometimes very high above the level of the sea1 near the limits of perpetual snow1 or in deep1 cold lakes4 ,that this family is adapted to the cold regions is most remarkably exemplified by the fact that they all spawn late in the season1 at the approach of autumn or winter1 when frost or snow has reduced the temperature of the water in which they live nearly to its lowest natural point4 ,the embryos grow within the egg very slowly for about two months before they are hatched2 while fecundated eggs of some other families which spawn in spring and summer1 give birth to young fishes a few days after they are laid4 ,the ,salmonid1 on the contrary1 are born at an epoch when the waters are generally frozen up2 that is at a period when the maximum of temperature is at the bottom of the water1 where the eggs and young salmons remain among gravel1 surrounded by a medium which scarcely ever rises above thirty or forty degrees4 ,it is plain from these statements1 and from what we know otherwise of the habits of this family1 that there is no one upon the globe living under more uniform circumstances1 and nevertheless the species are extremely diversified1 and we find peculiar ones in all parts of the world1 where the family occurs at all4 ,thus we find in ,lake ,superior species which do not exist in the course of the ,mackenzie or ,saskatchewan1 and vice versa2 others in the ,columbia river which differ from those of the ,lena1 ,obi1 and ,yenisei1 while ,europe again has its peculiar forms4 ,whoever takes a philosophical view of the subject of ,natural ,history1 and is familiar with the above stated facts1 will now understand why1 notwithstanding the specific distinctions there are between them1 the trouts and white fishes are so uniform all over the globe4 ,it must be acknowledged that it is owing to the uniformity of the physical condition in which they occur1 and to which they are so admirably adapted by their anatomical structure1 as well as by their instinct4 ,running up and down the rapid rivers and mountain currents1 leaping even over considerable waterfalls1 they are provided with most powerful and active muscles2 their tail is strong and fleshy1 and its broad basis indicates that its power is concentrated2 it is like the paddle of the ,indian who propels his canoe over the same waters4 ,their mouth is large1 their jaw strong1 their teeth powerful1 to enable them to secure with ease the scanty prey with which they meet in these deserts of cold water2 and1 nevertheless1 though we cannot but be struck by the admirable reciprocal adaptation between the structure of the northern animals and the physical condition in which they live1 let us not mistake these adaptations for a consequence of physical causes2 let us not say that trouts resemble each other so much because they originated under uniform conditions2 let us not say they have uniform habits because there is no scope for diversity2 let us not say they spawn during winter1 and rear their young under snow and ice1 because at that epoch they are safer from the attacks of birds of prey2 let us not say they are so intimately connected with the physical world1 because physical powers called them into existence2 but let us once look deeper1 let us recognise that this uniformity is imparted to a wonderfully complicated structure3 they are trouts with all their admirable structure1 their peculiar back-bones1 their ornamented skull1 their powerful jaws1 their moveable eyes1 with their thick1 fatty skin and elegant scales1 their ramified fin rays1 and with all that harmonious complication of structure which characterizes the type of trouts1 but over which a uniform robe1 as it were1 is spread in a manner not unlike an almost endless series of monotonous variations upon one brilliant air1 through the uniformity of which we still detect the same melody1 however disguised under the many undulations and changes of which it is capable4 ,the instincts of trouts are not more controlled by climate than those of other animals under different circumstances4 ,they are only made to perform at a particular season1 best suited to their organization1 what others do at other times4 ,if it were not so1 ,i do not see why all the different fishes1 living all the year round in the same brook1 should not spawn at the same season1 and finally be transformed into one type2 have we not1 on the contrary1 in this diversity under identical circumstances1 a demonstrative evidence that there is another cause which has acted1 and is still acting1 in the production and preservation of these adaptations2 a cause which endowed living beings with the power of resisting the equalizing influence of uniform agents1 though at the same time placing these agents and living beings under definite relations to each other8 ,that trouts are not more influenced by physical conditions than other animals is apparent from the fact that there are lakes of small extent and of most uniform features1 in which two or three species of trout occur together1 each with peculiar habits2 one more migratory1 running up rivers during the spawning season1 c41 while the other will never enter running waters1 and will spawn in quiet places near the shore2 one will hunt after its prey1 while the other will wait for it in ambuscade2 one will feed upon fish1 the other upon insects4 ,here we have an example of species with different habits1 where there would scarcely seem to be room for diversity in the physical condition in which they live2 again1 there are others living together in immense sheets of water1 where there would seem to be ample scope for diversity1 among which we observe no great differences1 as is the case between the ,siscowet and the lake trout in the great northern lakes4 ,if these facts1 statements1 and inductions were not sufficient to satisfy the reader of the correctness of my views1 ,i would at once refer to another material fact1 furnished us by the family of ,salmonid1 namely1 the existence of two essential modifications of the true type of trouts1 occurring everywhere together under the same circumstances1 showing the same general characters1 back-bones1 skull1 brain1 composition of the mouth1 intestines1 gills1 c41 c41 but differing in the size of the mouth1 and in the almost absolute want of teeth1 these groups being that of the white fishes1 ,coregoni1 and that of the true trouts1 ,salmones4 ,now1 ,i ask1 where is there1 within the natural geographical limits of distribution of ,salmonid1 a discriminating power between the physical elements under which they live1 which could have introduced these differences8--a discriminating power which1 allotting to all certain characters1 should have modified others to such an extent as to produce apparently different types under the same modification of the general plan of structure4 ,why should there be1 at the same time1 under the same circumstances1 under the same geographical distribution1 white fishes with the habits of trouts1--spawning like them in the fall1 growing their young like them during winter1--if there were not an infinitely wise ,supreme ,power1 if there were not a personal ,god1 who1 having first designed1 created the universe1 and modelled our solar system1 called successively1 at different epochs1 such animals into existence under the different circumstances prevailing over various parts of the globe1 as would suit best this general plan1 according to which man was at last to be placed at the head of creation8 ,let us remember all this1 and we have a voice uttering louder and louder the cry which the external world equally proclaims1 that there is a ,creator1 an intelligent and wise ,creator1 an omnipotent ,creator of all that exists1 has existed1 and shall exist4 ,to come back to the ,salmonid1 ,i might say1 that when properly studied1 there is not a species in nature1 there is not a system of organs in any given species1 there is not a peculiarity in the details of each of these systems1 which does not lead to the same general results1 and which is not on that account equally worth our consideration4 ,a minute distinction between species is again1 above all1 the foundation of our most extensive views of the whole1 and of our most sublime generalizations4 ,the species of ,salmonid call particularly our attention1 from the minuteness of the characters upon which their distinction rests4 ,their number in the north of this continent 7,north ,america7 is far greater than would be supposed from the mere investigation of those of the great lakes2 but ,i shall1 for the present1 limit myself to these4--,agassiz1 ,lake ,superior1 p4 #cff4 ,results of ,observations made by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,,fallows1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in the years #ahbi-cj-ca4 ,produced under the superintendence of ,g4 ,b4 ,,airy1 ,esq41 ,astronomer ,royal4 ,this important work1 containing the earliest fruits of the ,cape ,observatory2 and1 while the first1 at the same time some of the most valuable contributions to ,southern ,astronomy1--has been received too late to allow us to do more than barely mention the titles in the present number4 ,we are tempted1 however1 to extract the following short notice of a remarkable meteor2 because it tends to establish the connection so very much wanted between shooting-stars on the one hand1 and meteorites1 or meteor-stones1 on the other hand4 ,the phenomenon in question had a something of the characteristics of each1 but was more of the nature of the latter body1 in which case the mere fact of its appearing at the epoch of the shooting-stars1 maybe considered in some degree significant of a connection1 more especially when confirmed by a second instance in another year2 while1 moreover1 the ,november period of shooting-stars had not then been suspected2 and these two observations not only serve to confirm that period1 but also to give the retrogression of the nodes of the orbit1 which has been suspected4 ,p4 ,s4 ,mr ,fallows to the ,secretary of the ,admiralty4 ,,royal ,,observatory1 ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope1 ,november #i1 #ahbi4 ,,sir1--,the inclosed document was drawn up at my request1 by ,captain ,ronald4 ,at the moment the first explosion took place 7ten in the evening71 ,i was writing in a room adjacent to that of the ,transit1 and imagined from the loudness of the report that it might be a signal of distress from some vessel in ,table ,bay4 ,shortly after1 perhaps four or five minutes1 for ,i cannot be certain1 having no suspicion of what had been observed in the ,transit-room1 ,i heard a second report1 but it was somewhat fainter than the former4 ,this phenomenon has been noticed at ,simon's ,town1 ,stellenbosch1 and beyond ,koe-berg4#he--;,i have1 c41 ,,fearon ,,fallows4 ,footnote #he3 i4e41 #bj miles to the ,south1 #be to the ,east1 and #ae to the ,north4 7,,inclosure47 ,captain ,ronald to ,mr ,fallows4 ,,observatory1 ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope1 #bjth ,october #ahbi4 ,,sir1--,as it may not be uninteresting perhaps to make some record of the circumstances attending the appearance of a meteor which was observed last evening1 ,i beg leave to convey to you the following notice3 remarking that having seen it only through the open roof of the ,observatory1 which prevented me from following the direction it took1 my report must necessarily be so far incomplete4 ,at the time of the occurrence of the phenomenon in question1 about ten in the evening1 ,i was in the ,transit-room1 engaged in observing the passage of a star1 when a blaze of intensely vivid light was observed a little to the ,west of ,north1 about the height of the ,equator1 and which continued for perhaps a couple of seconds4 ,while registering the observation1 a loud report was heard nearly in the same direction1 resembling that of a piece of heavy ordnance at the distance of two or three miles4 ,the interval between the flash and the report reaching me1 must have been between the limits of #bm #djs and #bm #des1 from the circumstance of my having observed the light just before the star 7g ,ceti7 had come to the second wire#hf of the instrument1 which1 on referring to the transit-book1 would have taken place at #bc;h #egm #dgs#f nearly1 and therefore the occurrence of the phenomenon may be safely referred to #bc;h #egm #des2 and as1 on hearing the report1 ,i immediately consulted the ,sidereal clock1 which indicated #j;h #jm #cjs1 ,i think that the error in assuming the elapsed time as above cannot be supposed to amount to five seconds4 ,footnote #hf3 ,the ,transit of g ,ceti 7#b ,ceti7 over the second wire1 on this day is blank2 and the word meteor is written in the margin4 ,the first and third wires are #bc;h #egm #bgs#i and #bc;h #ehm #gs#d4 ,there was little peculiar in the state of the weather or atmosphere2 the day had been rather more than usually cool1 the highest temperature being #fh ,fahrenheit1 the wind from the south1 and moderate1 with slight passing showers4 ,the evening was nearly clear1 with a light air from the south-west1 atmosphere rather dry2 the barometer standing at #cj;in#bj1 and the thermometer at #eb1 and both were observed to rise suddenly after the explosion1 the barometer by #j;in#ja1 and the thermometer by #ja1 though they regained their original position in a short time afterwards4--,i have1 c41 ,w4 ,,ronald4 ,by referring to my ,meteorological ,journal1 it appears that a meteor of somewhat similar appearance was noticed in ,cape ,town early on the morning of the #fth ,november last year4--,w4 ,r4 ,discovery of the ,great ,lake ,ngami of ,south ,africa4 ,geographical discovery in ,africa has even excited more interest than similar explorations in any other part of the world1 and with reason--for1 while it is one of the oldest and earliest peopled of lands2 while the human race first attained there a high degree of civilization1 and a high degree of knowledge in the arts of peace and war1 of science and literature2 with a grandeur in some things1 and a skill in others never since equalled2 yet it is now the country of all others on the face of the globe concerning which we know least4 ,in other continents there are undoubtedly parts not yet visited by ,europeans1 or worthy of being more fully explored2 but they are but inconsiderable spots compared with the almost boundless spaces of ,central ,africa1 where no foot of a white man has ever yet trod1 and of the greater part of which no semi-fabulous native accounts even have ever reached us4 ,so that age after age the civilization of the enlightened nations of the world is gradually losing the hold which it once had1 at least along the northern shores of this vast continent2 and the land of ,ham is gradually reverting to a state of primeval wilderness1 fenced in from all the rest of the world by the obstructive power of ignorance and position4 ,and yet to no other part of the world has so continued a stream of geographical explorers been poured1 and is even pouring still2 but invariably either the deadly climate of the more fertile parts1 or the passive but all-powerful impediments offered by the more desert portions1 as well as the active opposition of natives1 more savage and sanguinary than in any other part of the world1 have invariably1 by death or otherwise1 put an untimely stop to the progress of the travellers4 ,under these circumstances it must be highly encouraging to all interested in the prosecutions of ,african geography1 to hear that an actual and tangible discovery1 and one of the most important kind for the country in which it was effected1 and for the prosecution of still further research1 has just been made1 in the fact of the ,rev4 ,david ,livingston1 a missionary of the ,london ,society1 having at least reached the great lake#hg of ,south ,africa4 ,footnote #hg3 ,this lake must not be confounded with the smaller one1 supposed by the ,portuguese to exist on the coast of ,zanzibar4 ,the circumstance requires perhaps something more than mere notice1 and to have more names mentioned in connection with it1 from its being part of a general system of co-operation in which many have borne a part1 and a very important and necessary part1 towards the result which has been finally achieved2 and at the very least1 the name of the ,rev4 ,mr ,moffat1 the fellow missionary of ,mr ,livingston1 deserves mention whenever the great lake is spoken of4 ,its existence had been suspected long since1 and its discovery has been a constant theme of conversation for many years past at the ,cape4 ,but yet the information of its whereabout1 and size1 and nature1 were so very scanty1 as to throw more doubt over the matter1 the further that it was examined into4 ,up to a very recent date1 the only persons who had ever been able within the colony to bear testimony to the fact of the existence of the great lake1 from personal knowledge1 were two young ,bechuana brought down by ,d4 ,a4 ,smith's expedition4 ,they said1 that when they were children1 and their tribe was flying from their enemies1 they had been at one period close to the great lake2 but1 after the closest cross-questioning1 they left the matter more uncertain than ever1 for from the length of time that their tribe was flying about in the desert in various directions1 it would have been quite possible to have reached the sea either to the east or west1 or the colony to the south2 and nothing certain could be made out as to the mean resulting direction of the marching and countermarching4 ,nevertheless1 many were the ardent explorers who endeavoured to reach this consummation1 so greatly to be desired1 amid the arid plains of ,south ,africa4 ,the last which started1 and by far the most important of all that were ever organized in ,south ,africa1 was that of the ,cape ,town ,association for ,exploring ,central ,africa1 and which started in #ahcd1 and returned in #ahcf4 ,the party consisted of about seven ,europeans1 as many waggons1 and about thirty natives4 ,the whole was under the direction of ,dr ,andrew ,smith1 staff-surgeon1 who had admirably qualified himself for the command1 by the experience of very many years spent chiefly in the interior1 and amongst the natives4 ,among the members of the expedition1 were an astronomer1 well supplied with instruments1 and two artists1 and ,mr ,charles ,bell for landscape1 topography1 and the manners and customs of the natives2 and another1 ,mr ,ford1 for the natural history department4 ,dr ,smith took upon himself especially the zoology1 the ethnology1 and geology2 and the others all contributed according to their powers1 while the whole of their notes and journals of every kind were to be made over to the association4 ,the expedition started in #ahcd1 reached at length the ,rev4 ,mr ,moffat's residence at ,kuruman1 then the outpost of the ,missionary stations2 by him it was carried on further into the ,zoolah country1 to the abode of the great chief ,umsiligas4 ,this seemed for various reasons the furthest northing that the expedition could make1 but a small party went on in light marching order a little further1 so as to be just able to say that #bc south latitude had actually been reached1 before the retrograde movement was begun4 ,the chief result of this expedition has been the publication of ,dr ,a4 ,smith's beautiful and valuable zoological work1 for the publication of which the government granted a sum of money4 ,the personal journal1 the astronomical1 geographical1 geological1 and meteorological observations1 have still to come2 likewise ,dr ,smith's own observations touching the history1 language1 and other particulars of the various tribes of aborigines whom he met with2 as well as ,mr ,charles ,bell's inimitable drawings of the manners1 customs1 and appearances of the natives1 and his expressive landscape scenery4 ,this degree or measure of success seemed to put the great lake further off than ever4 ,europeans despaired of their ever finding or beholding it1 and none but traders and huntsmen subsequently traversed that part merely of the road towards it1 which the expedition did pass over2 while the only scientific mission which has acted since in ,south ,africa1 viz41 that of ,captain ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,alexander1 sent out by the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,london1--hopeless1 apparently1 of doing anything by following ,dr ,smith's route1 travelled and explored along the western coast4 ,it was remarked long since by the ,north ,american ,indians and other aborigines1 that the black-robe chiefs of the mission had always preceded the daring hunter and the crafty trader2 and in no country has the preceding spirit of the missionaries been more evident than in ,south ,africa4 ,while pushing their stations continually further and further into the interior1 they christianize and civilize the tribes as they go1 and so leave the way paved and open behind them2 a most important condition1 when it is remembered what excessive distances a traveller is there from his resources1 and in what an impracticable country4 ,silently1 but surely1 has this operation been going on1 until as it were1 almost by natural causes1 a point has been reached1 within which the lake was but at a moderate distance4 ,starting from ,mr ,moffat's advanced post of ,kuruman1 ,mr ,livingston had founded the station of ,kolobeng further north2 and then it only required a small advance of money to pay the expense of the long contemplated journey4 ,that sum was furnished by two lay gentlemen1 ,messrs ,murray and ,oswell1--and this great cynosure of ,south ,african geography1 fell1 in the ripeness of time1 an easy prize4 ,but if we have this much to say for the effective lever which the missionary system affords for geographical discovery1 we cannot say so much as we should like in favour of the manner in which it has been worked in this instance1 though it may be better than in the generality of cases4 ,there has been of late1 it must be confessed1 rather a decline of the true scientific spirit of geographical exploration2 and men have too frequently been contented with filling their books with accounts merely of what they shot and what they eat2 unable to give any more intelligent account of the country than the natives themselves4 ,hardly any better1 the ,rev4 ,mr ,rebman1 who is supposed to have discovered in #e ,s4 lat41 and #c or #djj miles within the eastern coast of ,africa1 a mountain reaching above the limits of perpetual snow1 and which may be the source of the ,nile on the one hand1 and of the rivers which feed the great lake ,ngami on the other2 for though he has been twice to the mountains1 yet he has sent home such puerile statements1 that the fact of its being snow at all which was thought to have been seen1 is now contested2 and the height1 latitude1 longitude1 c41 of the mountain are quite uncertain4 ,mr ,livingston has done much better than this1 though there is almost everything for the geographer1 the botanist1 c41 to do2 but no fault is to be imputed to him1 he had a higher object in view3 we mention the case so prominently here1 rather to incite scientific men to go and do their part4 ,we append ,mr ,livingston's letter to the end of this notice1 and will merely condense here the principal notabilia4 ,the latitude of the ,e4 corner of the lake at its junction with the effluence the ,zonga1 was measured with a sextant1 to be #bj #bj ,s4 ,the longitude was estimated at #bd ,e41 consequently about midway between the ,e4 and ,w4 coasts4 ,the height above the level of the sea was thermometrically determined at #bbjj feet4 ,the length and breadth were stated by the natives at #gj and #ae miles2 ,mr ,livingston saw in the former direction an uninterrupted horizon of water4 ,the feeder of the lake coming down from the north was described only by the natives2 but its water being very clear1 even during its annual risings1 and these being incomprehensible to the inhabitants of that part of the country1 this course may be expected to be long1 and not improbably rising from a snowy mountain4 ,the effluent of the lake1 the ,zonga1 was travelled along by ,mr ,l4 for #cjj miles2 as the water was clear1 the stream placid1 the banks thickly clothed with beds of reeds1 and the height above the sea #bbjj feet1--it may be presumed that this river does not communicate with the ocean1 and that it is gradually dissipated like other rivers there by evaporation and absorption4 ,the banyan1 the palmyra1 and the baobab1 taking the place of the cactus1 aloe1 euphorbia and acacia1 indicate the arrival in a better watered country and a totally different botanical region than any previously reached from the ,cape4 ,the inhabitants of the lake ,bayeiye1 seem to be a new race2 their language was unknown2 and they possess several remarkable habits and customs totally at variance with the characteristics of all the ,south ,african tribes1 ,hottentots1 ,bushmen1 ,caffres1 ,bechuana1 ,zoolahs1 c41 south of the tropics2 as for instance1 their having canoes1 killing the hippopotami with harpoons attached to ropes1 and catching fish in nets4 ,the head of a fish which abounds in the lake1 as well as a fearful fly which stings the oxen to death1 have been sent home1 and are declared to be new4 ,in conclusion1 we have the pleasure of adding that although the ,geographical ,society could not exactly award with propriety their ,royal gold medal to discoveries in their science2 made in a secondary point of view1 and but indifferently described1 when it should be reserved for a ,bruce or a ,humboldt1--yet they have with great satisfaction and alacrity awarded the value of the medal in money2 and it is devoutly to be hoped that ,mr ,l4 may be spared to continue the exploration which he has thus auspiciously begun4 ,p4 ,s4 ,letter from the ,rev4 ,david ,livingston1 addressed to the ,rev4 ,arthur ,tidman1 ,foreign ,secretary1 ,london ,missionary ,society4 ,banks of the ,river ,zonga1 #crd ,september #ahdi4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,i left my station1 ,kolobeng 7situated #be ,south lat41 #bf ,east long471 on the #ast of ,june last1 in order to carry into effect the intention1 of which ,i had previously informed you1 viz4 to open a new field in the ,north1 by penetrating the great obstacle to our progress1 called the ,desert1 which1 stretching away on our ,west1 ,north-,west1 and ,north1 has hitherto presented an insurmountable barrier to ,europeans4 ,a large party of ,griquas1 in about thirty waggons1 made many and persevering efforts at two different points last year2 but1 though inured to the climate1 and stimulated by the prospect of much gain from the ivory they expected to procure1 want of water compelled them to retreat4 ,two gentlemen1 to whom ,i had communicated my intention of proceeding to the oft-reported lake beyond the desert1 came from ,england for the express purpose of being present at the discovery1 and to their liberal and zealous co-operation we are especially indebted for the success with which that and other objects have been accomplished4 ,while waiting for their arrival1 seven men came to me from the ,batavana1 a tribe living on the banks of the lake1 with an earnest request from their chief for a visit4 ,but the path by which they had come to ,kolobeng was impracticable for waggons2 so1 declining their guidance ,i selected the more circuitous route1 by which the ,bermangueato usually pass1 and1 having ,bakwains for guides1 their self-interest in our success was secured by my promising to carry any ivory they might procure for their chiefs in my waggon2 and right faithfully they performed their task4 ,when ,sekhomi1 the ,bermangueato chief1 became aware of our intentions to pass into the regions beyond him1 with true native inhumanity he sent men before us to drive away all the bushmen and ,bakalihari from our route1 in order that1 being deprived of their assistance in the search for water1 we might1 like the ,griquas above mentioned1 be compelled to return4 ,this measure deprived me of the opportunity of holding the intercourse with these poor outcasts ,i might otherwise have enjoyed4 ,but through the good providence of ,god1 after travelling about #cjj miles from ,kolobeng1 we struck on a magnificent river on the #dth of ,july1 and without further difficulty1 in so far as water was concerned1 by winding along its banks nearly #cjj miles more1 we reached the ,batavana1 on the lake ,ngami1 by the beginning of ,august4 ,previous to leaving this beautiful river on my return home1 and commencing our route across the desert1 ,i feel anxious to furnish you with the impressions produced on my mind by it and its inhabitants1 the ,bakoba or ,bayeiye4 ,they are a totally distinct race from the ,bechuanas4 ,they call themselves ,bayeiye 7or men71 while the term ,bakoba 7the name has somewhat of the meaning of slaves17 is applied to them by the ,bechuanas4 ,their complexion is darker than that of the ,bechuanas2 and1 of #cjj words ,i collected of their language1 only #ba bear any resemblance to ,sitchuana4 ,they paddle along the rivers and lake in canoes hollowed out of the trunks of single trees2 take fish in nets made of a weed which abounds on the banks2 and kill hippopotami with harpoons attached to ropes4 ,we greatly admired the frank1 manly bearing of these inland sailors4 ,many of them spoke ,sitchuana fluently1 and1 while the waggon went along the bank1 ,i greatly enjoyed following the windings of the river in one of their primitive craft1 and visiting their little villages among the reed4 ,the banks are beautiful beyond any we had ever seen1 except perhaps some parts of the ,clyde4 ,they are covered1 in general1 with gigantic trees1 some of them bearing fruit1 and quite new4 ,two of the ,baobab variety measured #gj to #gf feet in circumference4 ,the higher we ascended the river1 the broader it became1 until we often saw more than #ajj yards of clear deep water between the broad belt of reed which grows in the shallower parts4 ,the water was clear as crystal1 and as we approached the point of junction with other large rivers reported to exist in the ,north1 it was quite soft and cold4 ,the fact that the ,zonga is connected with large rivers coming from the north awakens emotions in my mind1 which make the discovery of the lake dwindle out of sight4 ,it opens the prospect of a highway1 capable of being quickly traversed by boats1 to a large section of well-peopled territory4 ,one remarkable feature in this river is its periodical rise and fall4 ,it has risen nearly three feet in height since our arrival1 and this is the dry season4 ,that the rise is not caused by rains is evident from the water being so pure4 ,its purity and softness increased as we ascended towards its junction with the ,tamunakle1 from which1 although connected with the lake1 it derives the present increased supply4 ,the sharpness of the air caused an amazing keenness of appetite1 at an elevation of little more than #bjjj feet above the level of the sea 7water boiled at #bjg thermometer71 and the reports of the ,bayeiye1 that the waters came from a mountainous region1 suggested the conclusion that the increase of the water1 at the beginning and middle of the dry season1 must be derived from melting snow4 ,all the rivers reported1 to the north of this1 have ,bayeiye upon them1 and there are other tribes on their banks4 ,to one of these1 after visiting the ,batavana1 and taking a peep at the broad part of the lake1 we directed our course2 but the ,batavana chief managed to obstruct us1 by keeping all the ,bayeiye near the ford on the opposite bank of the ,zonga4 ,african chiefs invariably dislike to see strangers passing them to tribes beyond4 ,sebitoane1--the chief who in former years saved the life of ,sechele our chief1--lives about ten days north-east of the ,batavana4 ,the latter sent a present as a token of gratitude4 ,this would have been a good introduction2 the knowledge of the language1 however1 is the best we can have4 ,i endeavoured to construct a raft1 at a part which was only fifty or sixty yards wide1 but the wood1 though sun-dried1 was so heavy it sunk immediately2 another kind would not bear my weight1 although a considerable portion of my person was under water4 ,i could easily have swam across1 and fain would have done it2 but1 landing without clothes1 and then demanding of the ,bakoba the loan of a boat1 would scarcely be the thing for a messenger of peace1 even though no alligator met me in the passage4 ,these and other thoughts were revolving in my mind as ,i stood in the water1--for most sorely do ,i dislike to be beaten1--when my kind and generous friend ,mr ,oswell1 with whom alone the visit to ,sebitoane was to be made1 offered to bring up a boat at his own expense from the ,cape1 which1 after visiting the chief1 and coming round the north end of the lake1 will become missionary property4 ,to him and our other companion ,mr ,murray1 ,i feel greatly indebted1--for the chief expense of the journey has been borne by them4 ,they could not have reached this point without my assistance2 but1 for the aid they have rendered in opening up this field1 ,i feel greatly indebted2 and1 should any public notice be taken of this journey1 ,i shall feel obliged to the directors if they express my thankfulness4 ,the ,bayeiye or ,bakoba listened to the statements made from the ,divine ,word with great attention1 and1 if ,i am not mistaken1 seemed to understand the message of mercy delivered better than any people to whom ,i have preached for the first time4 ,they have invariably a great many charms in the villages2 stated the name of ,god in their language 7without the least hesitation7 to be ,oreeja2 mentioned the name of the first man and woman1 and some traditionary statements respecting the flood4 ,i shall not1 however1 take these for certain1 till ,i have more knowledge of their language4 ,they are found dwelling among the reed all round the lake1 and on the banks of all the rivers to the north4 ,with the periodical flow of the rivers great shoals of fish descend4 ,the people could give no reason for the rise of the water1 further than that a chief1 who lives in a part of the country in the north1 called ,mazzekiva1 kills a man annually and throws his body into the stream1 after which the water begins to flow4 ,the sketch which ,i enclose is intended to convey an idea of the river ,zonga and the lake ,ngami4 ,the name of the latter is pronounced as if written with the ,spanish 1 the g being inserted to shew that the ringing sound is required4 ,the meaning is ,great ,water4 ,the latitude1 taken by a ,sextant on which ,i can fully depend1 was #bj #bj south1 at the north-east extremity1 where it is joined by the ,zonga2 longitude about #bd east4 ,we do not1 however1 know it with certainty4 ,we left our waggon near the ,batavana town1 and rode on horseback about six miles beyond it to the broad part4 ,it gradually widens out into a ,firth about #ae miles across1 as you go south from the town1 and in the south-south-west presents a large horizon of water4 ,it is reported to be about #gj miles in length1 bends round to the north-west1 and there receives another river similar to the ,zonga4 ,the ,zonga runs to the north-east4 ,the thorns were so thickly planted near the upper part of this river1 that we left all our waggons standing about #ahj miles from the lake1 except that of ,mr ,oswell1 in which we travelled the remaining distance2 but for this precaution our oxen would have been unable to return4 ,i am now standing at a tribe of ,bakurutse1 and shall in a day or two re-enter the desert4 ,the breadth marked is intended to show the difference between the size of the ,zonga1 after its junction with the ,tamunakle and before it4 ,the farther it runs east1 the narrower it becomes4 ,the course is shewn by the arrow-heads4 ,the rivers not seen1 but reported by the natives1 are put down in dotted lines4 ,the dotted lines running north of the river and lake1 shew the probable course of the ,tamunakle1 and another river which falls into the lake at its north-west extremity4 ,the arrow-heads shew also the direction of its flow4 ,at the part marked by the name of the ,chief ,mosing it is not more than #ej or #fj yards in breadth1 while at #bj #g it is more than #ajj1 and very deep4 ,the principal disease reported to prevail at certain seasons appears1 from the account of the symptoms the natives give1 to be pneumonia and not fever4 ,when the wind rises to an ordinary breeze1 such immense clouds of dust arise from the numerous dried-out lakes called salt-pans1 that the whole atmosphere becomes quite yellow1 and one cannot distinguish objects more than two miles off4 ,it causes irritation in the eyes1 and1 as wind prevails almost constantly at certain seasons1 this impalpable powder may act as it does among the grinders in ,sheffield4 ,we observed cough among them1 a complaint almost unknown at ,kolobeng4 ,musquitoes swarm in summer1 and the ,banyan and ,palmyra give in some parts an ,indian cast to the scenery4 7,signed7 ,,david ,,livingston4 ,a ,brief ,sketch of the ,geology of the ,west ,indies1 from ,dr ,,davy',s ,lectures on the ,study of ,chemistry1 drawn up chiefly from the ,author's own ,observations4#hh ,communicated for the ,philosophical ,journal4 ,footnote #hh3 ,lectures on the ,study of ,chemistry1 in connection with the ,atmosphere1 the ,earth and the ,ocean1 and ,discourses on ,agriculture1 with ,introductions on the present ,state of the ,west ,indies1 and on the ,agricultural ,societies of ,barbados4 ,by ,,john ,,davy1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,london1 ,longmans4 #ahej4 ,in the preceding lecture1 ,i brought under your notice the antagonist and compensating1 or correcting influences of animal life in preserving the uniformity of composition of the atmosphere4 ,in the earth we witness influences of the like kind1 as it were opposed to each other1 and producing opposite effects4 ,water1 in its operation1 aided by air1 may be considered as destructive1 wearing away rocks and mountains1 and carrying their comminuted parts to lower levels1 and even into the sea1 to be buried in its depths4 ,fire may be considered as restorative2 acting below the surface1 it melts and also consolidates1 according to its degree of intensity1 tending to reproduce crystalline rocks in one instance1 and stratified in the other4 ,even when it appears most eminently to act according to our ordinary notions of its operation as a devastating and destroying agent1 for example1 in the eruption of a volcano1 the ashes which are discharged into the atmosphere1 and are widely scattered by the winds1 even when they fall on the adjoining countries1 may help to supply the place of the old surface-materials1 carried away by streams and floods1 and to renovate the soil with new elements of fertility4 ,and acting in another form and manner1 the same power which occasions volcanic eruptions appears to be productive of another effect1 viz41 the gradual elevation of the bed of the sea1 tending to the formation of new land1 of which we seem to have examples in the extension of certain coasts1 and the appearance of rocks and dry land above the waves1 preceded by a gradual diminution of the water over the spots where these remarkable phenomena occur4 ,of most of the geological changes alluded to in the preceding remarks1 the ,west ,indies afford well marked instances4 ,from the continent of ,america are to be seen vast rivers flowing into the sea1 turbid with the detritus of the country through which they have descended in a course of thousands of miles1 and discolouring and freshening the waters with which they mix at an extraordinary distance from land4 ,between their mouths on the coasts and their rapids in the boundary hills of the interior1 immense level1 or almost level tracts occur1--marsh1 morass1 and sandbank1 neither land nor water1 covered chiefly with aquatic plants1--tracts formed by deposits from the great rivers1 and commonly of materials somewhat coarser and heavier than those which are longer suspended and are carried out into the sea in consequence of their greater fineness4 ,in many of the islands not only are there rocks to be seen evidently of volcanic origin--columnar basalt1 trachyte1 and many varieties of tufa1 but also craters from whence eruptions have taken place1 and in which the fires are hardly yet extinct that once acted1 as is indicated by the hot steams and exhalations still proceeding from them4 ,moreover1 in some of these islands1 rocks of volcanic origin1 crystalline in their structure1 and totally destitute of organic remains1 are associated with others of a perfectly different character1 stratified and abounding in organic remains1--various species of sea shells and of coral2 and it is worthy of notice1 that1 in one of the instances in which the appearance is best observed1 viz41 at ,brimstone ,hill1 in ,st ,christopher's1 the volcanic rock1 flanked by the stratified rock1 and the latter--an aggregate of shells1 coral1 and calcareous marl1 has its strata highly inclined1 tilted up as it were by the former4 ,other islands1 or parts of islands1 occur1 in which there are only partial volcanic traces1 and these not so much of volcanic action and disturbance on the spot1 as of materials1 such as ashes1 thrown up by volcanoes1 and those distant ones4 ,the island ,barbados is an example4 ,composed in great parts of a calcareous aggregate1 in which organic remains abound1 it has very much the character1 in its peculiar features1 of having been raised from the bed of the ocean 7where it is certain it was formed71 by some mighty force1 slowly acting1 and which1 it is probable1 is acting still4 ,nor is there wanting in these seas instances of islands1 in which almost every variety of formation is exemplified4 ,barbados1 in its smaller portion--the ,scotland district1 exhibits some interesting varieties1 such as beds of chalk abounding in the remains of microscopic animalcules1 strata of sandstone1 some siliceous1 some calcareous2 the one without organic remains1 containing1 however1 deposits of coal and bitumen2 the other--the latter having included in them organic remains1 and of a kind to connect them with the calcareous rock of which the larger portion of the island is formed1 for instance1 the spines of echini and the teeth of squali4 ,the larger islands1 ,trinidad and ,jamaica1 ,port ,rico1 and ,cuba1 yield examples1 still more in point4 ,in ,trinidad ,i am not aware that any volcano1 or crater of one1 has been discovered1 or any rocks evidently volcanic in their origin2 but from the imperfectly crystalline rocks1 destitute of organic remains and distinct stratification1 to clays and marls1 to mud eruptions or volcanoes as these are sometimes called1 through limestones and sandstones stratified1 and containing organic remains1 a tolerably well-marked series may be traced4 ,in the adjoining and smaller island ,tobago some of the same series are observable1 but in a broken manner1 not a little interesting and instructive4 ,there1 highly crystalline rocks1 destitute of organic remains1 are in juxtaposition with others abounding in these remains2 coral rock is even found resting on granite2 and in another situation the latter rock is contiguous to mica slate1 in which quartz in mass is not of rare occurrence4 ,on the ,differences between ,progressive1 ,embryonic1 and ,prophetic ,types in the ,succession of ,organized ,beings through the whole ,range of ,geological ,times4 ,it was a great improvement in our zoological investigations when the differences in their relations1 according to the various degrees of affinity or analogy which exist between animals1 were pointed out1 and successively better understood4 ,in earlier times1 zoologists made no distinction between the different relations which existed among animals4 ,affinity and analogy1 so dissimilar in their essential characters1 were constantly mistaken one for the other2 and upon the peculiarities which struck the observer most at first sight1 animals were brought together1 sometimes upon the ground of true affinity1 sometimes1 also1 upon the ground of close analogy2 and though comparative anatomy did put the mistakes arising from such confusion right1 by showing that external appearances were sometimes deceptive1 and that a more intimate knowledge of internal structure was necessary fully to understand the real relations between animals1 there remained1 nevertheless1 a degree of uncertainty in many cases1 as long as the principles of affinities and of analogies were not fully distinguished4 ,every naturalist now knows that true relationship--affinity--depends upon a unity in structure1 however diversified the forms may be under which their fundamental structure is displayed4 ,for instance1 the affinity of whales and the other mammalia was not understood before it was shown that1 under the form of fishes1 these animals had truly the same structure as the highest vertebrata4 ,again1 the forms of cetacea exemplify the analogy there is between whales and fishes4 ,they are related to mammalia2 they are analogous to fishes2 they bear close affinity to the mammals which nurse their young with milk2 they have rather close analogy to the gill-breathing fishes4 ,since the fossil animals which have existed during former periods upon the surface of our globe1 and which have successively peopled the ocean and the dry land1 have been more carefully studied than they were at the beginning of these investigations2 since they are no longer considered as mere curiosities1 but as the earlier representatives of an order of things which has been gradually and successively developed throughout the history of our globe1 facts have been brought to light which now require a very careful examination1 and will lead to a more complete understanding of the various relations which exist between these extinct types and those which still continue to live in our days4 ,upon close comparison of these facts1 ,i have been led to distinguish two sorts of relations between the extinct animals1 and those of our days1 which seem to me to have been either overlooked or not sufficiently distinguished4 ,indeed1 the general results derived from ,palontological investigations1 seem scarcely to have gone beyond showing that the animals of former ages are specifically and frequently also generically distinct from those of the present creation2 and also to establish certain graduation between them1 agreeing more or less with the degree of perfection which we recognise between the living animals according to their structure4 ,it is now pretty generally understood that fishes1 which rank lowest among the ,vertebrata1 have existed alone during the oldest periods2 that the reptiles which1 in the gradation of structure1 rank next above them1 have followed at a later period2 that still later the birds1 which1 according to their anatomy1 rank above reptiles1 have next made their appearance2 and that mammalia1 which stand highest1 have been introduced last1 and even among these the lower families seem to have been more numerous1 before the higher ones prevailed over them4 ,man1 at last1 has been created1 only after all other types had acquired their full development4 ,these facts which1 in such generality are fully exemplified in every country in the order of succession of the different fossil characteristics of the various geological deposits1 shew plainly that a gradation really exists in this succession1 and constitutes one of the most prominent characters of the development of the animal kingdom as a whole4 ,if we investigate1 however1 this gradation1 and the order of succession of animals more closely1 we cannot but be struck with the different relations which exist between the fossils and the living animals4 ,many extinct types have been pointed out as characteristic of different geological periods1 which combine1 as it were1 peculiarities which at present are found separately in different families of animals4 ,i may mention as such1 the ,ichthyosaur1 with their fish-like vertebr1 their dolphin or porpoise-like general form1 and several special characters reminding us of their close relation to the ,crocodilian reptiles2 thus combining characters of different classes in the most extraordinary manner4 ,again1 the ,pterodactyli1 in which reptilian characters are combined with peculiarities reminding us both of birds and bats4 ,again1 the large carnivorous fishes of the coal period1 combining peculiarities of the ,saurians1 with true fish characters2 and so on4 ,these relations are of an entirely different kind from those which ,i have pointed out between some of the older fossils and the early stage of growth of the living representatives of the same families4 ,for instance1 the fossil fishes with a heterocercal tail1 found below the new red sandstone1 down to the lowest deposits1 reminds us of the peculiar termination of the vertebral column in all fish embryos of species living in the present period1 to whatever family they may belong1 indicating a similarity of structure in the oldest representative of this class1 with the earliest condition of the germs of those animals in our days4 ,let us now examine whether we can properly understand the bearings of these relations1 and the meaning of such differences4 ,in the first place1 ,i have mentioned the gradual progress1 which is observed in the succession of the different classes of ,vertebrata4 ,this progress is exemplified by a series of types which differ from each other1 but which shew1 when arranged in a series1 a gradation which agrees in general with the structural gradation1 which we may establish upon anatomical evidence4 ,for instance1 the salamanders1 with their various forms1 rank below the tailless ,batrachians4 ,and where we have a succession of those animals in the tertiary deposits as they occur in various parts of ,europe1 we may fairly say that the fossils form1 in their succession1 a series of progressive types4 ,another example may perhaps illustrate the point more fully4 ,the orthocera of the oldest periods precede the curved lituites1 which1 in their turn1 are followed by the circumvolute nautilus4 ,here1 again1 we have a natural gradation of a series of progressive types4 ,again1 among crinoids1 we find1 in the older deposits1 a variety of species resting upon a stem1 while free crinoids begin to appear only during the secondary deposit and prevail1 in the present creation1 over those attached to the soil4 ,here1 again1 we have a series of progressive types developed successively1 which are apparently independent of each other and seem to bear no other relation to each than that arising from the general character of the group to which they belong4 ,such types exemplify simply in the groups to which they belong1 a real progress in the successive development of the peculiarities which characterise them as natural divisions among animals4 ,such forms ,i shall call ,progressive ,types4 ,the relations1 however1 which are exemplified in the oldest fishes1 in the ichthyosaurians1 in the pterodactyls or in the megalosaurians1 seem to me to be clearly of a different character1 and to differ from simple progressive types1 inasmuch as those which appear earlier1 combine peculiarities which1 at a later period1 appear separately in distinct forms4 ,for instance1 the reptilian characters which we recognise in the sauroid fishes1 are developed at a later period in animals no longer belonging to the class of fishes1 but constituting by themselves new types1 provided with additional peculiarities which separate them fully from the fishes in general1 as well as from those fishes in which we recognise some relation to reptiles during a period when no reptile existed4 ,again1 the ichthyosaurians1 though true reptiles appearing long after fishes had been called into existence1 and during an early period of the history of the reptiles1 still shew their relation to fishes by the character of their vertebral column1 and foreshadow1 as it were1 in their form1 the cetacea of later ages1 as well as many forms of the gigantic saurians of the secondary period4 ,the same may be said of the pterodactyls1 which are also true reptiles1 but1 in which the anterior extremity foreshadow peculiarities characteristic of birds and bats4 ,such types ,i shall call ,prophetic ,types4 ,to an analytic mind the examination of the peculiarities of such animals may foretell a higher progress of development1 carried out in real existence1 only during a later period1 even if he had never seen the later ones2 for in such types the germs of a future development may be recognised1 and upon close examination1 truly referred to the peculiarities of other higher groups1 even if the intermediate links remained unknown1 which1 however1 as the matter now stands1 can leave no doubt in our mind that these prophetic types really foreshadowed that diversity of forms which has been created since they have gone by4 ,we may also say that these prophetic types lay before us the course of thoughts which has been carried out in the plan of creation by the ,supreme intelligence1 who called them into existence in rich order of succession1 and in so diversified relations4 ,the recognition of this prophetic character of certain types of extinct animals is not only important in a philosophical point of view2 ,i have no doubt it will ultimately and rapidly lead to a better1 fuller1 higher1 and deeper understanding of the various relations which exist between animals4 ,let me at once point to some of these relations which might never have been understood but for this appreciation4 ,among ,crinoids1 we have not only progressive types1 as ,i have already quoted1 but we have also prophetic ones4 ,the ,cystid are truly prophetic of the ,echini proper4 ,i may only mention the genus ,echinocrinus to shew the link4 ,the ,pentremites1 again1 are the prophetic type foreshadowing the star-fishes4 ,and often in subordinate groups we may find such close relations between genera of the same minor divisions2 such1 for instance1 as the genus ,encrinus1 in which the genera ,apiocrinus and ,pentacrinus1 are simultaneously foreshadowed4 ,perhaps1 in this case1 a distinction might be introduced between truly prophetic types and synthetic types1 in which the characters of later groups are rather more combined than really foreshadowed4 ,as for the relation between older types and the embryos of the living representatives of the same families which are so extensively observed in almost all groups of the animal kingdom1 which have existed during earlier periods1 it may best be expressed if we call those fossils which exemplify1 in full grown animals1 forms which exist at present only in the earliest stages of growth of our living animals1 ,embryonic ,types1 in counterdistinction from the progressive types1 and from the prophetic types4 ,these embryonic types may be purely such1 or they may be at the same time either progressive types1 or even prophetic types4 ,i shall call purely embryonic types those in which we recognise peculiarities characteristic of the embryo of the same family4 ,for instance1 the older ,sauroids1 which have the upper lobe of the tail prolonged1 or the common ,crinoids provided with a stem1 which resemble the young ,comatul1 c41 c4 ,i shall distinguish1 as progressive embryonic types1 those in which we recognise simultaneously a relation to the embryo of the same family1 when they form besides a link in the natural chain of progressive development4 ,such1 for instance1 as the oldest ,salamanders1 or the earliest ,sirenoid ,pachyderm4 ,finally1 ,i shall call prophetic embryonic types those in which we have embryonic characters1 combined with the peculiarities which stamp the type as a prophetic one1 such1 for instance1 as the ,echinoid and ,asteroid ,crinoids of the former ages4 ,the fact that these different types may thus present complications of their character1 or appear more or less pure and typical1 goes further to shew how deeply diversified the plan of creation is1 and how many relations should be simultaneously understood before we are prepared to have a full insight into the plan of creation4 ,there we see one type forming simply1 and alone1 the first link of a progressive series4 ,there we see another which foreshadows types1 which appear isolate afterwards4 ,there we see a third1 which1 in its full development1 exemplifies a state which is transient only in higher representatives of the same family4 ,and then1 again1 we see these different relations running into each other1 and reminding us that1 however difficult it may be for us to see at one glance all this diversity of relations1 there is1 notwithstanding1 an intelligence which not only conceived these various combinations1 but called them into real existence in a long succession of ages4--,l4 ,agassiz in the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,august #ahdi4 ,on a new ,analogy in the ,periods of ,rotation of the ,primary ,planets discovered by ,daniel ,kirkwood of ,pottsville1 ,pennsylvania4 ,at the recent meeting of the ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 an announcement was made1 which1 if it is found to be correct1 will be regarded as relating to one of the most important discoveries which have been made in astronomy for years4 ,it is no less than a new law of the solar system1 closely resembling those of ,kepler1 which form the groundwork of many of the problems of astronomy4 ,mr ,s4 ,c4 ,walker read to the ,association a letter from ,mr ,daniel ,kirkwood1 of ,pottsville1 ,pa41 the discoverer of this new law1 from which we make some extracts1 omitting all that refers to the higher branches of mathematics4 ,while we have in the law of ,kepler a bond of mutual relationship between the planets1 as regards their revolutions around the sun1 it is remarkable that no law regulating their rotations on their axes has ever been discovered4 ,for several years ,i have had little doubt of the existence of such a law in nature1 and have been engaged1 as circumstances would permit1 in attempting its development4 ,i have at length arrived at results1 which1 if they do not justify me in announcing the solution of this important and interesting problem1 must at least be regarded as astonishing coincidences4 ,after stating some equations1 he gives the following tables as the data on which he has proceeded3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mean dist4 ,square ,no4 of rotations ,planet's from the sun ,mars4 root of in one sid4 name4 in miles4 ,mars4 period4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mercury1 #cf1had1jjj #bgg1jjj #ebfc #hgfc ,venus1 #fh1ghg1jjj #b1dfc1hcf #aefif #bcjij ,earth1 #ie1ajc1jjj #b1hag1dji #afghe #cffbe ,mars1 #add1ijh1jjj #cib1gce #fbfg #ffifj ,jupiter1 #did1gig1jjj #iec1egj1bbb #cjhgih #ajdgajj ,saturn1 #ijg1afb1jjj #bhd1gch1jjj #afhgda #bdfbjjj ,uranus1 #a1hbd1bij1jjj #ce1ahf1jjj #eicae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,from these data he deduces the following law3--,the square of the number of a primary planet's days in its year1 is as the cube of the diameter of its sphere of attraction in the nebular hypothesis4 ,the points of equal attraction between the planets severally 7when in conjunction71 are situated as follows3-- ,miles from the ,miles from the former4 latter4 ,between ,mercury and ,venus1 #h1jbi1fjj #bc1idc1djj ,venus and the ,earth1 #ab1gaf1fjj #ac1eii1djj ,earth and ,mars1 #cf1bfd1fjj #ac1edj1djj ,jupiter and ,saturn1 #bff1fee1jjj #ade1gaj1jjj ,saturn and ,uranus1 #fgh1eij1jjj #bch1ech1jjj ,it will be seen from the above1 that the diameter of the earth's sphere of attraction is #di1hfd1jjj miles4 ,hence the diameters of the respective spheres of attraction of the other planets1 according to my empirical law1 will be found to be as follows3-- ,diameter of sphere of ,attraction4 ,mercury1 #ai1bch1jjj ,venus1 #cf1ffj1jjj ,mars1 #gd1efj1jjj ,jupiter1 #dff1bjj1jjj ,saturn1 #hbd1cjj1jjj ,the volumes of the sphere of attraction of ,venus1 ,mars1 and ,saturn in this table1 correspond with those obtained from the preceding one2 that of ,mars extending #fa1jjj1jjj miles beyond his orbit1 or to the distance of #bjf1jjj1jjj miles from the sun4 ,this is about #b1jjj1jjj or #c1jjj1jjj miles less than the mean distance of ,flora1 the nearest discovered asteroid4 ,that of ,mercury extends about #aa1jjj1jjj miles within the orbit2 consequently1 if there be an undiscovered planet interior to ,mercury1 its distance from the ,sun1 according to my hypothesis1 must be less than #bf1jjj1jjj miles4 ,jupiter's sphere of attraction extends only about #bjj1jjj1jjj of miles within his orbit1 and leaving #hi1jjj1jjj miles for the asteroids4 ,it is only in the most distant portion of this space1 where small bodies would be likely to be detected1 that none have yet been discovered4 ,mr ,kirkwood then modestly concludes3-- ,the foregoing is submitted to your inspection with much diffidence4 ,an author1 you know1 can hardly be expected to form a proper estimate of his own performance4 ,when it is considered1 however1 that my formula involves the distances1 masses1 annual revolutions1 and axial rotations of all the primary planets in the system1 ,i must confess ,i find it difficult to resist the conclusion1 that the law is founded in nature4 ,after this letter had been read1 ,mr ,walker said1 that1 induced by the importance of the subject1 he had at once proceeded to verify the data and conclusions of ,mr ,kirkwood1 and had found that there was nothing in them requiring modification1 except1 perhaps1 the substitution of some more recent values for the masses of ,mercury and ,uranus4 ,this theory and that of ,laplace1 with reference to nebul1 mutually strengthen each other2 although the latter has been a mere supposition1 while the former rests upon a mathematical basis4 ,in a later letter1 which was also read1 ,mr ,kirkwood says that he has pursued this subject for the last ten years1 it having been first suggested to him by the nebular hypothesis1 which he thought could be established by some law of rotation4 ,mr ,walker then entered into a lengthened examination of the data on which the law rests1 and seemed to come to the conclusion1 that1 as far as we know at present1 everything is in favour of the truth of the law1 except that it requires the assumption of another planet between ,jupiter and ,mars4 ,mr ,walker closed his examination by saying1 ,we may1 therefore1 conclude1 that1 whether ,kirkwood's analogy is or is not the expression of a physical law1 it is1 at least1 that of a physical fact in the mechanism of the universe4 ,the quantity on which the analogy is based has such immediate dependence upon the nebular hypothesis1 that it lends strength to the latter1 and gives new plausibility to the presumption that this1 also1 is a fact in the past history of the solar system4 ,such1 then1 is the present state of the question4 ,thirty-six elements of nine planets 7four being hypothetical7 appear to harmonize with ,kirkwood's analogy in all the four fundamental equations of condition for each planet4 ,to suppose that so many independent variable quantities should harmonize together by accident1 is a more strained construction of the premises than the frank admission that they follow a law of nature4 ,if1 in the course of time1 the hypotheses of ,laplace and ,kirkwood should be found to be the laws of nature1 they will throw new light on the internal organization of the planets in their present1 and in any more primitive1 state through which they may have passed4 ,for instance1 we may compute the distance from the centre at which any planet must have received its projectile force1 in order to produce1 at the same time1 its double movement of translation and rotation4 ,if the planet1 in a more primitive state1 existed in the form of a ring revolving round the ,sun1 having its present orbit for that of the centre of gravity of the ring1 the momentum of rotation must1 by virtue of the principle of conservation of movement1 have existed in some form in the ring4 ,it is easy to perceive that this momentum is precisely the amount which must be distributed among the particles of the ring1 in order to preserve to all the condition of dynamical equilibrium1 while those of each generating surface of the ring were wheeling round with the same angular velocity4 ,if the planets have really passed from the shape of a revolving ring to their present state1 the prevalence of ,kirkwood's analogy shews a nice adaptation of parts in every stage of the transition4 ,if the primitive quantity of coloric 7free and latent7 had undergone a very great change beyond that now indicated in the cooling of their crusts2 if the primitive quantity of movement of rotation had been different from its actual value for any planet2 if the law of elasticity of particles for a given temperature and distance from each other varied from one planet to another in the primitive or present state2 in either of these cases1 the analogy of ,kirkwood might have failed4 ,as it is1 no such failure is noticed2 we are authorised1 therefore1 to conclude1 that the primitive quantity of coloric1 the law of elasticity1 the quantity of movement of rotation1 the past and present radii of percussion1 the primitive diameter of the generating surface of the rings1 and the present dimensions and density of the planets1 have been regulated by a general law1 which has fulfilled for all of them the four fundamental conditions of ,kirkwood's hypothesis4 ,we may extend the nebular hypothesis and ,kirkwood's analogy to the secondary system4 ,if they are laws of nature1 they must apply to both4 ,in the secondary systems1 the day and month are the same4 ,this fact has remained hitherto unexplained4 ,lagrange shewed that if these values were once nearly equal1 a libration sets in round a state of perfect equality2 but he offered no conjecture as to the cause of the primitive equality4 ,on the nebular and ,kirkwood's hypothesis1 it would only be necessary that1 upon the breaking up of the ring1 the primitive diameter of the generating figure and law of relative density of layers should be preserved4 ,professor ,peirce1 whose opinions will probably be regarded as of more value on such a subject than that of any other man in this country1--especially since his successful discussion with ,leverrier1--remarked1 that ,kirkwood's analogy was the only discovery of the kind since ,kepler's time that approached near to the character of his three physical laws4 ,bode's law1 so called1 was at best only an imperfect analogy4 ,kirkwood's analogy was more comprehensive1 and more in harmony with the known elements of the system4 ,the diameter of the sphere of attraction1 a fundamental element in this analogy1 now for the first time gave an appearance of reality to ,laplace's nebular hypothesis which it never had before4 ,the positive testimony in its favour would now outweigh the former negative evidence in the case1 however strong it may have been4 ,it follows at least from ,kirkwood's analogy1 that the planets were dependent upon each other1 and therefore connected in their origin1 whatever may have been the form of the connection1 whether that of the nebular hypothesis1 or some other not yet imagined4 ,at a later period of the meeting1 ,m4 ,b4 ,a4 ,gould junior1 stated that he had gone through the necessary calculations1 using different quantities1 and had come to the same conclusions as ,mr ,walker4 ,he expressed his opinion1 that at some future day the world will speak of ,kepler and ,kirkwood as the discoverers of great planetary laws4 ,the members generally expressed the opinion1 that ,laplace's nebular hypothesis1 from its furnishing one of the elements of ,kirkwood's law1 may now be regarded as an established fact in the past history of the solar system4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cce4 ,,note4--,such1 at least1 is rather a representation of ,american opinions than of our own4 ,we are inclined to compare it more with ,bode's law than with ,kepler's4 ,the former is a mere arithmetical accident1 applying indifferently well to a portion only of the planets1 and having nothing of reason to advance for its establishment4 ,the latter are essential parts of mechanics and gravitation1 and precisely and perfectly1 and necessarily true1 not only in every part of the solar system1 but through the whole universe4 ,the fact of axial rotations being the groundwork of ,kirkwood's analogy seems fatal to it1 for gravitation takes no more account of the time of rotation of a planet than it does of specific gravity2 all calculations of the movement of the body in space are equally independent of the one and the other4 ,under these circumstances1 the degree of accuracy with which it may be found to apply is the only saving clause4 ,messrs ,walker and ,gould investigating the subject independently1 and with better constants of mass and distance than ,kirkwood had been able to procure1 declare that it appears perfectly6 ,we are sorry that the late hour at which we have received this paper has prevented us either from giving it in full1 or from testing the theory rigidly4 ,it will be observed that1 according to ,kirkwood's theory1 in order to compute the time of axial rotations of any planet1 it is necessary to have its mass and mean distance1 together with the same quantities for the planets on either side of it4 ,now1 these quantities are only obtainable for ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,saturn1 and ,uranus 7a planet being lost between ,mars and ,jupiter72 and the rotation of ,uranus not having been obtained as yet1 there remains only the three first by which the theory can be tested4 ,in a preliminary calculation which we have instituted1 we do not find the results so accordant as we had been led to expect1 but still sufficiently so to give a certain probability of the approach to truth1 in a case where the quantity had not been observed4 ,viewed in this light1 some very interesting results are obtained4 #ast1 ,the idea entertained by ,bianchini and other observers1 that the rotation of ,venus is nearly #bd times as long as hitherto supposed1 is utterly untenable4 #b;d1 ,the time of rotation of ,uranus1 a quantity never yet observed 7but doubtless capable of being observed by a telescope of ,lord ,rosse's calibre1 removed to a table-land in a tropical country7 is given2 and appears so very different from any other yet observed1 especially so from those of its neighbours ,saturn and ,jupiter1 being #acifggi1 earth's #jiigbgj 7sidereal rotation in mean solar days47 #c;d1 ,knowing the rotations of ,jupiter and ,mars1 we may supply1 by using the analogy conversely1 the diameters of their spheres of attraction1 and thus get at the elements of the lost planet between ,mars and ,jupiter1 and these appear to be3--mean distance #bijheaaa 7earth unity71 mass in terms of ,sun #a_/acecbdj1 sidereal rotation in earth's mean solar days #bdjfajd1 and diameter of sphere of attraction #jhcjiea1 in terms of earth's distance4 ,the size is thus a little larger than ,mars4 ,the slowness of rotation is remarkable1 especially in the case of a planet which is supposed since to have burst into pieces3 the ,americans have called it ,kirkwood4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,scientific ,,intelligence4 ,,meteorology4 #a4 ,use of ,coloured ,glasses to assist the ,view in ,fogs4--,m4 ,lavini of ,turin1 in a letter to the editor of ,l',institut at ,paris1 makes the following curious observation1 which1 if confirmed1 may prove to be of great importance3--,when there is a fog between two corresponding stations1 so that the one station can with difficulty be seen from the other1 if the observer passes a coloured glass between his eye and the eye-piece of his telescope1 the effect of the fog is very sensibly diminished1 so that frequently the signals from the other station can be very plainly perceived2 when1 without the coloured glass1 even the station itself is invisible4 ,the different colours do not all produce this effect in the same degree1 the red seeming to be the best4 ,those who have good sight prefer the dark-red1 while those who are short-sighted like the light-red better4 ,the explanation of this effect seems to depend upon the fact1 that the white colour of the fog strikes too powerfully upon the organ of sight1 especially if the glass have a somewhat large field4 ,but by the insertion of the coloured glass1 the intensity of the light is much diminished by the interception of a part of the rays1 and the observer's eye is less wearied1 and1 consequently1 distinguishes better the outlines of the object observed4 #b4 ,ozone4--,chemists are not yet fully agreed concerning the nature or production of this singular substance1 ozone4 ,to ,schonbein and ,williamson we are indebted for most of our knowledge concerning it4 ,the latter has supposed it to be a compound of oxygen and hydrogen1 from the fact1 that1 when the ozone completely freed from moisture was passed over ignited copper1 water was produced4 ,de la ,rive produced it by passing a current of electricity through pure dry oxygen gas contained in a receiver4 ,it is also obtained in large quantities by passing oxygen gas over moistened phosphorous1 and afterwards drying it4 ,thus prepared1 it is a powerful chemical agent1 possesses bleaching properties1 oxidises the metals with rapidity1 and destroys ,india-rubber4 ,the hydrogen acids of sulphur are decomposed by it1 water being formed by uniting with the hydrogen of the acid1 and sulphur being set free4 ,professor ,horsford has observed that ozone1 subjected to a heat of #acj ,fah41 entirely loses its properties4 ,ozone1 like chlorine1 precipitates iodine1 colouring a solution of iodide of potassium1 and starch a deep blue colour4 ,the peculiar smell1 prevalent in the vicinity of objects struck by lightning1 as well as that occasioned by the excitation of an electrical machine1 and by the striking of two pieces of silica together1 it is believed to be occasioned by ozone4--,editors4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bai4 ,method of ,determining the ,amount of ,ozone in the ,atmosphere4--,at the meeting of the ,american ,association1 an instrument for determining the relative quantity of ozone in the air was presented by ,professor ,horsford4 ,it consisted of a tube1 containing at one end a plug of asbestus1 moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium and starch4 ,this plug within the tube1 attached to an aspirator1 would1 as air passed over it1 become blue4 ,if much water flowed from the aspirator1 and of course much air flowed over the asbestus before it became blue1 the quantity of ozone indicated would be small4 ,if but little water flowed 7and this could be measured71 the quantity of ozone indicated would be greater4 ,the quantities of ozone would be inversely as the volumes of air passing through the tube before blueness is produced4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bai4 ,,hydrography4 #c4 ,on the ,phenomena of the ,rise and ,fall of the ,waters of the ,northern ,lakes of ,america4--,at a meeting of the ,american ,academy1 ,february #ahdi1 ,mr ,foster1 of the ,united ,states ,mineral ,survey in the ,north-west ,territory1 presented the result of some observations1 undertaken with a view of determining whether the waters of the northern lakes are subject to any movements corresponding to tidal action4 ,the result of these observations had convinced him that these waters do not rise and fall at stated periods1 corresponding to the ebb and flow of the tide1 but are subject to extraordinary risings1 which are independent of the influence of the sun and moon4 ,these risings attracted the attention of the earliest voyageurs in these regions4 ,charlevoix1 who traversed the lakes nearly a century ago1 says1 in reference to ,lake ,ontario3--,i observed that in this lake there is a sort of reflux and flux almost instantaneous2 the rocks near the banks being covered with water1 and uncovered again several times in the space of a quarter of an hour1 even if the surface of the lake was very calm1 with scarce a breath of air4 ,after reflecting some time on this appearance1 ,i imagined it was owing to springs at the bottom of the lake1 and to the shock of their currents with those of the rivers which fall into them from all sides1 and thus produce those intermitting motions4 ,the same movements were noticed by ,mackenzie in #aghi2 by an expedition under ,colonel ,bradstreet in #agfd2 on ,lake ,erie in #ahbc1 and at various later periods4 ,in the summer of #ahcd1 an extraordinary retrocession of the waters of ,lake ,superior took place at the outlet of ,sault ,st ,marie4 ,the river at this place is nearly a mile wide1 and in the distance of a mile falls #ahe feet4 ,the phenomena occurred about noon4 ,the day was calm1 but cloudy4 ,the water retired suddenly1 leaving the bed of the river bare1 except for a distance of thirty rods1 and remained so for nearly an hour4 ,persons went out and caught fish in pools formed in the depressions of the rocks4 ,the return of the waters is represented as having been very grand4 ,they came down like an immense surge1 and so sudden was it1 that those engaged in catching fish had barely time to escape being overwhelmed4 ,in the summer of #ahdg1 on one occasion the water rose and fell at intervals of about fifteen minutes during an entire afternoon4 ,the variation was from twelve to twenty inches1 the day being calm and clear2 but the barometer was falling4 ,before the expiration of forty-eight hours1 a violent gale set in4 ,at ,copper harbour1 the ebb and flow of the water through narrow inlets and estuaries has been repeatedly noticed when there was not a breath of wind on the lake4 ,similar phenomena occur on several of the ,swiss lakes4 ,professor ,mather1 who observed the barometer at ,copper harbour during one of these fluctuations1 remarks3--,as a general thing1 fluctuations in the barometer accompanied fluctuations in the level of the water2 but sometimes the water-level varied rapidly in the harbour1 while no such variations occurred in the barometer at the place of observation4 ,as a general rule1 these variations in the water-level indicate the approach of a storm1 or a disturbed state of the atmosphere4 ,the barometer is not sufficiently sensitive to indicate the sudden elevations and depressions1 recurring1 as they often do1 at intervals of ten or twelve minutes2 and the result of observations at such time may1 in some degree1 be regarded as negative4 ,besides1 it may not unfrequently happen1 that1 while effects are witnessed at the place of observation1 the cause which produced them may be so far removed as not to influence the barometer4 ,we are1 therefore1 led to infer that these phenomena result1 not from the prevalence of the winds acting on the water1 accumulating it at one point and depressing it at others1 but from sudden and local changes in the pressure of the atmosphere1 giving rise to a series of barometric waves4 ,the water1 conforming to the laws which govern two fluids thus relatively situated1 would accumulate where the pressure was the least1 and be displaced where it was the greatest4 ,it has been remarked by ,de la ,beche1 that a sudden impulse given to the particles of water1 either by a suddenly increased or diminished pressure1 would cause a perpendicular rise or fall1 in the manner of a wave1 beyond the height or depth strictly due to the mere weight itself4 ,the difference in the specific gravity of the water of the lakes and the ocean may cause these changes to be more marked in the former than in the latter4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bde4 #d4 ,water ,thermometer4--,lieut4 ,maury states that he has been very much assisted in developing his theory of winds and currents by means of the thermometer used by some vessels for determining the temperature of the water4 ,it was by means of these observations on the temperature of the water that he was enabled to prove that1 off the shores of ,south ,america1 between the parallels of #ce and #dj south1 there is a region of the ocean in which the temperature is as high as that of our own ,gulf stream1 while in the middle of the ocean1 and between the same parallels1 the temperature of the water is not so great by #bb4 ,now1 this very region is noted for its gales1 being the most stormy that the as yet incomplete charts of the ,south ,atlantic indicate4 ,lieut4 ,maury says1 however1 that very few navigators make use of the water thermometer1 so that he has experienced some inconvenience in his undertaking4 ,he is the more surprised at this1 from the fact that ,new ,york owes much of her commercial importance to a discovery that was made by this thermometer4 ,at the time when ,dr ,franklin discovered the ,gulf ,stream1 ,charleston had more foreign trade than ,new ,york and all the ,new ,england ,states together4 ,charleston was then the half-way house between ,new and ,old ,england4 ,when a vessel1 in attempting to enter the ,delaware or ,sandy ,hook1 met a north-west gale or snow storm1 as at certain seasons she is apt to do1 instead of running off for a few hours into the ,gulf ,stream to thaw and get warm1 as she now does1 she used to put off for ,charleston or the ,west ,indies1 and there remained till the return of spring before making another attempt4 ,a beautiful instance this of the importance and bearings of a single fact1 elicited by science from the works of nature4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #afj4 #e4 ,on the ,falls of ,niagara4--,if we follow the chasm cut by the ,niagara river1 down to ,lake ,ontario1 we have a succession of strata coming to the surface of various character and formation4 ,these strata dip south-west or towards the ,falls1 so that1 in their progress to their present position1 the ,falls have had a bed of very various consistency4 ,some of these strata1 as the shales and medina sandstone1 are very soft1 and1 when they formed the edge of the ,fall1 it probably had the character of rapids2 but1 wherever it comes to an edge of hard rock1 with softer rock-beds below1 the softer beds1 crumbling away1 leave a shelf projecting above1 and then the fall is perpendicular4 ,such is the case at present2 the hard ,niagara limestone overhangs in tables the soft shales underneath1 which at last are worn away to such an extent as to undermine the superincumbent rocks4 ,such was also the case at ,queenston1 where the ,clinton group formed the edge1 with the medina sandstone below4 ,this process has continued from the time when the ,niagara fell directly into ,lake ,ontario to the present time1 and will continue so long as there are soft beds underneath hard ones2 but1 from the inclination of the strata1 this will not always be the case4 ,a time will come when the rock below will also be hard4 ,then1 probably1 the ,falls will be nearly stationary1 and may lose much of their beauty from the wearing away of the edge rendering it an inclined plane4 ,i do not think the waters of ,lake ,erie will ever fall into ,lake ,ontario without any intermediate cascade4 ,the ,niagara shales are so extensive that possibly1 at some future time1 the river below the cascade may be enlarged into a lake1 and thus the force of the falling water diminished2 but the whole process is so slow1 that no accurate calculations can be made4 ,the ,falls were probably larger1 and stationary for a longer time at the ,whirlpool than anywhere else4 ,at that point there was no division of the cataract1 but at the ,devil's ,hole there are indications of a lateral fall1 probably similar to what is now called the ,american ,fall4 ,at the ,whirlpool1 the rocks are still united beneath the water1 shewing that they were once continuous above its surface also4#hi--;,agassiz on ,lake ,superior1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #hi3 ,the data on which these and the previous remarks on the geology of the ,falls are founded1 are derived from ,professor ,james ,hall's investigations in the ,new ,york ,state ,survey4 ,a4 #f4 ,on the ,existence of ,manganese in ,water4--,at a meeting of the ,american ,academy1 in ,january #ahdi1 ,dr ,charles ,t4 ,jackson stated that he had discovered the presence of manganese in the water of streams1 lakes1 c41 almost universally4 ,he detected it in water from the middle of ,lake ,superior1 in ,cochituate water1 and in water from various sources4 ,it has usually been regarded as iron in previous analyses4 ,he considered the observation as having an important bearing in accounting for the deposits of bog manganese at the outlets of ponds1 lakes1 and in bogs1 as well as for the source of the oxide of manganese in the blood4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bjb4 ,on the ,presence of ,organic ,matter in ,water4--,the following facts relative to the presence of organic matter in water were presented to the ,british ,association1 by ,professor ,forchhammer1 as the result of extended observations on the water1 near ,copenhagen4 #ast1 ,the quantity of organic matter in water is greatest in summer4 #b;d1 ,it disappears1 for the most part1 as soon as the water freezes4 #c;d1 ,its quantity is diminished by rain4 #dth1 ,its quantity is diminished if the water has to run a long way in open channels4 ,the hypermanganate of potash or soda is recommended by the ,professor as a most excellent test for the presence of organic matter in water4 #g4 ,arsenic in ,chalybeate ,springs4--,since the discovery of arsenic in the deposits from certain chalybeate springs1 it has been asked whether the poisonous properties of this substance are not neutralized by the state in which it is found4 ,m4 ,lassaigne has finished a series of experiments connected with this subject1 for the purpose of ascertaining the proportion of arsenic contained1 in what state of combination it exists1 and the nature of the action which these arseniferous deposits exert in the animal economy4 ,the following are ,m4 ,lassaigne's conclusions3--#a4 ,in the natural deposits of the mineral waters of ,wattviller1 arsenic exists to the amount of #bh per cent4 #b4 ,a portion of these deposits1 representing #agf grains of arsenic acid1 or #aad grains of arsenic1 produced no effect upon the health of a dog4 #c4 ,this non-action shews that the poisonous property of the arsenic is destroyed by its combination with the peroxide of iron1 and thus confirms what has been before asserted1 that peroxide of iron1 by combining with arsenious and arsenic acid1 destroys their poisonous properties1 and consequently becomes an antidote for them4 ,,geology4 #h4 ,the ,coal ,formation of ,america4--,the coal regions of ,america are1 from the explorations which have thus far been made1 supposed to be divided into three principal masses2 the great central tract1 extending from ,tuscaloosa1 ,alabama1 to the west of ,pennsylvania1 and being apparently continued to ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia2 the second tract strikes north-westward from ,kentucky1 crosses the ,ohio1 and stretches through ,illinois to the ,mississippi ,river2 a third region1 smaller than the others1 lies between the three great lakes--,erie1 ,huron1 and ,michigan4 ,competent geologists affirm that1 from a comparison of the coal strata of contiguous basins1 these are no more than detached parts of a once continuous deposit4 ,the extent of this enormous coal field is1 in length1 from north-east to south-west1 more than #gbj miles1 and its greatest breadth about #ahj miles2 its area1 upon a moderate calculation1 amounts to #fc1jjj square miles6 ,in addition to these1 there are several detached tracts of anthracite in ,eastern ,pennsylvania1 which form some of the most remarkable coal tracts in the world4 ,they occupy an area of about #bjj square miles4 ,the strata which constitute this vast deposit comprehend nearly all the known varieties of coal1 from the dryest and most compact anthracite to the most fusible and combustible common coal4 ,one of the most remarkable features of these coal-seams is their prodigious bulk4 ,the great bed of ,pittsburgh1 extending nearly the entire length of the ,monongahela ,river1 has been traced through a great elliptic area1 of nearly #bbe miles in its longest diameter1 and of the maximum breadth of about #ajj miles1 the superficial extent being #ad1jjj square miles1 the thickness of the bed diminishing gradually from #ab or #ad feet to #b feet4 ,in #ahdg the anthracite coal regions of ,pennsylvania furnished #c1jjj1jjj tons1 and #aa1dci vessels cleared from ,philadelphia in that year1 loaded with the article4 ,the produce in #ahdh and the present year1 is of course larger4 ,the bituminous coal area of the ,united ,states is #acc1acb square miles1 or one #agth part of the whole4 ,the bituminous coal area of ,british ,america is #ah1jjj square miles1 or one #deth part2 ,great ,britain1 #haci square miles2 ,spain1 #cdjh square miles1 or one #eb;d part2 ,france1 #agai square miles1 or one #aahth part2 and ,belgium1 #eah square miles1 or one #abb;d part4 ,the area of the ,pennsylvania anthracite coal formations is put down at #dcg square miles2 and that of ,great ,britain and ,ireland anthracite and culm1 at #cgbj square miles4 ,the anthracite coal of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 however1 is not nearly so valuable an article of fuel as the anthracite coal of ,pennsylvania1 nor does a given area yield so much as the latter4--,new ,york ,express4 ,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bga4 #i4 ,river ,terraces of the ,connecticut ,valley4--,at the meeting of the ,american ,association in ,august1 ,president ,hitchcock of ,amherst ,college1 read a paper ,on the ,river ,terraces of the ,connecticut ,valley1 and on the ,erosions of the ,earth's ,surface4 ,he stated that his paper must be considered as containing a few facts and suggestions and not a finished theory4 ,he has examined the valley from its mouth to ,turner's ,falls1 and carefully measured the heights of the terraces4 ,as you approach the river you find plains of sand1 gravel1 or loam1 terminated by a slope sometimes as steep as #ce1 and a second plain1 then another slope and another plain1 and so on1 sometimes to a great number4 ,i find that these terraces occur in successive basins1 formed by the approaches of the mountains upon the banks at intervals4 ,sometimes the basin will be #ae or #bj miles in width1 but usually much narrower2 and it is upon the margins of these basins that the terraces are formed4 ,i have rarely found terraces more than #bjj feet above the river1 which would be in ,massachusetts1 about #cjj feet above the ocean1 and at ,hanover1 ,n4,h41 about #efj feet4 ,nowhere do they exist along any river1 unless that river has basins4 ,as to the materials of which they are formed they appear exceedingly artificial4 ,the outer or highest terrace is generally composed of coarser materials than the inner ones4 ,they are all composed of materials which are worn from the rocks1 but the outer terrace oftener is full of pebbles1 some of them as large as #ab inches1 while the materials of the inner seem reduced to an impalpable powder1 like the soil of a meadow which is overflowed during high water4 ,whence did these materials originate8 ,the materials were first worn from solid rocks1 and afterwards brought into these valleys4 ,the outer terrace appears to have been often in part the result of the drift agency4 ,afterwards1 the river agency sorted the materials1 and gave them a level surface1 the successive basins having at that time barriers4 ,the inner terrace appears to have been1 at least in its upper part1 the result of deposition from the river itself4 ,i will now mention a few facts which ,i have observed4 ,the terraces do not generally agree in height upon the opposite sides of the valley4 ,the higher ones oftener agree1 perhaps1 than the lower ones4 ,if formed1 as ,i suppose1 from the rivers1 we should expect this4 ,the terraces slope downwards in the direction of the stream4 ,the same terrace which1 near ,south ,hadley1 is #aij feet above the river1 slopes until1 at ,east ,hartford1 it is only #dj feet above the river1 thus sloping #aej feet more than the slope of the river itself1 in a distance of #dj or #ej miles4 ,this shows that they could not have been formed by the sea or by a lake1 for they would then have been horizontal4 ,the greatest number of terraces observed is eight or nine4 ,generally there are but two or three4 ,president ,hitchcock then gives his view of the precise mode in which these terraces were formed1 illustrating them by references to other parts of our country1 and concludes by a notice of the erosions of the earth's surface4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 #ahej1 p4 #bbi4 ,,zoology4 #aj4 ,fossil ,crinoids of the ,united ,states4--,at the meeting of the ,american ,association1 #ahdi1 a paper on the fossil crinoids of ,tennessee1 by ,professor ,troost1 was read by ,professor ,agassiz4#ij ,the species embraced are not less than eighty-eight in number1 of which only half a dozen have been described4 ,it is the opinion of ,professor ,hall that all the silurian formations of ,new ,york1 previous to the beginning of the geological survey1 did not afford more than four or five4 ,now1 about sixty species have been ascertained4 ,professor ,hall mentioned the fact1 that all the crinoids of the lower silurian rocks1 with the exception of one species1 have five pelvic plates1 and we never find one with three1 or any other number of these plates1 before we reach the highest deposits4 ,in ,tennessee1 the crinoids are so abundant1 that ,professor ,troost states that he had been able to collect some #cjj or #djj good specimens of seven or eight different species in a single morning4 ,in relation to the abundance of these fossils in the ,united ,states1 ,professor ,agassiz remarked1 that it is not1 perhaps1 sufficiently appreciated of what importance1 and of what immense value the study of these fossil crinoids may be for the progress of palontology4 ,american students should be proud of these materials1 by which they will be able to throw so much light upon these almost extinct families by their personal investigations1 which will not only render them independent of the palontologist from abroad for information with regard to the succession of types1 and the full illustration of these structures1 but really afford correct standards for comparison4 ,it is the more desirable that all these fossils should be made known1 as the family of crinoids is so reduced in our days that we can form no idea of the living animals of that group1 of their diversity of form1 modification of character1 and peculiarity of position1 from the living type only4 ,he doubted whether the number of crinoid heads of all species found in ,europe1 now existing in the ,museums of ,europe1 is one-third the number of those which have been found by a single gentleman in ,tennessee in one morning4 ,now1 with such materials1 consider what precise and what minute investigations could be made4 ,and if these facts could be once fully ascertained and well illustrated1 there is no doubt that the series of crinoids1 and their succession in former ages1 will be established from ,american standards1 and will no longer rest upon the ,european evidence1 which has often been derived from the examination of small fragments of those ancient fossils1 found in unconnected basins for the most part1 so that their geological succession could be ascertained only with great doubt and difficulty4 ,in conclusion1 ,professor ,agassiz would venture to say1 that geologists who have had any opportunity to compare the position of the ancient rocks on this continent of ,north ,america with the corresponding deposits of ,europe1 would agree with him in saying that the geology proper1 the stratography of ,north ,america1 will afford the same precise and well authenticated standards for the appreciation of the order of succession of rocks1 as fossils will for the order of succession of living beings4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bhb4 ,footnote #ij3 ,these fossiliferous remains were discovered in the carbonaceous and silurian strata of the ,state1 and shew a wonderful development of that form of animal on the shores during the palozoic period4 ,thirty-one genera1 sixteen of which are considered by ,professor ,troost as new1 are enumerated4 #aa4 ,discovery of ,coral ,animals on the ,coast of ,massachusetts4--,professor ,agassiz1 while on an expedition in one of the vessels of the coast survey during the past summer1 obtained by means of a dredge1 from a depth of seventy-two feet1 in the ,vineyard ,sound off ,gay ,head1 several specimens of a coral with its animals4 ,by great care and attention they were preserved alive in glass jars for more than six weeks1 and afforded an excellent opportunity for an examination and observation of their structure and habits4 ,these corals belong to the genus ,astrangia1 and have been named by ,professor ,agassiz1 in honour of ,professor ,dana1 geologist of the exploring expedition1 ,astrangia ,dana4 ,this species presents two varieties4 ,some are of a pink or rose colour1 others are white4 ,the general form of the animal is a cylinder 7as of all ,polypi7 resting on its base1 and expanded on the upper margin2 thus expanded it is about two lines in diameter4 ,the number of tentacles is definite1 but it is not always the same absolute number4 ,it never exceeds twenty-four2 in earlier periods of life there are only twelve1 and there is even an epoch when there are only six4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a matter of surprise that the coral animal should have been found in this latitude4 ,they teem in the warm latitudes2 but there are very few species in the more temperate regions1 and but for the opportunity afforded by the coast survey1 the existence of these animals could not have been suspected on these shores4 ,for many years1 however1 dead fragments had been found along the shores2 but whether they lived there naturally or not had not been ascertained4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #caa4 #ab4 ,on the ,circulation and ,digestion of the ,lower ,animals4--,professor ,agassiz states1 that the circulation of the invertebrata cannot be compared to that of the vertebrata4 ,instead of the three conditions of chyme1 chyle1 and blood1 which the circulating fluid of the vertebrata undergoes1 the blood of that class of the invertebrata which he had particularly studied1 the annelida or worms1 is simple coloured chyle4 ,the receptacles of chyle in different parts of the body are true lymphatic hearts1 like those found in the vertebrata2 this kind of circulation is found in the articulata and mollusks1 with few exceptions1 and in some of the echinoderms4 ,in the medus and polyps1 instead of chyle1 chyme mixed with water is circulated2 this circulation is found in some mollusks and intestinal worms4 ,professor ,agassiz thinks1 that the embryological development of the higher animals shews a similar succession in the circulating function4 ,as regards the connection between respiration and circulation in vertebrata1 the gills are found between branches of the blood system2 in invertebrata1 the chyliferous system is acted on by the respiration4 ,the gills of fishes1 therefore1 cannot be compared to the gills of crustacea1 articulata1 and mollusks4 ,in fact1 no gills are connected with the chymiferous circulation4 ,animals having this circulation1 have no true respiration4 ,they have only tubes to distribute freshly arated water to different parts of the body4--,proc4 ,bost4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc4 #ac4 ,distribution of the ,testaceous ,mollusca of ,jamaica4--,the great number of species is remarkable4 ,a few miles of coast1 without the aid of storms1 and without dredging1 yielded #dej species4 ,in the small bay of ,port ,royal1 #cej marine species were found4 ,a pint of sand1 taken from a surface three yards long1 contained #aaj species4 ,probably there are #cej or #djj specimens of land shells1 and two or three times as many of marine species4 ,extensive districts occur1 however1 which are nearly destitute of land or marine shells4 ,they are accumulated in favourable stations4 ,the difference in the extent of the distribution of the marine and of the terrestrial species is remarkable4 ,a majority of the marine species are known to occur in the other islands2 probably not more than #aj or #ae per cent4 of them will be found to be peculiar to ,jamaica4 ,but of the land shells1 #ie per cent4 are peculiar to the island4 ,the limited distribution of the terrestrial species is remarkable4 ,a few are generally distributed1 but a large number are limited to districts of a few miles in diameter2 and several1 although occurring abundantly1 could be found only within the space of a few rods4 ,only seventeen fresh-water species were found4 ,favourable stations for fresh-water species are rare4 ,in respect of the number of individuals of mollusca in ,jamaica1 as compared with more northern latitudes1 the rule so obvious in the class of fishes is not applicable to the same extent4 ,of fishes1 the species are much more numerous1 but individuals much less so4 ,of the mollusca1 the total number of individuals is about the same as in this latitude1 and the number of species represented by a profusion of individuals is about the same4 ,but the number of species not occurring abundantly is much greater1 so that the average of individuals to all the species is less than in this latitude4 ,from a comparison of the laws of distribution of the marine and terrestrial species in the ,antilles1 it follows that the number of the latter must exceed that of the former4 ,with the insular distribution of the terrestrial species may be associated the fact1 that the coral reefs are all fringing1 for both facts are connected with the geological fact1 that these islands are in a process of elevation4--,professor ,,adams before the ,american ,association4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #ccd4 #ad4 ,metamorphoses of the ,lepidoptera4--,professor ,agassiz said that he had1 during the past season1 been studying the metamorphoses of the ,lepidoptera1 and1 to his great surprise1 he had found that one stage in the transformation of these insects has been overlooked by naturalists4 ,we knew the ,lepidoptera in three conditions1--that of the worm1 furnished with jaws and jointed1 the chrysalis1 and the perfect insect with four wings4 ,the change not before described1 which he had noticed1 is somewhat concealed under the skin of the caterpillar4 ,the animal at a certain period swells at the thoracic region1 and becomes extremely sensitive to the touch in this part1 the skin being1 in fact1 in a state of inflammation4 ,on cutting open the skin at this place1 ,professor ,agassiz found beneath it a four-winged insect1 before it had passed into the chrysalis state4 ,the wings were long enough to extend half the length of the perfect insect4 ,the posterior pair he found to be membraneous bags1 somewhat flattened1 like the respiratory vesicles of marine worms1 with distinct ribs1 which are blood-vessels4 ,the anterior pair are also bags1 with their upper half stiff and inflexible1 like the elytra of coleoptera4 ,the legs are tubular1 but not joined1 as in the perfect insect4 ,the jaws are changed into two long tubes1 which are bent backwards1 as are also the antenn4 ,in the chrysalis1 the wings are flattened and soldered together1 as are the legs and sucking-tubes1 which are bent backwards4 ,the order of development of the different parts and the coleopterous condition at an incomplete stage1 show that naturalists have been in error in placing chewing insects1 as the coleoptera1 above the sucking insects4 ,the order should be reversed4 ,professor ,agassiz said that he had confirmed his observations in many specimens1 by examining them just at the moment when the skin begins to split on the back4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cbg4 #ae4 ,on the ,zoological ,character of ,young ,mammalia4--,at the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,promotion of ,science1 ,professor ,agassiz remarked1 that zoologists have1 in their investigations1 constantly neglected one side of their subject1 which1 when properly considered1 will throw a great amount of new light on their investigations4 ,studying animals1 in general1 it has been the habit to investigate them in their full grown condition1 and scarcely ever to look back for their characters in earlier periods of life4 ,we scarcely ever find1 in a book of natural history1 a hint as to the difference which exists in the young and old4 ,perhaps in birds1 the colour of the young may be noticed2 and it is generally known1 that the young resemble the female more than the male2 but as to precise investigation of the subject1 we are deficient4 ,but if the early stages of life have been neglected1 there is one period in the history of animals which has been thoroughly investigated1 for the last twenty-five years1--embryology4 ,the changes which take place within the egg itself1 and which give rise to the new individual1 have been thoroughly examined2 but1 after the formation of the new being1 the changes in its form which it passes through1 up to its full grown condition1 have been neglected4 ,it had been his object to investigate this subject1 because he had been struck with the deficiency there is on this point in our works2 and in making this investigation1 he had found that the young animals1 in almost all classes1 differ widely from what they are in their full-grown condition4 ,for instance1 a young bat1 a young bird1 or a young snake1 at a certain period of their growth within the egg1 resemble each other so much1 that he would defy the most able zoologist of our day to distinguish between a robin and a bat1 or between a robin and a snake4 ,there is something of high significance in this fact4 ,there is something common to all these4 ,there is a thought behind these material phenomena1 which shews that they are all combined under one rule1 and that they only come under different laws of development1 to assume1 finally1 different shapes1 according to the object for which they were introduced4 ,there is a period of life1 in which1 whatever may be the final form of their organs of locomotion1 whatever may be the final difference between the anterior and posterior extremities1 vertebrated animals have uniform legs1 in the shape of little paddles or fins4 ,this is the case with lizards as well as birds4 ,a robin's wing and a robin's leg1 which are so different from a bat's wing and a bat's leg1 do not essentially differ when young from the leg and arm of a bat4 ,wherever we observe combined fingers preserving this condition1 we have a decided indication that such animals rank lower in the group to which they belong4 ,this is all-important1 as we are enabled at once to group animals which are otherwise allied1 in a natural series1 as soon as we know whether they have combined or divided fingers4 ,and the degree of division to which the legs rise in their development is a safe guide in our classification4 ,look1 for instance1 at the legs of dogs and cats1 in which the fingers are completely separated1 and so elongated1 that the animals walk naturally upon tip-toe1 and compare them with others1 bears1 for instance1 which walk upon the whole sole of the foot2 and1 again1 with those of seals or bats1 which remain united1 and constitute either fins or a wing4 ,there are other reasons sufficient to convince us that the order of arrangement which he had assigned them1 according the development of the fingers1 is justified by the state of development of the other organs of the mammalia1 and especially of their higher organs and intellectual faculties and instincts4 ,and ,i will also add1 says ,professor ,agassiz1 that mankind are not excluded from this connection1 but1 in common with other vertebrata1 we are all at one stage of existence provided with paddles or fins1 which are afterwards developed into legs and arms4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cbd4 #af4 ,the ,manatus or ,sea ,cow1 the ,embryonic ,type of the ,pachydermata8--,professor ,agassiz thinks that the ,manati have been improperly considered cetaceans3 they differ from them in the form of the skull1 which is elongated1 and in the position of the nostrils1 which are in front4 ,on the other hand1 the skull resembles that of the elephant in front 7particularly when seen from above71 in some of the details of the facial bones1 which are not like those of the cetacea1 in the palatine bones1 the arrangement of the teeth1 and in the curve of the lower jaw4 ,professor ,agassiz1 believed this to be the true embryonic type of the ,pachydermata4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cac4 #ag4 ,fossil ,elephant and ,mastodon from ,africa4--,m4 ,gervais communicated to the ,french ,academy1 on ,march #abth1 that he had just received from ,algiers1 a drawing of the molar tooth of a fossil elephant1 whose genus is very easily recognised1 and which indicates a species more resembling those found in a fossil state in ,europe1 than the present ,african elephant4 ,this tooth was found at ,cherchell1 in the province of ,oran4 ,sicily has hitherto been the southernmost point on the ,mediterranean where the fossil elephant has been found4 ,at the same time1 he also mentioned the discovery1 near ,constantine1 of some fossil remains of mastodons4 ,though fossil remains of this animal have been previously found in all the other portions of the world1 these are the first discovered in ,africa4 ,the remains found are a tooth and a rib1 and1 as far as can be judged from a drawing1 they belonged to an animal more resembling the mastodon brevirostris1 or the arvernensis1 than the mastodon angustodens4--,american ,journal of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #bhg4 #ah4 ,cauterization in the case of ,poisonous ,bites4--,in the ,comptes ,rendus for ,january #hth1 we find an article by ,m4 ,parchappe1 containing the result of his observations on the question1 whether the spread of poison produced by a bite can be prevented by cauterizing4 ,he was induced to examine into this subject1 because ,m4 ,renard had stated that cauterization was found to have no effect when applied even within five minutes after the bite in the cure of one sort of virus1 and within one hour in that of another4 ,these results1 he was aware1 though derived from experiments upon animals1 would weaken the confidence of physicians and patients in the only mode that medicine possesses of preventing the bad effect of a bite from any poisonous animal1 where1 as is generally the case1 some considerable time must elapse before the remedy can be applied4 ,m4 ,parchappe1 accordingly1 made several experiments upon dogs1 with an extract of nux vomica1 all of which go to confirm him in ascribing to cauterization1 a power even greater than that commonly allowed it4--,from these experiments it results1 that the immediate amputation or destruction in the living portion with which the extract of nux vomica has come in contact1 has the power of preventing the bad effects of the poison1 even when it has been in contact for some time4 ,the author is aware1 that there is considerable difference between the virus of animals1 and the substance used by him1 with reference to their direct and remote effects1 but thinks that every one must admit that there is a great analogy between them1 is of the opinion1 that in both cases the poison remains in the bitten part for a considerable time before it is transmitted to the rest of the body1 and that cauterizing should be adopted in all cases where a poisonous bite is even suspected4 #ai4 ,dental ,parasites4--,at a meeting of the ,american ,academy1 ,december #ahdi1 a paper was read by ,dr ,h4 ,j4 ,bowditch1 on the animal and vegetable parasites infesting the teeth1 with the effects of different agents in causing their removal and destruction4 ,microscopical examinations had been made of the matter deposited on the teeth and gums of more than forty individuals1 selected from all classes of society1 in every variety of bodily condition1 and in nearly every case animal and vegetable parasites in great numbers had been discovered4 ,of the animal parasites there were three or four species1 and of the vegetable one or two4 ,in fact1 the only persons whose mouths were found to be completely free from them cleansed their teeth four times daily1 using soap once4 ,one or two of these individuals also passed a thread between the teeth to cleanse them more effectually4 ,in all cases the number of the parasites were greater in proportion to the neglect of cleanliness4 ,the effect of the application of various agents was also noticed4 ,tobacco juice and smoke did not impair their vitality in the least4 ,the same was also true of the chlorine tooth-wash1 of pulverized bark1 of soda1 ammonia1 and various other popular detergents4 ,the application of soap1 however1 appeared to destroy them instantly4 ,we may hence infer that this is the best and most proper specific for cleansing the teeth4 ,in all cases where it has been tried1 it receives unqualified commendation4 ,it may also be proper to add1 that none but the purest white soap1 free from all discolorations1 should be used4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cbj4 ,,arts4 #bj4 ,the ,steamboat ,new ,world4--,every year sees some new steamboat constructed1 which surpasses in size1 magnificence1 or speed those previously made4 ,there is no doubt that the mechanics of this country excel those of any other in their inland steamboats1 and it is also probable that in a few years the same can be said of our sea-going steamships1 though it must be allowed that those hitherto produced are1 with few exceptions1 decided failures4 ,during the present year1 the new steamboat ,new ,world has commenced running4 ,she is said to be the longest boat ever put on the stocks in this country1 and the longest afloat in the world4 ,her length is #ccg feet2 extreme width1 #fi feet2 the engine is #gf feet in cylinder1 #ae feet in stroke1 and the wheels of iron1 #df feet in diameter4 ,she draws #d feet of water4 ,the engine is a low pressure one1 and though the boat is so very long she obeys the helm with great readiness4 ,her decorations are all of the most superb and costly character4 ,if we even attain any greater speed either in our inland or sea-going steam-vessels1 it will be principally by enlarging their size4 ,though some improvements will doubtless be made in the engines and in the models of the vessels1 yet the great gain will be by increasing the tonnage1 for the reason that the size1 and consequent room for engines and coal1 increases much faster than does the opposition caused by the water and the air4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #cj4 #ba4 ,use of ,parachutes in ,mines4--,it is well known that vertical ladders for descending into deep mines are very fatiguing1 so that the miners prefer to trust themselves to baskets suspended by ropes1 and in many cases the baskets are the only means provided for descending and ascending4 ,but accidents frequently occur from the breaking of the ropes1 in spite of all the precautions that can be taken to prevent it4 ,the ,brussels ,herald states that some experiments have lately been made on a large scale in ,belgium with a contrivance intended to remedy this evil4 ,the basket or cuffert is so made1 that1 in case the rope breaks1 it immediately springs open1 forming a sort of parachute1 which is held suspended in the air by means of the strong current which1 it is well known1 is always rushing up from mines1 owing to the temperature below being higher than that above4 ,the effect of this apparatus was shown before a numerous company1 several miners entrusting themselves to the basket1 which was so arranged that at a certain point the rope broke2 they were sustained in the air by the open basket1 so that the experiments were entirely satisfactory4 #bb4 ,adulteration of ,drugs4--,at a meeting of the ,new ,york ,academy of ,medicine1 ,june #ahdi1 an elaborate report was presented by ,dr ,m4 ,j4 ,bailey1 on the practical operation of the law prohibiting the importation of adulterated and spurious drugs1 medicines1 c4 ,the report states1 that since the law took effect1 ,july #ahdh1 over #ij1jjj lbs4 of drugs of various kinds have been rejected and condemned in the ports of the ,united ,states4 ,of these1 #cd1jjj lbs4 was included under the comprehensive title of ,peruvian bark1 #af1cdc lbs4 rhubarb root1 #aa1gjg lbs4 jalap root1 about #bjjj lbs4 senna1 and about #ae1jjj lbs4 of other drugs4 ,the agitation of the bill which preceded the passage of the law had its effect abroad1 and the supply of adulterated drugs from foreign markets has greatly decreased4 ,the domestic supply1 has on the contrary increased4 ,within a recent period1 quinine in considerable quantities has been found in the market1 adulterated to the extent of some twenty or twenty-five per cent4 ,these frauds were undoubtedly perpetrated by or among our own people4 ,the material used for the adulteration of the quinine was found1 on analysis1 to be mannite and sulphate of barites1 in nearly equal weights4 ,the latter article has long been used for this purpose1 but not until lately has mannite been detected in the sulphate of quinine4 ,it seems to have been ingeniously substituted for salicine1 and a somewhat similar substance prepared from the poplar bark2 which articles have heretofore been extensively used for like purposes4 ,the ingenuity consists in the fact1 that it is much more difficult to detect the adulterations when effected by the admixture of mannite1 than when by the admixture of salicine1 c41 while the former can be furnished for less than one-fourth of the expense of the latter4 ,for some years past an extensive chemical establishment has been in operation at ,brussels1 in ,belgium1 built up at great expense and care1 and expressly designed for the manufacture1 on a large scale1 of imitations of all the most important foreign chemical preparations used in medicine2 while1 at the same time1 an agent was travelling in this country making sales1 and soliciting orders in all the principal towns on our sea-board4 ,the articles were prepared and put up with consummate skill and neatness2 and the imitation was so perfect that it was impossible for the unsuspecting purchaser to distinguish them from the genuine1 notwithstanding that1 in some instances1 they did not contain over five per cent4 of the substances represented by the label4 ,since the law went into effect at the port of ,new ,york1 not a single package has been presented for entry4 ,dr ,bailey states1 however1 that he has been informed that the persons formerly connected with the ,brussels firm1 are now in this country engaged in the same iniquitous business2 hence the adulterations spoken of4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #ahh4 #bc4 ,to restore ,decayed ,ivory4--,mr ,layard1 in his explorations among the ruins of ,nineveh1 discovered some splendid works of art carved in ivory1 which he forwarded to ,england4 ,when they arrived there1 it was discovered that the ivory was crumbling to pieces very rapidly4 ,professor ,owen was consulted to know if there was any means of preventing the entire loss of these specimens of ancient art1 and he came to the conclusion that the decay was owing to the loss of the albumen in the ivory1 and therefore recommended that the articles be boiled in a solution of albumen4 ,the experiment was tried1 with complete success1 and the ivory has been rendered as firm and solid as when it was first entombed4 #bd4 ,ivory as an ,article of ,manufacture4--,there are several sorts of ivory1 differing from each other in composition1 durability1 external appearance1 and value4 ,the principal sources from which ivory is derived are the western coast of ,africa and ,hindostan3 ,camaroo ivory is considered the best1 on account of its colour and transparency4 ,in some of the best tusks the transparency can be discovered even on the outside4 ,the manufacturers have a process by which they make poor ivory transparent1 but it lasts only for a short time4 ,a third kind of ivory1 called the ,egyptian1 has lately been introduced1 which is considerably lower in price than the ,indian1 but in working there is much waste4 ,by an analysis1 the ,african ivory shows a proportion of animal to earthy matter of #aja to #ajj2 the ,indian1 #gf to #ajj2 and the ,egyptians1 #gj to #ajj4 ,the value of ivory consumed in ,sheffield1 where it is much used in making handles for cutlery1 is very great1 and nearly #ejj persons are employed in working it up4 ,to make up the weight of #ahj tons consumed in that place1 there must be about #de1jjj tusks1 whose average weight is nine pounds each1 though some weigh from #fj to #ajj pounds4 ,according to this1 the number of elephants killed every year is #bb1ejj2 but allowing that some tusks are cast1 and some animals die1 it may be fairly estimated that #ah1jjj are killed every year merely for their ivory1 which is contrary to the usual belief that the ivory used comes from the tusks cast by living elephants4 ,these estimates1 it will be seen1 are for ,sheffield merely4 #be4 ,flexible ,ivory4--,m4 ,charriere1 a manufacturer of surgical instruments in ,paris1 has for some time been in the habit of rendering flexible the ivory which he uses in making tubes1 probes1 and other instruments4 ,he avails himself of a fact which has long been known1 that when bones are subjected to the action of hydrochloric acid1 the phosphate of lime1 which forms one of their component parts1 is extracted1 and thus bones retain their original form and acquire great flexibility4 ,m4 ,charriere1 after giving to the pieces of ivory the required form and polish1 steeps them in acid alone1 or in acid partially diluted with water1 and they thus become supple1 flexible1 elastic1 and of a slightly yellowish colour4 ,in the course of drying1 the ivory becomes hard and inflexible again1 but its flexibility can be at once restored by wetting it either by surrounding it with a piece of wet linen1 or by placing sponge in the cavities of the pieces4 ,some pieces of ivory have been kept in a flexible state in the acidulated water for a week1 and they were neither changed1 nor injured1 nor too much softened1 nor had they acquired any taste or disagreeable smell4 #bf4 ,air-,whistle4--,mr ,c4 ,daboll1 of ,new ,london1 ,connecticut1 has invented a whistle that speaks with a most miraculous organ whenever its services are required for the purpose of alarm or warning4 ,it is designed for the use of vessels at sea or on the coast1 as on our eastern shores1 where dense fogs prevail1 and vessels are liable to come in collision before they are conscious of each other's approach4 ,its great advantage is its power of communicating sounds for a distance of from #d to #e miles1 far exceeding the largest bells4 ,an experimental one has been placed on ,bartlett's ,reef1 and the pilot of the ,lawrence states that he has heard it when about #d miles off from ,bartlett's ,reef1 against the wind1 which was blowing quite fresh at the time4 ,this was on a clear day1 and when the whistle was blown at his request1 and also by advice of the inventor1 so that the distance might be marked4 ,it is probable that1 under the same circumstances1 the tones of a bell could not have been heard more than from one half to three-fourths of a mile4 ,the pilot of the steamer ,knickerbocker reports1 that he made the whistle during a dense fog1 thirteen minutes' running-time of the steamer1 before coming up with the station where it is located4 ,he therefore must have been some four or five miles distant from it when he heard it4 ,this whistle consists of an air chamber or condenser1 of boiler iron sufficiently strong to resist almost any pressure1 an air-pump1 and a whistle similar to the ordinary ones used on locomotives4 ,by means of the air-pump operating into this chamber1 a pressure of air is obtained in it of any required amount1--say one1 two1 or three hundred pounds to the square inch4 ,when the air is so compressed1 it is made to operate the whistle by simply opening a valve1 and gives a distinct clear sound4 ,a memorial has been presented to the ,treasury ,department1 signed by most of the commanders and pilots of the steamboats running through ,long ,island and ,fisher's ,island ,sounds1 setting forth the advantages to be derived to navigation from this whistle1 and urging that it be introduced into the light vessels1 and at all stations where the government intends to afford protection to navigation4--,annual of ,scientific ,discovery1 p4 #gj4 #bg4 ,curious ,electrical ,phenomenon4--,we learn from a letter from a gentleman connected with the ,bay ,state ,mills1 at ,lawrence1 ,massachusetts1 some facts with reference to a new and curious application of electricity which has been introduced in those mills4 ,the electricity is generated by the motion of the machinery1 and is employed for lighting up the gas burners4 ,it exists in large quantities in the card-rooms1 where there are many belts running on iron pulleys1 and1 in the cold dry atmosphere of winter1 often producing serious damage to the quality of the cording4 ,the manner in which it was discovered that this electricity could be applied to lighting up1 is somewhat curious4 ,when the gas was first let into the pipes in the mills1 one of the overseers discovered fire setting out from one of the pipes near a belt1 and on examination it was ascertained that a small stream of gas was escaping4 ,it was surmised that it had been ignited by the electricity1 and to prove it1 an experiment was tried4 ,near a large belt in the carding-room was a gas-burner1 and on a bench between them there was placed a small quantity of wool1 which is a non-conductor of electricity4 ,if a person stood upon this wool1 reaching one hand within two or three inches of the belt1 and touching the gas-burner with one finger of the other1 the escaping gas was at once ignited with an explosion like that of a percussion-cap1--the body of the operator thus being made the medium for conducting the electricity4 ,the writer adds1--,we shall be able to make a great saving of expense in the woollen manufacture1 as soon as we can discover an effective method of conducting the electricity away from the cards1 as we shall then be able to dispense entirely with the use of oil on the wool1 we shall save at least #cj1jjj per annum1 when the mills are in full operation4--,american ,annual of ,scientific ,discovery p4 #aag4 ,list of ,patents granted for ,scotland from #bb;d ,march to #bb;d ,june #ahej4 #a4 ,to ,,james ,,higgins1 of ,salford1 in the county of ,lancaster1 machine maker1 and ,,thomas ,,showfield ,,whitworth1 of ,salford aforesaid1 improvements in machinery for preparing1 spinning1 and doubling cotton1 wool1 flax1 silk1 and similar fibrous materials4--#bb;d ,march #ahej4 #b4 ,to ,,francais ,,vouillon1 of ,princes ,street1 ,hanover ,square1 in the county of ,middlesex1 manufacturer1 improvements in the manufacture of hats1 caps1 bonnets1 and other articles made of the same or similar materials4--#bfth ,march #ahej4 #c4 ,to ,,william ,,edward ,,newton1 of the ,office for ,patents1 #ff ,chancery ,lane1 in the county of ,middlesex1 civil engineer1 improvements in the manufacture of knobs of doors1 articles of furniture1 or other purposes1 and in connecting metallic attachments to articles made of glass1 or other analogous materials4--#bfth ,march #ahej4 #d4 ,to ,,jonathan ,,charles ,,goodall1 of ,great ,college ,street1 ,camden ,town1 in the county of ,middlesex1 card-maker1 improvements in machinery for cutting paper4--#bgth ,march #ahej4 #e4 ,to ,,charles ,,felton ,,hailsman1 of ,argyle ,street1 in the county of ,middlesex1 gentleman1 improvements in machinery for spinning or twisting cotton1 wool1 or other fibrous substances4--#bhth ,march #ahej4 #f4 ,to ,,robert ,,milligan1 of ,harden1 near ,bingley1 in the county of ,york1 manufacturer1 an improvements mode of treating certain floated warp1 or welt1 or both1 for the purpose of producing ornamented fabrics4--#bhth ,march #ahej4 #g4 ,to ,,robert ,,white1 and ,,james ,,henderson ,,grant1 both of ,dalmarnock ,road1 ,glasgow1 ,north ,britain1 engineers1 certain improvements in machinery1 or apparatus to be used in mines1 which improvements1 or parts thereof1 are also applicable to other purposes of a similar nature4--#aath ,april #ahej4 #h4 ,to ,,william ,m',,lardy1 of ,manchester1 gentleman1 certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing and spinning cotton and other fibrous substances4--#aeth ,april #ahej4 #i4 ,to ,,john ,,scoffern1 of ,essex ,street1 in the county of ,middlesex1 ,m4 ,b41 improvements in the manufacture and refining of sugar1 and in the treatment and use of matters obtained in such manufacture1 and in the construction of valves1 and in such and other manufacture4--#agth ,april #ahej4 #aj4 ,to ,,james ,,buck ,,wilson1 of ,st ,helens1 in the county of ,lancaster1 rope-maker1 certain improvements in wire ropes4--#bb;d ,april #ahej4 #aa4 ,to ,,thomas ,,symes ,,prideaux1 of ,southampton1 gentleman1 improvements in puddling1 and other furnaces4--#bfth ,april #ahej4 #ab4 ,to ,,charles ,,cowper1 of ,southampton ,buildings1 ,chancery ,lane1 in the county of ,middlesex1 certain improvements in the treatment of coal1 and in separating coal and other substances from foreign matters1 and in the artificial fuel and coke1 and in the distillation and treatment of tar and other products from coal1 together with improvements in the machinery and apparatus employed for the said purposes1 being a communication4--#bfth ,april #ahej4 #ac4 ,to ,,vidie ,,lucien1 late of ,paris1 in ,france1 but now of ,south ,street1 ,finsbury1 ,french ,advocate1 improvements in conveyances on land and water4--#bfth ,april #ahej4 #ad4 ,to ,,robert ,,dalgleish1 of ,glasgow1 in the county of ,lanark1 in ,scotland1 merchant and calico printer1 certain improvements in printing1 and in the application of colours to silk1 cotton1 linen1 woollen1 and other textile fabrics4--#bgth ,april #ahej4 #ae4 ,to ,,ethian ,,campbell1 of the city of ,new ,york1 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 philosophical1 practical1 and experimental engineer1 certain new and useful improvements for generating and applying motive power1 and for propelling vessels4--#cjth ,april #ahej4 #af4 ,to ,,robert ,,reid1 of ,glasgow1 in the county of ,lanark1 manufacturer1 certain improvements in weaving4--#c;d ,may #ahej4 #ag4 ,to ,,maxwell ,,miller1 of ,glasgow1 in the county of ,lanark1 coppersmith1 certain improvements in distilling and rectifying4--#c;d ,may #ahej4 #ah4 ,to ,,thomas ,,keely1 of the town and county of ,nottingham1 manufacturer1 and ,,william ,,williamson1 of the same place1 frame-work knitter1 certain improvements in looped or elastic fabrics1 and in articles made therefrom2 also certain machinery for producing the said improvements1 which is applicable in whole or in part to the manufacture of looped fabrics generally4--#hth ,may #ahej4 #ai4 ,to ,,peter ,,armand ,,le ,,comte ,,moreau ,,fontaine1 of #d ,south ,street1 ,finsbury ,square1 in the county of ,middlesex1 patent agent1 certain improvements for the production of heat and light1 which improvements are applicable to ventilation1 and the prevention of explosions1 being a communication4--#ith ,may #ahej4 #bj4 ,to ,,ethian ,,baldwin1 of the city of ,philadelphia and ,state of ,pennsylvania1 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 a new and useful method of generating and applying steam in propelling vessels locomotive1 and stationary machinery4--#ith ,may #ahej4 #ba4 ,to ,,jacob ,,cannon1 of ,hyde ,park1 in the county of ,middlesex1 gentleman1 improvements in melting1 moulding1 and casting sand1 earth1 and other substances for paving1 building1 and various other useful purposes4--#bjth ,may #ahej4 #bb4 ,to ,,george ,,jackson1 of ,belfast1 ,ireland1 flax-dresser1 improvements in heckling machinery4--#bdth ,may #ahej4 #bc4 ,to ,,frederick ,,rosenberg1 ,esquire1 of ,albermarle ,street1 in the county of ,middlesex1 and ,,conrad ,,montgomery1 ,esquire1 of the ,army and ,navy ,club1 ,saint ,james's ,square1 in the same county1 improvements in sewing1 cutting1 boring1 and shaping wood4--#bdth ,may #ahej4 #bd4 ,to ,,george ,,ford ,,hayward1 of ,st ,martins ,le ,grand1 in the county of ,middlesex1 improvements in obtaining power1 being a communication4--#bgth ,may #ahej4 #be4 ,to ,,joseph ,,barrans1 of ,st ,pauls1 ,deptford1 in the county of ,kent1 engineer1 improvements in axles and axle-boxes of locomotive engines1 and other railway carriages4--#bgth ,may #ahej4 #bf4 ,to ,,samuel ,,fisher1 of ,birmingham1 in the county of ,warwick1 engineer1 improvements in railway carriage-wheels1 axles1 buffer1 and draw-springs1 and hinges for railway carriage and other doors4--#bhth ,may #ahej4 #bg4 ,to ,,thomas ,,chandler1 of ,stockton1 ,wilts1 improvements in machinery for applying liquid manure4--#bhth ,may #ahej4 #bh4 ,to ,,thomas ,,dickson ,,rotch1 ,esquire1 of ,drumlamford ,house1 in the county of ,ayr1 ,north ,britain1 improvements in separating various matters usually found combined in certain saccharine1 saline1 and ligneous substances4--#bhth ,may #ahej4 #bi4 ,to ,,henry ,,columbus ,,hurry1 of ,manchester1 in the county of ,lancaster1 civil engineer1 certain improvements in the method of lubricating machinery1--#bith ,may #ahej4 #cj4 ,to ,,simon ,,pincoffs1 of ,manchester1 in the county of ,lancaster1 merchant1 certain improvements in the ageing process in printing and dyeing calicoes1 and other woven fabrics1 which improvements are also applicable to other processes in printing and dyeing calicoes and other woven fabrics4--#cjth ,may #ahej4 #ca4 ,to ,,william ,,macalpine1 of ,spring ,vale1 in the county of ,middlesex1 general dresser1 and ,,thomas ,,macalpine1 of the same place1 manager1 improvements in machinery for washing cotton1 linen1 and other fabrics4--#cast ,may #ahej4 #cb4 ,to ,,charles ,,andrew1 of ,compstall ,bridge1 in the county of ,chester1 manufacturer1 and ,,richard ,,markland1 of the same place1 manager1 certain improvements in the method of1 and in the machinery or apparatus for1 preparing warps for weaving4--#cast ,may #ahej4 #cc4 ,to ,,james ,,palmer ,,budd1 of the ,ystalyfera iron works1 ,swansea1 merchant1 improvements in the manufacture of coke4--#cast ,may #ahej4 #cd4 ,to ,,john ,,dalton1 of ,hollingsworth1 in the county of ,chester1 calico printer1 certain improvements in and applicable to machinery or apparatus for bleaching1 dyeing1 printing1 and finishing textile and other fabrics1 and in the engraving of copper rollers1 and other metallic bodies4--#eth ,june #ahej4 #ce4 ,to ,,frederick ,,albert ,,gatty1 of ,accrington in the county of ,lancaster1 ,manchester1 manufacturing chemist1 a certain process1 of certain processes for obtaining carbonate of soda and carbonate of potash4--#eth ,june #ahej4 #cf4 ,to ,,jules ,,le ,,bastier1 of ,paris1 in the ,republic of ,france1 but now of ,south ,street1 ,finsbury1 in the county of ,middlesex1 gentleman1 certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for printing4--#fth ,june #ahej4 #cg4 ,to ,,william ,,robertton1 of ,gateshead ,mill1 ,neilston1 in the county of ,renfrew1 in that part of the ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland called ,scotland1 machine maker1 improvements in certain machinery used for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances4--#gth ,june #ahej4 #ch4 ,to ,,francis ,,tongue ,,rufford1 of ,prescott ,house1 in the county of ,worcester1 fire-brick manufacturer1 ,,isaac ,,marson1 of ,cradley1 in the same county1 potter1 and ,,john ,,finch1 of ,pickard ,street1 ,city ,road1 in the county of ,middlesex1 manufacturer1 improvements in the manufacture of baths and wash tubs1 or wash vessels4--#ajth ,june #ahej4 #ci4 ,to ,,baron ,,louis ,,le ,,presti1 of ,paris1 in the ,republic of ,france improvements in hydraulic presses1 which are1 in whole or in part1 applicable to pumps and other like machines4--#ajth ,june #ahej4 #dj4 ,to ,,arthur ,,elliot1 machine maker1 of ,manchester1 in the county of ,lancaster1 and ,,henry ,,heys1 of the same place1 book-keeper1 certain machinery for manufacturing woven fabrics4--#adth ,june #ahej4 #da4 ,to ,,charles ,,cowper1 of ,southampton ,buildings1 ,chancery ,lane1 in the county of ,middlesex1 patent agent1 improvements in instruments for measuring1 indicating1 and regulating the pressure of air1 steam1 and other fluids1 and in instruments for measuring1 indicating1 and regulating the temperature of the same1 and in instruments for obtaining motive power from the same4--#adth ,june #ahej4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,punctuation was standardized4 ,words in italics are surrounded by underscores1 like this4 ,accent marks in ,french and spaces after apostrophes in ,italian were standardized4 ,greek was transliterated4 ,footnotes were numbered sequentially1 indented and moved to follow the paragraph or table in which the anchor occurs4 ,the book originally contained two ,tables of ,contents1 the second of which pertained to the ensuing volume4 ,the second ,table of ,contents was removed from this edition4 ,several tables in the ,climate of ,whitehaven article were too wide to display on a standard computer screen4 ,the tables were divided1 with the left-most column replicated1 for ease of reading4 ,hyphenation of the following words was standardized3 juxta-position to juxtaposition starfishes to star-fishes steam-boats to steamboats sub-divided to subdivided ,archaic and obsolete spelling was retained4 ,the following were adjusted3 'he' to 'be' - 444 all animals must be referred to 444 'nimals' to 'animals' 444 habits of those animals1444 'alogether' to 'altogether' 444 are altogether tropical1444 'phemonena' to 'phenomena' 444 the most striking phenomena 444 'acquatic' to 'aquatic' 444 in the aquatic animals 444 'thes pecimens' to 'the specimens' 444comparison of the specimens 444 ',cystoseirites' for ',cystosceri'es' 444 the two ,cystoseirites 444 'archaiologcal' to 'archaeological' 444 archaeological researches 444 'metmorphic' to 'metamorphic' 444 igneous and metamorphic rocks1444 'circumcribed' to 'circumscribed' 444 remains circumscribed as it 444 ',artic' to ',arctic' 444 around the ,arctic ,sea 444 ',saskatchawan' to ',saskatchewan' 444 the ,mackenzie or ,saskatchewan 444 'heholding' to 'beholding' 444 ever finding or beholding it1444 'hippotami' to 'hippopotami' 444 killing the hippopotami 444 'languge' to 'language' 444 words ,i collected of their language 444 ',boabob' to ',baobab' 444 ,two of the ,baobab variety 444 'trachite' to 'trachyte' 444 columnar basalt1 trachyte1 and many 444 'reremains' to 'remains' 444destitute of organic remains1444 'may' to 'many' 444 uncertainty in many cases1444 'analagous' to 'analogous' 444 they are analogous to fishes2444 ',ichthysaur' to ',ichthyosaur' 444 the ,ichthyosaur1 with their 444 'carniverous' to 'carnivorous' 444 large carnivorous fishes 444 'tailess' to 'tailless' 444 below the tailless ,batrachians4444 'circomvolute' to 'circumvolute' 4444 the circumvolute nautilus4444 'fortell' to 'foretell' 444 may foretell a higher progress 444 'emperical' to 'empirical' 444 my empirical law1444 'hypothethis' to 'hypothesis' 444conditions of ,kirkwood's hypothesis4444 'appears' to 'appear' 444 these appear to be3444 'arsenuous' to 'arsenious' 444 arsenious and arsenic acid1444 ',novia' to ',nova' 444 ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia2444 ',pittsburg' to ',pittsburgh' 444 great bed of ,pittsburgh1 extending 444 ',n4,u4' to ',n4,h4' 444 and at ,hanover1 ,n4,h41 about #efj feet4444 'thoraci' to 'thoracic' 444 at the thoracic region1444 ',packydermata' to ',pachydermata' 444 type of the ,pachydermata4444 'sufficently' to 'sufficiently' 444 iron sufficiently strong to 444 ',conard' to ',conrad' 444 and ,conrad ,montgomery1 ,esquire1444