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orestt#jj;gibs   ,transcriber's note3   
,text printed in italics in the original
 work are represented       here between
 underscores1 as in text4        ,small 
capitals have been converted to ,,all   
,,capitals4        ,more ,transcriber's 
notes may be found at the end of this   
text4      ,illustration3 ,,henry ,h4   
,,gibson   ,,american ,,forest ,,trees  
by  ,,henry ,h4 ,,gibson  ,edited by ,hu
 ,maxwell        ,hardwood ,record      
,chicago #aiac  ,copyright #aiac by     
,hardwood ,record ,chicago1 ,ill4  ,the 

,regan ,printing ,house ,chicago4       
,,preface   ,the material on which this 
volume is based1 appeared in ,hardwood  
,record1 ,chicago1 in a series of       
articles beginning in #aije and ending  
in #aiac1 and descriptive of the forest 
trees of this country4 ,more than one   
hundred leading species were included in
 the series4 ,they constitute the       
principal sources of lumber for the     
,united ,states4 ,the present volume    
includes all the species described in   
the series of articles1 with a large    
number of less important trees added4   
,every region of the country is         
represented2 no valuable tree is        
omitted1 and the lists and descriptions 
are as complete as they can be made in  
the limited space of a single volume4   
,the purpose held steadily in view has  
been to make the work practical1 simple1
 plain1 and to the point4 ,trees as they
 grow in the forest1 and wood as it     
appears at the mill and factory1 are    
described and discussed4 ,photographs   

and drawings of trunk and foliage are   
made to tell as much of the story as    
possible4 ,the pictures used as         
illustrations are nearly all from       
photographs made specially for that     
purpose4 ,they are a valuable           
contribution to tree knowledge1 because 
they show forest forms and conditions1  
and are as true to nature as the camera 
can make them4 ,statistics are not given
 a place in these pages1 for it is no   
part of the plan to show the product and
 the output of the country's mills and  
forests1 but rather to describe the     
source of those products1 the trees     
themselves4 ,however1 suggestions for   
utilization are offered1 and the fitness
 of the various woods for many uses is  
particularly indicated4 ,the prominent  
physical properties are described in    
language as free as possible from       
technical terms1 and yet with           
painstaking accuracy and clearness4     
,descriptions intended to aid in        
identification of trees are given2 but  

simplicity and clearness are held       
constantly in view1 and brevity is      
carefully studied4 ,the different names 
of commercial trees in the various      
localities where they are known1 either 
as standing timber or as lumber in the  
yard and factory1 are included in the   
descriptions as an assistance in        
identification4 ,the natural range of   
the forest trees1 and the regions where 
they abound in commercial quantities1   
are outlined according to the latest and
 best authorities4 ,estimates of present
 and future supply are offered1 where   
such exist that seem to be              
authoritative4 ,the trees are given the 
common and the botanical names          
recognized as official by the ,united   
,states ,forest ,service4 ,this lessens 
misunderstanding and confusion in the   
discussion of species whose common names
 are not the same in different regions1 
and whose botanical names are not agreed
 upon among scientific men who mention  
or describe them4 ,the forests of the   

,united ,states contain more than five  
hundred kinds of trees1 ranging in size 
from the ,california sequoias1 which    
attain diameters of twenty feet or more 
and heights exceeding two hundred1 down 
to indefinite but very small dimensions4
 ,the separating line between trees and 
shrubs is not determined by size alone4 
,in a general way1 shrubs may be        
considered smaller than trees1 but a    
seedling tree1 no matter how small1 is  
not properly called a shrub4 ,it is     
customary1 not only among botanists1 but
 also among persons who do not usually  
recognize exact scientific terms and    
distinctions1 to apply the name tree to 
all woody plants which produce naturally
 in their native habitat one main1 erect
 stem1 bearing a definite crown1 no     
matter what size they may attain4  ,the 
commercial timbers of this country are  
divided into two classes1 hardwoods and 
softwoods4 ,the division is for         
convenience1 and is sanctioned by       
custom1 but it is not based on the      

actual hardness and softness of the     
different woods4 ,the division has1     
however1 a scientific basis founded on  
the mechanical structures of the two    
classes of woods1 and there is little   
disagreement among either those who use 
forest products or manufacture them1 or 
those who investigate the actual        
structure of the woods themselves1 as to
 which belong in the hardwood and which 
in the softwood class4  ,softwoods--,the
 needleleaf species1 represented by     
pines1 hemlocks1 firs1 cedars1          
cypresses1 spruces1 larches1 sequoias1  
and yews1 are softwoods4 ,the           
classification of evergreens as         
softwoods is erroneous1 because all     
softwoods are not evergreen1 and all    
evergreens are not softwoods4 ,larches  
and the southern cypress shed their     
leaves yearly4 ,most other softwoods    
drop only a portion of their foliage    
each season1 and enough is always on the
 branches to make them evergreen4       
,softwoods are commonly called          

conebearers1 and that description fits  
most of them1 but the cedars and yews   
produce fruit resembling berries rather 
than cones4 ,though the needleleaf      
species are classed as softwoods1 there 
is much variation in the absolute       
hardness of the wood produced by        
different species4 ,the white pines are 
soft1 the yews hard1 and the other      
species range between4 ,if there were no
 other means of separating trees into   
classes than tests of actual hardness of
 wood1 the line dividing hardwoods from 
softwoods might be quite different from 
that now so universally recognized in   
this country4  ,hardwoods--,the         
broadleaf trees are hardwoods4 ,most1   
but not all1 shed their foliage yearly4 
,it is1 therefore1 incorrect to classify
 deciduous trees as hardwoods1 since it 
is not true in all cases1 any more than 
it is true that softwoods are evergreen4
 ,live oaks and ,american holly are     
evergreen1 and yet are true hardwoods4  
,in a test of hardness they stand near  

the top of the list4  ,there are more   
species of hardwoods than of softwoods  
in this country2 but the actual quantity
 of softwood timber in the forests      
greatly exceeds the hardwoods4 ,nearly  
two hundred species of the latter are   
seldom or never seen in a sawmill1 while
 softwoods are generally cut and used   
wherever found in accessible situations4
  ,as in the case of needleleaf trees1  
there is much variation in actual       
hardness of the wood of different       
broadleaf species4 ,some which are      
classed as hardwoods are softer than    
some in the softwood list4 ,it is       
apparent1 therefore1 that the terms     
hardwood and softwood are commercial    
rather than scientific4  ,palm1 cactus1 
and other trees of that class are not   
often employed as lumber1 and it is not 
customary to speak of them as either    
hardwoods or softwoods4  ,sapwood and   
,heartwood--,practically all mature     
trees contain two qualities of wood     
known as sap and heart4 ,the inner      

portion is the heartwood1 the outer the 
sap4 ,they are usually distinguished by 
differences of color4  ,the terms are   
much used in lumber transactions and are
 well understood by the trade4 ,the two 
kinds of wood need be described only in 
the most general way1 and for the       
guidance and information of those who   
are not familiar with them4 ,differences
 are many and radical in the relative   
size and appearance of the two kinds of 
wood in different species1 and even     
between different trees of the same     
species4 ,no general law is followed1   
except that the heartwood forms in the  
interior of the tree1 and the sapwood in
 a band outside1 next to the bark4 ,in  
the majority of cases young trees have  
little heartwood1 often none4 ,it is a  
development attendant on age1 yet age   
does not always produce it4 ,some mature
 trees have no heartwood1 others very   
little4  ,the two kinds of wood belong  
to needleleaf and broadleaf trees alike2
 but palms1 owing to their manner of    

growth1 have neither4 ,their size       
increases in height rather than in      
diameter4 ,with palms1 the oldest wood  
is in the base of the trunk1 the newest 
in the top2 but in the ordinary timber  
tree the oldest wood is in the center of
 the trunk1 the youngest in the outside 
layers next the bark4 ,it is the oldest 
that becomes heartwood1 and it is1 of   
course1 in the center of the tree4 ,the 
band of sapwood is of no certain        
thickness1 but averages much thicker in 
some species than in others4 ,the       
sapwood of ,osage orange is scarcely    
half an inch thick1 and in loblolly pine
 it may be six inches or more4          
,heartwood is known by its color4 ,the  
eye can detect no other difference      
between it and the surrounding band of  
sapwood4 ,there is no fundamental       
difference4 ,the heart was once sapwood1
 and the latter will sometime become    
heartwood if the tree lives long enough4
 ,as the trunk increases in size and    
years1 the wood near the heart dies4 ,it

 no longer has much to do with the life 
of the tree1 except that it helps       
support the weight of the trunk4 ,the   
heartwood is1 therefore1 deadwood4 ,the 
activities of tree life are no longer   
present4 ,the color changes1 because    
mineral and chemical substances are     
deposited in the wood and fill many of  
the cavities4 ,that process begins at   
the center of the trunk and works       
outward year by year1 forming a pretty  
distinct line between the living sapwood
 and the dead and inert heartwood4  ,for
 some reason1 the heartwood of certain  
species is prone to decay4 ,sycamore is 
the best example4 ,the largest trunks   
are generally hollow4 ,the heart has    
disappeared1 leaving only the thin shell
 of sapwood1 and this is required not   
only to maintain the tree's life and    
activities1 but to support the trunk's  
weight4 ,in most instances the          
substances deposited in the heartwood1  
and associated with the coloring matter1
 tend to preserve the wood from decay4  

,for that reason heart timber lasts     
longer than sap when exposed in damp    
situations4 ,the dark and variegated    
shades of the heartwood of some species 
give them their chief value as cabinet  
and furniture material4 ,the sapwood of 
black walnut is not wanted by anybody1  
for it is light in color and is         
characterless2 but when the sap has     
changed to heart1 and its tones have    
been deepened by the accumulation of    
pigments1 it becomes a choice material  
for certain purposes4 ,the same is true 
of many other timbers1 notably sweet and
 yellow birch1 black cherry1 and several
 of the oaks4  ,it sometimes happens    
that when sapwood is transformed into   
heart1 a physical change1 as well as a  
coloring process1 affects it4 ,persimmon
 and dogwood are examples1 and hickory  
in a less degree4 ,the sapwood of       
persimmon and dogwood makes shuttles and
 golf heads1 but after the change to    
heartwood occurs1 it is considered      
unsuitable4 ,handle makers and the      

manufacturers of buggy spokes prefer    
hickory sapwood1 but use the red        
heartwood if it is the same weight as   
the sap4  ,annual ,rings--,the trunks of
 both hardwoods and softwoods are made  
up of concentric rings4 ,in most        
instances the eye easily detects them4  
,they are more distinct in a freshly cut
 trunk than in weathered wood1 though in
 a few instances weathering accentuates 
rather than obliterates them4 ,a count  
of the rings gives the tree's age in    
years1 each ring being the growth of one
 year4 ,an occasional exception should  
be noted1 as when accident checks the   
tree's growth in the middle of the      
season1 and the growth is later resumed4
 ,in that case1 it may develop two rings
 in one year4 ,a severe frost late in   
spring after leaves have started may    
produce that result2 or defoliation by  
caterpillars in early summer may do it4 
,perhaps not one tree in a thousand has 
that experience in the course of its    
whole life4 ,trees in the tropics where 

seasons are nearly the same the year    
through1 seldom have rings4 ,imitations 
of mahogany are sometimes detected by   
noting clearly marked annual rings4 ,it 
is difficult for the woodfinisher to    
obliterate the annual rings1 but some of
 the ,french woodworkers very nearly    
accomplish it4  ,no law of growth       
governs the width of yearly rings1 but  
circumstances have much to do with it4  
,when the tree's increase in size is    
rapid1 rings are broad4 ,an uncrowded   
tree in good soil and climate grows much
 faster than if circumstances are       
adverse4 ,carolina poplar and black     
willow sometimes have rings nearly      
three-fourths of an inch broad1 while in
 the white bark pine1 which grows above 
the snow line in ,california1 the rings 
may be so narrow as to be invisible to  
the naked eye4  ,there is no average    
width of yearly rings and no average age
 of trees4 ,a few 7very few7 of the     
sequoias1 or 8big trees0 of ,california1
 are two thousand years old4 ,an age of 

six or seven centuries appears to be    
about the limit of the oldest of the    
other species in this country1 though an
 authentic statement to that effect     
cannot be made4 ,there are species whose
 life average scarcely exceeds that of  
men4 ,the aspen generally falls before  
it is eighty2 and fire cherry scarcely  
averages half of that4 ,of all the trees
 cut for lumber1 perhaps not one in a   
hundred has passed the three century    
mark4 ,that ratio would not hold if     
applied to the ,pacific coast alone4    
,spring and ,summerwood--,these are not 
usual terms with lumbermen and          
woodworkers1 but belong more to the     
engineer who thinks of physical         
properties of timber1 particularly its  
strength4 ,yet1 sawmill and factory men 
are well acquainted with the two kinds  
of wood1 but they are likely to apply   
the term 8grain0 to the combination of  
the two4  ,spring and summerwood make   
the annual ring4 ,springwood grows early
 in the season1 summerwood later4 ,in   

fact1 it usually is the contrast in     
color where the summerwood of one season
 abuts against the springwood of the    
next which makes the ring visible4 ,the 
inside of the ring--that portion nearest
 the heart of the tree--is the          
springwood1 the rest of the ring is the 
summerwood4 ,the former is generally    
lighter in color4 ,sometimes1 and with  
certain species1 the springwood is much 
broader than the other4 ,the summerwood 
may be a very narrow band1 not much     
wider than a fine pencil mark1 but its  
deeper color makes it quite distinct in 
most instances4 ,in other instances1 as 
with some of the oaks1 the summerwood is
 the wider part of the annual ring4 ,the
 figure or 8grain0 of southern yellow   
pine is largely due to the contrast     
between the dark summerwood and light   
springwood of the rings4 ,the same is   
true of ash1 chestnut1 and of many other
 woods4  ,pores--,wood is not the solid 
substance it seems to be when seen in   
the mass4 ,if magnified it appears      

filled with cavities1 not unlike a piece
 of coral or honeycomb2 but to the      
unaided eye only a few of the largest   
openings are visible1 and in some woods 
like maple1 none can be seen4 ,the large
 openings are known as pores4 ,they are 
so prominent in some of the oaks that in
 a clean cut end or cross section they  
look like pin holes4 ,very little       
magnifying is required to bring them out
 distinctly4 ,a good reading glass is   
sufficient4  ,pores belong to hardwoods 
only4 ,the resin ducts in some softwoods
 present a similar appearance1 but are  
far less numerous4 ,all pores are1 of   
course1 situated in the annual rings1   
but in different species they are       
differently located as to spring and    
summerwood4 ,in some woods the largest  
pores are in the springwood only and    
therefore run in rings4 ,such woods are 
called 8ring porous10 and the oaks are  
best examples4 ,in other species the    
pores are scattered through all parts of
 the ring in about the same proportion1 

and such woods are called 8diffuse      
porous10 as the birches4 ,softwoods have
 no pores proper1 and are classed       
8non-porous40  ,medullary ,rays--,a     
smoothly-cut cross section of almost any
 oak1 but particularly white oak and red
 oak1 exhibits to the unaided eye       
narrow1 light-colored lines radiating   
from the center of the tree toward the  
bark like spokes of a wheel4 ,they are  
about the breadth of a fine pencil mark1
 and are generally a sixth of an inch or
 less apart4 ,they are among the most   
conspicuous and characteristic features 
of oak wood1 and are known as medullary 
or pith rays4  ,oak is cited as an      
example because the rays are large and  
prominent1 but they are present in all  
wood1 and constitute a large part of its
 body4 ,they vary greatly in size4 ,in  
some woods a few are visible            
unmagnified2 but even in oak a hundred  
are invisible to the naked eye to one   
that can be seen4 ,some species show    
none until a glass is used4 ,some pines 

have fifteen thousand to a square inch  
of cross section1 all of which are so   
small as to elude successfully the      
closest search of the unaided eye4  ,the
 medullary rays influence the appearance
 of most wood4 ,they determine its      
character4 ,oak is quarter-sawed for the
 purpose of bringing out the bright1    
flat surfaces of these rays4 ,the       
prominent flecks1 streaks1 and patches  
of silvery wood are the flat sides of   
medullary rays4 ,in cross section1 only 
the line-like ends are seen1 but        
quarter-sawing exposes their sides to   
view4  ,that explains in part why some  
species are adapted to quarter-sawing   
and others are not4 ,if no broad rays   
exist in the wood1 as with white pine1  
red cedar1 and cottonwood1              
quarter-sawing cannot add much to the   
wood's appearance4  ,grain--,the grain  
of wood is not a definite quality4 ,the 
word does not mean the same thing to all
 who use it4 ,it sometimes refers to    
rings of yearly growth1 and in that     

sense a narrow-ringed wood is fine      
grained1 and one with wide rings is     
coarse grained4 ,a curly1 wavy1 smoky1  
or birdseye wood does not owe its       
quality to annual rings1 yet with some  
persons1 all of these figures are called
 grain4 ,the term sometimes refers to   
medullary rays1 again to hardness1 or to
 roughness4 ,some mahogany is called    
8woolly grained0 because the surface    
polishes with difficulty4 ,the pattern  
maker designates white pine as 8even    
grained01 because it cuts easily in all 
directions4 ,the handle maker classes   
hickory as 8smooth grained01 because it 
polishes well and the sole idea of the  
maker is smoothness to the touch4 ,there
 are other grains almost as numerous as 
the trades which use wood4 ,in numerous 
instances 8figure0 is a better term than
 8grain40 ,feather mahogany1 birdseye   
birch1 burl ash1 are figures rather than
 grains4 ,there is no authority to      
settle and decide what the real meaning 
of grain is in wood technology4 ,it has 

a number of meanings1 and one man has as
 much authority as another to interpret 
it in accordance with his own ideas1 and
 the usage in his trade4 ,it is a loose 
term which covers several things in     
general and nothing in particular4      
,weight--,the weight of wood is         
calculated from different standpoints4  
,it has a green weight1 an air-dry      
weight1 a kiln-dry weight1 and an       
oven-dry weight4 ,all are different1 but
 the differences are due to the relative
 amounts of water weighed4 ,sawlogs     
generally go by green weight2 yard      
lumber by air-dry or partly air-dry     
weight2 while the wood used in ultimate 
manufacture1 such as furniture1 is      
supposed to be kiln-dry4  ,the absolute 
weight of wood1 with all air spaces1    
moisture1 and other foreign material    
removed1 is about #ajj pounds per cubic 
foot1 which is #a4f times heavier than  
water2 but that is not a natural form of
 wood4 ,it is known only in the         
laboratory4  ,the actual wood substance 

of one species weighs about the same as 
another4 ,dispense with all air spaces1 
all water1 and all other foreign        
substance1 and pine and ebony weigh     
alike4 ,it is apparent that the         
different weights of woods1 as between  
cedar and oak for example1 are due      
chiefly to porosity4 ,the smaller the   
aggregate space occupied by pores and   
other cavities1 the heavier the wood4   
,that accounts for the differences in   
weights of absolutely dry woods of      
different kinds1 except that a small    
amount of other foreign material may    
remain after water has been driven off4 
,florida black ironwood is rated as the 
heaviest in the ,united ,states1 and it 
weighs #ha4ad pounds per cubic foot1    
oven-dry4 ,the lightest in this country 
is the golden fig which is a native of  
,florida also4 ,it weighs #af4c pounds  
per cubic foot1 oven-dry4 ,when weights 
of wood are given1 the specimen is      
understood to be oven-dry1 unless it is 
stated to be otherwise3 it is a         

laboratory weight1 calculated from small
 cubes of the wood4 ,such weights are   
always a little less than that of the   
dryest wood of the same kind that can be
 obtained in the lumber market4         
,moisture in ,wood--,the varying weights
 of the same wood indicate that moisture
 plays an important part4 ,no man ever  
saw absolutely dry wood4 ,if heated     
sufficiently to drive off all the       
moisture1 the wood is reduced to        
charcoal and other products of          
destructive distillation4  ,the pores   
and other cavities in green timber are  
more or less filled with water or sap4  
,this may amount to one-third1 one-half1
 or even more1 of the dry weight of the 
wood4 ,the water is in the hollow       
vessels and cell walls4 ,a living tree  
contains about the same quantity of     
water in winter as in summer1 though the
 common belief is otherwise4 ,it is     
misleading to say that the sap is 8down0
 in one season and 8up0 in another1     
although there is more activity at      

certain times than in others4 ,strictly 
speaking1 there is a difference between 
the water in a tree1 and the tree's sap2
 but in common parlance they are        
considered identical4 ,what takes place 
is this3 water rises from the tree's    
roots1 through the wood1 carrying       
certain minerals in solution4 ,some of  
it reaches the leaves in summer where it
 mixes with certain gases from the air1 
and is converted into sap proper4 ,most 
of the surplus water1 after giving up   
the mineral substance held in solution1 
is evaporated through the leaves into   
the air2 but the sap1 starting from the 
leaves which act as laboratories for its
 manufacture1 goes down through the     
newly-formed 7and forming71 layer of    
wood just beneath the bark1 and is      
converted into wood4 ,this newly-formed 
wood is colorless at first4 ,it builds  
up the annual ring1 first the springwood
 very rapidly1 and then the summerwood  
more slowly4  ,the force which causes   
water to rise through the trunk of a    

tree is not fully understood4 ,it is one
 of nature's mysteries which is yet to  
be solved4 ,forces known as root        
pressure1 capillary attraction1 and     
osmosis1 are believed to be active in   
the process1 but there seems to be      
something additional1 and no man has yet
 been able to explain what it is4  ,the 
seasoning of wood is the process of     
getting rid of some of the water4 ,as   
soon as lumber is exposed to air1 the   
water begins to escape4 ,long exposure  
to dry air takes out a large percentage 
of the moisture which green wood holds1 
and the lumber is known as air-dry4 ,but
 some of the original moisture remains1 
and air at climatic temperature is      
unable to expel it4 ,the greater heat of
 a drykiln drives away some more of it1 
but a quantity yet remains4 ,the lumber 
is then kiln-dry4 ,greater heat than the
 drykiln's is secured in an oven1 and a 
little more of the wood's moisture is   
expelled2 but the only method of driving
 all the moisture out is to heat the    

wood sufficiently to break down its     
structure1 and reduce it to charcoal4   
,wood warps in the process of drying    
unless it seasons equally on all sides4 
,it curls or bends toward the side which
 dries most rapidly4 ,dry wood may warp 
if exposed to dampness1 if one side is  
more exposed and receives more moisture 
than another4 ,it curls or bends toward 
the dryer side4  ,warping is primarily  
due to the more rapid contraction or    
expansion of wood cells on one side of  
the piece than on the other4 ,saturated 
cells are larger than dry ones4         
,moisture in wood affects its strength1 
the dryer the stronger1 at least within 
certain limits4 ,architects and builders
 carefully study the seasoning of       
timber1 because it is a most important  
factor in their business4 ,the moisture 
which most affects a wood's strength is 
that absorbed in the cell walls1 rather 
than that contained in the cell cavities
 themselves4  ,some woods check or split
 badly in seasoning unless attended with

 constant care4 ,checking is due chiefly
 to lack of uniformity in seasoning4    
,one part of the stick dries faster than
 another1 the dryer fibers contract1 and
 the pull splits the wood4 ,the checks  
may be small1 even microscopic1 or they 
may develop yawning cracks such as      
sometimes appear in the ends of hickory 
and black walnut logs4 ,greenwood checks
 worse in summer than in winter1 because
 the weather is warmer1 the wood's      
surface dries faster1 and the strain on 
the fibers is greater4 ,phases of the   
moon have no influence on the seasoning1
 checking1 warping1 or lasting          
properties of timber4  ,stiffness1      
,elasticity1 and ,strength--,rules for  
measuring the stiffness of timber are   
involved in mathematical formulas2 but  
the practical quality of stiffness is   
not difficult to understand4 ,wood which
 does not bend easily is stiff4 ,if it  
springs back to its original position   
after the removal of the force which    
bends it1 the wood is elastic4 ,the     

greatest load it can sustain without    
breaking1 is the measure of its         
strength4 ,the load required to produce 
a certain amount of bending is the      
measure of its stiffness4 ,flexibility1 
a term much used by certain classes of  
workers in wood1 is the opposite of     
stiffness4 ,a brittle wood is not       
necessarily weak4 ,it may sustain a     
heavy load without breaking1 but when it
 fails1 the break is sudden and         
complete4 ,a tough wood behaves         
differently1 though it may not be as    
strong as a brittle one4 ,when a tough  
wood breaks1 the parts are inclined to  
adhere after they have ceased to sustain
 the load4 ,hickory is tough1 and in    
breaking1 the wood crushes and          
splinters4 ,mesquite is brittle1 and a  
clean snap severs the stick at once4    
,builders of houses and bridges1 and the
 manufacturers of articles of wood1     
study with the greatest care the        
stiffness1 elasticity1 strength1        
toughness1 and brittleness of timber4   

,its chief value may depend upon the    
presence or absence of one or more of   
these properties4 ,take away hickory's  
toughness and elasticity and it would   
cease to be a great vehicle and handle  
material4 ,reduce the stiffness and     
strength of longleaf pine and ,douglas  
fir and they would drop at once from the
 high esteem in which they are held as  
structural timbers4 ,destroy the        
brittleness of red cedar and it would   
lose one of the chief qualities which   
make it the leading lead pencil wood of 
the world4  ,there are recognized       
methods of measuring these important    
physical properties of woods1 but they  
are expressed in language so technical  
that it means little to persons who are 
not specialists4 ,for ordinary purposes1
 it is unnecessary to be more explicit  
than to state a certain wood is or is   
not strong1 stiff1 tough and elastic4   
,some species possess one or more of    
these properties to double the degree   
that others possess them4 ,different    

trees of the same species differ        
greatly1 and even different parts of the
 same tree4 ,most tables of figures     
which show the various physical         
properties of woods1 give averages only1
 not absolute values4  ,hardness--,in   
some woods hardness is considered an    
advantage1 but not in others4 ,if sugar 
maple were as soft as white pine1 it    
would not be the great floor material it
 is2 and if white pine were as hard as  
maple1 pattern makers would not want it1
 door and sash manufacturers would get  
along with less1 and it would not be the
 leading packing box material in so wide
 a region4  ,it is generally the summer 
growth in the annual rings which makes a
 wood hard4 ,the summerwood is dense4 ,a
 given bulk of it contains more actual  
wood substance and less air and water   
than the springwood4 ,for the same      
reason1 summerwood gives weight1 and a  
relationship between hardness and weight
 holds generally4 ,it may be added that 
strength goes with weight and hardness1 

but it is not a rule without apparent   
exceptions4  ,some woods possess twice  
or three times the hardness of others4  
,among some of the hardest in the       
,united ,states are hickory1 sugar      
maple1 mesquite1 the ,florida ironwoods1
 ,osage orange1 locust1 persimmon1 and  
the best oak and elm4 ,among the softest
 species are buckeye1 basswood1 cedar1  
redwood1 some of the pines1 spruce1     
hemlock1 and chestnut4  ,the hardness of
 wood is tested with a machine which    
records the pressure required to indent 
the surface4 ,the condition of the      
specimen1 as to dryness1 has much to do 
with its hardness4 ,so many other       
factors exercise influence that nothing 
less than an actual test will determine 
the hardness of a sample4 ,a table of   
figures can show it only approximately  
and by averages4  ,cleavability--,wood  
users generally demand a material which 
does not split easily1 but the reverse  
is sometimes required4 ,rived staves    
must come from timbers which split      

easily4 ,many handles are from billets  
which are split in rough form and are   
afterwards dressed to the required size 
and shape4 ,in these instances1         
splitting is preferable to sawing1      
because a rived billet is free from     
cross grain4  ,the cleavability of woods
 differs greatly4 ,some can scarcely be 
split4 ,black gum is in that list1 and  
sycamore to a less extent4 ,young trees 
of some species split more readily than 
old1 while with others1 the advantage is
 with the old4 ,young sycamore may      
generally be split with ease1 but old   
trunks seem to develop interlocked      
fibers which defy the wedge4 ,a white   
oak pole is hard to split1 but the old  
tree yields readily4 ,few woods are more
 easily split than chestnut4 ,with most 
timbers cleavage is easiest along the   
radial lines1 that is1 from the heart to
 the bark4 ,the flat sides of the       
medullary rays lie in that plane4       
,cleavage along tangential lines is easy
 with some woods4 ,the line of cleavage 

follows the soft springwood4 ,green     
timber is generally1 but not always1    
more easily split than dry4 ,as a rule1 
the more elastic a wood is1 the more    
readily it may be split4                
,durability--,in ,egypt where climatic  
conditions are highly favorable1        
,lebanon cedar1 ,north ,african acacia1 
,east ,african persimmon1 and oriental  
sycamore have remained sound during     
three or four thousand years4 ,in the   
moist forests of the northwestern       
,pacific coast1 an alder log six or     
eight inches in diameter will decay     
through and through in a single year4   
,no wood is immune to decay if exposed  
to influences which induce it1 but some 
resist for long periods4 ,osage orange  
and locust fence posts may stand half a 
century4 ,timber from which air is      
excluded1 as when deeply buried in wet  
earth or under water1 will last         
indefinitely2 but if it is exposed to   
alternate dampness and dryness1 decay   
will destroy it in a few years4  ,it is 

apparent that resistance to decay is not
 a property inherent in the wood1 but   
depends on circumstances4 ,however1 the 
ability to resist decay varies greatly  
with different species1 under similar   
circumstances4 ,buckeye and red cedar   
fence posts1 situated alike1 will not   
last alike4 ,the buckeye may be expected
 to fall in two or three years1 and the 
cedar will stand twenty4 ,timbers light 
in weight and light in color are1 as a  
class1 quick-decaying when exposed to   
the weather4  ,the rule holds in most   
cases that sapwood decays more quickly  
than heart when both are subject to     
similar exposure4 ,the matter of decay  
is not important when lumber and other  
products intended for use are in dry    
situations4 ,furniture and interior     
house finish do not decay under ordinary
 circumstances1 no matter what the      
species of wood may be2 but resistance  
to decay overshadows almost any other   
consideration in choosing mine timbers1 
crossties1 fence posts1 and tanks and   

silos4  ,decay in timber is not simply a
 chemical process1 but is due primarily 
to the activities of a low order of     
plants known as fungi1 sometimes        
bacteria4 ,the fungi produce thread-like
 filaments which penetrate the body of  
the wood1 ramifying in and passing from 
cell to cell1 absorbing certain         
materials therein1 and ultimately       
breaking down and destroying the        
structure of the wood4 ,both air and    
dampness are essential to the growth of 
fungus4 ,that is the reason why timbers 
deep beneath ground or water do not     
decay4 ,air is absent1 though moisture  
is abundant2 while in the dry ,egyptian 
tombs1 air is abundant but moisture is  
wanting1 fungus cannot exist1 and       
consequently decay of the wood does not 
occur4 ,nothing is needed to render     
timber immune to decay except to keep   
fungus out of the cells4 ,some of the   
fungus concerned in wood rotting is     
microscopic1 while other appears in     
forms and sizes easily seen and         

recognized4  ,timber may be protected   
for a time against the agencies of decay
 by covering the surface with paint1    
thereby preventing the entrance of      
fungus4 ,by another process1 certain    
oils or other materials which are       
poisonous to the insinuating threads of 
fungus1 are forced into the pores of the
 wood4 ,creosote is often used for this 
purpose4 ,attacks are thus warded off1  
and decay is hindered4 ,the preservative
 fluid will not remain permanently in   
wood exposed to weather conditions1 but 
the period during which it affords      
protection and immunity extends over    
some years2 but different woods vary    
greatly in their ability to receive and 
retain preservative mixtures4  ,the     
better seasoned1 the less liable is     
timber to decay1 because it contains    
less moisture to support fungi4 ,it is  
generally supposed that timber cut in   
the fall of the year is less subject to 
decay than if felled in summer4 ,if it  
is so1 the reason for it lies in the    

fact that fungus is inactive during     
winter1 and before the coming of warm   
weather the timber has partly dried near
 the surface1 and fungi cannot pass     
through the dry outside to reach the    
interior4 ,timber cut in warm weather   
may be attacked at once1 and before cold
 weather stops the activities of fungus 
it has reached the interior of the wood 
and the process of rotting is under way4
 ,when the agents of decay have begun to
 grow in the wood1 destruction will go  
on as long as air and moisture          
conditions are favorable4  ,the bluing  
of wood is an incipient decay and is    
generally due to fungus4 ,some kinds of 
wood are more susceptible to bluing than
 others4 ,though boards may quickly     
season sufficiently to put a stop to the
 bluing process before it has actually  
weakened the material1 the result is    
more or less injurious4 ,the wood's     
natural color and luster undergo        
deterioration2 it does not reflect light
 as formerly1 and seems dead and flat4  

,decay affects sapwood more readily than
 heart4 ,the reason may be that sapwood 
contains more food for fungus1 thereby  
inducing greater activity4 ,the sapwood 
is on the outside of timbers and is     
often more exposed than the heart4 ,in  
some instances greater decay may be due 
to greater exposure4 ,another reason for
 more rapid decay of sapwood than heart 
is the fact that the pores of the       
heartwood are more or less filled with  
coloring matter deposited while the     
growth of the tree was in progress4 ,the
 coloring matter1 in many cases1 acts as
 a preservative2 it shuts the threads of
 fungus out4 ,sometimes the sapwood of a
 dead tree or a log is totally destroyed
 while the heart remains sound4 ,this   
often happens with red cedar and        
sometimes with black walnut1 yellow     
poplar1 and cherry4 ,occasionally a     
tree's bark is more resistant to decay  
than its wood4 ,paper birch and yellow  
birch logs in damp situations           
occasionally show this4 ,what appears to

 be a solid fallen trunk1 proves to be  
nothing more than a shell of bark with a
 soft1 pulpy mass of decayed wood       
within4     ,,white ,,pine              
,illustration3 ,,white ,,pine           
,,white ,,pine#a  7,pinus ,strobus7     
#a ,the following #ab species are       
usually classed soft pines3 ,white      
,pine 7,pinus strobus72 ,sugar ,pine    
7,pinus lambertiana72 ,western          
,white ,pine 7,pinus monticola72        
,mexican ,white ,pine 7,pinus           
strobiformis72 ,limber ,pine 7,pinus    
flexilis72 ,whitebark ,pine     7,pinus 
albicaulis72 ,foxtail ,pine 7,pinus     
balfouriana72 ,parry ,pine     7,pinus  
quadrifolia72 ,mexican ,pinon 7,pinus   
cembroides72 ,pinon     7,pinus edulis72
 ,singleleaf ,pinon 7,pinus monophylla72
 ,bristlecone     ,pine 7,pinus         
aristata74   ,the best known wood of the
 ,united ,states has never been burdened
 with a multitude of names1 as many     
minor species have4 ,it is commonly     
known as white pine in every region     

where it grows1 and in many where the   
living tree is never seen1 except when  
planted for ornament4 ,the light color  
of the wood suggests the name4 ,the bark
 and the foliage are of somber hue1     
though not as dark as hemlock and many  
of the pines4 ,the name ,weymouth pine  
is occasionally heard1 but it is more   
used in books than by lumbermen4 ,it is 
commonly supposed that the name refers  
to ,lord ,weymouth who interested       
himself in the tree at an early period1 
but this has been disputed4 ,in         
,pennsylvania it is occasionally called 
soft pine to distinguish it from the    
harder and inferior pitch pine and table
 mountain pine with which it is         
sometimes associated4 ,it is the softest
 of the pines1 and the name is not      
inappropriate4 ,in some regions of the  
,south1 where it is well known1 it is   
called northern spruce pine in          
recognition of the fact that it is a    
northern species which has followed the 
,appalachian mountain ranges some       

hundreds of miles southward4 ,there is  
no good reason for this name when       
applied to white pine4 ,it should be    
remembered1 however1 that no less than a
 dozen tree species in the ,united      
,states are sometimes called spruce     
pine4 ,cork pine is a trade name applied
 more frequently to the wood than to the
 living tree4 ,it is the wood of old1   
mature1 first class trunks1 as nearly   
perfect as can be found4 ,pumpkin pine  
is another name given to the same class 
of wood4 ,it is so named because the    
grain is homogeneous1 like a pumpkin1   
and may be readily cut and carved in any
 direction4 ,it is the ideal wood for   
the pattern maker1 but it is now hard to
 get because the venerable white pines1 
many hundred years old1 are practically 
gone4  ,the northern limit of the range 
of white pine stretches from            
,newfoundland to ,manitoba1 more than   
#ahjj miles east and west across the    
,dominion of ,canada1 and southward to  
northern ,georgia1 #abjj miles in a     

north and south direction4 ,but white   
pine does not grow in all parts of the  
territory thus delimited4 ,it attained  
magnificent development in certain large
 regions before lumbering began1 and in 
others it was scarce or totally wanting4
 ,its ability to maintain itself on land
 too thin for vigorous hardwood growth  
gave it a monopoly of enormous stretches
 of sandy country1 particularly in the  
,lake ,states4 ,it occupied large areas 
in ,new ,england and southern ,canada2  
developed splendid stands in ,new ,york 
and ,pennsylvania2 and it covered       
certain mountains and uplands southward 
along the mountain ranges across        
,maryland1 ,west ,virginia1 and the     
elevated regions two or three hundred   
miles farther south4  ,a dozen or more  
varieties of white pine have been       
developed under cultivation1 but they   
interest the nurseryman1 not the        
lumberman4 ,in all the wide extension of
 its range1 and during all past time1   
nature was never able to develop a      

single variety of white pine which      
departed from the typical species4 ,for 
that reason it is one of the most       
interesting objects of study in the tree
 kingdom4 ,true1 the white pine in the  
southern mountains differs slightly from
 the northern tree1 but botanically it  
is the same4 ,its wood is a little      
heavier1 its branches are more resinous 
and consequently adhere a longer time to
 the trunk after they die1 resulting in 
lumber with more knots4 ,the southern   
wood is more tinged with red1 the knots 
are redder and usually sounder than in  
the ,north4  ,it is unfortunately       
necessary in speaking of white pine     
forests to use the past tense1 for most 
of the primeval stands have disappeared4
 ,the range is as extensive as ever1    
because wherever a forest once grew1 a  
few trees remain2 but the merchantable  
timber has been cut in most regions4    
,the tree bears winged seeds which      
quickly scatter over vacant spaces1 and 
new growth would long ago1 in most      

cases1 have taken the place of the old1 
had not fires persistently destroyed the
 seedlings4 ,in parts of ,new ,england  
where fire protection is afforded1 dense
 stands of white pine are coming on1 and
 in numerous instances profitable lumber
 operations are carried on in second    
growth forests4 ,that condition does not
 exist generally in white pine regions4 
,primeval stands were seldom absolutely 
pure1 but sometimes1 in bodies of       
thousands of acres1 there was little but
 white pine4 ,generally hardwoods or    
other softwoods grew with the pine4 ,at 
its best1 it is the largest pine of the 
,united ,states1 except the sugar pine  
of ,california4 ,the largest trees grew 
in ,new ,england where diameters of six 
or more feet and heights exceeding #bjj 
feet were found4 ,a diameter of four and
 five feet and a height of #aej feet are
 about the size limits in the ,lake     
,states and the southern mountains4     
,trees two or three feet through and    
ninety and #abj tall are a fair average 

for mature timber4  ,the wood of white  
pine is among the lightest of the       
commercial timbers of this country1 and 
among the softest4 ,while it is not     
strong1 it compares favorably1 weight   
for weight1 with most others4 ,it is of 
rather rapid growth1 and the rings of   
annual increase are clearly defined1 and
 they contain comparatively few resin   
ducts4 ,for that reason it may be       
classed as a close1 compact wood4 ,it   
polishes well1 may be cut with great    
ease1 and after it is seasoned it holds 
its form better than most woods4 ,that  
property fits it admirably for doors and
 sash and for backing of veneer1 where a
 little warping or twisting would do    
much harm4  ,the medullary rays are     
numerous but are too small to be easily 
seen separately1 and do not figure much 
in the appearance of the wood4 ,the     
resin passages are few and small1 but   
the wood contains enough resin to give  
it a characteristic odor1 which is not  
usually considered injurious to         

merchandise shipped in pine boxes4 ,the 
white color of the wood gives it much of
 its value4 ,though rather weak1 white  
pine is stiff1 rather low in elasticity1
 is practically wanting in toughness1   
has little figure1 and when exposed to  
alternate dryness and dampness it is    
rated poor in lasting properties2 yet   
shingles and weather boarding of this   
wood have been known to stand half a    
century4 ,the sapwood is lighter in     
color than the heart1 and decays more   
quickly4  ,as long as white pine was    
abundant it surpassed all other woods of
 this country in the amount used4 ,it   
was one of the earliest exports from    
,new ,england1 and it went to the ,west 
,indies and to ,europe4 ,england        
attempted to control the cutting and    
export of white pine1 but was           
unsuccessful4 ,at an early period the   
rivers were utilized for transporting   
the logs and the lumber to market1 and  
that method has continued until the     
present time4 ,spectacular log drives   

were common in early times in ,new      
,england1 later in ,new ,york and       
,pennsylvania1 and still later in       
,michigan and the other ,lake ,states4  
,many billions of feet of faultless logs
 have gone down flooded rivers4 ,the    
scenes in the woods and the life in     
lumber camps have been written in novels
 and romances1 and the central figure of
 it all was white pine4  ,there are a   
few things for which this wood is not   
suitable2 otherwise its use has been    
nearly universal in some parts of this  
country4 ,it went into masts and        
matches1 which are the largest and      
smallest commodities1 and into almost   
every shape and size of product between4
 ,most of the early houses and barns in 
the pine region were built of it4 ,hewed
 pine was the foundation1 and the       
shingles were of split and shaved pine4 
,it formed floors1 doors1 sash1 and     
shutters4 ,it was the ceiling within and
 the weather boarding without4 ,it      
fenced the fields and bridged the       

streams4 ,it went to market as rough    
lumber1 and planing mills turned it out 
as dressed stock in various forms4 ,it  
has probably been more extensively      
employed by box makers than any other   
wood1 and though it is scarcer than     
formerly1 hundreds of millions of feet  
of it are still used annually by box    
makers4 ,scores of millions of feet     
yearly are demanded by the manufacturers
 of window shade rollers1 though        
individually the roller is a very small 
commodity4 ,in this1 as for patterns and
 many other things1 no satisfactory     
substitute for white pine has been      
found4  ,as a timber tree1 it will not  
disappear from this country1 though the 
days of its greatest importance are     
past4 ,enormous tracts where it once    
grew will apparently never again produce
 a white pine sawlog4 ,the prospect is  
more encouraging in other regions1 and  
there will always be a considerable     
quantity of this lumber in the ,american
 market1 though the high percentage of  

good grades which prevailed in the past 
will not continue in the future4  ,white
 pine belongs in the five needle group1 
that is1 five leaves grow in a bundle4  
,they turn yellow and fall in the autumn
 of the second year4 ,the cones are     
slender1 are from five to eleven inches 
in length1 and ripen and disperse their 
seeds in the autumn of the second year4 
,illustration     ,,western ,,white     
,,pine  ,illustration3 ,,western ,,white
 ,,pine     ,,western ,,white ,,pine    
7,pinus ,monticola7   ,the silvery      
luster of the needles of this tree gives
 it the name silver pine1 by which many 
people know it4 ,it appears in          
literature as mountain ,weymouth pine1  
the reference being to the eastern white
 pine 7,pinus strobus71 which is        
sometimes called ,weymouth pine4        
,finger-cone pine is a ,california name2
 so are mountain pine and soft pine4 ,in
 the same state it is called little     
sugar pine1 to distinguish it from sugar
 pine 7,pinus lambertiana71 which it    

resembles in some particulars but not in
 all4 ,it is thus seen that ,california 
is generous in bestowing names on this  
tree1 notwithstanding it is not abundant
 in any part of that state and is       
unknown in most parts4  ,the botanical  
name means 8mountain pine10 and that    
describes the species4 ,it does best    
among the mountains1 and it ranges from 
an altitude of from #d1jjj feet to      
#aj1jjj on the ,sierra ,nevada          
mountains4 ,sometimes trees of very     
large size are found near the upper     
limits of its range1 but the best stands
 are in valleys and on slopes at lower  
altitudes4 ,its range lies in ,british  
,columbia1 ,montana1 ,idaho1            
,washington1 ,oregon1 and ,california4  
,in the latter state it follows the     
,sierra ,nevada mountains southward to  
the ,san ,joaquin river4  ,this species 
has been compared with the white pine of
 the ,east oftener than with any other  
species4 ,the weights of the two woods  
are nearly the same1 and both are light4

 ,their fuel values are about the same4 
,the strength of the eastern tree is a  
little higher1 but the western species  
is stiffer4 ,the woods of both are light
 in color1 but that of the eastern tree 
is whiter2 both are soft1 but again the 
advantage is with the eastern tree4 ,the
 western pine generally grows rapidly   
and the annual rings are wide2 but1 like
 most other species1 it varies in its   
rate of growth1 and trunks are found    
with narrow rings4 ,the summerwood is   
thin1 not conspicuous1 and slightly     
resinous4 ,the small resin passages are 
numerous4 ,the heartwood is fairly      
durable in contact with the soil4  ,the 
western white pine has entered many     
markets in recent years1 but it is      
difficult to determine what the annual  
cut is4 ,statistics often include this  
species and the western yellow pine     
under one name1 or at least confuse one 
with the other1 and there is no way to  
determine exactly how much of the       
sawmill output belongs to each4 ,the    

bulk of merchantable western white pine 
lumber is cut in ,idaho and ,montana4   
,the stands are seldom pure1 but this   
species frequently predominates over its
 associates4 ,when pure forests are     
found1 the yield is sometimes very high1
 as much as #acj1jjj feet of logs       
growing on a single acre4 ,that quantity
 is not often equalled by any other     
forest tree1 though redwood and ,douglas
 fir sometimes go considerably above it4
  ,the western white pine's needles grow
 in clusters of five and are from one   
and a half to four inches long4 ,the    
cones are from ten to eighteen inches   
long4 ,the seeds ripen the second year4 
,reproduction is vigorous and the forest
 stands are holding their own4 ,trees   
about one hundred and seventy-five feet 
high and eight feet in diameter are met 
with1 but the average size is one       
hundred feet high and from two to three 
feet in diameter1 or about the size of  
eastern white pine4  ,the wood is useful
 and has been giving service since the  

settlement of the country began1 fifty  
or more years ago4 ,choice trunks were  
split for shakes or shingles1 but the   
wood is inferior in splitting qualities 
to either eastern white pine or         
,california sugar pine1 because of more 
knots4 ,the western white pine does not 
prime itself early or well4 ,dead limbs 
adhere to the trunk long after the sugar
 pine would shed them4 ,in split        
products1 the western white pine's      
principal rival has been the western red
 cedar4 ,the pine has been much employed
 for mine timbers in the region where it
 is abundant4 ,miners generally take the
 most convenient wood for props1 stulls1
 and lagging4 ,a little higher use for  
pine is found among the mines1 where is 
it made into tanks1 flumes1 sluice      
boxes1 water pipes1 riffle blocks1      
rockers1 and guides for stamp mills4    
,however1 the total quantity used by    
miners is comparatively small4 ,much    
more goes to ranches for fences and     
buildings4 ,it is serviceable1 and is   

shipped outside the immediate region of 
production and is marketed in the plains
 states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1  
where it is excellent fence material4   
,a larger market is found in            
manufacturing centers farther east4     
,western white pine is shipped to       
,chicago where it is manufactured into  
doors1 sash1 and interior finish1 in    
competition with all other woods in that
 market4 ,it is said to be of frequent  
occurrence that the very pine which is  
shipped in its rough form out of the    
,rocky ,mountain region goes back       
finished as doors and sash4 ,when the   
mountain regions shall have better      
manufacturing facilities1 this will not 
occur4 ,in the manufacture of window and
 hothouse sash1 glass is more important 
than wood1 although each is useless     
without the other4 ,the principal glass 
factories are in the ,east1 and it is   
sometimes desirable to ship the wood to 
the glass factory1 have the sash made   
there1 and the glazing done2 and the    

finished sash1 ready for use1 may go    
back to the source of the timber4  ,the 
same operation is sometimes repeated for
 doors2 but in recent years the mountain
 region where this pine grows has been  
supplied with factories and there is now
 less shipping of raw material out and  
of finished products back than formerly4
 ,the development of the fruit industry 
in the elevated valleys of ,idaho1      
,montana1 ,washington1 and ,oregon has  
called for shipping boxes in large      
numbers1 and western white pine has been
 found an ideal wood for that use4 ,it  
is light in weight and in color1 strong 
enough to satisfy all ordinary          
requirements1 and cheap enough to bring 
it within reach of orchardists4 ,it     
meets with lively competition from a    
number of other woods which grow        
abundantly in the region1 but it holds  
its ground and takes its share of the   
business4  ,estimates of the total stand
 of western white pine among its native 
mountains have not been published1 but  

the quantity is known to be large4 ,it  
is a difficult species to estimate      
because it is scattered widely1 large1  
pure stands being scarce4 ,some large   
mills make a specialty of sawing this   
species4 ,the annual output is believed 
to reach #aej1jjj1jjj feet1 most of     
which is in ,idaho and ,montana4        
,,mexican ,,white ,,pine 7,pinus        
strobiformis7 is not sufficiently       
abundant to be of much importance in the
 ,united ,states4 ,the best of it is    
south of the international boundary in  
,mexico1 but the species extends into   
,new ,mexico and ,arizona where it is   
most abundant at altitudes of from      
#f1jjj to #h1jjj feet4 ,the growth is   
generally scattering1 and the trunks are
 often deformed through fire injury1 and
 are inclined to be limby and of poor   
form4 ,the best trees are from eighty to
 one hundred feet high1 and two in      
diameter2 but many are scarcely half    
that size4 ,the lumbermen of the region1
 who cut ,mexican white pine1 are       

inclined to place low value on it1 not  
because the wood is of poor quality1 but
 because it is scarce4 ,it is generally 
sent to market with western yellow pine4
 ,excellent grades and quality of this  
wood are shipped into the ,united       
,states from ,mexico1 but not in large  
amounts4 ,an occasional carload reaches 
door and sash factories in ,texas1 and  
woodworkers as far east as ,michigan are
 acquainted with it1 through trials and 
experiments which they have made4 ,it is
 highly recommended by those who have   
tried it4 ,some consider it as soft1 as 
easy to work1 and as free from warping  
and checking as the eastern white pine4 
,in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico the tree  
is known as ayacahuite pine1 white pine1
 and ,arizona white pine4 ,the wood is  
moderately light1 fairly strong1 rather 
stiff1 of slow growth1 and the bands of 
summerwood are comparatively broad4 ,the
 resin passages are few and large4 ,the 
wood is light red1 the sapwood whiter4  
,the leaves occur in clusters of five1  

are three or four inches long1 and fall 
during the third and fourth years4 ,the 
seeds are large and have small wings    
which cannot carry them far from the    
parent tree4  ,,pinon 7,pinus edulis74  
,this is one of the nut pines abounding 
among the western mountains1 and it is  
called pinon in ,texas1 nut pine in     
,texas and ,colorado1 pinon pine and    
,new ,mexican pinon in other parts of   
its range1 extending from ,colorado     
through ,new ,mexico to western ,texas4 
,it has two and three leaves to the     
cluster4 ,they begin to fall the third  
year and continue through six or seven  
years following4 ,the cones are quite   
small1 the largest not exceeding one and
 one-half inches in length4 ,trees are  
from thirty to forty feet high1 and     
large trunks may be two and one-half    
feet in diameter4 ,the tree runs up     
mountain sides to altitudes of #h1jjj or
 #i1jjj feet4 ,it exists in rather large
 bodies1 but is not an important timber 
tree1 because the trunks are short and  

are generally of poor form4 ,it often   
branches near the ground and assumes the
 appearance of a large shrub4 ,ties of  
pinon have been used with various       
results4 ,some have proved satisfactory1
 others have proved weak by breaking1   
and the ties occasionally split when    
spikes are driven4 ,the wood's service  
as posts varies also4 ,some posts will  
last only three or four years1 while    
others remain sound a long time4 ,the   
difference in lasting properties is due 
to the difference in resinous contents  
of the wood4 ,few softwoods rank above  
it in fuel value1 and much is cut in    
some localities4 ,large areas have been 
totally stripped for fuel4 ,charcoal for
 local smithies is burned from this     
pine4 ,the wood is widely used for ranch
 purposes1 but not in large quantities4 
,the edible nuts are sought by birds1   
rodents1 and ,indians4 ,some stores keep
 the nuts for sale4 ,the tree is        
handicapped in its effort at            
reproduction by weight1 and the small   

wing power of the seeds4 ,they fall near
 the base of the parent tree1 and most  
of them are speedily devoured4          
,illustration     ,,sugar ,,pine        
,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,pine           
,,sugar ,,pine  7,pinus ,lambertiana7   
,this is the largest pine of the ,united
 ,states1 and probably is the largest   
true pine in the world4 ,its rival1 the 
,kauri pine of ,new ,zealand1 is not a  
pine according to the classification of 
botanists2 and that leaves the sugar    
pine supreme1 as far as the world has   
been explored4 ,david ,douglas1 the     
first to describe the species1 reported 
a tree eighteen feet in diameter and    
#bde feet high1 in southern ,oregon4 ,no
 tree of similar size has been reported 
since2 but trunks six1 ten1 and even    
twelve feet through1 and more than #bjj 
high are not rare4  ,the range of sugar 
pine extends from southern ,oregon to   
lower ,california4 ,through ,california 
it follows the ,sierra ,nevada mountains
 in a comparatively narrow belt4 ,in    

,oregon it descends within #a1jjj feet  
of sea level1 but the lower limit of its
 range gradually rises as it follows the
 mountains southward1 until in southern 
,california it is #h1jjj or #aj1jjj feet
 above the sea4 ,its choice of situation
 is in the mountain belt where the      
annual precipitation is forty inches or 
more4 ,the deep winter snows of the     
,sierras do not hurt it4 ,the young     
trees bear abundant limbs covering the  
trunks nearly or quite to the ground1   
and are of perfect conical shape4 ,when 
they are ten or fifteen feet tall they  
may be entirely covered in snow which   
accumulates to a depth of a dozen feet  
or more4 ,the little pines are seldom   
injured by the load1 but their limbs    
shed the snow until it covers the       
highest twig4 ,the consequence is that a
 crooked sugar pine trunk is seldom     
seen1 though a considerable part of the 
tree's youth may have been spent under  
tons of snow4 ,later in life the lower  
limbs die and drop1 leaving clean boles 

which assure abundance of clear lumber  
in the years to come4  ,the tree is     
nearly always known as sugar pine1      
though it may be called big pine or     
great pine to distinguish it from firs1 
cedars1 and other softwoods with which  
it is associated4 ,the name is due to a 
product resembling sugar which exudes   
from the heartwood when the tree has    
been injured by fires1 and which dries  
in white1 brittle excrescences on the   
surface4 ,its taste is sweet1 with a    
suggestion of pitch which is not        
unpleasant4 ,the principle has been     
named 8pinite40  ,the needles of sugar  
pine are in clusters of five and are    
about four inches long4 ,they are       
deciduous the second and third years4   
,the cones are longer than cones of any 
other pine of this country but those of 
the ,coulter pine are a little heavier4 
,extreme length of #bb inches for the   
sugar pine cone has been recorded1 but  
the average is from #ab to #ae inches4  
,cones open1 shed their seeds the second

 year1 and fall the third4 ,the seeds   
resemble lentils1 and are provided with 
wings which carry them several hundred  
feet1 if wind is favorable4 ,this       
affords excellent opportunities for     
reproduction2 but there is an offset in 
the sweetness of the seeds which are    
prized for food by birds1 beasts and    
creeping things from the ,piute ,indian 
down to the ,douglas squirrel and the   
jumping mouse4  ,sugar pine occupies a  
high place as a timber tree4 ,it has    
been in use for half a century4 ,the cut
 in #aijj was #eb1jjj1jjj feet1 in #aijd
 it was #abj1jjj1jjj2 in #aijg1         
#aae1jjj1jjj1 and the next year about   
#ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,ninety-three per cent of 
the cut is in ,california1 the rest in  
,oregon4 ,its stand in ,california has  
been estimated at #be1jjj1jjj1jjj feet4 
,the wood of sugar pine is a little     
lighter than eastern white pine1 is a   
little weaker1 and has less stiffness4  
,it is soft1 the rings of growth are    
wide1 the bands of summerwood thin and  

resinous2 the resin passages are        
numerous and very large1 the medullary  
rays numerous and obscure4 ,the heart is
 light brown1 the sapwood nearly white4 
,sugar pine and redwood were the two    
early roofing woods in ,california1 and 
both are still much used for that       
purpose4 ,sugar pine was made into sawed
 shingles and split shakes4 ,the shingle
 is a mill product2 but the shake was   
rived with mallet and frow1 and in the  
years when it was the great roofing     
material in central and eastern         
,california1 the shake makers camped by 
twos in the forest1 lived principally on
 bacon and red beans1 and split out from
 #bjj1jjj to #djj1jjj shakes as a       
summer's work4 ,the winter snows drove  
the workers from the mountains1 with    
from eight to twelve hundred dollars in 
their pockets for the season's work4    
,the increase in stumpage price has     
practically killed the shake maker's    
business4 ,in the palmy days when most  
everything went1 he procured his timber 

for little or nothing4 ,he sometimes    
failed to find the surveyor's lines1    
particularly if there happened to be a  
fine sugar pine just across on a        
government quarter section4 ,his method 
of operation was wasteful4 ,he used only
 the best of the tree4 ,if the grain    
happened to twist the fraction of an    
inch1 he abandoned the fallen trunk1 and
 cut another4 ,the shakes were split    
very thin1 for sugar pine is among the  
most cleavable woods of this country4   
,four or five good trees provided the   
shake maker's camp with material for a  
year's work4  ,some of the earliest     
sawmills in ,california cut sugar pine  
for sheds1 shacks1 sluiceboxes1 flumes  
among the mines2 and almost immediately 
a demand came from the agricultural and 
stock districts for lumber4 ,from that  
day until the present time the sugar    
pine mills have been busy4 ,as the      
demand has grown1 the facilities for    
meeting it have increased4 ,the         
prevailing size of the timber forbade   

the use of small mills4 ,a saw large    
enough for most eastern and southern    
timbers would not slab a sugar pine log4
 ,from four to six feet were common     
sizes1 and the lumberman despised       
anything small4  ,in late years sugar   
pine operators have looked beyond the   
local markets1 and have been sending    
their lumber to practically every state 
in the ,union1 except probably the      
extreme ,south4 ,it comes in direct     
competition with the white pine of ,new 
,england and the ,lake ,states4 ,the two
 woods have many points of resemblance4 
,the white pine would probably have lost
 no markets to the ,california wood if  
the best grades could still be had at   
moderate prices2 but most of the white  
pine region has been stripped of its    
best timber1 and the resulting scarcity 
in the high grades has been1 in part1   
made good by sugar pine4 ,some          
manufacturers of doors and frames claim 
that sugar pine is more satisfactory    
than white pine1 because of better      

behavior under climatic changes4 ,it is 
said to shrink1 swell1 and warp less    
than the eastern wood4  ,sugar pine has 
displaced white pine to a very small    
extent only1 in comparison with the     
field still held by the eastern wood1   
whose annual output is about thirty     
times that of the ,california species4  
,their uses are practically the same    
except that only the good grades of     
sugar pine go east1 and the             
corresponding grades of white pine west1
 and therefore there is no competition  
between the poor grades of the two      
woods4 ,the annual demand for sugar and 
white pine east of the ,rocky ,mountains
 is probably represented as an average  
in ,illinois1 where #b1jjj1jjj feet of  
the former and #age1jjj1jjj of the      
latter are used yearly4  ,while there is
 a large amount of mature sugar pine    
ready for lumbermen1 the prospect of    
future supplies from new growth is not  
entirely satisfactory4 ,the western     
yellow pine is mixed with it throughout 

most of its range1 and is more than a   
match for it in taking possession of    
vacant ground4 ,it is inferred from this
 fact that the relative positions of the
 two species in future forests will     
change at the expense of sugar pine4 ,it
 endures shade when small1 and this     
enables it to obtain a start among other
 species2 but as it increases in size it
 becomes intolerant of shade1 and if it 
does not receive abundance of light it  
will not grow4 ,a forest fire is nearly 
certain to kill the small sugar pines1  
but old trunks are protected by their   
thick bark4 ,few species have fewer     
natural enemies4 ,very small trees are  
occasionally attacked by mistletoe      
7,arceuthobium occidentale7 and succumb 
or else are stunted in their growth4    
,,mexican ,,pinon 7,pinus cembroides7 is
 known also as nut pine1 pinon     pine 
and stone-seed ,mexican pinon4 ,it is   
one of the smallest of the     native   
pines of this country4 ,the tree is     
fifteen or twenty feet     high and a   

few inches in diameter1 but in sheltered
 canyons in     ,arizona it sometimes   
attains a height of fifty or sixty feet 
with a     corresponding diameter4 ,it  
reaches its best development in northern
     ,mexico and what is found of it in 
the ,united ,states is the species'     
extreme northern extension1 in ,arizona 
and ,new ,mexico at altitudes           
usually above #f1jjj feet4 ,it supplies 
fuel in districts where     firewood is 
otherwise scarce1 and it has a small    
place as ranch     timber4 ,the wood is 
heavy1 of slow growth1 the summerwood   
thin and     dense4 ,the resin passages 
are few and small2 color1 light1 clear  
yellow1 the sapwood nearly white4 ,if   
the tree stood in regions               
well-forested with commercial species1  
it would possess little or no     value2
 but where wood is scarce1 it has       
considerable value4 ,the     hardshell  
nuts resemble those of the gray pine1   
but are considered     more valuable for
 food4 ,they are not of much importance 

in the     ,united ,states1 but in      
,mexico where the trees are more        
abundant and     the population denser1 
the nuts are bought and sold in large   
quantities4 ,its leaves are in clusters 
of three1 sometimes two4 ,they     are  
one inch or more in length1 and fall the
 third and fourth years4     ,cones are 
seldom over two inches in length4 ,the  
species is not     extending its range1 
but seems to be holding the ground it   
already     has4 ,it bears abundance of 
seeds1 but not one in ten thousand      
germinates and becomes a mature tree4   
,illustration     ,,whitebark ,,pine    
,illustration3 ,,whitebark ,,pine       
,,whitebark ,,pine  7,pinus ,albicaulis7
   ,this interesting and peculiar pine  
has a number of names1 most of which are
 descriptive4 ,the whiteness of the bark
 and the stunted and recumbent position 
which the tree assumes on bleak         
mountains are referred to in the names  
whitestem pine in ,california and       
,montana1 scrub pine in ,montana1       

whitebark in ,oregon1 white in          
,california1 and elsewhere it is        
creeping pine1 whitebark pine1 and      
alpine whitebark pine4 ,it is a mountain
 tree4 ,there are few heights within its
 range which it cannot reach4 ,its      
tough1 prostrate branches1 in its       
loftiest situations1 may whip snow banks
 nine or ten months of the year1 and for
 the two or three months of summer every
 starry night deposits its sprinkle of  
frost upon the flowers or cones of this 
persistent tree4 ,it stands the storms  
of centuries1 and lives on1 though the  
whole period of its existence is a      
battle for life under adverse           
circumstances4 ,at lower altitudes it   
fares better but does not live longer   
than on the most sterile peak4 ,its     
range covers #ejj1jjj square miles1 but 
only in scattered groups4 ,it touches   
the high places only1 creeping down to  
altitudes of #e1jjj or #f1jjj feet in   
the northern ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it     
grows from ,british ,columbia to        

southern ,california1 and is found in   
,montana1 ,idaho1 ,washington1 ,oregon1 
,nevada1 ,arizona1 and ,california4 ,its
 associates are the mountain climbers of
 the tree kingdom1 ,engelmann spruce1   
,lyall larch1 limber pine1 alpine fir1  
foxtail pine1 ,rocky ,mountain juniper1 
knobcone pine1 and western juniper4 ,its
 dark green needles1 stout and rigid1   
are from one and one-half to two and    
one-half inches long4 ,they hang on the 
twigs from five to eight years4 ,in     
,july the scarlet flowers appear1       
forming a beautiful contrast with the   
white bark and the green needles4 ,in   
,august the seeds are ripe4 ,the cones  
are from one and one-half to three      
inches long4 ,the seeds are nearly half 
an inch long1 sweet to the taste4 ,the  
few squirrels and birds which inhabit   
the inhospitable region where the       
whitebark pine grows1 get busy the      
moment the cones open1 and few escape4  
,nature seems to have played a prank on 
this pine by giving wings to the seeds  

and rendering their use impossible4 ,the
 wing is stuck fast with resin to the   
cone scales1 and the seed can escape    
only by tearing its wing off4 ,the heavy
 nut then falls plumb to the ground     
beneath the branches of its parent4 ,it 
might be supposed that a tree situated  
as the whitebark pine is would be       
provided with ample means of seedflight 
in order to afford wide distribution1   
and give opportunity to survive the     
hardships which are imposed by          
surroundings2 but such is not the case4 
,the willow and the cottonwood which    
grow in fertile valleys have the means  
of scattering their seeds miles away2   
but this bleak mountain tree must drop  
its seeds on the rocks beneath4 ,in this
 instance1 nature seems more interested 
in depositing the pine nuts where the   
hungry squirrels can get them1 than in  
furnishing a planting place for the nuts
 themselves--therefore1 tears off their 
wings before they leave the cone4 ,the  
battle for existence begins before the  

seeds germinate1 and the struggle never 
ceases4 ,the tree1 in parts of its      
range1 survives a temperature sixty     
degrees below zero4 ,its seedlings      
frequently perish1 not from cold and    
drought1 but because the wind thrashes  
them against the rocks which wear them  
to pieces4 ,trees which survive on the  
great heights are apt to assume strange 
and fantastic forms1 with less          
resemblance to trees than to great1     
green spiders sprawling over the rocks4 
,trees #ejj years old may not be five   
feet high4 ,deep snows hold them flat to
 the rocks so much of the time that the 
limbs cannot lift themselves during the 
few summer days1 but grow like vines4   
,the growth is so exceedingly slow that 
the new wood on the tips of twigs at the
 end of summer is a mere point of       
yellow4 ,john ,muir1 with a magnifying  
glass1 counted seventy-five annual rings
 in a twig one-eighth of an inch in     
diameter4 ,trunks three and one-half    
inches in diameter may be #bbe years    

old2 one of six inches had #dbf rings2  
while a seventeen-inch trunk was #hjj   
years old1 and less than six feet high4 
,such a tree has a spread of branches   
thirty or forty feet across4 ,they lie  
flat on the ground4 ,wild sheep1 deer1  
bear1 and other wild animals know how to
 shelter themselves beneath the         
prostrate branches by creeping under2   
and travelers1 overtaken by storms1     
sometimes do the same2 or in good       
weather the sheepherder or the hunter   
may spread his blankets on the mass of  
limbs1 boughs1 and needles1 and spend a 
comfortable night on a springy          
couch--actually sleeping in a tree top  
within two feet of the ground4 ,in      
regions lower down1 the whitebark pine  
reaches respectable tree form4 ,fence   
posts are sometimes cut from it in the  
,mono basin1 east of the ,sierra ,nevada
 mountains4 ,in the ,nez ,perce         
,national ,forest trees forty feet high 
have merchantable lengths of twenty-four
 feet4 ,similar growth is found in other

 regions4 ,in its best growth1 the wood 
of whitebark pine resembles that of     
white pine4 ,it is light1 of about the  
same strength as white pine1 but more   
brittle4 ,the annual rings are very     
narrow2 the small resin passages are    
numerous4 ,the sapwood is very thin and 
is nearly white4 ,men can never greatly 
assist or hinder this tree4 ,it will    
continue to occupy heights and elevated 
valleys4  ,,bristlecone ,,pine 7,pinus  
aristata7 owes its name to the sharp    
bristles on the tips of the cone scales4
 ,it is known also as foxtail pine and  
hickory pine4 ,the latter name is given1
 not because of toughness1 but on       
account of the whiteness of the sapwood4
 ,it is strictly a high mountain tree1  
running up to the timber line at #ab1jjj
 feet1 and seldom occurring below #f1jjj
 or #g1jjj feet4 ,it maintains its      
existence under adverse circumstances1  
its home being on dry1 stony ridges1    
cold and stormy in winter1 and subject  
to excessive drought during the brief   

growing season4 ,trees of large trunks  
and fine forms are impossible under such
 conditions4 ,the bristlecone pine's    
bole is short1 tapers rapidly and is    
excessively knotty4 ,the species reaches
 its best development in ,colorado4     
,though it is seldom sawed for lumber1  
it is of much importance in many        
localities where better material is     
scarce4 ,in central ,nevada many        
valuable mines were developed and worked
 by using the wood for props and fuel4  
,charcoal made of it was particularly   
important in that region1 and it was    
carried long distances to supply        
blacksmith shops in mining camps4       
,railways have made some use of it for  
ties4 ,though rough1 it is liked for    
fence posts4 ,the resin in the wood     
assists in resisting decay1 and posts   
last many years in the dry regions where
 the tree grows4 ,ranchmen among the    
high mountains build corrals1 pens1     
sheds1 and fences of it2 but the fibers 
of the wood are so twisted and involved 

that splitting is nearly impossible1 and
 round timbers only are employed4 ,the  
bristlecone pine can never be more      
important in the country's lumber supply
 than it is now4 ,it occupies waste land
 where no other tree grows1 and it      
crowds out nothing better than itself4  
,it clings to stony peaks and wind-swept
 ridges where the ungainly trunks are   
welcome to the traveler1 miner1 or      
sheepherder who is in need of a shed to 
shelter him1 or a fire for his night    
camp4 ,in situations exposed to great   
cold and drying winds1 the bristlecone  
pine is a shrub1 with little suggestion 
of a tree1 further than its green       
foliage and small cones4 ,the needles   
are in clusters of five4 ,they cling to 
the twigs for ten or fifteen years4 ,the
 seeds are scattered about the first of 
,october1 and the wind carries them     
hundreds of feet4 ,they take root in    
soil so sterile that no humus is        
visible4 ,young trees and the small     
twigs of old ones present a peculiar    

appearance4 ,the bark is chalky white1  
but when the trees are old the bark     
becomes red or brown4      ,,foxtail    
,,pine 7,pinus balfouriana7 owes its    
name to the clustering     of its       
needles round the ends of the branches1 
bristling like a     fox's tail4 ,the   
needles are seldom more than one and    
one-half inches     in length1 and are  
in clusters of fives4 ,they cling to the
 branches     ten or fifteen years      
before falling4 ,the cones are about    
three     inches long1 and are armed    
with slender spines4 ,the tree is       
strictly     a mountain species and     
grows at a higher altitude than any     
other     tree in the ,united ,states1  
although whitebark pine is not much     
behind it4 ,it reaches its best         
development near ,mt4 ,whitney1         
,california1 where it is said to grow at
 an altitude of #ae1jjj feet     above  
sea level4 ,it has been officially      
reported at ,farewell ,gap1 in     the  
,sierra ,nevada mountains1 at an        

altitude of #ac1jjj4 ,at high           
altitudes it is scrubby and distorted1  
but in more favorable     situations it 
may be sixty feet high and two in       
diameter4 ,on high     mountains it is  
generally not more than thirty feet high
 and ten     inches in diameter4 ,it is 
of remarkably slow growth1 and          
comparatively small trees may be #bjj or
 #cjj years old4 ,the wood is           
moderately light1 is soft1 weak1        
brittle4 ,resin passages are few and    
very small4 ,the wood is satiny and     
susceptible of a good polish1 and       
would be valuable if abundant4 ,the     
seeds are winged and the wind           
scatters them widely1 but most of them  
are lost on barren rocks or     drifts  
of eternal snow4 ,the untoward          
circumstances under which the     tree  
must live prevent generous reproduction4
 ,it holds its own but     can gain no  
new foothold on the bleak and barren    
heights which form     its environment4 
,the dark green of its foliage makes the

 belts of     foxtail pines conspicuous 
where they grow above the timber line of
     nearly all other trees4 ,its range 
is confined to a few of the     highest 
mountains of ,california1 particularly  
about 7but not on7 ,mt4     ,shasta and 
among the clusters of peaks about the   
sources of ,kings     and ,kern rivers4 
,those who travel and camp among the    
highest     mountains of ,california are
 often indebted to foxtail pine for     
their     fuel4 ,near the upper limit of
 its range it frequently dies at the    
top1 and stands stripped of bark for    
many years4 ,the dead wood1     which   
frequently is not higher above the      
ground than a man's head1     is broken 
away by campers for fuel1 and it is     
often the only     resource4            
,illustration     ,,longleaf ,,pine     
,illustration3 ,,longleaf ,,pine        
,,longleaf ,,pine  7,pinus ,palustris7  
,longleaf is generally considered to be 
the most important member of the group  
of hard or pitch pines in this          

country#b4 ,it is known by many names in
 different parts of its range1 and      
outside of its range where the wood is  
well known4      #b ,there is no precise
 agreement as to what should be included
 in     the group of hard pines in the  
,united ,states1 but the following      
twenty-two are usually placed in that   
class3 ,longleaf ,pine 7,pinus          
palustris71 ,shortleaf ,pine 7,pinus    
echinata71 ,loblolly ,pine     7,pinus  
tda71 ,cuban ,pine 7,pinus              
heterophylla71 ,norway ,pine     7,pinus
 resinosa71 ,western ,yellow ,pine      
7,pinus ponderosa71     ,chihuahua ,pine
 7,pinus chihuahuana71 ,arizona ,pine   
7,pinus     arizonica71 ,pitch ,pine    
7,pinus rigida71 ,pond ,pine 7,pinus    
serotina71 ,spruce ,pine 7,pinus        
glabra71 ,monterey ,pine 7,pinus        
radiata71 ,knobcone ,pine 7,pinus       
attenuata71 ,gray ,pine 7,pinus         
sabiniana71 ,coulter ,pine 7,pinus      
coulteri71 ,lodgepole ,pine 7,pinus     
contorta71 ,jack ,pine 7,pinus          

divaricata71 ,scrub ,pine 7,pinus       
virginiana71 ,sand ,pine 7,pinus        
clausa71 ,table ,mountain ,pine         
7,pinus pungens71 ,california ,swamp    
,pine 7,pinus muricata71 ,torry         
,pine 7,pinus torreyana74  ,the names   
southern pine1 ,georgia pine1 and       
,florida pine are not well chosen1      
because there are other important pines 
in the regions named4 ,turpentine pine  
is a common term1 but other species     
produce turpentine also1 particularly   
the ,cuban pine4 ,hard pine is much     
employed in reference to this tree1 and 
it applies well1 but it describes other 
species also4 ,heart pine is a          
lumberman's term to distinguish this    
species from loblolly1 shortleaf1 and   
,cuban pines4 ,the sapwood of the three 
last named is thick1 the heartwood      
small1 while in longleaf pine the sap is
 thin1 the heart large1 hence the name  
applied by lumbermen4 ,in ,tennessee    
where it is not a commercial forest     
tree1 it is called brown pine1 and in   

nearly all parts of the ,united ,states 
it is spoken of as yellow pine1 usually 
with some adjective as 8southern10      
8,georgia10 or 8longleaf40 ,the         
persistency with which ,georgia is used 
as a portion of the name of this tree is
 due to the fact that extensive         
lumbering of the longleaf forests began 
in that state4 ,the center of operations
 has since shifted to the ,west1 and is 
now in ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 and    
,texas4 ,the tree has many other names1 
among them being pitch pine and fat     
pine4 ,these have reference to its value
 in the naval stores industry4 ,the name
 longleaf pine is now well established  
in commercial transactions4 ,it has     
longer leaves than any other pine in    
this country4 ,they range in length from
 eight to eighteen inches4 ,the needles 
of ,cuban pine are from eight to twelve 
inches2 loblolly's are from six to nine2
 and those of shortleaf from three to   
five4  ,longleaf pine's geographic range
 is more restricted than that of        

loblolly and shortleaf1 but larger than 
the range of ,cuban pine4 ,longleaf     
occupies a belt from ,virginia to       
,texas1 following the tertiary sandy    
formation pretty closely4 ,the belt     
seldom extends from the coast inland    
more than #abe miles4 ,the tree runs    
south in ,florida to ,tampa bay4 ,it    
disappears as it approaches the         
,mississippi1 but reappears west of that
 river in ,louisiana and ,texas4 ,its   
western limit is near ,trinity river1   
and its northern in that region is near 
the boundary between ,louisiana and     
,arkansas4  ,longleaf attains a height  
of from sixty to ninety feet1 but a few 
trees reach #acj4 ,the diameters of     
mature trunks range from one foot to    
three1 usually less than two4 ,the      
leaves grow three in a bundle1 and fall 
at the end of the second year4 ,they are
 arranged in thick1 broom-like bunches  
on the ends of the twigs4 ,it is a tree 
of slow growth compared with other pines
 of the region4 ,its characteristic     

narrow annual rings are usually         
sufficient to distinguish its logs and  
lumber from those of other southern     
yellow pines4 ,its thin sapwood likewise
 assists in identification4 ,the        
proportionately high percentage of      
heartwood in longleaf pine makes it     
possible to saw lumber which shows      
little or no sapwood4 ,it is difficult  
to do that with other southern pines4   
,the wood is heavy1 exceedingly hard for
 pine1 very strong1 tough1 compact1     
durable1 resinous1 resin passages few1  
not conspicuous2 medullary rays         
numerous1 not conspicuous2 color1 light 
red or orange1 the thin sapwood nearly  
white4 ,the annual rings contain a large
 proportion of dark colored summerwood1 
which accounts for the great strength of
 longleaf pine timber4 ,the contrast in 
color between the springwood and the    
summerwood is the basis of the figure of
 this pine which gives it much of its   
value as an interior finish material1   
including doors4 ,the hardness of the   

summerwood provides the wearing         
qualities of flooring and paving blocks4
 ,the coloring matter in the body of the
 wood protects it against decay for a   
longer period than most other pines4    
,this1 in connection with its hardness  
and strength1 gives it high standing for
 railroad ties1 bridges1 trestles1 and  
other structures exposed to weather4    
,longleaf pine is as widely used as any 
softwood in this country4 ,it serves    
with hardwoods for a number of purposes4
 ,it has been a timber of commerce since
 an early period1 and was exported from 
the south ,atlantic coast long before   
the ,revolutionary war2 but it was later
 than that when it came into keen       
competition with the ,riga pine of      
northern ,europe4 ,it has since held its
 own in the ,european markets1 and its  
trade has extended to many other foreign
 countries1 particularly to the         
republics of ,south and ,central        
,america1 ,mexico1 and the ,west        
,indies4  ,it did not attain an         

important position in the commerce of   
this country until after the ,civil war1
 but it had a place in shipbuilding     
before that time1 and it has held that  
place4 ,the builders of cars employ     
large quantities for frames and other   
parts of gondolas1 box cars1 and        
coaches4 ,over #age1jjj1jjj feet were so
 used in #aiji in ,illinois4 ,it is the 
leading car building timber in this     
country4 ,its great strength1 hardness1 
and stiffness give it that place4  ,it  
is scarcely less important as an        
interior wood for house finish4 ,it is  
not so much its strength as its beauty  
that recommends it for that purpose4    
,its beauty is due to a combination of  
figure and color4 ,splendid variety is  
possible by carefully selecting the     
material4 ,manufacturers of furniture1  
fixtures1 and vehicles are large users  
of longleaf pine4 ,in these lines its   
chief value is due to strength4  ,in the
 naval stores industry in this country1 
it is more important than all other     

species combined4 ,for a century and a  
half it has supplied this country and   
much of the rest of the world4 ,the     
principal commodities made from the     
resin of this tree are spirits of       
turpentine and rosin4 ,these two        
articles are produced by distilling the 
resin which exudes from wounds in the   
tree4 ,the distillate is spirits of     
turpentine1 the residue is rosin4 ,the  
manufacture of naval stores has         
destroyed tens of thousands of trees in 
the past2 but better methods are now in 
use and loss is less4 ,georgia and      
,south ,carolina were once the center of
 naval stores production2 but it has now
 moved to ,louisiana and ,florida4  ,the
 supply of longleaf pine has rapidly    
decreased during the past twenty years1 
and though the end is not yet at hand1  
it is approaching4 ,young trees are not 
coming on to take the place of those cut
 for lumber4 ,they grow slowly at best1 
and a new forest could not be produced  
in less than a hundred years4 ,both     

protection and care have been lacking4  
,fire usually kills seedlings in their  
first or second year4 ,the result is    
that many extensive tracts where        
longleaf pine once grew in abundance    
have few young and scarcely any old     
trees now4 ,as far as can be foreseen1  
this valuable timber will reach its end 
when existing stands have been cut4     
,,cuban ,,pine 7,pinus heterophylla74   
,the ,cuban pine has several local      
names2 slash pine in ,georgia1 ,florida1
 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi2 swamp pine 
in ,florida1 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi2
 meadow pine in ,florida and            
,mississippi2 pitch pine in ,florida2   
and spruce pine in ,alabama4 ,its range 
is confined to the coast region from    
,south ,carolina to ,louisiana1 from    
sixty to one hundred miles inland4 ,it  
is the only pine in the extreme south of
 ,florida4 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1    
very strong1 tough1 compact1 durable1   
resinous1 the resin passages few but    
conspicuous1 rich dark orange color1 the

 sapwood often nearly white4 ,the annual
 ring is usually more than half dark    
colored summerwood4 ,the ,cuban pine    
grows rapidly1 quickly appropriates     
vacant ground1 and the species is       
spreading4 ,its needles1 from eight to  
twelve inches long1 fall the second     
year4 ,the wood possesses nearly the    
strength1 hardness1 and stiffness of    
longleaf pine1 and the trunks are as    
large4 ,the two woods which are so      
similar in other respects differ in     
figure1 owing to the wider annual rings 
of the ,cuban pine4 ,the sapwood of the 
latter species greatly exceeds in       
thickness that of longleaf pine4 ,for   
that reason it is often mistaken for    
loblolly pine4 ,cuban pine never goes to
 market under its own name1 but is mixed
 with and passes for one of the other   
southern yellow pines4  ,,sand ,,pine   
7,pinus clausa74 ,this tree is generally
 twenty or thirty feet high1 and eight  
or twelve inches in diameter4 ,under    
favorable conditions it attains a height

 of sixty or eighty feet and a diameter 
of two4 ,the leaves are two or three    
inches long1 and fall the third and     
fourth years4 ,its range is almost      
wholly in ,florida but extends a little 
over the northern border4 ,it grows as  
far south as ,tampa on the west coast1  
and nearly to ,miami on the east4 ,it is
 not much cut for lumber because of its 
small size and generally short1 limby   
trunk4 ,in a few localities shapely     
boles are developed1 and serviceable    
lumber is made4 ,it is a poor-land tree1
 as its name implies4 ,the cones adhere 
to the branches many years1 and may be  
partly enclosed in the growing wood4    
,illustration     ,,shortleaf ,,pine    
,illustration3 ,,shortleaf ,,pine       
,,shortleaf ,,pine  7,pinus ,echinata7  
,in the markets the lumber of this      
species is known as yellow pine1        
southern yellow pine1 and sap pine1 and 
in some localities the term shortleaf is
 used4 ,the latter is descriptive1 and  
can be easily understood when reference 

is made to the living tree1 because its 
short needles distinguish it from its   
associates in the pine forest2 but in   
speaking of lumber only1 the reference  
to the leaves has less meaning1         
particularly to one who is not          
acquainted with the tree's appearance4  
,its wood so closely resembles that of  
,cuban and loblolly pine that they are  
not easily distinguished by sight alone4
 ,in the ,east the name ,carolina pine  
or ,north ,carolina pine is much used1  
but it is not often heard west of the   
,allegheny mountains4 ,referring to the 
manner and locality of its growth it is 
called slash pine in ,north ,carolina   
and ,virginia1 old-field pine in        
,alabama and ,mississippi1 and          
poor-field pine in ,florida4 ,its       
tendency to take possession of abandoned
 ground has given it these names4 ,it is
 occasionally called pitch pine in      
,missouri4 ,that name would not         
distinguish it in most parts of the     
,south where several species of pitch   

pine grow4 ,in some regions it is known 
as spruce pine1 but the name is not     
based on any characteristic of the      
living tree or of its wood4 ,in ,north  
,carolina and ,alabama1 and in          
literature1 it is sometimes known as    
rosemary pine1 but that name applies    
rather to fine timber cut from any      
southern yellow pine1 than to this      
species in particular4 ,in ,delaware it 
is known as shortshat and in ,virginia  
as bull pine4 ,to those who are familiar
 with the tree's appearance1 the name   
shortleaf pine is most accurate in      
definition4  ,the commercial range of   
shortleaf pine has contracted to a      
considerable extent since the settlement
 of the country4 ,it once grew as far   
north as ,albany1 ,new ,york1 and from  
fifty to a hundred years ago it was     
lumbered in ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1   
and ,west ,virginia in regions where it 
has now ceased to exist1 or is found    
only as scattered trees4 ,its           
geographical range is now usually given 

from ,new ,york to ,florida1 west to    
,missouri and ,oklahoma and northeastern
 ,texas4 ,it is important in lumber     
operations in ,north ,carolina and      
southward1 and westward to the limits of
 its range4 ,the tree reaches its       
largest size and attains its finest     
stands west of the ,mississippi river4  
,in average size it exceeds longleaf    
pine4 ,it may reach a height above #ajj 
feet and a trunk diameter of three or   
four4 ,squared timbers of large size    
were formerly exported from ,virginia   
and ,north ,carolina4 ,similar sizes    
cannot now be procured there4           
,shortleaf pine varies greatly in the   
quality and amount of sapwood4 ,it is   
normally a thick sap tree1 but midway   
between loblolly and longleaf4 ,the     
young tree increases rapidly in size    
until it is from six to ten inches in   
diameter1 and the yearly rings are wide4
 ,the rate of growth then decreases and 
during the rest of its life the rings   
are narrow4 ,this feature is often of   

assistance in identifying southern      
yellow pine logs or large timbers which 
contain the heart and also the sap4     
,wide rings near the heart1 followed by 
narrow ones1 and a thick sapwood are    
pretty good evidence that the timber--if
 a southern yellow pine--is shortleaf   
pine4 ,the rule is not absolute2 for a  
high authority on timber has said that  
no infallible rule can be laid down for 
distinguishing by sight alone the woods 
of the four southern yellow             
pines--longleaf1 shortleaf1 ,cuban1 and 
loblolly4  ,the wood of shortleaf pine  
is strong1 heavy1 hard1 and compact2    
very resinous1 resin passages large and 
numerous2 medullary rays numerous1      
conspicuous2 color1 orange1 the sapwood 
nearly white4 ,the thoroughly seasoned  
wood weighs thirty-eight pounds per     
cubic foot4 ,it is about five pounds    
heavier than loblolly pine1 five pounds 
lighter than longleaf1 and nearly nine  
pounds lighter than ,cuban pine4 ,there 
is so great a variation in weight of    

shortleaf pine that only general        
averages have value4  ,shortleaf pine is
 not as strong as longleaf1 and is not  
so extensively employed in heavy        
structural work1 but in certain other   
lines it has the advantage of longleaf4 
,it is softer1 and door and sash makers 
like it better4 ,it is easier to work1  
and when manufactured into doors and    
interior finish many consider it        
superior to longleaf4 ,the wide rings of
 annual growth in the heartwood show    
fine contrast in color1 and when these  
are developed by stains and fillers1 the
 grain or figure of the wood is very    
pleasing4 ,where hardness is not an     
essential1 it is much used for floors4  
,it is in great demand by builders of   
freight cars1 but less for frames and   
heavy beams than for siding and decking4
 ,car builders in ,illinois bought      
#gg1jjj1jjj feet of it in #aiji4 ,that  
was nearly half of the entire quantity  
of this wood used in the state4 ,the    
second largest users in ,illinois were  

manufacturers of sash1 doors1 blinds1   
and general millwork4 ,if the whole     
country is considered1 this is probably 
the largest use of the wood4 ,makers of 
boxes and crates in the ,south employ   
large quantities4  ,the depletion of    
shortleaf forests has progressed        
rapidly1 but in the absence of reliable 
statistics it is impossible to give     
figures by decades or years4 ,in #ahhj  
an estimate placed the amount west of   
the ,mississippi at #ie1jjj1jjj1jjj     
feet4 ,that was probably less than half 
of the country's supply at that time4   
,in #aiaa the ,commissioner of          
,corporations estimated that the        
combined remaining stand of loblolly and
 shortleaf pine in the ,south was       
#aeb1jjj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,it is doubtful  
if half of it was shortleaf4 ,in that   
case1 there was less shortleaf pine in  
the entire ,south in #aiaa than there   
was west of the ,mississippi river      
thirty years before4  ,rapid decrease in
 total stand of a species does not      

necessarily imply exhaustion4 ,the cut  
will fall off as scarcity pinches4 ,in  
the case of shortleaf pine1 an influence
 is active which will bring good results
 in the future4 ,this pine reproduces   
with vigor4 ,its small triangular seeds 
are equipped with wings which carry them
 into vacant areas where they quickly   
germinate if they fall on mineral soil4 
,the seedling trees suffer much from    
fire1 but their power of resistance is  
fairly good1 and dense new growth is    
coming on in many localities4 ,a good   
many years are required to bring a      
seedling to maturity1 but it will reach 
sawlog size sometime1 and there is no   
question but that the market will       
welcome it4  ,the shortleaf pine is     
peculiar among eastern softwoods in one 
respect4 ,stumps will sprout4 ,that     
occurs oftener west of the ,mississippi 
than east4 ,however1 the tree's ability 
to send up sprouts from the stump is of 
little practical value1 since the       
sprouts seldom or never develop into    

merchantable trees4 ,in that respect it 
differs from the other well-known       
sprouting softwood of this country1 the 
,california redwood1 whose numerous     
sprouts grow into large trunks4         
,,spruce ,,pine 7,pinus glabra74 ,this  
is one of the softest and the whitest of
 the hard pines of this country4        
,nothing but its scarcity stands in the 
way of its becoming an important timber 
tree4 ,the best of it is a satisfactory 
substitute for white pine in the        
manufacture of doors4 ,it grows rapidly1
 and the wide rings contain a high      
percentage of light colored springwood1 
though there is enough summerwood of    
darker color to give the dressed lumber 
a character4 ,it weighs about the same  
as northern white pine1 but is weaker4  
,in ,south ,carolina and ,florida it is 
called white pine1 but the name spruce  
is more general4 ,it is known also as   
kingstree1 poor pine1 ,walter's pine1   
and lowland spruce pine4 ,its range is  
restricted to southern ,south ,carolina1

 northern ,florida and southern ,alabama
 and ,mississippi1 and northeastern     
,louisiana4 ,its leaves are from one and
 a half to three inches in length1 grow 
two in a bundle1 and fall the second and
 third years4 ,large and well-formed    
trunks attain a height of from eighty to
 #ajj feet and a diameter from two to   
nearly three4 ,it reaches its best      
development in northwestern ,florida1   
and its light1 symmetrical trunks have  
long been in use there as masts for     
small vessels4 ,it is too scarce to     
attract much attention from lumbermen1  
but they are well acquainted with its   
good qualities1 and some of them take   
pains to keep the lumber separate from  
associated pines1 and sell it to        
manufacturers of doors and interior     
finish4 ,the bark bears considerable    
resemblance to spruce1 which probably   
accounts for the name of the tree4      
,,table ,,mountain ,,pine 7,pinus       
pungens74 ,the ,french botanist1        
,michaux     the younger1 has been      

criticized for the statement which he   
made     more than a hundred years ago  
that this species was confined to a     
certain flat-topped mountain in the     
southern ,appalachian ranges1 and     he
 called it table mountain pine4 ,it     
lacked much of being confined     within
 the narrow limits where it was         
discovered4 ,it grows in ,new           
,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1      
,district of ,columbia1 ,virginia1 ,west
     ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1  
,north ,carolina1 and ,georgia4 ,its    
other names are prickly pine1 hickory   
pine1 and southern mountain     pine4   
,it supplies timber in all parts of its 
range1 but1 except in     very          
restricted localities1 it is not        
abundant4 ,the lumber in the     market 
is seldom distinguished from other      
pines1 but some of the     ,tennessee   
mills sell it separately to local       
customers4 ,the wood is     medium      
light1 rather strong 7about like ,pinus 
rigida1 or pitch     pine1 which it     

resembles in other respects71 is less   
stiff than     white pine1 and is       
resinous4 ,the thick sapwood is nearly  
white1 the     heartwood brown4 ,it is  
not a durable timber in contact with the
     ground4 ,its fuel value is low4    
,its needles grow in clusters of two1   
and are generally less than two inches  
long4 ,the cones which are in           
clusters of from three to eight1 and    
from two to three and a half     inches 
long1 are armed with stout1 curved      
hooks4 ,the cones shed     their seeds  
irregularly during two or three years1  
and sometimes     hang on the trees for 
twenty years4 ,in open ground this pine 
occasionally produces fertile seeds when
 only a few feet high4 ,its     forest  
form and open-ground form are quite     
different4 ,in thick woods     the tree 
is tall1 with good bole1 but in open    
ground it is only     twenty or thirty  
feet high1 and is covered with limbs    
almost to the     ground4  ,illustration
     ,,loblolly ,,pine  ,illustration3  

,,loblolly ,,pine     ,,loblolly ,,pine 
7,pinus ,tda7   ,few trees have more    
names than this4 ,the names1 however1   
may be separated into groups1 one group 
referring to the foliage1 another to the
 situations in which the tree grows1 and
 a third to certain characters or uses  
of the wood4 ,names descriptive of the  
leaves are longschat pine1 longshucks   
pine1 shortleaf pine1 foxtail pine1 and 
longstraw pine4 ,the names which refer  
to locality or situation are loblolly   
pine1 old-field pine1 slash pine1 black 
slash pine1 ,virginia pine1 meadow pine 
and swamp pine4 ,names which refer to   
the character of the wood or of the     
standing tree are torch pine1 rosemary  
pine1 frankincense pine1 cornstalk pine1
 spruce pine1 and yellow pine4 ,not one 
of these names is applied to the tree in
 its entire range1 and it has several   
names other than those listed4 ,sap pine
 is widely applied to the lumber1       
because the tree's sapwood is very      
thick1 sometimes amounting to eighty per

 cent of a trunk4 ,it has borne the name
 old-field pine for a hundred and fifty 
years in ,virginia1 and the name        
suggests a good deal of history4 ,some  
of the improvident early ,virginia      
tobacco growers neglected to fertilize  
their fields1 and the land wore out     
under constant cropping1 and was        
abandoned4 ,the pine quickly took       
possession1 for the fields which were   
too far exhausted to produce tobacco or 
corn were amply able to grow dense      
stands of loblolly pine1 and the farmers
 noticing this1 called it old-field     
pine4 ,it has been taking possession of 
abandoned fields in ,virginia and ,north
 ,carolina ever since1 and the name     
still applies4 ,the tree grows from ,new
 ,jersey to ,florida1 west to ,texas1   
north to ,oklahoma1 ,tennessee1 and     
,west ,virginia1 but it does not cover  
the whole territory thus outlined4 ,it  
is very scarce near its northern limit4 
,there is evidence that the range of    
loblolly has extended in historic times1

 not into new or distant regions1 but   
outside the borders which once marked   
its range4 ,since white men in ,texas   
stopped the ,indians' grass fires1 the  
pine has encroached upon the prairie4   
,early writers in ,virginia and ,north  
,carolina spoke of pine as scarce or    
totally wanting1 except on the immediate
 coast4 ,it is now found from one       
hundred to two hundred miles inland1 and
 many sawmills now cut logs which have  
grown in fields abandoned since the     
,revolutionary war4 ,this has occurred  
on the ,atlantic coast rather than west 
of the ,appalachian ranges of mountains4
 ,virginia has more sawmills than any   
other state1 and many of them are       
working on loblolly pine which has grown
 in the last hundred years4  ,the tree  
bears seeds abundantly and scatters them
 widely4 ,it is vigorous1 grows with    
great rapidity1 and is able to fight its
 way if it finds conditions in any way  
favorable4 ,turpentine operators have   
not found the working of loblolly pine  

profitable1 and this has relieved it of 
a drain which has done much to deplete  
the southern forests of longleaf pine4  
,loblolly's leaves are from six to nine 
inches long1 and fall the third year4   
,this species1 in common with other     
southern yellow pines1 is disposed to   
grow tall1 clear trunks1 with a meager  
supply of limbs and foliage at the top4 
,the lumber sawed from trunks of that   
kind is clear of knots4 ,no other       
important forest tree of the ,united    
,states comes as nearly being a         
cultivated tree as the loblolly pine4   
,this is particularly true in the       
northeastern part of its range1 in      
,north ,carolina1 ,virginia1 and        
,maryland4 ,though nature has done the  
actual planting1 men provided the seed  
beds by giving up old fields to that    
use2 and many of the stands are as thick
 and even as if they had been planted   
and cared for by regular forestry       
methods4 ,trees are from eighty to one  
hundred feet tall1 and from two to four 

in diameter1 some very old ones being a 
little larger4  ,the annual rings of    
loblolly pine are broad1 with good      
contrast between the spring and summer  
growth4 ,the wood is light1 not strong1 
brittle1 not durable1 very resinous1 the
 resin passages are few and not         
conspicuous2 medullary rays are numerous
 and obscure2 color1 light brown1 the   
thick sapwood orange or nearly white4   
,when this tree is of slow growth it is 
lighter1 less resinous1 and has thinner 
sapwood4 ,it is sometimes known as      
rosemary pine4  ,the use of loblolly    
pine lumber was greatly stimulated when 
the custom of drying it in kilns became 
general4 ,it is largely sapwood and     
dries slowly in air4 ,its market is     
found in all eastern and central parts  
of the ,united ,states1 and it is       
exported to ,europe and ,central and    
,south ,america4 ,it is a substantial   
material for many common purposes and   
its use is very large on the ,atlantic  
coast4 ,in quantity it exceeds any other

 species in the wood-using industries of
 ,maryland1 and all others combined in  
,north ,carolina4 ,it is not as often   
employed in heavy structural timbers as 
longleaf pine1 but in the market of     
which ,baltimore is the center1 much use
 is made of it for that purpose4 ,it is 
ten pounds a cubic foot lighter than    
longleaf1 has about three-fourths of the
 strength1 and nearly four-fifths of    
longleaf's elasticity4 ,it is thus seen 
to be considerably inferior to it as a  
structural timber where heavy loads must
 be sustained2 but builders use it for  
many purposes in preference to or on an 
equality with longleaf4 ,it is fine for 
interior finish and doors4 ,railroads   
employ large quantities in building     
freight cars1 much for crossties1 and   
bridge builders find many places for it4
 ,it is not a long lasting wood when    
exposed to weather1 unless it has been  
treated with creosote to preserve it    
from decay4 ,it is one of the most      
easily treated woods4  ,in ,north       

,carolina and ,virginia loblolly tobacco
 hogsheads are common2 and box factories
 within easy reach of it use much4 ,a   
list of its uses1 compiled from reports 
of factory operations in ,maryland1 will
 give an idea of the range it covers3   
,basket bottoms1 beer bottle boxes1     
boats1 cart bodies1 crates1 flooring1   
frames for doors and windows1 fruit     
boxes1 interior finish1 nail kegs1      
oyster boxes1 seats for boats1 siding   
for houses1 staves for slack cooperage1 
store fixtures1 wagon beds1 balusters1  
brackets1 chiffoniers1 mantels1 molding1
 picture frames1 stair railing1 sash1   
scrollwork1 sideboards1 tables4  ,the   
amount of loblolly pine timber in this  
country is not known4 ,no other         
important species comes so near growing 
as much as is cut from year to year4 ,it
 covers #bjj1jjj square miles with      
stands ranging from little or nothing in
 some parts to #bj1jjj feet per acre in 
others1 or more in exceptional cases4   
,the area of fully stocked loblolly pine

 is believed to be as large now as it   
ever was4 ,before the ,civil war it was 
predicted that its period of greatest   
production was over2 but large tracts   
are now being logged on which the pine  
seeds had not been sown in #ahfj4       
,,pond ,,pine 7,pinus serotina74        
,sargent's table of weights of woods    
shows this to be the heaviest pine of   
the ,united ,states2 but1 as his        
calculations were made from a single    
sample which grew in ,duval county1     
,florida1 further data should be secured
 before his figures1 #di4e pounds per   
cubic foot1 are accepted as an average  
weight for the species4 ,it is rated in 
strength about equal to longleaf and    
,cuban pine4 ,its structure shows a     
large percentage of dense summerwood in 
the yearly ring4 ,the leaves are in     
clusters of three1 rarely four1 and are 
six or eight inches long1 and fall in   
their third and fourth years4 ,the name 
suggests that the cones are tightly     
closed1 and that they adhere tenaciously

 to the twigs on which they grow4 ,this 
is found true4 ,the principal impression
 made on a person who sees the pond pine
 for the first time is that it is       
overloaded with cones1 and that it must 
be a prolific seeder4 ,better           
acquaintance modifies the latter part of
 that impression4 ,it is overloaded with
 cones1 but most of them are many years 
old1 and have long been seedless1       
although most of the trees have the seed
 crops of two years on the branches at  
one time4 ,enough seed is shed to       
perpetuate the species1 but too little  
to insure an aggressive spread into     
surrounding vacant ground4 ,the pond    
pine may reach a diameter of three feet 
and a height of eighty1 but that is     
twice the average size4 ,the wood is    
very resinous1 and is brittle4          
,,scrub ,,pine 7,pinus virginiana74     
,this tree is often called ,jersey      
pine because it is a prominent feature  
of the landscapes in the     southern   
part of that state where it has spread  

extensively since     the settlement of 
the country4 ,its short needles have    
been     responsible for several of its 
names1 among them being shortshuck      
pine in ,maryland and ,virginia1        
shortshat pine in ,delaware1            
shortleaved pine in ,north ,carolina1   
and spruce pine and cedar pine     in   
some parts of the ,south4 ,in ,tennessee
 it is known as nigger pine1     and in 
some parts of ,north ,carolina as river 
pine4 ,the range is     fairly well     
outlined by the above discussion of its 
names4 ,it grows     from ,new ,york to 
,south ,carolina1 and west of the       
mountains it is     found in northern   
,alabama and middle ,tennessee1 in      
,kentucky and ,west     ,virginia4 ,it  
reaches its largest size in southern    
,indiana where it     is sometimes #ajj 
feet high and three in diameter4 ,it is 
there a     valuable tree for many      
purposes1 but is not abundant4 ,its     
average     size is small in the eastern
 states1 usually not over fifty feet    

high1 and often little more than half of
 that4 ,few trunks east of     the      
,allegheny mountains are more than      
eighteen inches in diameter4     ,the   
name scrub pine is an index to the      
opinions held by most people            
regarding this tree4 ,it is often       
considered an encumbrance rather        
than an asset2 yet statistics of        
wood-using industries hardly     justify
 that view4 ,millions of feet of it are 
employed annually in     each of the    
states of ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1      
,virginia1 and ,north     ,carolina1 for
 boxes1 slack cooperage1 and common     
lumber4 ,the wood is     moderately     
strong1 but is not stiff4 ,it is medium 
light1 soft1     brittle1 with          
summerwood narrow and very resinous4    
,its color is     light orange or       
yellow1 the thick sapwood ivory white4  
,the needles     are from one and a half
 to three inches long1 and fall in the  
third     and fourth years4 ,cones are  
two or three inches long1 and scatter   

their seeds in autumn4 ,the wings are   
too small to carry the seeds     far1   
yet the tree succeeds in quickly        
spreading into surrounding     vacant   
spaces4 ,cones adhere to the branches   
three or four years4 ,tar     makers and
 charcoal burners utilized scrub pine in
 ,new ,jersey1     northeastern         
,maryland and southeastern ,pennsylvania
 a century and a     half ago4 ,the tree
 seems to be as abundant now as it ever 
was4     ,unless it occupies very poor  
land--which it generally does--the      
growth is liable to be suppressed and   
crowded to death by broadleaf     trees 
before the stands become very old4 ,as a
 species1 it is weak in                 
self-defense1 and it owes its survival  
to its habit of retreating to     poor  
soils where enemies cannot follow4 ,it  
may be said of it as the     ,roman     
historian ,tacitus said of certain men3 
8,the cowards fly the     farthest1 and 
are the longest survivors40             
,illustration     ,,norway ,,pine       

,illustration3 ,,norway ,,pine          
,,norway ,,pine  7,pinus ,resinosa7     
,early explorers who were not botanists 
mistook this tree for ,norway spruce1   
and gave it the name which has since    
remained in nearly all parts of its     
range4 ,it is called red pine also1 and 
this name is strictly descriptive4 ,the 
brown or red color of the bark is       
instantly noticed by one who sees the   
tree for the first time4 ,in the ,lake  
,states it has been called hard pine for
 the purpose of distinguishing it from  
the softer white pine with which it is  
associated4 ,in ,england they call it   
,canadian red pine1 because the         
principal supply in ,england is imported
 from the ,canadian provinces4  ,its    
chief range lies in the drainage basin  
of the ,st4 ,lawrence river1 which      
includes the ,great ,lakes and the      
rivers which flow into them4            
,newfoundland forms the eastern and     
,manitoba the western outposts of this  
species4 ,it is found as far south as   

,massachusetts1 ,pennsylvania1 northern 
,ohio1 central ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1   
and ,minnesota4 ,it conforms pretty     
generally to the range of white pine but
 does not accompany that species        
southward along the ,appalachian        
mountain ranges across ,west ,virginia1 
,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee4   
,where it was left to compete in        
nature's way with white pine1 the       
contest was friendly1 but white pine got
 the best of it4 ,the two species grew  
in intermixture1 but in most instances  
white pine had from five to twenty trees
 to ,norway's one4 ,as a survivor under 
adversity1 however1 the ,norway pine    
appears to surpass its great friendly   
rival1 at least in the ,lake ,states    
where the great pineries once flourished
 and have largely passed away4 ,solitary
 or small clumps of ,norway pines are   
occasionally found where not a white    
pine1 large or small1 is in sight4  ,the
 forest appearance of ,norway pine      
resembles the southern yellow pines4    

,the stand is open1 the trunks are clean
 and tall1 the branches are at the top4 
,the ,norway's leaves are in clusters of
 two1 and are five or six inches long4  
,they fall during the fourth or fifth   
year4 ,cones are two inches long1 and   
when mature1 closely resemble the color 
of the tree's bark1 that is1 light      
chestnut brown4 ,exceptionally tall     
,norway pines may reach a height of #aej
 feet1 but the average is seventy or    
eighty1 with diameters of from two to   
four4 ,young trees are limby1 but early 
in life the lower branches die and fall1
 leaving few protruding stubs or knots4 
,it appears to be a characteristic that 
trunks are seldom quite straight4 ,they 
do not have the plumb appearance of     
forest grown white pine and spruce4     
,the wood of ,norway pine is medium     
light1 its strength and stiffness about 
twenty-five per cent greater than white 
pine1 and it is moderately soft4 ,the   
annual rings are rather wide1 indicating
 rapid growth4 ,the bands of summerwood 

are narrow compared with the springwood1
 which gives a generally light color to 
the wood1 though not as light as the    
wood of white pine4 ,the resin passages 
are small and fairly numerous4 ,the     
sapwood is thick1 and the wood is not   
durable in contact with the soil4       
,norway pine has always had a place of  
its own in the lumber trade1 but large  
quantities have been marketed as white  
pine4 ,if such had not been the case1   
,norway pine would have been much       
oftener heard of during the years when  
the ,lake ,state pineries were sending  
their billions of feet of lumber to the 
markets of the world4  ,because of the  
deposit of resinous materials in the    
wood1 ,norway pine stumps resist decay  
much better than white pine4 ,in some of
 the early cuttings in ,michigan1 where 
only stumps remain to show how large the
 trees were and how thick they stood1   
the ,norway stumps are much better      
preserved than the white pine4 ,using   
that fact as a basis of estimate1 it may

 be shown that in many places the       
,norway pine constituted one-fifth or   
one-fourth of the original stand4 ,the  
lumbermen cut clean1 and statistics of  
that period do not show that the two    
pines were generally marketed           
separately4 ,in recent years many of the
 ,norway stumps have been pulled1 and   
have been sold to wood-distillation     
plants where the rosin and turpentine   
are extracted4  ,at an early date       
,norway pine from ,canada and northern  
,new ,york was popular ship timber in   
this country and ,england4 ,slender1    
straight trunks were selected as masts1 
or were sawed for decking planks thirty 
or forty feet long4 ,shipbuilders       
insisted that planks be all heartwood1  
because when sapwood was exposed to rain
 and sun1 it changed to a green color1  
due to the presence of fungus4 ,the wood
 wears well as ship decking4 ,the       
,british navy was still using some      
,norway pine masts as late as #ahge4    
,the scarcity of this timber has retired

 it from some of the places which it    
once filled1 and the southern yellow    
pines have been substituted4 ,it is     
still employed for many important       
purposes1 the chief of which is car     
building1 if statistics for the state of
 ,illinois are a criterion for the whole
 country4 ,in #aiji in that state       
#bd1gid1jjj feet of it were used for all
 purposes1 and #ad1ghc1jjj feet in car  
construction4  ,for many years ,chicago 
has been the center of the ,norway pine 
trade4 ,it is landed there by lake      
steamers and by rail1 and is distributed
 to ultimate consumers4 ,the uses for   
the wood1 as reported by ,illinois      
manufacturers1 follow3 ,baskets1 boxes1 
boats1 brackets1 casing and frames for  
doors and windows1 crating1 derricks for
 well-boring machines1 doors1 elevators1
 fixtures for stores and offices1 foot  
or running boards for tank cars1 foundry
 flasks1 freight cars1 hand rails1      
insulation for refrigerator cars1       
ladders1 picture moldings1 roofing1     

sash1 siding for cattle cars1 sign      
boards and advertising signs1 tanks1 and
 windmill towers4  ,as with white pine1 
,norway pine has passed the period of   
greatest production1 though much still  
goes to market every year and will long 
continue to do so4 ,the land which      
lumbermen denuded in the ,lake ,states1 
particularly ,michigan and ,wisconsin1  
years ago1 did not reclothe itself with 
,norway seedlings4 ,that would have     
taken place in most instances but for   
fires which ran periodically through the
 slashings until all seedlings were     
destroyed4 ,in many places there are now
 few seedlings and few large trees to   
bear seeds1 and consequently the pine   
forest in such places is a thing of the 
past4 ,the outlook is better in other   
localities4  ,the ,norway pine is much  
planted for ornament1 and is rated one  
of the handsomest of northern park      
trees4      ,,pitch ,,pine 7,pinus      
rigida74 ,the name pitch pine is locally
 applied     to almost every species of 

hard1 resinous pine in this country4    
,the     ,pinus rigida has other names  
than pitch pine4 ,in ,delaware it is    
called longleaved pine1 since its       
needles are longer than the scrub       
pine's with which it is associated4 ,for
 the same reason it is known     in some
 localities as longschat pine4 ,in      
,massachusetts it is called     hard    
pine1 in ,pennsylvania yellow pine1 in  
,north ,carolina and     eastern        
,tennessee black pine1 and black ,norway
 pine in ,new ,york4 ,the     botanical 
name is translated 8rigid pine10 but the
 rigid refers to     the leaves1 not the
 wood4 ,its range covers ,new ,england1 
,new ,york1     ,pennsylvania1 southern 
,canada1 eastern ,ohio1 and southward   
along the     mountains to northern     
,georgia4 ,it has three leaves in a     
cluster1     from three to five inches  
long1 and they fall the second year4    
,cones     range in length from one to  
three inches1 and they hang on the      
branches ten or twelve years4 ,the wood 

is medium light1 moderately     strong1 
but low in stiffness4 ,it is soft and   
brittle4 ,the annual     rings are wide1
 the summerwood broad1 distinct1 and    
very resinous4     ,medullary rays are  
few but prominent2 color1 light brown or
 red1 the     thick sapwood yellow or   
often nearly white4 ,the difference in  
the     hardness between springwood and 
summerwood renders it difficult to      
work1 and causes uneven wear when used  
as flooring4 ,it is fairly     durable  
in contact with the soil4      ,the tree
 attains a height of from forty to      
eighty feet and a     diameter of three4
 ,this pine is not found in extensive   
forests1 but     in scattered patches1  
nearly always on poor soil where other  
trees     will not crowd it4 ,light and 
air are necessary to its existence4 ,if 
it receives these1 it will fight        
successfully against adversities        
which would be fatal to many other      
species4 ,in resistance to forest       
fires1 it is a salamander among trees4  

,that is primarily due to its     thick 
bark1 but it is favored also by the     
situations in which it is     generally 
found--open woods1 and on soil so poor  
that ground litter     is thin4 ,it is a
 useful wood for many purposes1 and     
wherever it is     found in sufficient  
quantity1 it goes to market1 but under  
its own     name only in restricted     
localities4 ,its resinous knots were    
once     used in place of candles in    
frontier homes4 ,tar made locally from  
its rich wood was the pioneer wagoner's 
axle grease1 and the     ever-present   
tar bucket and tar paddle swung from the
 rear axle4     ,torches made by tying  
splinters in bundles answered for       
lanterns in     night travel4 ,it was   
the best pine for floors in some        
localities4     ,it is probably used    
more for boxes than for anything else at
     present4 ,in #aiji ,massachusetts  
box makers bought #fjj1jjj feet1 and a  
little more went to ,maryland box       
factories4 ,its poor holding power      

on spikes limits its employment as      
railroad ties and in     shipbuilding4  
,carpenters and furniture makers object 
to the numerous     knots4 ,country     
blacksmiths who repair and make wagons  
as a side     line1 find it suitable for
 wagon beds4 ,it is much used as fuel   
where     it is convenient4             
,,torrey ,,pine 7,pinus torreyana71     
called del mar pine and ,soledad        
pine1 is an interesting tree from the   
fact that its range is so     restricted
 that the actual number of trees could  
be easily known to     one who would    
take the trouble to count them4 ,a      
rather large     quantity formerly      
occupied a small area in ,san ,diego    
county1     ,california1 but            
woodchoppers who did not appreciate the 
fact that     they were exterminating a 
species of pine from the face of the    
earth1 cut nearly all of the trees for  
fuel4 ,its range covered only     a few 
square miles1 and fortunately part of   
that was included in the     city limits

 of ,san ,diego4 ,an ordinance was      
passed prohibiting the     cutting of a 
,torrey pine under heavy penalty1 and   
the tree was thus     saved4 ,a hundred 
and fifty miles off the ,san ,diego     
coast a few     ,torrey pines grow on   
the islands of ,santa ,cruz and ,santa  
,rosa1 and     owing to their isolated  
situation they bid fair to escape the   
cordwood cutter for years to come4      
,those who have seen this tree on       
its native hills have admired the       
gameness of its battle for     existence
 against the elements4 ,standing in the 
full sweep of the     ocean winds1 its  
strong1 short branches scarcely move1   
and all the     agitation is in the     
thick tufts of needles which cling to   
the ends     of the branches4 ,trees    
exposed to the seawinds are stunted1 and
 are     generally less than a foot in  
diameter and thirty feet high2 but      
those which are so fortunate as to      
occupy sheltered valleys are     three  
or four times that size4 ,the needles   

are five in a cluster4     ,the cones   
persist on the branches three or four   
years4 ,the wood is     light1 soft1    
moderately strong1 very brittle2 the    
rings of yearly     growth are broad1   
and the yellow bands of summerwood      
occupy nearly     half4 ,the sapwood is 
very thick and is nearly white4         
,illustration     ,,western ,,yellow    
,,pine  ,illustration3 ,,western        
,,yellow ,,pine     ,,western ,,yellow  
,,pine  7,pinus ,ponderosa7   ,the range
 of western yellow pine covers a million
 square miles4 ,its eastern boundary is 
a line drawn from ,south ,dakota to     
western ,texas4 ,the species covers much
 of the country between that line and   
the ,pacific ocean4 ,it is natural that 
it should have more names than one in a 
region so extensive4 ,it is best known  
as western yellow pine1 but lumbermen   
often call it ,california white pine4   
,the standing timber is frequently      
designated bull pine1 but that name is  
not often given to the lumber4 ,where   

there is no likelihood of confusing it  
with southern pines1 it is called simply
 yellow pine4 ,the name heavy-wooded    
pine1 sometimes applied to the lumber in
 ,england1 is misleading4 ,when well    
seasoned it weighs about thirty pounds  
per cubic foot1 and ordinarily it would 
not be classed heavy4 ,in ,california it
 is called heavy pine1 but that is to   
distinguish it from sugar pine which is 
considerably lighter4 ,the color of its 
bark has given it the name ,sierra      
brownbark pine4 ,the same tree in       
,montana is called black pine4  ,the    
tree has developed two forms4 ,some     
botanists have held there are two       
species1 but that is not the general    
opinion4 ,in the warm1 damp climate of  
the ,pacific slope the tree is larger1  
and somewhat different in appearance    
from the form in the ,rocky ,mountain   
region4 ,the same observation holds true
 of ,douglas fir4  ,the wood of western 
yellow pine is medium light1 not strong1
 is low in elasticity1 medullary rays   

prominent but not numerous2 resinous1   
color light to reddish1 the thick       
sapwood almost white4 ,the annual rings 
are variable in width1 and the          
proportionate amounts of springwood and 
summerwood also vary4 ,it is not durable
 in contact with the ground4  ,the wood 
is easy to work and some of the best of 
it resembles white pine1 but as a whole 
it is inferior to that wood1 though it  
is extensively employed as a substitute 
for it in the manufacture of doors1     
sash1 and frames4 ,it is darker than    
white pine1 harder1 heavier1 stronger1  
almost exactly equal in stiffness1 but  
the annual rings of the two woods do not
 bear close resemblance4  ,the tree     
reaches a height of from #ajj to #bjj   
feet1 a diameter from three to seven4   
,it is occasionally much larger4 ,its   
size depends much on its habitat4 ,the  
best development occurs on the ,sierra  
,nevada mountains in ,california and the
 best wood comes from that region1      
though certain other localities produce 

high-grade lumber4  ,western yellow pine
 holds and will long hold an important  
place in the country's timber resources4
 ,the total stand has been estimated at 
#bge1jjj1jjj1jjj feet1 and is second    
only to that of ,douglas fir1 though the
 combined stand of the four southern    
yellow pines is about #ajj1jjj1jjj1jjj  
feet larger4 ,it is a vigorous species1 
able to hold its ground under ordinary  
circumstances4 ,next to incense cedar   
and the giant sequoias which are        
associated with it in the ,sierra       
,nevada mountains1 it is the most       
prolific seed bearer of the western     
conifers1 and its seeds are sufficiently
 light to insure wide distribution4 ,it 
is gaining ground within its range by   
taking possession of vacant areas which 
have been bared by lumbering or fire4   
,in some cases it crowds to death the   
more stately sugar pine by cutting off  
its light and moisture4 ,it resists fire
 better than most of the forest trees   
with which it is associated4 ,on the    

other hand1 it suffers from enemies more
 than its associates do4 ,a beetle      
7,dendroctonus ponderos71 destroys large
 stands4 ,in the ,black ,hills in #aijc 
its ravages killed #fjj1jjj1jjj feet4   
,this splendid pine has run the gamut of
 uses from the corral pole of the first 
settler to the paneled door turned out  
by the modern factory4 ,it has almost an
 unlimited capacity for usefulness4 ,it 
grows in dry regions of the ,rocky      
,mountains where it is practically the  
only source of wood supply2 and it is   
equally secure in its position where    
forests are abundant and fine4 ,it has  
supplied props1 stulls1 and lagging for 
mines in nearly every state touched by  
its range4 ,without its ties and other  
timbers some of the early railroads     
through the western mountains could     
scarcely have been built4 ,it has been  
one of the leading flume timbers in     
western lumber and irrigation           
development4 ,it fenced many ranches in 
early times and is still doing so4 ,it  

is used in general construction1 and in 
finish2 from the shingle to the         
foundation sill of houses4 ,it finds its
 way to eastern lumber markets4 ,almost 
#bj1jjj1jjj feet a year are used in     
,illinois alone4 ,competition with      
eastern white pine is met in the ,lake  
,states because1 grade for grade1 the   
western wood is cheaper1 until lower    
grades are reached4 ,the western yellow 
pine1 in the eastern market1 is confused
 with the western white pine of ,idaho  
and ,montana 7,pinus monticola7 and     
separate statistics of use are          
impossible4  ,the makers of fruit boxes 
in ,california often employ the yellow  
pine in lieu of sugar pine which once   
supplied the whole trade4 ,it is also   
used by coopers for various containers1 
but not for alcoholic liquors4  ,the    
leaves are in clusters of twos and      
threes1 and are from five to eleven     
inches long4 ,most of them fall during  
the third year4 ,the cones are from     
three to six inches long1 and generally 

fall soon after they reach maturity4    
,,coulter ,,pine 7,pinus coulteri7 is   
also known as nut pine1 big cone        
pine1 and long cone pine4 ,it is a      
,california species1 scarce1 but of     
much interest because of its cones4     
,they are larger than those of     any  
other ,american pine and are armed with 
formidable curved spines     from half  
an inch to an inch and a half in length4
 ,the cones are     from ten to fourteen
 inches long4 ,the tree is found on the 
,coast     ,range mountains from the    
latitude of ,san ,francisco to the      
boundary     between ,california and    
,mexico4 ,it thrives at altitudes of    
from #c1jjj     to #f1jjj feet4 ,it     
never occurs in pure stands and the     
total amount     is small4 ,it looks    
like the western yellow pine1 but is    
much     inferior in size4 ,trunks      
seldom attain a length of fifteen feet  
or a     diameter of two4 ,there is no  
evidence that ,coulter pine is          
increasing its stand on the ground which

 it already occupies1 or     spreading  
to new ground4 ,the wood is light1 soft1
 moderately strong1     and very tough4 
,the annual rings are narrow and consist
 largely of     summerwood4 ,the        
heartwood is light red1 the thick       
sapwood nearly     white4 ,it is a poor 
tree for lumber1 and it has been little 
used in     that way1 but has been      
burned for charcoal for blacksmith      
shops1 and     much is sold as cordwood4
 ,the leaves of ,coulter pine are in    
clusters     of three1 and they fall    
during the third and fourth years4      
,,california ,,swamp ,,pine 7,pinus     
muricata7 clearly belongs among minor   
species listed as timber trees4 ,it     
meets a small demand for skids1         
corduroy log roads1 bridge floors1 and  
scaffolds in the redwood     logging    
operations in ,california4 ,it is       
scattered along the ,pacific     coast  
#ejj miles1 beginning in ,lower         
,california and ending a hundred        
miles north of ,san ,francisco4 ,it is  

known as dwarf marine pine1             
pricklecone pine1 bishop pine1 and      
obispo pine4 ,the last name is the      
,spanish translation of the ,english    
word bishop4 ,the largest trees         
seldom exceed two feet in diameter1 and 
a height of ninety feet4 ,the           
average size is little more than half as
 much4 ,the wood is very     strong1    
hard1 and compact1 and the annual growth
 ring is largely     dense summerwood4  
,resin passages are few1 but the wood is
 resinous1     light brown in color1 and
 the thick sapwood is nearly white4 ,the
     needles are in clusters of two1 and
 are from four to six inches     long4  
,they begin to fall the second year4    
,some of the trees retain     their     
cones until death1 but the seeds are    
scattered from year to     year4 ,under 
the stimulus of artificial conditions in
 the redwood     districts this pine    
seems to be spreading4 ,its seeds blow  
into     vacant ground from which       
redwood has been removed1 and growth is 

prompt4 ,the seedlings are not at all   
choice as to soil1 but take     root in 
cold clay1 in peat bogs1 on barren sand 
and gravel1 and on     wind-swept ridges
 exposed to ocean fogs4 ,its ability to 
grow where     few other trees can      
maintain themselves holds out some hope 
that its     usefulness will increase4  
,,monterey ,,pine 7,pinus radiata74     
,this scarce and local species is       
restricted to the ,california coast     
south of ,san ,francisco1 and to        
adjacent islands4 ,under favorable      
circumstances it grows rapidly and      
promises to be of more importance as a  
lumber source in the future     than it 
has been in the past4 ,it is1 however1  
somewhat particular as     to soil4 ,it 
must have ground not too wet or too dry4
 ,if these     requirements are         
observed1 it is a good tree for         
planting4 ,its     average height is    
seventy or ninety feet1 diameter from   
eighteen to     thirty inches4 ,trunks  
six feet in diameter are occasionally   

heard     of4 ,the wood is light1 soft1 
moderately strong1 tough1 annual rings  
very wide and largely of springwood2    
color1 light brown1 the very     thick  
sapwood nearly white4 ,the leaves are   
from four to six inches     long1 in    
clusters of two and three1 and fall the 
third year4 ,cones     are from three to
 five inches long4 ,the lumber is too   
scarce at     present to have much      
importance1 but its quality is good4 ,in
     appearance it resembles wide-ringed
 loblolly pine1 and appears to be       
suitable for doors and sash1 and frames 
for windows and doors4 ,its     present 
uses are confined chiefly to ranch      
timbers and fuel4 ,if it     ever       
amounts to much as a lumber resource1 it
 will be as a planted     pine1 and not 
in its natural state4      ,,jack ,,pine
 7,pinus divaricata7 is a far northern  
species which     extends its range     
southward in the ,united ,states1 from  
,maine to     ,minnesota1 and reaches   
northern ,indiana and ,illinois4 ,it    

grows     almost far enough north in the
 valley of ,mackenzie river to catch    
the rays of the midnight sun4 ,it must  
necessarily adapt itself to             
circumstances4 ,when these are          
favorable1 it develops a trunk up to    
two feet in diameter and seventy feet   
tall2 but in adversity1 it              
degenerates into a many-branched shrub a
 few feet high4 ,the average     tree in
 the ,united ,states is thirty or forty 
feet tall1 and a foot     or more in    
diameter4 ,its name is intended as a    
term of contempt1     which it does not 
deserve4 ,others call it scrub pine     
which is little     better4 ,its other  
names are more respectful1 ,prince's    
pine in     ,ontario1 black pine in     
,wisconsin and ,minnesota1 cypress in   
,quebec     and the ,hudson ,bay        
country1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks' pine in   
,england1 and     juniper in some parts 
of ,canada4 8,chek pine0 is frequently  
given in     its list of names1 but the 
name is said to have originated in an   

attempt of a ,german botanist to        
pronounce 8,jack pine0 in dictating     
to a stenographer4 ,the tree straggles  
over landscapes which     otherwise     
would be treeless4 ,it is often a ragged
 and uncouth     specimen of the        
vegetable kingdom1 but that is when it  
is at its     worst4 ,at its best1 as it
 may be seen where cared for in some of 
the     ,michigan cemeteries1 it is as  
handsome a tree as anyone could         
desire4 ,the characteristic thinness and
 delicacy of its foliage     distinguish
 it at once from its associates4 ,the   
peculiar green of     its soft1 short   
needles wins admiration4 ,the wood is   
light1 soft1     not strong2 annual     
rings are moderately wide1 and are      
largely     composed of springwood4 ,the
 thin bands of summerwood are resinous1 
and the small resin ducts are few4 ,the 
thick sapwood is nearly     white1 the  
heartwood brown or orange4 ,it is not   
durable4      ,jack pine can never be an
 important timber tree1 because too     

small2     but a considerable amount is 
used for bed slats1 nail kegs1          
plastering lath1 barrel headings1 boxes1
 mine props1 pulpwood1 and     fuel4    
,aside from its use as lumber and small 
manufactured products1     it has a     
value for other purposes4 ,it can       
maintain its existence in     waste     
sands2 and its usefulness is apparent in
 fixing drifting dunes     along some of
 the exposed shores of ,lake ,michigan  
and ,lake ,superior4     ,it lives on   
dry sand and sends its roots several    
feet to water2 or1     under            
circumstances entirely different1 it    
thrives in swamps where     the         
watertable is little below the surface  
of the ground4 ,it fights     a brave   
battle against adversities while it     
lasts1 but it does not     live long4   
,sixty years is old age for this tree4  
,it grows fast while     young1 but     
later it devotes all its energies to the
 mere process of     living1 and its    
increase in size is slow1 until at a    

period when     most trees are still in 
early youth1 it dies of old age1 and the
     northern winds quickly whip away   
its limbs1 leaving the barkless         
trunk to stand a few years longer4      
,illustration     ,,lodgepole ,,pine    
,illustration3 ,,lodgepole ,,pine       
,,lodgepole ,,pine  7,pinus ,contorta7  
,the common name of this tree was given 
it because its tall1 slender1 very light
 poles were used by ,indians of the     
region in the construction of their     
lodges4 ,they selected poles fifteen    
feet long and two inches in diameter1   
set them in a circle1 bent the tops     
together1 tied them1 and covered the    
frame with skins or bark4 ,the poles    
were peeled in early summer1 when the   
,indians set out upon their summer hunt1
 and were left to season until fall1    
when they were carried to the winter's  
camping place1 probably fifty miles     
distant4 ,tamarack is a common name for 
this pine in much of its range2 it is   
likewise known as black pine1 spruce    

pine1 and prickly pine4 ,its leaves are 
from one to two inches long1 in clusters
 of two4 ,the small cones adhere to the 
branches many years--sometimes as long  
as twenty--without releasing the seeds1 
which are sealed within the cone by     
accumulated resin4 ,the vitality of the 
seeds is remarkable4 ,they don't lose   
their power of germination during their 
long imprisonment4  ,the lodgepole pine 
has been called a fire tree1 and the    
name is not inappropriate4 ,it profits  
by severe burning1 as some other trees  
of the ,united ,states do1 such as paper
 birch and bird cherry4 ,the sealed     
cones are opened by fire1 which softens 
the resin1 and the seeds are liberated  
after the fire has passed1 and wing     
their flight wherever the wind carries  
them4 ,the passing fire may be severe   
enough to kill the parent tree without  
destroying or bringing down the cones4  
,the seeds soon fall on the bared       
mineral soil1 where they germinate by   
thousands4 ,more than one hundred       

thousand small seedling trees may occupy
 a single acre4 ,most of them are       
ultimately crowded to death1 but a thick
 stand results4 ,most lodgepole pine    
forests occupy old burns4 ,the tree is  
one of the slowest of growers4 ,it never
 reaches large size--possibly three feet
 is the limit4 ,it is very tall and     
slender4 ,a hundred years will scarcely 
produce a sawlog of the smallest size4  
,the range of this tree covers a million
 square miles from ,alaska to ,new      
,mexico1 and to the ,pacific coast4 ,its
 characters vary in different parts of  
its range4 ,a scrub form was once       
thought to be a different species1 and  
was called shore pine4  ,the wood is of 
about the same weight as eastern white  
pine4 ,it is light in color1 rather     
weak1 and brittle1 annual rings very    
narrow1 summerwood small in amount1     
resin passages few and small2 medullary 
rays numerous1 broad1 and prominent4    
,the wood is characterized by numerous  
small knots4 ,it is not durable in      

contact with the ground1 but it readily 
receives preservative treatment4 ,in    
height it ranges from fifty to one      
hundred feet4  ,the government's        
estimate of the stand of lodgepole pine 
in the ,united ,states in #aiji placed  
it at #ij1jjj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,that makes 
it seventh in quantity among the timber 
trees of this country1 those above it   
being ,douglas fir1 the southern yellow 
pines 7considered as one71 western      
yellow pine1 redwood1 western hemlock1  
and the red cedar of ,washington1       
,oregon1 and ,idaho4  ,lodgepole pine   
has been long and widely used as a ranch
 timber in the ,far ,west1 serving for  
poles and rails in fences1 for sheds1   
barns1 corrals1 pens1 and small bridges4
 ,where it could be had at all1 it was  
generally plentiful4 ,stock ranges high 
among the mountains frequently depend   
almost solely upon lodgepole pine for   
necessary timber4  ,mine operators find 
it a valuable resource4 ,as props it is 
cheap1 substantial1 and convenient in   

many parts of ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1  
,wyoming1 and ,montana4 ,a large        
proportion of this timber which is cut  
for mining purposes has been standing   
dead from fire injury many years1 and is
 thoroughly seasoned and very light4 ,it
 is in excellent condition for receiving
 preservative treatment4  ,sawmills do  
not list lodgepole pine separately in   
reports of lumber cut1 and it is        
impossible to determine what the annual 
supply from the species is4 ,it is well 
known that the quantity made into lumber
 in ,colorado1 ,wyoming1 ,montana1 and  
,idaho is large4 ,its chief market is   
among the newly established agricultural
 communities in those states4 ,they use 
it for fruit and vegetable shipping     
boxes1 fencing plank1 pickets1 and      
plastering lath4  ,railroads buy half a 
million lodgepole pine crossties yearly4
 ,when creosoted1 they resist decay many
 years4 ,lodgepole pine has been a tie  
material since the first railroads      
entered the region1 and while by no     

means the best1 it promises to fill a   
much more important place in the future 
than in the past4 ,it is an ideal fence 
post material as far as size and form   
are concerned1 and with preservative    
treatment it is bound to attain a high  
place4 ,it is claimed that treated posts
 will last twenty years1 and that puts  
them on a par with the cedars4  ,in     
,colorado and ,wyoming much lodgepole   
was formerly burned for charcoal to     
supply the furnaces which smelted ore   
and the blacksmith shops of the region4 
,this is done now less than formerly1   
since railroad building has made coal   
and coke accessible4  ,in one respect1  
lodgepole pine is to the western        
mountains what loblolly pine is to the  
flat country of the south ,atlantic and 
other southern states4 ,it is           
aggressive1 and takes possession of     
vacant ground4 ,although the wood is not
 as valuable as loblolly1 it is useful1 
and has an important place to fill in   
the western country's development4 ,its 

greatest drawback is its exceedingly    
slow growth4 ,a hundred years is a long 
time to wait for trees of pole size4    
,two crops of loblolly sawlogs can be   
harvested in that time4 ,however1 the   
land on which the lodgepole grows is fit
 only for timber1 and the acreage is so 
vast that there is enough to grow       
supplies1 even with the wait of a       
century or two for harvest4 ,the stand  
has increased enormously within historic
 time1 the same as loblolly1 and for a  
similar reason4 ,men cleared land in the
 ,east1 and loblolly took possession2   
fires destroyed western forests of other
 species and lodgepole seized and held  
the burned tracts4  ,if fires cease     
among the western mountains1 as will    
probably be the case under more         
efficient methods of patrol1 and with   
stricter enforcement of laws against    
starting fires1 the spread of lodgepole 
pine will come to a standstill1 and     
existing forests will grow old without  
much extension of their borders4        

,,jeffrey ,,pine 7,pinus jeffreyi7 is   
often classed as western yellow pine1   
both in the forest and at the mill4 ,its
 range extends from southern ,oregon to 
,lower ,california1 a distance of #a1jjj
 miles1 and its width east and west     
varies from twenty to one hundred and   
fifty miles4 ,it is a mountain tree and 
generally occupies elevations above the 
western yellow pine4 ,in the ,north its 
range reaches #c1fjj feet above sea     
level2 in the extreme ,south it is      
#aj1jjj feet4 ,the darker and more      
deeply-furrowed bark of the ,jeffrey    
pine is the usual character by which    
lumbermen distinguish it from the       
western yellow pine4 ,it is known under 
several names1 most of them relating to 
the tree's appearance1 such as black    
pine1 redbark pine1 blackbark pine1     
sapwood pine1 and bull pine4 ,it reaches
 the same size as the western yellow    
pine1 though the average is a little    
smaller4 ,the leaves are from four to   
nine inches long1 and fall in eight or  

nine years4 ,the cones are large1 and   
armed with slender1 curved spines4 ,the 
seeds are too heavy to fly far1 their   
wing area being small4 ,it is a vigorous
 tree1 and in some regions it forms good
 forests4 ,some botanists have          
considered the ,jeffrey pine a variety  
of the western yellow pine4      ,,gray 
,,pine 7,pinus sabiniana71 called also  
,digger pine because the     ,digger    
,indians formerly collected the seeds1  
which are as large as     peanuts1 to   
help eke out a living1 is confined to   
,california1 and     grows in a belt on 
the foothills surrounding the ,san      
,joaquin and     ,sacramento valleys4   
,its cones are large and armed with     
hooked     spines4 ,when green1 the     
largest cones weigh three or four       
pounds4     ,leaves are from eight to   
twelve inches long1 in clusters of two  
and     three1 and fall the third and   
fourth years4 ,the wood is remarkable   
for the quickness of its decay in damp  
situations4 ,it lasts one or     two    

years as fence posts4 ,a mature gray    
pine is from fifty to     seventy feet  
high1 and eighteen to thirty inches in  
diameter4 ,some     trees are much      
larger4 ,it is of considerable          
importance1 but is not     in the same  
class as western yellow and sugar pine4 
,the wood is     light1 soft1 rather    
strong1 brittle4 ,the annual rings are  
generally     wide1 indicating rapid    
growth4 ,very old gray pines are not    
known4 ,an     age of #ahe years seems  
to be the highest on record4 ,the wood  
is     resinous1 and it has helped in a 
small way to supply the ,pacific        
coast markets with high-grade           
turpentine1 distilled from roots4 ,it   
yields resin when boxed like the        
southern longleaf pine4 ,there are      
two flowing seasons4 ,one is very early1
 and closes when the weather     becomes
 hot2 the other is in full current by   
the middle of ,august4     ,it maintains
 life among the ,california foothills   
during the long     rainless seasons1 on

 ground so dry that semi-desert         
chaparral     sometimes succumbs2 but it
 is able to make the most of favorable  
conditions1 and it grows rapidly under  
the slightest encouragement4     ,the   
seedlings are more numerous now than    
formerly1 which is     attributed to    
decrease of forest fires4 ,the tree has 
enemies which     generally attack it in
 youth4 ,two fungi1 ,peridermium        
harknessi1     and ,ddalia vorax1       
destroy the young tree's leader or      
topmost     shoot1 causing the          
development of a short trunk4 ,the      
latter fungus     is the same or is     
closely related to that which tunnels   
the trunk of     incense cedar and      
produces pecky cypress4      ,gray pine 
has been cut to some extent for lumber1 
but its principal     uses have been as 
fuel and mine timbers4 ,many quartz     
mines have been     located in the      
region where the tree grows2 and the    
engines which     pumped the shafts and 
raised and crushed the ore were often   

heated     with this pine4 ,thousands of
 acres of hillsides in the vicinity of  
mines were stripped of it1 and it went  
to the engine house ricks in     wagons1
 on sleds1 and on the backs of burros4  
,in two respects it is     an economical
 fuel for remote mines3 it is light in  
weight1 and     gives more heat than an 
equal quantity of the oak that is       
associated     with it4      ,,chihuahua
 ,,pine 7,pinus chihuahuana7 is not     
abundant1 but it exists     in small    
commercial quantities in southwestern   
,new ,mexico and     southern ,arizona4 
,trees are from fifty to eighty feet    
high1 and from     fifteen to twenty    
inches in diameter4 ,the wood is medium 
light1     soft1 rather strong1 brittle1
 narrow ringed and compact4 ,the resin  
passages are few1 large1 and            
conspicuous2 color1 clear light orange1 
the thick sapwood lighter4 ,the tree    
reaches best development at             
altitudes of from #e1jjj to #g1jjj feet4
 ,when the wood is used1 it     serves  

the same purposes as western yellow     
pine2 but the small size     of the tree
 makes lumber of large size impossible4 
,the leaves are in     clusters of      
three1 and fall the fourth year4 ,the   
cones have long     stalks and are from 
one and a half to two inches long4      
,illustration     ,,tamarack            
,illustration3 ,,tamarack     ,,tamarack
  7,larix ,laricina7   ,there are three 
species of tamarack or larch in the     
,united ,states1 and probably a fourth  
is confined to ,alaska4 ,one has its    
range in the northeastern states1       
extending south to ,west ,virginia and  
northwestward to ,alaska4 ,two are found
 in the northwestern states4 ,other     
species are native of the eastern       
hemisphere1 and some of them have been  
planted to some extent in this country4 
,a species of ,europe is of much        
importance in that country4 ,the        
tamaracks lose their leaves in the fall 
and the branches are bare during the    
winter4 ,the name tamarack or larch     

should be applied only to trees of the  
genus larix4 ,this rule is not observed 
in some parts of the ,west where the    
noble fir 7,abies nobilis7 is           
occasionally called larch by lumbermen4 
,it is not entitled to that name1 and   
confusion results from such use4  ,the  
larches are easily identified4 ,they    
have needle leaves like those of pines  
and firs1 but they are differently      
arranged4 ,they are produced in little  
brush-like bundles1 from twelve to forty
 leaves in each1 on all the shoots1     
except the leaders4 ,on these the leaves
 occur singly4 ,the little brushes are  
so conspicuous1 and so characteristic of
 this genus1 including all its species1 
that there should be little difficulty  
in identifying the larches when the     
leaves are on4 ,in winter1 when the     
branches are bare1 there are other easy 
marks of identification4  ,the little   
brushes are interesting objects of      
study4 ,botanists tell us that the      
excrescence or bud-like knob from which 

the leaves grow is really a suppressed  
or aborted branch1 with all its leaves  
crowded together at the end4 ,if it were
 developed1 it would bear its leaves    
singly1 scattered along its full length1
 as they occur on the leading shoots4   
,the warty appearance of the branches in
 winter is a very convenient means of   
identification when the leaves are down4
  ,the cones of larches mature in a     
single season1 and often hang on the    
trees several years4 ,they are          
conspicuous in winter when the branches 
are bare of foliage4 ,the adhering cones
 are generally seedless after the first 
season1 since they quickly let their    
winged seeds go4 ,the male and female   
flowers are produced singly on branches 
of the previous year4  ,the eastern and 
northern larch 7,larix laricina7 has a  
number of names4 ,it is commonly known  
as tamarack in the ,new ,england states 
and in ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1        
,pennsylvania1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1     
,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1      

,ohio1 and in ,canada4 ,the name larch  
is applied in practically all the       
regions where it grows1 but it is not   
used as frequently as tamarack4         
,hackmatack1 which was the ,indian name 
for the tree in part of its eastern     
range1 is still in use in ,maine1 ,new  
,hampshire1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode      
,island1 ,delaware1 ,illinois1          
,minnesota1 and ,ontario4 ,nurserymen   
call it ,american larch to distinguish  
it from other larches on the market1    
particularly the ,european larch4       
,michaux1 an early ,french botanist who 
explored ,american forests1 called it   
,american larch 7,larix americana71 and 
the name which he gave has been retained
 by many scientists to this day4 ,in the
 ,canadian provinces north of the ,great
 ,lakes1 and also in ,maine and ,new    
,brunswick1 it is frequently called     
juniper1 but without good reason1 for it
 has little of the appearance and few of
 the qualities of the junipers4 ,in some
 localities it is called black larch1   

and in others red larch4 ,the first name
 refers to the color of its bark1 the   
last to the leaves when about to fall1  
for they then change to a brown or      
reddish color4 ,they fall in the autumn1
 and the branches are bare until the    
next spring4 ,some of the ,new ,york    
,indians observed that peculiarity of   
the tree which they thought should be an
 evergreen like the balsam and pines    
with which it was often associated1 and 
they named it kenehtens1 meaning 8the   
leaves fall04 ,indians did not1 as a    
rule1 give separate names to tree       
species1 and when they did so1 it was   
because of food value1 or from some     
peculiarity which could not fail to     
attract the notice of a savage4  ,the   
tamarack's geographical range is        
remarkable4 ,it is said to be best      
developed in the region east of         
,manitoba1 but it extends southward into
 ,west ,virginia and northward to the   
land of the midnight sun4 ,it maintains 
its place almost to the arctic snows1   

and the willow is about the only tree   
that pushes farther north4 ,it is found 
from ,newfoundland and ,labrador far    
down toward the mouth of the ,mackenzie 
river1 north of the arctic circle4 ,it  
grows on dry land as well as wet1 but is
 oftenest found in cold swamps1         
particularly in the southern part of its
 range4 ,silted-up lakes are favorite   
situations1 and on the made-land above  
old beaver dams4  ,tamarack forests     
frequently stand on ground so soft that 
a pole may be thrust ten feet deep in   
the mud4 ,the moist1 monotonous sphagnum
 moss generally furnishes ground cover  
in such places4 ,a tamarack swamp in    
summer is cool and pleasant--provided   
there is not too much water on the      
ground--but in winter a more desolate   
picture can scarcely be imagined4 ,the  
leafless trees appear to be dead1 and   
covered with lifeless cones2 but the    
first warm days bring it to life4  ,the 
average height of tamarack trees is from
 forty to sixty feet1 diameter twenty   

inches or less4 ,leaves are one-half or 
one and a half inches long2 cones       
one-half or three-quarter inches1 and   
bright chestnut brown at maturity4 ,they
 fall when two years old4 ,the winged   
seeds are very small4 ,the tree is      
neither a frequent nor abundant seeder4 
,the foliage is thin1 and is not        
sufficient to shut much sunlight from   
the ground4  ,the wood is heavy1 hard1  
very strong1 and is durable in contact  
with the soil4 ,the growth is slow1     
annual rings narrow1 summerwood occupies
 nearly half the ring1 and is           
dark-colored1 resinous1 and conspicuous2
 resin passages few and obscure2        
medullary rays numerous and obscure2    
color of wood light brown1 the sapwood  
nearly white4  ,the uses of tamarack go 
back to prehistoric times4 ,the ,indians
 of ,canada and northeastern ,united    
,states drew supplies from four forest  
trees when they made their bark canoes4 
,the bark for the shell came from paper 
birch1 threads for sewing the strips of 

bark together were tamarack roots1 resin
 for stopping leaks was a product of    
balsam fir1 and the light framework of  
wood was northern white cedar4  ,the    
roots which best suited the ,indian's   
purpose came from trees which grew in   
soft1 deep mud1 where lakes and beaver  
ponds had silted up4 ,such roots are    
long1 slender1 and very tough and       
pliant1 and may be gathered in large    
numbers1 particularly where running     
streams have partly undermined standing 
trees4  ,white men likewise made use of 
tamarack roots in boat building1 but the
 roots were different from what the     
,indians used4 8,instep0 crooks were    
hewed for ship knees4 ,these were large 
roots1 the larger the better4 ,trees    
which produced them did not grow in deep
 mud1 for there the roots did not       
develop crooks4 ,the ship knee operator 
hunted for tamarack forests growing on a
 soft surface soil two or three feet    
deep1 underlaid by stiff clay or rock   
which roots could not penetrate4 ,in    

situations like that the roots go       
straight down until they reach the hard 
stratum1 and then turn at right angles  
and grow in a horizontal direction4 ,the
 turning point in the root develops the 
crook of which the ship knee is made4   
,tamarack is seldom of sufficient size  
for the largest ship knees4 ,such were  
formerly supplied by southern live oak2 
and in that case crooks formed by the   
union of trunk and large branches were  
as good as those produced by the union  
of trunk and large roots4  ,tamarack is 
still employed in the manufacture of    
boat knees1 but not as much as formerly4
 ,steel frames have largely taken the   
place of wood in the construction of    
ship skeletons4 ,boat builders use      
tamarack now for floors1 keels1         
stringers1 and knees4  ,tamarack has    
come into much use in recent years4     
,sawmills cut from it more than         
#abe1jjj1jjj feet of lumber a year4     
,fourteen states contribute1 but most of
 the lumber is produced in ,minnesota1  

,michigan1 and ,wisconsin4 ,railroads in
 the ,united ,states buy #e1jjj1jjj or  
more tamarack ties a year1 which reduced
 to board measure amount to over        
#aej1jjj1jjj feet4 ,fence posts and     
telegraph poles come in large numbers   
from tamarack forests4  ,the wood is    
stiff and strong1 its stiffness being   
eighty-four per cent of that of long    
leaf pine1 and its strength about eighty
 per cent4 ,unusual variations in both  
strength and stiffness are found4 ,one  
stick of tamarack may rate twice as high
 as another4  ,the wood-using factories 
of ,michigan consume nearly #bj1jjj1jjj 
feet of this wood yearly4 ,it is made   
into boxes1 excelsior1 pails1 tanks1    
tubs1 house finish1 refrigerators1      
windmills1 and wooden pipes for         
waterworks and for draining mines4      
,there is little likelihood that the    
supply of tamarack will run short in the
 near future4 ,while it is not in the   
first rank of the important trees in    
this country1 it is useful1 and it is   

fortunate that it promises to hold its  
ground against fires which do grave     
injury to northern forests4 ,in the     
swamps where the most of it is found the
 ground litter is too damp to burn4 ,the
 tree does not grow rapidly1 but it     
usually occupies lands which cannot be  
profitably devoted to agriculture1 and  
it will1 therefore1 be let alone until  
it reaches maturity4  ,tamarack is a    
familiar tree in parks1 and it grows    
farther south than its natural range    
extends4 ,it is not as desirable a park 
tree as hemlock1 spruce1 fir1 the       
cedars1 and some of the pines1 because  
its foliage is thin in summer and       
wanting in winter4 ,it is in a class    
with cypress4 ,in the early spring1     
however1 while its soft green needles   
are beginning to show themselves in     
clusters along the twigs1 its delicate  
and unusual appearance attracts more    
attention than its companion trees which
 are always in full leaf and for that   
reason are somewhat monotonous4         

,illustration     ,,western ,,larch     
,illustration3 ,,western ,,larch        
,,western ,,larch  7,larix              
,occidentalis7   ,this is a magnificent 
tree of the ,northwest1 and its range   
lies principally on the upper           
tributaries of the ,columbia river1 in  
,idaho1 ,montana1 and ,british          
,columbia1 but it occurs also among the 
,blue ,mountains of ,washington and     
,oregon4 ,it is the largest member of   
the larch genus1 either in the old world
 or the new4 ,the finest trees are #bej 
feet high with diameters of six or eight
 feet1 but sizes half of that are nearer
 the average4 ,the trunk is of splendid 
form4 ,in early life it is limby1 but   
later it prunes itself1 and a long1     
tapering bole is developed with a very  
small crown of thin foliage4 ,no other  
tree of its size1 with the possible     
exception of old sequoias1 has so little
 foliage in proportion to the trunk4    
,the result is apparent in the rate of  
growth after the larch has passed its   

youth4 ,sometimes such a tree does not  
increase its trunk diameter as much in  
seventy-five years as a vigorous        
loblolly pine or willow oak will in one 
year4 ,the trunk of a tree1 as is well  
known1 grows by means of food           
manufactured by the leaves and sent down
 to be transformed into wood4 ,with so  
few leaves and a trunk so large1 the    
slowness of growth is a natural         
consequence4 ,though the annual rings   
are usually quite narrow1 the bands of  
summerwood are relatively broad4 ,that  
accounts for the density of larchwood   
and its great weight4 ,it is six per    
cent heavier than longleaf pine1 and is 
not much inferior in strength and       
elasticity4 ,the leaves are from one to 
one and three-quarter inches long1 the  
cones from one to one and a half inches1
 and the seeds nearly one-quarter inch  
in length4 ,they are equipped with wings
 of sufficient power to carry them a    
short distance from the parent tree4    
,the bark on young larches is thin1 but 

on large trunks1 and near the ground1 it
 may be five or six inches thick4 ,when 
a notch is cut in the trunk it collects 
a resin of sweetish taste which the     
,indians use as an article of food4     
,the western larch reaches its best     
development in northern ,idaho and      
,montana on streams which flow into     
,flathead lake4 ,the tree prefers moist 
bottom lands1 but grows well in other   
situations1 at altitudes of from #b1jjj 
to #g1jjj feet4 ,the figures given above
 on the wood's weight1 strength1 and    
stiffness show its value for            
manufacturing purposes4 ,its remoteness 
from markets has stood in the way of    
large use1 but it has been tried for    
many purposes and with highly           
satisfactory results4 ,in #aiaj sawmills
 in the four western states where it    
grows cut #bee1ahf1jjj feet4 ,most of   
this is used as rough lumber1 but some  
is made into furniture1 finish1 boxes1  
and boats4 ,the wood has several names1 
though larch is the most common4 ,it is 

otherwise known as tamarack and         
hackmatack1 which names are oftener     
applied to the eastern tree2 red        
,american larch1 western tamarack1 and  
great western larch4  ,some of the      
annual cut of lumber credited to western
 larch does not belong to it4 ,lumbermen
 have confused names and mixed figures  
by applying this tree's name to noble   
fir1 which is a different tree4 ,if the 
fir lumber listed as larch were given   
its proper name1 it would result in     
lowering the output of larch as shown in
 statistical figures4 ,in spite of this1
 however1 larch lumber fills an         
important place in the trade of the     
northern ,rocky ,mountain region4       
,there is little doubt that it will fill
 a much more important place in the     
future1 for a beginning has scarcely    
been made in marketing this timber4 ,the
 available supply is large1 but exact   
figures are not available4 ,some stands 
are dense and extensive1 and the trees  
are of large size and fine form4 ,it is 

not supposed1 however1 that there will  
be much after the present stand has been
 cut1 because a second crop from trees  
of so slow growth will be far in the    
future4 ,sudworth says that larch trees 
eighteen or twenty inches in diameter   
are from #bej to #cjj years old1 and    
that the ordinary age of these trees in 
the forests of the ,northwest is from   
#cjj to #ejj years2 while larger trees  
are #fjj or #gjj4 ,much remains to be   
learned concerning the ages of these    
trees in different situations and in    
different parts of its range4 ,it is    
apparent1 however1 that when a period   
covering two or three centuries is      
required to produce a sawlog of only    
moderate size1 timber owners will not   
look forward with much eagerness to a   
second growth forest of western larch4  
,the value of the wood of western larch 
has been the subject of much            
controversy4 ,in the tables compiled for
 the federal census of #ahhj1 under     
direction of ,charles ,s4 ,sargent1 its 

strength and elasticity were shown to be
 remarkably high4 ,the figures indicate 
that it is about thirty-nine per cent   
stronger than white oak and fifty-one   
per cent stiffer4 ,this places it a     
little above longleaf pine in strength  
and nearly equal to it in stiffness or  
elasticity4 ,engineers have expressed   
doubts as to the correctness of         
,sargent's figures4 ,they believe them  
too high4 ,the samples tested by        
,sargent were six in number1 four of    
them collected in ,washington and two in
 ,montana4  ,the wood of western larch  
is heavier than longleaf pine1 and      
approximately of the same weight as     
white oak4 ,it is among the heaviest1 if
 not actually the heaviest1 of softwoods
 of the ,united ,states4 ,sargent thus  
described the physical properties of the
 wood3 8,heavy1 exceedingly hard and    
strong1 rather coarse grained1 compact1 
satiny1 susceptible of a fine polish1   
very durable in contact with the soil2  
bands of small summer cells broad1      

occupying fully half the width of the   
annual growth1 very resinous1           
dark-colored1 conspicuous resin passages
 few1 obscure2 medullary rays few1 thin2
 color1 light bright red1 the thin      
sapwood nearly white40 ,the wood is     
described by ,sudworth3 8,clear1 reddish
 brown1 heavy1 and fine grained2        
commercially valuable2 very durable in  
an unprotected state1 differing greatly 
in this respect from the wood of the    
eastern larch40  ,the seasoning of      
western larch has given lumbermen much  
trouble4 ,it checks badly and splinters 
rise from the surface of boards4 ,it is 
generally admitted that this is the most
 serious obstacle in the way of securing
 wide utilization for the wood4 ,the    
structure of the annual ring is reason  
for believing that there is slight      
adhesion between the springwood and that
 of the late season4 ,checks are very   
numerous parallel with the growth rings1
 and splinters part from the board along
 the same lines4 ,standing timber is    

frequently windshaken1 and the cracks   
follow the rings4  ,all of this is      
presumptive evidence that the principle 
defect of larch is a lack of adhesion   
between the early and the late wood4 ,if
 that is correct1 it is a fundamental   
defect in the growing tree1 and is      
inherent in the wood4 ,no artificial    
treatment can wholly remove it4 ,it     
should not be considered impossible1    
however1 to devise methods of seasoning 
which would not accentuate the          
weaknesses natural to the wood4  ,the   
form of the larch's trunk is perfect1   
from the lumberman's viewpoint1 and its 
size is all that could be desired4 ,it  
is amply able to perpetuate its species1
 though it consumes a great deal of time
 in the process4 ,abundant crops of     
seeds are borne1 but only once in       
several years4 ,it rarely bears seeds as
 early as its twenty-fifth year1 and    
generally not until it passes forty2 but
 its fruitful period is long1 extending 
over several centuries4 ,the seeds      

retain their vitality moderately well1  
which is an important consideration in  
view of the tree's habit of opening and 
closing its cones alternately as the    
weather happens to be damp or dry4 ,the 
dispersion of seeds extends over a      
considerable part of the season1 and the
 changing winds scatter them in all     
directions4 ,many seeds fall on the snow
 in winter to be let down on the damp   
ground ready to germinate during the    
early spring4 ,the best germination     
occurs on mineral soil1 and this is     
often found in areas recently bared by  
fire4 ,lodgepole pine contends also for 
this ground2 but the race between the   
two species is not swift after the      
process of scattering seeds has been    
completed2 for both are of growth so    
exceedingly slow that a hundred years   
will scarcely tell which is gaining4 ,in
 the long run1 however1 the larch       
outstrips the pine and becomes a larger 
tree4 ,if both start at the same time1  
and there is not room for both1 the pine

 will kill the larch by shading it4 ,the
 latter's thin foliage renders it       
incapable of casting a shadow dense     
enough to hurt the pine4 ,the best areas
 for larch are those so thoroughly      
burned as to preclude the immediate     
heavy reproduction of lodgepole pine4   
,much of the natural ranges of larch and
 lodgepole pine lie in the national     
forests owned by the government1 and    
careful studies have been made in recent
 years to determine the requirements1   
and the actual and comparative values of
 the two species4 ,it has been shown    
that larch is one of the most intolerant
 of the western forest trees4 ,it cannot
 endure shade4 ,its own thin foliage1   
where it occurs in pure stands1 is      
sufficient to shade off the lower limbs 
of boles1 and produce tall1 clean       
trunks2 but if a larch happens to stand 
in the open1 where light is abundant1 it
 retains its branches almost to the     
ground4 ,it is more intolerant1 even1   
than western yellow pine1 which so often

 grows in open1 parklike stands4        
,,alpine ,,larch 7,larix lyallii7 never 
grows naturally below an altitude of    
#d1jjj feet1 and near the southern      
border of its range it climbs to #h1jjj1
 where it stands on the brink of        
precipices1 faces of cliffs1 and on     
windswept summits4 ,it is too much      
exposed to storms1 and has its roots in 
soil too sterile to develop symmetrical 
forms4 ,it is found in ,montana1 ,idaho1
 ,washington1 and ,oregon4 ,the finest  
trees are sometimes seventy-five feet   
high and three or four in diameter1 but 
the average height ranges from forty to 
fifty1 with diameters of twenty inches  
or less4 ,its leaves are one and a half 
inches or less in length2 cones one and 
a half inches long1 and bristling with  
hair2 seeds one-eighth of an inch long  
with wings one-fourth inch2 wood heavy1 
hard1 and of a light1 reddish brown     
color4 ,it is seldom used except about  
mountain camps where it is sometimes    
burned for fuel or is employed in       

constructing corrals for sheep and      
cattle4 ,it is impossible for lumbermen 
ever to make much use of it1 because it 
is scarce and hard to get at4           
,illustration     ,,red ,,cedar         
,illustration3 ,,red ,,cedar     ,,red  
,,cedar  7,juniperus ,virginiana7       
,this widely distributed tree is called 
red cedar in ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 
,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new    
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1     
,delaware1 ,west ,virginia1 ,north      
,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1  
,florida1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1       
,louisiana1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1       
,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,wisconsin1 ,iowa1 
,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,ohio1 and       
,ontario2 cedar in ,connecticut1        
,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,south     
,carolina1 ,kentucky1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 
and ,ohio2 savin in ,massachusetts1     
,rhode ,island1 ,new ,york1             
,pennsylvania and ,minnesota2 juniper in
 ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania2 juniper  
bush in ,minnesota2 cedre in ,louisiana4

  ,the names as given above indicate the
 tree's commercial range4 ,it appears as
 scattered growth and in doubtful forms 
outside of that range1 particularly in  
the ,west where several cedars closely  
resemble the red cedar1 yet differ      
sufficiently from it to give them places
 as separate species in the lists of    
some botanists4 ,they are so listed by  
the ,united ,states ,forest ,service2   
and the following names are given3      
,western ,juniper1 ,rocky ,mountain     
,juniper1 ,one ,seed ,juniper1 ,mountain
 ,juniper1 ,california ,juniper1 ,utah  
,juniper1 ,drooping ,juniper1 ,dwarf    
,juniper1 and ,alligator ,juniper4      
,these species are not of much          
importance from the lumberman's         
viewpoint1 yet they are highly          
interesting trees1 and in this book will
 be treated individually4  ,the red     
cedar grows slowly1 and thrives in      
almost any soil and situation except    
deep swamps4 ,it is often classed as a  
poor-land species1 yet it does not      

naturally seek poor land4 ,that it is   
often found in such situations is       
because it has been crowded from better 
places by stronger trees1 and has       
retreated to rocky ridges1 dry slopes1  
and thin soils where competitors are    
unable to follow4 ,the trees often stand
 wide apart or solitary1 yet they can   
grow in thickets almost impenetrable1 as
 they do in ,texas and other southern   
states4 ,it is an old-field tree in much
 of its range4 ,birds plant the seeds1  
particularly along fence rows4 ,that is 
why long lines of cedars may often be   
seen extending across old fields or     
deserted plantations4  ,the extreme size
 attained by this cedar is four feet in 
diameter1 and one hundred in height1 but
 that size was never common1 and at     
present the half of it is above the     
average4 ,that which reaches market is  
more often under than over eighteen     
inches in diameter4 ,the reddish-brown  
and fibrous bark may be peeled in long  
strips4 ,stringiness of bark is         

characteristic of all the cedars1 and   
typical of red cedar4  ,the wood is     
medium light and is strong1 considering 
that it is very brittle4 ,tests show it 
to be eighty per cent as strong as white
 oak4 ,the grain is very fine1 even1 and
 homogeneous1 except as interfered with 
by knots4 ,the annual rings are narrow1 
the summerwood narrow and indistinct2   
medullary rays numerous but very        
obscure4 ,the color is red1 the thin    
sapwood nearly white4 ,the heart and sap
 are sometimes intermingled1 and this   
characteristic is prominent in the      
closely-related western species of red  
cedar4 ,the wood is easily worked1 gives
 little trouble because of warping and  
shrinking1 and the heart is considered  
as durable as any other ,american wood4 
,it has a delicate1 agreeable fragrance1
 which is especially marked4 ,this odor 
is disagreeable to insects1 and for that
 reason chests and closets of cedar are 
highly appreciated as storage places for
 garments subject to the ravages of the 

moth and buffalo bug4 ,an extract from  
the fruit and leaves is used in         
medicine1 while oil of red cedar1       
distilled from the wood1 is used in     
making perfume4 ,cedar has a sweet      
taste4 ,it burns badly1 scarcely being  
able to support a flame2 it is          
exceedingly aromatic and noisy when     
burning and the embers glow long in     
still air4 ,some of the bungalow owners 
in ,florida buy cedar fuel in preference
 to all others for burning in open      
fireplaces4  ,its representative uses   
are for posts1 railway ties1 pails1     
sills1 cigar boxes1 interior finish and 
cabinet making1 but its most general use
 is in the manufacture of lead pencils1 
for which its fine1 straight grain and  
soft texture are peculiarly adapted4    
,the farther south cedar is found1 the  
softer and clearer it is4 ,in the       
,north1 in ornamental trees1 it is very 
hard1 slow-growing1 and knotty4 ,it     
shows but a small percentage of clear   
lumber4 ,in eastern ,tennessee there    

were considerable quantities of red     
cedar brake that were for years         
considered of little value4 ,about the  
only way the wood was employed a few    
years ago was in fence rails and posts1 
fuel1 and charcoal4 ,of late people in  
localities where cedar grows in any     
abundance have awakened to its value1   
and cedar fences are rapidly            
disappearing1 owing to the high prices  
now paid for the wood1 and the excellent
 demand4 ,on no other southern wood has 
such depredation been practiced4        
,because of its lightness and the ease  
with which it can be worked1 it has been
 used for purposes for which other and  
less valuable woods were well adapted4  
,on account of its slow growth1 its     
complete exhaustion has often been      
predicted1 but a second growth has      
appeared which1 though much inferior to 
the virgin timber1 can be used in many  
ways to excellent advantage4 ,instead of
 the huge piles of cedar flooring1 chest
 boards1 and smooth railings of the old 

days1 one now sees at points of         
distribution great piles of knotty1     
rough poles1 ten to forty feet long1    
which years ago would have been         
discarded4 ,today they represent bridge 
piling1 the better and smoother among   
them being used for telephone and       
telegraph poles4  ,middle ,tennessee has
 produced more red cedar than any other 
part of the ,united ,states1 but the    
bulk of production has been confined to 
a few counties1 which produce a higher  
class and more aromatic variety of wood 
than that found elsewhere4 ,a century   
ago these counties abounded in splendid 
forests of cedar4 ,the early settlers   
built their cabins of cedar logs1 sills1
 studding1 and rafters2 their smoke     
houses were built of them2 their barns2 
even the roofs were shingled with cedar 
and the rooms and porches floored with  
the sweet-scented wood4 ,not many years 
ago trees three feet or more in diameter
 were often found1 but the days are past
 when timber like that can be had       

anywhere4  ,although the most general   
use at the present time is for lead     
pencils1 few people who sharpen one and 
smell the fragrant wood1 stop to wonder 
where it came from4 ,one would smile    
were it suggested to him that perhaps   
his pencil was formerly part of some    
,tennessee farmer's worm fence4 ,the    
best timber obtained now is hewn into   
export logs and shipped to ,europe1     
particularly ,germany1 where a great    
quantity is converted into pencils4 ,the
 red wood is made into the higher grades
 and the sap or streaked wood is used   
for the cheaper varieties and for pen   
holders4 ,the smaller and inferior logs 
are cut into slats1 while odds and ends1
 cutoffs1 etc41 are collected and sold  
by the hundred pounds to pencil         
factories4 ,there are many such         
factories in the ,united ,states now1 as
 well as in ,europe1 and pencil men are 
scouring the cedar sections to buy all  
they can4 ,the farmer who has a red     
cedar picket or worm fence can sell it  

to these companies at a round price4    
,pencil men are even going back over    
tracts from which the timber was cut    
twenty-five years ago1 buying up the    
stumps4 ,when the wood was plentiful    
lumbermen were not frugal1 and usually  
cut down a tree about two feet above the
 ground1 allowing the best part of it to
 be wasted4  ,the ,german and ,austrian 
pencil makers foresaw a shortage in     
,american red cedar1 and many years ago 
planted large areas to provide for the  
time of scarcity4 ,the planted timber is
 now large enough for use1 but the wood 
has been a disappointment4 ,it does not 
possess the softness and brittleness    
which give so high value to the forest  
cedar of this country4 ,as far as can be
 seen1 when present pencil cedar has    
been exhausted1 there will be little    
more produced of like grade4 ,it grows  
so slowly that owners will not wait for 
trees to become old1 but sell them while
 young for posts and poles4  ,one of the
 earliest demands for red cedar was for 

woodenware made of staves1 such as      
buckets1 kegs1 keelers1 small tubs1 and 
firkins4 ,material for the manufacture  
of such wares was among the exports to  
the ,west ,indies before the            
,revolutionary war4 ,the ware was no    
less popular in this country1 and the   
home-made articles were in all          
neighborhoods in the red cedar's range4 
,scarcity of suitable wood limits the   
manufacture of such wares now1 but they 
are still in use4  ,cedar was long one  
of the best woods for skiffs and other  
light boats1 and it was occasionally    
employed in shipbuilding for the upper  
parts of vessels4 ,a little of it is    
still used as trim and finish1          
particularly for canoes1 motor boats1   
and yachts4  ,the early clothes chest   
makers selected clear lumber1 because it
 could be had and was considered to be  
better2 but modern chest manufacturers  
who cannot procure clear stock1 make a  
merit of necessity1 and use boards      
filled with knots4 ,the wood is finished

 with oils1 but the natural colors      
remain1 and the knots give the chest a  
rustic and pleasing appearance4         
,,southern ,,red ,,juniper 7,juniperus  
barbadensis7 so closely resembles       
the red cedar with which it is          
associated that the two were formerly   
considered the same species1 and most   
people familiar with both     notice no 
difference4 ,however1 botanists clearly 
distinguish the     two4 ,the southern  
red cedar's range is much smaller than  
the     other's4 ,it grows from ,georgia
 to the ,indian river1 ,florida1 in     
swamps4 ,it is found in the vicinity of 
the ,apalachicola river1     forming    
dense thickets4 ,its average size is    
much under that of the     red cedar1   
but its wood is not dissimilar4 ,it has 
been used for the     same purposes as  
far as it has been used at all4 ,one of 
the largest     demands upon it has been
 for lead pencils4 ,those who bought and
 sold     it1 generally supposed they   
were dealing in the common red cedar4   

,illustration     ,,northern ,,white    
,,cedar  ,illustration3 ,,northern      
,,white ,,cedar     ,,northern ,,white  
,,cedar  7,thuja ,occidentalis7   ,this 
tree is designated as northern white    
cedar because there is also a southern  
white cedar1 7,chamcyparis thyoides7 and
 the boundaries of their ranges approach
 pretty closely4 ,the name occidentalis1
 meaning western1 applied to the        
northern white cedar is employed by     
botanists to distinguish it from a      
similar cedar in ,asia1 which is called 
orientalis1 or eastern4  ,the ,american 
species has several names1 as is usual  
with trees which grow in different      
regions4 ,it is called arborvit in      
,maine1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode
 ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new
 ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1     
,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1 ,indiana1   
,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1       
,minnesota1 ,ohio1 and ,ontario4 ,white 
cedar is a name often used in ,maine1   
,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,rhode       

,island1 ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1    
,new ,jersey1 ,virginia1 ,north         
,carolina1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1       
,minnesota1 and ,ontario4 ,in ,maine1   
,vermont1 and ,new ,york it is called   
cedar4 ,in ,new ,york1 and where        
cultivated in ,england1 ,american       
arborvit is the name applied to it4 ,the
 ,indians in ,new ,york knew it as      
feather-leaf4 ,in ,delaware the name is 
abridged to vit4  ,the tree has been    
widely planted1 and under the influence 
of cultivation it runs quickly into     
varieties1 of which forty-five are      
listed by nurserymen4 ,it is a northern 
species which follows the ,appalachian  
mountains southward to ,north ,carolina 
and ,tennessee4 ,it grows from ,new     
,brunswick to ,manitoba1 and is abundant
 in the ,lake ,states4  ,the bark of    
arborvit is light brown1 tinged with red
 on the branchlets2 it is thin1 and     
cracks into ridges with stringy1 rough  
edges2 the branchlets are very smooth4  
,in general appearance the tree is      

conical and compact1 with short         
branches2 it attains a height of from   
twenty-five to seventy feet1 and a      
diameter of from one to three feet4 ,it 
thrives best in low1 swampy land1 along 
the borders of streams4  ,the wood of   
arborvit is soft1 brittle1 light and    
weak2 it is very inflammable4 ,the fact 
that it is durable1 even in contact with
 the soil1 permits its use for railway  
ties1 telegraph poles1 posts1 fencing1  
shingles and boats4 ,however1 the trunk 
is so shaped that it is seldom used for 
lumber1 but oftener for poles and posts1
 the lower section being flattened into 
ties4 ,a cubic foot of the seasoned wood
 weighs approximately nineteen pounds4  
,the heartwood is light brown1 becoming 
darker with exposure2 the sapwood is    
thin and nearly white1 with fine grain4 
,the northern white cedar varies greatly
 in size and shape1 depending on the    
soil1 climate1 and situation4 ,though it
 is usually associated with swamps in   
the ,north1 it adapts itself to quite   

different situations4 ,it grows in      
narrow1 rocky ravines1 on stony ridges1 
and it clings to the faces of cliffs1 or
 hangs on their summits as tenaciously  
as the western juniper of the ,sierra   
,nevada mountains4 ,however1 little good
 timber is produced by this species on  
rocky soils4 ,trees in such situations  
are short1 crooked1 and limby4  ,the    
wood of the northern white cedar        
possesses a peculiar toughness which is 
seen in its wearing qualities4 ,a thin  
shaving1 such as a carpenter's plane    
makes1 may be folded1 laid on an anvil1 
and struck repeatedly with a hammer1    
without breaking4 ,it is claimed for it 
that it will stand a severer test of    
that kind than any other ,american wood4
 ,toughness and wearing qualities       
combined make it an admirable wood for  
planking and decking for small boats4   
,its exceptionally light weight is an   
additional factor as a boat building    
material4 ,the ,indians knew how to work
 it into frames for bark canoes4 ,its   

lightness appealed to them2 but the ease
 with which they could work it with     
their primitive tools was more          
important4 ,it is a characteristic of   
the wood to part readily along the rings
 of annual growth4 ,the ,indian was able
 to split canoe ribs with a stone maul1 
by pounding a cedar billet until it     
parted along the growth rings and was   
reduced to very thin slats4  ,the       
property of this cedar which appealed to
 the ,indians is disliked by the sawmill
 man4 ,it is hard to make thin lumber   
that will hang together4 ,the tendency  
to part along the growth rings develops 
wind-shake while the tree is standing4  
,about nine trees in ten are so         
defective from shake that little good   
lumber can be made from them4 ,it is a  
common saying1 which probably applies in
 certain localities only1 that a        
thousand feet of white cedar must be    
sawed to get one hundred feet of good   
lumber4  ,it is good material for small 
cooperage such as buckets1 pails1 and   

tubs1 and has been long used for that   
purpose in the northern states4  ,it was
 once laid in large quantities for      
paving blocks4 ,hundreds of miles of    
streets of northern cities were paved   
with round blocks sawed from trunks of  
trees from five to ten inches in        
diameter4 ,they were not usually treated
 with chemicals to prevent decay1 but   
they gave service ranging from six to   
twelve years4 ,they are less used now   
than formerly4 ,southern yellow pine has
 largely taken the cedar's place as     
paving material4 ,much northern cedar   
has been used in the manufacture of     
bored pipe for municipal waterworks1    
shops1 salt works1 paper mills1 and     
other factories4  ,the early settlers of
 ,new ,jersey and eastern ,pennsylvania 
made a rheumatism ointment by bruising  
the leaves and molding them with lard4  
,this is probably not made now1 but     
pharmacists distill an oil from twigs   
and wood1 and make a tincture of the    
leaves which they use in the manufacture

 of pulmonary and other medicines4      
,there is little likelihood that        
northern white cedar will ever cease to 
be a commercial wood in this country4   
,it will become scarcer1 but its manner 
of growth is the best guarantee that it 
will hold its place4 ,it lives in       
swamps1 and the land is not in demand   
for any other purpose4      ,,one-,,seed
 ,,juniper 7,juniperus monosperma7 is   
also called naked-seed     juniper4 ,its
 range lies in ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 
,texas1 ,utah1 and     ,arizona4 ,it    
attains its greatest development in the 
bottoms of     canyons in northern      
,arizona4 ,it is a scrawny desert tree  
which lives     in adversity but holds  
its ground for centuries1 if fire does  
not     cut its career short4 ,its      
growth is too scattered to attract      
lumbermen1 and the form of its trunk is 
uninviting4 ,it may reach a     height  
of forty or fifty feet1 and a diameter  
of three1 but that is     above the     
average in the best of its range4 ,the  

desert ,indians make     the most of    
one-seed juniper4 ,they weave its       
stringy bark into     sleeping mats1    
rough blankets1 and saddle girts4 ,they 
make cords and     ropes of it for use  
where great strength is not required1   
such as     leashes for leading dogs1   
strands with which to tie bundles on the
     backs of their squaws1 and cords   
for fastening their wigwam poles        
together4 ,they likewise weave the bark 
into pokes and pouches for     storing  
and carrying their dried meat and       
mesquite beans4 ,the     juniper berries
 are an article of diet and commerce    
with the     ,indians1 who mix them with
 divers ingredients1 pulp them in stone 
mortars1 and bake them in cakes which   
become the greatest delicacy     on     
their bill of fare4 ,white men1 when    
driven to it by starvation1     have    
sustained life by making food of the    
berries4 ,a small quantity     of       
one-seed juniper reaches woodworkers in 
,texas4 ,the lumber is     short and    

rough4 ,the numerous knots are generally
 much darker than     the body of the   
wood4 ,that is not necessarily a defect1
 for in     making clothes chests1 the  
striking contrast in color between the  
knots1 and the other wood gives the     
article a peculiar and     attractive   
appearance4 ,the trunks are sharply     
buttressed and deeply     creased4      
,sometimes the folds of bark within the 
creases almost reach     the center of  
the tree4 ,the sapwood is thin1 the     
heartwood irregular     in color4 ,some 
is darker than the heartwood of southern
 red cedar1     other is clouded and    
mottled1 pale yellow1 cream-colored1 the
 shade     of slate1 or streaked with   
various tints4 ,the wood can be         
economically worked only as small       
pieces4 ,it takes a soft and            
pleasing finish4 ,it is a lathe wood and
 shows to best advantage as             
balusters1 ornaments1 grill spindles and
 small posts1 ,indian clubs1            
dumb-bells1 balls1 and lodge gavels4 ,it

 has been made into small     game      
boards with fine effect1 and it is an   
excellent material for     small picture
 frames4 ,furniture makers put it to use
 in several     ways1 and it has been   
recommended for small musical           
instruments     where the variegated    
colors can be displayed to excellent    
advantage4     ,at the best it can never
 be more than a minor species1 because  
it is     difficult of access in the    
remote deserts1 and it is not abundant4 
,,mountain ,,juniper 7,juniperus        
sabinoides7 is a ,texas tree1 occupying 
a range southward and westward of the   
,colorado river4 ,it has several        
local names1 rock cedar being a         
favorite4 ,this name is due to the      
tree's habit of growing on rocky ridges 
and among ledges where soil     is      
scarce4 ,it is called juniper cedar1 and
 juniper4 ,under the most     favorable 
circumstances the tree may attain a     
height of #ajj feet and     a diameter  
of two1 but it nearly always grows where

 conditions are     adverse1 and its    
size and form change to conform to      
circumstances4     ,it is often small   
and ragged4 ,its lead-colored bark is   
apt to     attract attention on account 
of its woeful appearance1 hanging in    
strings and tatters which persistently  
cling to the trunk in spite     of      
whipping winds4 ,when the tree is cut   
for fuel1 or for any other     purpose1 
the ragged bark is occasionally pulled  
off and is tied in     bales or bundles 
to be sold for kindling4 ,when the      
mountain juniper     is taken from its  
native wilds and planted where          
environments are     different1 it      
sometimes assumes fantastic forms4 ,it  
has been planted     for ornament on the
 low1 flat coast in the vicinity of the 
,gulf of     ,mexico1 and though it     
lives and grows1 it often takes on a    
peculiar     appearance4 ,the trunks    
resemble twisted and interwoven bundles 
of     lead-colored vines1 buttressed1  
fluted1 and gnarled4 ,the branches      

lose their upright position1 and hang in
 careless abandon1 with     drooping    
festoons4 ,in winter the wind whips most
 of the foliage from     them4 ,the     
leaves become brittle and may be easily 
brushed from the     twigs by a stroke  
of the hand4 ,some of the planted trees 
have trunks     so deeply creased as to 
be divided in two separate stems4 ,this 
very     nearly happens with some of the
 wild trees among the western           
mountains4 ,the sapwood of mountain     
juniper is very thin4 ,the average      
tree cannot be profitably cut into      
lumber of the usual dimensions          
because of the odd-shaped and irregular 
trunk4 ,it lends itself more            
economically to the manufacture of      
articles made up of small pieces4       
,some of the wood is extremely          
beautiful1 having the color and figure  
of ,french walnut2 but there is great   
difference in the figure and     color1 
and the wood of one tree is not a sure  
guide to what another     may be4       

,boards a foot wide1 or even less1 may  
show several figures     and colors4    
,some pieces suggest variegated marble2 
others are like     plain red cedar2    
some are light red in color1 others have
 a tinge of     blue4 ,it varies greatly
 in hardness1 even in the same tree4    
,part of     it may be soft and brittle 
enough for lead pencils2 another part   
may     be hard and tough4 ,clothes     
chests have been made of it1 of most    
peculiar appearance--resembling crazy   
quilts of subdued colors4     ,sometimes
 the heartwood and the sapwood are      
inextricably mixed1 both     being found
 in all parts of the trunk from the     
heart out4 ,on the     whole1 the tree  
can never have much importance as a     
source of     lumber1 but it is a most  
interesting member of the cedar group4  
,illustration     ,,southern ,,white    
,,cedar  ,illustration3 ,,southern      
,,white ,,cedar     ,,southern ,,white  
,,cedar  7,chamcyparis ,thyoides7       
,this tree is called southern white     

cedar to distinguish it from northern   
white cedar or arborvit4 ,when there is 
little likelihood of confusion1 the name
 white cedar is applied locally in      
different parts of its range from       
,massachusetts to ,florida4 ,it is a    
persistent swamp tree and on that       
account has been called swamp cedar2 but
 that name alone would not distinguish  
it from the northern white cedar1 for   
both grow in swamps2 but it does        
separate it from red cedar which keeps  
away from swamps4 ,the ranges of the two
 are side by side from ,new ,england to 
,florida4 ,post cedar is a common name  
for it in ,delaware and ,new ,jersey1   
because of the important place it has   
long filled as fence material2 but      
again1 the name does not set it apart   
from red cedar or northern white cedar1 
for both are used for posts4 ,the only  
name thus far applied1 which clearly    
distinguishes it from associated cedars1
 is southern white cedar4 ,its range    
extends northward to ,maine1 but the    

tree's chief commercial importance has  
been in ,new ,jersey and southward to   
,north ,carolina1 very near the coast4  
,somehow1 it seems to skip ,georgia     
where no one has reported it for many   
years1 though there is historical       
evidence that it once grew in that      
state4 ,it grows as far west as         
,mississippi1 but is scarce4  ,the small
 leaves remain green two years and then 
turn brown but adhere to the branches   
several years longer4 ,the fruit is     
about one-fourth inch in diameter1 and  
the small seeds are equipped with wings4
  ,the wood is among the lightest in    
this country4 ,it is only moderately    
strong and stiff4 ,the tree usually     
grows slowly4 ,fifty years may be       
required to produce a fence post1 but   
under favorable conditions results      
somewhat better than that may be        
expected4 ,the summerwood of the yearly 
ring is narrow1 dark in color1 and      
conspicuous1 making the counting of the 
rings an easy matter4 ,the medullary    

rays are numerous but thin4 ,when the   
sap is cut tangentially in very thin    
layers it is white and semi-transparent1
 presenting somewhat the appearance of  
oiled paper4 ,the heartwood is light    
brown1 tinged with red1 growing darker  
with exposure4 ,the wood is easily      
worked1 and is very durable in contact  
with the soil4 ,fence posts of this wood
 have been reported to stand fifty      
years1 and shingles are said to last    
longer4 ,trees reach a height of eighty 
feet and diameter of four2 but such are 
of the largest size4 ,great numbers are 
cut for poles and posts which are little
 more than a foot in diameter4 ,few     
forest trees grow in denser stands than 
this4 ,it often takes possession of     
swamps1 crowds out all other trees1 and 
develops thickets so dense as to be     
almost impenetrable4 ,southern white    
cedar is cut in ten or twelve states1   
but the annual supply is not known1     
because mills generally report all      
cedars as one1 and the regions which    

produce this1 produce one or more other 
species of cedar also4 ,it has held its 
place nearly three hundred years1 and   
much interesting history is connected   
with it4 ,a considerable part of the    
,revolutionary war was fought with      
powder made from white cedar charcoal   
burned in ,new ,jersey and ,delaware4   
,however1 that was by no means the      
earliest place filled by this wood4     
,two hundred years ago in ,north        
,carolina ,john ,lawson wrote of its use
 for 8yards1 topmasts1 booms1 bowsprits 
for boats1 shingles1 and poles40 ,it was
 cut for practically the same purposes  
in ,new ,jersey at an earlier period1   
and #afj years ago ,gottlieb            
,mittelberger1 when he visited          
,philadelphia1 declared that white cedar
 was being cut at a rate which would    
soon exhaust the supply4 ,but that      
prophecy1 like similar predictions that 
oak and red cedar were about gone1      
proved not well founded4 ,seventy years 
after the imminent exhaustion of this   

wood was foretold1 ,william ,cobbett1 an
 ,english traveler1 declared with       
evident exaggeration that 8all good     
houses in the ,united ,states0 were     
roofed with white cedar shingles4       
,after boat building1 the first general 
use of the southern white cedar was for 
fences and farm buildings1 and doubtless
 twenty times as much went to the farms 
as to the boat yards4 ,in all regions   
where the wood was convenient1 little   
other was employed as fencing material1 
and many of the earliest houses in ,new 
,jersey and some in ,pennsylvania were  
constructed almost wholly of this wood4 
,small trees which would split two1     
three1 and four rails to the cut1 were  
mauled by thousands to enclose the      
farms4 ,the bark soon dropped off1 or   
was removed1 and the light rails quickly
 air-dried1 and decay made little       
impression on them for many years4 ,the 
larger trunks were rived for shingles or
 were sawed into lumber4 ,about #agej   
the use of round cedar logs for houses  

and barns began to give way to sawed    
lumber4 ,it was an ideal milling timber1
 for the logs were symmetrical1 clear1  
and easily handled4 ,north ,carolina    
sawmills were at work on this timber    
many years before the ,revolution4 ,it  
was acceptable material for doors1      
window frames1 rafters1 and floors1 but 
especially for shingles which were split
 with frow and mallet1 and were from    
twenty-four to twenty-seven inches long4
 ,they were known in market as juniper  
shingles and sold at four and five      
dollars a thousand4 ,about #agej        
builders in ,philadelphia were          
criticized because they constructed     
houses with no provision for other than 
white cedar roofs2 the walls being too  
weak for heavier material which would   
have to be substituted when cedar could 
be no longer procured4 ,philadelphia was
 not alone in its preference for cedar  
roofs4 ,large shipments of shingles were
 going from ,new ,jersey to ,new ,york1 
and even to the ,west ,indies earlier   

than #agej4  ,southern white cedar is   
said to have been the first ,american   
wood used for organ pipes4 ,the         
resonance of cedar shingles under a     
pattering rain suggested this use to    
,mittelberger when he visited ,america1 
and he tried the wood with such success 
that he pronounced it the best that he  
knew of for organ pipes4  ,coopers were 
among the early users of white cedar4   
,the 8cedar coopers of ,philadelphia0   
were famous in their day4 ,they used    
this wood and also red cedar 7,juniperus
 virginiana71 and their wares occupied  
an important place in domestic and some 
foreign markets4 ,small vessels         
prevailed1 such as pails1 churns1       
firkins1 tubs1 keelers1 piggins1        
noggins1 and kegs4 ,the ware was        
handsome1 strong1 durable1 and light in 
weight4 ,oil merchants1 particularly    
those who dealt in whale oil which was  
once an important commodity1 bought     
tanks of southern white cedar4 ,it is a 
dense wood and seepage is small4  ,a    

peculiar superstition once prevailed1   
and has not wholly disappeared at this  
day1 that white cedar possessed powerful
 healing properties4 ,it was thought    
that water was purified by standing in a
 cedar bucket1 and even that a liquid   
was improved by simply running through a
 spigot of this wood4 ,some eastern     
towns at an early period laid cedar     
water mains1 partly because the wood was
 known to be durable1 and partly because
 it was supposed to exercise some       
favorable influence upon the water      
flowing through the pipes4 ,it was even 
believed that standing trees purified   
the swamps in which they grew4 ,vessels 
putting to sea from ,chesapeake bay1    
sometimes made special effort to fill   
their water casks with water from the   
,dismal swamp1 where cedars grew        
abundantly in the stagnant lagoons4     
,about #ajj years ago it was found that 
whole forests of cedar had been         
submerged in ,new ,jersey during        
prehistoric times1 and that deep in     

swamps the trunks of trees were buried  
out of sight4 ,no one knows how long the
 prostrate trees had lain beneath the   
accumulation of peat and mud1 but the   
wood was sound4 ,mining the cedar became
 an important industry in some of the   
large swamps1 and it has not ended yet4 
,the wood is sound enough for shingles  
and lumber1 though it has been buried   
for centuries1 as is proved by the age  
of the forests which grew over the      
submerged logs4 ,sometimes a log which  
has lain under water hundreds of years1 
rises to the surface by its own buoyancy
 when pressure from above is removed4   
,this is remarkable and shows how long a
 time this cedar resists complete       
waterlogging4 ,the wood of green cedar  
has a strong odor1 and that             
characteristic remains with the         
submerged trunks4 ,experienced men who  
have been long engaged in mining the    
timber1 are able to tell by the odor of 
a chip brought to the surface from a    
deeply submerged log whether the wood is

 sufficiently well preserved to be worth
 recovering and manufacturing4 ,trunks  
six feet in diameter have been brought  
to the surface4 ,few if any living white
 cedars of that size exist now4  ,many  
of the early uses of southern white     
cedar have continued till the present   
time1 but in much smaller quantities4   
,fence rails are no longer made of it2  
shingles and cooperage have declined4   
,on the other hand1 it now has some uses
 which were unknown in early times1 such
 as telephone and telegraph poles1      
crossties1 and piling for railroad      
bridges and culverts4  ,the supply of   
southern white cedar is not large1 and  
it is being cut faster than it is       
growing4 ,the deep swamps where it grows
 protect white cedar forests from fire1 
and for that reason it is more fortunate
 than many other species4 ,not even     
cypress can successfully compete with it
 for possession of water soaked         
morasses4 ,it does not promise great    
things for the future1 for it will never

 be extensively planted4 ,its range has 
been pretty definitely fixed by nature  
to deep swamps near the ,atlantic coast4
 ,within those limits it will be of some
 importance for a long time4 ,where it  
finds its most congenial surroundings1  
little else that is profitable to man   
will grow4 ,this will save it from utter
 extermination1 because much of the land
 which it occupies will never be wanted 
for anything else4  ,illustration       
,,incense ,,cedar  ,illustration3       
,,incense ,,cedar     ,,incense ,,cedar 
7,libocedrus ,decurrens7   ,in          
,california and ,oregon this tree is    
known as white cedar1 cedar1 and incense
 cedar2 in ,nevada and ,california it is
 called post cedar and juniper1 and in  
other localities it is red cedar and    
,california post cedar4 ,it is a species
 of such strong characteristics that it 
is not likely to be confused with any   
other4 ,though different names may be   
applied to it1 the identity of the tree 
is always clear4  ,its range extends    

north and south nearly #a1jjj miles1    
from ,oregon to ,lower ,california4 ,it 
is a mountain species1 and it faces the 
,pacific ocean in most of its range4 ,in
 the ,north it occupies the western     
slope of the ,cascade mountains in      
southern ,oregon and northern           
,california2 and it grows on the western
 slope of the ,sierras for five hundred 
miles1 at altitudes of from #d1jjj to   
#h1jjj feet1 where it is mixed with     
sugar pine1 western yellow pine1 white  
fir1 and sequoias4  ,it is a fine1      
shapely tree1 except that the butt is   
much enlarged4 ,it has the              
characteristic form of a deep swamp     
tree1 but it has nothing to do with     
swamps4 ,its best development is on the 
,sierra ,nevada mountains1 where swamps 
are few1 and the incense cedar avoids   
them4 ,it occupies dry ridges and       
slopes1 but not sterile ones4 ,it must  
have as good soil as the sugar pine     
demands4 ,its height when mature ranges 
from seventy-five to #abe feet1 diameter

 four feet from the ground1 from three  
to six feet1 but some trees are larger4 
,it is not a rapid grower1 but it       
maintains its vigor a long time4 ,as an 
average1 it increases its diameter an   
inch in from seven to ten years4  ,the  
wood is dense4 ,it contains no pores    
large enough to be seen with an ordinary
 reading glass4 ,the medullary rays are 
so small as to be generally invisible to
 the naked eye1 but when magnified they 
are shown to be thin and numerous4 ,the 
summerwood forms about one-fourth of the
 annual ring4 ,the wood is nearly as    
light as white pine1 is moderately      
strong1 is brittle1 straight grained1   
the heartwood is reddish1 the thick     
sapwood nearly white4 ,it is an easy    
wood to work1 and in contact with the   
soil it is very durable4  ,the incense  
cedar is the only representative of its 
genus in the ,united ,states4 ,it has   
many relatives in the pine family1 but  
no near ones4 ,its kin are natives of   
,formosa1 ,china1 ,new ,zealand1 ,new   

,guinea1 and ,patagonia4  ,the name     
incense cedar refers to the odor of the 
wood rather than of the leaves4 ,those  
who work with freshly cut wood are      
liable to attacks of headache1 due to   
the odor2 but some men are not affected 
by it4  ,the forest grown tree is of    
beautiful proportions4 ,unless much     
crowded for room1 it is a tall1 graceful
 cone1 the branches drooping slightly1  
and forming thick masses4 ,in the       
,sierra ,nevada mountains1 within the   
range of this cedar1 the winter snows   
are very heavy4 ,it is not unusual for  
two or three feet of very wet snow to   
fall in a single day4 ,the incense      
cedar's drooping branches shed the snow 
like a tent roof1 and a limb broken or  
seriously deformed by weight of snow is 
seldom seen4 ,deer and other wild       
animals1 when surprised by a heavy fall 
of snow1 seek the shelter of an incense 
cedar1 if one can be found1 and there   
lie in security until the storm passes4 
,it is a tree which does fairly well in 

cultivation1 and several varieties have 
been developed4 ,it lives through the   
cold of a ,new ,england winter4 ,its    
cones are about three-fourths inch in   
length1 and ripen in the autumn4        
,incense cedar has filled an important  
place in the development of the great   
central valley of ,california1 where it 
has supplied more fence posts than any  
other tree4 ,posts of redwood have been 
its chief competitor1 but generally the 
region has been divided1 and each tree  
has supplied its part4 ,the redwood's   
field has been the coast1 the cedar's   
the inland valley within reach of the   
,sierras4 ,it has been nothing unusual  
for ranchmen to haul cedar posts on     
wagons forty or fifty miles4  ,the      
manufacture of posts from incense cedar 
has entailed an enormous waste of       
timber4 ,the thick sapwood is not       
wanted1 and in the process of converting
 a trunk into posts1 the woodsman first 
splits off the sap and throws it away4  
,in trunks of small and medium size1 the

 sapwood may amount to more than the    
heartwood1 and is a total loss4  ,the   
tree's bark is thick and stringy1 and it
 is generally wasted2 but in some       
instances it is used as a surface       
dressing for mountain roads4 ,it wears  
to pieces and becomes a pulpy mass1 and 
it protects the surface of the road from
 excessive wear1 and from washing in    
time of heavy rain4  ,approximately     
one-half of the incense cedar trees1 as 
they stand in the woods1 are defective4 
,a fungus 7,ddalia vorax7 attacks them  
in the heartwood and excavates pits     
throughout the length of the trunks4    
,the galleries resemble the work of     
ants1 and as ants often take possession 
of them and probably enlarge them1 it is
 quite generally believed that the pits 
are due to ants4 ,the excavations are   
frequently filled with dry1 brown dust1 
sometimes packed very hard and tight4   
,the cedar thus affected resembles      
8pecky cypress10 and it is believed that
 the same species of fungus1 or a       

closely related species1 is responsible 
for the injury to both cypress in the   
,south and incense cedar on the ,pacific
 coast4 ,it is not generally regarded by
 users of cedar posts that the          
honey-combed condition of the wood      
lessens the service which the post will 
give1 unless by weakening it and causing
 it to break1 or by rendering it less   
able to hold the staples of wire fences1
 or nails of plank and picket fences4   
,post makers often prefer fire-killed   
timber4 ,if a tree is found with the    
sapwood consumed1 as is not unusual1 it 
is nearly always free from fungous      
attack4 ,the reason it stands through   
the fire which burns the sapwood off1 is
 that the heart is sound--if it were not
 sound1 the whole tree would be         
consumed4  ,the wood of the incense     
cedar is serviceable for many purposes4 
,the rejection of the sapwood by so many
 users is the most discouraging feature4
 ,the heart1 when free from fungus1 is a
 fine1 attractive material that does not

 suffer in comparison with the other    
cedars1 though it may not equal some of 
them for particular purposes4 ,tests    
show it fit for lead pencils1 and recent
 purchases of large quantities have been
 made by pencil makers4 ,clothes chests 
and wardrobes are manufactured from this
 wood on the assumption that the odor   
will keep moths out of furs and other   
clothing stored within4 ,it has been    
used for cigar boxes1 but has not in all
 instances proven satisfactory4 ,the    
odor of the wood is objected to by some 
smokers4 ,another objection and a       
somewhat peculiar one1 has been filed   
against incense cedar as a cigar box    
material4 ,it is claimed that the boxes 
are attacked voraciously by rats which  
gnaw the wood1 to which they are        
doubtless attracted by the odor4        
,sawmills turn out incense cedar lumber 
which is worked into frames for doors   
and windows1 and doors are made of it1  
and also interior finish4 ,shipments of 
inch boards are sold in ,new ,york and  

,boston1 and exports go to ,london1     
,paris1 and ,berlin4  ,the long period  
during which incense cedar has been used
 and wasted1 has reduced the supply in  
most regions1 but there is yet much in  
the forest4 ,it is never lumbered       
separately1 but only in connection with 
pine and fir2 but post makers have      
always gone about picking trees of this 
species and passing by the associated   
species4  ,,alligator ,,juniper         
7,juniperus pachyphla7 is so named from 
its bark which is patterned like the    
skin of an alligator4 ,it is called     
oak-barked cedar in ,arizona1 mountain  
cedar in ,texas1 and checkered-barked   
juniper in other places4 ,its range lies
 in southwestern ,texas1 about ,eagle   
pass and ,limpia mountains1 and westward
 on the desert ranges of ,new ,mexico   
and ,arizona1 south of the ,colorado    
plateau1 and among the mountains of     
northern ,arizona4 ,its range extends   
southward into ,mexico4 ,it is one of   
the largest of the junipers1 but only   

when circumstances are wholly favorable4
 ,it is then sixty feet high1 and four  
or five feet in diameter2 but it is     
generally small and of poor form for    
lumber1 because of its habit of         
separating into forks near the ground4  
,it does best at elevations of from     
#d1jjj to #f1jjj feet in bottoms of     
canyons and ravines4 ,the grayish green 
color of the foliage is due to the      
conspicuous white glands which dot the  
center of each leaf4 ,the berries are   
small and blue1 of sweetish taste which 
does not particularly appeal to the     
palate of civilized man1 but the        
,indians of the region1 whose normal    
state is one of semi-starvation1 eat    
them with relish4 ,the line separating  
heartwood from sap in alligator juniper 
is frequently irregular and vague1 and  
like some of its kindred junipers of the
 ,west1 patches of sap are sometimes    
buried deep in the heartwood1 while     
streaks of heartwood occur in the sap4  
,this heartwood is usually of a dirty   

color1 suggesting red rocks and soil of 
the desert where it grows4 ,small       
articles which can be made of wood      
selected for its color are attractive4  
,they may be highly polished1 and the   
surface takes a satiny finish2 but the  
wood does not show very well in panel or
 body work where wide pieces are used4  
,the best utilization of alligator      
juniper appears to lie in small         
articles4 ,it is fine for the lathe1 and
 goblets1 napkin rings1 match safes1 and
 handkerchief boxes are manufactured    
from the wood in ,texas4 ,its rough uses
 are as fence posts and telephone poles4
 ,it is durable in contact with the     
soil4  ,,california ,,juniper           
7,juniperus californica7 is called white
 cedar1 juniper1 sweet-fruited juniper1 
and sweet-berried cedar4 ,its range is  
in ,california south of ,sacramento1    
among the ranges of the coast mountains1
 and the foothills of the ,sierra       
,nevadas4 ,its height runs from twenty  
to forty feet1 diameter one to two4 ,the

 leaves fall in the second or third     
year4 ,this tree is of poor form and    
size for lumber4 ,trunks frequently     
divide into branches near the ground4   
,the wood resembles that of other       
western junipers1 and usually the fine  
color which distinguishes the red cedar 
of the ,east is wanting1 and in its     
stead is a dull brown1 tinged with red4 
,the wood is soft and durable1 and is   
strongly odorous4 ,the sapwood is thin  
and is nearly white4 ,fuel and fence    
posts are the most important uses of the
 ,california juniper4 ,indians eat the  
berries raw or dry them and pound them  
to flour4  ,illustration     ,,western  
,,red ,,cedar  ,illustration3 ,,western 
,,red ,,cedar     ,,western ,,red       
,,cedar  7,thuja ,plicata7   ,in the    
eastern markets the lumber from this    
tree is usually called western cedar    
without further description1 but that   
name does not always sufficiently       
identify it4 ,there are other western   
cedars1 notably incense and yellow2 but 

they have not generally appeared in     
eastern markets4 ,western red cedar is  
the name given it when the purpose is to
 separate it from other western cedars4 
,it is the only red cedar in the far    
,west1 except the scarce junipers which 
are totally unknown as its competitors  
in lumber centers4 ,gigantic cedar is a 
name which takes size into account4 ,it 
is the largest of ,american cedars4     
,trunks fifteen feet in diameter and    
#bjj feet high are sometimes seen1 but  
the usual size is #ajj high1 from two to
 four in diameter4 ,canoe cedar is a    
name bestowed upon this western tree for
 the same reason that canoe wood is one 
of the yellow poplar's names in the     
,east4 ,it is one of the best woods for 
dugout canoes4 ,botanists have called   
the tree giant arborvit1 but the name   
never got beyond books4 ,when the people
 of ,washington and ,oregon speak of    
cedar without a qualifying term1 they   
mean this species4 ,it is widely known  
as shingle wood or shingle cedar1       

because more shingles are made of it    
than of all other kinds of timber in the
 ,united ,states combined4  ,the western
 red cedar's range covers #cjj1jjj      
square miles1 not counting regions of   
small or scattered growth4 ,for a timber
 tree1 that range is large1 but not     
nearly as large as some others4 ,it     
exceeds one-hundred fold the commercial 
range of redwood1 and probably a        
thousand fold that of ,port ,orford     
cedar1 but its range is not one-third   
that of the eastern red cedar1 though in
 total quantity of available lumber it  
surpasses the eastern tree a hundred    
fold4 ,its range begins in ,alaska on   
the north1 and follows the coast to     
northern ,california1 and extends       
eastward into ,idaho4 ,the best         
development occurs in the regions of    
warm1 moist ,pacific winds1 but not in  
the immediate fog belts4 ,the largest   
quantity of this wood1 and probably the 
largest trees also1 are in ,washington4 
,abundant rainfall is essential to      

western red cedar's development4 ,it    
would be difficult to approximate the   
amount of the remaining stand4 ,this    
cedar does not form pure forests1 and   
estimates of so many feet per acre or   
square mile cannot be based on fairly   
exact information as may be done with   
redwood1 and some of the southern pines4
 ,though the drain upon the cedar       
forests is heavy1 it is generally       
believed there is enough of this species
 to meet demands for a long period of   
years4  ,nature made ample provision for
 the spread and perpetuation of this    
tree4 ,the seeds are fairly abundant1   
are light1 have good wing power1 and are
 great travelers in search of suitable  
places to germinate and take root4 ,the 
tree's greatest enemy is fire4 ,the     
cedar's bark is thin1 even when trunks  
are mature1 and a moderate blaze often  
proves fatal to large trees2 but small  
ones1 with all their branches close to  
the ground1 have no chance when the fire
 burns the litter among them4 ,some tree

 seeds germinate readily on soil bared  
by fire--such as lodgepole pine1 wild   
red cherry1 and paper birch--but the    
western red cedar's do not1 if the humus
 is sufficiently burned to lessen the   
soil's capacity to retain moisture4 ,for
 that reason1 this cedar seldom follows 
fire1 and the result is that it         
constantly loses ground4 ,under normal  
conditions1 it is not exacting in its   
requirements2 but anything that disturbs
 natural conditions is more likely to   
harm than help this cedar4 ,in that     
respect it is like beech and hemlock1   
which suffer when forest conditions are 
disturbed4  ,trunks are large but not   
shapely4 ,they are generally fluted1 and
 greatly swelled at the base4 ,these    
deformities develop rather late in the  
tree's life2 at least1 they are not     
prominent in young timber4 ,western     
cedar poles of large size are beautiful 
in outline2 but when maturity           
approaches1 the trunk grows faster near 
the ground than some distance above2 the

 annual rings are wider near the base   
than twenty feet above1 resulting in    
great enlargement near the ground4 ,at  
the same time ribs and creases slowly   
develop1 and by the time the tree is    
old1 it is as ungainly as one of the    
giant sequoias4 ,its appearance is hurt 
by characteristics other than the       
swelled base and the buttresses4 ,while 
the tree is small1 the limbs ascend1 and
 maintain a graceful upright position4  
,toward middle life they begin to droop1
 and the limbs of old trees hang down   
the trunks--the reverse of their        
attitude in early life4  ,the western   
red cedar lives to an old age1 from #fjj
 to #a1jjj years4 ,the oldest are liable
 to be hollow near the ground4 ,the tree
 is remarkable for what happens after it
 falls4 ,often the trunk crashes down in
 a bed of moss1 which in a few years    
buries it from sight4 ,the moss holds so
 much water that the buried log is      
constantly too wet for fungous attack4  
,consequently decay does not take place4

 ,fallen trees have lain for hundreds of
 years--as much as #hjj having been     
claimed in one instance--and at the end 
of that time they are sound enough for  
shingles4 ,the position of living trees 
growing upon buried logs furnishes the  
key to the length of time since the     
trunks fell4 ,the long period during    
which the moss-buried wood has remained 
sound has led to the claim that western 
red cedar is the most enduring wood in  
,america4 ,such is not necessarily the  
case4 ,a good many others would probably
 last as long if protected in the same  
way4  ,western red cedar is strong and  
stiff but falls from twenty to thirty   
per cent below white oak in these       
factors4 ,it is light1 and the texture  
of the wood is rather coarse4 ,the      
springwood and summerwood are distinct1 
the latter constituting one-half or less
 of the annual ring4 ,the medullary rays
 are numerous and obscure4 ,the wood's  
color is dull brown1 tinged with red4   
,the thin sapwood is nearly white4  ,the

 ease with which western red cedar may  
be worked led the ,indians to use it in 
their most ambitious woodcraft4 ,the    
gigantic totem poles which have excited 
the curiosity and admiration of         
travelers near the coast in ,alaska and 
southward have nearly all been of this  
wood4 ,some of them are the largest     
single pieces of wood carving in the    
world4 ,trunks three or four feet in    
diameter and forty or fifty feet long   
have been hewed and whittled in weird1  
uncouth1 and fantastic forms1 decorated 
with eagle heads1 bear mouths1 and with 
various creatures of the forest or sea1 
or from the realms of imagination4      
,before the northern ,pacific coast     
,indians procured tools from white men  
they executed their carving by means of 
bone1 stone1 shell1 and wooden tools1   
assisted by fire4  ,the making of canoes
 was in some ways a work more laborious 
for the ,indians than the manufacture of
 totem poles4 ,their canoes were dugouts
 of all sizes1 from the small trough    

which carried one or two persons1 to the
 enormous canoe which carried fifty     
warriors with all their equipment4 ,such
 a canoe1 now in the ,national ,museum  
at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 is fifty-nine  
feet long1 seven feet1 three inches deep
 at the bow1 five feet three inches at  
the stern1 and three feet seven inches  
in the middle1 and eight feet wide4 ,it 
was made on ,vancouver island1 and is   
capable of carrying #ajj persons4 ,the  
capacity of the canoe is thirty-five    
tons4 ,civilized man has produced no    
vessel with lines more perfect than are 
seen in some of these canoes made by    
savages2 but all the canoes are not     
alike3 some are crude and clumsy4 ,it is
 claimed that large cedar canoes of     
,indian manufacture were early carried  
from the ,pacific coast by fur traders1 
and ,new ,york and ,boston shipbuilders 
took them as models in constructing the 
celebrated clipper ships which formerly 
sailed between ,new ,york and ,san      
,francisco4  ,the ,indians formerly made

 much use of western red cedar bark     
which they twisted into ropes and cords1
 braided for mats1 wove for cloth1 used 
in making baskets1 roofing wigwams1     
constructing fish nets and bird snares1 
ladders for climbing cliffs1 and they   
even pulped the inner bark by pounding  
it in mortars1 and mixed it with their  
food4  ,white men have put western red  
cedar to many uses1 as shingles1 lumber1
 cooperage1 poles1 posts1 piles1 car    
siding and roofing1 boat building from  
skiffs to ships1 and general furniture  
and interior finish4  ,,western         
,,juniper 7,juniperus occidentalis7 is a
 high mountain tree with all the        
characteristics belonging to that class 
of timber4 ,the trunks are short and    
strong1 the limbs wide-spreading1 the   
wood of slow growth1 and dense4 ,the    
tree attains a diameter of ten inches in
 about #acj years4 ,trunks ten feet in  
diameter have been reported1 but trees  
that large would be hard to find now4   
,john ,muir said that the western       

juniper lives #b1jjj years1 and that the
 tree is never uprooted by wind4 ,the   
trunk is usually short1 six or eight    
feet being a fair average1 and very     
knotty4 ,however1 when a block of clear 
wood is found1 it is high class1 the    
heaviest of the cedars1 straight grain1 
soft1 compact1 brittle4 ,the summerwood 
is so narrow that it resembles a fine1  
black line4 ,the medullary rays are     
numerous and very obscure4 ,the wood is 
slightly aromatic1 splits easily1 works 
nicely1 and in color is brown1 tinged   
with red4 ,in appearance1 the sapwood   
suggests spruce4 ,the average height of 
the trees is from twenty-five to        
forty-five feet1 diameter two to four   
feet4 ,the range of this tree is in     
,idaho1 eastern ,oregon1 and through the
 ,cascades and ,sierras to southern     
,california4 ,it seldom occurs below an 
altitude of #f1jjj feet1 and ascends to 
#aj1jjj or more4 ,on the highest summits
 it is deformed and stunted4 ,its fruit 
is eaten by ,indians1 and it furnishes  

fuel for mountain camps and ranches1    
timber for mines1 and sometimes a little
 lumber4 ,the crooked limbs and trunks  
are made into corral fences where better
 material cannot be had4 ,the wood has  
been found suitable for lead pencils1   
but that of proper quality is too scarce
 to attract manufacturers4 ,other names 
for this tree are juniper cedar1 yellow 
cedar1 western cedar1 western red cedar1
 and western juniper4 ,some of these    
names are applied to other species of   
the same region4  ,illustration         
,,port ,,orford ,,cedar  ,illustration3 
,,port ,,orford ,,cedar     ,,port      
,,orford ,,cedar  7,chamcyparis         
,lawsoniana7   ,port ,orford cedar of   
the northwestern coast is an interesting
 member of the cedar group with a very  
limited range4 ,specimens are found     
throughout an area of about #aj1jjj     
square miles1 but the district          
moderately heavily timbered does not    
exceed #cjj or #djj miles in area4 ,it  
lies near ,coos bay in southwestern     

,oregon4 ,the tree is found as far south
 in ,california as the mouth of ,klamath
 river1 and it was once reported on ,mt4
 ,shasta1 but it is very scarce there if
 it exists at all4 ,in the best of its  
range ,port ,orford cedar runs #bj1jjj  
feet to the acre1 and a single acre has 
yielded #ajj1jjj feet4 ,trees run from  
#ace to #age feet in height and three to
 seven in diameter4 ,the largest on     
record were about #bjj feet high and    
twelve in diameter4 ,few trees of any   
species have smaller leaves4 ,they often
 are only one-sixteenth of an inch in   
length4 ,they die the third year and    
change to a bright brown4 ,the cones are
 about one-third of an inch in diameter4
 ,two or four seeds lie under each      
fertile cone scale1 and ripen in        
,september and ,october4 ,the seeds are 
one-eighth inch in length1 and are      
winged for flight4 ,the bark of the tree
 is much thicker than of most cedars1   
being ten inches near the base of large 
trees4 ,this ought to protect the trunks

 against fire but it falls short of     
expectations4 ,about sixty years ago    
much of the finest timber was killed by 
a great fire which swept the region4    
,some of the dead trunks stood forty    
years without exhibiting much evidence  
of decay1 and those that fell remained  
sound many years4  ,the whole history of
 this interesting tree1 from its first  
announced discovery by white men until  
the present time1 is embraced in the    
memory of living men4 ,it had not been  
heard of prior to #ahee4 ,though fire   
and storm have destroyed large          
quantities1 it has been estimated that  
#d1jjj1jjj1jjj feet of merchantable     
timber remain1 an average of #ae1jjj    
feet per acre for an area of #djj square
 miles4 ,the wood is moderately light1  
is nearly as strong as white oak1 and   
falls only sixteen per cent below it in 
stiffness4 ,the annual rings are        
generally narrow1 but distinct4 ,the    
summerwood is narrow1 but dark in color 
in the heartwood4 ,the medullary rays   

are numerous and obscure4 ,the wood     
abounds in odorous resin4 ,the odor     
persists long after the wood has ceased 
to be fresh4 ,workmen in mills where    
this cedar is cut1 and on board of      
vessels freighted with it1 are sometimes
 seriously affected by the odor4 ,it is 
reputed to repel insects1 and is made   
into clothes chests1 wardrobes1 and     
shelves1 with the expectation that moths
 will be kept at a distance4 ,several   
other cedars bear similar reputations4  
,one of the first uses to which the     
people of the ,pacific coast put ,port  
,orford cedar was boat building4 ,the   
industry was important at ,coos bay at  
an early day1 and vessels constructed   
there sailed the seas thirty or forty   
years4 ,trunks of this cedar turn out a 
high percentage of clear lumber4 ,the   
wood takes a good polish1 and is        
manufactured into furniture1 doors1     
sash1 turnery1 and matches4 ,the latter 
article is esteemed by many persons for 
the peculiar odor of the burning wood4  

,it has been found practicable to finish
 this cedar in imitation of mahogany1   
oak1 and several other cabinet woods4   
,in its natural state it sometimes bears
 some resemblance to yellow pine1 and   
sometimes to spruce1 there being        
considerable variation in the appearance
 of wood from different trees4 ,when the
 visible supply of ,port ,orford cedar  
has been cut1 the end will be reached1  
for not much young growth is coming on4 
,sixty-eight varieties of ,port ,orford 
cedar are recognized in cultivation4    
,,yellow ,,cedar 7,chamcyparis          
nootkatensis7 describes this tree quite 
well4 ,the small twigs are of that      
color1 and so is the heartwood4 ,many   
give it the name yellow cypress4 ,others
 know it as ,alaska cypress1 ,alaska    
ground cypress1 ,nootka cypress1 or     
,nootka sound cypress4 ,the name of the 
species1 nootkatensis1 was given it by  
,archibald ,menzies1 a ,scotch botanist 
who discovered it on the shore of       
,nootka sound in ,alaska4  ,yellow      

cedar's geographic range extends from   
southeastern ,alaska to ,oregon1 a      
distance of #a1jjj miles4 ,it does not  
usually go far inland1 and consequently 
the range is narrow in most places4     
,north of the international boundary the
 tree seldom reaches an altitude of more
 than #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet1 but in     
,washington and ,oregon it is           
occasionally met with at elevations of  
#d1jjj and #e1jjj feet4 ,the species    
reaches its best development on the     
islands off the coast of southern       
,alaska and ,british ,columbia1 where   
the air is moist1 the winds warm in     
winter1 the rainfall abundant1 and the  
snowfall often deep4 ,well developed    
trees under such circumstances are from 
ninety to #abj feet high1 from two to   
six in diameter4 ,the blue-green leaves 
remain active two years1 and then die1  
but they do not usually fall until a    
year later4 ,the presence of the dead   
leaves on the twigs tones down the      
general color of the tree crowns4  ,the 

cones are about half an inch long and   
have four1 five1 or six scales4 ,from   
two to four seeds lie beneath each scale
 until ,september or ,october when they 
ripen and escape4 ,their wings are large
 enough to carry them away from the     
immediate vicinity of the parent tree1  
and reproduction under natural          
conditions is generally good4 ,yellow   
cedar is abundant within its range1 but 
nature has circumscribed its range1 and 
it shows no disposition to pass the     
boundary line4  ,the bark is thin and   
exhibits cedar's characteristic         
stringiness4 ,it is shed in thin strips4
  ,the wood is moderately light1 and is 
strong and stiff4 ,it is probably the   
hardest of the cedars1 and the grain is 
so regular that high polish is possible4
 ,under favorable circumstances trees   
grow with fair rapidity1 but when       
conditions are unfavorable1 as on high  
mountains where summers are short and   
winters severe1 growth is remarkably    
slow1 and twenty years or more may be   

required for one inch increase in trunk 
diameter4 ,the wood of such trees is    
hard1 dense1 and strong4  ,the grain of 
yellow cedar is usually straight4 ,the  
bands of summerwood are narrow1 the     
annual rings are indistinct1 and an     
attempt to count them is often attended 
with considerable difficulty4 ,the wood 
is easily worked1 satiny1 susceptible of
 a beautiful polish1 and possesses an   
agreeable resinous odor4 ,the heartwood 
is bright1 clear yellow1 and the thin   
sapwood is a little lighter in color4   
,in common with all other cedars1 yellow
 cedar resists decay many years4 ,logs  
which have lain in damp woods half a    
century remain sound inside the sapwood4
 ,sometimes fallen timber in that region
 is quickly buried under deep beds of   
moss which preserves it from decay much 
longer than if the logs lie exposed to  
alternate dampness and dryness4         
,statistics of sawmill operations in the
 ,northwest do not distinguish between  
the different cedars1 and the cut of    

yellow cedar is unknown4 ,it is         
considerable1 but of course not to be   
compared with the more abundant western 
red cedar4 ,statistics of uses are as   
meager as of the lumber output4 ,in     
,washington the factories which use wood
 as raw material report only #g1ejj feet
 of yellow cedar a year4 ,doubtless much
 more than that is used1 but under other
 names4 ,there is no occasion to        
disguise this wood under other names4   
,it has a striking individuality and    
deserves a place of its own4 ,in some   
respects it is one of the best woods of 
the ,pacific ,northwest4 ,in nearly     
every situation where it has been tried1
 it has been found satisfactory4 ,its   
rich yellow presents a fine appearance  
in furniture and interior finish1 and   
the polish which it takes surpasses that
 possible with any other cedar1 with the
 probable exception of some of the      
scarce1 high mountain junipers4 ,it has 
been used for pyrography and patterns1  
two hard places to fill1 and for which  

few woods are suitable4 ,indians long   
ago in ,alaska learned that it was the  
best material for boat paddles which    
their forests afforded4 ,it possesses   
the requisite stiffness and strength1   
and it wears to a smoothness almost like
 ebony4 ,boat factories have many uses  
for the wood1 decking1 railing1 and     
interior finish being among the most    
important4 ,it is said to be a          
satisfactory substitute for ,spanish    
cedar in the manufacture of cigar boxes1
 but its use for that purpose is not yet
 large4  ,it is said that occasional    
exports of this wood go to ,china where 
it is finished in imitation of scarce   
and expensive woods of that country4    
,yellow cedar is a wood with a future4  
,its splendid properties cannot fail to 
give it a place of no small importance  
in factories and in general building    
operations4 ,the supply has scarcely yet
 been touched1 but it cannot much longer
 remain an undeveloped asset4 ,it is    
apparently a high-class cooperage       

material1 but it does not seem to have  
been used much if at all in that        
industry4 ,the same might be said of it 
for doors4 ,it is heavier than spruce1  
white pine1 and redwood1 but where      
weight is not a matter for objection1 it
 ought to equal them in all desirable   
qualities4  ,in much of its range it is 
generally exempt from forest fire       
injury1 because its native woods are    
nearly always too wet to burn4          
,,rocky ,,mountain ,,juniper 7,juniperus
 scopulorum7 is scattered over     the  
mountains from ,dakota and ,nebraska to 
,washington and ,british     ,columbia1 
and southward to western ,texas1 ,new   
,mexico1 and ,arizona4     ,except near 
the ,pacific coast1 it is usually found 
at altitudes     above #e1jjj feet4 ,it 
clings closely to dry1 rocky ridges     
where it     attains a height of thirty 
or forty feet1 and a diameter of three  
feet or less4 ,the trunk usually divides
 near the ground into several     stems4
 ,the bright blue berries ripen the     

second year4 ,the wood     resembles    
that of red cedar1 and is used in the   
same way1 as far as     it is used at   
all4 ,it is not a source of lumber4 ,a  
little is sawed     occasionally on     
mountain mills1 and the lumber is used  
locally in     house building1          
particularly for window and door frames2
 but sawlogs     are short1 and because 
of their poor form1 the output of lumber
 is     negligible4 ,some of it finds   
its way into ,texas where it is         
manufactured into clothes chests and    
wardrobes1 and these are sold     as red
 cedar4 ,a choice mountain juniper log1 
with large1 sound     heartwood1        
produces lumber with a delicate grain   
and is more     attractive than red     
cedar when made into chests and boxes4  
,by habit     of growth1 it includes    
patches of white sapwood in the darker  
heartwood4 ,when these are sawed through
 in converting the logs into     boards1
 the islands of white wood scattered    
over the surface produce     a unique   

effect not wanting in artistic value4   
,some of the other     western junipers 
possess similar characteristics4        
,sometimes patches     of bark are also 
found imbedded in the interior of the   
trees4  ,illustration     ,,red ,,spruce
  ,illustration3 ,,red ,,spruce         
,,red ,,spruce  7,picea ,rubens7   ,in  
,new ,york the tree is called yellow    
spruce1 while in foreign literature it  
is known as ,north ,american red spruce4
 ,the tree is sometimes difficult to    
distinguish from black spruce 7,picea   
nigra71 the main points of difference in
 the appearance of the two trees being  
the size and shape of the cones and of  
the staminate blossoms4 ,the cones of   
red spruce are larger than those of     
black1 and they mature and drop from the
 branches during their first winter1    
while those of the latter named species 
frequently remain on the trees for      
several seasons4 ,certain eminent       
botanists incline to the belief that the
 two are different varieties of one     

species1 inasmuch as even the timber of 
red spruce bears a close resemblance to 
that of the black spruce4 ,other        
botanists dispute this theory1 saying   
that the trees are entirely different in
 appearance2 that the red spruce is a   
light olive-green1 while black spruce is
 inclined to a darker olive with perhaps
 a purplish tinge1 so that when seen    
together they have no resemblance in    
point of color4 ,they further say that  
the cones are not only different in size
 but that the scales are quite unlike in
 texture1 those of black spruce being   
much thinner and more brittle4 ,the same
 authorities maintain that the tiny     
twigs of red spruce are more conspicuous
 on account of their reddish tinge4     
,generally speaking the principal spruce
 growth of northern ,new ,england and   
,new ,york is black spruce1 although    
interspersed with it in some localities 
is a considerable quantity of red       
spruce4 ,on the contrary the chief stand
 of spruce in ,west ,virginia1          

,virginia1 western ,north ,carolina1 and
 eastern ,tennessee and the other high  
altitudes over the ,south ,carolina     
line1 is largely red spruce4 ,this      
botanical analysis of the two species of
 wood is based entirely on the authority
 of botanists1 but from the viewpoint of
 the average lumberman there is         
absolutely no difference between red and
 black spruce and none in the physics of
 the two woods except that which rises  
from varying conditions of growth as    
soil1 rainfall1 altitude or latitude1 or
 general environment4 ,the larger spruce
 of ,west ,virginia and the mountain    
region farther south1 has certain       
qualities of strength and texture1      
combined with a large percentage of     
clear lumber that is not approximated by
 the spruce of ,new ,england and the    
,british maritime provinces4 ,in shape  
the tree is pyramidal1 with spreading   
branches4 ,it reaches a height of from  
seventy to a hundred feet4 ,its bark is 
reddish brown1 slightly scaly4 ,the     

twigs are light colored when young and  
are covered with tiny hairs4 ,the leaves
 are thickly clustered along the        
branches1 and are simple and slender1   
pointed at the apex4 ,they become       
lustrous at maturity4 ,the staminate    
flowers are oval1 bright red in color2  
the pistillate ones are oblong1 with    
thin rounded scales4 ,the fruit of the  
red spruce is a cone1 from one to two   
and a half inches in length2 it is green
 when young1 turning dark with age1 and 
falling from the branches when the      
scales open4 ,the seeds are dark brown1 
and winged4  ,formerly spruce was little
 thought of for lumber and manufacturing
 purposes in this country1 though some  
use was made of it from the earliest    
settlements in the regions where it     
grew4 ,white pine could generally be had
 where spruce was abundant1 and the     
former wood was preferred4 ,as pine     
became scarce1 spruce was worked in for 
a number of purposes4 ,the tree's form  
is all that a sawmill man could desire4 

,the trunk has more knots than white    
pine1 for the reason that limbs are a   
longer time in dying and in dropping    
off2 but knots are small and generally  
sound4 ,by careful culling1 a moderate  
amount of clear lumber may be obtained4 
,the wood is light1 soft1 narrow-ringed1
 strong in proportion to its weight1    
elastic1 and its color is pale with a   
slight tinge of red1 the sapwood whiter 
and usually about two inches thick4 ,the
 contrast between heart and sapwood is  
not strong4 ,the medullary rays are     
numerous1 but small and obscure4 ,the   
summerwood is thin and not conspicuous4 
,it is the wood's red tinge which gives 
the tree its commercial name4  ,it is   
believed that the yearly cut of red     
spruce in the ,united ,states for lumber
 is about #ejj1jjj1jjj feet1 one-half of
 which comes from ,west ,virginia and   
southward1 where this species reaches   
its highest development2 and the        
pulpwood cut in the same region is about
 one-tenth as much in quantity4 ,the    

long fiber and white color of spruce    
make it one of the most satisfactory    
woods for pulp in this country4 ,red    
spruce is only one of several species of
 spruce which contribute to the supply4 
,the total output of spruce pulpwood in 
the ,united ,states yearly is equivalent
 to about #a1jjj1jjj1jjj feet of lumber4
  ,red spruce lumber has a long list of 
uses4 ,much flooring is made of it1 and 
it wears well1 but not as well as hard  
pine from the ,south4 ,it is more used  
for shipping boxes in the northeastern  
part of the ,united ,states than any    
other wood1 except white pine4 ,its good
 stenciling qualities recommend it4     
,manufacturers of sash1 doors1 and      
blinds find it excellent material1      
combining lightness1 strength1 and small
 tendency to warp1 shrink1 or swell4    
,coopers make buckets1 tubs1 kegs1 and  
churns of it2 manufacturers of          
refrigerators use it for doors and      
frames2 and makers of furniture use it  
for many interior parts of bureaus1     

tables1 and sideboards4 ,textile mills  
use spruce clothboards as center pieces 
round which to wind fabrics2 and a      
further use in mills is for bobbins4 ,it
 has many places in boat building1      
notably as spars and yards2 and for     
window and door frames4  ,the makers of 
piano frames employ red spruce for      
certain parts2 but as material for      
musical instruments its most important  
use is as sounding boards4 ,all the     
commercial spruces are so used4 ,wood   
for this purpose must be free from      
defects of all kinds1 and of straight   
and even grain4 ,the sounding board's   
value lies in its ability to vibrate in 
unison with the strings of the          
instrument4 ,spruce has no superior for 
that place4  ,red spruce bears abundance
 of seeds1 the best on the highest      
branches4 ,the seeds are winged1 and the
 wind scatters them4 ,they germinate    
best on humus4 ,in spruce forests1      
clumps of seedlings are often seen where
 logs have decayed and fallen to dust4  

,seedlings do not thrive on mineral     
soil1 and for that reason red spruce    
makes a poor showing where fires have   
burned4 ,it does not spread vigorously  
in old fields as white pine does4 ,it   
must have forest conditions or it will  
do little good4 ,for that reason it does
 not promise great things for the       
future4 ,it grows very slowly1 and land 
owners prefer white pine1 where that    
species will grow4 ,if spruce is to be  
planted1 most persons prefer ,norway    
spruce 7,picea excelsa7 of ,europe4 ,it 
grows faster than native spruces4 ,it is
 the spruce usually seen in door yards  
and parks4      ,,black ,,spruce 7,picea
 mariana7 grows much farther north than 
red     spruce1 but the two species     
mingle in a region of #ajj1jjj square   
miles or more northward of ,pennsylvania
 and in ,new ,england and     southern  
and eastern ,canada4 ,black spruce grows
 from ,labrador to the     valley of the
 ,mackenzie river1 almost to the arctic 
circle4 ,it is     found as far south as

 the ,lake ,states where it constitutes 
the     principal spruce of commerce4   
,in some of the swamps of northern      
,minnesota and in the neighboring parts 
of ,canada it is little more     than a 
shrub1 and trees three or four feet high
 bear cones4 ,on     better land in that
 region the tree is large enough for    
sawlogs4 ,it     passes under several   
names1 among which are double spruce1   
blue     spruce1 white spruce1 and water
 spruce4 ,the common name black spruce  
probably refers to the general          
appearance of the crown4 ,the small     
cones 7the smallest of the spruces7     
adhere to the branches many     years1  
and give a ragged1 black appearance to  
the tree when seen     from a distance4 
,the wood is as white as other spruces4 
,trees vary     greatly in size4 ,the   
best are #ajj feet high and two and a   
half feet     in diameter2 but the      
average size is about thirty feet high  
and     twelve inches in diameter4 ,that
 size is not attractive to lumbermen2   

but cutters of pulpwood find it valuable
 and convenient1 and much of     it is  
manufactured into paper4 ,the wood      
weighs #bh4eg pounds per     cubic foot1
 and is moderately strong1 and high in  
elasticity4 ,it is     pale yellow-white
 with thin sapwood4 ,in ,manitoba1      
lumber is sawed     from black spruce1  
and it is cut also in the ,lake ,states1
 but it is     preferred for pulp4 ,it  
gives excellent service as canoe        
paddles4     ,spruce chewing gum is made
 of resinous exudations from this tree1 
and is an article of considerable       
importance4 ,spruce beer is another     
by-product which has long been          
manufactured in ,new ,england and the   
eastern ,canadian provinces4 ,it was    
made in ,newfoundland three     hundred 
years ago and has been bought and sold  
in the markets of     that region ever  
since4 ,fishing vessels carry supplies  
of the     beverage on long voyages as a
 preventive of scurvy4 ,the beer is     
made by boiling leaves and twigs1 and   

adding molasses to the     concoction   
which is allowed to pass through mild   
fermentation4     ,foresters will       
probably never pay much attention to    
black spruce     because other species  
promise more profit4 ,it is little      
planted for     ornamental purposes1 as 
it does not grow rapidly1 is of poor    
form1     and the accumulation of dead  
cones on the branches gives it a poor   
appearance4 ,besides1 planted trees do  
not live long4      ,,white ,,spruce    
7,picea canadensis7 is of more          
importance in ,canada     than in the   
,united ,states1 because more abundant4 
,it is one of the     most plentiful    
timber trees of ,alaska1 and it is found
 west to     ,bering strait and north of
 the arctic circle4 ,it is said to      
approach     within twenty miles of the 
,arctic ocean4 ,its eastern limit is in 
,labrador1 its southern in the northern 
tier of states from ,maine to           
,idaho4 ,a little of this species is cut
 for lumber in northern ,new            

,england and in upper ,michigan1 and    
westward1 just south of the             
,canadian line4 ,the light blue-green   
foliage gives the tree its name4     ,it
 is known by other names as well1 single
 spruce1 bog spruce1 skunk     spruce1  
cat spruce1 double spruce1 and pine4    
,some of its names are     due to the   
odor of its foliage4 ,the largest trees 
are #ajj feet high     and three in     
diameter1 but most are smaller4 ,having 
a range so     extensive1 and in        
climates and situations so different1   
the tree     naturally varies greatly in
 size and form4 ,the wood of            
well-developed trees is white and       
handsome1 the thin1 pencil-like         
bands of summerwood having a slightly   
darker tone than the     springwood4    
,the two parts of the annual ring       
possess different     degrees of        
hardness4 ,the springwood is softer than
 the summerwood4     ,the medullary rays
 are numerous1 and the surface of       
quarter-sawed     lumber has a silvery  

appearance1 due to the exposed flat     
surfaces of     the rays4 ,in the       
markets1 no distinction is made between 
white     spruce lumber1 and that cut   
from other species4 ,the uses of the    
different species are much the same4 ,as
 a pulpwood1 white spruce is     in     
demand wherever it is available4 ,the   
largest output in the ,united           
,states comes from northern ,new        
,england4 ,the tree is often planted    
for ornamental purposes in ,europe and  
in northern states4 ,when grown     in  
the open1 the crown is pyramidal1 like  
that of balsam fir4 ,it     does not    
thrive where summers are warm and dry4  
,illustration     ,,sitka ,,spruce      
,illustration3 ,,sitka ,,spruce         
,,sitka ,,spruce  7,picea ,sitchensis7  
,this is largest of the spruces4 ,in    
height and in girth of trunk no other   
approaches it4 ,the moist1 warm climate 
of the north ,pacific slope is its      
favorite home1 though its range extends 
far northward along the islands and     

coast of ,alaska4 ,toward the extreme   
limit of its habitat it loses its       
splendid form and size and degenerates  
into a sprawling shrub4 ,the limit of   
the species southward lies in ,mendocino
 county1 ,california4 ,its range in a   
north and south direction is not less   
than #b1jjj miles2 but east and west the
 growth covers a mere ribbon facing the 
sea4 ,it climbs some of the ,british    
,columbia mountains1 #e1jjj feet1 but it
 prefers the low1 wet valleys and       
flatlands1 or the rainy and snowy slopes
 set to catch the sea winds4 ,there it  
is at its best1 and the largest trunks  
are #bjj feet high1 fifteen feet in     
diameter1 and about #hej years old4 ,all
 sizes less than this are found4 ,it is 
not easy to name an average size when   
variation runs from giants to dwarfs2   
but in regions where this spruce is cut 
for lumber1 the average height of mature
 trees is about #abe feet1 with a       
diameter of four feet4  ,tideland spruce
 is one of its names4 ,that has         

reference to its habit of sticking close
 to the sea4 ,its other names are       
,menzies' spruce1 great tideland spruce1
 and western spruce4 ,the last may be   
considered its trade name in lumber     
markets1 for it is seldom called        
anything else when it is shipped east of
 the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the name is    
appropriate1 except that other spruces  
grow in the ,west1 and are equally      
entitled to the name4 ,this applies     
particularly to ,engelmann spruce of the
 northern ,rocky ,mountain region2 but  
its lumber and that cut from ,sitka     
spruce are not liable to be confused in 
the mind of anyone who is acquainted    
with the two woods4 ,the name ,sitka    
refers to the town of that name in      
,alaska4  ,the leaves of this species   
are usually less than one inch in       
length1 and in color are light yellowish
 green4 ,they stand out like bristles on
 all sides of the twigs4 ,cones are from
 two to four inches long1 and hang by   
short stems1 usually at the ends of     

twigs4 ,they ripen the first year1      
release their seeds1 which fly away on  
small but ample wings1 and the cones    
drop during the fall and winter4 ,sitka 
spruce bark is generally less than half 
an inch in thickness4 ,trunks which grow
 in forests prune themselves well1 and  
are usually clear of limbs from forty to
 eighty feet4 ,the bases of trees which 
grow on wet land are much enlarged like 
cypress and tupelo1 and lumbermen       
frequently cut above the swell1 leaving 
from #a1jjj to #e1jjj feet or more of   
lumber in the stump4 ,sitka spruce's    
characteristic root system is shallow2  
but on mountain sides where soil is dry1
 roots penetrate deep in search of      
moisture4  ,the wood of this spruce     
varies greatly in color1 but it is      
usually a very pale brown1 with the     
faintest tinge of red4 ,it is a little  
heavier than white pine1 considerably   
weaker1 and with less elasticity4 ,the  
size of the trunks1 with their freedom  
from limbs1 insures a high percentage of

 clear lumber when ,sitka spruce is     
manufactured4 ,the tree grows slowly1   
the annual rings are narrow1 and the    
bands of summer growth are comparatively
 broad1 to which fact the rather dark   
color of the wood of the spruce is due4 
,sitka spruce is an important source of 
lumber4 ,the total cut in ,washington1  
,oregon1 and ,california in #aiaj was   
about #bee1jjj1jjj feet4 ,it is below   
red spruce in quantity of sawmill cut1  
but above all other spruces in the      
,united ,states4 ,the people of the     
,pacific coast use much of it at home1  
but large quantities are shipped to     
markets in eastern states1 and some to  
foreign countries4 ,nearly #d1jjj1jjj   
feet were bought by ,illinois           
manufacturers in #aiji1 in addition to  
what was used rough in the state4 ,the  
commodities manufactured of this spruce 
in ,illinois indicate with a fair degree
 of accuracy the uses made of the wood  
in most parts of the ,united ,states    
east of the ,rocky ,mountains and north 

of the ,ohio river and the ,potomac4    
,among articles so manufactured in      
,illinois are playground apparatus1     
porch and stair balusters1 doors1       
blinds1 sash and frames1 poultry        
brooders1 sounding boards for pianos and
 other musical instruments1 parts of    
mandolins and guitars1 pipes for organs1
 cornice brackets1 store and office     
fronts1 decking and spars for boats1    
wagon beds and windmill wheel slats1    
refrigerators and cold storage rooms1   
ironing boards and other wooden ware4   
,twenty times as much ,sitka spruce is  
made into finished commodities in       
,washington as in ,illinois4 ,that is to
 be expected1 since ,washington is the  
home of the tree and the center of      
supply4 ,a partial list of its uses in  
that state will show that the wood is   
liked at home4 ,douglas fir was the only
 wood bought in larger amounts by       
,washington manufacturers4 ,they made   
#ee1dbi1jjj feet of it into boxes1 and  
coopers employed #ab1jjj1jjj more4 ,the 

next largest users were pulpmills1 while
 #b1jjj1jjj feet went into sounding     
boards1 many of which were for shipment 
abroad4 ,other users were basket makers1
 and the manufacturers of furniture1    
fixtures1 finish1 caskets1 veneer1      
trunks1 pulleys1 vehicles1 boats1 and   
patterns4 ,sitka spruce decays quickly  
when exposed to rain and weather4       
,sitka spruce can be depended upon for  
the future4 ,though it grows slowly it  
may be expected to keep growing4 ,its   
range lies in regions generally too wet 
for woods to burn1 and it will suffer   
less from forest fires than trees of    
inland regions4 ,it is an abundant      
seeder1 and its favorite seedbed is     
moss1 muck1 decayed wood1 and wet ground
 litter of various kinds4 ,for the first
 few years seedlings are sensitive to   
frost1 but not in later life4  ,sitka   
spruce is often planted as an ornamental
 tree in western ,europe1 and           
occasionally in the middle ,atlantic    
states4 ,the ,new ,england climate is   

too severe for it4  ,,engelmann ,,spruce
 7,picea engelmanni7 was named for ,dr4 
,george ,engelmann4 ,it has other names4
 ,in ,utah it is called balsam1 white   
spruce in ,oregon1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 and
 ,idaho1 mountain spruce in ,montana1   
,arizona spruce farther south1 while in 
,idaho it is sometimes known as white   
pine4 ,that name is misleading1 for     
,idaho has a species of white pine      
7,pinus monticola74 ,in eastern markets 
the wood is known as western spruce2 but
 that1 also1 is indefinite1 for ,sitka  
spruce is also a western species and is 
found in the same markets as ,engelmann 
spruce4 ,this tree's range extends from 
,yukon territory to ,arizona1 fully     
#c1jjj miles4 ,it is a mountain species 
and is found in elevated ranges4 ,in the
 southern part of its habitat it ascends
 mountains to heights of nearly #ab1jjj 
feet4 ,it grows in the ,cascade mountain
 ranges in ,washington and ,oregon4 ,the
 species' best development occurs in    
,british ,columbia4 ,at its best1 trees 

are #aej feet high and four or five in  
diameter2 but every size less than that 
occurs in different parts of its range1 
down to a height of two or three feet   
for fully matured trees4 ,such are found
 on lofty and sterile mountains where   
frost occurs practically every night in 
summer1 and winter snows bury all       
objects for months at a time4 ,though   
the stunted spruce trees may be only two
 or three feet high1 their branches     
spread many feet1 and lie flat on the   
rocks4 ,though such situations are      
exceedingly unfavorable to tree growth1 
the stunted spruces survive sometimes   
for two hundred years1 and during that  
long period may not grow a trunk above  
five inches in diameter and four feet   
high4 ,the ,engelmann spruce is         
naturally a long-lived tree1 and large  
trunks are #ejj or #fjj years old2 and  
trees ordinarily cut for lumber are #cjj
 or #djj years old4 ,when the tree is   
young1 its form is symmetrical1 the     
longest branches being near the ground1 

the shortest near the top2 but in       
crowded stands the trunk finally clears 
itself4 ,engelmann spruce lumber is     
usually full of small knots1 each of    
which represents a limb which was shaded
 off as the tree advanced in age4 ,the  
wood is lighter than white pine1 and is 
the lightest of the spruces1 the weight 
being #ba4di pounds per cubic foot4 ,it 
is not strong1 and it rates low in      
elasticity4 ,the wood is pale yellow1   
tinged with red4 ,the thick sapwood is  
hardly distinguishable from the heart4  
,it would be difficult to compile a list
 of this tree's uses1 because in markets
 it hardly ever carries its right name4 
,it is used for fuel and charcoal in the
 region of its growth2 also as farm     
timber1 and as props and lagging in     
mines4 ,when it goes to market1 it is   
manufactured into doors1 window frames1 
sash1 interior finish for houses1 and   
for purposes along with other spruces4  
,large quantities of this wood will be  
accessible when lumbermen penetrate     

remote mountain regions where it grows4 
,it may be expected to increase in      
importance4 ,it is occasionally planted 
in eastern states as an ornament4       
,,blue ,,spruce 7,picea parryana7 is    
found among mountains in ,colorado1     
,utah1 and ,wyoming1 from #f1ejj to     
#aj1jjj feet above sea level4 ,it       
attains a height of #aej feet and a     
diameter of three under favorable       
circumstances1 but its usual size is    
little more than half of that4     ,its 
name is given on account of the color of
 its foliage1 but it has     other      
names1 among them being ,parry's spruce1
 balsam1 white spruce1     silver       
spruce1 ,colorado blue spruce1 and      
prickly spruce1 the last     name       
referring to the sharp-pointed leaves   
which are an inch or more     in length4
 ,cones are three inches long1 and      
usually grow near the     top of the    
tree4 ,it is not unusual for blue spruce
 trees to divide     near the ground in 
three or four branches4 ,in its youth1  

particularly in open ground1 blue spruce
 develops a conical crown4     ,the wood
 is lighter than white pine1 is soft1   
weak1 and pale brown     or nearly white
 in color4 ,the sapwood is hardly       
distinguishable from     the heart4     
,this is a valuable tree for ornamental 
planting2 but in     later years it     
loses its lower limbs1 and becomes less 
desirable4      ,,weeping ,,spruce      
7,picea breweriana7 is of little        
commercial     importance because of    
scarcity4 ,it grows among the mountains 
of     northern ,california and southern
 ,oregon1 at elevations of from #d1jjj  
to #h1jjj feet above sea level4 ,the    
leaves are an inch or less in           
length1 the cones from two to four      
inches long4 ,they fall soon after      
they scatter their seeds4 ,this tree is 
named on account of its     drooping    
branchlets1 some of which hang down     
eight feet4 ,the wood     seems not to  
have been investigated1 but its color is
 pale yellowish     to very light brown1

 and the annual rings are rather narrow4
 ,the     tree ought to be valuable for 
ornamental planting1 but nurseries      
have experienced much difficulty in     
making it grow4 ,it grows on high       
and dry mountains where few ever see it1
 but refuses to become     domesticated 
or to grace eastern parks4              
,illustration     ,,cypress             
,illustration3 ,,cypress     ,,cypress  
7,taxodium ,distichum7   ,the name      
cypress has been used quite loosely in  
this country and the old world1 and     
botanists have taken particular care to 
explain what true cypress is4 ,it is of 
no advantage in the present case to join
 in the discussion1 and it will suffice 
to give the ,american cypresses         
according to the authorized list        
published by the ,united ,states ,forest
 ,service4 ,two genera1 one having two  
and the other six species1 are classed  
as cypress4 ,these are ,bald ,cypress   
7,taxodium distichum71 ,pond ,cypress   
7,taxodium imbricarium71 ,monterey      

,cypress 7,cupressus macrocarpa71 ,gowen
 ,cypress 7,cupressus goveniana71 ,dwarf
 ,cypress 7,cupressus pygma7 ,macnab    
,cypress 7,cupressus macnabiana71       
,arizona ,cypress 7,cupressus           
arizonica71 and ,smooth ,cypress        
7,cupressus glabra74 ,the first two grow
 in the southern states1 and the others 
in the ,far ,west4 ,bald cypress1 which 
is generally known simply as cypress in 
the region where it grows1 is more      
important as a source of lumber than are
 all the others combined4 ,it probably  
supplies ninety-nine per cent of all    
cypress sold in this country4 ,its range
 is from southern ,delaware to ,florida1
 westward to the ,gulf coast region of  
,texas1 north through ,louisiana1       
,arkansas1 eastern ,mississippi and     
,tennessee1 southeastern ,missouri1     
western ,kentucky and sparsely in       
southern ,illinois and southwestern     
,indiana4 ,it is a deep swamp tree1 and 
it is never of much importance far from 
lagoons1 inundated tracts1 and the low  

banks of rivers4 ,water that is a little
 brackish from the inwash of tides does 
not injure the tree1 but the presence of
 a little salt is claimed by some to    
improve the quality of the wood4 ,it is 
lumbered under difficulties4 ,the deep  
water and miry swamps where it grows    
best must be reckoned with4 ,some of the
 ground is not dry for several years at 
a time4 ,neither felling nor hauling is 
possible in the manner practiced in the 
southern pineries4 ,owing to the great  
weight of the green wood1 it will not   
float unless killed by being girdled for
 a year or more in advance of its being 
felled4 ,in the older logging           
operations1 cypress was girdled and     
snaked out to waterways and floated to  
the mills4 ,lately many cypress         
operations are carried on by the        
building of railroads through the       
swamps1 which are largely on piling and 
stringers1 although occasionally earth  
fills are utilized4 ,the usual size of  
mature cypress ranges from seventy-five 

to #adj feet in height and three to six 
in diameter4  ,the wood is light1 soft1 
rather weak1 moderately stiff1 and the  
grain is usually straight4 ,the narrow  
annual rings indicate slow growth4 ,the 
summerwood is comparatively broad and is
 slightly resinous2 medullary rays are  
numerous and obscure4 ,the wood is light
 to dark brown1 the sapwood nearly      
white4 ,at one time specimens of the    
wood in the markets of the world were   
known as black or white cypress1        
according as they sank or floated4 ,much
 of the dark cypress wood is now known  
as black cypress in the foreign markets1
 where it is employed chiefly for tank  
and vat building4 ,individual specimens 
of the wood in some localities are      
tinted in a variety of shades and some  
of the natural designs are extremely    
beautiful4  ,the wood is reputed to be  
among the most durable in this country  
when exposed to soil and weather4 ,some 
of it deserves that reputation1 but     
other does not4 ,well-authenticated     

cases are cited where cypress has       
remained sound many years--in some      
instance a hundred or more--when        
subjected to alternate dampness and     
dryness4 ,such conditions afford severe 
tests4 ,in other cases cypress has been 
known to decay as quickly as pine4      
,historical cases from the old world are
 sometimes cited to show the wonderful  
lasting properties of cypress4 ,doors   
and statues1 exposed more or less to    
weather1 are said to have stood many    
centuries4 ,the evidence has little     
value as far as this wood is concerned4 
,in the first place1 the long records   
claimed are subjects for suspicion2 and 
in the second place1 it was not the     
,american cypress that was used--and    
probably no cypress--but the cedar of   
,lebanon4  ,sound cypress logs have been
 dug from deep excavations near ,new    
,orleans1 and geologists believe they   
had lain there #cj1jjj years4 ,that     
would be a telling testament to         
endurance were it not that any other    

wood completely out of reach of air     
would last as long4  ,the estimated     
stand of cypress in the ,south is about 
#bj1jjj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,the annual cut1  
including shingles1 exceeds             
#a1jjj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,new growth is not 
coming on4 ,the traveler through the    
,south occasionally sees a small clump  
of little cypresses1 but such are few   
and far between4 ,it was formerly quite 
generally believed that cypress in deep 
swamps1 where old and venerable stands  
are found1 was not reproducing1 and that
 no little trees were to be seen4 ,it   
was argued from this1 that some climatic
 or geographic change had taken place1  
and that the present stand of cypress   
would be the last of its race4 ,more    
careful investigation1 however1 has     
shown that the former belief was        
erroneous4 ,seedling cypresses are found
 occasionally in the deepest swamps4    
,probably cypress which has not been    
disturbed by man is reproducing as well 
now as at any time in the past4 ,the    

tree lives three or four centuries1 and 
if it leaves one seedling to take its   
place it has done its part toward       
perpetuating the species4 ,fire1 the    
mortal enemy of forests1 seldom hurts   
cypress1 because the undergrowth is not 
dry enough to burn4  ,the uses of       
cypress are so nearly universal that a  
list is impossible4 ,in ,illinois alone 
it is reported for seventy-eight        
different purposes4 ,there is not a     
state1 and scarcely a large wood-using  
factory1 east of the ,rocky ,mountains  
which does not demand more or less      
cypress4  ,the tree is graceful when    
young1 but ragged and uncouth when old4 
,though a needleleaf tree1 it yearly    
sheds its foliage and most of its twigs4
 ,the fruit is a cone about one inch in 
diameter2 and the seed is equipped with 
a wing one-fourth inch long and         
one-eighth inch wide4  ,when cypress    
stands in soft ground which most of the 
time is under water1 the roots send up  
peculiar growths known as knees4 ,they  

rise from a few inches to several feet  
above the surface of the mud1 and extend
 above the water at ordinary stages4    
,they are sharp cones1 generally hollow4
 ,it is believed their function is to   
furnish air to the tree's roots1 and    
also to afford anchorage to the roots in
 the soft mud4 ,when the water is       
drained away1 the knees die4  ,cypress  
is widely planted as an ornament1 and a 
dozen or more varieties have been       
developed in cultivation4      ,,pond   
,,cypress 7,taxodium imbricarium7 so    
closely resembles bald     cypress with 
which it is associated that the two were
 once supposed     to be the same4 ,pond
 cypress averages smaller and its range 
is more     circumscribed4 ,the name    
pond cypress1 by which it is popularly  
known     in ,georgia1 indicates the    
localities where it is oftenest found4  
,it     is the prevailing cypress in the
 ,okefenoke swamp in southeastern       
,georgia4 ,the general aspect of the    
foliage and fruit is the same as     of 

bald cypress4 ,no detailed examination  
of the wood seems to have     been made1
 but in general appearance it is like   
the other cypress4     ,it is said that 
little of it ever gets to sawmills      
because it grows     in situations where
 logging is inconvenient4               
,,monterey ,,cypress 7,cupressus        
macrocarpa74 ,this tree has only one    
name and that is due to its place of    
growth on the shores of     ,monterey   
bay1 ,california4 ,its range is more    
restricted than that of     any other   
,american softwood4 ,it does not much   
exceed #aej acres1     though the trees 
are scattered in a narrow strip for two 
miles along     the coast4 ,they        
approach so close the breakers that     
spray flies over     them in time of    
storm4 ,trees exposed to the sweep of   
the wind are     gnarled and of         
fantastic shapes4 ,their crowns are     
broad and flat     like an umbrella1 but
 ragged and unsymmetrical in outline4   
,that form     offers least resistance  

to wind1 and most surface to the sun4   
,the     trees take the best possible   
advantage of their opportunities4 ,tall 
crowns would be carried away by wind2   
and the flat tops1 with a mass     of   
green foliage1 catch all the sunlight   
possible4 ,they need it1 for     they   
grow in fog1 and sunshine is scarce4    
,sheltered trees develop     pyramidal  
tops4 ,it is widely planted in this and 
other countries1     and when conditions
 are favorable1 it is graceful and      
symmetrical4     ,the largest trees are 
from sixty to seventy feet tall1 others 
are     five or six in diameter2 but the
 tallest trees and the largest          
trunks seldom go together4 ,the cones   
are an inch or more in length1     and  
each contains about #ajj seeds4 ,the    
leaves fall the third and     fourth    
years4 ,wood is heavy1 hard1 strong1 and
 durable1 but is too     scarce to be of
 value as lumber1 even if the trunks    
were suitable     for sawlogs4 ,the     
,monterey cypress is of peculiar        

interest to     botanists and also to   
physical geographers4 ,the few trees on 
the     shore of ,monterey bay appear to
 be the last remnant of a species       
which was once more extensive4 ,the     
ocean is eating away the coast at       
that point4 ,fragments of hills1 cut    
sheer down from top to the     breakers 
beneath1 are plainly the last remnants  
of ranges which once     extended       
westward1 but have been washed away by  
the encroaching     waves4 ,no one knows
 how much of the former coast has been  
destroyed4     ,apparently the former   
range of the cypress was principally on 
land     now swallowed up by the        
encroaching ocean4 ,a mere fringe of the
     trees--a belt about #bjj yards wide
 along the beach--remains1 and the      
sea is undermining them one by one and  
carrying them down4 ,so     rapidly is  
the undermining process going on that   
many large roots of     some of the     
trees are exposed to view4              
,,arizona ,,cypress 7,cupressus         

arizonica71 as its name implies1 is an  
,arizona tree4 ,it forms considerable   
forests in the eastern1 central1     and
 southern parts of the state1 and is    
found also in ,mexico4 ,it     grows at 
elevations up to #f1jjj feet4 ,because  
of the small     population in the      
region where this cypress grows1 it has 
never been     much used1 but the size  
of the trees and the character of the   
wood     fit it for many purposes4 ,its 
growth is often quite rapid1 and the    
timber is soft1 light1 and with         
well-defined summerwood4 ,its usual     
color is gray1 but occasionally faint   
streaks of yellow appear4 ,the          
leaves fall during the fourth and fifth 
years2 cones are small and     flat2 and
 the small seeds are winged4 ,it is     
believed by persons     familiar with   
,arizona cypress that it will attain    
considerable     importance when the    
building of railroads and the settlement
 of the     country make the forests    
accessible4 ,the wood is durable in     

contact     with the soil4      ,,smooth
 ,,cypress 7,cupressus glabra7 ranges in
 ,arizona and is not     believed to    
have or to promise much importance as a 
source of lumber     supply4 ,its name  
was given on account of the smoothness  
of the bark4     ,it is one of the      
latest species to be given a place among
 the     cypresses1 and was described   
and named by ,george ,b4 ,sudworth of   
the     ,united ,states ,forest         
,service4  ,illustration     ,,balsam   
,,fir  ,illustration3 ,,balsam ,,fir    
,,balsam ,,fir  7,abies ,balsamea7      
,balsam fir is the usual name applied to
 this tree in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1
 ,pennsylvania1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1  
,minnesota1 and ,ontario4 ,the shorter  
name balsam suffices in some parts of   
that region1 and particularly in ,new   
,york1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont4   
,because it is common north of the      
international boundary1 the name ,canada
 balsam has been given it in some       
regions4 ,in ,delaware it is known as   

balm of ,gilead1 but that name belongs  
to a tree of the cottonwood group1      
7,populus balsamifera7 which is a       
broadleaf species4 ,in ,new ,york and   
,pennsylvania a word of distinction is  
added1 and it is called balm of ,gilead 
fir4 ,toward the southern limit of its  
range it is spoken of as fir pine and   
blister pine4 ,new ,york ,indians knew  
the tree as blisters4 ,they referred to 
the pockets under the bark of young     
trees and near the tops of mature       
trunks1 in which resin collected4 ,the  
name balsam refers to that              
characteristic also1 as does the word   
balm4 ,in some parts of ,canada the tree
 is known as silver pine1 and as silver 
spruce4 ,the secretion of resin in bark 
blisters is a characteristic of several 
firs4  ,the list of names and the       
locality of their use indicate fairly   
well the geographical range of balsam   
fir4 ,its northern limit forms a line   
across eastern ,canada from ,labrador to
 ,hudson bay4 ,from ,hudson bay its     

northern boundary trends northwestward  
and reaches the vicinity of ,great ,bear
 lake4 ,in the ,united ,states it grows 
westward to ,minnesota and southward to 
,pennsylvania4 ,it is cut for lumber in 
eleven states4  ,in a range so large and
 including situations so various1 it is 
natural that the tree should vary       
greatly in size4 ,in the ,lake ,states  
the common height is fifty or sixty     
feet1 and the diameter is twelve or     
fifteen inches4 ,young balsam firs grow 
vigorously when the ground is suitable  
and their tops receive sufficient light4
 ,in lumbered regions in the ,lake      
,states1 this fir gets a foothold in the
 shade of a dense growth of paper birch 
and other quickly-growing species2 and  
in a few years the pointed1 intensely   
green spires of the balsams may be seen 
piercing the canopy of other young tree 
tops1 and shooting above into the light4
 ,this is accomplished after a struggle 
of some years in the shade2 but the firs
 ultimately win their way upward1 and in

 a few years they shade to death most of
 their broadleaf associates4 ,if they   
are in competition with northern white  
cedar or tamarack1 they are not always  
successful in winning first place4  ,the
 leaves of balsam fir are from one-half 
to one and one-fourth inches long4 ,they
 are green and lustrous above and silver
 white below1 the whiteness due to      
stomata on their undersides4 ,on young  
twigs the leaves bristle out on all     
sides and are very numerous and crowded 
together1 but on older branches the     
leaves are more scattered1 due to the   
dropping of some of them4 ,it is their  
habit to adhere to the stems about eight
 years4  ,the leaves of balsam fir      
possess a pleasing and characteristic   
odor which is turned to account in a    
practical way4 ,the small needles are   
stripped from the branches in large     
quantities1 cleaned1 dried1 and are used
 for stuffing sofa pillows1 cushions1   
and other kinds of upholstery4 ,the odor
 persists a long time4 ,much of the     

collecting of the needles is done in    
summer as a pastime by summer campers in
 the northern woods4 ,the needles are   
sufficiently tough to stand much wear in
 pillows1 and they are still odorous    
when long use has ground them to powder4
  ,the cones of balsam fir follow the   
fashion of all species of fir1 and stand
 erect on the branches4 ,seeds are      
one-fourth inch in length and are       
winged4 ,the wood is of approximately   
the same weight as white pine1 but it   
falls considerably below white pine in  
strength and stiffness4 ,it is of       
moderately rapid growth when conditions 
are favorable1 and the annual ring has a
 fair proportion of summerwood4 ,the    
yearly rings are quite distinct4 ,the   
medullary rays are numerous1 and for a  
softwood they are prominent4 ,when a log
 is quarter-sawed1 and the surfaces of  
the boards are planed1 the wood presents
 a silvery appearance1 but it is too    
monotonous to be very attractive4 ,the  
heartwood is pale brown1 streaked with  

yellow1 the thick sapwood much lighter  
in color4 ,it is perishable in contact  
with the soil4  ,pulp manufacturers are 
the largest users of balsam fir4 ,about 
three per cent of all the pulpwood cut  
in the ,united ,states in #aiaj was from
 this species4 ,its use is on the       
increase1 or appears to be2 but recent  
statistics relating to this wood cannot 
be safely compared with returns for     
former years1 because the custom of     
mixing fir with spruce and other        
pulpwoods formerly prevailed in ,new    
,england1 and it was then not possible  
to determine exactly how much fir       
reached the market4 ,at the present time
 fir goes under its own name1 and the   
output exceeds #acb1jjj cords1 which is 
equivalent to #aje1jjj1jjj feet1 board  
measure1 yearly4  ,eleven states        
contribute to the balsam fir lumber cut1
 but most is supplied by ,maine1        
,minnesota1 ,vermont1 ,michigan1 and    
,wisconsin4 ,the total for #aiaj was    
#gd1ehj1jjj feet4 ,much of it is        

employed in rough form for fences and   
buildings1 while other is further       
manufactured by planing mills and       
factories4 ,car builders employ it in   
several ways4 ,it serves as doors1      
siding1 lining1 and roofing for freight 
cars4 ,it is not a durable wood when    
exposed to weather4 ,the largest        
reported use of the wood in ,new        
,england is by box makers4              
,massachusetts alone works nearly       
#ae1jjj1jjj feet a year into crates and 
shipping boxes4 ,its uses in the ,lake  
,states are more varied4 ,the makers of 
berry1 fruit1 and vegetable baskets draw
 supplies from the wood4 ,some of the   
product is of thin split slats1 and     
other of veneer or sawed material4  ,the
 light weight and white color of balsam 
fir make it acceptable to the           
manufacturers of excelsior4 ,the product
 is employed in packing merchandise for 
shipment1 and to a small extent in      
upholstery4 ,the wood fills a rather    
important place in the woodenware       

industry1 where its white color and     
light weight constitute its most        
important recommendations4 ,it is sawed 
into staves for pails and tubs4  ,though
 balsam fir has little figure and its   
appearance is rather common1 it finds   
its way to planing mills and woodworking
 shops where it is made into ceiling1   
newel posts1 molding1 railing1 spindles1
 chair-boards1 and other interior       
finish4  ,the most widely known         
commercial product manufactured from    
this tree is ,canada balsam4 ,strictly  
speaking1 it is not a manufactured      
article except what is done in nature's 
laboratory1 and the product is the resin
 stored under bark blisters4 ,the resin 
is transparent1 and is employed by      
microscopists in mounting objects for   
examination4 ,little machinery or       
apparatus is used in removing the viscid
 fluid from the pockets in the bark4    
,with a knife the thin1 soft blister is 
slit and the resin is scraped out4 ,all 
kinds of claims of medicinal virtue are 

made for balsam resin in the region     
where the tree grows2 but the treatment 
in most cases effects cures--if any     
cures are really effected--by appeals to
 faith and the imagination4  ,balsam fir
 owes a large part of its importance to 
its abundance4 ,it is not exactly a     
swamp tree1 but it does best in damp    
situations where the ground is moist and
 cool in summer4 ,only in periods of    
protracted drought does the ground      
litter become sufficiently dry to burn  
fiercely1 and to that fact is due much  
of the promise of future supply of      
balsam fir4 ,that which grows on the dry
 uplands may fall prey to forest fires1 
but that in the damp flats1 associated  
with northern white cedar and tamarack1 
will hold its ground and continue to    
supply demand4  ,balsam fir has an      
importance which can not be wholly      
measured in feet1 pounds1 cords1 or     
dollars4 ,many of the choicest          
,christmas trees which in ,december go  
by tens of thousands to the cities1 are 

of this tree4 ,its form is almost       
perfect1 being conical1 broad near the  
bottom1 and running to a sharp apex4    
,the deep green of the needles1 which   
retain their color from two weeks to a  
month after the trunk is severed1 gives 
balsam ,christmas trees much of their   
popularity4 ,the trees are cut from     
,maine to ,michigan1 and many are       
shipped across the international        
boundary from ,canada4 ,the custom of   
cutting ,christmas trees is often       
condemned as a waste of resources4 ,it  
has been argued that the destruction in 
one month of #a1jjj1jjj young trees is  
equivalent to the destruction of        
#ejj1jjj1jjj feet of lumber1 because1 if
 allowed to reach maturity1 they would  
yield that much lumber4 ,that argument  
does not take into consideration the    
fact that not one of the young trees in 
ten would reach maturity if left to the 
course of nature4  ,when ,gifford       
,pinchot was ,united ,states forester1 a
 protest against the cutting of         

,christmas trees was formally laid      
before him4 ,it was generally believed  
that he would declare that the waste    
ought to be stopped and would set his   
disapproval on the practice2 but he did 
nothing of the sort4 ,he declared that  
the forests are for the use of the      
people and that they can serve in no    
better way than by supplying every child
 in the land with a ,christmas tree once
 a year4  ,illustration     ,,fraser    
,,fir  ,illustration3 ,,fraser ,,fir    
,,fraser ,,fir  7,abies ,fraseri7   ,the
 people who are acquainted with this    
interesting and somewhat rare tree have 
seen to it that it does not want for    
names4 ,some of these names are both    
definitive and descriptive1 while others
 are neither4 ,tennessee1 ,north        
,carolina1 and ,west ,virginia furnish  
the names4 ,within the tree's range in  
,tennessee and ,north ,carolina it is   
often known as balsam without any       
qualifying word1 and that is quite      
sufficient1 for no other fir or balsam  

grows within its range4 ,in the same    
region it is called balsam fir4 ,that is
 the common name of its northern        
relative1 but there is little likelihood
 of confusing the two species1 for their
 ranges do not overlap much1 if they    
touch at all1 which they probably do    
not4 ,in ,tennessee the name is reversed
 and instead of balsam fir it is fir    
balsam4 ,it is likewise known as double 
fir balsam1 but why 8double0 is added to
 the name is not clear4 ,similar mystery
 attaches to the name 8single spruce10  
which is applied to the balsam fir in   
the interior of ,british ,america4 ,the 
southern ,appalachian tree is called she
 balsam and she balsam fir4 ,these names
 have no scientific basis1 and they     
appear to have originated in a desire to
 distinguish this tree from the red     
spruce with which it is associated4 ,the
 spruce is called 8he balsam40          
,artificial names like these are not    
necessary to distinguish red spruce from
 ,fraser fir1 as very slight            

acquaintance should enable anybody to   
tell one from the other at sight1 and to
 see clearly that they are not of the   
same species4 ,mountain balsam1 a ,north
 ,carolina name for this fir1 is well   
taken1 for it is distinctly a mountain  
species4 ,the name healing balsam is    
given in acknowledgment of the supposed 
medicinal properties of the resin which 
collects in blisters or pockets under   
the bark of young trees and near the    
tops of old4 ,in ,west ,virginia1 where 
this tree reaches the northern limits of
 its habitat1 it is called blister pine1
 on account of the resin pockets4 ,in   
the same region it is called stackpole  
pine1 because farmers who mow mountain  
meadows use straight1 very light poles  
cut from this fir round which to build  
haystacks4  ,this tree is decidedly an  
inhabitant of the high1 exposed         
localities1 being found entirely in the 
upper elevations of the southern        
,appalachian mountains1 either forming  
extensive pure stands or growing in the 

company of red spruce 7,picea rubens71  
with a scattering of various stunted    
hardwoods1 as birch1 mountain ash1      
cherry and usually with an undergrowth  
of rhododendron4  ,fraser fir's range   
extends from the high mountains of      
,north ,carolina1 where it grows #f1jjj 
feet above sea level1 northward into    
,west ,virginia1 within a few miles of  
the ,maryland line1 at an altitude of   
#c1cjj feet4 ,the tree is not found in  
all regions between its northern and    
southern limits4 ,its best development  
is in the southern part of its range4   
,on the upper limits of its habitat the 
tree presents a decidedly picturesque   
appearance1 being gnarled and twisted   
and plainly showing the results of its  
long struggle for life and development4 
,it is always noticeable that on the    
exposed side the limbs are so short as  
to be almost missing and on the opposite
 side they grow out straight and long1  
appearing to fly before the wind4 ,these
 limbs are sometimes of as great a girth

 for five or six feet of their length as
 any part of the main stem1 and have a  
singular look1 seeming to be all out of 
proportion to the rest of the tree4 ,the
 older trees are vested in a smooth1    
yellowish-gray1 mossy bark1 which is    
quite different from that of the balsam 
fir4 ,the bark is thin1 about one-fourth
 of an inch on young trunks1 and half an
 inch near the ground on old ones4 ,the 
leaves are usually half an inch long1   
sometimes one inch1 and their lower     
sides are whitish1 which tint is due to 
abundant white stomata4 ,in that respect
 they resemble leaves of balsam fir and 
hemlock4  ,the cones1 like those of     
other species of fir1 stand erect on the
 branches1 and average about two and a  
half inches in length4 ,they are        
smoother than the cones of most pines4  
,they mature in ,september4 ,the winged 
seeds average one-eighth inch in length1
 and are fairly abundant4 ,the ,fraser  
fir grows as tall as balsam fir1 from   
forty to sixty feet1 and the trunk      

diameter is greater1 being sometimes    
thirty inches1 though half of that is   
nearer an average4 ,when of pole size1  
that is1 from five to eight inches in   
diameter1 ,fraser fir is often tall1    
straight and shapely4 ,its form1        
however1 depends upon the situation in  
which it grows4 ,if in the open1 it     
develops a relatively short trunk and a 
broad1 pyramidal crown4 ,this fir       
differs from balsam fir in its choice of
 situation4 ,the latter1 though not     
exactly a swamp tree1 prefers damp      
ground1 while ,fraser fir flourishes on 
slopes and mountain tops4  ,on the      
mountains of western ,north ,carolina   
fir grows in mixture with red spruce4   
,sometimes the fir is fifty per cent of 
the stand1 but usually it is less1 and  
frequently not more than fifteen per    
cent4 ,few fir trees in that locality   
are two feet in diameter4 ,they grow    
with fair rapidity in their early years1
 but decline in rate as age comes on4   
,it may be observed in traveling through

 the stands of mixed spruce and fir     
among the high ranges of the southern   
,appalachian mountains that the         
proportion of spruce is much higher in  
old stands than in young4 ,that is due  
to the greater age to which spruce      
lives4 ,trees of that species continue  
to stand after the firs have died of old
 age4 ,on the other hand1 fir outnumbers
 spruce in many young stands4 ,that is  
because fir reproduces better than      
spruce1 and grows with more vigor at    
first4 ,in stands of second growth the  
fir often predominates4 ,it depends to  
some extent upon the conditions under   
which the second growth has its start4  
,fir does not germinate well if the     
ground has been bared by fire and the   
humus burned4 ,consequently1 old burns  
do not readily grow up in fir4 ,the best
 stands occur where the natural         
conditions have not been much disturbed 
further than by removing the growth4    
,fortunately conditions on the summit   
and elevated slopes of the southern     

,appalachians do not favor destructive  
forest fires4 ,rain is frequent and     
abundant1 and the shade cast by         
evergreen trees keeps the humus too     
moist for fire4 ,to this condition is   
due the comparative immunity from fire  
of the high mountain forests of fir and 
spruce4 ,sometimes1 however1 fires sweep
 through fine stands with disastrous    
results4 ,the destruction is more       
serious because no second forest of     
evergreens is likely on tracts which    
have been severely burned4  ,a report by
 the ,state ,geological ,survey on      
forest conditions in western ,north     
,carolina1 issued in #aiaa1 predicted   
that spruce and fir forests aggregating 
from #ajj1jjj to #aej1jjj acres among   
the high mountain ranges1 will become   
barren tracts1 because of the           
destructive effect of fires stripping   
the ground of humus4  ,the cutters of   
pulpwood in the southern ,appalachian   
mountains take ,fraser fir wherever they
 find it1 mix it with spruce1 and the   

two woods go to market as one4          
,statistics show the annual cut of both1
 but do not give them separately4 ,the  
output of spruce1 including fir1 south  
of ,pennsylvania1 in #aiaj was #aae1iic 
cords1 equivalent to about #hj1jjj1jjj  
feet1 board measure4 ,most of it was red
 spruce1 but some was fir1 and in ,north
 ,carolina probably twenty-five per cent
 was of that species4 ,the total        
pulpwood cut in that state was #ad1eji  
cords of the two woods combined1 and    
probably #c1hjj cords were ,fraser fir4 
,the wood of ,fraser fir is very light4 
,an air dry sample from ,roan mountain1 
,n4 ,c41 weighed #bb4bb pounds per cubic
 foot4 ,that is lighter than balsam fir1
 which is classed among the very light  
woods4 ,it is stronger than balsam fir  
by twenty-five per cent4 ,the wood is   
soft1 compact and the bands of          
summerwood in the annual rings are      
rather broad and light colored and are  
not conspicuous4 ,the medullary rays are
 thin but numerous4 ,the color is light 

brown1 the sapwood mostly white4  ,this 
wood is not of much commercial value    
except for pulp4 ,it is not abundant1   
and it is not suited to many purposes4  
,it is suitable for boxes1 being light  
in weight and moderately strong2 but    
other woods which grow in the same      
region are as good in all respects and  
are more abundant1 and will be used in  
preference to fir for that purpose4 ,the
 decrease in area on account of fires1  
and in quantity because of pulpwood     
operations1 indicates that forest grown 
,fraser fir has seen its best days4 ,on 
the other hand1 the ,united ,states     
,forest ,service has acquired tracts of 
land on the summits of the mountains    
where this species has its natural home1
 and the growth will be protected from  
fires and from destructive cutting1 and 
there is no danger that the species will
 be exterminated4  ,it is an interesting
 tree4 ,it contributes to the pleasure  
of tourists and campers among the       
southern mountains4 ,the fragrance of   

its leaves and young branches add a zest
 to the summer camp4 ,the traveler who  
is overtaken in the woods by the coming 
of night1 prepares his bed of the boughs
 of this tree and of red spruce and     
sleeps soundly beneath an evergreen     
canopy4 ,pillows and cushions stuffed   
with fir needles carry memories of the  
mountains to distant cities4  ,in one   
respect this tree of the high mountains 
is like the untamed ,indians who once   
roamed in that region3 it refuses to be 
civilized4 ,the tree has been planted in
 parks in this country and in ,europe1  
but it does not prosper4 ,its form loses
 something of the grace and symmetry    
which it exhibits in its mountain home1 
and its life is short4 ,those who wish  
to see ,fraser fir at its best must see 
it where nature planted it high on the  
southern mountains4      ,,arizona      
,,cork ,,fir 7,abies arizonica7 very    
closely resembles forms of     the      
alpine fir1 and may not be a separate   
species4 ,sudworth was     unable to    

distinguish its foliage and cones from  
those of alpine     fir1 but the bark is
 softer4 ,its range is on the ,san      
,francisco     mountains in ,arizona4   
,it is very scarce1 and only local use  
of its     wood is possible4            
,illustration     ,,noble ,,fir         
,illustration3 ,,noble ,,fir     ,,noble
 ,,fir  7,abies ,nobilis7   ,this tree's
 name is justified by its appearance    
when growing at its best in the forests 
of the northwest ,pacific coast4 ,it is 
tall1 shapely1 and imposing4 ,it often  
exceeds a height of #bej feet1 and a    
trunk diameter of six feet4 ,it is      
sometimes eight feet in diameter4 ,no   
tree is more shapely and symmetrical4   
,when grown in dense stands the first   
limb may be #aej feet from the ground1  
and from that point to the base there is
 little taper4 ,it over-reaches so many 
of its forest companions that it is     
sometimes designated locally as bigtree2
 but it is believed that lumber is never
 so spoken of1 and that the name applies

 to the standing tree only4 ,the        
,indians of the region where it grows   
call it tuck-tuck1 but information as to
 the meaning of these words is not at   
hand4 ,in northern ,california1 and     
probably still farther north1 this      
species is often called red fir1        
feather-cone red fir1 or bracted red    
fir4 ,the color of the heartwood and the
 appearance of the cone1 doubtless are  
responsible for these names4 ,there is a
 tendency in the fir-growing regions of 
the ,west to call all firs either white 
or red1 depending upon the color of the 
heartwood4 ,there are ten or more       
species of fir west of the ,rocky       
,mountains1 and to the layman they all  
look much alike1 but to botanists they  
are interesting objects of study4  ,the 
range of noble fir covers parts of three
 states1 but the whole of no one4 ,its  
northern limit is in ,washington1 its   
southern in northern ,california1 and it
 follows the mountains across western   
,oregon4 ,it often forms extensive      

forests on the ,cascade mountains of    
,washington4 ,it is most abundant at    
elevations of from #b1ejj to #e1jjj feet
 in southwestern ,washington and        
northwestern ,oregon4 ,on the eastern   
and northern slopes of those mountains  
it is of smaller size and is less       
abundant4 ,like several other of the    
extraordinarily large western trees1 it 
keeps pretty close to the warm1 moist   
coast of the ,pacific4  ,the shining1   
blue-green color of the leaves is a     
conspicuous characteristic of noble fir 
as it appears in the forest4 ,they vary 
in length from an inch to an inch and a 
half4 ,they usually curl1 twist1 and    
turn their points upward and backward1  
away from the end of the branch which   
bears them4 ,the cones1 following the   
fashion of firs1 stand upright on the   
twigs1 and are conspicuous objects4     
,they are four or five inches in length1
 which is rather large for firs1 but not
 the largest4 ,the seeds are half an    
inch long1 and are winged4 ,they are    

well provided with the means of flight1 
but many of them never have an          
opportunity to test their wings1 for the
 dextrous ,douglas squirrel cuts the    
cones from the highest trees1 and when  
they fall to the ground he pulls them   
apart with his feet and teeth1 and the  
seeds pay him for his pains4 ,if cones  
ripen on the trees and the released     
seeds sail away1 there are birds of     
various feather waiting to receive them4
 ,consequently1 the noble fir plants    
comparatively few seeds4 ,their ratio of
 fertility is low at best1 but that is  
partly compensated for by the large     
numbers produced4  ,thick stands of     
noble fir are not common4 ,it generally 
is found1 a few trees here and there1   
mixed with other species4 ,sawmills find
 it unprofitable to keep the lumber     
separate from other kinds4 ,it does not 
pay to do so for two reasons4 ,extra    
labor is required to handle it in that  
way1 and there is a prejudice against   
fir lumber4 ,it does not appeal to      

buyers4 ,for that reason some operators 
have called this timber ,oregon larch1  
and have sent it to market under that   
name4 ,that is a trick of the trade     
which has been put into practice many   
times and with many woods4 ,the purpose 
in the instance of noble fir was to pass
 it for the larch which grows in the    
northern ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,the  
two woods are so different that no      
person acquainted with one would mistake
 it for the other4 ,a recent government 
report of woods used for manufacturing  
purposes in ,washington does not list a 
foot of noble fir4 ,the inference is    
that it must be going to factories under
 some other name1 for it is incredible  
that this wood should be put to no use  
at all in the region of its best        
development4  ,noble fir is of slow     
growth1 and the large trunks are very   
old1 the oldest not less than #hjj      
years4 ,the summerwood forms a narrow1  
dark band in the annual ring4 ,medullary
 rays are numerous1 but very thin and   

inconspicuous4 ,the wood possesses      
little figure4 ,it weighs twenty-eight  
pounds per cubic foot1 which is four    
pounds less than the average ,douglas   
fir4 ,it is very low in fuel value1 as  
softwoods usually are which have little 
resin4 ,it is very weak1 and it bends   
easily4 ,it is soft1 easily worked1 and 
polishes well4 ,this is one of its most 
valuable qualities4 ,it is deficient in 
a number of properties which are        
desirable in wood1 but partly makes up  
for them in its ability to take a smooth
 finish4 ,it is pale brown1 streaked    
with red1 the sapwood darker4 ,in that  
particular it is unusual1 for most      
softwoods have sap lighter in color than
 the heart4  ,it has been already       
pointed out that difficulty is met when 
an attempt is made to list the uses of  
noble fir1 because it loses its name    
before it leaves the sawmill yard and   
takes the name of some other wood1 and  
those who put it to use often do so     
without knowing what the wood really is4

 ,it is known that some of it is        
manufactured into house siding4 ,it     
works nicely and looks well1 but since  
it is liable to quick decay it must be  
kept well painted when it is exposed to 
weather4 ,it serves as interior finish1 
and this seems to be one of its best    
uses4 ,it is so employed for steamboats 
and for houses1 and many shipments of it
 have been made to boat builders on the 
,atlantic coast4 ,it is used for        
shipping boxes1 and its light color fits
 it for that purpose1 as the wood shows 
painting and stenciling to good         
advantage4  ,european nurseries have    
propagated noble fir with success1 but  
it does not do so well in the eastern   
part of the ,united ,states1 though it  
lives through winters as far north as   
,massachusetts4 ,it is not known to have
 been planted for other than ornamental 
purposes4 ,unless it would grow much    
faster in plantations than in its wild  
state1 it will be too long in maturing  
to make it attractive to the timber     

planter4      ,,white ,,fir 7,abies     
concolor74 ,the whiteness of the wood   
and the     silver color of the young   
branches give this species its name1 but
     it is not the sole possessor of    
that name1 but shares it with three     
other firs4 ,in ,california1 ,idaho1 and
 ,utah it is called balsam fir4     ,the
 branches and upper parts of the trunk  
where the bark is thin1     are covered 
with blisters which contain white resin4
 ,in ,utah it is     known as white     
balsam1 as silver fir in some parts of  
,california1     and as black gum in    
,utah4 ,the reason for that name is not 
apparent1     unless it refers to the   
black bark on old trees4 ,it has several
     other names which are combinations 
of white and silver with some     other 
term4 ,its range is mostly in the       
,sierras and in the ,rocky     ,mountain
 ranges1 extending from southern        
,colorado to the mountains     of       
,california1 north through ,oregon1 and 
south through ,new ,mexico     and      

,arizona4 ,the immense proportions are  
reached only in the ,sierra     growth1 
those trees in the ,rockies being hardly
 above ordinary size4     ,in its free  
growth the tree is reputed to be the    
only one of its     genus found in the  
arid regions of the ,great ,basin1 and  
similar     localities in ,arizona and  
,new ,mexico4 ,it is not distinguished  
by all     botanists from the similar   
species1 ,abies grandis4      ,white fir
 attains a height of #bej feet and a    
diameter of six in some     instances1  
but the average size of mature trees    
among the ,sierra     ,nevadas is #aej  
feet tall and three or four in diameter4
 ,in the ,rocky     ,mountain region the
 tree is smaller4 ,it grows from #c1jjj 
to #i1jjj     feet above sea level4 ,the
 leaves are long for the fir genus1 and 
vary from two to three inches4 ,the     
tree's bark is black near the     base  
of large trunks but of less somber color
 near the top4 ,near the     base of    
large trees the bark is sometimes six   

inches thick4 ,the wood     of this     
species is light and soft4 ,carpenters  
consider it coarse     grained1 by which
 they mean that it does not polish      
nicely4 ,it is     brittle and weak4    
,the rings of annual growth are         
generally broad1     with the bands of  
darker colored summerwood prominent4 ,in
 lumber     sawed tangentially1 rings   
produces distinct figure1 but it is not 
generally regarded as pleasing4 ,the    
medullary rays are prominent for     a  
softwood1 but quarter-sawing does not   
add much to the wood's     appearance4  
,it decays quickly in alternate wet and 
dry situations4     ,trees are apt to be
 affected with wind shake1 and the      
wood's     disposition to splinter in   
course of manufacture has prejudiced    
many     users against it4 ,however1 it 
has some good qualities4 ,the wood is   
free from objectionable odor1 and this  
qualifies it as box material4     ,fruit
 shippers can use it without fear of    
contaminating their wares4     ,it is   

light in color1 and stenciling looks    
well on it4 ,its weight is     likewise 
in its favor4      ,trees of this       
species seldom occur in pure stands of  
large extent1     but are scattered     
among forests of other kinds4 ,sawmills 
cut the fir     as they come to it1 but 
seldom go much out of their way to get  
it4     ,the ,united ,states census for 
#aiaj showed that #acb1cbg1jjj feet of  
white fir lumber were cut in the whole  
country1 but as several     species pass
 by that name it is not possible to     
determine how much     belonged to the  
one under discussion1 but probably about
 half1 as     that much was credited to 
,california where this tree is at its   
best4     ,the fir does not suffer in   
comparison with trees associated with   
it4     ,its trunk does not average     
quite as large as the pines1 yet larger 
than most of the cedars2 but in height  
it equals the best of its               
associates1 and in symmetrical form1 and
 beauty of color of foliage1     it must

 be acknowledged superior4 ,the dark    
intensity of its green     crown when   
thrown against the blue summer skies of 
the ,sierras forms     a picture which  
probably no tree in the world can       
surpass and few     can equal4 ,its     
cones suffer from the depredations of   
the ever-hungry     ,douglas squirrel   
which is too impatient to wait for      
nature's slow     process to ripen and  
scatter the seeds2 but he climbs the    
trunks     which stand as straight as   
plummet lines two hundred feet or more1 
and clinging to the topmost swaying     
branches1 clips the cone stems     with 
his teeth1 and the cone goes to the     
ground like a shot4 ,a     person who   
will stand still in a ,sierra forest in 
late summer1 where     firs abound1 will
 presently hear the cones thumping the  
ground on     all sides of him4 ,if his 
eyes are good1 and he looks carefully1  
he     may see the squirrels1           
silhouetted against the sky on far-away 
tree     tops1 seeming so small in the  

distance that they look the size of     
mice2 yet the ,douglas squirrel is about
 the size of the eastern red            
squirrel4 ,he does not always let the   
cones fall when he cuts their     stems1
 but sometimes carries them down the    
long trunk to the ground1     then goes 
back for another4 ,the squirrel hoards  
the cones for     winter1 but does not  
neglect to fully satisfy his appetite   
while     about the work4 ,a single     
hoard--carefully covered with pine      
needles     as a roof against winter    
snow--may contain five or ten bushels of
     cones1 which are not all fir cones1
 but these predominate in most          
hoards4  ,illustration     ,,grand ,,fir
  ,illustration3 ,,grand ,,fir          
,,grand ,,fir  7,abies ,grandis7   ,in  
,california1 ,oregon1 and ,idaho this   
tree is called white fir1 but it has    
several other names1 silver fir and     
yellow fir in ,montana and ,idaho4 ,in  
,california some know it as ,oregon fir1
 western white fir1 and great           

,california fir4 ,grand fir is more a   
botanist's than a lumberman's name4     
,the range extends from ,british        
,columbia to ,mendocino county1         
,california1 and to the western slopes  
of the continental divide in ,montana4  
,the coastal growth lies in a           
comparatively narrow strip4 ,in the     
mountains an altitude of #g1jjj feet is 
sometimes reached1 the soil and moisture
 requirements1 however1 being the same4 
,the largest trees are found in bottom  
lands near the coast where trunks #cjj  
feet tall and six feet in diameter are  
found1 but the average is much less4 ,in
 mountain regions at considerable       
altitudes a height of #ajj feet and a   
diameter of two or three is an average  
size4 ,the leaves are about an inch and 
a half in length1 occasionally two and a
 half4 ,they are arranged in rows along 
the sides of the long1 flexible         
branches4 ,cones are from two to four   
inches long1 and bear winged seeds      
three-eighths of an inch long1 the wings

 being half an inch or more in length4  
,the bark of old trunks may be two      
inches thick1 but generally is thinner4 
,it is unfortunate that the wood of the 
large western firs lacks so many        
qualities which make it valuable4 ,it is
 generally inferior to the woods of     
,douglas fir1 western hemlock1 ,sitka   
spruce and the western cedars1 sugar    
pine1 and western yellow pine4 ,the wood
 of grand fir is light1 soft1 weak1     
brittle1 and not durable in contact with
 the soil4 ,its light color and the     
abundance of clear material in the giant
 trunks are redeeming features4 ,these  
ought to open the way for much use in   
the future4 ,it cannot find place in    
heavy construction1 because it is not   
strong enough4 ,that shuts it from one  
important place for which it is         
otherwise fitted4 ,box makers find it   
suitable1 as all fir woods are1 and     
large demand should come from that      
quarter4 ,trunks that will cut from     
#ae1jjj to #bj1jjj feet of lumber that  

is practically clear1 and of good color1
 and light in weight1 are bound to have 
value for boxes and slack cooperage4    
,trees grow with fair rapidity4 ,annual 
rings are usually broad1 and the bands  
of summerwood are wide and distinct4    
,this guarantees a certain figure in    
lumber sawed tangentially1 but it is not
 a figure to compare in beauty with some
 of the hardwoods1 or even with ,douglas
 fir1 or the southern yellow pines4 ,it 
ought to be a first class material for  
certain kinds of woodenware1            
particularly for tubs1 pails1 and small 
stave vessels1 and as far as it has been
 used in that way it has been           
satisfactory4 ,it cannot be recommended 
for outside house finish1 such as       
weather-boarding1 cornice1 and porch    
work1 because of its susceptibility to  
decay2 but it meets requirements for    
plain interior finish1 and tests have   
shown it to be good material for cores  
or backing over which to glue veneers of
 hardwood4  ,while the eastern states   

have not yet wakened up to the fact that
 this tree is of value in ornamental    
planting1 its decorative qualities in   
open stands have been recognized for    
some time in eastern ,europe1 where     
trees of considerable size1 promising to
 attain almost primeval proportions1 are
 already flourishing4  ,,red ,,fir      
7,abies magnifica7 is the largest fir in
 ,america4 ,at its best it attains a    
height of #bej feet and a diameter of   
ten1 but that size is rare4 ,it has     
several names1 magnificent fir1 which is
 a translation of its botanical name2   
redbark fir1 ,california red fir1 and   
golden fir4 ,the reference to red which 
occurs in its several names1 is         
descriptive of its heartwood4 ,its range
 lies on the ,cascade mountains of      
southern ,oregon1 and along the entire  
length of the western slope of the      
,sierra ,nevadas in ,california4 ,it is 
common in southern ,oregon and sometimes
 forms nearly pure forests at elevations
 of #e1jjj or #g1jjj feet4 ,it is       

plentiful in the ,sierra ,nevada ranges 
at altitudes of from #f1jjj to #i1jjj   
feet4 ,in southern ,california it       
ascends #aj1jjj feet4 ,on old trees the 
limbs1 regularly whorled in collars of  
five1 are usually pendulous or          
down-growing and are regularly and      
precisely subdivided into branches and  
twigs1 the short1 stiff blue-green      
leaves1 which persist for ten years1    
closely covering the upper side of the  
latter4 ,its cones are the largest of   
the firs1 are dark purple in color and  
grow erect on the branches4  ,the cones 
are six or eight inches long1 and three 
or four in diameter4 ,they present a    
fine appearance as they stand erect on  
the branches4 ,the seeds are large1 but 
their strong wings are able to carry    
them away from the immediate presence of
 the parent tree4 ,the wings are        
extremely beautiful1 and flash light    
with the colors of the rainbow4 ,old    
trees are protected by hard1            
dark-colored bark five or six inches    

thick4 ,a forest fire may pass through a
 stand of old firs without burning      
through the bark1 but young trees are   
not so protected1 and are liable to be  
killed4  ,a study of the wood of the red
 fir reveals rather more favorable      
qualities than the other firs afford4   
,sap and heartwood are more easily      
distinguished than in the other species1
 the sapwood being much lighter in color
 than the reddish heart4 ,contrary to   
the general rule among the firs1 this   
wood possesses considerable durability1 
especially when used for purposes which 
bring it in contact with the soil4 ,it  
is1 however1 light1 soft and weak1 but  
has a close1 fine grain and compact     
structure4 ,seasoning defects1 such as  
checking and warping1 are liable to     
occur unless properly guarded against4  
,it weighs #bi4cj pounds per cubic foot1
 or nearly three pounds less than       
,douglas fir4 ,it is used for rough     
lumber1 packing boxes1 bridge floors1   
interior house finish1 and fuel4        

,,shasta ,,red ,,fir 7,abies magnifica  
shastensis7 is pronounced by ,george ,b4
 ,sudworth to be only a form of red fir 
7,abies magnifica7 and not a separate   
species4 ,the principal difference is in
 the cones4 ,the ,shasta form was       
discovered on the mountain of that name 
in northern ,california in #ahij by     
,professor ,j4 ,g4 ,lemmon4 ,it was     
supposed to be confined to that         
locality1 but was subsequently found on 
the ,cascade mountains in ,oregon1 and  
also at several points in northern      
,california4 ,it was later found in the 
,sierras five hundred miles south of    
,mount ,shasta4      ,,lovely ,,fir     
7,abies amabilis7 is known by a number  
of names1 red     fir1 silver fir1 red  
silver fir1 lovely red fir1 amabilis    
fir1 and     larch4 ,the last name is   
applied to this tree by lumbermen who   
have     discovered that fir lumber     
sells better if it is given some other  
name4 ,the range of this species extends
 from ,british ,columbia     southward  

in the ,cascade mountains through       
,washington to ,oregon4 ,it     is the  
common fir of the ,olympic mountains and
 there reaches its     best development1
 sometimes a height of #bej feet and a  
diameter of     five or six2 but the    
average1 even in the best part of its   
range1 is     much under that size1     
while in the northern country1 and high 
on     mountains1 it is a commonplace   
tree1 averaging less than #ajj feet     
high1 and scarcely eighteen inches in   
diameter4 ,when this fir stands     in  
open ground1 the whole trunk is covered 
with limbs from base to     top2 but in 
dense stands1 the limbs drop off1 and a 
clean trunk     results4      ,some of  
the largest trees rise with scarcely a  
limb #aej feet1 and     above that is   
the small crown4 ,the bark of young     
trees is covered     with blisters      
filled with resin4 ,the bark is thin and
 smooth until     the tree is a century 
or more old1 after which it becomes     
rougher1     and near the base may be   

two and a half inches thick4 ,it is of  
very     slow growth1 and a century     
hardly produces a trunk of small sawlog 
size4 ,the leaves are dark green above1 
and whitish below4 ,they are     much   
crowded on the twigs1 those on the      
underside rising with a     twist at the
 base1 and standing nearly erect4 ,they 
are longer than     those on the twig's 
upper side4 ,the purple cones are       
conspicuous     objects on the tree1 are
 from three and a half to six inches    
long1     and bear abundance of seeds   
which are well dispersed by wind4       
,however1 the reproduction of this tree 
is not plentiful4 ,the species     holds
 its own1 and not much more4 ,when      
artificial reforestation     takes place
 in this country1 if that time ever     
comes1 lovely fir     will receive scant
 consideration1 because of its          
discouragingly slow     growth4 ,it     
ranks with lodgepole pine in that       
respect4 ,nature can     afford to wait 
two hundred years for a forest to       

mature1 but men     will not plant and  
protect when the prospect of returns is 
so     remote4 ,the wood is light1 weak1
 moderately stiff and hard4 ,the        
heartwood is pale brown1 the sap nearly 
white4 ,the summerwood     appears in   
thin but well-marked bands in the annual
 rings1 and the     medullary rays are  
large enough to show slightly in        
quarter-sawed     lumber4 ,growing as it
 does1 interspersed with really valuable
 woods1     the lovely fir is not highly
 thought of from a commercial           
standpoint4 ,however1 it is exploited in
 conjunction with the other     species 
and turned into lumber and general      
structural material4 ,a     considerable
 quantity finds a market as interior    
finish and other     millwork4 ,it has  
many of the properties which fit it for 
the     manufacture of packing boxes1   
particularly those intended for dried   
fruit and light merchandise4 ,it bears  
considerable resemblance to     spruce4 
,the utilization of this and similar    

species of western fir     for pulp has 
been suggested1 but little has been     
done4 ,it has been     planted          
ornamentally in parts of ,europe1 but   
there is no comparison     between the  
decorative appearance of this fir and   
its associated     species1 the others  
which are in cultivation being much     
superior4     ,removal from the old     
habitat militates greatly against its   
natural     beauty and reduces it to the
 level of the ordinary4      ,,alpine   
,,fir 7,abies lasiocarpa7 is so called  
because it thrives on     high mountains
 and in the far ,north4 ,it grows in    
southern ,alaska1 up     to latitude    
#fj1 and southward to ,oregon and       
,colorado4 ,its other     names are     
balsam1 white balsam1 ,oregon balsam1   
mountain balsam1     white fir1 pumpkin 
tree1 down-cone1 and downy-cone         
subalpine fir4 ,it     grows from sea   
level in ,alaska up to #g1jjj feet or   
more in the     ,south4 ,it is not      
abundant1 and not very well known4      

,however1 its     slender1 spirelike top
 distinguishes it from all associates   
and it     may be recognized at long    
distances by that characteristic4 ,it   
endures cold at #dj degrees below zero1 
and summer climate at #ij     degrees4  
,trees are usually small1 and the trunks
 are covered with     limbs to the      
ground4 ,on high mountains the lower    
limbs often lie     flat on the ground1 
and the twigs sometimes take root4      
,under very     favorable circumstances 
this fir may reach a height of #afj feet
 and     a diameter of four1 but the    
usual size is less than half of it1 even
     when conditions are fair1 while on 
bleak mountains mature trees may     be 
only three or four feet high1 with most 
of the limbs prostrate4     ,the        
sprawling form of growth makes the tree 
peculiarly liable to be     killed by   
fire4 ,the bark is thin1 smooth1 and    
flinty2 and in color     it is ashy gray
 or chalky white4 ,leaves are one and a 
half inches or     less long2 the purple

 cones from two to four inches4 ,trees  
bear     cones at about twelve years of 
age4 ,the seeds are equipped with       
violet or purplish wings1 and they fly  
far enough to find the best             
available places to plant themselves4   
,the wood is narrow-ringed1     light1  
soft1 and in color from pale straw to   
light yellowish-brown4     ,it is fairly
 straight grained1 and splits and works 
easily2 but     trunks are very knotty4 
,its best service in the past has       
consisted     in supplying fuel to      
mining camps and mountain stock ranges4 
,illustration     ,,douglas ,,fir       
,illustration3 ,,douglas ,,fir          
,,douglas ,,fir  7,pseudotsuga          
,taxifolia7   ,during one hundred and   
ten years1 from #ahjc until the present 
time1 botanists and others have proposed
 and rejected names for this tree4 ,it  
has been called a fir1 pine1 and spruce1
 with various combinations1 but the name
 now seems to be fixed4 ,laymen have    
disputed almost as much as botanists as 

to what the tree should be named4 ,it   
has been called red fir1 ,douglas       
spruce1 ,douglas fir1 yellow fir1       
spruce1 fir1 pine1 red pine1 ,puget     
,sound pine1 ,oregon pine1 cork-barked  
,douglas spruce1 and ,douglas tree4     
,more than a dozen varieties are        
distinguished in cultivation4  ,the     
range of ,douglas fir covers most of the
 ,rocky ,mountain region in the ,united 
,states and northward to central        
,british ,columbia2 on the coast from   
the latitude of southern ,alaska to the 
,sierra ,nevada mountains in central    
,california4 ,it reaches its maximum    
development in western ,washington and  
,oregon1 particularly between the       
,cascade mountains and the ,pacific     
ocean4 ,in these ,cascade forests1      
stands are found which yield from       
#ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj feet per acre1 and  
mills in that region cut the longest    
timbers in the world1 some two feet     
square and #ajj feet long4  ,two forms  
of ,douglas fir are recognized by       

botanists1 not essentially different    
except in size and habit of growth4 ,one
 is the finely developed form on the    
,pacific coast where the climate is warm
 and the air moist4 ,the other is the   
,rocky ,mountain form which is smaller  
and shows the effect of cold1 dryness1  
and other adverse circumstances4 ,when  
the seeds of the two forms are planted  
in nurseries1 where they enjoy identical
 advantages1 the coast form outgrows the
 other in ,europe1 but the ,rocky       
,mountain form thrives best in the      
eastern part of the ,united ,states4    
,douglas fir needles are from           
three-quarters to one and a quarter     
inches long1 and of a dark1 yellow-green
 color4 ,they remain on the twigs about 
eight years4 ,cones are from two to four
 and a half inches long1 and are borne  
on long stems4 ,the seeds1 which ripen  
in ,august1 are of light1 reddish-brown 
color with irregular white spots on the 
lower side2 are about a quarter of an   
inch long1 and are provided with wings4 

,trees of this species in the moist     
climate of the ,pacific slope average   
much larger than those in the mountains 
farther east4 ,the largest are #cjj feet
 high1 occasionally more1 and from eight
 to ten in diameter4 ,the average among 
the ,rocky ,mountains is from eighty to 
#ajj feet high1 and two to four in      
diameter4 ,young trees are slender with 
crowded branches4 ,in thick stands the  
lower limbs die and the trunks remain   
bare1 except an occasional small branch4
 ,douglas fir at its best grows in thick
 stands1 with crowns forming a canopy so
 dense that sunlight can scarcely reach 
the ground4 ,the result of this is that 
other species have little show where    
,douglas fir prevails4  ,the bark of    
large trunks attains a thickness of     
eight or ten inches near the base4      
,young bark contains blisters filled    
with resin1 similar to those of balsam  
and other species of fir4  ,the wood is 
light red or yellow1 the sap much       
whiter4 ,lumbermen recognize two kinds  

of wood1 yellow and red4 ,the former is 
considered more valuable4 ,both may come
 from the same trunk1 and the reason for
 the difference in color and quality is 
not well understood4 ,it cannot be      
attributed to soil or climate1 or to the
 age of the tree1 and it does not seem  
to depend upon rate of growth4 ,the     
bands of summerwood are broad and quite 
distinct4 ,a few scattered resin ducts  
are visible under a magnifying glass of 
low power4 ,the medullary rays are      
numerous1 rather large1 frequently      
yellow1 conspicuous when wood is split  
radially4 ,the wood's average weight is 
given by ,sargent at #cb4ad pounds per  
cubic foot1 yet some specimens exceed   
forty pounds4 ,it is hard1 strong1 and  
stiff4 ,in mechanical properties it     
rates about the same as longleaf pine of
 the ,south4 ,elaborate tests have been 
made to determine which of these woods  
is the better for heavy construction1   
and neither appears to win over the     
other4 ,in one respect1 however1        

,douglas fir has a clear advantage over 
its southern rival3 it may be had in    
much larger pieces4 ,no other commercial
 wood of the world equals it in that    
particular4 ,the ,douglas fir flagstaff 
at the ,kew gardens in ,england was #aei
 feet long1 eight inches in diameter at 
the top1 more than three feet at the    
base4 ,the extraordinary size of squared
 beams cut from this species has led to 
great demand for it for heavy           
construction in ,europe and this        
country4 ,the pines from the ,baltic sea
 region of northern ,europe1 which held 
undisputed place in heavy work during   
centuries1 has now yielded that place to
 ,douglas fir and longleaf pine4  ,no   
other single species in the ,united     
,states or in the world equals the      
annual sawmill cut of ,douglas fir4 ,the
 four species of southern yellow pines1 
if counted as one1 surpass it2 but      
singly1 not one comes up to it4 ,in     
#aiaj the lumber cut from this fir      
amounted to #e1bjc1fdd1jjj feet1 which  

exceeded one-eighth of the total lumber 
cut in the ,united ,states4 ,the        
importance of such a timber tree can    
scarcely be estimated4 ,the available   
supply in the western forests is very   
large and will last many years1 even if 
the demand for more than #e1jjj1jjj1jjj 
feet a year continues to be met4  ,the  
timber is exported to practically every 
civilized nation in the world4          
,shipbuilding creates a heavy demand4   
,some of the leading ,european nations  
use it as deck lining for battleships1  
and except mahogany and teak1 it is said
 to have no equal for that purpose4 ,its
 cheapness gives it a decided advantage 
over those woods4  ,every important     
lumber market in the ,united ,states    
handles ,douglas fir1 and its uses are  
so many that it would be easier to list 
industries which do not use it than     
those which do4 ,it is manufactured into
 more than fifty classes of commodities1
 in ,illinois alone4 ,among these are   
boats1 railroad cars1 electrical        

apparatus1 farm machinery1 laundry      
supplies1 ladders1 refrigerators1       
musical instruments1 fixtures for       
offices1 stores1 and banks1 and sash1   
doors1 and blinds4 ,this list of uses   
shows that its place in the country's   
industries includes much more than rough
 construction4 ,it may be stained in    
imitation of valuable foreign and       
domestic woods1 including walnut1       
mahogany1 and oak4 ,the natural grain   
and figure of the wood may be deepened  
and improved by stains1 and this is much
 done by manufacturers of interior      
finish1 panels1 and store and office    
fixtures4 ,there is practically no limit
 to the size of panels which may be cut 
in single pieces4 ,it is easy to procure
 planks large enough for whole counter  
tops4  ,the best grain of ,douglas fir  
is not brought out by quarter-sawing4   
,the figures desired are not those      
produced by the medullary rays1 but by  
the rings of annual growth4 ,therefore1 
the sawyer at the mill cuts his best    

logs--if intended for figured           
lumber--tangentially1 as far as         
possible4 ,in the state of ,washington1 
which leads all other states in the     
production of ,douglas fir1 its chief   
use as a manufactured product is for    
doors1 sash1 and blinds1 and the annual 
consumption in that industry exceeds    
#ej1jjj1jjj feet4 ,it is cut in veneers1
 and it is likewise used as corewood to 
back veneers4 ,crossarms for telegraph  
and telephone poles demand #ce1jjj1jjj  
feet yearly in ,washington alone1 and   
many thousands of poles are of this     
wood4 ,it is third among the crosstie   
woods of the ,united ,states1 the       
combined cut of oaks standing first1 and
 the pine second4 ,it is rapidly taking 
high position as material for large     
water pipes and for braces1 props1      
stulls1 and lagging in mines and for    
paving blocks for streets4              
,,bristlecone ,,fir 7,abies venusta7 is 
pronounced by ,george ,b4     ,sudworth 
to be 8the most curious fir tree in the 

world40 ,it is found     almost         
exclusively in ,monterey county1        
,california1 but a few trees     grow   
outside of that circumscribed area4 ,it 
has been called ,santa     ,lucia fir1  
because it was once supposed to exist   
only in canyons of     ,santa ,lucia    
mountains1 but its range is now known to
 be more     extensive4 ,monterey       
county1 ,california1 is of peculiar     
interest to     dendrologists4 ,three   
species of trees are either confined to 
that     area1 or have their best       
development there4 ,they are ,monterey  
cypress 7,cupressus macrocarpa71        
,monterey pine 7,pinus radiata71     and
 bristlecone fir4 ,all are peculiar     
trees3 the cypress because of     its   
ragged form and extremely limited range1
 the pine because of     its exceedingly
 rapid growth when given a chance1 and  
the fir1     because of its peculiar    
form of crown1 odd appearance of cone1  
and     extraordinary weight of wood4   
,no reason is apparent why that         

particular point on the ,california     
coast should have brought into          
existence--or at least should have      
gathered to itself--three     peculiar  
tree species4 ,bristlecone fir is well  
named from the     bristles an inch long
 covering the cone4 ,the leaves1 too1   
are     peculiar1 bearing much          
resemblance to small willow leaves4     
,their     upper sides are deep         
yellow-green and the under sides        
silvery4 ,the     largest leaves are two
 inches long1 cones three inches4 ,they 
ripen     in ,august1 and soon          
afterwards scatter their seeds4 ,the    
tree is not     a prolific seeder1 and  
it is believed that its range is        
becoming     smaller4 ,bristlecone's    
form of crown has been compared to an   
,indian     club1 the large end on the  
ground and the handle pointing upward4  
,trees from sixty to eighty feet high   
have such 8handles0 twenty or     thirty
 feet long4 ,that peculiarity of shape  
makes the tree     recognizable among   

associated species at a distance of     
several     miles4 ,the recorded weight 
of the wood is #db4bg pounds per cubic  
foot1 which is nearly twice the weight  
of some other firs4 ,the wood     is    
moderately soft1 but very firm4 ,few    
uses for it have been     reported4     
,trunks are very knotty1 and are too few
 in number to be of     importance as a 
source of lumber4 ,the tree has been    
planted     successfully for ornament in
 the south of ,europe4      ,,bigcone   
,,spruce 7,pseudotsuga macrocarpa7 is of
 the same genus as     ,douglas fir and 
bears much resemblance to it1 but is    
smaller1 and     its range lies wholly  
outside that of its northern relative4  
,it is a     southern ,california       
species1 occupying mountain slopes and  
canyons     in ,santa ,barbara and ,san 
,diego counties4 ,it is found from      
#c1jjj to     #e1jjj feet above sea     
level4 ,trees average forty or fifty    
feet in     height and two or three in  
diameter4 ,the leaves are approximately 

of     the same size as those of        
,douglas fir2 but the cones are much    
larger1 hence the name by which the tree
 is known4 ,it is called     hemlock as 
often as spruce4 ,the cones are from    
four to seven inches     long1 hang     
down1 and usually occupy the topmost    
branches of trees4     ,the winged seeds
 are half an inch long4 ,the bark is six
 inches or     less in thickness4 ,the  
wood is inferior in most ways to that of
     ,douglas fir1 lighter1 weaker1 and 
less elastic4 ,its color is reddish     
brown4 ,it has never contributed much   
lumber to the market and never     will4
 ,its range is local and the form of the
 tree is not of the     best4 ,an       
occasional log reaches a sawmill1 but   
the principal demand     is for fuel4   
,illustration     ,,bigtree             
,illustration3 ,,bigtree     ,,bigtree  
7,sequoia ,washingtoniana7   ,botanists 
have had a hard time giving this tree a 
,latin name which will meet the         
requirements of technical               

classification1 but an ,english name    
acceptable everywhere was early found   
for it--bigtree4 ,no fewer than a dozen 
names have been proposed by botanists4  
,most of them attempt to express the    
idea of vastness or grandeur2 but the   
simple ,english name comes directly to  
the point and ends the controversy as   
far as the common name is concerned4    
,everything connected with this tree is 
interesting4 ,geologically1 it is as old
 as the yellow poplar4 ,there were five 
species of sequoias in the northern     
hemisphere1 in ,europe and ,america1    
before the ice age4 ,they grew in the   
,north1 nearly to the ,arctic circle1 at
 a time when the climate of those       
regions was milder than it is now4 ,the 
later advance of the ice southward      
overwhelmed three species of bigtrees1  
and pushed two survivors into the region
 which is now ,california4 ,these are   
the bigtree and the redwood4 ,it is not 
known how long ago it was that the ice  
sheet did its destructive work1 but it  

antedated human history1 and the        
gigantic trees have been in ,california 
since that time4  ,long after the ice   
age ceased generally in ,north ,america 
it continued among the high ,sierras of 
,california1 and the bigtrees to this   
day give a hint of it in the peculiar   
outlines of their range4 ,they are      
scattered north and south along the face
 of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains in    
,california1 a distance of #bfj miles1  
and at elevations from #d1ejj to #h1jjj 
feet4  ,the aggregate of the total areas
 is about fifty square miles4 ,the stand
 is not continuous1 but consists of     
8groves10 that is1 isolated stands with 
wide intervals between1 where no trees  
of this species are found4 ,the         
arrangement suggests that the bigtree   
forest was cut in sections by glaciers  
which descended from the high mountains 
to the plains1 a distance of one hundred
 miles or more1 crossing the belt of    
sequoias at right angles4 ,the glaciers 
withdrew thousands of years ago1 and    

their tracks down the mountain slopes   
have long been covered by forests2 but  
the bigtree groves1 for some unknown    
reason1 never spread into the           
intervening spaces1 but today are       
separated by wide tracts in which not a 
seedling or an old trunk or log of that 
species is to be found4 ,this is one of 
the mysteries which add interest to     
those wonderful trees--why they cannot  
extend their range beyond the           
circumscribed limits which they occupied
 thousands of years ago4  ,it was       
claimed for a long time and was quite   
generally believed that bigtrees were   
not reproducing1 that there 8were no    
little bigtrees40 ,that was conclusively
 disproved by ,fred ,g4 ,plummer1       
geographer of the ,united ,states       
,forest ,service1 who made a scientific 
study of a small grove1 measured the    
trees1 and actually counted and         
classified them4 ,his work showed that  
there were in the area which he         
investigated3    ,trees containing      

#ajj1jjj to #abj1jjj feet each        #b
   ,trees containing #hj1jjj to #ajj1jjj
 feet each        #ac   ,trees          
containing #fj1jjj to #hj1jjj feet each 
#di   ,trees containing #dj1jjj to      
#fj1jjj feet each        #aab   ,trees  
containing #bj1jjj to #dj1jjj feet each 
#bea   ,trees containing less than      
#bj1jjj feet each        #cec   8,little
 bigtrees0                              
#b1fhb                                  
-----                                   
,total  #c1dfb  ,bigtree is distantly   
related to southern cypress1 and the    
shapes of very old trees of both species
 bear some resemblance4 ,bigtree leaves 
do not fall annually as those of bald   
cypress do4 ,they are from one-eighth to
 one-fourth of an inch long1 and on the 
leading shoots they may be half an inch 
in length4 ,cones are from two to three 
and a half inches long1 and they ripen  
their seeds the second year1 but the    
empty cones may adhere to the branches  
several years4 ,the seeds are a quarter 

of an inch long1 and have wings         
sufficient to carry them a hundred yards
 or more4 ,the trees bear abundance of  
seeds1 in proportion to the small number
 of branches4 ,though shapely and well  
clothed with limbs when young1 the crown
 contracts with age1 and consists of a  
few enormous1 crooked limbs1 almost     
destitute of twigs and small branches4  
,one of these trees may actually bear   
more twigs when the trunk is only a foot
 in diameter than will be on the same   
trunk when it is fifteen or twenty feet 
in diameter4 ,the old tree trunks are   
often without limbs to a height of #ajj 
or #aej feet4  ,the ,douglas squirrel is
 the bigtree's greatest enemy4 ,in      
proportion to size1 this little creature
 probably eats ten times as many tree   
seeds as the most ravenous hog that     
roams the forest4 ,one of the first     
things that impresses a visitor in a    
grove of bigtrees is the rich brown of  
the bark of some of the trunks4 ,all are
 not brown alike1 or at all seasons4    

,the trees on which the seed harvest is 
ready are the brownest1 thanks to the   
sharp claws1 the tireless energy1 and   
keen appetite of the ,douglas squirrel4 
,he goes up and down the trunks for     
three square meals a day among the      
clusters of cone-bearing branches two   
hundred or three hundred feet above1 and
 makes several extra trips for exercise2
 and at each scratch of his briery foot 
he kicks off scales of bark1 until the  
whole trunk is 8scratched raw40 ,the    
detached scales of bark accumulate in a 
mound about the base of the tree1 where 
they have been so accumulating for      
centuries4 ,it is fortunate that those  
old trees have bark from one to two feet
 thick4 ,they can afford to be scratched
 for a month or two each year4  ,these  
are the heaviest trees in ,america1     
notwithstanding their wood is light4 ,it
 weighs less than northern white cedar4 
,the largest bigtree trunks weigh more  
than #b1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,in order to    
stand at all1 they must stand plumb4 ,it

 is a provision of nature that the old  
trees are almost branchless1 otherwise  
the wind would force them out of plumb  
and they would go down4 ,it has been    
claimed that the overthrow of one of    
these giants is always brought about by 
one of two causes4 ,the development of  
larger limbs on one side than on another
 unbalances them2 or the wash of gullies
 undermines the roots on one side1 and  
draws the tree that way4 ,it is         
currently believed that no bigtree ever 
dies from natural causes4  ,a good deal 
of pure fiction has been published      
regarding the size and age of the       
largest of these trees4 ,they are old   
enough and large enough without drawing 
upon the imagination4 ,the tree's base  
is greatly enlarged1 but tapers rapidly 
the first few feet4 ,there is little    
doubt that some of the trunks are over  
forty feet in diameter1 one foot above  
ground1 but that is not a fair          
measurement4 ,the point should be five  
or six feet at least4 ,measured thus1   

about twenty-five feet inside the bark  
would represent the largest4 ,with the  
bark added1 the diameter would be nearly
 thirty feet4 ,probably not one tree in 
fifty1 taking them as they occur in the 
whole range and counting veterans only1 
is fifteen feet in diameter five feet   
from the ground4  ,there is also some   
extravagant guessing as to height4 ,too 
many tourists measure with the unaided  
eye1 or accept a guidebook's figures4   
,an authentic height of #cfe feet--the  
measurement of a fallen trunk--is       
probably the greatest4 ,very few reach  
three hundred feet4 ,many unreliable    
figures have been published concerning  
the age of bigtrees4 ,one thing can be  
accepted without question2 size is no   
proof of age1 in comparing one tree with
 another2 neither is the number of      
annual rings in a block cut from the    
side of a tree a reliable factor to     
determine age4 ,the only sure way to    
determine the age of one of these trees 
is by counting all the rings from the   

pith to bark4 ,care should be taken not 
to count the same ring twice1 as may be 
done when the wood is curly4 ,john ,muir
 counted #d1jjj rings in a bigtree      
stump4 ,it is believed that no higher   
age is backed by the evidence of yearly 
rings4 ,it was twenty-four feet in      
diameter4 ,the count of another of like 
size made it #b1bjj years old2 and of   
still another of the same size placed   
its age at #a1cjj years4 ,the ,forest   
,service has made accurate measurement  
and record of every ring of growth in a 
tree that was over twenty-four feet in  
diameter1 and it is shown that during   
certain periods of years the tree grew  
three or four times as rapidly as during
 other periods4  ,the wood of bigtree is
 very light1 soft1 moderately strong1   
brittle1 summerwood thin and dark       
rendering the rings of annual growth    
easily seen2 the medullary rays are     
thin1 numerous1 and very obscure4 ,the  
wood is light to dark red1 the thin     
sapwood nearly white2 it works easily1  

splits readily1 and polishes well4 ,it  
is very durable in contact with the     
soil4 ,trunks lie in the woods long     
periods before decay seriously attacks  
them2 but forest fires hollow them1 and 
finally burn them up4 ,enormous         
depressions are found in the forest     
where logs once lay1 but which          
disappeared long ago1 judging by the    
size of trees which have since grown in 
the depressions4 ,the interior of some  
large trunks which have been worked up  
on sawmills showed the scars of forest  
fires centuries ago4 ,the annual rings  
which covered one such scar showed that 
the burning took place #a1gjj years ago4
  ,not much can be said for the         
commercial uses of bigtree4 ,many a     
species of insignificant size is much   
more useful4 ,considerable quantities   
have been cut by sawmills4 ,the waste is
 great1 heavy trunks crushing badly in  
fall4 ,logs are so large that many of   
them are split with gunpowder to        
facilitate handling them4 ,some of the  

wood has been exported for lead pencils2
 other has been used for fence posts1   
shingles1 and grapevine stakes1 while   
the soft bark has been worked into      
novelties4      ,,macnab ,,cypress      
7,cupressus macnabiana7 is a ,california
 tree of     limited range and little   
commercial value4 ,it grows in ,napa1   
,lake1     ,mendocino1 and ,trinity     
counties2 is often little more than a   
branching shrub1 but the largest        
specimens may be thirty feet high       
and fifteen inches in diameter4 ,the    
wood is light1 soft1 and usually     of 
slow growth4 ,the medullary rays are    
numerous but thin1 and the     bands of 
summerwood are distinct4 ,the cones are 
generally less than     one inch long1  
and the seeds have narrow wings4 ,the   
foliage is     grayish which is due to  
white glands in the leaves4 ,forest     
foliage     is fragrant4 ,the tree is   
known as white cedar1 ,shasta cypress1  
and     ,california mountain cypress4   
,illustration     ,,redwood             

,illustration3 ,,redwood     ,,redwood  
7,sequoia ,sempervirens7   ,this tree's 
color is responsible for its name4 ,it  
is sometimes spoken of as coast redwood 
to distinguish it from bigtree which    
grows in the interior of ,california4   
,in ,european markets it is known as    
,california redwood to distinguish it   
from other redwoods growing in distant  
parts of the world4 ,its botanical name1
 ,sequoia sempervirens1 means evergreen 
sequoia4 ,the other species of sequoia  
is also evergreen4 ,in reality1 the     
coast redwood is less of an evergreen   
than the bigtree is1 because the leaves 
of redwood turn brown two years before  
they fall1 but there are always plenty  
of green leaves on the branches4 ,the   
leaves are from one-quarter to one-half 
inch in length4  ,the geographical range
 of redwood covers about #f1jjj square  
miles1 but the commercial range is      
scarcely one-fifth as much4 ,the redwood
 belt extends #ejj miles along the      
,pacific coast from southern ,oregon to 

central ,california4 ,it varies from ten
 to thirty miles in width4 ,it is       
strictly a fog belt tree1 and grows     
poorly outside the region of ocean fog1 
which seldom reaches an altitude more   
than #b1hjj feet above sea level4 ,where
 fog is thick and frequent1 and soil is 
moist and otherwise suitable1 redwood   
forests have grown in such luxuriance   
that no species in this country exceeds 
it4 ,stands running much over #ajj1jjj  
feet per acre are frequent1 and it is   
said #a1jjj1jjj feet have been cut from 
a single acre4  ,redwood cones are one  
inch or less in length4 ,they ripen in  
one season4 ,seeds are quite small1 and 
are equipped with wings4 ,the bark is   
thick1 but is much thinner than the bark
 of bigtrees1 though it is in great     
ridges like the bark of that species4   
,the habits of the two species1 as to   
form of crown1 are similar4 ,young      
redwoods1 particularly if they grow in  
the open1 develop symmetrical and       
conical crowns which they retain until  

the trunks are a foot or more in        
diameter4 ,lower limbs die and fall off 
after that1 and old trees have crowns so
 small that it would seem impossible    
that they could supply the wood-building
 material for trunks so large4 ,that the
 growth should be slow under such       
circumstances is to be expected4 ,the   
ages of mature trees vary from #ejj to  
#hjj years1 but an extreme age of #a1cgc
 years is on record4 ,the average is1   
therefore1 considerably below that of   
bigtrees4  ,redwoods grow as tall as    
bigtrees1 but do not equal them in      
diameter of trunk1 though trees twenty  
feet in diameter occur4  ,a noticeable  
feature of the forests is that1 in a    
given stand1 nearly all trees are of the
 same height1 irrespective of size of   
trunk4 ,the crowns go up to the light   
and when they reach the common level of 
others1 and secure a share of light1    
they show no disposition to go higher4  
,the doctrine which they silently put   
into practice is to live and let others 

live4 ,that habit makes it possible for 
redwoods to grow in very dense stands1  
which they could not do if a few trees  
domineered over the others1 and         
appropriated the light to themselves4   
,when old age overtakes the giant       
redwoods1 they exhibit the first        
symptoms of weakened vitality by dying  
at the top4 ,most trees over five       
hundred years old are 8stag-headed40    
,from that period they die slowly1 but  
usually survive two or three hundred    
years after the visible signs of        
approaching death strike them4  ,redwood
 has an advantage over nearly all other 
needle-leaf trees in that it propagates 
by both seeds and sprouts4 ,few         
softwoods send up sprouts from stumps or
 roots4 ,redwoods of large size are     
produced that way1 and the stumps of    
very old trees send up many vigorous    
shoots4 ,sometimes a ring of large trees
 surrounds a depression in the ground   
where the parent tree grew1 died1 and   
decayed4  ,sprouts are of course        

confined to the immediate proximity of  
the parent tree1 but redwood seeds are  
scattered by the wind over vacant       
spaces4 ,this results in dense stands   
where other conditions are favorable1   
but the species has never been able to  
establish itself far inland or high on  
mountains4  ,in #ahhj the ,federal      
census made a rough estimate of the     
available redwood1 and placed it at     
#be1hbe1jjj1jjj feet4 ,more than twenty 
years later1 with heavy cutting all the 
time1 private estimates placed the      
remaining stand at over #ej1jjj1jjj1jjj 
feet4 ,the second estimate was          
unquestionably nearer correct than the  
first4 ,the stand of no important timber
 tree in this country is more easily    
estimated than redwood4 ,the forests are
 compact1 the trees large1 the trunks   
similar in form1 and the well-timbered  
area is comparatively small4 ,redwood   
has been called the most important      
timber tree of the ,pacific coast4 ,the 
title probably confers too much1 though 

the tree's importance is beyond         
question4 ,the annual cut of ,douglas   
fir is nearly ten times as large as of  
redwood1 and the supply still in the    
forests is much greater than that of    
redwood4 ,the cut of western yellow pine
 likewise exceeds the output of redwood1
 and the remaining supply is larger4    
,the cut of western red cedar1 including
 shingles1 is about the same1 and the   
remaining stand of cedar is very large4 
,western hemlock1 too1 exists in large  
quantity1 and its importance as a source
 of timber supply may be equal to       
redwood4  ,redwood is frequently        
referred to as one of the lightest in   
this country4 ,its weight per cubic     
foot1 oven-dry1 is #bf4b pounds4 ,on the
 same basis1 white pine is #bd1 southern
 white cedar #bj4g1 northern white cedar
 #ai4g1 and bigtree #ah4b4 ,there are   
woods in ,florida lighter than any of   
these4 ,redwood is very soft1 yet it    
dulls tools quickly4 ,it is moderately  
strong1 a little below white pine2 it is

 brittle1 again ranking below white     
pine2 it splits and works easily and    
polishes well4 ,few1 if any woods       
surpass this one in splitting           
properties4 ,boards twelve feet long and
 a foot wide may be rived from selected 
logs1 and they present surfaces nearly  
as smooth as if cut with a saw4         
,however1 curly and wavy redwood is not 
uncommon1 and that1 too1 splits well1   
but the surface is not smooth4 ,the     
width of annual rings varies1 usually   
wide in young timber and narrow in old4 
,the bands of summerwood are narrow and 
clearly defined4 ,the surface of redwood
 lumber absorbs water quickly1 yet1 for 
some reason1 creosote and other         
preservatives can be forced into the    
wood only with the greatest difficulty4 
,fortunately1 it is not necessary to    
treat this timber to prevent decay1 for1
 in almost any position1 it wears out   
before it rots4 ,shingles1 and window   
and door frames of the old barracks     
buildings at ,eureka1 ,california1      

remained in place until fifty years of  
wind and driven sand wore them away4    
,railroads use the wood for ties until  
they wear out1 not until they rot out4  
,farmers near some of the ,california   
railroads gather up the rejected worn   
ties by thousands and use them for fence
 posts4 ,when redwood is employed as    
city paving blocks it is wear and not   
decay that puts them out of commission4 
,the medullary rays of redwood are thin 
and very obscure1 but numerous4 ,few    
woods show them to less advantage in    
quarter-sawing4 ,the lack of luster in  
the surface of polished panels is well  
known4 ,the wood's beauty is in its     
sameness and richness of color4 ,except 
curly specimens and burls1 the wood may 
be said to have no figure1 though in    
planks cut tangentially1 the contrast of
 spring and summerwood displays some    
figure in a modest way4 ,it is possible 
to wash much of the coloring matter out 
of the wood1 if it is first chipped     
fine4 ,it washes from the surface by    

ordinary exposure to weather4 ,red      
rainwater runs from a roof of new       
redwood shingles1 and weatherboarding1  
posts1 and picket fences fade           
perceptibly in a few months4 ,this      
coloring matter when washed out in large
 amounts in the process of paper making 
has been manufactured into fuel gas4  ,a
 complete list of the uses of redwood is
 not practicable1 for this material goes
 into most of the large wood-using      
factories of this country1 and much is  
exported--nearly #fj1jjj1jjj feet       
annually going to foreign countries4 ,it
 has been much employed in ,california  
cities and towns for picket fences1 and 
as posts for wire and plank fences4 ,it 
is1 next to western red cedar1 the most 
important shingle wood of the ,pacific  
coast4 ,one western railroad alone had  
in its tracks #ab1jjj1jjj redwood ties  
at one time4 ,builders of tanks1 flumes1
 and water pipes procure some of their  
best material1 and large quantities of  
it1 from redwood sawmills4 ,few woods   

are more universally found in furniture 
factories4      ,,gowen ,,cypress       
7,cupressus goveniana7 follows the      
,california coast     from ,mendocino   
county1 ,california1 to ,san ,diego1 and
 ascends     mountains to the height of 
#c1jjj feet in some localities4 ,at its 
best it is fifty feet high and two feet 
in diameter2 but it extends     as a    
shrub over many sandy tracts4 ,specimens
 no more than a foot     high sometimes 
bear cones4 ,the ,gowen cypress sheds   
its leaves the     third and fourth     
years4 ,cones are from one-half to one  
inch long1     and each bears about #ajj
 seeds4 ,the wood is light1 soft1 weak1 
light     brown in color1 the thick     
sapwood nearly white4 ,the medullary    
rays     are numerous but obscure4 ,the 
wood is used for posts and other ranch  
purposes4 ,woodpeckers attack the       
trunks1 picking holes through the       
bark to suck the juice from the cambium 
layer beneath4      ,,dwarf ,,cypress   
7,cupressus pygma7 was formerly supposed

 to be a     stunted form of ,gowen     
cypress4 ,the ranges of both lie in the 
same     region1 on the coast of        
,california in ,mendocino county4 ,the  
average     height of dwarf cypress is  
from ten to twenty feet1 with trunk     
diameter from six to twelve inches2 but 
in peat swamps and on     sterile sands 
it may not exceed three or four feet in 
height4 ,it     bears abundant cones at 
that size1 and sometimes a tree no more 
than     a foot high has mature cones4  
,they ripen the second year1 but remain 
a long time on the branches4 ,the trees 
thrive in the most forbidding           
places1 and are sometimes the only      
occupants of bogs or sand dunes4        
,the wood is necessarily of little      
value1 because of the small size     of 
trees4 ,there seems to be no record of a
 dwarf cypress over sixty     years of  
age2 but it is believed that much older 
trees have fallen     victims to fire4  
,illustration     ,,hemlock             
,illustration3 ,,hemlock     ,,hemlock  

7,tsuga ,canadensis7   ,seven hemlocks  
are known in the world1 four of them in 
,america4 ,two of these are in the      
,east1 two in the ,west4 ,the eastern   
species are the ,canadian and           
,carolinian4 ,the former is ,tsuga      
canadensis1 the latter ,tsuga           
caroliniana4 ,the western species are1  
mountain hemlock 7,tsuga mertensiana71  
and western hemlock 7,tsuga             
heterophylla74 ,the word tsuga is       
,japanese and means hemlock4  ,the      
hemlock lumber in eastern markets is    
practically all from one species1 which 
is known as hemlock in ,maine1 ,new     
,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1   
,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new      
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1     
,delaware1 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 
,south ,carolina1 ,kentucky1 ,wisconsin1
 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,ohio1 ,ontario4
 ,in ,vermont1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new     
,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1     
,west ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1      
,south ,carolina2 in ,england it is     

called hemlock spruce2 spruce tree in   
,pennsylvania and ,west ,virginia2      
spruce pine in ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1
 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,georgia2 
to the ,new ,york ,indians it was known 
as oh-neh-tah1 which being interpreted  
means 8greens on the stick40  ,the range
 of hemlock extends east and west more  
than fifteen hundred miles1 from ,nova  
,scotia to western ,wisconsin2 south to 
,delaware and southern ,michigan1 and   
along the ,appalachian mountains to     
northern ,alabama and ,georgia4 ,the    
original quantity of timber was         
enormous1 for large areas were covered  
with dense stands4 ,the largest trees   
are found near the southern part of its 
range1 among the mountains of ,tennessee
 and ,north ,carolina2 but the bulk of  
the timber has always been in the       
,north4 ,it thrives best in well drained
 soil1 but it likes cool situations and 
often develops dense forests on northern
 slopes or in deep ravines2 but it      
maintains a foothold on ridges1 on the  

banks of streams1 and around the borders
 of swamps4  ,the cones are very small1 
about a half inch in length1 growing    
singly from the lower side of the       
branchlet4 ,their scales are rounded and
 thin1 light brown in color4 ,the seeds 
are winged and even when ripe the cones 
do not spread apart perceptibly4 ,the   
seeds escape1 however1 slowly during the
 winter following their maturity4 ,they 
are very small1 and their wings         
distribute them a hundred feet or more4 
,the seeds germinate best on leaf mold1 
but the seedling takes several years to 
thrust its roots deep into the mineral  
soil4 ,during that time1 growth is very 
slow4 ,a seedling five years old may not
 exceed five inches in height2 but when 
its roots have developed1 growth is     
fairly rapid4 ,the distribution of seeds
 is often facilitated by the activities 
of red squirrels1 and perhaps other     
small mammals1 which climb the trees in 
winter and tear the cones apart to get  
at the seeds4 ,many of the seeds are    

devoured1 but more escape and fly away  
on the winter winds4  ,hemlock leaves   
are narrow and about half an inch long4 
,examined closely1 particularly with a  
magnifying glass1 rows of white dots    
extend from end to end on the under     
side4 ,small as these white points are  
separately1 when seen in the aggregate  
they change the color of the whole crown
 of the tree4 ,this is illustrated by   
looking at a hemlock from a             
distance--the upper sides of the leaves 
on the drooping twigs being then visible
 and the tree's aspect dark green4      
,approach the tree1 and look up from its
 base--the under side of the leaves     
being then visible--and the dark color  
changes to a light silvery tint4 ,the   
whiteness is due to the white spots on  
the leaves4 ,the spots are stomata      
7mouths71 and are parts of the chemical 
laboratory which carries on the tree's  
living processes4 ,all tree leaves have 
stomata1 but all are not arranged in the
 same way and are not visible alike4    

,few trees have them as prominent as the
 hemlocks4  ,hemlock attains a height   
from sixty to #ajj feet and a diameter  
from two to four4 ,when it grows in the 
open1 it is one of the handsomest and   
most symmetrical evergreens of any      
country4 ,its dark1 dense foliage will  
permit scarcely any sunlight to filter  
through4 ,when forest-grown1 it loses   
its lower limbs4 ,in the forester's     
language1 they are 8shaded off10 and    
long1 smooth trunks are developed2 but  
the stubs from which the branches fall  
remain buried deep inside the smoothest 
bole1 and the saws will find them when  
the logs are converted into lumber4     
,reference has been made to hemlock's   
slow growth during the seedling's first 
four or five years4 ,that takes place in
 the dense shade of the hemlock forest4 
,if the seed falls on open ground1 in   
full sunlight1 the chance is that it    
will not germinate2 but if it does1 the 
seedling is doomed to an early death4   
,it cannot endure strong light4 ,this   

fact is of great importance1 for it     
means the end of hemlock forests4 ,when 
a stand is cut and the sunshine reaches 
the ground1 no seedlings bring on a new 
forest4 ,white pine seeds grow in open  
ground1 in old fields1 in burnt woods1  
wherever they reach soil1 but hemlock   
must scatter its seeds in cool1 deep    
shade or they will do little good4      
,strong1 vigorous1 and healthy as       
hemlock trees are1 they are killed more 
easily than almost any other4 ,cut a few
 trees from the center of a mature      
hemlock clump1 and the chance is that   
several trees next to the open space    
thus made will die4 ,the unusual light  
proves too much for their roots which   
had always been cool and damp2 but when 
young hemlocks are protected until they 
get a start1 they thrive nicely in the  
open4  ,the wood of hemlock is light1   
soft1 not strong1 brittle1 coarse and   
crooked grained1 difficult to work1     
liable to windshake1 splinters badly1   
not durable4 ,the summerwood of the     

annual ring is conspicuous2 and the thin
 medullary rays are numerous4 ,the color
 of hemlock heartwood is light brown1   
tinged with red1 often nearly white4    
,the sapwood is darker4 ,lumbermen      
recognize two varieties1 red and white1 
but botanists do not recognize them4    
,the physical characters of hemlock are 
nearly all unfavorable1 yet it has      
become a useful and widely used wood4   
,it is largely manufactured into coarse 
lumber and used for outside             
work--railway ties1 joists1 rafters1    
sheathing1 plank walks1 laths1 etc4 ,it 
is rarely used for inside finishing1    
owing to its brittle and splintery      
character4 ,clean boards made into      
panels or similar work and finished in  
the natural color often present a very  
handsome appearance1 owing to the       
peculiar pinkish tint of the wood1      
ripening and improving with age4  ,with 
the growing scarcity of white and       
,norway pine1 hemlock has become the    
natural substitute for these woods for  

many purposes4 ,it has never been       
conceded that hemlock possesses the     
intrinsic merit of either of the        
northern pines for structural purposes1 
but it has proven a suitable substitute 
for a variety of uses1 notably for      
framing and sheathing of medium priced  
structures4  ,in #aiaj hemlock lumber   
was cut in twenty-one states1 the total 
output exceeding #b1ejj1jjj1jjj feet4   
,only four species or groups of species 
exceeded it in amount4 ,they were       
southern yellow pines1 ,douglas fir1 the
 oaks1 and white pine4 ,the principal   
cut of hemlock lumber was in the        
following states in the order named3    
,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,pennsylvania1   
,west ,virginia1 ,new ,york1 ,maine1    
,vermont1 ,virginia1 ,new ,hampshire1   
,tennessee1 and ,north ,carolina4 ,ten  
other states produced smaller amounts4  
,hemlock possesses remarkable holding   
power on nails and spikes1 and that is  
one reason for its large use for        
railroad ties4 ,it does not easily      

split1 and there is no likelihood that  
spikes will work loose2 but the wood    
decays quickly in damp situations1 and  
unless given preservative treatment1    
hemlock ties do not last long4 ,they are
 pretty soft anyway1 and where traffic  
is heavy1 rails cut them badly4         
,manufacturers of boxes and crates use  
much hemlock4 ,the annual use for that  
purpose in ,massachusetts is about      
#bg1jjj1jjj feet1 in ,michigan          
practically the same quantity1 in       
,illinois #cd1jjj1jjj1 and varying      
quantities in many other states4        
,michigan converts nearly #ajj1jjj1jjj  
feet a year into flooring and other     
planing mill products1 and ,wisconsin   
and other hemlock states follow it in   
lesser amounts4 ,the wood is employed by
 car builders1 slack coopers1           
manufacturers of refrigerators1 silos1  
and farm implements2 but the largest    
demand comes from those who use the     
rough lumber4  ,hemlock bark is the most
 important tanning material in this     

country4 ,it has long been used by      
leather makers who generally mix it with
 some other bark or extract because     
leather tanned with hemlock alone has a 
redder color than is desired4  ,large   
areas of hemlock forests have been cut  
for the bark alone4 ,formerly the wood  
was of so little value that it was      
cheaper to leave it in the forest than  
to take it out4 ,the peelers worked in  
early summer1 cutting trees and removing
 the bark in four-foot lengths1 which   
was measured by the cord1 though often  
sold by weight4 ,care was taken that the
 bark be removed from the slashings     
before the dry weather of autumn1 for   
fire was to be expected then1 and       
anything combustible in the woods at    
that time was likely to be lost4 ,the   
tracts on which bark peelers worked were
 called 8slashings10 and they were fire 
traps of the worst kind with their      
tangled masses of tops and branches4    
,large quantities of hemlock bark are   
still peeled every summer1 but the      

practice is less destructive than       
formerly4 ,the trunks are worth taking  
out1 and when the fire comes late in the
 season it consumes little valuable     
hemlock4 ,a permanent decline in the    
annual production of this wood has not  
yet begun1 but it must soon set in1 for 
the demand cannot be indefinitely met4  
,illustration     ,,western ,,hemlock   
,illustration3 ,,western ,,hemlock      
,,western ,,hemlock  7,tsuga            
,heterophylla7   ,when this wood began  
to go to market1 its promoters found    
difficulties in securing a trial for it 
in eastern states1 because of its name4 
,the eastern hemlock was known to be a  
substantial wood1 but a rough one with  
many faults linked with its virtues4 ,it
 was naturally supposed that the western
 hemlock had all the faults of its      
eastern relative with possibly some of  
the good qualities left out2 and there  
was general hesitancy to put the new    
comer to a trial4 ,that caused a        
movement among western lumbermen to sell

 their hemlock under some other name4   
,they were confident the wood had only  
to be given a trial and it would win its
 way1 after which the name would make   
little difference4 ,accordingly1 it was 
started to market under the name of     
,alaska pine1 although ,alaska has no   
pine large enough for good lumber4      
,other lumbermen thought it advisable to
 choose a name less likely to excite    
suspicion1 and they called it           
,washington pine4 ,others designated it 
as spruce1 and still others as fir4 ,it 
was more likely to pass for fir than for
 pine or spruce4  ,the lumber is now    
generally known as western hemlock1 but 
in ,california some call it hemlock     
spruce or ,california hemlock spruce4   
,in ,idaho1 ,washington1 and ,oregon the
 name hemlock usually suffices2 while   
western hemlock spruce1 and western     
hemlock fir1 and ,prince ,albert's fir  
are names used in speaking of lumber and
 of the tree in the forest4  ,western   
hemlock's range extends north and south 

a thousand miles1 from southern ,alaska 
to ,california south of ,san ,francisco4
 ,it grows from the ,pacific coast      
eastward to ,montana1 five hundred miles
 or more4 ,it ascends to altitudes of   
#f1jjj feet1 but it is not at its best  
on high mountains1 but in the warm1 damp
 region near the coast in ,washington   
and ,oregon4 ,trees #bjj feet high and  
eight or ten in diameter are found1 but 
the average size is much less4  ,the    
leaves of western hemlock are dark green
 and very lustrous above4 ,the flowers  
are yellow and purple4 ,cones are one   
inch or less in length1 and the small   
seeds are equipped with wings which     
carry them some distance from the base  
of the parent tree4 ,the seeds will     
germinate and develop a root system     
without touching mineral soil4 ,their   
ability to do so assists them greatly in
 maintaining the tree's position in the 
damp climate where this hemlock reaches 
its best development4 ,the ground in the
 forest1 with all objects that lie upon 

it1 is often covered with wet moss a    
foot or more thick4 ,the seeds of most  
trees would inevitably perish if they   
fell upon such a bed of moss2 but the   
seeds of western hemlock germinate1 and 
the rootlets strike through the moss    
until they reach the soil beneath1 and  
seedling trees are soon growing         
vigorously4 ,seeds often germinate in   
the moss on logs and stumps1 but the    
roots strike for the ground1 and        
generally reach it4 ,in this habit the  
western hemlock resembles the yellow    
birch of the ,east whose seeds seem to  
germinate best on mossy logs and stumps4
  ,western hemlock has one of the bad   
habits of its eastern relative3 it does 
not prune itself very well1 even in     
dense forests1 and the lumber is apt to 
be knotty1 but the knots are usually    
sound1 though dark in color4  ,the wood 
of western hemlock is moderately light1 
but twenty per cent heavier than eastern
 hemlock2 stronger than the wood of     
other ,american hemlocks1 and nearly    

twenty-five per cent stronger than the  
eastern commercial species1 and nearly  
fifty per cent stiffer4 ,it is tough and
 hard1 but has little of the flinty     
texture of other hemlocks4 ,its color is
 pale brown1 tinged with yellow1 the    
thin sapwood nearly white4 ,it is fairly
 durable in contact with the soil4 ,its 
growth is usually rapid1 and trees live 
to a great age4 ,some of the largest are
 said to reach #hjj years4 ,the         
summerwood often constitutes half of the
 yearly ring1 and is dark yellow4 ,the  
medullary rays are numerous and rather  
prominent4 ,when cut radially1 the      
appearance1 size1 and arrangement of the
 exposed medullary rays suggest those of
 sugar maple when exposed in the same   
way4  ,the annual sawmill output of     
western hemlock is about #agj1jjj1jjj   
feet4 ,the largest market for it is in  
the region where it grows1 and it is    
used as rough lumber for ranch purposes 
and for buildings in towns2 but a       
considerable quantity is further        

manufactured4 ,about one-fourth of the  
entire sawmill output goes to the       
factories of ,idaho1 ,washington1 and   
,oregon4 ,a list of the wood's principal
 uses in those states shows its         
intrinsic value4 ,the largest quantity  
is demanded by box factories4 ,the      
wood's nail-holding power commends it   
for that use1 but of no less importance 
is its strength4 ,eighty-three per cent 
of all the wood used for boxes in       
,washington is western hemlock4         
,cooperage calls for much of this wood  
also4 ,fruit and vegetable barrels are  
made of it4 ,its place in furniture     
manufacture corresponds to that of the  
other hemlock in the ,east4 ,the pulp   
business is not very extensive on the   
,pacific coast1 but western hemlock is a
 respectable contributor4 ,it is        
suitable for burial boxes1 and probably 
ranks about third among the woods within
 its range1 those used in larger amounts
 being ,sitka spruce and western red    
cedar4 ,it is coming into use as        

interior finish1 particularly as door   
and window frame material4 ,fixture     
manufacturers employ it for drawers and 
shelves4 ,it is made into flooring1     
ceiling1 molding1 and wainscoting4 ,door
 makers use a little of it as core      
material over which to glue veneers4 ,it
 is made into veneer1 but of the cheaper
 sorts1 such as are suitable for crates 
and berry boxes4  ,the ,pacific coast is
 so abundantly supplied with excellent  
softwoods that only those of good       
quality have any chance in the local    
markets4 ,the fact that western hemlock 
has won and is holding an important     
place in active competition with such   
woods as western red cedar1 yellow      
cedar1 ,sitka spruce1 and ,douglas fir1 
is proof that it is valuable material4  
,it is winning its way in the central   
part of the ,united ,states also1 but   
not as rapidly as it has won in the     
,west4  ,the bark of western hemlock is 
rated high as a tanning material4 ,the  
bark on young trees is thin1 but as the 

trunks increase in size and age the bark
 thickens4 ,it is richer in tannin than 
the bark of eastern hemlock1 but is not 
so extensively used because the demand  
is less on the ,pacific coast4  ,the    
future of the western hemlock is fairly 
well assured4 ,its range is extensive   
and varied1 and lumbermen will be a long
 time in cutting the last of the present
 stand4 ,reproduction is satisfactory4  
,it will be important in future         
forestry1 when people will grow much of 
the timber they need2 but this tree will
 stick pretty close to the range where  
nature planted it4  ,,mountain ,,hemlock
 7,tsuga mertensiana7 is a near relative
 of western hemlock1 and occupies the   
same geographical ranges but higher on  
the mountains4 ,near ,sitka1 ,alaska1 it
 occurs at sea level1 but southward it  
rises higher until on the ,sierra       
,nevada mountains in ,california it is  
#aj1jjj feet above sea level4 ,it is one
 of the timber line trees in many parts 
of its range1 though it is nowhere above

 all others4 ,it is a difficult matter  
to state what its average size is4 ,that
 depends upon the particular region     
considered4 ,at its best it is #ajj feet
 high or even more2 at its poorest it   
sprawls on the rocks like a shrub4      
,specimens of fair size are from        
twenty-five to sixty feet high1 and ten 
to twenty inches in diameter4 ,cones    
vary in size fully as much as the       
trunks4 ,some are one-half inch in      
length1 others are three inches4 ,the   
leaves vary no less1 some being a       
one-twelfth inch long1 others one inch4 
,the leaves stand out on all sides of   
the twig1 and fall during the third and 
fourth years4 ,they are bluish-green4   
,the seeds fall in ,september and       
,october1 and are provided with large   
wings4 ,the wood is light in weight1    
soft1 and pale reddish-brown4 ,the      
mountain hemlock is nearly always spoken
 of as spruce by persons who are not    
botanists4 ,the arrangement of the      
leaves on the twigs gives the impression

 that it is a spruce1 and among the     
names by which it is known in its native
 region are ,williamson's spruce1       
weeping spruce1 alpine spruce1 hemlock  
spruce1 ,patton's spruce1 and alpine    
western spruce4 ,there is little        
prospect that this tree will ever become
 important as a source of lumber4 ,it is
 nowhere very abundant1 and what timber 
there is generally stands so remote from
 mills that little of it will ever be   
taken out4 ,botanists and mountain      
travelers who have made the acquaintance
 of the mountain hemlock in the wildness
 of its natural surroundings have spoken
 and written much in its praise4 ,it has
 been called the loveliest cone-bearing 
tree of the ,american forest4 ,that     
praise1 however1 applies only when the  
tree is at its best1 with its broad1    
pyramidal crown1 balanced and           
proportioned with geometrical accuracy1 
outlined against a background of rocks1 
peaks1 snow1 or sky4 ,its other form1   
prostrate and angular where the tree    

occurs on cold1 bleak mountains1 has    
never inspired praise from anybody1     
though its defiance of the elements and 
its persistence in spite of adversity1  
cannot but challenge the admiration of  
all who like a fair and square fighter4 
,there are many intermediate forms4 ,on 
mountains facing the ,pacific1 and at   
altitudes of #f1jjj or #g1jjj feet1 the 
young hemlocks are buried under deep    
snow weeks or months at a time4 ,they   
are pressed down by the weight of tons1 
and it might be supposed that not a     
whole branch would be left on them1 and 
that the main stems would be deformed   
the rest of their lives4 ,but when the  
early summer sun melts the snow1 the    
young trees spring back to their former 
faultless forms1 without a twig missing 
or a twisted branch4  ,illustration     
,,western ,,yew  ,illustration3         
,,western ,,yew     ,,western ,,yew     
7,taxus ,brevifolia7   ,the ,pacific yew
 is an interesting tree1 useful for many
 minor purposes1 but it is not          

procurable in large quantities4 ,its    
north and south range covers more than  
#a1jjj miles1 from ,alaska to central   
,california2 while the species occurs   
from the ,pacific coast eastward to     
,montana4 ,it approaches sea level on   
some of the ,alaskan islands1 and toward
 the southern part of its range it      
reaches an altitude of #h1jjj feet4  ,in
 ,idaho it is called mountain mahogany1 
but apparently without good reason4 ,its
 color may bear some resemblance to that
 wood1 but it is different in so many   
particulars that the name is not        
appropriate4 ,the names western yew and 
,pacific yew are used interchangeably4  
,sometimes it bears the simple name yew2
 but since there is a yew in ,florida1  
and another in ,europe1 it is well to   
give the western species a name which   
will distinguish it from others4 ,the   
northwestern ,indians called it         
8fighting wood10 which was the best     
description possible for them to give4  
,they made bows of it1 and it was       

superior to any other wood within their 
reach for that purpose4 ,in fact1 if    
they could have picked from all the     
woods of the ,united ,states they could 
scarcely have found its equal4 ,it is   
very strong1 though in elasticity its   
rating is under many other woods4 ,it is
 of interest to note that five hundred  
or more years ago1 the ,european yew 7a 
closely related but different species7  
had nearly the same name in ,england    
that the northwestern ,indians gave the 
western yew4 ,it was called 8the shooter
 yew10 because it was the bow wood of   
that time1 and 8bow staves10 which were 
rough pieces to be worked out by the bow
 makers1 were articles of commerce4 ,the
 search for it was so great1 and so     
long-continued1 that yew trees were     
well-nigh exterminated in the ,british  
,isles4 ,it was1 next to oak1 and       
possibly above oak1 the most            
indispensable wood in ,england at that  
time4 ,it is instructive to observe that
 ,indians who used the bow found the    

western yew as indispensable in their   
life as the ,english armies found the   
,european yew at a time when the bow was
 the best weapon4  ,the northwestern    
,indians put this remarkable wood to    
other uses4 ,they made spears of it1 and
 sometimes employed them as weapons of  
war1 but generally as implements of the 
chase1 particularly in harpooning salmon
 which in summer ascend the northwestern
 rivers from the ,pacific ocean in      
immense schools4 ,the ,indians whittled 
fishhooks of yew before they were able  
to buy steel hooks from traders4 ,some  
of those unique hooks are still in      
existence1 and speak well of the        
inventive genius of the wild fisherman  
of the wilderness4 ,a proper crook was  
selected where a branch joined the      
trunk1 and serviceable fish hooks were  
made without any cross grain4 ,they were
 strong enough to hold the largest fish 
that ascended the rivers4 ,sometimes a  
bone barb was skillfully inserted4 ,the 
,indians found a further use for this   

wood as material for canoe paddles4 ,it 
is so strong that handles can be made   
small and blades thin without passing   
the limit of safety4 ,the manufacture of
 boat paddles from yew continues4  ,more
 is used for fence posts than for any   
other one purpose4 ,it is one of the    
most durable woods known where it must  
resist conditions conducive to decay4   
,the name yew is said to be derived from
 a word in a north ,europe language     
meaning everlasting4 ,yew fence posts   
are not named in statistics1 and it is  
impossible to quote numbers4 ,their use 
is confined to the districts where they 
grow4  ,the manufacturers of small      
cabinets draw supplies from this wood1  
but the fact is not mentioned in        
,pacific states wood-using statistics4  
,it is particularly liked for turnery1  
such as small spindles used in furniture
 and in grill work4 ,it takes an        
exceptionally fine polish1 and the      
wood's great strength makes the use of  
slender pieces practicable4 ,experiments

 have shown that this wood may be       
stained with success1 but its natural   
color is so attractive that there is    
little need of staining unless the      
purpose is to imitate some more costly  
wood4 ,if stained black it is an        
excellent substitute for ebony4         
,western yew figures little in lumber   
output4 ,it is not listed in the        
markets4 ,the few logs which reach      
sawmills are never again heard of1 but  
probably most of the lumber is disposed 
of locally to those who need it4 ,the   
tree is not of good form for saw timber4
 ,burls are said to make beautiful      
veneer4 ,trunks are seldom round1 but   
usually grow lopsided4 ,most of them are
 too small for sawlogs4 ,the largest are
 seldom two feet in diameter1 and       
generally not half that large4 ,they are
 short and branched1 the tree often     
dividing near the ground in several     
stems4 ,the average tree is scarcely    
thirty feet high1 but a few are twice   
that4 ,its growth is very slow4 ,a      

six-inch trunk is seventy-five or #ajj  
years old1 and the largest sizes are    
from #bjj to #cej years4 ,it is evident1
 therefore1 that efforts to grow western
 yew for commercial purposes will be    
few4 ,wild trees will be occasionally   
cut as long as they last1 and they will 
probably last as long as any of their   
associates1 for they are scattered      
sparingly over several hundred thousand 
square miles of country1 and some of it 
rough and almost inaccessible4 ,the best
 development of the species is in       
western ,oregon1 ,washington1 and       
,british ,columbia4  ,the leaves of     
western yew are one-half or five-eighths
 inch long4 ,the fruit consists of red  
pulp enclosing a hard seed4 ,birds      
devour it eagerly4 ,the fruit is not    
poisonous1 as the yew berries of the    
,old ,world are4 ,it ripens in          
,september and falls in ,october4 ,the  
wood is fine grained1 clear rose red1   
becoming gradually duller on exposure4  
,it weighs #ci4hc pounds per cubic foot4

 ,its fuel value is high4  ,,florida    
,,yew 7,taxus floridana7 is extremely   
local in its range1 and small in size4  
,few trees are more than twenty-five    
feet high and one foot in diameter4     
,they are bushy and of poor form for    
manufacturing4 ,the only reported use is
 as fence posts4 ,the wood's durability 
fits it for that place4 ,the species is 
found in ,gadsden county1 ,florida4 ,the
 leaves are one inch or less in length2 
flowers appear in ,march1 and the fruit 
ripens in ,october4 ,the wood is        
moderately heavy1 hard1 and             
narrow-ringed1 for the trees grow       
slowly4 ,its color is dark1 tinged with 
red1 the thin sapwood being whiter4     
,there is little prospect that the wood 
of this yew will ever be more important 
than it is now4 ,it is often spoken of  
locally as savin1 which name is likewise
 given to the red cedar 7,juniperus     
virginiana71 which is abundant in this  
yew's range4  ,,california ,,nutmeg     
7,tumion californicum7 is an interesting

 tree which ranges over a considerable  
portion of ,california1 but is at its   
best in ,mendocino county and the coast 
region north of ,san ,francisco4 ,it    
occurs also on the western slope of the 
,sierra ,nevada mountains1 in central   
,california1 at altitudes up to #e1jjj  
feet4 ,it receives its name from the    
resemblance of its seeds to nutmegs4    
,their surface is shriveled1 but they do
 not have the nutmeg odor4 ,the wood and
 the leaves1 when bruised1 give off an  
odor not altogether pleasing4 ,on       
account of this1 the tree has been      
called stinking cedar4 ,in some         
localities it is called yew1 and in     
others ,california false nutmeg1 and    
coast nutmeg4 ,trees are generally      
small1 with trunks of irregular form4   
,the crown is open and usually extends  
to the ground2 but in crowded           
situations1 a rather shapely bole is    
developed1 and the crown is small4 ,the 
usual size of the tree does not exceed a
 height of fifty feet and a diameter of 

twenty inches4 ,more trees are below    
than above that size2 but in extreme    
cases the tree may reach a height of    
eighty-five feet and a diameter of four4
 ,the leaves in form and size resemble  
the foliage of yew1 but their points are
 stiff and sharp1 and if approached     
carelessly they will wound like cactus  
thorns4 ,the fruit is an inch or more in
 length1 a pulpy substance surrounding  
the seed4 ,the wood possesses properties
 which ought to make it valuable1 though
 reported uses are strictly local1 such 
as small cabinet work and skiff making4 
,it is bright lemon1 yellow1 rather     
hard1 takes good polish1 is of slow     
growth1 with bands of summerwood thin   
but distinct1 and medullary rays small1 
numerous1 and obscure4 ,its weight is   
#bi4ff pounds per cubic foot2 it is not 
stiff or strong4 ,it cannot attain high 
place as a manufacturing material1      
because it is too scarce1 but it        
possesses a beauty which must bring it  
recognition as a fine furniture1 finish1

 and novelty wood4 ,a few sawlogs go to 
mills in the region north of ,san       
,francisco1 but the lumber is probably  
mixed with other kinds and it goes to   
market without a name4 ,it ought to be  
put to a better use4  ,,florida         
,,torreya 7,tumion taxifolium7 is often 
called ,chattahoochee pine in the region
 where it grows4 ,that name is generally
 given to the tree when planted for     
ornament in yards1 parks1 and along     
streets of towns in northwestern        
,florida4 ,it is known also as stinking 
cedar1 stinking savin1 and fetid yew4   
,these names are generally applied to   
the forest-grown tree1 particularly by  
those who cut it for fence posts1 which 
is its principal use4 ,its range is     
local1 being confined largely1 if not   
wholly1 to ,gadsden county1 ,florida1   
where it grows on limestone soil4 ,it   
can never have much importance as a     
commercial timber1 because it is too    
scarce4 ,in fact1 it is in danger of    
extermination4 ,post cutters never spare

 it1 and its range being so limited1    
there is not much hope for it4 ,the     
interesting and beautiful tree is making
 a game fight for life4 ,many seedlings 
appear in the vicinity of old trees1    
while stumps1 and even prostrate trunks1
 send up sprouts which1 if let alone1   
grow to tree size4 ,sprouts on logs and 
stumps send roots to the ground as the  
seedling yellow birch does in damp      
northern woods4 ,the yew-like leaves of 
,florida torreya are one and a half inch
 or less in length4 ,the tree blooms in 
,march and ,april1 and the drupe-like   
fruit1 an inch or more in length1 is    
ripe by midsummer4 ,the tree is from    
forty to sixty feet in height1 and one  
to two feet in diameter4 ,it is clothed 
in whorls of limbs1 beginning near the  
ground1 and tapering to the top4 ,the   
wood is clear1 bright yellow1 the thin  
sapwood of lighter color2 soft1 easily  
worked1 and susceptible of fine polish4 
,it is very durable in contact with the 
soil4 ,the green wood1 and the bruised  

leaves and branches give off an odor    
suggesting the tomato vine4 ,the texture
 and color of the wood indicate that it 
is well suited for fine cabinet work1   
but it is not a figured wood4           
,illustration     ,,white ,,oak         
,illustration3 ,,white ,,oak     ,,white
 ,,oak  7,quercus ,alba7   ,oaks belong 
to the beech family1 that is1 the       
8foodtrees10#c though most acorns are   
too bitter and contain too much tannin  
to be edible2 some may be eaten1 and for
 that reason the ancients classed them  
among the food trees4 8,quercus10 which 
is the name of the genus1 means oak in  
the language of northwestern ,europe4   
,the name white oak nearly always       
suffices1 but in ,arkansas it is often  
called stave oak because it is the best 
stave timber in that region4 ,it could  
with equal reason be called stave oak   
nearly anywhere1 for it is excellent    
material for tight cooperage4 ,formerly 
it was sometimes called ,baltimore oak1 
because many of the staves of export    

were shipped from that city4 ,that name1
 however1 belonged more to post oak     
7,quercus minor7 than to white oak1     
because the fine staves which went out  
of ,chesapeake bay in the export trade1 
were largely post oak4 ,it matters      
little now1 for the name ,baltimore oak 
is not much used1 and white oak may be  
said to have only one trade name4 ,after
 the wood is dressed1 it has different  
names referring to the style of finish  
and not to the wood itself4      #c ,the
 oaks of this country1 which number more
 than fifty species1     have been      
classified in different ways1 depending 
upon the purpose     in view4 ,in the   
present treatment they will be divided  
in two     general groups1 white oaks   
and black oaks4 ,no effort will be made 
to     draw hard and fast lines1 because
 it is not necessary4 ,oaks which       
ripen their acorns in one year are      
listed as white oaks2 those with     two
 year acorns1 as black oaks4 ,this is a 
botanical rather than a     lumberman's 

classification2 yet lumbermen recognize 
it in a general     way4 ,white oak     
7,quercus alba7 is clearly entitled to  
head the list     of white oaks1 and red
 oak 7,quercus rubra7 should occupy a   
similar     position with regard to the 
black oak group4 ,in numbers1 the white 
oaks and black oaks are nearly equally  
divided1 one authority giving           
twenty-seven species of white oak and   
twenty-five of black oak in     the     
,united ,states2 but botanists differ as
 to exact numbers of each4     ,the     
following species are usually classed as
 white oaks3 ,white oak     7,quercus   
alba71 valley oak 7,quercus lobata71    
,brewer oak     7,quercus breweri71     
,sadler oak 7,quercus sadleri71 ,pacific
 post     oak 7,quercus garryana71      
,gambel oak 7,quercus gambelii71 post   
oak     7,quercus minor71 ,chapman oak  
7,quercus chapmani71 bur oak            
7,quercus macrocarpa71 overcup oak      
7,quercus lyrata71 swamp white     oak  
7,quercus platanoides71 cow oak         

7,quercus michauxii71 chestnut     oak  
7,quercus prinus71 chinquapin oak       
7,quercus acuminata71 dwarf             
chinquapin oak 7,quercus prinoides71    
,durand oak 7,quercus     breviloba71   
,rocky ,mountain oak 7,quercus          
undulata71 ,california     blue oak     
7,quercus douglasii71 ,engelmann oak    
7,quercus     engelmanni71 ,rocky       
,mountain blue oak 7,quercus            
oblongifolia71     ,arizona white oak   
7,quercus arizonica71 ,toumey oak       
7,quercus     toumeyi71 netleaf oak     
7,quercus reticulata71 ,california scrub
 oak     7,quercus dumosa71 live oak    
7,quercus virginiana71 ,emory oak       
7,quercus emoryi74  ,white oak grows in 
all the states east of the ,mississippi 
river1 and it crosses that stream two or
 three hundred miles in some places4 ,it
 reaches eastern ,nebraska and eastern  
,kansas1 and runs southward through     
,oklahoma to the ,brazos river1 ,texas4 
,it is scarce in the northern parts of  
,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,minnesota4  

,its total range covers an area of more 
than #a1jjj1jjj square miles4 ,like all 
other important timber trees1 it has    
regions where the species is best       
developed4 ,the finest original stands  
of white oak were found in the upper    
,ohio valley1 beginning in ,indiana4    
,the timber in many other districts was1
 and in some still is1 very good1 such  
as southern ,michigan1 eastern          
,arkansas1 some of the ,appalachian     
valleys and slopes1 and in certain      
places along the upper tributaries of   
streams flowing into the ,atlantic      
ocean4  ,this tree is in the very front 
rank in economic importance1 and it has 
held that place since the earliest      
settlements in this country4 ,no forest 
tree was more evenly distributed than   
white oak over the eastern half of the  
,united ,states4 ,it did not form pure  
forests of large extent1 as some of the 
pines did1 but white oaks were within   
reach of almost every part of the       
country4 ,conditions have greatly       

changed4 ,the establishment of farms    
where woods originally occupied the     
whole country1 lessened the abundance of
 oak long before lumbermen made it a    
commodity2 and since then1 the cutting  
of billions of feet of it has depleted  
or exhausted the supply in many regions4
 ,still1 white oak is as widely         
dispersed as ever4 ,it has not been     
completely exterminated in any extensive
 region4 ,white oak of as high grade    
goes to market now as ever in the past1 
but in smaller amounts1 and the lower   
grades go in proportionately larger     
quantities4 ,in other words1 prime white
 oak has passed its best day4 ,a hundred
 years of use and abuse in states west  
of the ,alleghany mountains1 and two    
hundred years in some of the regions    
east1 have reduced original forests to  
remnants4 ,but with all that1 white oak 
remains undisputed king of ,american    
hardwoods4  ,at its best1 white oak     
attains a height of #abe feet and a     
diameter of six1 but that size is       

unusual4 ,a diameter of three feet and a
 height of #ajj is above the average4   
,the leaves are peculiar in that they   
hang on the branches until late winter1 
sometimes dropping only in time to give 
place to the new crop4 ,they turn brown 
after the first hard frost4 ,in some    
sections of the ,appalachian region     
white oak coppice 7sprout growth7 is    
known as 8red brush10 because of the    
adherence of the brown leaves during    
winter4 ,the leaves of some other       
species have the same habit4  ,the wood 
of white oak is very strong1 stiff1     
heavy1 and durable when exposed in all  
kinds of weather4 ,scarcely any other   
wood which can be had in merchantable   
quantities equals white oak in these    
qualities4 ,it rates high in fuel value1
 and #f1jjj pounds of dry wood when     
burned1 leaves about #bde pounds of     
ashes4 ,the color of the heartwood is   
light brown2 the sapwood is thin2       
medullary rays are numerous and large2  
pores large2 summerwood broad and dense4

  ,the medullary rays of no wood in this
 or any other country are more utilized 
to commercial advantage than those of   
white oak4 ,quarter-sawing is for the   
purpose of bringing them out4 ,they are 
the bright streaks1 clearly visible to  
the naked eye in the end of an oak log1 
radiating from the center outward like  
the spokes of a wheel4 ,many are too    
thin to be visible without a magnifying 
glass4 ,by quarter-sawing1 the rays are 
cut edgewise and appear as bright       
streaks or patches1 often called        
8mirrors10 on the surface of boards4    
,the woodworker knows how to finish the 
boards and treat them with fillers to   
bring out the figures4  ,white oak is a 
porous wood4 ,some of the pores are     
large enough to be visible without a    
glass1 and twenty times as many more can
 be seen only when magnified4 ,the      
direction of the pores is up and down   
the trunk of the tree1 and they are seen
 to best advantage in the end of a      
stick1 although they are always more or 

less visible on the side of a board when
 the cutting is a little across the     
grain4 ,the pores thus cut diagonally   
across are taken advantage of by the    
finisher who works stains and fillers   
into them1 and changes their natural    
color1 thereby accentuating the wood's  
figure4  ,the possibilities of white oak
 are almost infinite4 ,it is good for   
nearly anything for which any wood is   
used4 ,it is not the best for           
everything1 but does well for most4     
,hickory is more resilient1 ironwood is 
stronger1 locust more durable1 white    
pine warps and checks less2 but white   
oak has so many good qualities in a fair
 degree that it can afford to fall below
 the highest in some1 and still rank    
above competitors on general averages4  
,it ranks high in shipbuilding1 general 
construction1 furniture manufacturing1  
finish and fixtures1 the making of      
agricultural implements1 car building1  
vehicle stock1 cooperage1 and many more4
  ,it is one of the most important of   

,american veneer woods4 ,it is sawed    
very thin1 and is glued upon cores of   
other wood1 thus becoming the covering  
or outside part4 ,the purpose of using  
oak veneer instead of the solid wood is 
twofold4 ,first1 it goes farther1 and   
second1 a well-built article with veneer
 outside and a core of other woods which
 stand well1 is superior to a solid oak 
article1 except in cases where great    
strength is the object sought1 or where 
deep carving is desired4  ,the continued
 use of white oak is assured4 ,it is not
 necessary to seek new uses for it4 ,the
 demand is as great as the supply can   
meet1 but the supply is not assured for 
the distant future4 ,there will always  
be some white oak in the country2 but   
the best has been or is being cut4 ,the 
tree grows slowly1 and good             
quarter-sawed white oak cannot be cut   
from young trees4 ,an age of about #aej 
years is necessary4 ,most good white oak
 lumber today is cut from trees #bjj or 
more years old4 ,when the present supply

 of venerable oaks has been exhausted1  
prime oak lumber will be largely a thing
 of the past4 ,fortunately1 that time   
has not yet arrived4 ,about eighty years
 are required to grow a white oak of    
crosstie size4 ,those who will grow oak 
for market in the future will probably  
not wait much longer than eighty years  
to cut their trees1 and the result will 
be a scarcity of mature trunks for      
lumber and veneer4      ,,durand ,,oak  
7,quercus breviloba74 ,in some parts of 
,alabama1     ,mississippi1 and         
,louisiana this tree goes to the lumber 
yard as     white oak1 and no one is    
injured by the substitution1 for it is  
heavy1 hard1 and strong1 and is of good 
color4 ,the wood weighs #ei4be          
pounds per cubic foot1 which places it  
above the average weight of     white   
oak4 ,it is said to be less tough than  
white oak4 ,the tree     varies greatly 
in different parts of its range which   
extends from     central ,alabama across
 ,texas and into ,mexico4 ,it is known  

as white     oak1 ,texas white oak1 shin
 oak1 pin oak1 and basket oak4 ,its best
     development is in the eastern part 
of its range where trees eighty     or  
ninety feet high are common2 but in     
,texas the average is scarcely          
thirty feet high and one in diameter4   
,westward in ,texas it becomes          
shrubby1 and forms extensive thickets of
 brush4      ,,chapman ,,oak 7,quercus  
chapmani7 is put to little use1 because 
trunks are too small4 ,they are seldom  
more than a foot in diameter1     and   
are often little more than shrubs4 ,the 
tree grows in the pine     barrens near 
the coast from ,south ,carolina to      
,florida1 and it is     found also in   
great abundance1 but generally of small 
size1 on the     west coast of ,florida 
from ,tampa to the ,apalachicola river4 
,illustration     ,,bur ,,oak           
,illustration3 ,,bur ,,oak     ,,bur    
,,oak  7,quercus ,macrocarpa7   ,this   
splendid oak was named by ,michaux1 a   
,french traveler and botanist who       

visited many parts of eastern and       
southeastern ,united ,states more than a
 century ago4 ,the botanical name       
macrocarpa1 means 8large fruit40 ,the   
bur oak bears small acorns in the       
,north1 and very large ones in the      
,south4 ,they are sometimes two inches  
long and one and a half inches wide1 and
 8large-fruit0 oak is an appropriate    
name for the tree in the ,south1 but    
would not be near the northern limit of 
its range4  ,it is known in different   
regions as bur oak1 mossy cup oak1      
overcup oak1 scrub oak1 and mossy cup   
white oak4 ,bur oak is a name suggested 
by the acorn which has a fringe round   
the cup like a bur4 ,this is the oak    
which gave name to ,james ,fenimore     
,cooper's book1 8,oak ,openings0 a      
romance of early days in ,michigan4 ,oak
 openings were areas where fires had    
killed the old timber1 and a young      
growth had sprouted from stumps and     
roots1 or had sprung up from seeds      
buried in the ground beyond the reach of

 the fire4 ,some of those tracts were   
very large1 and they were not confined  
to any one state4 ,they existed in      
,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1      
,dakota1 and elsewhere4 ,bur oak1       
because it is a vigorous species1 was   
able to take possession of such burned  
areas1 to the exclusion of most others4 
,few ,american oaks have a wider range4 
,it extends from ,nova ,scotia to       
,manitoba1 and in the ,united ,states is
 found in most states east of the ,rocky
 ,mountains4 ,it extends farther west   
and northwest than any other commercial 
oak of the ,atlantic states4 ,in a range
 of so great geographical extent the bur
 oak finds it necessary to adapt itself 
to many kinds of land4 ,it prefers low  
tracts where water is sufficient but not
 excessive1 but it grows well in more   
elevated situations1 provided the soil  
is fertile4 ,it is not a poor-land tree4
 ,in the primeval forests it attained   
largest size in ,indiana and ,illinois4 
,the largest trees were from #aej to    

#agj feet high and four to seven in     
diameter4 ,sizes varied from that       
extreme down to the other extreme near  
the outskirts of its range where the    
growth was stunted4 ,large quantities of
 very fine logs have been cut from      
trunks from two to four feet in         
diameter1 and forty to sixty feet to the
 limbs4  ,the leaves of bur oak are from
 six to twelve inches long1 simple and  
alternate2 the petioles are thick with  
flattened and enlarged bases2 the leaves
 are wedge-shaped at the base1 and have 
from five to seven long1 irregular      
lobes1 the terminal one very large and  
broad4 ,they are dark green in color1   
and are smooth and shiny above1 silvery 
white and pubescent below4 ,the edge of 
the leaf is notched somewhat like       
chestnut1 but the teeth or notches are  
not so sharp4  ,the twigs are provided  
with corky wings1 or flattened keels of 
bark1 along their sides4 ,some of the   
wings are an inch or more wide4 ,they   
are apt to escape notice when the tree  

is in leaf1 but in the winter the bare  
twigs look rough and ragged4  ,the      
weight of bur oak is approximately the  
same as white oak1 and the two woods are
 much the same in strength and          
elasticity4 ,the bands of summerwood are
 broad and dense1 and the springwood is 
filled with large pores4 ,the medullary 
rays are broad1 but not numerous in     
comparison with white oak4 ,they are    
sufficiently conspicuous to show well in
 quarter-sawing4  ,bur oak nearly always
 goes to market as white oak1 or simply 
as oak1 and it is difficult to ascertain
 all the uses found for it4 ,some       
factories which make furniture1 finish1 
vehicles1 and other articles that figure
 in the country's trade1 attempt to     
identify the woods they use4 ,that is   
done as carefully in ,michigan as       
anywhere else1 though comparatively few 
of the factories carry out the plan even
 in that state where many of the best   
wood-using establishments of the country
 are located4 ,in a report issued in    

#aiab which gave statistics collected   
from more than eight hundred ,michigan  
factories1 bur oak received separate    
consideration4 ,the uses there are      
doubtless representative1 and will hold 
throughout the country wherever bur oak 
is fairly abundant4 ,it is listed as    
baseboards1 billiard table rims1        
bookcases1 clay working machines1 filing
 cabinets1 furniture1 hand sleds1 hay   
balers1 interior finish1 molding1       
tinplate boxes1 wagon sills1 work       
benches4 ,the amount of wood used in the
 state was nearly #ijj1jjj feet1        
according to the reports2 but it        
certainly does not include all4 ,what it
 does show1 however1 is that bur oak is 
one of the substantial woods of that    
region1 and that it possesses properties
 which fit it for many important places 
in the country's industries4  ,bur oak  
contributes to the output of cooper     
shops4 ,slack coopers class it with many
 other hardwoods for the manufacture of 
barrels for vegetables and various other

 commodities1 while the makers of       
barrels for liquids put bur oak in with 
white oak4  ,the future of bur oak does 
not promise much after the trees which  
now remain have been cut4 ,that does not
 mean that the species will become      
extinct1 for that is improbable2 but    
when the mature trees which developed   
during two or three hundred years of    
forest conditions have passed away1     
there is not much prospect of others    
being left to grow to the age and size  
which will make them valuable as lumber4
 ,woodlot owners will not wait much     
longer than the seventy-five or one     
hundred years required to grow trees of 
crosstie size4 ,railroads pay good      
prices for this wood1 for it lasts well1
 holds spikes in a satisfactory manner1 
and is strong and hard4 ,as far as can  
be seen1 bur oak will fare in the future
 about like white oak2 that is1 few     
trees will be left standing long enough 
to attain large size1 because it will   
pay better to cut them while            

comparatively small4      ,,california  
,,blue ,,oak 7,quercus douglasii7       
receives its name from the     color of 
its foliage in spring and early summer  
in the valleys and     on the rolling   
foothills of central ,california4 ,later
 in the summer1     when the dry season 
is on1 the leaves lose some of their    
blue1 on     account of age1 but more   
from an accumulation of dust2 but even  
then     the form of the tree1 from its 
habit of growing in open formation      
like an old apple orchard1 presents an  
attractive picture4 ,it is     often    
associated with the valley oak1 which is
 larger and more     stately1 but the   
blue oak loses nothing by the contrast4 
,it is     occasionally called rock oak1
 but for what reason is not clear4 ,it  
is known1 too1 as mountain white oak1 or
 simply white oak1 and as     blue oak4 
,its range covers central ,california   
from ,mendocino to the     ,mojave      
desert1 and from the immediate coast    
inland through the     valleys to the   

,sierras1 and upward to an altitude of  
#d1jjj feet     where the tree          
degenerates into a shrub which has      
neither beauty nor     utility4 ,the    
species reaches its best development in 
the ,salinas     valley from twenty to  
sixty miles from the coast4 ,there the  
largest     trees are found1 and also   
some that have assumed peculiar forms4  
,in     positions exposed to the        
never-ceasing sea winds which sweep up  
the     valleys1 the blue oaks lie prone
 like logs1 their tops pointing away    
from the wind4 ,they grew in that       
unnatural position1 having been         
pressed flat by the wind since they were
 seedlings4 ,this oak's ashen     gray  
bark harmonizes well with the dry summer
 grass and dull sand     and gravel     
which surround it during the hot period4
 ,the branches are     often covered    
with green-gray lichens which somewhat  
modify the     aspect of the tree under 
close inspection4 ,the leaves are       
irregular     in form4 ,some closely    

resemble leaves of the eastern white    
oak1     while others are almost or     
quite without lobes4 ,during the growing
     season the acorns are deep green1  
but when approaching maturity they      
change to a chestnut-brown4 ,they vary  
in shape as much as the     leaves4     
,some are almost eggshaped1 bulging out 
above the cup which     seems too small2
 but all of them do not assume that     
form1 but may be     short and          
symmetrical1 or very long and slender4  
,woodpeckers store     these acorns in  
large numbers1 and they search out      
peculiar places     for their hoards4 ,a
 knot hole in the weatherboarding of an 
old barn1     granary1 or school house  
is considered ideal1 though when the    
acorns     are so disposed of1 they are 
out of reach of the woodpecker forever4 
,another method is to peck holes just   
large enough for an acorn in     fence  
posts or dead tree trunks1 and hammer   
the acorns tightly in1     small end    
first4 ,the surfaces of dead trees are  

sometimes absolutely     covered with   
such holes1 each with its acorn4 ,the   
woodpecker's     purpose is to wait     
until the acorns become infested with   
larv4 ,he     has no intention of eating
 the acorn itself4      ,california blue
 oaks range in height from shrubs to    
trees of ninety     feet1 with diameters
 of three or four feet4 ,the average    
height is     about forty-five and the  
diameter two or less4 ,the trunk        
frequently     divides a few feet from  
the ground into large limbs4 ,that form 
excludes the wood from sawmills1 and    
only in rare cases does any of     it   
find its way there4 ,the lumber is of   
poor quality1 brittle1     black1 and   
otherwise defective4 ,the sapwood is    
white and thick4 ,a     cubic foot      
weighs #ee4fd pounds1 or nearly ten more
 than eastern     white oak4 ,it is     
weak1 and is low in elasticity4 ,the    
annual rings     are often nearly       
invisible1 because the pores are        
scattered evenly     and do not form    

bands4 ,the medullary rays are broad1 in
 the heart     black1 in the sapwood    
white4 ,if the wood were otherwise      
suitable1     pleasing effects might be 
produced by quarter-sawing1 but as far  
as     known1 no attempts have been made
 to do this4 ,now and then a            
suitable log might be found4 ,the       
importance of this oak lies in its      
fuel value4 ,it rates above white oak in
 theoretical tests1 but it is           
heavier in ash1 and in practice it      
hardly measures up to white oak4     ,it
 grows slowly and is destined to        
disappear as a source of fuel           
supply4 ,reproduction has nearly ceased 
in most parts of its range1     due     
largely to the perseverance of hogs in  
eating the acorns4     ,cordwood cutters
 have stripped the last tree from large 
areas where     much once grew4 ,this   
oak never forms forests4 ,the trees     
seldom grow     as close together as    
apple trees in an orchard4      ,,gambel
 ,,oak 7,quercus gambelii7 was destined 

by nature to occupy an     inferior     
place in the country's timber resources4
 ,it occupies a     region of stunted   
vegetation among the dry mountains and  
plateaus of     the ,southwest1 and     
except where it grows in better         
situations than     usual1 it is too    
small to be properly called a tree4 ,it 
is at its     best among the mountains  
of southeastern ,arizona where it grows 
in     canyons that can maintain a      
little damp soil4 ,there it occasionally
     reaches a height of thirty feet and
 a diameter of a foot or less4 ,in      
most other parts of its range it is     
simply a tangled1 sprawling     thicket 
of brush1 covering the dry1 rocky       
mountain ridges1 and along     the bases
 of cliffs4 ,it is found from ,colorado 
to western ,texas1 and     westward into
 ,utah1 ,nevada1 and ,arizona4 ,the     
leaves are small1     thick1 firm1 and  
hairy1 typical of desert foliage which  
must husband     the scant water supply4
 ,the acorns are pretty large for a tree

 so     stunted1 and they are tempting  
bait for birds and rodents of the       
region4 ,the acorns are sweet4 ,if this 
oak's reproduction depended on          
acorns alone it is doubtful if it would 
hold its ground in the face     of      
perpetual adversity2 but its roots send 
up distorted and stunted     sprouts    
which cover the ground1 affording hiding
 places for the few     acorns which    
escape their hungry enemies4 ,man puts  
this oak to few     uses4 ,it affords a 
pretty good class of fuel for camp      
fires1 but     cordwood cutters cannot  
make much out of it4 ,in rare instances 
frontier ranches use a few of the       
unshapely poles for corral fences1      
but only as a case of last resort4 ,the 
names bestowed upon the tree     by     
those who know it best are              
uncomplimentary4 ,they call it shin     
oak1 pin oak1 scrub oak1 mountain oak1  
and ,rocky ,mountain oak4  ,illustration
     ,,forked-,,leaf ,,white ,,oak      
,illustration3 ,,forked-,,leaf ,,white  

,,oak     ,,forked-,,leaf ,,white ,,oak 
7,quercus ,lyrata7   ,the leaf gives    
this tree its name in the best part of  
its southern range4 ,the tree bears much
 resemblance to the bur oak on the one  
hand1 and swamp white oak on the other4 
,the names by which it is known in      
different regions indicate as much4  ,in
 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 
,florida1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1       
,louisiana1 ,texas1 ,arkansas1 and      
,illinois it is commonly known as       
overcup2 in ,alabama1 ,south ,carolina1 
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 and ,missouri 
it is called the swamp post oak2 the    
name water white oak is applied to it in
 ,mississippi and parts of ,south       
,carolina2 swamp white oak in ,texas2   
forked-leaf white oak among lumbermen in
 several of the southern states4 ,the   
last name scarcely describes the leaf1  
for no one is apt to notice any fork1   
unless his attention is called to it4   
,the fact is1 the name forked-leaf oak  
is applied oftener to the turkey oak    

7,quercus catesbi7 than to this one4    
,however1 since the ranges of the two   
species are not the same1               
misunderstandings in practice are not   
apt to arise as to which is meant when  
the forked leaf is referred to4 ,the    
fact that turkey oak belongs in the     
black oak group1 ripening its acorns in 
two years1 and this one is a white oak  
with one year acorns1 is of further     
assistance in keeping the species       
separate4  ,the range of the forked-leaf
 white oak is from ,maryland1 along the 
,potomac river near the ,district of    
,columbia1 southward to parts of        
,florida2 westward through the ,gulf    
states to the ,trinity river in ,texas2 
throughout ,arkansas1 sections of       
,missouri1 central ,tennessee1 southern 
,illinois and ,indiana4  ,it shows      
preference for river swamps1 and small  
deep depressions in rich bottom lands   
where moisture is always abundant4 ,it  
has never amounted to much in the       
,atlantic states1 and its best          

development is found in the moist1      
fertile valley of ,red river in         
,louisiana1 and in certain parts of     
,arkansas and ,texas4 ,its geographical 
range is pretty large1 but as a timber  
tree it is confined to a comparatively  
restricted region west of the           
,mississippi4 ,good trees are found in  
other parts of its range4 ,lumbermen do 
not find it in extensive forests or pure
 stands1 but isolated trees or small    
groups occur with other hardwoods4      
,this species of oak grows occasionally 
to a height of #ajj feet1 though its    
average is about seventy feet4 ,it has a
 trunk two to three feet in diameter1   
which spreads out after attaining a     
height of fifteen or twenty feet1 into  
small1 often pendulous branches1 forming
 a symmetrical round top4 ,the          
branchlets are green1 slightly tinged   
with red2 covered with short hairs when 
first appearing1 becoming grayish and   
shiny during their first winter1        
eventually turning ashen gray or brown4 

,the bark is three-quarters or one inch 
thick1 light gray in color1 shedding in 
thick plates1 its surface being divided 
into thin scales4 ,the winter buds are  
about one-eighth of an inch long and    
have light colored scales4 ,the         
staminate flowers grow in long1 slender1
 hairy spikes from four to six inches   
long2 the calyx is light yellow and     
hairy4 ,the pistillate flowers are      
stalked and are also covered with hairs4
  ,the fruit of forked-leaf white oak is
 often on slender1 fuzzy stems1         
sometimes an inch or more in length1 but
 is often closely attached to the twig  
that bears it2 the acorn is about one   
inch long1 broad at the base1 light     
brown and covered with short1 light     
hairs1 and usually almost entirely      
enclosed in the deep1 spherical cup1    
which is bright reddish-brown on its    
inside surface1 and covered on the      
outside with scales2 thickened at the   
base1 becoming thinner and forming an   
irregular edge at the margin of the cup4

 ,the cup often almost completely       
envelopes the acorn4 ,the fruit then    
looks somewhat like a rough1 nearly     
spherical button4  ,this oak's leaves   
are long and slender1 and are divided in
 from five to nine lobes4 ,when the     
leaves unfold they are brownish green   
and hairy above and below2 at maturity  
they are thin and firm1 darker green and
 shiny on the upper surface1 silvery or 
light green and hairy below2 from seven 
to eight inches long1 one to four inches
 broad2 in autumn turning a beautiful   
bright scarlet or vivid orange4         
,commercially this wood is a white oak1 
and it is seldom or never sent to market
 under its own name4 ,there are no      
statistics of cut at the mills or of    
stand in the forests4 ,lumbermen take   
the tree when they come to it in the    
course of their usual operations1 but   
never go out of their way to get it4    
,though rather large stands occur in    
certain southern regions1 and scattering
 trees are found in large areas1 the    

total quantity in the country is known  
to be too small to give this tree an    
important place as a source of lumber4  
,neither is there expectation that the  
future has anything in store for this   
particular member of the tribe of oaks4 
,the wood rates high in physical        
properties2 is strong as white oak1 if  
not stronger1 tough1 stiff1 hard1 and   
heavy4 ,in contact with the ground it is
 very durable4 ,the heartwood is rich1  
dark brown1 the sapwood lighter4  ,it   
may be said1 generally1 that since it   
goes to market as white oak1 and its    
buyers never object1 it possesses the   
essential properties of that wood1 and  
is used in the same way as far as it is 
used at all4  ,,arizona ,,white ,,oak   
7,quercus arizonica7 is the common and  
most generally distributed white oak of 
southern ,new ,mexico and ,arizona where
 it covers the hillsides and occurs in  
canyons at altitudes from #e1jjj to     
#aj1jjj feet above sea level4 ,it       
occasionally ascends nearly or quite to 

the summits of the highest peaks4 ,the  
form of the tree varies greatly1 as     
might be expected from a range extending
 from one to two miles above sea level4 
,on the dry1 windswept summits the tree 
degenerates into a shrub1 with stiff1   
harsh branches4 ,lower down1 in canyons 
and in other situations where moisture  
may be had and the soil is fertile1     
trunks are fifty or sixty feet high and 
three or four in diameter2 but these are
 not the usual sizes even in the best of
 the tree's range1 for it cannot be     
classed as a timber tree4  ,the         
hardships of the desert have stunted it1
 and its form is rough4 ,it is important
 for fuel1 and this has been its chief  
use4 ,the region where it occurs is     
thinly settled1 and demand for lumber is
 small1 but stockmen build corrals and  
fences to enclose sheep and cattle1 and 
the ,arizona white oak supplies some of 
the rough poles and posts for that      
purpose4 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1      
strong1 and the heartwood is almost     

black1 but the sapwood is lighter4 ,the 
grain and figure of the wood are not    
attractive1 and what little may be sawed
 into lumber in the future will be      
rather low-grade4 ,the branches are     
crooked and when cut into cordwood the  
ricks are so open that it is a common   
saying in the region that 8you can throw
 a dog through40 ,the wood burns well1  
and the demand for fuel is large1 in    
proportion to the population of the     
country4  ,the leaves of this oak are   
sometimes slightly lobed1 and are       
sometimes nearly as smooth as willow    
leaves4 ,they are light red and covered 
with hair when they unfold in the       
spring1 but when mature they are dark   
green1 and shiny4 ,acorns are one inch  
or less in length1 and rather slender4  
,they are very bitter1 and wild animals 
are inclined to let them alone1 unless  
pressed by hunger1 and then eat them    
sparingly4 ,this insures good           
reproduction1 provided other conditions 
are favorable4 ,though cordwood cutters 

may strip the large trees from the hills
 and canyons1 scrub growth may be       
expected to continue1 particularly on   
high mountains1 and in ravines where    
roads cannot be built4      ,,netleaf   
,,oak 7,quercus reticulata7 will never  
attract lumbermen in     this country1  
but sometime they may send to the       
,sierra ,madre     mountains of ,mexico 
to procure it4 ,in that region it is a  
tree large     enough for lumber2 but   
the portion of its range overlapping on 
the     ,united ,states lies in southern
 ,arizona and ,new ,mexico among        
mountains from #g1jjj to #aj1jjj feet   
above sea level4 ,conditions are        
unfavorable and the netleaf oak shows it
 by its stunted size and     rough form4
 ,the wood is hard1 heavy1 dark brown in
 color1 with     lighter sapwood4 ,the  
medullary rays are numerous and very    
broad4 ,the     tree seldom exceeds     
forty feet in height and one foot in    
diameter4     ,the leaf is netted       
somewhat like that of the elm4 ,the     

acorn is     usually not more than half 
an inch in length4      ,,rocky         
,,mountain ,,oak 7,quercus undulata7    
bears acorns which may be     eaten like
 chestnuts1 and not much more may be    
said for the tree in     the way of     
usefulness to man1 though it is the     
salvation of some of     the small      
mammals of the bleak ,texas and ,new    
,mexico hills where     there is little 
to eat and few places for concealment   
from hawks and     other enemies4 ,the  
tree is also called scrub oak and shin  
oak4 ,it     grows in ,colorado1 ,new   
,mexico1 western ,texas1 ,arizona1      
,nevada1 and     ,utah4 ,at its best it 
rarely exceeds thirty feet high and a   
foot in     diameter1 and it often forms
 a jungle of shrubs through which the   
traveler must wade waist deep or go     
miles out of his way to pass     round  
it4 ,its leaf is one of the smallest of 
the oaks1 and is     notched much like  
the chestnut leaf4      ,,alvord ,,oak  
7,quercus alvordiana7 is little known   

and will probably     never be of much  
importance4 ,it grows in the region of  
,tehachapi     mountains1 the northern  
border of the ,mojave desert1 in        
,california1     and was named for      
,william ,alvord of that state4 ,the    
leaf is toothed1     and the acorn      
smooth4 ,no record has been found of any
 use of the     wood1 and when ,sudworth
 compiled his book1 8,forest ,trees of  
the     ,pacific ,slope10 he was unable 
to procure enough leaves1 flowers1 and  
fruit to enable him to give a botanical 
description4 ,it may     therefore be   
regarded as one of the scarcest oaks in 
the ,united     ,states1 which fact     
gives it a certain interest4            
,,sadler ,,oak 7,quercus sadleriana7 is 
one of the minor oaks of the            
,pacific coast1 and is popularly and    
properly called scrub oak by     those  
who encounter it on high1 dry slopes of 
northern ,california     and southern   
,oregon mountains1 from #d1jjj to #i1jjj
 feet above the     sea4 ,it forms dense

 thickets1 and passes for an evergreen4 
,its     leaves remain on the branches  
only thirteen months4 ,the leaves are   
toothed like those of chestnut4 ,the    
acorns are matured in one     season4   
,the name ,sadler oak was given it in   
honor of a ,scottish     botanist4      
,trees are too scarce and too small to  
have much value1     except as a ground 
cover4      ,,brewer ,,oak 7,quercus    
breweri7 grows on the west slope of the 
,sierra     ,nevada mountains in        
,california1 from ,kaweah river         
northward to     ,trinity mountains4 ,it
 is often little more than a shrub1 and 
its     usefulness to man lies less in  
the quantity of wood it produces than   
in the protection the dense thickets1   
with their network of roots1     afford 
steep hillsides4 ,gullying in time of   
heavy rain cannot take     place where  
this oak's matted masses of roots bind  
the soil4 ,sprouts     rise freely from 
the roots1 and thickets are reproduced  
in that way     rather than from acorns1

 although in certain years crops of     
acorns     are bountiful4 ,the trunks   
are too small to make any kind of       
lumber1     but are capable of supplying
 considerable quantities of fuel4       
,illustration     ,,post ,,oak          
,illustration3 ,,post ,,oak     ,,post  
,,oak  7,quercus ,minor7   ,post oak is 
the most common name for this tree but  
various sections of its range have given
 it their own names which probably have 
local significance4 ,the following names
 are in use in the localities denoted3  
post oak in the eastern and ,gulf       
states1 ,connecticut to ,texas1 and in  
,arkansas and ,west ,virginia2 box white
 oak in ,rhode ,island2 iron oak in     
,delaware1 ,mississippi and ,nebraska2  
chne toile in ,quebec2 overcup oak in   
,florida2 white oak in ,kentucky and    
,indiana2 box oak and brash oak in      
,maryland4  ,toward the northern portion
 of the range of this tree it is small1 
and in early times it was little used   
except for fence posts4 ,its durability 

fitted it for that use1 and it is said  
the common name was due to that         
circumstance4 ,the name iron oak was    
used by shipbuilders who sometimes      
bought small knees made of this wood4   
,baltimore oak was an early name which  
is not now in use4 ,it was generally    
applied to white oak1 but it included   
some post oak shipped from the          
,chesapeake bay region4  ,post oak is   
botanically and commercially a white oak
 and is seldom distinguished from the   
true white oak1 ,quercus alba1 in       
commerce4 ,it is seen at its best in the
 uplands of the ,mississippi basin and  
in the ,gulf states west of the         
,mississippi1 where it attains a        
considerable size4 ,in the northeastern 
states and in ,florida it is small1     
becoming shrubby in some localities1 and
 more or less of local growth4          
,limestone uplands or dry1 sandy or     
gravelly soils seem to offer the best   
conditions for its existence1 where it  
grows in company with black jack1 red   

and white oak1 sassafras1 dogwood1 gums1
 and red cedar4  ,the range of growth of
 post oak extends from ,new ,brunswick  
south through the ,atlantic states into 
,florida2 west through the ,gulf states 
and throughout the ,mississippi river   
system1 growing west brokenly to        
,montana4 ,it is the common oak of      
central ,texas but in the ,north it is  
rather scarce1 becoming more plentiful  
in the lower ,appalachians4  ,the broad1
 dense1 round-topped crown of the post  
oak with its peculiar foliage make it   
very noticeable in the woods1 even to   
the casual observer4 ,its dark green    
looks almost black at a distance4 ,the  
tree has an average height of sixty or  
eighty feet and is about two feet in    
diameter1 but in exceptional cases it   
reaches one hundred feet in height and  
has a diameter of three feet4 ,it has a 
moderately thick1 dark brown bark with a
 reddish tinge and deep fissures1 the   
broad ridges being covered with thin    
scales4 ,on the branches it becomes much

 thinner1 and lighter in color1 the     
branchlets being unfissured and glabrous
 in the second year1 although fuzzy at  
first4 ,they are rather heavy and       
rounded and terminate in short round    
buds with conspicuous scales4 ,a        
noticeable feature of the tree is the   
peculiar branching4 ,the limbs are heavy
 and crooked1 separating often1 with    
wide angles1 forming knees which when   
big enough1 have a commercial value4    
,when the tree is in foliage the tufted 
appearance of the leaves grouped on the 
ends of the twigs gives it a distinctive
 look4 ,they bear some resemblance to a 
star1 and for that reason some botanists
 have named the species stellata4 ,the  
leaves are five or seven inches long    
usually1 but in some cases1 especially  
on young specimens1 they are ten or more
 inches long4 ,they are dark1           
shiny-green and on a short petiole1 the 
veins and midrib being heavy and        
conspicuous4 ,the identification of     
these leaves is easy as they are heavy  

in texture1 are bilaterally developed   
with a large1 obtuse lobe on each side  
about in the middle1 giving them a      
maltese cross effect4 ,they are very    
persistent1 staying on the tree until   
the new leaves push them off in the     
spring4  ,the form of post oak is not   
ideal from the lumberman's viewpoint4   
,the tree does not prune itself well4   
,straggling limbs adhere to the trunk   
and prevent the clean bole which often  
makes white oak so attractive4  ,the    
wood weighs #eb4ad pounds per cubic     
foot4 ,the name iron oak referred to the
 weight as well as the strength of the  
wood4 ,it is rather difficult to season1
 and is inclined to check badly4 ,the   
medullary rays are broad and numerous1  
and checking is apt to develop along the
 rays4 ,the summerwood occupies about   
half of the annual ring1 and is dense   
and dark colored4 ,large pores are      
abundant in the springwood1 and smaller 
ones in the summerwood4  ,formerly this 
tree was known in some sections as      

turkey oak1 though the name is no longer
 heard1 but is now applied to another   
oak in the ,south4 ,the acorns are small
 enough to be eaten by turkeys1 and when
 those game birds were wild in the woods
 they frequented parts of the forests   
where post oaks grew1 and hunters knew  
where to find them4 ,the uses of post   
oak for building and manufacturing      
purposes are the same as for white oak  
as far as they go1 but post oak is not  
so extensively employed4  ,the earliest 
railroads in ,america were built in the 
region where post oak of excellent      
quality grew1 and it saw service from   
the first as crossties1 and car and     
bridge timbers4 ,it is still used for   
those purposes4 ,its other important    
uses are as furniture material1 both as 
solid stock and veneer2 interior finish 
and fixtures for offices1 banks1 and    
stores2 musical instruments1 including  
frames1 braces1 and veneers2 baskets1   
crates1 and shipping boxes2 vehicles1   
particularly tongues1 axles1 and hounds 

of heavy wagons2 flooring1 stair work1  
balusters4  ,post oak will do well on   
land too gravelly and thin to sustain   
good white oak growth4 ,to that extent  
the two species are not competitors for 
ground1 and post oak is assured a place 
in future woodlots1 but it cannot be    
expected ever to equal white oak in     
commercial importance1 while as an      
ornamental tree it is not usually       
favored because the shape of its crown  
is not altogether pleasing4 ,its very   
dark foliage1 however1 is admired by    
many and gives the tree an              
individuality4  ,,swamp ,,white ,,oak   
7,quercus platanoides74 ,this tree's    
botanical name means 8broadleaf oak10   
and that is a good description as far as
 it goes1 but it does not apply solely  
to this species4 ,the characteristic    
which fixes it best in the minds of most
 people is its preference for low1 wet  
soil4 ,its two common names are swamp   
oak and swamp white oak1 yet it is not  
really a swamp tree1 such as the        

northern white cedar1 southern white    
cedar1 cypress1 and tupelo are4 ,it does
 not associate with any of those trees4 
,it prefers river banks1 and does not   
object to a good deal of water about its
 roots1 though it grows nicely in       
situations out of reach of all overflow1
 and often side by side with silver     
maple1 hickory1 ash1 and several other  
oaks4 ,the leaf resembles that of       
chestnut oak1 and the bark is somewhat  
like chestnut oak1 but the wood passes  
in market for white oak1 and is a good  
substitute for it1 though the           
resemblance is not so close that one    
need be mistaken for the other4 ,the    
tree averages about seventy feet high   
with a diameter of two feet1 but much   
larger trunks are common4 ,the famous   
8,wadsworth oak10 which stood on the    
bank of the ,genesee river in western   
,new ,york1 about a mile from the       
village of ,geneseo1 was a swamp white  
oak4 ,it had a trunk diameter of nine   
feet1 but it was not tall in proportion4

 ,it met its overthrow by the           
undermining of the river bank in time of
 flood4 ,that is a common fate for this 
tree1 because of its preference for     
river banks4 ,its range is from ,maine  
to ,wisconsin and ,iowa4 ,it follows the
 mountains to northern ,georgia2 and    
west of the ,mississippi it grows as far
 south as ,arkansas4 ,the species is    
best developed in western ,new ,york1   
northwestern ,pennsylvania1 and along   
the southern shores of ,lakes ,erie and 
,michigan4  ,trees do not clear         
themselves of branches on their lower   
trunks very early in life1 and lumber   
more or less knotty results4 ,it is     
possible1 however1 to cut a fairly large
 proportion of clear boards4 ,the wood  
is of about the same weight as white    
oak1 and is hard1 strong1 and tough4    
,its color is light brown1 and the thin 
sapwood is hardly distinguishable from  
the heart4 ,the medullary rays are as   
large as those of white oak1 but are    
few4 ,for that reason1 swamp white oak  

does not give very satisfactory results 
when quarter-sawed4 ,the bright patches 
are too scarce4 ,neither does it show as
 many of these rays as chestnut oak4    
,the wood is very porous1 but the large 
pores are confined to the springwood1   
while the broad bands of summerwood are 
dense4 ,the contrast between the two    
parts of annual rings forms a strong1   
but not particularly handsome figure    
when the lumber is sawed                
tangentially--that is1 from the side of 
the log4 ,the wood finisher can improve 
this oak's natural appearance by        
employing fillers and stains to lighten 
shades or deepen tints4 ,the uses of    
this oak are numerous4 ,it is excellent 
fuel1 and is rather low in ash2 it is   
weaker and more brittle than white oak2 
but it is quite satisfactory for        
railroad ties1 car building1 house      
finish1 furniture1 some parts of heavy  
vehicles1 certain kinds of cooperage1   
and for farm implements4      ,,rocky   
,,mountain ,,blue ,,oak 7,quercus       

oblongifolia7 is named from the     blue
 color of its foliage1 though what      
little lumber is cut from it1     is    
bought and sold as white oak4 ,it is of 
little importance1 yet in     the almost
 timberless mountains of western ,texas 
it supplies some of     the urgent wants
 of a scattered population4 ,it bears   
willow-like     leaves one or two inches
 long1 and less than an inch wide2 but  
on     vigorous shoots they are larger4 
,the acorns are very small4 ,trees      
seldom exceed thirty feet in height1 and
 a diameter of twenty     inches2 and   
often the trunk is divided near the     
ground in three or     four stout1      
crooked forks4 ,ordinarily1 it is an    
impossible tree to     lumber1 but      
sometimes a few logs find their way to  
sawmills and a     little passable      
lumber is produced4 ,the wood weighs #eh
 pounds per     cubic foot4 ,it is      
strong1 but when it breaks1 it snaps    
short4 ,the     heartwood is darker than
 in most oaks1 and the sapwood is brown4

 ,the     tree is useful for fuel4      
,charcoal for local blacksmith shops is 
manufactured from the wood4 ,it is      
abundant on many of the sterile         
slopes and mesas of ,new ,mexico and    
,arizona1 but usually in the form     of
 brush about the heads of canyons4      
,illustration     ,,cow ,,oak           
,illustration3 ,,cow ,,oak     ,,cow    
,,oak  7,quercus ,michauxii7   ,this    
oak's acorns are remarkably free from   
the bitterness due to tannin and are    
therefore pleasant to the taste4        
,herbivorous animals eat them when they 
are to be had1 and the eagerness with   
which cattle gather them in the fall is 
doubtless the reason for calling the    
tree cow oak4 ,hogs and sheep are as    
eager hunters for the acorns as cattle  
are1 and the half-wild swine in the     
southern forests become marketable      
during the two months of the acorn      
season4 ,children know the excellency of
 the cow oak acorns1 and gather them in 
large quantities during the early weeks 

of autumn in the ,south4 ,the tree is   
widely known as basket oak1 and the name
 refers to a prevailing use for the wood
 in early times1 and a rather common use
 yet4 ,long before anyone had made a    
study of the structure of this wood1 it 
was learned that it splits nicely into  
long1 slender bands1 and these were     
employed by basket weavers for all sorts
 of wares in that line4 ,tens of        
thousands of baskets were in use before 
the war in the southern cottonfields1   
and they have not gone out of use there 
yet4 ,it is safe to say that millions of
 dollars worth of cotton has been picked
 and 8toted0 in baskets made of this    
oak4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that   
the name basket oak should be given it4 
,large1 coarse baskets are still made of
 splits of this wood1 and china and     
other merchandise are packed in them2   
while baskets of finer pattern and      
workmanship are doing service about the 
farms and homes of thousands of people4 
,when the structure of wood became a    

subject of study among dendrologists1   
the secret of the cow oak's adaptability
 to basket making was discovered4 ,the  
annual rings of growth are broad1 and   
the bands of springwood and summerwood  
are distinct4 ,the springwood is so     
perforated with large pores that it     
contains comparatively little real wood 
substance4 ,the early basket maker did  
not notice that but he found by         
experimenting that the wood split along 
the rings of growth into fine ribbons4  
,the splitting occurs along the         
springwood4 ,ribbons may be pulled off  
as thin as the rings of annual growth1  
that is1 from an eighth to a sixteenth  
of an inch thick4 ,these are the        
8splits0 of which baskets are made4     
,when subjected to rough usage1 such as 
being dragged and hauled about          
cornfields and cotton plantations1 such 
a basket will outlast two or three of   
willow4  ,the tree is sometimes called  
swamp white oak1 and swamp chestnut oak4
 ,it bears some resemblance to the swamp

 white oak 7,quercus platanoides7 and   
some people believe that both are of one
 species1 but of slightly different     
forms4 ,it is not surprising that there 
should be a conflict of names and       
confusion in identification4 ,the leaf  
resembles that of the chestnut oak1 and 
to that fact is due the belief which    
some hold that the chief difference     
between the trees is that the chestnut  
oak 7,quercus prinus7 grows on dry land 
and cow oak in damp situations4         
,botanists make a clear distinction     
between cow oak and all other species1  
though it closely resembles some of them
 in several particulars4  ,from the     
northern limits of its growth in        
,delaware1 where it is not of any       
considerable size1 it extends south     
through the ,atlantic states and into   
,florida1 west in the ,gulf states to   
the ,trinity river in ,texas1 and up the
 ,mississippi valley1 including in its  
range ,arkansas1 eastern ,missouri1     
southern ,indiana and ,illinois and     

western ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,it is
 distinctly of the ,south and may be    
considered the best southern            
representative of the white oak group4  
,it does best in swampy localities where
 it is found in company with water      
hickory1 sweet magnolia1 planer tree1   
water oak1 willow oak1 red maple1 and   
red and black gum4  ,in general         
appearance the tree gives the impression
 of massiveness and strength1 offset by 
the delicate1 silvery effect of the bark
 and the lining of the foliage4 ,the    
usual height is sixty or eighty feet1   
but it often exceeds a hundred feet1 the
 bole attaining a diameter of as high as
 seven feet and showing three log       
lengths clear4 ,the characteristic light
 gray1 scaly1 white oak bark covers     
trunk and heavy limbs1 which rise at    
narrow angles1 forming a rounded head   
and dividing into stout branches and    
twigs4 ,the winter buds are not         
characteristic of white oak1 being long 
and pointed rather than rounded4 ,they  

are about a half inch in length1 scaly1 
with red hairs and usually in threes on 
the ends of the twigs4 ,the general     
texture of the leaves is thick and      
heavy1 their upper surfaces being dark1 
lustrous green and the lower white and  
covered with hairs4 ,they are from five 
to seven inches long with petioles an   
inch in length and of the general       
outline of the chestnut leaf4 ,their    
rich crimson color is conspicuous in the
 fall after turning4  ,the wood of cow  
oak is hard1 heavy1 very tough1 strong1 
and durable4 ,the heartwood is light    
brown1 the sapwood darker colored4 ,it  
weighs #ej4aj pounds per cubic foot1 and
 is not quite up to white oak in        
strength and elasticity4 ,in            
quarter-sawing it does not equal white  
oak1 because the medullary rays1 though 
broad1 are not regularly distributed1   
and the surface of the quarter-sawed    
board has a splotchy appearance1 and it 
is not as easy to match figures as with 
white oak4  ,cow oak is one of the most 

important hardwoods of the ,south4 ,its 
uses are much the same as those for     
white oak farther north4 ,the custom of 
calling it white oak when it goes to    
market renders the collection of        
statistics of uses difficult4 ,sawmills 
seldom or never list cow oak in making  
reports of cut4 ,factories which further
 manufacture lumber1 after it leaves the
 mill1 sometimes distinguish between cow
 oak and other oaks4 ,it has been found 
suitable material in the ,south for     
canthook handles where it takes the     
place of hickory which is more          
expensive4 ,it is reported for that use 
in considerable quantity in ,louisiana4 
,the handles are subjected to great     
strain and violent shocks4 ,the billets 
are split to the proper size1 because if
 they are sawed they are liable to      
contain cross grain which is a fatal    
defect4 ,the wood is cut in dimensions  
for chair stock and furniture1 the      
better grades usually going to furniture
 factories4 ,defective logs1 short      

lengths1 and odds and ends may be worked
 into chair stock which contains a large
 proportion of small pieces4 ,the making
 of large plantation baskets of this    
wood is still a fairly large business in
 ,louisiana and ,mississippi4 ,braided  
bottoms of cheap chairs are of the same 
workmanship as baskets4  ,vehicle makers
 in the ,south are large users of this  
wood4 ,it is employed in heavy wagons   
chiefly1 and is worked into many parts1 
including axles1 bolsters1 felloes1     
hubs1 hounds1 tongues1 reaches1 spokes1 
and bedbottoms4  ,this tree is classed  
as white oak by coopers who accept it as
 stave material4 ,the amount used is    
much less than of the true white oak1   
but the exact quantity taken yearly by  
barrel makers is not known because      
statistics do not list the different    
white oaks separately4 ,cow oak rives   
well when a trunk is found clear of     
knots4 ,the trees are usually smaller   
and less perfect than true white oak in 
the ,north4  ,railroads accept crossties

 of this species and they give as long  
service as white oak1 are as hard1 and  
hold spikes as well4 ,the wood is       
accepted by car shops for use in repairs
 and in new work4 ,trunks are split or  
sawed into fence posts and are used in  
probably larger numbers than any other  
southern oak4  ,this tree's future seems
 fairly well assured4 ,it will further  
decline in available supply1 because it 
is cut faster than it is growing4 ,that 
is the status of all the timber oaks of 
this country4 ,this one has advantage   
over some of the others in that it      
occupies wet land which will not soon be
 in demand for agricultural purposes1   
and young growth will be left to        
develop4      ,,engelmann ,,oak         
7,quercus engelmanni7 occupies a        
restricted range in     southwestern    
,california where it is generally spoken
 of as a desert     tree2 but its rate  
of growth appears to be much more rapid 
than is     usual with trees in arid    
situations4 ,it occupies a narrow belt  

in     ,san ,diego county and its range 
extends into ,lower ,california4 ,it    
forms about one-third of the stand in   
,palomar mountains1 and is much         
scarcer in the ,cuyamaca mountains4 ,the
 tree seldom attains a height           
greater than forty or fifty feet1 or a  
diameter more than twenty or     thirty 
inches4 ,the largest trees are of small 
value for lumber and     in rare        
instances only1 if at all1 do they go to
 sawmills4 ,the     trunks fork and each
 branch forks1 until a fairly large bole
 near     the ground is divided among   
numerous limbs4 ,the tree's chief value 
is as fuel4 ,it rates high as such4 ,the
 leaves are bluish-green and     are    
thick with sharp points on their        
margins4 ,the leaves vary     greatly in
 size1 and are largest on young shoots4 
,they remain a year     on the tree1 and
 are classed as evergreen4 ,the acorns  
ripen in one     year4 ,this interesting
 species was named for ,dr4 ,george     
,engelmann1     whose name is borne also

 by ,engelmann spruce4 ,the wood is     
among the     heaviest of the oaks1     
exceeding white oak by more than twelve 
pounds     per cubic foot4 ,it is       
brittle and weak1 and very dark brown4  
,the     green wood checks and warps    
badly in seasoning4 ,the medullary rays 
are numerous and large1 but are so      
irregularly dispersed that              
quarter-sawing promises no satisfactory 
results1 even if logs of     suitable   
size could be found4 ,the annual rings  
are indistinct1 owing     to no clear   
line of separation between springwood   
and summerwood4     ,pores are numerous1
 diffuse1 and some of them large4 ,the  
species is     entitled to recognition  
only because it is found in a region    
where     forests are scarce and        
scrubby1 and every trunk has value as   
fuel1     if for nothing else4 ,it      
affords a cover for hills which         
otherwise     would be barren1 and it   
frequently occurs in fairly dense       
thickets4  ,illustration     ,,pacific  

,,post ,,oak  ,illustration3 ,,pacific  
,,post ,,oak     ,,pacific ,,post ,,oak 
7,quercus ,garryana7   ,david ,douglas  
named this tree the ,garry oak1 in honor
 of ,nicholas ,garry of the ,hudson ,bay
 ,company1 who furnished valuable       
assistance to botanists and other       
explorers of early times in the         
northwestern parts of ,america4 ,this   
tree is best developed in the           
neighborhood of ,puget ,sound1 the      
present state of ,washington1 and at the
 period of explorations in that region  
by ,douglas1 who was a ,scotchman1 the  
country was a sort of 8no man's land40  
,it was claimed by both ,england and the
 ,united ,states1 and ,russia had cast  
covetous eyes on it as a southern       
extension of her ,alaska holdings4      
,england at that time put a good deal of
 dependence in the ,hudson ,bay ,company
 to get possession of and to hold as    
much country as possible1 and ,garry's  
help given to explorers was part of a   
well-laid plan to possess as much of the

 northwestern country as possible4      
,douglas doubtless had that in mind when
 he named the oak in honor of ,garry4   
,it was a witness and perpetual reminder
 that the ,hudson ,bay ,company's strong
 arms had been stretched in that        
direction4  ,the people in ,california  
and ,oregon often speak of the tree     
simply as white oak1 but it is sometimes
 called ,oregon white oak1 and more     
often ,oregon oak without a qualifying  
word4 ,when it is spoken of as western  
white oak1 which frequently is the case1
 it is compared with the well-known     
eastern white oak4 ,it bears more       
resemblance to the eastern post oak     
7,quercus minor7 and for that reason it 
has been named ,pacific post oak4 ,the  
leaves and twigs1 particularly when they
 are young1 resemble post oak4  ,the    
northern limit of the tree's range      
crosses southern ,british ,columbia4 ,it
 is found in the lower valley of ,frazer
 river and on ,vancouver island4 ,it is 
the only oak tree of ,british ,columbia4

 ,its range extends southward to the    
,santa ,cruz mountains in ,california1  
but near the southern limit of its range
 it is found chiefly in valleys near the
 coast4 ,it is best developed in western
 ,washington and ,oregon4 ,it occurs of 
good size on dry gravelly slopes of low 
hills2 and it ascends the ,cascade      
mountains to considerable elevations1   
but becomes stunted and shrubby4 ,it is 
abundant in northwestern ,california4   
,the tree has a height from sixty to a  
hundred feet2 sometimes it attains a    
diameter of three and one-half feet4 ,it
 carries a broad and compact crown1     
especially when the tree is surrounded  
by young coniferous growth as is the    
case in its best habitat where natural  
pruning gets rid of the lower limbs and 
causes an outward and later a pendulous 
growth of the upper part4 ,the limbs are
 strong and heavy as are the branches   
and twigs4 ,the bark is a grayish-brown 
with shallow fissures1 the broad ridges 
being sometimes broken across forming   

square plates which are covered with the
 grayish flakes or scales4 ,the buds are
 long and acute1 and are coated with a  
red fuzz4 ,the leaves are from four to  
six inches long and are bilaterally     
developed1 having seven or nine coarse  
round lobes2 the sinuses being rounded  
or rather shallow4 ,the color is a dark 
lustrous green and the texture leathery4
  ,the acorn is rather large being about
 an inch and a quarter in length and    
usually about half as broad as long2 has
 a shallow cup covered with pointed     
sometimes elongated scales4  ,this oak  
is one of the most important hardwoods  
of the far ,northwest4 ,it is often     
compared with the eastern white oak1 but
 its physical properties fall below that
 species in some important particulars4 
,the two woods weigh about the same1 but
 the eastern species is stronger and    
more elastic1 and is of better color and
 figure4 ,all oaks season somewhat      
slowly1 but the ,pacific post oak is    
hardly up to the average4 ,it is a      

common saying that it must remain two   
years on the sticks to fit it for the   
shop1 but that time may be shortened in 
many instances4 ,checking must be       
carefully guarded against4  ,some of    
this oak is exceedingly tough1 and when 
carefully sorted and prepared it is     
excellent material for heavy wagons2 but
 the best comes from young and          
comparatively small trees4 ,when they   
attain large size they are apt to become
 brash4 ,the tree usually grows rapidly1
 and is not old in proportion to the    
size of its trunk4 ,an examination of   
the wood shows broad bands of summerwood
 and narrow1 very porous springwood4    
,the medullary rays are broad and       
numerous1 and ought to show well in     
quarter-sawed stock2 but it does not    
appear that much quarter-sawing has been
 done4  ,practically all of this species
 cut in the ,united ,states is credited 
to ,oregon in the census of sawmill     
output in #aiaj4 ,the cut was #b1hhg1jjj
 feet1 and was produced by fourteen     

sawmills1 while in ,washington only one 
mill reported any oak1 and the quantity 
was only #d1jjj feet4 ,on the northwest 
,pacific coast it comes in competition  
with eastern oak and also with ,siberian
 or ,japanese oak4  ,basket makers put  
this wood to considerable use4 ,young   
trees are selected on account of their  
toughness4 ,the wood is either split in 
long1 thin ribbons for basket weaving1  
or it is first made into veneer and then
 cut in ribbons of required width4 ,the 
largest users are furniture makers1 but 
boat yards find it convenient material  
and it takes the place of imported oak  
for frames1 keels1 ribs1 sills1 and     
interior finish4 ,it is durable1 and it 
may be depended upon for long service in
 any part of boat construction4 ,its    
toughness fits it for ax1 hammer1 and   
other handles4 ,it is far inferior to   
hickory1 but on the ,pacific coast it   
can be had much cheaper4 ,its strength  
and durability make it one of the best  
western woods for insulator pins for    

telephone and telegraph lines4 ,it is   
worked into saddle trees and stirrups4  
,the scarcity of woods on the ,pacific  
coast suitable for tight cooperage gives
 this oak a rather important place1     
because barrels and casks made of it    
hold alcoholic liquors4 ,available      
statistics do not show the quantity of  
staves produced from this wood1 but it  
is known to be used for staves in       
,oregon4  ,much ,pacific post oak is    
employed as rough lumber for various    
purposes4 ,railroads buy crossties1     
hewed or sawed from small trunks1 and   
country bridges are occasionally floored
 with thick planks which wear well and  
offer great resistance to decay4  ,the  
quantity of this oak growing in the     
,northwest is not known4 ,it falls far  
below some of the softwoods of the same 
region1 and the area on which it is     
found in commercial amounts is not      
large4 ,it is holding its ground fairly 
well4 ,trees bear full crops of acorns  
frequently1 and if they fall on damp    

humus they germinate and grow4 ,the     
seedlings imitate the eastern white oak1
 and send tap roots deep into the       
ground1 and are then prepared for       
fortune or adversity4 ,it happens1      
however1 that trees which bear the most 
bountiful crops of acorns do not stand  
in forests where the ground is damp and 
humus abundant1 but on more open ground 
on grass covered slopes4 ,acorns which  
fall on sod seldom germinate1 and       
consequently few seedlings are to be    
seen in such situations4 ,open-grown    
trees are poorly suited for lumber1 on  
account of many limbs low on the trunks1
 but they grow large amounts of         
cordwood4      ,,california ,,scrub     
,,oak 7,quercus dumosa7 has been a      
puzzle to     botanists1 and a hopeless 
enigma to laymen4 ,some would split the 
species into no fewer than three species
 and three varieties1 basing            
distinctions on forms of leaves and     
acorns and other botanical              
differences2 but ,sudworth1 after a     

prolonged study of this matter1         
recognized only one species and one     
variety1 but admitted that              
8,california scrub oak unquestionably   
varies more than all other oaks     in  
the form and size of its leaves and     
acorns40 ,he thought it might           
possibly be equalled in that respect by 
,quercus undulata of the     ,rocky     
,mountains4 ,some of the leaves of      
,california scrub oak are               
three-fourths of an inch long and half  
an inch wide1 while others     may be   
four inches long4 ,the edges of some    
leaves are as briery as     the leaves  
of holly1 others are comparatively      
smooth4 ,the shapes and     sizes of    
acorns vary as much as the leaves4 ,some
 are long and     slender1 others short 
and stocky4 ,this peculiar oak is found 
only in     ,california1 but it shows a 
disposition to advance as far as        
possible     into the sea1 for it has   
gained a foothold on islands lying off  
the     ,california coast1 and it there 

finds its most acceptable habitat4 ,it  
reaches its largest size in sheltered   
canyons on the islands1 and     attains 
a height of twenty or twenty-five feet1 
and a diameter of a     foot or less4   
,it is not large enough to win favor    
with lumbermen but     in its scrubby   
form it is abundant in many localities4 
,it is     scattered over several       
thousand square miles1 from nearly sea  
level     up to #g1jjj feet in the      
mountains of southern ,california4 ,it  
is     found scattered through the coast
 range and the ,sierra ,nevadas from    
,mendocino county to ,lower ,california1
 #gjj miles or more4 ,it grows     from 
sprouts and from acorns4 ,the leaves    
adhere to the twigs     thirteen months1
 and fall after the new crop has        
appeared4 ,the wood     is light brown1 
hard1 and brittle4 ,no use is made of   
it1 except to a     small extent for    
fuel4 ,on the mountains it grows in     
thickets     scarcely five feet high1   
but they cover the ground in dense      

jungles1     and the roots go deep in   
the ground4 ,the species is valuable    
chiefly     for protection to steep     
slopes which would otherwise be without 
much     growth of any kind4 ,being low 
on the ground1 forest fires are         
particularly destructive to this oak2   
but its ability to send up     sprouts  
repairs the damage to some extent4      
,,emory ,,oak 7,quercus emoryi7 grows   
among the mountains of western          
,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,arizona1     
attains a height from thirty to         
seventy feet1 and a diameter from one to
 four4 ,the largest size is     found   
only in sheltered canyons1 while on high
 mountains and in     exposed situations
 the tree degenerates to a shrub4 ,it   
always has a     crop of leaves4 ,the   
old do not fall until the new appear4   
,in shape1     the leaves somewhat      
resemble those of box elder4 ,the acorns
 ripen     from ,june to ,september1 the
 exact time depending upon the tree's   
situation4 ,trunks large enough for use 

are not scarce1 but the wood     is not 
of high class4 ,stair railing and       
balusters have been made of     it in   
,texas1 but the appearance is rather    
poor4 ,the grain is coarse1     the     
figure common1 the color unsatisfactory4
 ,the heart is very dark1     but the   
tones are not uniform1 and flat         
surfaces1 such as boards and     panels1
 show streaks which are not sufficiently
 attractive to be     taken for figure4 
,trunks are apt to be full of black     
knots which mar     the appearance of   
the lumber4 ,the medullary rays are     
numerous and     broad1 and in          
quarter-sawing1 the size and arrangement
 of the     8mirrors0 are all that could
 be desired1 but they have a decidedly  
pink color which does not contrast very 
well with the rest of the     wood4 ,the
 weight of this oak exceeds per cubic   
foot white oak1 by     more than ten    
pounds2 but it has scarcely half the    
strength or half     the elasticity of  
white oak4 ,the springwood is filled    

with large     pores1 the summerwood    
with smaller ones4 ,it rates high as    
fuel1 and     that is its chief value4  
,large quantities are cut for cordwood4 
,railroad ties are made of it1 and more 
or less goes into mines as     props and
 lagging4 ,stock ranches make fences1   
sheds1 and corrals of     this oak1 and 
live stock eats the acorns4 ,the human  
inhabitants     likewise find the ,emory
 oak acorn crop a source of food4       
,mexicans     gather them in large      
quantities and sell what they can spare4
 ,the     market for the acorns is found
 in towns in northwestern ,mexico4      
,illustration     ,,chestnut ,,oak      
,illustration3 ,,chestnut ,,oak         
,,chestnut ,,oak  7,quercus ,prinus7    
,this tree is known as rock oak in ,new 
,york2 as rock chestnut oak in          
,massachusetts and ,rhode ,island2 as   
rock oak and rock chestnut oak in       
,pennsylvania and ,delaware2 as tanbark 
oak and swampy chestnut oak in ,north   
,carolina and as rock chestnut oak and  

mountain oak in ,alabama4  ,there is a  
pretty general disposition to call this 
tree rock oak4 ,the name refers to the  
hardness of the wood1 and is not        
confined to this species4 ,other oaks   
are also given that name1 and the       
adjective 8rock0 is applied to two or   
three species of elm which possess wood 
remarkable for its hardness4 ,cedar and 
pine are likewise in the class4 ,in all 
of these classes 8rock0 is employed to  
denote hardness of wood4 ,iron as an    
adjective or ironwood as a noun is used 
in the same way for a number of trees4  
,the name swampy chestnut oak as applied
 in some parts of the ,south to this    
tree1 is hardly descriptive1 for it is  
less a swamp tree than most of the oaks1
 though it does often grow along the    
banks of streams4  ,its distribution    
ranges from the coast of southern ,maine
 and the ,blue ,hills of eastern        
,massachusetts southward to ,delaware   
and the ,district of ,columbia2 along   
the ,appalachian mountains to northern  

,georgia and ,alabama2 westward to the  
shores of ,lake ,champlain and the      
valley of the ,genesee river1 ,new      
,york2 along the northern shores of     
,lake ,erie and to central ,kentucky and
 ,tennessee4 ,it is rare and local in   
,new ,england and ,ontario1 but         
plentiful on the banks of the lower     
,hudson river and on the ,appalachian   
mountains from southern ,new ,york to   
,alabama4 ,it reaches its best          
development in the region from ,west    
,virginia to ,north ,carolina1 pretty   
high on the ridges flanking the mountain
 ranges4  ,leaves are alternate1 from   
five to nine inches long1 with coarse   
teeth rounded at the top4 ,at maturity1 
they are thick and firm1 yellow-green   
and rather lustrous on the upper        
surface1 paler and usually hairy        
beneath4 ,in the autumn before falling1 
they turn a dull orange color or        
rusty-brown4  ,the flowers appear in    
,may and are solitary or paired on short
 spurs4 ,the fruit or acorn is solitary 

or in pairs1 one or two and one-half    
inches long1 very lustrous and of a     
bright chestnut-brown color4 ,the acorn 
cup is thin1 downy-lined and covered    
with small scales4 ,the kernel is sweet 
and edible4 ,the bark of the chestnut   
oak is thin1 smooth1 purplish-brown and 
often lustrous on young stems and small 
branches1 becoming a thick1 dark1       
reddish-brown1 or nearly black on old   
trunks1 and divided into broad rounded  
ridges1 separating on the surface into  
small1 closely appressed scales4 ,the   
bark of the tree is so dark in color and
 so deeply furrowed that it has often   
been mistaken for one of the black oak  
group1 although its wavy leaf margins   
and annual fruit clearly differentiate  
it from those species4 ,the bark of the 
chestnut oak is thicker and rougher on  
old trunks than on any other oak4  ,the 
bark of chestnut oak has long been      
valuable for tanning4 ,there is tannin  
in the bark of all oaks1 and several of 
them contain it in paying quantities1   

but chestnut oak is more important to   
the leather industry than any other oak4
 ,in richness of tannin the tanbark oak 
of ,california occupies as high a place1
 but it is not supplying as much        
material as the eastern tree4           
,statistics showing the annual          
consumption of tanbark and tanning      
extracts in the ,united ,states1 do not 
list the oaks separately1 but it is well
 known that chestnut oak far surpasses  
all others in output4 ,hemlock bark is  
peeled in large quantities1 but         
tanneries occasionally mix chestnut oak 
bark with it to lighten the deep red    
color imparted to leather when hemlock  
bark is the sole material employed4     
,large quantities of chestnut oak timber
 have been destroyed to procure the     
bark4 ,fortunately1 it is a practice not
 much indulged in at present1 because   
the wood now has value1 but it formerly 
had little4 ,it was then abandoned in   
the forest after the bark was peeled and
 hauled away4 ,the same practice        

obtained with hemlock years ago4 ,much  
chestnut oak is still cut primarily for 
the bark1 but the logs are worth hauling
 to sawmills1 unless in remote          
districts4  ,the chestnut oak is a      
vigorous tree and grows rapidly in dry  
soil1 where it often forms a great part 
of the forest4 ,it is not as large as   
the white oak or red oak1 but is a      
splendid tree1 its bole being very      
symmetrical and holding its size well4  
,it grows usually to a height of from   
sixty to seventy feet and sometimes #ajj
 feet1 with a diameter of from two to   
five feet and occasionally as large as  
seven feet4  ,the form of the tree shows
 great variation1 depending upon the    
situation in which it grows4 ,trees in  
open ground often divide into forks or  
large limbs1 and the trunks are short   
and of poor form4 ,open-grown trees show
 a decided tendency to develop crooked  
boles1 and unduly large branches4 ,no   
such objection can be urged against it  
when it grows under forest conditions4  

,trunks are straight and are otherwise  
of good form4  ,the wood of chestnut oak
 differs little from that of white oak  
in weight1 strength1 and stiffness4 ,it 
is hard1 rather tough1 durable in       
contact with the soil1 and is darker in 
color than white oak4 ,it has few large1
 open pores1 and requires less filler in
 finishing than most oaks4 ,there are   
many pores1 however1 and those in the   
springwood are arranged in bands4 ,the  
summerwood is broad and distinct1       
usually constituting three-fourths of   
the annual ring4 ,the medullary rays are
 as broad and numerous as in the best   
furniture oaks4 ,they are regularly     
arranged1 and spaces between them do not
 vary much in width4 ,the wood          
quarter-saws well4  ,the wood has the   
fault of checking badly in seasoning1   
unless carefully attended to4 ,in recent
 years1 these difficulties have been    
largely overcome1 both in air seasoning 
and in the drykiln4  ,chestnut oak has a
 wide range of uses4 ,it is classed as  

white oak in many markets1 but few users
 buy it believing it to be true white   
oak4 ,it is coming year by year to stand
 more on its own merits4 ,some sawmills 
which formerly piled it and sold it with
 other oaks1 now keep it separate1 and  
some factories which once took it only  
because it came mixed with other oaks1  
now buy it for special uses1 and make   
high-class commodities of it4 ,one of   
these is mission furniture1 which has   
become fashionable in recent years4     
,chestnut oak possesses good fuming     
properties1 and this constitutes much of
 its value as furniture material4  ,the 
wood is found in factories where general
 furniture is made4 ,it is largely frame
 material for furniture though some of  
it is for outside finish4 ,it is        
employed as frames in ,maryland in the  
construction of canal boats1 and the    
annual demand for that purpose is about 
a quarter of a million feet in that     
state4  ,one of the most important      
places for chestnut oak is in the shop  

which makes vehicles4 ,it goes into     
sills for both heavy and light bodies1  
bolsters1 and wagon bottoms4 ,it has    
become a favorite wagon wood in ,england
 and in continental ,europe1 and there  
passes as white oak1 though dealers well
 know that it is not the true white oak4
 ,there is no indication that demand for
 it will lessen1 for it possesses many  
characters which fit it for vehicle     
making4  ,in ,michigan more chestnut oak
 is reported by car builders than by any
 other class of manufacturers1 though   
wagon makers buy it4 ,car shops use     
about #bbj1jjj feet a year1 and work it 
into hand cars1 push cars1 track-laying 
cars1 and cattle guards4  ,the large    
remaining area of timber growth in which
 chestnut oak appears is the            
,appalachian range through eastern      
,tennessee and western ,north ,carolina1
 and the fact that it is comparatively  
plentiful in the forests of the         
,appalachian range will tend to bring it
 more and more into prominence as a     

factor in the making of wagons1 cars1   
boats1 staves1 and furniture as the     
other oaks become scarcer4  ,the        
probable future of chestnut oak is an   
interesting problem for study4 ,few     
steps have yet been taken looking toward
 providing for generations to come4     
,chestnut oak has been left to take care
 of itself4 ,the trees1 produced in     
nature's way1 have been ample to supply 
all needs in the past1 and they will be 
for the near future4 ,chestnut oak      
possesses some advantages over most of  
the other oaks4 ,large trees will grow  
on very poor soil1 where most other oaks
 are little more than shrubs4 ,trees so 
grown are little more susceptible to    
disease than if produced in good soil1  
though they develop more slowly and are 
smaller4 ,there are many poor flats and 
sterile ridges in the chestnut oak's    
range1 and they will produce timber of  
fairly good kind1 if the chestnut oaks  
are permitted to have them4 ,nature gave
 this tree facilities for taking        

possession4 ,its acorns will grow       
without being buried4 ,they do not      
depend on blue jays to carry them to    
sunny openings or squirrels to plant    
them2 but they will sprout where they   
fall1 whether on hard gravelly soil or  
dry leaves2 and they at once set about  
getting the tap roots of the future     
trees into the ground4 ,in many         
instances the chestnut oak's acorns do  
not wait to fall from the tree before   
they sprout4 ,like the seed of the      
,florida mangrove1 they are often ready 
to take root the day they touch the     
ground4 ,the large acorn is stored with 
plantfood which sustains the growing    
germ for some time1 and the ground must 
be very hard and exceedingly dry if a   
young chestnut oak is not soon firmly   
established1 and good for two or three  
hundred years1 if let alone4  ,the      
forester who may undertake to grow      
chestnut oaks must exercise great care  
in transplanting the seedlings1 or the  
tap roots will be broken and the young  

trees will die4 ,the best plan is to    
drop acorns on the ground where trees   
are expected to grow1 and nature will do
 the rest1 provided birds and beasts    
leave the acorns alone4  ,illustration  
,,chinquapin ,,oak  ,illustration3      
,,chinquapin ,,oak     ,,chinquapin     
,,oak  7,quercus ,acuminata7   ,this    
tree is known as yellow chestnut oak1   
chinquapin oak1 chestnut oak1 pin oak1  
yellow oak1 scrub oak1 dwarf chestnut   
oak1 shrub oak1 and rock oak4 ,it should
 not be confused with ,quercus prinus1  
the true chestnut oak1 although it is   
commonly known in so many sections of   
the country by the latter name2 the     
names yellow oak1 pin oak1 and scrub oak
 are likewise applied to many species1  
so that the only way to accurately      
designate members of this great family  
is to employ their botanical names4     
,however1 this species should always be 
known as the chinquapin oak1 which is a 
distinctive term1 and not applied to any
 other4  ,the bark of this tree is light

 gray and is broken into thin flakes1   
silvery-white1 sometimes slightly tinted
 with brown1 rarely half an inch thick4 
,the branchlets are marked with pale    
lenticels4  ,the leaves of the          
chinquapin oak are from five to seven   
inches long1 simple and alternate2 they 
have a taper-pointed apex and blunt1    
wedge-shaped or pointed base2 are       
sharply toothed4 ,when unfolding they   
show bright bronze-green above1 tinged  
with purple1 and are covered underneath 
with light silvery down2 at maturity    
they become thick and firm1 showing     
greenish-yellow on the upper surface and
 silvery-white below4 ,the midrib is    
conspicuous and the veins extending     
outward to the points of the teeth are  
well-defined4 ,in autumn the leaves turn
 orange and scarlet and are very showy4 
,the leaves are narrow1 hardly two      
inches wide1 and more nearly resemble   
those of the chestnut than do any other 
oak leaves4 ,in their broadest forms    
they are also similar to those of the   

true chestnut oak1 although the         
difference in the quality and color of  
the bark1 and of the leaves1 would      
prevent either tree from being mistaken 
for the other4 ,they are crowded at the 
ends of the branches and hang in such a 
manner as to show their under surfaces  
with every touch of breeze4 ,this       
characteristic gives the chinquapin oak 
a peculiar effect of constantly shifting
 color which is one of its most         
attractive features and which puts the  
observer in mind of the trembling aspen1
 although the shading and coloring of   
the oak is much more striking4  ,this   
tree's range extends from northern ,new 
,york1 along ,lake ,champlain and the   
,hudson river westward through southern 
,ontario1 and southward into parts of   
,nebraska and ,kansas2 on its eastern   
boundary it extends as far south as the 
,district of ,columbia and along the    
upper ,potomac2 the growth west of the  
,alleghany mountains reaches into       
central ,alabama and ,mississippi1      

through ,arkansas and the northern      
portion of ,louisiana to the eastern    
part of ,oklahoma and parts of ,texas   
even to the canyons of the ,guadalupe   
mountains1 in the extreme western part  
of that state4 ,it is a timber tree of  
much importance in ,texas1 and in #aiaj 
manufacturers reported the use of       
#a1aeb1jjj feet in that state1 largely  
for making furniture and vegetable      
crates4  ,the chinquapin oak is named   
from the form of its leaf4 ,its acorn   
bears no resemblance to the nut of      
chinquapin4 ,trees average smaller in   
size than white oak1 but when all       
circumstances are favorable they compare
 well with any of the other oaks4 ,in   
the lower ,wabash valley1 trees of this 
species were found in the original      
forests #afj feet high and four or five 
in diameter4 ,when it grows in crowded  
stands it develops a tall1 symmetrical  
trunk1 clear of limbs2 but it is shorter
 in open growth4 ,the base is often much
 buttressed4  ,the wood is very heavy1  

hard1 strong1 stiff1 and durable4 ,in   
color the heartwood is dark1 the sapwood
 lighter4 ,the springwood is narrow and 
filled with large pores1 the summerwood 
broad and dense4 ,medullary rays are    
less numerous and scarcely as broad as  
in chestnut oak1 which this wood        
resembles4 ,it checks badly in drying1  
both by kiln and in the open air2 but   
when properly seasoned it is an         
excellent wood for most purposes for    
which white oak is used4 ,it shows fewer
 figures when quarter-sawed than white  
oak shows1 but it is satisfactory for   
many kinds of furniture1 particularly   
when finished in mission style4         
,railroads throughout the region where  
this species is found have laid         
chinquapin oak ties in their tracks for 
many years and they give long service1  
because they resist decay and are hard  
enough to stand the wear of the rails4  
,in early times in the ,ohio valley it  
helped to fence many a farm when the    
material for such fences was the old    

style fence rail1 eleven feet long1     
mauled from the straightest1 clearest   
timber afforded by the primeval forest4 
,it had for companions many other oaks  
which were abundant there1 and it was on
 a par with the best of them4 ,in the   
first years of steamboating on the ,ohio
 river1 when the engines used wood for  
fuel1 they provided a market for many an
 old rail fence4 ,the rails were the    
best obtainable fuel1 and the chinquapin
 oak rails in the heaps were carefully  
looked for by the purchasers1 because   
they were rated high in fuel value4 ,it 
is now known that chinquapin oak in     
combustion develops considerably more   
heat than an equal quantity of white    
oak4  ,when southern ,indiana and       
,illinois were furnishing coopers with  
their best staves1 chinquapin oak was   
ricked with white oak1 and no barrel    
maker ever complained4 ,the pores in the
 wood seem large1 but in old timber     
which is largely heartwood1 the pores   
become clogged by the processes of      

nature1 and the wood is made proof      
against leakage4 ,that is what gives    
white oak its superiority as stave      
timber4 ,it has as many pores as red    
oak1 but upon close examination under a 
magnifying glass1 they are found to be  
plugged1 while red oak's pores are wide 
open4 ,the result is that red oak       
barrels leak through the wood2 those    
made of white oak do not4 ,chinquapin   
oak possesses the same properties1 which
 account for its reputation as stave    
material4  ,the future for chinquapin   
oak is not quite as promising as that of
 chestnut oak4 ,the former's choice     
growing place is on rich soil and in    
damp situations4 ,these happen to be    
what the farmer wants1 and he will not  
leave the chinquapin oak alone to grow  
in nature's method1 nor will he plant   
its acorns in places where the trees    
will interfere with his cornfields and  
meadows4 ,consequently1 the tree is apt 
to receive scant consideration after the
 original forests have disappeared2     

while its poor cousin1 the chestnut oak1
 will be left to make its way on sterile
 ridges1 and may even receive some help 
from the forester and woodlot owner4    
,,valley ,,oak 7,quercus lobata7 is     
often considered to be the largest      
hardwood of the ,pacific coast4 ,trunk  
diameters of ten feet have been         
recorded1 and heights more than #ajj2   
but such measurements belong     only to
 rare and extraordinary individuals4    
,the average size of the     tree is    
less than half of that4 ,the most famous
 tree of this species     is the ,sir   
,joseph ,hooker oak1 near ,chico1       
,california1 though it is     not the   
largest4 ,it is seven feet in diameter  
and #ajj high4 ,it was     named by the 
botanist ,asa ,gray in #ahgg4 ,this     
species is commonly     called          
,california white oak1 which name would 
be unobjectionable if     it were the   
only white oak in ,california4 ,a more  
distinctive name is     weeping oak1    
which refers to the appearance of the   

outer branches4     ,it is called swamp 
oak1 but without good reason1 though the
 ground     on which it grows is often  
swampy during the rainy season4 ,the    
name     valley oak is specially        
appropriate1 since its favorite habitat 
is     in the broad valleys of central  
,california4 ,its range does not go     
outside that state1 neither does the    
tree grow very high on the              
mountains4 ,its range begins in the     
upper ,sacramento valley and     extends
 to ,tejon1 south of ,lake ,tulare1 a   
distance north and south     of about   
five hundred miles1 while east and west 
the tree is found     from the ,sierra  
foothills to the sea1 #aej or #bjj      
miles4 ,its     characteristic growth is
 in scattered stands4 ,it does not form 
forests in the ordinary sense4 ,two or  
three large trees to the acre     are an
 average1 and often many acres are      
wholly missed4 ,the form of     trees1  
and the wide spaces between them1       
resemble an old apple     orchard1      

though few apple trees live to attain   
the dimensions of the     valley oak of 
ordinary size4 ,the best stands were    
originally in the     ,santa ,clara     
valley and in the central part of the   
,san ,joaquin valley     in the salt    
grass region north of ,lake ,tulare in  
,kings and ,fresno     counties4 ,most  
of the largest trees were cut long ago4 
,the leaves are lobed like white oak    
7,quercus alba7 but are     smaller1    
seldom more than four inches long and   
two wide4 ,the acorns     are uncommonly
 long1 some of them being two and a half
 inches1 sharp     pointed1 with shallow
 cups4 ,the wood of this oak is brash   
and breaks     easily4 ,it is far below 
good eastern oak in strength and        
elasticity4     ,it weighs #df4ag pounds
 per cubic foot4 ,the tree grows        
rapidly1 and     its wide1 clearly      
defined annual rings are largely dense  
summerwood4     ,the springwood is      
perforated with large pores4 ,the color 
of the wood     is light brown1 the     

sapwood lighter4 ,except as fuel1 the   
uses found     for valley oak hardly    
come up to what might be expected of a  
tree so     large4 ,it is not difficult1
 or at least was not difficult once1 to 
cut logs sixteen feet long and from     
three to five in diameter4 ,such        
logs ought to make good lumber4 ,the    
medullary rays indicate that the        
wood can be quarter-sawed to advantage2 
yet there is no account that     any    
serious attempt was ever made to convert
 the valley oak into     lumber4 ,the   
wood has some objectionable properties1 
but it has     escaped the sawmill      
chiefly because hardwood mills have     
never been     numerous in ,california1 
and they have been especially few in the
     regions where the best valley oaks 
grow4 ,the tree has been a great        
source of fuel4 ,it usually divides     
twenty or thirty feet from the          
ground into large1 wide-spreading       
branches1 tempting to the               
woodchopper4 ,in central ,california1   

twenty or thirty years ago1 it     was  
not unusual to haul this cordwood       
twenty-five miles to market4            
,stockmen employed posts and rails split
 from valley oak to enclose     corrals 
and pens on the open plains for holding 
cattle1 sheep1 and     horses4 ,the     
acorns are edible1 and were formerly an 
article of food     for ,indians who    
gathered them in considerable quantities
 in the fall     and stored them for    
winter in large baskets which were      
secured high     in the forks of trees  
to be out of reach of all ordinary      
marauders4     ,the baskets were made   
rain proof by roofing and wrapping them 
with     grass4 ,when the time came for 
eating the acorns1 they were prepared   
for use by hulling them and then        
pounding them into meal in stone        
mortars4 ,the hulling was done with the 
teeth1 and was the work of     squaws4  
,the custom of eating the acorns has    
largely ceased with the     passing of  
the wild ,indians from their former     

camping places2 but     the stone       
mortars by hundreds remain in the       
vicinity of former     stands of valley 
oak4      ,this splendid tree is highly 
ornamental1 but it has not been         
planted1 and perhaps it will not become 
popular4 ,nature seems to     have      
confined it to a certain climate1 and it
 is not known that it     will thrive   
outside of it4 ,it will certainly       
disappear from many of     the valleys  
where the largest trees once grew4 ,the 
land is being     taken for fields and  
vineyards1 and the oaks are removed4    
,some will     remain in canyons and    
rough places where the land is not      
wanted1 and     one of the finest       
species of the ,united ,states will     
cease to pass     entirely from earth4  
,the largest of these oaks have a spread
 of     branches covering more than     
one-third of an acre4  ,illustration    
,,live ,,oak  ,illustration3 ,,live     
,,oak     ,,live ,,oak  7,quercus       
,virginiana7   ,the history of this live

 oak is a reversal of the history of    
almost every other important forest tree
 of the ,united ,states4 ,it seems to be
 the lone exception to the rule that the
 use of a certain wood never decreases  
until forced by scarcity4 ,there was a  
time when hardly any wood in this       
country was in greater demand than this1
 and now there is hardly one in less    
demand4 ,the decline has not been the   
result of scarcity1 for there has never 
been a time when plenty was not in      
sight4 ,a few years ago1 several fine   
live oaks were cut in making street     
changes in ,new ,orleans1 and a number  
of sound logs1 over three feet in       
diameter1 were rolled aside1 and it was 
publicly announced that anyone who would
 take them away could have them4 ,no one
 took them4 ,it is doubtful if that     
could happen with timber of any other   
kind4  ,the situation was different #abj
 years ago4 ,at that time live oak was  
in such demand that the government1 soon
 after the adoption of the constitution1

 became anxious lest enough could not be
 had to meet the requirements of the    
navy department4 ,the keels of the first
 war vessels built by this government   
were about to be laid1 and the most     
necessary material for their            
construction was live oak4 ,the vessels 
were to be of wood1 of course2 and their
 strength and reliability depended upon 
the size and quality of the heavy braces
 used in the lower framework4 ,these    
braces were called knees and were       
crooked at right angles4 ,they were     
hewed in solid pieces1 and the largest  
weighed nearly #a1jjj pounds4 ,no other 
wood was as suitable as live oak1 which 
is very strong1 and it grows knees in   
the form desired4 ,the crooks produced  
by the junction of large roots with the 
base of the trunk were selected1 and    
shipbuilders with saws1 broadaxes1 and  
adzes cut them in the desired sizes and 
shapes4  ,when the building of the first
 ships of the navy was undertaken1 the  
alarm was sounded that live oak was     

scarce1 and that speculators were buying
 it to sell to ,european governments4   
,congress appropriated large sums of    
money and bought islands and other lands
 along the south ,atlantic and ,gulf    
coast1 where the best live oak grew4 ,in
 ,louisiana alone the government bought 
#cg1jjj live oak trees1 as well as large
 numbers in ,florida and ,georgia4 ,in  
some instances the land on which the    
trees stood was bought4  ,ship          
carpenters were sent from ,new ,england 
to hew knees for the first vessels of   
the navy4 ,the story of the troubles and
 triumphs of the contractors and knee   
cutters is an interesting one1 but too  
long for even a summary here2 suffice it
 that in due time the vessels were      
finished4 ,the history of those vessels 
is almost a history of the early ,united
 ,states navy4 ,among their first duties
 when they put to sea was to fight      
,french warships1 when this country was 
about to get into trouble with          
,napoleon4 ,they then fought the pirates

 of ,north ,africa1 and there one of the
 ships was burned by its own men to     
prevent its falling into the hands of   
the enemy4 8,old ,ironsides10 another of
 the live oak vessels1 fought fourteen  
ships1 one at a time1 during the war of 
#ahab1 and whipped them all4 ,another of
 the vessels was less fortunate4 ,it was
 lost in battle1 in which its commander1
 ,lawrence1 was killed1 whose last words
 have become historic3 8,don't give up  
the ship40 ,another came down to the    
,civil war and was sunk in ,chesapeake  
bay4  ,the invention of iron vessels    
ended the demand for live oak knees4    
,the government held its land where this
 timber grew for a long time1 but       
finally disposed of most of it4 ,part of
 that owned in ,florida was recently    
incorporated in one of the ,national    
,forests of that state4  ,live oak is a 
tree of striking appearance4 ,it prefers
 the open1 and when of large size its   
spread of branches often is twice the   
height of the tree4 ,its trunk is short1

 but massy1 and of enormous strength2   
otherwise it could not sustain the great
 weight of its heavy branches4 ,some of 
the largest limbs are nearly two feet in
 diameter where they leave the trunk1   
and are fifty feet long1 and some are   
seventy-five feet in length4 ,probably  
the only tree in this country with a    
wider spread of branches is the valley  
oak of ,california4 ,the live oak's     
trunk is too short for more than one    
sawlog1 and that of moderate length4    
,the largest specimens may be seventy   
feet high and six or seven feet in      
diameter1 and yet not good for a        
sixteen-foot log4 ,the enormous roots   
are of no use now4 ,when land is cleared
 of this oak1 the stumps are left to    
rot4  ,the range of live oak extends    
#d1jjj miles or more northeast and      
southwest4 ,it begins on the coast of   
,virginia and ends in ,central ,america4
 ,it is found in ,lower ,california and 
in ,cuba4 ,in southern ,united ,states  
it sticks pretty closely to the coastal 

plains1 though large trees grow #bjj or 
#cjj feet above tide level4 ,in ,texas  
it is inclined to rise higher on the    
mountains1 but live oak in ,texas seldom
 measures up to that which grows further
 east4 ,in southern ,texas1 where the   
land is poor and dry1 live oak          
degenerates into a shrub4 ,trees only a 
foot high sometimes bear acorns4 ,in all
 its range in this country1 it is known 
by but one ,english name1 given it      
because it is evergreen4 ,the leaves    
remain on the tree about thirteen       
months1 following the habit of a number 
of other oaks4 ,when new leaves appear1 
the old ones get out of the way4  ,the  
wood is very heavy1 hard1 strong1 and   
tough4 ,in strength and stiffness it    
rates higher than white oak1 and it is  
twelve pounds a cubic foot heavier4 ,the
 sapwood is light in color1 the         
heartwood brown1 sometimes quite dark4  
,the pores in the sapwood are open1 but 
many of them are closed in heartwood4   
,the annual rings are moderately well   

defined4 ,the large pores are in the    
springwood1 and those of the summerwood 
are smaller1 but numerous4 ,the         
medullary rays are numerous and dark4   
,measured radially1 they are shorter    
than those of many other oaks4 ,they    
show well in quarter-sawed lumber1 but  
are arranged peculiarly1 and do not form
 large groups of figures2 but the wood  
presents a rather flecked or wavy       
appearance4 ,the general tone is dark   
brown and very rich4 ,it takes a smooth 
polish4 ,when the wood is worked into   
spindles and small articles1 and        
brightly polished1 its appearance       
suggests dark polished granite1 but the 
similitude is not sustained under close 
examination4 ,grills composed of small  
spindles and scrollwork are strikingly  
beautiful if displayed in light which   
does the wood justice4 ,composite panels
 are manufactured by joining narrow     
strips edge to edge4 ,selected pieces of
 dressed live oak suggest ,circassian   
walnut1 but would not pass as an        

imitation on close inspection4 ,it may  
be stated generally that live oak is far
 from being a dead1 flat wood1 but is   
capable of being worked for various     
effects4 ,its value as a cabinet        
material has not been appreciated in the
 past1 nor have its possibilities been  
suspected4 ,it dropped out of notice    
when shipbuilders dispensed with it1 and
 people seem to have taken for granted  
that it had no value for anything else4 
,the form of the trunks makes possible  
the cutting of short stock only2 but    
there is abundance of it4 ,it fringes a 
thousand miles of coast4 ,many a trunk1 
short though it is1 will cut easily a   
thousand feet of lumber4 ,working the   
large roots in veneer has not been      
undertaken1 but good judges of veneers1 
who know what the stumps and roots      
contain1 have expressed the opinion that
 a field is there awaiting development4 
,published reports of the uses of woods 
of various states seldom mention live   
oak4 ,in ,texas some of it is employed  

in the manufacture of parquet flooring4 
,it is dark and contrasts with the      
blocks or strips of maple or some other 
light wood4 ,it is turned in the lathe  
for newel posts for stairs1 and         
contributes to other parts of stair     
work4 ,in ,louisiana it is occasionally 
found in shops where vehicles are made4 
,it meets requirements as axles for     
heavy wagons4 ,stone masons' mauls are  
made of live oak knots4 ,they stand     
nearly as much pounding as lignum-vit4  
,more live oak is cut for fuel than for 
all other purposes4 ,it develops much   
heat1 but a large quantity of ashes     
remains4  ,the live oak is the most     
highly valued ornamental tree of the    
,south1 though it has seldom been       
planted4 ,nature placed these oaks where
 they are growing4 ,many an old southern
 homestead sits well back in groves of  
live oak4 ,parks and plazas in towns    
have them1 and would not part with them 
on any terms4 ,tallahassee1 ,florida1 is
 almost buried under live oaks which in 

earlier years sheltered the wigwams of  
an ,indian town4 ,villages near the     
coasts of both the ,gulf and the        
,atlantic in several southern states    
have their venerable trees large enough 
for half the people to find shade       
beneath the branches at one time4 ,many 
fine stands have been cut in recent     
years to make room for corn1 cane1 and  
rice4  ,many persons associate the live 
oak with ,spanish moss which festoons   
its branches in the ,gulf region4 ,the  
moss is no part of the tree1 and        
apparently draws no substance from it1  
though it may smother the leaves by     
accumulation1 or break the branches by  
its weight4 ,strictly speaking1 the     
beard-like growth is not moss at all1   
but a sort of pine apple 7,dendropogon  
usenoides7 which simply hangs on the    
limbs and draws its sustenance from     
water and air4 ,it is found on other    
trees1 besides live oak1 and dealers in 
,louisiana alone sell half a million    
dollars worth of it a year to           

upholsterers in all the principal       
countries of the world4  ,illustration  
,,red ,,oak  ,illustration3 ,,red ,,oak 
,,red ,,oak#d  7,quercus ,rubra7      #d
 ,red oak belongs to the black oak      
group4 ,other species usually     listed
 as black oaks are ,pin oak 7,quercus   
palustris71 ,georgia oak     7,quercus  
georgiana71 ,texan red oak 7,quercus    
texana71 ,scarlet oak     7,quercus     
coccinea71 ,yellow oak 7,quercus        
velutina71 ,california     black oak    
7,quercus californica71 ,turkey oak     
7,quercus catesbi71     ,spanish oak    
7,quercus digitata71 ,black ,jack oak   
7,quercus     marilandica71 ,water oak  
7,quercus nigra71 ,willow oak 7,quercus 
phellos71 ,laurel oak 7,quercus         
laurifolia71 ,blue ,jack oak            
7,quercus brevifolia71 ,shingle oak     
7,quercus imbricaria71     ,whiteleaf   
oak 7,quercus hypoleuca71 ,highland oak 
7,quercus     wislizeni71 ,myrtle oak   
7,quercus myrtifolia71 ,california live 
oak     7,quercus agrifolia--sometimes  

classed with white oaks71 ,canyon       
live oak 7,quercus chrysolepis71 an     
evergreen oak with no ,english     name1
 7,quercus tomentella71 ,price oak      
7,quercus pricei71 ,morehus     oak     
7,quercus morehus71 ,tanbark oak        
7,quercus densiflora71 ,barren     oak  
7,quercus pumila74   ,when a lumberman  
speaks of red oak he may mean any one of
 a good many kinds of trees1 but when a 
botanist or forester uses that name he  
means one particular species and no     
other4 ,for that reason there is much   
uncertainty as to what species is in the
 lumberman's mind when he speaks of red 
oak4 ,it means more to him than a single
 species1 depending to a considerable   
extent upon the part of the country     
where he is doing business4 ,if he is in
 the ,gulf states1 and has in mind a    
tree which grows there1 he does not     
refer to the tree known to botanists as 
red oak4 ,he may mean the ,texan or     
southern red oak 7,quercus texana71 or  
the willow oak 7,quercus phellos71 or   

the yellow oak 7,quercus velutina71 or  
any one of several others which grow in 
that region2 but the typical red oak    
does not grow farther south than the    
mountains of northern ,georgia2 and any 
one who is cutting oak south or         
southwest of there1 is cutting other    
than the true red oak4 ,that does not   
imply that he is handling something     
inferior1 for very fine oak grows there2
 but in an effort to separate the       
commercial black oaks into respective   
species1 it is necessary to define them 
by metes and bounds of ranges as well as
 to describe them by characteristics of 
leaves1 acorns1 and wood4 ,the time will
 probably never come in this country    
when the sawmill man will pile each     
species of oak separately in his yard1  
and sell separately2 but the tendency is
 in that direction4 ,the twenty-five or 
more black oaks in this country all have
 some characteristics in common2 but    
they are by no means all valuable alike1
 or all useful for the same purposes4   

,for that reason1 the demands of trade  
require1 and will require more and more 
as higher utilization is reached1 that  
certain kinds of red oak or black oak be
 sold separately4  ,what lumbermen call 
red oaks1 speaking in the plural1       
botanists prefer to call black oaks4    
,the difference is only a difference in 
name for the same group of trees4 ,the  
general dark color of the bark suggests 
the name to botanists1 while the red    
tint of the wood appeals more to the    
lumberman1 and he prefers the general   
name red oaks for the group4 ,they      
mature their acorns the second year1    
while the trees belonging to the white  
oak group ripen theirs the first year4  
,there are other differences1 some of   
which are apparent to the casual        
observer1 and others are seen only by   
the trained eye--often aided by the     
microscope--of the dendrologist4        
,several of the black oaks have leaves  
with sharp pointed lobes1 ending in     
bristles4 ,this helps to separate them  

from the white oaks1 but not from one   
another1 for the true red oak1 the      
scarlet oak1 the yellow oak1 the pin    
oak1 and others1 have the sharp-pointed 
lobes on their leaves2 while the willow 
oaks have no lobes or bristles on       
theirs1 yet are as truly in the black   
oak group as any of the others4 ,the    
identification of tree species1         
particularly when they are as much alike
 as some of the oaks are1 is too        
difficult for the layman if he          
undertakes to carry it along the whole  
line2 but it is comparatively easy if   
confined to the leading woods only4 ,an 
understanding of the geographical range 
of a certain tree often helps to        
separate it from others4 ,the knowledge 
that a tree does not grow in a          
particular part of the country1 is proof
 at once that a tree in that region     
resembling it must be something else4   
,if that principal is borne in mind it  
will greatly lessen mistakes in         
identifying trees4 ,in accounts of the  

black oaks in the following pages1 a    
careful delimiting of ranges will be    
attempted in the case of each4  ,the    
range of red oak extends from ,nova     
,scotia and southern ,new ,brunswick    
through ,quebec and along the northern  
shore of ,lake ,huron1 west to          
,nebraska4 ,it covers the ,ohio valley  
and reaches as far south as middle      
,tennessee4 ,it runs south through the  
,atlantic states to ,virginia1 while    
among the ,appalachian mountains the    
range is prolonged southward into       
northern ,georgia4 ,that is the tree's  
extreme southern limit4 ,it reaches its 
largest size in the region north of the 
,ohio river1 and among the mountain     
valleys of ,west ,virginia1 and         
southward to ,tennessee and ,north      
,carolina4 ,it is a northern species4   
,toward its southern limit it meets the 
northern part of the ,texan red oak's   
range 7,quercus texana74 ,there is some 
overlapping1 and in many localities the 
two species grow side by side4  ,the red

 oak is known by that name in all parts 
of its range1 but in some regions it is 
called black oak1 and in others ,spanish
 oak4 ,the latter name properly belongs 
to another oak 7,quercus digitata7 which
 touches it along the southern border of
 its range4  ,the average size of red   
oak in the best part of its range is a  
little under that of white oak1 but some
 specimens are #aej feet high and six   
feet in diameter4 ,heights of seventy   
and eighty feet are usual1 and diameters
 of three and four are frequent4 ,the   
forest grown tree disposes of its lower 
limbs early in life1 and develops a     
long1 smooth trunk1 with a narrow crown4
 ,the bark on young stems and on the    
upper parts of limbs of old trees is    
smooth and light gray4 ,all leaves do   
not have the same number of lobes1 and  
they are sharp pointed1 and fall early  
in autumn4  ,the acorns are bitter1 and 
are regarded as poor mast4 ,hogs will   
leave them alone if they can find white 
oak acorns1 and squirrels will do       

likewise4 ,the best red oak timber grows
 from acorns1 though stumps will send up
 sprouts4 ,the sprout growth may become 
trees of fairly large size1 but they are
 apt to decay at the butt4 ,the         
acorn-grown tree is as free from defects
 as the average forest tree4 ,cracks    
sometimes develop in the trunk1         
extending up and down many feet4 ,unless
 the logs are carefully sawed1 a        
considerable loss occurs where these    
cracks cross the boards4 ,trunks are    
occasionally bored by worms1 as all     
other oaks may be4  ,red oak grows      
rapidly4 ,it will produce small sawlogs 
in the lifetime of a man4 ,it is a      
favorite tree for crossties1 and        
railroads have made large plantings for 
that purpose4 ,the ties do not last well
 in their natural state1 but they are   
easy to treat with preservatives by     
which several years are added to their  
period of service4 ,it has been a       
favorite tree with ,european planters   
for the past two hundred years2 but the 

most of the plantings beyond the sea    
have been for ornament in parks and     
private grounds4  ,the principal        
interest in red oak in this country is  
due to its value for lumber4 ,that      
interest is of comparatively recent     
date4 ,some red oak has always been used
 for rails1 clapboards1 slack cooperage1
 and rough lumber2 but while white oak  
was cheap and plentiful1 sawmill men    
usually let red oak alone4 ,it had a    
poor reputation1 which is now known to  
have been undeserved4  ,red oak is      
lighter than white oak1 and it is       
generally regarded as possessing less   
strength and stiffness4 ,the wide rings 
of annual growth1 and the distinct      
layers of springwood and summerwood1    
give the basis for good figure4 ,to this
 may be added broad and regular         
medullary rays which are nicely brought 
out by quarter-sawing4 ,the tone of the 
wood is red1 to which fact the name red 
oak is due4 ,it has large1 open pores4  
,a magnifying glass is not required to  

see them in the end of a stick4 ,it is  
said that smoke may be blown through a  
piece of red oak a foot in length4      
,these open pores disqualify the wood   
for use in tight cooperage4 ,liquids    
will leak through the pores4 ,statistics
 of sawmill output in this country do   
not separate the white and black oaks1  
and the quantity of lumber sawed from   
any one species is not known4           
,manufacturers are disposed to separate 
them4 ,some furniture makers use red oak
 exclusively for certain purposes1 and  
the same rule is followed by makers of  
other commodities4  ,illustration       
,,texan ,,red ,,oak  ,illustration3     
,,texan ,,red ,,oak     ,,texan ,,red   
,,oak  7,quercus ,texana7   ,the line   
between red oak 7,quercus rubra7 and    
,texan red oak is closely drawn by      
botanists1 but lumbermen do not         
recognize much difference except toward 
the extreme ranges of each4 ,some call  
one simply red oak and the other        
southern red oak1 but that leaves       

doubtful the timber on a large area     
occupied by both species4 ,their ranges 
overlap two or three hundred miles in   
the ,ohio valley and on the southern    
tributaries of the ,ohio river in       
,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,a large      
amount of red oak from that region goes 
to market1 and no one knows1 and few    
care1 whether it is of the northern or  
southern species4 ,it is usually a      
mixture of both4 ,but outside of the    
common zone where both trees grow1 the  
woods of the two are kept fairly well   
separate4 ,thirty years ago ,texan red  
oak received slight recognition from    
botanists4 ,when ,charles ,s4 ,sargent  
compiled in #ahhj a volume of over #fjj 
pages1 8,forest ,trees of ,north        
,america10 for the ,united ,states      
government1 and which was published as  
volume #i of the ,tenth ,census1 he did 
not so much as accord this tree the     
dignity of a species1 but called it a   
variety of the common red oak4 ,its     
range and its great importance were     

little understood at that time4 ,sargent
 thus described its range3 8,western    
,texas1 valley of the ,colorado river   
with the species and replacing it south 
and west1 extending to the valley of the
 ,neuces river and the ,limpia          
mountains40  ,compare that restricted   
range with that given by the same author
 twenty-five years later in his 8,manual
 of the ,trees of ,north ,america40 ,he 
gives it thus3 8,northeastern ,iowa and 
central ,illinois1 through southern     
,illinois and ,indiana and western      
,kentucky and ,tennessee1 to the valley 
of the ,apalachicola river1 ,florida1   
northern ,georgia1 central ,south       
,carolina1 and the coast plains of      
,north ,carolina1 and through southern  
,missouri1 ,arkansas1 and ,louisiana to 
the mountains of western ,texas2 most   
abundant and of its largest size on the 
low bottom lands of the ,mississippi    
basin1 often forming a considerable part
 of lowland forests2 less abundant in   
the eastern ,gulf states2 in western    

,texas on low limestone hills and on    
bottom lands in the neighborhood of     
streams40  ,this quotation is given in  
full because it shows how scientific men
 change their opinions to conform to new
 evidence4 ,the range of that particular
 species was as wide in #ahhj as in     
#aije1 but botanists had not yet worked 
it out4 ,thus knowledge increases       
constantly1 and year by year the        
resources of ,american forests are      
better understood4 ,in this instance1   
what in #ahhj was supposed to be a      
rather insignificant variety1 occupying 
a restricted area in ,texas1 was found  
by #aije to be a separate species1      
covering sixteen states in whole or in  
part4 ,similar progress concerning the  
forests has been made all over the      
country1 not only by botanists but by   
lumbermen4 ,trees which were formerly   
considered so nearly alike that no      
distinctions were made1 are now         
recognized to be quite different4  ,the 
,texan red oak is frequently called     

spotted oak4 ,the appearance of the bark
 suggests the name4 ,large1 irregular1  
whitish patches cover the trunks4 ,that 
peculiarity is not noticeable everywhere
 and on all trees1 but is common west of
 the ,mississippi river4 ,the tree is   
sometimes known as ,spanish oak in the  
southwestern part of its range1 but the 
name is ill-advised1 for the true       
,spanish oak 7,quercus digitata7 occurs 
in the same region4 ,the most usual name
 for this species1 in nearly all parts  
of its range1 is simply red oak4  ,the  
,texan red oak varies greatly in size of
 trees1 as is natural in so wide a      
geographical range4 ,trees have been    
reported #bjj feet high and eight feet  
in diameter2 but sizes like that are    
extraordinary and attempts to locate    
anything approaching them at this day   
have not been successful4 ,the average  
in the lower ,mississippi valley is     
eighty or ninety feet in height1 and two
 or three in diameter4 ,in ,texas this  
size is seldom reached1 the average not 

much exceeding half of it4  ,the leaves 
of ,texan red oak are about half the    
size of those of the northern species4  
,that alone will not serve to separate  
them1 because of such great variation4  
,it applies only to averages4 ,the      
southern trees' leaves are from three to
 six inches long1 two to five wide2 the 
northern species bears leaves from five 
to nine inches long and four to six     
wide4 ,the acorns of the two species do 
not show so much difference in size4    
,the states which use ,texan red oak in 
largest amounts are ,alabama1           
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1 and   
,arkansas1 though some of this wood     
finds its way to northern markets where 
it passes as red oak without any        
questions4 ,that condition renders very 
difficult the task of separating the    
woods4 ,it is not so difficult further  
south where the true red oak is seldom  
seen4 ,shipments go north1 not south4   
,the two red oaks mingle in the lumber  
yards north of the ,ohio river1 but     

seldom south of the ,tennessee river4   
,investigations made by the ,forest     
,service of the utilization of woods in 
various states show that factories      
report the annual use of ,texan red oak 
as follows3 ,louisiana #a1ggg1jjj feet1 
,mississippi #b1djj1jjj1 ,texas         
#b1had1jjj1 ,alabama #e1ejj1jjj1 and    
,arkansas #ci1cja1jjj4 ,this does not   
include lumber or other forest products 
used in the rough1 or lumber shipped out
 of the respective states4  ,texan red  
oak is heavier than its northern        
relative1 hard1 light1 reddish-brown1   
much of it of rapid growth1 with wide1  
clearly defined annual rings4 ,the      
medullary rays are prominent1 and show  
well in quarter-sawing4 ,the best of the
 wood is as strong as red oak1 and      
compares favorably with it in physical  
properties4  ,one of the most exacting  
uses of wood is for fixtures1 such as   
counters in stores1 bars in saloons1    
partitions in banks and counting rooms1 
and standing desks in offices4 ,extra   

wide and long pieces are required1 and  
they must show satisfactory figure1 and 
be finished to harmonize with the       
interior of the room where they are     
placed4 ,texan red oak is selected by   
builders in many southern cities for    
that class of fixtures1 and it meets the
 requirements4 ,it is used also for     
interior finish and furniture1 and stair
 work4  ,like most members of the black 
oak group1 the wood is inclined to rot  
quickly in damp situations1 but it      
measures well up to the average of the  
group to which it belongs4 ,it is often 
employed in the ,south as bridge        
material1 particularly as flooring for  
wagon bridges1 where the wood's hardness
 is its chief recommendation4 ,much is  
converted into flooring for halls1      
houses1 and factories4  ,the available  
supply of this valuable wood in the     
forests of the ,south is not known1 but 
there is little doubt that it exists in 
larger quantities than any other species
 of oak within its range4 ,perhaps in   

total quantity it exceeds red oak       
7,quercus rubra7 in the whole ,united   
,states4 ,it is quite generally         
distributed over an area exceeding      
#cjj1jjj square miles1 and toward the   
western part1 it is the prevailing oak4 
,the future of this oak is assured4 ,it 
is now cut at a rapid rate1 and         
doubtless the annual growth falls short 
of the yearly demand2 but it occurs in a
 range so extensive that scarcity will  
not come for a long period4 ,if the time
 ever comes in the ,south when planted  
timber must be depended upon to meet the
 needs of the people1 this oak will fill
 an important place in woodlots4 ,it    
does not grow as rapidly as willow oak1 
but its range is more extensive1 and it 
possesses certain desirable properties  
not found in willow oak4 ,the acorns are
 rather poor mast1 and this is in the   
tree's favor1 for the seed will be left 
to grow instead of being devoured by    
hogs and small animals of the woods4 ,in
 that respect it has an advantage over  

cow oak and the other white oaks which  
occupy parts of its range4 ,their acorns
 are sought as food by domestic and wild
 animals4 ,texan red oak prunes itself  
well when it grows in close stands1 but 
is low and limby when it occupies open  
ground4 ,the trunks vary in form1 but   
are inclined to enlarge at the base1    
particularly when they grow in low1 damp
 situations1 as many of the best do in  
the ,south4      ,,georgia ,,oak        
7,quercus georgiana7 is one of the minor
 oaks of the     ,south and has not been
 found outside of ,georgia4 ,it grows in
 the     central part of the state on   
,stone mountain and on a few other      
granite hills4 ,whether the species     
originated there and was never     able 
to work its way down to the more        
congenial valleys below1 or     whether 
it once grew lower down and was crowded 
to its last retreat     by other        
species1 is not known4 ,but an interest 
attaches to it from     the very fact   
that its range is so restricted and that

 its habitat     is on the sterile      
summits4 ,lumbermen care nothing about  
this tree4     ,few of them ever saw it 
or heard of it4 ,the trunk is small1 the
     acorns only from one-third to half 
an inch long1 and the leaves are     of 
a form midway between those of pin oak  
and turkey oak4 ,the     characters of  
the wood have not been reported1 but    
since there is     not enough of it to  
have any commercial value1 the matter is
 not     very important4  ,illustration 
,,yellow ,,oak  ,illustration3 ,,yellow 
,,oak     ,,yellow ,,oak  7,quercus     
,velutina7   ,this tree is known as     
black oak in ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1  
,rhode ,island1 ,new ,york1 ,new        
,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1      
,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1 ,north      
,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1  
,alabama1 ,florida1 ,mississippi1       
,louisiana1 ,texas1 ,ohio1 ,illinois1   
,iowa1 ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 ,michigan1   
,wisconsin1 ,minnesota and ,ontario2    
quercitron oak in ,delaware1 ,south     

,carolina1 ,louisiana1 ,kansas and      
,minnesota2 yellow oak in ,rhode        
,island1 ,new ,york1 ,illinois1 ,texas1 
,kansas and ,minnesota2 tanbark oak in  
,illinois2 yellow-bark oak in ,minnesota
 and ,rhode ,island2 spotted oak in     
,missouri2 dyer's oak in ,texas2 and    
yellow butt oak in ,mississippi4  ,those
 who call this tree black oak have in   
mind the bark which is usually quite    
dark1 though all members of this species
 do not present the same appearance in  
that respect4 ,some trunks are gray1 and
 in color do not greatly differ from    
white oaks1 but would hardly be mistaken
 for them4 ,tanbark oak1 a name         
occasionally given to this tree1 is not 
applied in the region where chestnut oak
 grows1 because it is much inferior to  
chestnut oak as tanning material4 ,it is
 not only poorer in tannin1 but the     
coloring matter associated with the     
inner bark is troublesome to the tanner 
who is compelled to remove it or        
neutralize it unless he wants his       

leather given a yellow tone4 ,dyer's oak
 is a name which refers to the value of 
the bark for coloring purposes4 ,the    
botanical name velutina refers to the   
velvety texture of the inner bark4      
,this oak is one of the easiest to      
identify4 ,the inner layer of the bark  
is yellow4 ,the point of a knife easily 
reaches it2 cutting through a deep crack
 in the bark1 and no mistake is         
possible1 for no other oak has the      
yellow layer of bark4 ,the tree may be  
identified by leaves1 flowers1 and      
fruit1 but the process is not always    
easy1 for other members of the black oak
 group bear more or less resemblance to 
this one4  ,the yellow oak's range      
extends over nearly or quite a million  
square miles4 ,it exceeds the limits of 
most oaks in its geographical extension4
 ,it endures severe winters and hot     
summers4 ,the northern limit of its     
range lies in ,maine2 it grows westward 
across southern ,canada to ,minnesota2  
it extends two hundred miles west of the

 ,mississippi into eastern ,nebraska and
 ,kansas1 and follows that meridian     
south into ,texas4 ,it reaches the ,gulf
 of ,mexico east of the ,mississippi1   
and is found in many localities in all  
the southern states1 and along the      
foothills of the ,appalachian ranges4   
,it attains its largest size in the     
lower ,ohio valley4 ,the average height 
is seventy or eighty feet1 and its      
diameter two or three feet4 ,in some    
localities the trees are scrubby and    
produce little merchantable timber4     
,the growth rings are only moderately   
wide in the typical yellow oak2 the ring
 is divided nearly evenly between       
springwood and summerwood4 ,the former  
contains two or three rows of large1    
open pores4 ,the medullary rays are     
fewer and smaller than those commonly   
found in oaks4 ,a general average of the
 properties of the wood is somewhat     
difficult to give1 because of remarkable
 variation in trees which grow under    
different conditions4 ,in some          

instances1 where the soil is fertile and
 climate favorable1 the yellow oak      
produces a large1 clear trunk1 with     
sound wood1 of good color1 and equal to 
that of red oak2 but the reverse is     
often the case--trunks are small and    
rough1 wood hard and brittle1 color not 
satisfactory1 and strength not up to    
standard4 ,sometimes first class yellow 
oak passes without question as good red 
oak in the finish and furniture         
business1 but that is not its usual     
course4 ,well developed wood is heavy1  
hard1 strong1 bright brown1 tinged with 
red1 with thin1 lighter colored sapwood4
 ,its weight is #dc4i pounds per cubic  
foot4  ,the uses of yellow oak follow   
red oak pretty closely1 but are not so  
extensive4 ,figures cannot be given to  
show the total annual cut of yellow oak1
 but the output is likely much below red
 oak1 though it is found over a wider   
area1 and some of it gets into the      
lumber yards in all regions where it    
grows4 ,it is made into furniture from  

,maine to ,louisiana4 ,in cheaper grades
 of furniture1 it may be the outside    
material1 but its place is usually as   
frame stock1 to give strength1 but is   
not visible in the finished article4 ,an
 exception to this is found in chairs   
where yellow oak is one of several      
species which go regularly to the       
sawmills which cut chair stock4         
,massachusetts snow plow makers use it1 
but of course it fills no such place in 
the ,south4 ,in ,mississippi1           
,louisiana1 and ,texas it is bought by  
manufacturers of agricultural machinery4
 ,it is worked into cotton gins in      
,mississippi4 ,some extra fine stands of
 this oak occur in the ,delta region of 
,mississippi4 ,frames of freight cars   
are made of it in ,louisiana and ,texas1
 and warehouse and depot floors are     
occasionally laid of this lumber4 ,it is
 floor material in ,michigan also1 but  
that is of a better class than is       
required for warehouses4 ,it is not     
infrequently sold as red oak for        

flooring and interior finish4           
,throughout the whole extent of yellow  
oak's range it finds its way to wagon   
shops4 ,it is less tough than white oak1
 but in many places1 such as bolsters1  
sandboards1 and hounds1 it serves as    
well4 ,warehouse trucks and push cars   
are of this wood in many instances4     
,slack coopers convert this wood into   
their wares in many regions4 ,the pores 
are too open to permit its use as tight 
cooperage1 where liquids are to be      
contained1 but for barrels and kegs of  
many kinds1 as well as for boxes1       
baskets1 and crates1 it meets all       
requirements4 ,it is good fuel4 ,many   
burners of brick and pottery show it    
preference1 and charcoal burners make a 
clean sweep of it when it occurs in the 
course of their operations2 though when 
it is desirable to save the by-products 
of charcoal kilns or retorts1 yellow oak
 is considered less valuable than birch1
 beech1 and maple4  ,the bark of this   
tree is employed less now than formerly 

for dyeing purposes4 ,aniline dyes have 
taken its place4 ,in pioneer times the  
bark was one of the best coloring       
materials the people had1 and every     
family looked after its own supply as   
carefully as it provided sassafras bark 
for tea1 slippery elm bark for          
poultices1 and witch hazel for gargles4 
,the oak bark was peeled1 dried1 and    
pounded to a powder4 ,the mass was      
sifted1 and the yellow particles1 being 
finer than the black bark1 passed       
through the screen1 and were set apart  
for the dye kettle1 while the screenings
 were rejected4 ,various arts and       
sciences were called into requisition to
 add to or take from the natural color  
which the bark gave the cloth4 ,salts of
 iron were commonly employed to modify  
the deepness of the yellow4  ,the acorns
 of this oak are bitter1 and escape the 
mast hunters4 ,old stumps have little   
need to send up sprouts1 for acorns keep
 the species alive4 ,yellow oaks are in 
no immediate danger of extermination4   

,nature plants generously1 and the tree 
can get along on poor soil where the    
farm hunter is not apt to molest it4 ,it
 has a fairly thick bark1 and is able to
 take care of itself in a moderate fire1
 except when the seedlings are quite    
small4 ,the young tree's tap root is    
much developed1 and goes deep for       
moisture1 and the growing sapling       
flourishes on ground where some other   
species would suffer for water4         
,,whiteleaf ,,oak 7,quercus hypoleuca74 
,the beauty of this small     evergreen 
oak of the mountains of western ,texas1 
,new ,mexico1 and     ,arizona1 is in   
its foliage rather than its wood4 ,large
 trunks--that     is1 those twenty      
inches or more in diameter--are apt to  
be hollow1     but the sound wood is    
employed in repairing wagons in local   
shops1     and in rough ranch timbers4  
,its importance will never extend beyond
     the region where it grows1 but in  
that region it will continue to be      
used where nothing better can be        

obtained4 ,the largest trees are        
sixty feet high1 and two in diameter1   
but few reach those     dimensions4 ,it 
is an arid land oak4 ,it grows at from  
#d1jjj to #f1jjj     feet elevations on 
mountains and plateaus4 ,the leaves     
remain     thirteen months on the twigs4
 ,they are of the willow form1 ranging  
from two to four inches in length and   
one-half to one in width4 ,the          
acorns are small and bitter4 ,the       
strength of this oak is remarkable1     
if it may be judged by the figures given
 by ,sargent4 ,two samples of     wood  
procured by himself and ,dr4 ,engelmann 
on a dry1 gravelly ground     among the 
,santa ,rita mountains in ,arizona1     
showed breaking strength     sixty-one  
per cent greater than the average given 
by the same author     for white oak4   
,the stiffness of the specimens was a   
little above     white oak1 and the     
weight three pounds more per cubic foot4
 ,it     should be borne in mind1       
however1 that results derived from a    

test     of only two samples are not a  
safe basis for concluding that the      
wood generally will average of so great 
strength4 ,the annual rings     of      
growth are not clearly marked4 ,the wood
 is porous1 but the pores     are not   
generally arranged in bands1 although   
they occasionally     follow that       
arrangement4 ,the medullary rays are    
broad and abundant1     but are rather  
short1 measured along the radial lines4 
,they are of     pink color1 a          
characteristic not unusual with oaks in 
semi-arid     regions4 ,the foliage is  
doubtless the most valuable             
characteristic     of whiteleaf oak4    
,the leaves are silver white below1 and 
dark green     above4 ,when they are    
agitated by wind the flashing of the    
different     tones and tints in the    
sunshine presents an attractive picture4
 ,it     belongs to the willow oak      
branch of the red oak group1 and bears  
two-year acorns4  ,illustration         
,,scarlet ,,oak  ,illustration3         

,,scarlet ,,oak     ,,scarlet ,,oak     
7,quercus ,coccinea7   ,the name of     
scarlet oak is in use in ,vermont1      
,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1         
,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 
,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,north        
,carolina1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1        
,indiana1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1       
,michigan1 ,nebraska1 ,iowa1 and        
,ontario2 red oak is the name in ,north 
,carolina1 ,alabama1 ,wisconsin1        
,nebraska1 and ,minnesota2 black oak in 
,nebraska1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 and        
,wisconsin1 and ,spanish oak in ,north  
,carolina4  ,the name is descriptive of 
the autumn leaves4 ,artists dispute     
among themselves whether the leaves are 
scarlet1 red1 or crimson4 ,in their     
opinion a good deal of difference exists
 between these colors1 rendering it     
quite incorrect to give one color the   
name of another4 ,as for the artists1   
they are probably correct in their      
analysis of colors1 but the general     
public knows the tree as scarlet oak1   

and it will doubtless be called by that 
name by most people who speak of the    
tree in the woods1 while those who refer
 to the wood after it is sawed will     
speak of it as red oak4  ,the leaves of 
scarlet oak are rather persistent1 and  
remain on the twigs late in the season4 
,the brilliancy of this tree is rendered
 doubly conspicuous1 when it is         
contrasted with the surrounding sombre1 
winter colors4  ,in appearance the tree 
is striking for its delicacy of foliage 
and twigs4 ,the crown is always narrow  
and open1 and in forest growth is       
compressed4 ,the height1 in good        
specimens1 is about one hundred feet1   
but it often exceeds that size4 ,in     
diameter it grows as large as four feet4
 ,the mature bark is dark in color and  
broken into broad1 smooth ridges and    
plates1 edged with red4 ,it shows a     
reddish inner bark when cut and this may
 be relied upon to identify the tree4   
,the leaves are four or five inches     
long2 deeply sinused1 three or four on a

 side2 long1 bristle-toothed lobes1     
broad at the base2 acorns bitter1 mature
 in two years2 sessile1 brown2 cup      
closely drawn in at the edge4  ,its     
range comprises the northeastern quarter
 of the ,united ,states4 ,beginning in  
southern ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire and    
,vermont1 it grows through middle ,new  
,york1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,iowa 
to eastern ,nebraska4 ,southward it     
extends along the coast through         
,virginia and inland along the mountains
 to ,south ,carolina and ,georgia4 ,the 
growth is abundant over most of the     
range1 the favorite habitat being dry1  
gravelly uplands4 ,it seems to be most  
abundant along the northern part of the 
,atlantic coast from ,massachusetts to  
,new ,jersey1 and is less common in the 
interior1 and on the prairies skirting  
the western margins of the eastern      
forests4 ,the average size of the tree  
is from seventy to eighty feet high and 
two or three in diameter4 ,in many      
regions it is much smaller1 while no    

very large trees have been reported4    
,the wood is heavy1 strong1 hard2 the   
layers of annual growth are strongly    
marked by several rows of large1 open   
ducts2 the summerwood is dense and      
occupies half the yearly ring2 the      
medullary rays are much like those of   
red oak1 though scarcely as broad4 ,they
 run in straight lines radially1 and    
show well in quarter-sawing4 ,the color 
of the wood is light brown or red1 the  
thin sapwood rather darker4  ,this wood 
is practically of the same weight as    
white oak2 but it is rated considerably 
stronger and stiffer4 ,a number of      
writers have listed scarlet oak low in  
fuel value4 ,theoretically1 the fuel    
values of woods are proportionate to    
their weights1 except that resinous     
woods must be compared with resinous1   
and non-resinous with non-resinous4 ,in 
practice1 however1 every fireman who    
feeds a furnace with wood knows that    
different woods develop different       
degrees of heat1 though they may weigh  

the same4 ,results are modified by      
various circumstances and conditions1   
and for that reason theory and practice 
are often far apart in determining how  
much heat a given quantity of wood is   
good for4  ,it is difficult to procure  
exact information regarding the uses of 
scarlet oak4 ,it never goes to market   
under its own name4 ,an examination of  
wood-using reports from a dozen states  
within scarlet oak's range does not     
reveal a single mention of this wood for
 any purpose4 ,it is certain1           
nevertheless1 that much goes to market  
and that it has many important uses4 ,it
 loses its identity and is bought and   
sold as red oak4 ,under the name of that
 wood it is manufactured into furniture1
 finish1 agricultural implements1 cars1 
boats1 wagons and other vehicles1 and   
many other articles4 ,one of the most   
important markets for scarlet oak is in 
chair factories4 ,its grain is          
attractive enough to give it place as   
outside material1 and its strength fits 

it for frames and other parts which must
 bear strain4 ,chair stock mills which  
clean up woodlots and patches of forest 
where scarlet oak grows in mixture with 
other species of oak1 take all that     
comes1 without being particular as to   
the exact kind of oak4 ,slack coopers   
follow much the same course4 ,a wood    
strong enough to meet requirements1 is  
generally acceptable4 ,scarlet oak is   
usually considered unsuitable for tight 
cooperage1 on account of the large open 
pores of the wood1 which permit leakage 
of liquids4 ,it meets considerable      
demand in the manufacture of boxes and  
crates1 particularly the latter4  ,the  
size and quality of logs which a tree   
may furnish to a sawmill is no measure  
of its full value4 ,scarlet oak is far  
better known as an ornamental tree than 
for its wood4 ,it has been planted in   
this country and in ,europe4 ,its       
brilliant foliage is greatly admired4   
,no other oak equals it1 and it compares
 favorably with sugar maple1 black gum1 

and dogwood4 ,it is an ornament to parks
 and private grounds1 though the        
brilliancy of its foliage is seldom     
exhibited to as good advantage in       
cultivation as in the native forest     
where contrasts are more numerous1 and  
nature does its work unhindered by man4 
,the scarlet oak is not a rapid grower1 
and the form of the tree is not         
perfectly symmetrical4 ,the spring      
leaves are red1 the summer foliage      
bright1 rich green1 the autumn          
scarlet--a variety not equalled by many 
forest trees4  ,,willow ,,oak 7,quercus 
phellos7 is named for its leaves which  
look like those of willow4 ,there is a  
group of such oaks with leaves similar1 
and they are known collectively as      
willow oaks4 ,the one here described may
 be considered typical of the group4    
,this oak is apt to present rather a    
surprising appearance to those who have 
seen nothing but those oaks whose leaves
 are lobed or cleft4 ,it belongs to the 
red oaks4 ,like others of this division 

it has a tendency to hybridize1 several 
varieties being known4 ,willow oak is a 
denizen of the southern ,atlantic and   
southeastern states and favors rich1    
moist soil1 either on uplands or on     
bottoms1 along the margins of streams or
 swamps4 ,it does not go inland as far  
as the foothills of the ranges and is   
found most abundantly in the basin of   
the lower ,mississippi4 ,beginning in   
,new ,york1 the range extends southward 
into ,florida1 along the ,gulf states1  
touching ,texas1 up through ,arkansas1  
touching ,missouri and ,kentucky1 down  
through western ,tennessee and southern 
,georgia rounding the southern end of   
the ,appalachians4  ,young trees have a 
slender delicate pendant appearance of  
twigs and foliage more typical of the   
willow than of oak2 but in time they    
become more rugged1 although the        
branching and foliage are always more   
delicate than is usual with oaks4 ,the  
tree attains a height of eighty feet and
 a diameter up to four feet1 but usually

 is about half of this4 ,it is clothed  
in a smooth1 brown bark1 ridged only in 
older trees4 ,the leaves are about five 
inches long and narrow in proportion1   
are of shiny1 leathery texture1 dark    
above and pale below4 ,the acorns are on
 short stalks1 solitary or in pairs1 and
 ripen in two years1 are short and      
rounded and in shallow cups4  ,the      
weight of willow oak is approximately   
the same as white oak4 ,it is slightly  
stronger but less elastic4 ,its annual  
rings contain broad bands of small open 
ducts parallel to the thin1 dark1       
medullary rays4 ,the wood is            
reddish-brown in color1 the thick       
sapwood darker brown4 ,the fuel value is
 rated the same as white oak1 but the   
wood contains more ash4  ,willow oak is 
much used in the ,south1 but usually    
under the name red oak4 ,lumbermen      
seldom speak of it as willow oak4 ,the  
species is as highly developed in       
,louisiana as anywhere else1 and the    
uses found for the wood in that state   

will probably be found for it wherever  
the tree grows in commercial quantities4
 ,a report on the manufacture of wooden 
commodities in ,louisiana1 published in 
#aiab1 listed the following uses for    
willow oak3 ,agricultural implements1   
balustrades1 bar tops1 bedsteads1       
bottoms for wagon beds1 bridge          
approaches and floors1 chairs1 church   
pews1 cot frames1 doors1 floors1 frames1
 interior finish1 molding1 newel posts1 
pulpits1 railing1 screens1 slack        
cooperage1 stairwork1 store fixtures1   
wagon axles1 and other vehicle parts4   
,these uses coincide nearly with those  
of red oak1 and indicate the important  
position occupied by willow oak in the  
country's industries4 ,those who handle 
the wood complain that its seasoning    
qualities are poor1 and that care is    
necessary to bring satisfactory results4
 ,it works nicely and stands well after 
the seasoning is accomplished4  ,willow 
oak grows rapidly4 ,it is doubtful if   
any oak in this country surpasses it4   

,it wants damp1 rich soil and a warm    
climate1 to do its best4 ,some of the   
bottom lands in the lower ,mississippi  
valley have produced splendid stands of 
willow oak1 the trunks being tall and   
clear of limbs1 and the wood sound4     
,the willow oak is much planted for     
ornamental purposes in the southern     
states4 ,it manages to keep alive when  
planted as far north as ,massachusetts1 
but the grace of its form is not fully  
developed much north of the ,potomac    
river4 ,it is a common street tree in   
the ,south1 and its airy foliage forms a
 pleasing contrast with the heavy1      
dark-green of the magnolia4             
,illustration     ,,turkey ,,oak        
,illustration3 ,,turkey ,,oak           
,,turkey ,,oak  7,quercus ,catesbi7     
,the claim that this tree is called     
turkey oak because turkeys feed on the  
acorns1 is not well founded4 ,in common 
with nearly all members of the black oak
 group1 to which this species belongs1  
the acorns of turkey oak are bitter1 and

 unless animals are pressed by hunger   
they do not eat them4 ,it is evident    
that the shape of the leaves gives this 
tree its name4 ,they bear considerable  
resemblance to the foot of a turkey4    
,there is at least enough similitude to 
suggest the name1 and it is not         
inappropriate4 ,many people now use the 
term without thinking of its origin1 and
 if asked their opinion say that        
fondness of turkeys for the acorns led  
to the name4  ,the tree has other names 
in different regions4 ,in ,north        
,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1            
,mississippi1 and ,florida it is known  
as scrub oak4 ,the name fits it well in 
certain places1 for when it grows on    
poor soil and in adversity1 it          
degenerates into a low1 straggling      
thicket1 frequently not trees at all1   
but shrubs4 ,it is called black jack in 
,south ,carolina but the name belongs to
 another species 7,quercus marilandica74
 ,in the same state it is known as      
barren scrub oak1 because it is very    

small and is found on poor lands        
popularly known as barrens4 ,some call  
it forked-leaf black jack1 but the name 
is usually shorter1 and forked-leaf1 or 
forked-leaf oak1 is a name well         
understood among lumbermen1 and the     
people generally over much of the tree's
 range4 ,some of the leaves show        
clearly-defined three forks1 the middle 
one longer than the others2 but in other
 leaves1 often from the same tree1 the  
forks are not so regularly outlined4    
,this tree1 like many other oaks1       
exhibits considerable variation in the  
forms of leaves4  ,there is nothing     
peculiar in the form and appearance of  
the acorns4 ,they average about one inch
 long and three-quarters of an inch     
wide1 and sit in shallow cups4 ,they    
mature the second year4 ,the bark of old
 trees is black near the ground1 rather 
rough1 and an inch or more thick4  ,it  
is difficult to name an average size for
 turkey oak4 ,the largest trunks are    
three or four feet in diameter and      

eighty feet high1 but the trees cut for 
sawlogs are only fifty or sixty feet    
high and two in diameter1 in most of the
 regions4 ,as previously stated1 much of
 the stand is stunted and some of it is 
only brush4 ,all sizes are found1 from  
large1 first rate trunks down to shrubs4
 ,large trees which grow in forests1    
prune themselves well and their trunks  
compare favorably with red oaks4  ,the  
tree's range has its northeastern limit 
in ,north ,carolina1 and extends to     
,peace ,creek1 ,florida4 ,it is found   
westward to ,louisiana where fair-sized 
timber grows1 but in small quantities4  
,it is usually considered that its best 
development is in ,south ,carolina and  
,georgia1 but good trees are likely to  
be found in any part of its range4 ,it  
is distinctly a tree of the ,south4 ,it 
was named by ,michaux1 the well-known   
,french botanist who visited the        
southern states early in the nineteenth 
century1 and he named it in honor of    
,mark ,catesby who explored the region  

much earlier and wrote concerning its   
trees and other natural history4        
,turkey oak is one of the little-known  
trees of the ,south1 as far as lumbermen
 are concerned4 ,they know it well      
enough in the woods1 but not at         
sawmills4 ,when cut into logs it ceases 
to be turkey oak and becomes red oak1   
and under that name it goes to the      
lumber yard1 and later to market4 ,users
 of red oak lumber do not object to the 
occasional piece of turkey oak mixed    
with it--if they ever find it out1 which
 few of them do4 ,nevertheless1 the     
consensus of opinion among sawmill men  
is that turkey oak ought to rate below  
red oak4  ,tests of the wood to         
determine its character and qualities do
 not justify so low an estimate of      
turkey oak4 ,sargent found it stronger  
and more elastic than white oak1 while a
 little lighter in weight4 ,it is nearly
 equal to white oak in fuel value4 ,it  
is hard1 compact1 and the rings of      
annual growth are marked by several rows

 of large1 open ducts4 ,the medullary   
rays are broad and conspicuous4 ,the    
color is light brown1 tinged with red1  
the sapwood somewhat lighter4  ,a       
special investigation of the uses of    
turkey oak in one of the southern states
 brought out the fact that it meets     
requirements well and fills a place in  
several wood-using industries in that   
region4 ,vehicle makers find it         
satisfactory in a number of places4 ,it 
is made into bottoms of wagon beds1     
felloes1 bolsters1 axles1 hubs1 hounds1 
tongues1 spokes1 standards1 sandboards1 
and reaches4 ,these constitute nearly   
all parts of heavy vehicles4 ,the wood  
is made into telegraph brackets1 but    
apparently not in large quantities4 ,car
 builders employ it for frames and      
floors4 ,it is made into ordinary       
matched flooring and goes in with other 
oaks4 ,it is used as a general furniture
 wood1 both as outside material1 and    
inside frames4 ,it may be quarter-sawed 
to advantage4 ,it is employed also as   

interior finish1 which demands lumber of
 practically the same grades as go into 
furniture4 ,mantels of this wood compare
 favorably with those of red oak4 ,chair
 makers cut stock from turkey oak4 ,it  
is not abundant anywhere1 otherwise it  
would be of much importance4  ,the      
forests of the ,united ,states contain  
so many valuable oaks that a scarce and 
geographically restricted species like  
turkey oak cannot be expected to attract
 much attention in the future4          
,nevertheless1 it is a strong1          
interesting tree4 ,it takes advantage of
 every opportunity to develop4 ,when an 
acorn germinates in good soil1 and      
receives sufficient light and moisture1 
it produces a merchantable tree2 but in 
poor soil and under unfavorable         
circumstances it becomes a stunted bush 
only4 ,woodlots of turkey oak planted in
 fertile land would probably do as well 
as most of the southern red oaks under  
like conditions4 ,the tree is not apt to
 get justice1 because of the prejudice  

against it4  ,,california ,,black ,,oak 
7,quercus californica7 ranges from      
central ,oregon southward through the   
coast region of ,california nearly to   
the ,mexican boundary4 ,it occurs also  
on the western slope of the ,sierra     
,nevadas in ,california4 ,it is not     
found on the plains or near the sea1 but
 occurs on mountain slopes1 low summits1
 elevated valleys1 and in canyons4 ,in  
the ,north1 it ranges from #a1ejj to    
#c1jjj feet and in the ,south it ascends
 to #i1jjj feet4 ,this far western oak  
bears more resemblance to the yellow oak
 7,quercus velutina7 of the ,east than  
to any other4 ,trees have been reported 
#ajj feet high and four in diameter1 but
 they are scarce4 ,seventy-five feet    
high and two or three feet in diameter  
are usual dimensions of mature timber4  
,the trees are inclined to be angular in
 the outlines of their crowns4 ,the     
leaves fall in autumn1 but the acorns   
persist two years4 ,they sit deep in    
their rough cups4 ,the trunk is         

habitually crooked4 ,it leans out of    
plumb1 and lacks the nicely balanced    
poise which adds to the attractiveness  
of some oaks4 ,the large boles are      
usually hollow1 dead at the tops1 or    
otherwise defective4 ,that condition is 
apparently due to old age4 ,trees stand 
long after they pass maturity and start 
on their decline4 ,they die by inches1  
and not infrequently they decay and     
crumble by piecemeal both at the bottom 
and at the top4 ,at best the trunk of   
this oak is of poor form for saw timber4
 ,it divides into large limbs ten or    
twenty feet from the ground4 ,it is of  
slow growth1 and it reaches old         
age--possibly as much as #cej years in  
extreme cases4 ,the wood is very porous1
 but the pores are not in rows4 ,the    
medullary rays are thin and distinct4   
,it is not known that any quarter-sawing
 has been attempted1 and it would hardly
 be profitable4 ,the wood is pale red1  
exceedingly brittle1 firm1 light for    
oak1 and it has a distinct odor of      

tannin with which both the wood and the 
bark are heavily charged4 ,the principal
 uses to which this oak is put in       
,california and ,oregon are as fuel and 
ranch timbers1 the latter being of the  
simplest and roughest sort4 ,its fuel   
value is high1 compared with other woods
 of the region4 ,some use was made of   
the bark for tanning purposes years ago 
on the ,pacific slope1 but it does not  
appear to go to market now4      ,,blue 
,,jack ,,oak 7,quercus brevifolia7 bears
 several names1 upland     willow oak1  
to distinguish it from other willow oaks
 which grow in     swamps1 sand jack1   
referring to the land on which it grows1
     high-ground willow oak1 turkey oak1
 shin oak and cinnamon oak4 ,no         
reason is known for the last name which 
is not used outside of     ,florida4    
,the tree grows in a narrow strip along 
the coast from ,north     ,carolina to  
,texas1 crossing northern ,florida4 ,the
 blue jack oak     sometimes attains a  
height of fifty feet and a diameter of  

twenty     inches2 but that is its best4
 ,it is usually fifteen or twenty feet  
high and a few inches in diameter4 ,the 
leaves are from two to five     inches  
long and quite narrow1 closely          
resembling those of willow4     ,the    
acorns are abundant1 but small4 ,the    
tree is of so little value     that it  
does not interest the lumberman4 ,it    
occupies waste land1 and     may produce
 a little fuel without crowding more    
valuable trees1 but     is in every way 
inferior to the black jack oak 7,quercus
     marilandica71 which overlaps its   
range a little1 but is a northern       
species4 ,the wood of blue jack oak is  
hard1 strong1 light brown in     color1 
with darker-colored sapwood4            
,illustration     ,,spanish ,,oak       
,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,oak          
,,spanish ,,oak  7,quercus ,digitata7   
,one of the first difficulties in an    
attempt to clear up the                 
misunderstandings regarding ,spanish oak
 is to confine the name to the species  

to which it belongs4 ,that is no easy   
task1 because the name has been applied 
to numerous oaks in various parts of the
 country1 and without any apparent      
reason4 ,some of these bear little      
resemblance to ,spanish oak and grow    
almost wholly outside its range4 ,it is 
not a case of mistaking one for the     
other1 for there is no mistake4 ,some   
speak of the common red oak as ,spanish 
oak1 others bestow that name on yellow  
oak1 others on black jack oak1 or       
scarlet oak1 or any one of several      
others4 ,it appears1 however1 that the  
name is not applied to any member of the
 white oak group4  ,it is said that     
,spanish oak and ,norway pine were named
 by the same process4 ,each got its name
 because it was supposed to be similar  
to a species in the old country--the    
pine like an evergreen of north ,europe1
 and the oak like a broadleaf tree of   
,spain4 ,it was learned later that both 
the ,american species were different    
from those of ,europe which they        

resembled4  ,the peculiar drooping      
foliage of ,spanish oak gives the tree a
 character which impresses a person who 
sees the full-leafed crown for the first
 time4 ,the leaves are six or seven     
inches long and four or five wide4      
,their forms vary within wide limits1   
and their shapes change from week to    
week while growing4 ,some have no lobes 
or sinuses1 others have them in         
rudimentary form only1 while in still   
others they are well developed4  ,the   
tree is often called red oak1           
particularly by lumbermen who cut it and
 send it to market with red oak4 ,in    
,louisiana it is known as ,spanish water
 oak1 there being much resemblance      
between it and water oak 7,quercus      
nigra7 with which it is associated4 ,its
 range covers more than #bjj1jjj square 
miles1 beginning at the north in ,new   
,jersey and following down the coast    
regions to central ,florida4 ,it extends
 westward into ,texas to the valley of  
the ,brazos river2 northward to         

,missouri and southern ,indiana and     
,illinois4 ,it does not grow far inland 
from the coast in the north ,atlantic   
states1 but further south it is common  
on the coast plain between the sea and  
the base of the mountains4 ,it is often 
found on dry sand hills in that region4 
,the largest ,spanish oaks on record    
grew in the lower ,ohio valley1         
particularly along the ,wabash river4   
,it is usually of medium size and large 
trunks are seldom seen4 ,the average    
height is seventy or eighty feet1       
diameter two or three4 ,in the open1 the
 crown is broad and low1 but in forests 
the trunk prunes itself fairly well1 and
 makes good saw timber1 as far as form  
and size are concerned4 ,the acorns     
ripen in two years1 and are bitter4 ,the
 bark is rich in tannin1 but tanneries  
do not use much of it4  ,the tree is not
 generally abundant4 ,some large areas  
within its range have little1 and thick 
stands are unusual anywhere4 ,it is one 
of the oaks which lumbermen neither     

reject nor seek4 ,they cut it in course 
of operations1 and saw it and sell it   
under the common name1 red oak4  ,the   
wood is heavy1 very hard1 and strong4   
,it is reputed to decay more rapidly    
than most oaks1 and it checks badly in  
seasoning4 ,the annual rings of growth  
are broad1 and the springwood is marked 
by several rows of large open pores4    
,the medullary rays are few but         
conspicuous2 color light red1 the       
sapwood lighter4 ,the wood weighs about 
three pounds less than white oak per    
cubic foot1 and its fuel value is less4 
,it is not easy to compile an account of
 the uses of ,spanish oak by the various
 industries of this country1 for the    
reason that other oaks pass by its name 
and it is known by names which should   
not be applied to it4 ,it is shown1     
however1 where special studies of its   
utilization have been made that it is a 
useful wood for many purposes4 ,it is a 
useful furniture material1 and though   
statistics do not give separate figures 

for it1 evidently the total quantity    
consumed yearly runs into many millions 
of feet4 ,it is much employed in the    
manufacture of tables1 chiefly for      
frames1 but occasionally as the outside 
material4 ,it may be quarter-sawed1 if  
good logs are selected4 ,the chair      
factories in ,north ,carolina use about 
#dd1jjj1jjj feet of oak yearly1 and     
,spanish oak supplies a rather large    
share of the material4 ,it is employed  
as interior finish in that state1 and   
also for mission furniture1 brackets for
 telegraph and telephone poles1         
refrigerators1 and kitchen safes4 ,slack
 coopers and manufacturers of boxes and 
crates find the wood suitable for their 
wares2 but its open pores stand in the  
way of its use for tight cooperage4     
,similar uses of the wood occur in      
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 and ,texas1   
and it may be assumed that they occur   
also in all other portions of ,spanish  
oak's range4 ,it goes to wagon shops in 
,texas where it is substituted for red  

oak4 ,it is employed also in the        
manufacture of rice hullers and cotton  
gins4 ,lumbermen in northern ,louisiana 
use log trucks with axles1 felloes1 and 
other heavy parts of ,spanish oak1 and  
it is frequently preferred for stone    
wagons4  ,in practically all large      
shipments of southern red oak to the    
,north1 some ,spanish oak is mixed4 ,it 
could not be otherwise1 since this wood 
is cut in the forest with other red     
oaks1 is sawed and stocked with them1   
and goes with them to market4  ,,black  
,,jack ,,oak 7,quercus marilandica7 is  
one of the scrub trees of this country1 
and few good words are ever heard for   
it2 yet it has redeeming qualities4     
,lumbermen have not paid much attention 
to it and never will1 for only when at  
its best is the trunk large enough for  
any kind of sawlog1 and there has been  
little inclination to use it for        
anything else4 ,it attains size fitting 
it for fence posts1 and sometimes it    
performs service along that line2 but   

the small trunks are nearly all sapwood1
 and decay strikes them quickly4 ,the   
bark is black1 hence the name1 and it is
 exceedingly rough1 and is broken in    
squares4 ,the leaves are large and      
pear-shaped1 with the broad end opposite
 the stem4 ,some are slightly lobed4 ,a 
vigorous black jack oak1 standing in    
open ground1 presents a fine appearance4
 ,the crown is wide and is frequently   
conical1 the limbs small1 and are set in
 the trunk on nearly horizontal lines4  
,the range of this unloved species      
covers #fjj1jjj or more square miles1   
beginning in ,new ,york1 running west to
 central ,nebraska1 south through ,texas
 nearly to the ,rio ,grande1 and in     
,florida to ,tampa4 ,it is not an       
aggressive tree and has permitted itself
 to be crowded off the good land until  
it has formed the habit of occupying    
geographical left-overs in the form of  
sand banks and wornout fields4 ,in the  
northeastern part of its range it is    
often associated with scrub pine 7,pinus

 virginiana71 because the two have      
similar habits and are content to live  
in perpetual poverty on dry gravel or   
thin sand4 ,large trunks are not        
possible under such circumstances1 and  
first-class wood is unusual4 ,black jack
 oak at its best may attain a height of 
fifty feet and a diameter of eighteen   
inches1 but it is oftener twenty feet   
high and six inches through4 ,it grows  
with moderate rapidity and does not live
 long4  ,the annual rings are often     
indistinct4 ,the wood is hard1 heavy1   
and strong1 and checks badly in         
seasoning4 ,the medullary rays are broad
 and conspicuous1 the wood dark brown in
 color1 the sapwood lighter4 ,this oak  
is very high in ash contents1 more than 
one per cent of the dry weight of wood  
going to ashes when burned4 ,the tree   
reaches its best development in the     
lower ,mississippi valley1 and in       
eastern ,texas4 ,comparatively few uses 
for it have been found4 ,cordwood       
cutters find it valuable where it       

abounds in sufficient quantity1 and it  
has been burned for charcoal for iron   
foundries and blacksmith shops4 ,small  
amounts are occasionally found in       
wood-using factories in ,texas1 but only
 when logs with considerable heartwood  
can be procured4 ,the sap is            
characterless and seems to be utterly   
rejected at the factory4 ,sometimes the 
rich brown of the heartwood is          
attractive1 but more frequently the wood
 is ringed and splotched with different 
colors1 not distributed in a way to give
 any artistic effect4 ,when a           
satisfactory stick is found1 it can be  
worked into balusters and small spindles
 which show grain well4 ,it is also     
worked into broad panels made up of     
narrow1 quarter-sawed strips1 which     
exhibit the dark flecks of the wood to  
good advantage4      ,,trident ,,oak    
7,quercus tridentata7 is remarkable for 
its extreme     scarcity1 and is of no  
commercial importance4 ,it was formerly 
found     in ,missouri--a single        

tree--which was afterwards destroyed4   
,it     occurs in ,washtenaw county1    
,michigan4 ,it appears that no report   
showing the character of the wood has   
been made4      ,,lea ,,oak 7,quercus   
leana71 which is believed to be a hybrid
 between     yellow oak 7,quercus       
velutina7 and shingle oak 7,quercus     
imbricaria71 is interesting but not     
important4 ,trees are apt to     stand  
alone1 and far apart4 ,they occur from  
,district of ,columbia to     ,missouri1
 and south to ,north ,carolina4 ,the    
range is imperfectly     known4         
,illustration     ,,laurel ,,oak        
,illustration3 ,,laurel ,,oak           
,,laurel ,,oak  7,quercus ,laurifolia7  
,this representative of the black oak   
group is found nowhere except in the    
southeastern states1 and only in their  
borders4 ,it never ranges far inland1   
but sticks to wet localities and the    
margins of swamps where its associates  
are tupelo1 southern white cedar1       
cypress1 magnolias1 and1 near its       

southern limit1 myrtle and other        
semi-tropical trees and shrubs4 ,it is  
sometimes utilized as an ornament1 but  
that is not its usual function4 ,it is  
not a successful competitor as a shade  
tree with willow oak and water oak4     
,beginning at the border of the ,dismal 
,swamp in ,virginia as the northern     
limit of growth1 this interesting tree  
ranges southward along the coast to     
,cape ,romano in ,florida and westward  
in the lower ,gulf states to            
southeastern ,louisiana4 ,it is seen at 
its best in eastern ,florida4 ,it puts  
forth a vigorous growth on the hummock  
land in the southern part of that state1
 where it develops a shapely trunk when 
in crowded stands4 ,it grows well in    
very rocky ground4  ,although the common
 name laurel oak is prompted by its     
foliage1 the tree bears various other   
sectional names4 ,it is known as laurel 
oak in ,north ,carolina1 ,south         
,carolina1 ,alabama1 and ,florida2      
,darlington oak in ,south ,carolina2    

willow oak in ,florida and ,south       
,carolina2 water oak in ,georgia4 ,the  
latter name has a tendency to confuse it
 with another species which is properly 
called water oak 7,quercus nigra74  ,the
 ornamental qualities of this tree are  
due to the tall stately bole1 its       
shapely and symmetrical round-topped    
head and slender branches and twigs4 ,it
 sometimes attains the dignity of one   
hundred feet in height with a           
proportionate diameter of three or four 
feet4 ,the bark is firm1 of dark1       
reddish-brown color1 and usually is not 
fissured but finely broken into small   
close1 scale-like plates4 ,on old trees1
 especially at the butt1 deep fissures  
divide it into broad ridges4 ,the buds  
are shiny brown1 and they narrow        
abruptly to an acute point4 ,the acorns 
are either sessile or have short stalks1
 and they usually grow alone4 ,they are 
short and broad1 and are incased in     
shallow1 thin cups4 ,in the flowering   
season hairy aments add to the          

attractiveness of the tree4 ,the leaves 
are dark green above and lighter on the 
lower surface and are grouped rather    
closely on the twigs4 ,they attain a    
length of four inches or less1 and fall 
gradually after turning yellow4  ,laurel
 oak seems to be little used4 ,it is    
occasionally referred to as rather      
inferior to other members of the black  
oak group1 but it is not apparent why it
 bears that reputation4 ,it may be on   
account of its poor seasoning qualities4
 ,like other southern oaks1 it is very  
heavy when green1 and it is inclined to 
shrink and warp while in the process of 
parting with its moisture4 ,if this can 
be successfully overcome1 the wood ought
 to be valuable4 ,tests made on four    
samples cut on ,st4 ,john's river1      
,florida1 recorded in ,sargent's tables1
 show remarkable results4 ,the wood is  
#cd per cent stronger and #cg per cent  
stiffer than white oak1 and is only one 
pound heavier per cubic foot of dry     
wood4 ,if these values are fairly       

representative of the wood of laurel    
oak1 it should be exceptionally valuable
 in vehicle making4 ,it would fall      
considerably below hickory1 but would   
stand very high among other woods1 and  
could be recommended for wagon axles1   
tongues1 and other parts of heavy       
vehicles4  ,it should be borne in mind1 
however1 that tests alone1 and          
particularly when the number of samples 
is small1 are not sufficient to decide a
 wood's place as a manufacturing        
material4 ,it must be tried in actual   
practice1 and that has not yet been done
 in the case of laurel oak as a wagon   
wood4 ,when tried out it may exhibit    
defects1 or undesirable qualities1 which
 are not apparent in samples employed in
 laboratory tests4  ,there is little    
exact information available in regard to
 the supply of laurel oak in the ,south4
 ,it is not abundant in the sense that  
willow oak and ,texan red oak are4      
,neither are the trees generally of good
 form for lumber4 ,little has ever been 

cut1 because the land where it grows is 
not demanded for agriculture4 ,it       
occupies out-of-the-way places1 and the 
hunter and fisherman are better         
acquainted with it than the lumberman4  
,,highland ,,oak 7,quercus wislizeni7 is
 a ,california evergreen with leaves    
commonly shaped like holly1 but         
sometimes their edges are smooth with no
 sign of teeth4 ,the foliage remains    
longer on this tree than is usual with  
evergreen oaks4 ,old leaves generally   
fall within a month after the new crop  
appears2 but those of highland oak      
remain several months longer1 gradually 
falling during the second summer4 ,when 
the tree is at its best it is a splendid
 representative of the vegetable        
kingdom4 ,its form does not please      
lumbermen1 for the trunk is short and   
rough2 but the crown rises seventy or   
eighty feet1 is symmetrical1 the foliage
 dark green1 and the general appearance 
is that of an enormous holly tree4      
,trunks are sometimes five or six feet  

in diameter4 ,the name highland oak is  
somewhat misleading1 though the species 
ascends to an altitude of #f1jjj feet or
 more4 ,it is described as a highland   
tree to distinguish it from the         
,california live oak 7,quercus          
agrifolia7 which grows in the vicinity  
of the sea in ,california4 ,the highland
 oak ranges from northern ,california to
 the international boundary1 following  
the foothills of the mountain ranges4   
,it occurs in dry river bottoms and     
washes and in desert mountain canyons4  
,it is not choice as to soil but will   
grow in loam1 sand1 gravel1 or among    
rocks4 ,it is not abundant4  ,when it   
grows near the sea it is apt to lose its
 tree form and become a shrub4 ,it      
assumes that form on ,santa ,cruz and   
,santa ,rosa islands off the coast of   
southern ,california4 ,it grows slowly  
and is tenacious of life4 ,when it has  
once secured a foothold it hangs on with
 determination1 though exposed to severe
 storms and inhospitable conditions4    

,the acorns do not mature until late in 
the autumn of their second year4 ,they  
are sometimes an inch and a half long1  
and scarcely a third of an inch thick4  
,the wood of this oak possesses some    
good qualities which are locally        
appreciated by wagon makers who use it  
for repair work4 ,it is extensively cut 
for fuel1 and it burns about like       
eastern white oak1 but leaves more      
ashes4 ,the dry wood weighs #di pounds  
per cubic foot4 ,it is considerably     
weaker than white oak and is less       
elastic4 ,the summerwood constitutes a  
large part of the annual growth ring4   
,it is very porous1 the rows of pores   
running parallel with the medullary     
rays4 ,this part of the wood structure  
is midway between that of deciduous and 
the evergreen oaks4 ,the medullary rays 
are broad but short4 ,when exposed on a 
tangential surface1 they are from       
one-fourth to one-half inch long1 and   
give the wood a flecked appearance4     
,exposed in cross section1 they are from

 one inch to four inches in length4     
,this applies1 of course1 only to large 
rays1 easily seen with the naked eye4   
,in quarter-sawed lumber1 the rays have 
a pinkish color and glossy luster which 
are not pleasing4 ,this tree belongs in 
the class with those which are in no    
danger of being extirpated by human     
agencies4 ,it occupies land which man   
does not need and will never want4      
,,myrtle ,,oak 7,quercus myrtifolia7    
associates with the laurel oak in       
some parts of ,south ,carolina1         
,georgia1 and ,florida1 and closely     
resembles it1 though it is smaller1 and 
gives little promise of ever            
becoming important in a commercial way4 
,it is clearly in the scrub     oak     
class1 and does not approach the dignity
 of even a small tree in     most of its
 range4 ,few specimens can be found     
exceeding a height of     twenty feet   
and a diameter of five or six inches4   
,trees approaching     that size grow in
 western ,florida in the region of the  

,apalachicola     river4 ,generally this
 oak covers dry1 sandy ridges and       
islands1 and     is shrubby4 ,it forms  
thickets on some of the islands off the 
coast     of ,alabama and ,mississippi1 
and extends its range westward to the   
low1 southern parts of ,louisiana where 
the dwarf trees are almost     hidden by
 tall reeds and grass4 ,its name refers 
to the leaf it     bears4 ,it is        
impossible that man can ever make much  
use of this     tree4      ,,morehus    
,,oak 7,quercus morehus7 can never be   
important in the lumber     industry1   
but it fills a few places in ,california
 where the ground     needs a cover4    
,its range is in the northern coast     
range and the     ,sierra foothills1    
extending as far south as ,kings river4 
,the edges     of the leaves bear bent  
hooks like saw teeth4 ,the foliage falls
 in     late winter4 ,trees are         
occasionally a foot or more in diameter4
 ,the     wood has not the appearance of
 possessing much value1 and is too      

scarce to be important4 ,the most       
interesting thing connected with        
this tree is that it is supposed to be a
 hybrid--a cross between     highland   
oak and ,california black oak4 ,it was  
first found in #ahfc1     and a         
considerable range has since been       
established for it4      ,it is the     
opinion of some investigators that new  
tree species have     their origin in   
crosses between existing species4 ,of   
the countless     thousands of such     
crosses a few1 at long intervals of     
time1 may     develop characteristics   
which enable them to maintain their     
existence and to spread into new        
territory4 ,if that occurs1 a new       
kind of tree has appeared on earth and  
is ready to take its place     among the
 established forests of the region4     
,cross-fertilization     among trees and
 plants is very common1 but so many     
adverse     conditions are encountered1 
that few hybrids ever amount to         
anything4  ,illustration     ,,pin ,,oak

  ,illustration3 ,,pin ,,oak     ,,pin  
,,oak  7,quercus ,palustris7   ,pin oak 
ranges from certain sections of         
,massachusetts1 notably the ,connecticut
 river valley1 and near ,amherst1       
westward as far as the southeastern part
 of ,missouri2 on the south it is found 
along the lower ,potomac river in       
,virginia1 in ,kentucky1 ,arkansas1 and 
,oklahoma4  ,it is known as pin oak in  
,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode    
,island1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1     
,delaware1 ,virginia1 ,maryland1        
,arkansas1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1        
,wisconsin1 ,iowa1 and ,kansas2 in      
,arkansas and ,kansas it is called swamp
 ,spanish oak2 in ,rhode ,island and    
,illinois it is often known as water    
oak2 in ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and       
,kansas as swamp oak2 in ,arkansas as   
water ,spanish oak4  ,the name pin oak  
is said to belong to this tree because  
of a peculiarity of its branches4 ,they 
leave the trunk and the larger limbs at 
nearly right angles1 and criss-cross in 

all directions1 resembling pins thrust  
into the wood1 and bristling outward at 
every angle4 ,the crowding to which they
 are subjected kills many of them as the
 tree reaches middle age1 but the stubs 
do not drop quickly1 and as many of the 
characteristic pins appear to be present
 as ever4 ,such is the usual explanation
 given to account for the name1 and the 
facts fit the theory2 but the fact that 
several other species are called pin    
oaks is not accounted for4 ,the habit of
 the branches of all of them is not the 
same4 ,the ,gambel oak in its ,arizona  
range has that name4 ,so has the        
chinquapin oak in ,arkansas and ,texas1 
but that is apparently a shortening of  
its true name1 the last syllable only   
being used4 ,they call the ,durand oak  
pin oak in ,texas1 but without any known
 reason4  ,the botanical name palustris1
 belonging to this species1 refers to   
the tree's habit of growing in swamps   
and damp land along river bottoms4 ,it  
is not a swamp tree as cypress is1 but  

is more like swamp white oak1 and finds 
its most congenial surroundings on the  
borders of streams and on fairly well   
drained lowland where roots readily     
reach water4  ,the leaves are three or  
five inches long1 are simple1 and       
alternate4 ,they are broad1 and have    
from five to nine lobes which are       
toothed1 and bristle-tipped on the ends4
 ,the sinuses are broad and rounded1 and
 extend well toward the midrib1 which is
 stout1 and from which the veins branch 
off conspicuously4 ,in color the leaves 
are bright green above and lighter below
 when young1 becoming thin1 firm and    
darker green at maturity2 late in autumn
 they turn a rich1 deep scarlet4 ,they  
are coated below with pubescence1 and   
have large tufts of pale hairs in the   
axils of the veins4  ,the fruit of pin  
oak is a small acorn which grows either 
sessile or on a very short stem2        
sometimes in clusters1 and sometimes    
singly4 ,in shape the acorns are nearly 
hemispherical1 and measure about a half 

inch in diameter2 they are enclosed only
 at the base1 in a thin1 saucer-shaped  
cup1 dark brown1 and scaly4  ,the bark  
of a mature tree is dark gray or        
brownish-green2 it is rough1 being full 
of small furrows1 and frequently cracks 
open and shows the reddish inner layer  
of bark4 ,on small branches and young   
trunks1 it is smoother1 lighter1 and    
more lustrous4  ,pin oak is smaller than
 red oak4 ,average trees are seventy or 
eighty feet high and two or three in    
diameter4 ,specimens #abj feet high and 
four feet in diameter are heard of but  
are seldom seen4 ,near the northern     
limit of pin oak's range large trees are
 not found1 nor are small trees         
plentiful4 ,this holds true in all parts
 of ,new ,england and northern ,new     
,york where the species is found growing
 naturally4 ,south of ,pennsylvania1    
along the flood plains of rivers which  
flow to ,chesapeake bay1 a better class 
of timber is found4 ,the best           
development of the species is in the    

lower ,ohio valley4  ,it grows rapidly1 
but falls a little short of the red oak4
 ,when young growth is cut1 sprouts will
 rise from the stumps and flourish for a
 time1 but merchantable trees are seldom
 or never produced that way4 ,the acorn 
must be depended on4 ,it has been       
remarked that pin oak does not prune    
itself well1 but it does better in dense
 stands than in open ground4 ,in the    
latter case the limbs are late in dying 
and falling4  ,pin oak has proved to be 
a valuable street and park tree4 ,it    
possesses several characteristics which 
recommend it for that use4 ,it grows    
rapidly1 and it quickly attains a size  
which lessens its liability to injury by
 accidents4 ,its shade is tolerably     
dense2 the crown is shapely and         
attractive2 the leaves fall late2 and it
 seems to stand the smoke and dust of   
cities better than many other trees4 ,it
 is easily and successfully transplanted
 if taken when small4 ,many towns and   
cities from ,long ,island to            

,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 have planted the  
pin oak along streets1 avenues1 and in  
parks4 ,several thoroughfares in        
,washington are shaded by them4         
,considerable planting of pin oak has   
been done by railroads which expect to  
grow ties4 ,trees of this species when  
cut in forests and made into crossties  
do not all show similar resistance to   
decay4 ,some ties are perishable in a   
short time1 while others give           
satisfactory service4 ,the best endure  
well without preservative treatment1 but
 all are benefited by it4 ,if the       
experimental plantings turn out well1 it
 may be expected that pin oak will fill 
an important place in the crosstie      
business4  ,because of numerous limbs1  
lumber cut from pin oak is apt to be    
knotty1 and the percentage of good      
grades small4 ,the annual rings are     
wide1 and are about evenly divided      
between spring and summerwood1 though   
the latter often exceeds the former4    
,its general appearance suggests red    

oak1 but it is more porous in trunks of 
thrifty growth4 ,the springwood is      
largely made up of pores4 ,the medullary
 rays are hardly as prominent as those  
of red oak1 but in other ways resemble  
them4 ,the wood weighs #dc4bd pounds per
 cubic foot1 which is a little above red
 oak4 ,it is hard and strong1 dark brown
 with thin sapwood of darker color4 ,the
 lumber checks and warps badly in       
seasoning4  ,the uses to which pin oak  
is put must be considered in a general  
way because of the absence of exact     
statistics4 ,the wood is not listed by  
the lumber trade under its own name1 but
 goes along with others of the black oak
 group4 ,its uses1 however1 are known   
along a number of lines4 ,lumbermen cut 
it wherever it is found mixed with other
 hardwoods4 ,sometimes vehicle          
manufacturers make a point of securing a
 supply of this wood4 ,that occurs      
oftener with small concerns than large4 
,it is made into felloes1 reaches1 and  
bolsters4 ,furniture makers use it1 and 

well selected1 quarter-sawed stock is   
occasionally reduced to veneer4 ,the    
articles produced pass for red oak1 and 
it would be very difficult to detect the
 difference between pin oak and true red
 oak when finished as veneer4 ,some     
highly attractive mission furniture is  
said to be of pin oak4  ,more goes to   
chair stock mills than to factories     
which produce higher classes of         
furniture4 ,chairs utilize very small   
pieces1 and that gives the stock cutter 
a chance to trim out the knots and      
produce the maximum amount of clear     
stuff4 ,chair makers in ,michigan       
reported the use of #fj1jjj feet of pin 
oak in #aiaj4 ,slack coopers work in    
much the same way as chair mills1 and   
pin oak is acceptable material for many 
classes of barrels and other containers4
 ,small tight knots are frequently not  
defects sufficient to cause the         
rejection of staves4 ,tight coopers do  
not find pin oak suitable1 because the  
wood is too porous to hold liquids1     

particularly liquors containing alcohol4
 ,the wood is mixed at mills with red   
oak and other similar species and is    
manufactured into picture frames1 boxes1
 crates1 interior finish for houses1 and
 many other commodities requiring       
strength or handsome finish4 ,in early  
years when the people manufactured by   
hand what they needed1 and obtained     
their timber from the nearest forest or 
woodlot1 they split fence rails1        
pickets1 clapboards1 and shingles of pin
 oak4  ,oak-apples or galls are the     
round excrescences formed on the limbs  
by gallflies and their eggs4 ,they seem 
particularly fond of this species and   
specimens are often seen which are      
literally covered with them4 ,the worms 
which live inside seem to flourish      
particularly well on the food they      
imbibe from pin oak4 ,the primitive     
school teachers three or four           
generations ago turned these oak galls  
to account4 ,they are rich in tannin1   
and were employed in manufacturing the  

local ink supply4 ,the teachers were the
 ink makers as well as the pen cutters  
when the pens were whittled from quills4
 ,the process of making the ink was     
simple4 ,the galls were soaked in a     
kettle of water and nails4 ,the iron    
acted on the tannin and produced the    
desired blackness1 but if special luster
 was desired1 it was furnished by adding
 the fruit of the wild greenbrier       
7,smilax rotundifolia71 which grew      
abundantly in the woods4 ,it was well   
that steel pens were not then in use1   
for the schoolmaster's oak ink would    
have eaten up such a pen in a single    
day4  ,illustration     ,,california    
,,live ,,oak  ,illustration3            
,,california ,,live ,,oak               
,,california ,,live ,,oak  7,quercus    
,agrifolia7   ,this fine western tree   
belongs to the black oak group1 yet its 
acorns mature in one year1 like those of
 white oaks4 ,it is the only known black
 oak with that habit4 ,it is properly   
classed with canyon live oak which has  

many characteristics of white oak1 yet  
matures its acorns the second year4 ,the
 two oaks with freakish fruit belong in 
,california1 and to some extent occupy  
the same range4 ,california live oak is 
apparently making an effort to conform  
to the habit of other black oaks by     
producing two year acorns4 ,it has not  
yet succeeded in doing so1 but flowers  
occasionally appear in the fall1 and    
young acorns set on the twigs4 ,they    
drop during the winter1 and it is not   
believed that any of them hang till the 
second season4  ,the range of this tree 
covers most of the ,california coast    
region but does not reach the great     
interior valleys4 ,the tree is very     
common in the southwestern part of the  
state4 ,it is called an evergreen1 and  
some individuals deserve that           
reputation1 but the leaves never remain 
long after the new crop appears4        
,frequently the old leaves do not wait  
for the new1 and when they drop1 the    
branches remain bare for a few weeks4   

,the form of the leaf is not constant4  
,some have smooth margins1 but the      
typical leaf is toothed like holly4 ,one
 of the early names by which the tree   
was known was holly-leaved oak4 ,the    
bark looks much like the bark of        
chestnut oak4 ,it is bought for tanning 
purposes1 but its principal use is to   
adulterate the bark of another oak      
7,quercus densiflora74 ,trees range in  
height from twenty-five to seventy-five 
feet1 and from one foot to four in      
diameter4 ,the trunks are very short1   
and seldom afford clear lengths         
exceeding eight feet1 and often not more
 than four4 ,trees generally grow in the
 open1 but when in thickets1 the boles  
lengthen somewhat4 ,they are of slow    
growth and live to old age4  ,the wood  
is hard and brittle4 ,a cubic foot      
weighs #ea4dc pounds when thoroughly    
dry4 ,the wood of mature trees is       
reddish-brown2 but young and middle aged
 trunks are all sapwood1 and are white  
from bark to center4 ,when sapwood is   

exposed to the air a considerable time  
it changes color and becomes very dark  
brown4 ,the medullary rays of this oak  
are broad1 fairly numerous1 and are     
darker than the surrounding wood4 ,when 
the log is quarter-sawed1 the exposed   
flecks of bright surface are the darkest
 parts4 ,to that extent1 it resembles   
quarter-sawed sycamore1 but the woods do
 not look alike in any other particular4
 ,this oak is very porous1 and the      
pores--as is usual with live oaks--are  
arranged in rows running from bark to   
center rather than parallel with the    
annual rings4 ,no clear line is         
distinguishable between spring and      
summerwood4  ,cordwood constitutes the  
most important use for ,california live 
oak4 ,it rates high in fuel value1 and  
the many large and crooked limbs make   
the tree an ideal one1 from the cordwood
 cutter's viewpoint4 ,by carefully      
ricking the wood1 with the crooks and   
elbows in every possible direction--at  
which some cordwood cutters are very    

proficient--a cord of wood may be       
constructed in the forest1 which1 when  
sold and delivered in the buyer's shed1 
contracts like an accordion4            
,,canyon ,,live ,,oak 7,quercus         
chrysolepis74 ,this splendid ,california
     oak bears many names4 ,it is an    
evergreen1 and therefore is called      
live oak4 ,it is hard when thoroughly   
seasoned1 and this has won for     it   
the name iron oak4 ,wagon makers often  
so designate it4 ,it is     called      
,valparaiso oak1 but for what reason is 
not apparent4 ,black     live oak       
doubtless refers to the dark color of   
the foliage4 ,the most     shapely trees
 grow in the bottoms of canyons1 and the
 name1 canyon     live oak1 refers to   
that circumstance4 ,hickory oak is not  
an     appropriate name1 though it      
doubtless implies that the wood         
possesses the toughness of hickory4 ,it 
is about as tough as white     oak4 ,the
 name golden cup oak is a translation of
 its botanical name     which1 in       

,greek1 means 8golden scale10 a         
reference to a yellow     tomentum or   
wool which covers the cups of the       
acorns4 ,the wood's     hardness        
qualifies it to serve as mauls1 hence   
the name maul oak4      ,the northern   
limit of its growth is in southern      
,oregon4 ,it goes     south from there  
on the coast ranges of ,california and  
the western     slopes of the ,sierra   
,nevadas to the highlands of southern   
,california4 ,its growth on the         
mountains of southern ,arizona and ,new 
,mexico is always shrubby4 ,the lowest  
limit of its range is about     #a1jjj  
feet above sea level1 the best specimens
 occurring at low     altitudes in the  
sheltered canyons of the coast ranges of
     ,california4 ,gradually diminishing
 in size1 it grows to the very tops     
of many of the high mountains1 sometimes
 reaching #i1jjj feet1 being     not    
more than a foot high at the upper      
limits of its range4 ,in     appearance 
this tree resembles the eastern live oak

 7,quercus     virginiana71 having the  
same majestic wide-spreading crown1     
except     in the high altitudes where  
it forms dense thickets covering large  
areas4      ,when in its favorite       
habitat1 the massive proportions and    
majestic     appearance of this tree are
 imposing1 the crown sometimes being    
#aej     feet across1 the bole short and
 thick1 and the great branches long     
and horizontal4 ,it is not clothed in   
the somber ,spanish moss that is        
often present on the great live oaks of 
the southeastern states1 but     there  
is a similarity of appearance in the    
drooping slender twigs4     ,one hundred
 and fifty feet across is cited as an   
unusual width of     crown1 one hundred 
feet being a good average size1 and     
forty or     fifty feet the usual       
height1 although it sometimes reaches   
#ajj4 ,the     bole is vested in a      
gray-brown1 reddish-tinged bark1 about  
an inch     thick1 and broken into      
numerous scales which in old age become 

flaky     and pliable and fall off4     
,the bark is light colored1 and has the 
stringy character of white     oak4 ,the
 tree would readily pass for a white oak
 were it not for its     two-year acorns
 which class it in the black oak group4 
,the wood     resembles white oak1 and  
weighs #eb4ic pounds per cubic foot4    
,few oaks1 if any1 retain their leaves a
 longer time than this4 ,they     remain
 on the branches three or four years4   
,most evergreen oaks shed     theirs at 
the beginning of the second year4 ,the  
leaves of this tree     are peculiar in 
another way4 ,they assume various forms4
 ,that in     itself is not unusual and 
occurs with many species2 but the canyon
     live oak has one pattern of leaf   
for the young tree1 another for the     
old4 ,one form has a margin with sharp1 
hooked teeth2 another has               
smooth-margined leaves1 and there are   
various intermediate forms4     ,sizes  
vary no less than shapes of both acorns 
and leaves4 ,some     acorns are half an

 inch in length1 others two inches4     
,the canyon live oak is believed to be  
long-lived1 but further     information 
is desirable4 ,the massive trunks       
represent centuries4     ,they usually  
occur in sheltered places which are     
measurably secure     from the ordinary 
perils which beset trees1 notably the   
woodsman's     ax and the periodic      
forest fire4 ,the bottoms of canyons    
where this     oak makes choice of      
situation do not usually burn fiercely1 
and     trees sheltered there escape4   
,cordwood cutters are the most constant 
peril to good fuel trees in ,california2
 but many a canyon is safe     from     
their invasions1 because of lack of     
roads4 ,there the most     magnificent  
oaks rear their crowns in security1     
while trees of     inferior size and    
character1 which grow on exposed slopes 
and flats1     fall before the cordwood 
cutter1 and go to the ricks in village  
woodyards4      ,the wood of canyon live
 oak is superior to that of any other   

oak in     its range4 ,it is of light   
brown color1 and is tough1 strong1      
stiff1     and heavy4 ,the trunks are   
generally unsuitable for sawlogs1 being 
too short1 but when a chance tree is    
found that may be cut into     lumber1  
it is considered a prize4 ,trunks are   
seldom good for more     than one       
sawlog4 ,in that respect this oak may be
 compared with the     southern live    
oak4 ,the scarcity of good hardwoods on 
the ,pacific     coast adds to the value
 of what may be found there4 ,if the    
canyon     live oak grew in the ,east1  
and developed a trunk of the same size  
and shape as it has in its present home1
 it would attract no more     attention 
from the users of hardwoods than the    
live oak in the ,south     attracts now4
 ,but place makes great difference4     
,factories in ,california do not report 
the use of much of this oak1     yet    
considerable quantities of it are in    
service4 ,the most important     place  
found for it is in country and village  

blacksmith shops1 where     wagons are  
repaired4 ,nearly every piece of wood   
which goes into a     wagon1 except the 
bed1 may be this oak4 ,many persons     
consider it the     best wagon timber on
 the ,pacific coast1 and it is          
particularly     valued for tongues1 not
 only for wagons1 but for heavy log     
trucks     which are operated by several
 yoke of oxen4 ,the wood is likewise    
made into singletrees4 ,it has always   
been in use in ,california for     pack 
saddles4 ,that article is small1 but    
many saddles were formerly     made1 and
 the pack saddle is still an important  
article in the     mountains4 ,trains of
 mules1 horses1 and burros thread the   
narrow     paths1 where wheeled vehicles
 cannot go1 and deliver supplies to     
camps and mines in remote districts4    
,the pack saddle's strength is          
frequently all that intervenes between  
the load and destruction2 for     the   
snapping of a piece of wood may let the 
pack go over a precipice     beyond     

recovery4 ,the pack trains are slowly   
passing out of use in     the ,west1 as 
they long ago disappeared from the      
8bridle paths0 of     eastern mountains 
and forests2 but they are still to be   
seen among     the fastnesses of the    
,sierra ,nevadas1 as in the days when a 
western     poet burst into inspired    
song of the long pack trains going      
8,up and down o'er the mountain trail   
,with one horse tied to another's tail40
      ,,huckleberry ,,oak 7,quercus     
chrysolepis vaccinifolia7 is a variety  
of     canyon live oak1 and is never    
large enough to supply wood for any     
purpose1 but is valuable as a covering  
to the ground on exposed     mountains4 
,it is usually a shrub1 and specimens no
 more than a foot     high are mature   
and bear acorns enormously out of       
proportion to the     size of the tree4 
,if the canyon live oak of largest size 
in the low     hills bore acorns        
proportionately as large1 they would be 
the size     of barrels4 ,the           

huckleberry oak's acorns are set in     
their golden     cups4 ,the name        
huckleberry is applied because of a     
fancied     resemblance of the leaves to
 those of huckleberries4 ,they are      
generally less than one inch in length1 
sometimes not half an inch4     ,this   
unique variety of oak ranges on elevated
 slopes and ridges of     the ,sierra   
,nevada mountains1 and the traveler in  
climbing to the     peaks is often      
grateful for the privilege of pulling   
himself up the     steep slopes by      
grasping in his hands the tops of full  
grown trees4      ,,palmer ,,oak        
7,quercus chrysolepis palmeri7 is       
considered a variety     of canyon live 
oak by some1 but ,sudworth believes it  
is a distinct     species1 and draws his
 conclusion from forms of leaves1       
flowers1 and     fruit4 ,it forms large 
thickets on foothills and plateaus near 
the     southern boundary of            
,california1 eighty miles or more east  
of ,san     ,diego4 ,the trees do not   

attain sufficient size to give them     
commercial importance4  ,illustration   
,,california ,,tanbark ,,oak            
,illustration3 ,,california ,,tanbark   
,,oak     ,,california ,,tanbark ,,oak  
7,quercus ,densiflora7   ,botanists     
dispute the right of this tree to the   
name of oak1 and some of them refuse to 
call it an oak4 ,it is admitted that it 
possesses characters not found in any   
other oak1 but these are important to   
the botanist only1 while laymen have    
never considered the tree anything but  
an oak4 ,it has been variously called   
tanbark oak1 chestnut oak1 ,california  
chestnut oak1 live oak1 and peach oak4  
,the trunk1 branches1 and foliage look  
much like chestnut4 ,the leaf is like   
the chestnut's1 but it is evergreen4    
,there are three or four crops on the   
tree at one time1 and none fall until   
they are three or four years old4 ,young
 leaves are remarkably woolly1 but late 
in their first summer they get rid of   
most of the fuzz1 and become thick in   

texture4  ,tanbark oaks are of all      
sizes1 from mere shrubs on high         
mountains in the northern ,sierra       
,nevadas to fine and symmetrical timber 
in the damp climate of the fog belt     
between ,san ,francisco and the ,oregon 
line4 ,the average height of mature     
trees is from seventy to #ajj feet1 with
 diameters up to six feet in rare cases1
 though more trunks are under than over 
two feet in diameter4  ,the range of    
this oak reaches southern ,oregon on the
 north1 and runs southward three or four
 hundred miles along the ,sierra ,nevada
 mountains1 to ,mariposa county1 and six
 hundred miles through the ,coast range 
to ,santa ,barbara county4 ,the tree is 
affected by climatic conditions1 and    
where surroundings do not suit1 it is   
small and shrubby1 often less than ten  
feet high4 ,it does best in the redwood 
belt where fogs from the ,pacific ocean 
keep the air moist and the ground damp4 
,it sometimes associates with ,douglas  
fir1 and at other times with ,california

 live oak4 ,if it grows in dense side   
shade it loses its lower branches and   
develops a long1 clean trunk2 but in    
open ground it keeps its limbs until    
late in life4  ,this is the most        
important source of tanbark on the      
,pacific coast1 and up to the present it
 has been procurable in large           
quantities4 ,the annual output is nearly
 #dj1jjj tons1 and it commands a higher 
price than the bark of any other oak or 
of hemlock4 ,the absence of other       
adequate tanning materials on the       
,pacific coast gives this tree much     
importance4 ,its range covers several   
thousand square miles1 and the stand is 
fairly good on much of it4 ,but on the  
other hand1 the destruction of timber to
 secure the bark has been excessive4    
,what occurred with chestnut oak and    
hemlock in the ,east1 is occurring with 
tanbark oak in the ,west4 ,trees are cut
 and peeled1 and are left by thousands  
to rot in the woods1 or to feed fires   
and make them more destructive4 ,the    

bark peelers do their principal work in 
the ,california redwood region1 because 
there the oak is at its best4 ,economic 
conditions make the salvage of the      
trunks impossible4 ,the bark can be     
hauled to market1 but the wood is       
unsalable at living prices1 after the   
long haul4 ,it has1 therefore1 been     
usually abandoned1 and becomes a total  
loss4 ,it cannot even be sold for fuel1 
because the country within reach of it  
is thinly settled1 and wood is plentiful
 on every side4  ,large oaks are felled1
 because the bark can not be stripped   
from the trunks in any other way1 and   
small trees are not spared4 ,the peelers
 often do not take the trouble to cut   
them down1 but strip off the bark as    
high as a man can reach1 and leave them 
standing4 ,a future tree is thus        
destroyed for the sake of a strip of    
bark a few feet long4 ,such trees live a
 year or two1 sometimes several years1  
before yielding to the inevitable4      
,usually1 as a last expiring effort1    

they bear an abnormally large crop of   
acorns4 ,that performance1 in the       
language of the bark peelers1 is 8the   
last kick40 ,a tanbark slashing1 when   
the peelers are ready to abandon it1 is 
a sorry spectacle4 ,the barkless and    
sun-cracked trunks strew the ground1 the
 tops and limbs are piled in windrows1  
the small peeled trees stand dying1 and 
the last ricks of bark have been sledded
 down the tote roads1 marking the close 
of operations in that district4 ,a few  
months later1 when fire runs through1   
the end of the tanbark oak on that tract
 is accomplished4  ,within recent years 
commendable efforts have been made to   
use the wood as well as the bark4 ,one  
of the first steps in that direction was
 to overcome the prejudice against the  
wood4 ,it was long considered to be     
valueless4 ,that belief was founded on  
the single fact that this oak is        
difficult to season4 ,few woods in this 
country check as badly as this1 when it 
is left exposed to sun and wind after   

the bark has been removed4 ,it checks   
both radially and along the annual      
rings4 ,the medullary rays are broad and
 extend much of the distance from the   
center to the outside4 ,these are       
natural lines of cleavage when the log  
begins to season and the internal       
stresses develop4 ,it must be admitted  
that the prospect of making anything out
 of timber of that character is         
discouraging2 but it has been           
accomplished1 and tanbark oak is now a  
material of considerable value4  ,the   
wood has about the strength and         
stiffness of white oak1 while it is four
 pounds lighter per cubic foot4 ,the    
structure is similar to that of         
,california live oak1 but the pores of  
tanbark oak are smaller4 ,they run in   
rows from center to circumference4 ,the 
medullary rays are broad enough to show 
well in quarter-sawing1 but the wood's  
appearance when so worked is not wholly 
satisfactory4 ,the exposed flat surfaces
 of the rays show a faint purplish or   

violet tinge which is considered        
objectionable4 ,but when the wood is    
worked plain it is dependable and       
substantial4 ,it makes good flooring1   
fairly good furniture1 finish1 vehicles1
 and agricultural implements4 ,it is    
perishable when placed in damp          
situations1 and this detracts somewhat  
from its value as railway ties2 but the 
wood's porous nature indicates that it  
will readily yield to preservative      
treatment4  ,since the value of the wood
 is coming to be understood it is to be 
expected that less of it will be        
destroyed than formerly1 and that second
 growth will be given opportunity to    
hold the ground when old stands are cut4
 ,the tree is a prolific seeder1 but not
 every year1 and seedlings come up      
abundantly in sheltered places4 ,sprouts
 rise from stumps and grow to vigorous  
trees4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that  
the tanbark oak will hold at least part 
of the ground where nature planted it4  
,,toumey ,,oak 7,quercus toumeyi74 ,no  

oak in this country has smaller leaves  
than this4 ,they are usually less than  
three-fourths of an inch long and half  
an inch wide1 and they hang on petioles 
one-sixteenth inch long4 ,the leaves    
have no lobes or notches4 ,they remain  
all winter and fall in the spring in    
time to make room for the new crop4 ,the
 acorns are nearly as long as the leaves
 and ripen in ,june of the first year4  
,few persons ever see this oak1 for its 
known range is restricted to ,mule      
mountain1 in ,cochise county1           
southeastern ,arizona4 ,it attains a    
height of twenty-five or thirty feet1   
and a diameter of six or eight inches4  
,the trunk is not only small1 but is of 
form so poor that it can never be of    
value for anything but fuel4 ,it divides
 near the ground into crooked branches4 
,the heart of the tree is light brown1  
the thick sapwood is lighter4           
,,woolly ,,oak 7,quercus tomentella7 has
 apparently been crowded off     the    
,american continent and has taken refuge

 on islands off the     southern        
,california coast4 ,as far as known1 not
 a single tree stands     on the        
mainland1 but several groves1 with a few
 isolated specimens1     are found on   
,santa ,cruz1 ,santa ,rosa1 and         
,catalina islands1 where     they are   
huddled together in the bottoms of      
sheltered canyons4 ,the     leaves are  
thick1 leathery1 and are toothed like   
holly4 ,the trees     are evergreen4    
,the acorns do not mature until the     
second season4     ,they are generally  
more than an inch long4 ,the scarcity of
 this oak     relegates it to an        
unimportant place among commercial      
woods4 ,this     seems unfortunate1 for 
the appearance of the wood indicates    
that it     possesses excellent         
properties4 ,no other oak looks like    
this wood4     ,it is decidedly yellow1 
and is dense and firm4 ,the medullary   
rays     are different from those of any
 other oak4 ,when seen in cross         
section they are arranged in short1 wavy

 lines1 broadest in the     middle and  
tapering toward both ends4 ,the pores   
are arranged between     the rays1 and  
follow wavy lines also4 ,trees grow with
 fair rapidity1     and the largest on  
the islands are seventy-five feet high  
and two in     diameter4      ,,barren  
,,oak 7,quercus pumila7 is called dwarf 
black oak1 or simply     scrub oak4 ,its
 habit of growing on barren land is     
responsible for     its common name     
which some people shorten to 8bear0 oak4
 ,it is one     of the poorest oaks of  
the ,east1 and it seldom grows more than
     twenty-five feet high and a few    
inches in diameter4 ,its range          
follows the ,atlantic coast southward   
from ,mount ,desert ,island1     ,maine1
 to ,north ,carolina4 ,it is probably   
more abundant on the pine     barrens of
 ,new ,jersey than elsewhere4 ,the      
trunks are too small to be     of use   
for anything but fuel4      ,,price     
,,oak 7,quercus pricei7 is a ,california
 tree1 supposed to be     very local in 

its range1 since it has not been found  
outside the     drainage basin of a     
small stream in ,monterey county4 ,that 
locality     on the coast of ,california
 appears to be the starting place or    
principal abiding place of several tree 
species1 among which are     ,monterey  
cypress and ,monterey pine4 ,the ,price 
oak attains a height     of twenty-five 
or thirty feet1 and a diameter of twelve
 inches or     less2 consequently it is 
too small to be of value to lumbermen1  
even     if it were abundant4 ,the      
leaves resemble those of ,california    
live     oak1 and are believed to remain
 two summers on the tree4 ,the acorns   
mature the second season4  ,illustration
     ,,shingle ,,oak  ,illustration3    
,,shingle ,,oak     ,,shingle ,,oak     
7,quercus ,imbricaria7   ,the origin of 
this tree's name has been the subject of
 considerable controversy4 ,according to
 one account the name was first used by 
the ,french colonists at ,kaskaskia1    
,illinois1 nearly #aej years ago4 ,they 

found that the wood rived well and it   
was abundant in the vicinity of their   
settlement4 ,they split it for shingles 
and covered their cabins4 ,it was the   
best wood obtainable for the purpose in 
that region1 and they designated the    
tree shingle oak1 a name translated into
 ,latin by the botanist ,michaux and    
still retained as the tree's botanical  
name4 ,the story of the name appears to 
be well authenticated1 but the fact     
cannot be denied that as much reason    
exists for another theory4 ,a person who
 sees a shingle oak tree in full leaf1  
particularly if it stands in open ground
 where its foliage has had opportunity  
to develop along natural lines1 will at 
once notice the peculiar and            
characteristic overlapping of the       
leaves4 ,they suggest the courses of    
shingles nailed on a roof4 ,no other oak
 has that arrangement4 ,the similitude  
is so striking that it would be         
surprising if the name shingle oak were 
not applied4  ,it is not a one-name     

tree1 but following the fashion1 it     
carries several names4 ,it is called    
laurel oak in some regions4 ,the form   
and appearance of the leaf give the     
name4 ,the oak looks like a mammoth     
laurel tree more than like its own      
species4 ,the shingle oak is known as   
jack oak in some parts of ,illinois4    
,that is a name liable to be applied to 
any tree when its real name is not      
known4 ,in ,north ,carolina they call   
the tree water oak1 which name1 like    
jack oak1 is often used to conceal      
ignorance of the true name4 ,another    
southern species 7,quercus nigra7 is    
properly named water oak4  ,shingle oak 
requires good soil for growth but is not
 partial either to uplands or bottoms4  
,it is found at its best in the lower   
,ohio river basin and in ,missouri1 but 
is comparatively rare in the ,east4     
,from middle ,pennsylvania its range    
extends southward along the ,alleghanies
 to northern ,georgia1 ,alabama1        
,tennessee1 and west ,arkansas4 ,it is  

found in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and     
westward to ,kansas4  ,it manifests a   
strong tendency to hybridize with other 
oaks1 and it readily crosses with black 
jack oak1 pin oak1 and yellow oak4 ,it  
is believed that a cross between yellow 
oak and shingle oak produced the species
 known as lea oak4  ,a mature tree may  
be one hundred feet high and three or   
four feet in diameter4 ,it has a round  
or pyramidal attractive crown composed  
of many slender branches and twigs4 ,the
 foliage is distinctively grouped at the
 ends of the twigs in star-like         
clusters4 ,the leaves are four or six   
inches long1 with wedge-shaped or       
rounded bases1 and are deep green and   
shiny on the upper side1 but lighter    
below4 ,the acorns are short1 stubby1   
and rounded1 covered one-third of the   
way with thin shallow cups4  ,shingle   
oak grows rapidly1 and it is often sold 
by nurseries which deal in ornamental   
forest trees4 ,it is hardy as far north 
as ,massachusetts4 ,although it bears   

great abundance of leaves1 they are so  
arranged that the crown seems open4 ,one
 may see through the branches of a large
 shingle oak1 and it suggests an        
airiness not common with oaks4          
,differences of opinion exist concerning
 the value of shingle oak for commercial
 purposes4 ,it belongs in the black oak 
group1 and its wood goes to market as   
red oak1 and apparently is never listed 
as anything else4 ,it is never named in 
market reports2 shops and factories     
never report it1 and it has been        
pronounced inferior to red oak in       
strength and seasoning properties4      
,tests have been made of some of its    
physical properties1 and the results do 
not indicate that the wood belongs with 
inferior timbers4 ,its breaking strength
 is given at #ci per cent greater than  
white oak1 and its stiffness at #bh per 
cent greater4 ,however1 these values1   
which are calculated from ,sargent's    
tables1 are based on tests of only a few
 specimens of the wood1 and fuller      

investigation might make revision       
necessary4  ,the wood is heavy1 hard1   
and is said to check badly in drying4   
,the pores are large and are arranged in
 rows2 medullary rays are broad and     
conspicuous4 ,the wood is light brown1  
tinged with red1 the sapwood much       
lighter4 ,the broad medullary rays1     
running radially1 give the wood its good
 splitting qualities4  ,the tree is     
fairly abundant in different parts of   
its range1 and is cut and manufactured  
with other oaks and hardwoods4 ,slack   
coopers use it for barrels2 box makers  
employ it for crates2 chair mills saw   
dimension stock and ship it to factories
 to be finished2 some goes to furniture 
factories2 some is turned for spindles  
for grills1 and for balusters for       
stairs2 other fills various places as   
interior finish and molding4 ,but it all
 goes to market and passes through      
factories under names other than its    
own4  ,,water ,,oak 7,quercus nigra7 has
 several names1 some of them bestowed   

with little apparent reason4 ,it is     
called possum oak and duck oak1 but     
these names are neither descriptive nor 
definitive4 ,punk oak is another name4  
,it may refer to a decayed condition of 
the wood1 but this tree is no more      
affected by decay than others of the    
same region4 ,in ,texas it is sometimes 
known as spotted oak4 ,it thrives in wet
 situations though not actually in      
swamps4 ,it prefers margins of ponds1   
banks of rivers1 and low swales where   
the ground water is just below the      
surface1 but it is not confined to such 
situations4 ,it does well1 within its   
range1 wherever willow oak flourishes1  
but willow oak has a wider range4 ,the  
leaves take on various forms1 and they  
change shape as they increase in size4  
,some have smooth margins1 others are   
lobed4 ,some are wedge-shaped1 others   
coffin-shaped4 ,their typical form1 if  
it may be said of them that they have a 
typical form1 is narrow at the stem end 
and wide at the other4 ,to this is      

usually added rudimentary lobes1 which  
are sometimes nearly as well developed  
as in any other oak4 ,their typical form
 is like the leaf of the black jack oak2
 but they are not half as large1 and are
 thin and delicate1 while the black     
jack's leaf is thick and leathery4  ,the
 range of water oak begins in ,delaware 
and follows the ,atlantic coastal plain 
south to central ,florida1 and through  
the ,gulf ,states to ,texas4 ,it grows  
as far north as ,kentucky and ,missouri4
 ,it keeps clear of the ,appalachian    
mountain region1 and other hilly        
districts4 ,it is plentiful in some     
parts of its range1 and trunks three    
feet in diameter and long enough for two
 or three logs are not unusual1 yet     
large numbers of water oaks may be seen 
in the ,south which are not fit for     
sawlogs because they stand in open      
ground and are limby down to ten feet of
 the ground4 ,many have been planted for
 shade trees in streets and in parks1   
and are justly admired4 ,they grow      

rapidly and are extremely graceful4     
,their leaves are deciduous1 but adhere 
to the branches most of the year4 ,south
 of the belt of severe frost1 the old   
leaves frequently hang until the buds   
for the new crop are opening4 ,the      
acorns are bitter1 and even the southern
 pine hog passes them by until the pinch
 of famine edges up his appetite4       
,water oak possesses value as a source  
of lumber1 but it belongs with the large
 class of oaks which lose their names   
and their identity when they pass the   
threshold of the sawmill4 ,they come out
 red oak4 ,only in rare instances is    
water oak called by its own name in the 
factory and lumber yard4 ,wagon makers  
employ it for bolsters1 axles1 spokes1  
tongues1 sandboards1 hounds1 felloes and
 reaches4 ,entire dump carts1 except the
 iron1 are constructed of this wood4    
,furniture manufacturers use it as frame
 material1 but seldom as the outside    
visible parts1 though no reason for not 
doing so is offered4 ,objection is made 

to its seasoning qualities1 but the same
 objection applies to most red oaks4 ,a 
considerable amount of water oak is cut 
in the ,south into thick planks for     
bridge floors4 ,it is strong and hard1  
and satisfactorily resists decay in that
 place2 though1 in common with the black
 oaks generally1 it is liable to decay  
when exposed to dampness4 ,the wood     
weighs a little less than white oak1 and
 is not quite as strong or as stiff4 ,it
 is porous1 but the pores are small1    
except one or two rows in the           
springwood4 ,the medullary rays are thin
 and not numerous1 but they are         
conspicuous1 and the wood may be        
successfully quarter-sawed4 ,the lumber 
has the appearance of red oak1 though   
the reddish color is not so pronounced4 
,,bartram ,,oak 7,quercus heterophylla74
 ,this interesting but     commercially 
unimportant oak was named by ,michaux   
from a single tree     found in a field 
belonging to ,john ,bartram near        
,philadelphia more     than a century   

ago4 ,a few trees have since been found 
in widely     scattered districts as far
 south as ,north ,carolina and as far   
west     as ,texas4 ,botanists believe  
it is a hybrid1 one parent being the    
willow oak 7,quercus phellos7 and the   
other yellow oak 7,quercus              
velutina74 ,it is probable that here may
 be witnessed the origin of     a tree  
species4 ,the leaves seem to be a       
compromise between the     deeply cut   
foliage of yellow oak and the entire    
leaf of willow oak4     ,the new species
 is so scarce that few people have ever 
seen it4  ,illustration     ,,red ,,gum 
,illustration3 ,,red ,,gum     ,,red    
,,gum  7,liquidambar ,styraciflua7      
,this tree does not belong to the same  
group as black gum and tupelo1 which are
 in the dogwood family1 while red gum is
 of the witch hazel family4 ,if a tree  
is to be judged and named by its        
character1 red gum is more entitled to  
the name 8gum0 than any other tree of   
this country1 because it exudes a yellow

 resin from wounds in the bark4 ,the    
botanical name recognizes that fact4    
,storax is procured from a closely      
related tree is ,asia1 and has been     
known in commerce for many centuries4   
,the other popular names of red gum are 
sweet gum1 liquid-amber gum1 gum tree1  
alligator wood1 bilsted1 starleaved gum1
 and satin walnut4  ,the last name      
originated in ,england where it was     
desirable to avoid the name gum when    
applied to the wood of this tree4       
,though botanically it is about as      
distantly related to walnut as any tree 
can be1 the figure of the wood often    
suggests walnut4 ,the name sweet gum    
refers to the pleasant odor of the resin
 which is sometimes used in ,france1 and
 probably elsewhere1 to perfume gloves4 
,alligator wood is descriptive of warty 
excrescences on the bark of some trees1 
but they are not common to all4         
,starleaved gum relates to the leaf4 ,it
 is a lopsided star--a six point star   
with one point missing4  ,this tree's   

range in the ,united ,states extends    
from ,connecticut to ,texas and as far  
northwest of the ,alleghanies as        
,missouri and ,illinois4 ,it reaches its
 greatest size in the lower ,mississippi
 valley in rich bottom land which is    
subject to repeated inundation4 ,it is  
not1 however1 as purely a swamp tree as 
tupelo and cypress4 ,it grows well on   
land which is never inundated1 but it   
needs plenty of moisture4 ,the largest  
specimens exceed a height of #abj feet  
and a diameter of four2 but logs from   
eighteen inches to three feet are the   
usual sizes4 ,the tree's range extends  
southward through ,mexico into ,central 
,america4  ,the rise of red gum lumber  
into prominence forms an interesting    
chapter in the industry4 ,it was        
formerly considered so difficult to     
season that few mills cared to deal with
 it1 but that difficulty has been       
largely overcome4 ,in the past1 gum1    
having no market value1 was left        
standing after logging2 or1 where the   

land was cleared for farming1 was       
girdled and allowed to rot1 and then    
felled and burned4 ,not only were the   
trees a total loss to the farmer1 but1  
from their great size and the labor     
required to handle them1 they were so   
serious an obstruction as often to      
preclude the clearing of valuable land4 
,now that there is a market for the     
timber1 it is profitable to cut gum with
 other hardwoods1 and land can be       
cleared more cheaply4 ,this increase in 
the value of gum timber will be of great
 benefit to the ,south in many ways4    
,throughout its entire life red gum is  
intolerant of shade4 ,as a rule         
seedlings appear only in clearings or in
 open spots in the forest4 ,it is seldom
 that an overtopped tree is found1 for  
the gum dies quickly if suppressed1 and 
is consequently nearly always a dominant
 or intermediate tree4 ,in a hardwood   
bottom forest1 the timber trees are all 
of nearly the same age over considerable
 areas1 and there is little young growth

 to be found in the older stands4 ,the  
reason for this is the intolerance of   
most of the swamp species4  ,red gum    
reproduces both by seed and by sprouts1 
fairly abundantly every year1 but about 
once in three years there is a heavy    
production4 ,in the ,mississippi valley 
the abandoned fields on which young     
stands of red gum have sprung up are1   
for the most part1 being rapidly cleared
 again4 ,the second growth here is      
considered of little worth in comparison
 with the value of the land for         
agricultural purposes4  ,a large amount 
of red gum growing in the ,south can be 
economically transported from the       
forests to the mills only by means of   
the streams1 owing to the expense of    
putting in railroads solely for handling
 the timber4 ,green red gum1 however1 is
 so heavy that it scarcely floats and1  
to overcome this difficulty1 various    
methods of driving out the sap before   
the logs are thrown into the river have 
been tried4 ,one method is to girdle the

 trees and leave them standing a year4  
,that partly seasons them1 but does not 
give time for the sapwood to decay4 ,the
 logs from such trees float readily1 and
 the swamps and streams are utilized to 
carry the logs to the mills4  ,some     
years ago that method of seasoning red  
gum was extensively advertised in       
,england by contractors who sold paving 
blocks of this wood4 ,it was claimed    
that the common defects of red gum were 
thus overcome4 ,large sales of paving   
material were made1 particularly in     
,london1 and red gum was popular for a  
time1 but it finally lost its hold as a 
paving wood in competition with certain 
,australian woods4 ,the theory that by  
girdling a tree and allowing it to die1 
the amount of heartwood will be         
increased has been abandoned4 ,in       
selecting trees for cutting1 those with 
doty tops1 rotten stumps1 and heavy     
bark1 indications of an old tree which  
contains a very small proportion of     
sapwood1 are now chosen4 ,these are     

found mainly in the drier localities4   
,in low1 wet places the trees have more 
sapwood and are smaller4 ,the heartwood 
forms while the tree is living1 not     
after it dies4  ,the rapidity with which
 red gum has come into use in this      
country and elsewhere is the best       
evidence of the wood's real value4 ,its 
range of uses extends from the most     
common articles1 such as boxes and      
crates1 to those of highest class1 like 
furniture and interior finish4 ,it is   
only moderately strong and stiff1 and is
 not a competitor of hickory1 ash1      
maple1 and oak in vehicle manufacturing 
and other lines where strength or       
elasticity is demanded2 but in nearly   
all other classes of wood uses1 red gum 
has made itself a place4 ,it has pushed 
to the front in spite of prejudice4 ,as 
soon as the difficulties of seasoning   
were mastered1 its victory was won4 ,its
 annual use in ,michigan1 the home and  
center of hardwood supply1 exceeds      
#bj1jjj1jjj feet in manufactured        

articles1 exclusive of what is employed 
in rough form4 ,in ,illinois1 the most  
extensive wood-manufacturing state in   
the ,union1 red gum stands second in    
amount among the hardwoods1 the only one
 above it being white oak4 ,in          
,kentucky1 only white oak and hickory   
are more important among the factory    
woods1 while in ,arkansas1 where the    
annual amount of this wood in factories 
exceeds #ajj1jjj1jjj feet1 it heads the 
list of hardwoods4  ,as a veneer        
material1 it is demanded in four times  
the quantity of any other species4 ,the 
veneer is nearly all rotary cut1 and it 
goes into cheap and expensive           
commodities1 from berry crates to       
pianos4  ,the wood weighs #cf4hc pounds 
per cubic foot4 ,it is straight-grained1
 the medullary rays are numerous but not
 prominent1 the pores diffuse but small1
 and the summerwood forms only a narrow 
band1 like a line4 ,the annual rings do 
not produce much figure1 but wood has   
another kind of figure1 the kind that   

characterizes ,english and ,circassian  
walnuts1 smoky1 cloudy1 shaded series of
 rings1 independent of the growth rings4
 ,they have no definite width or        
constant color1 but the color is usually
 deeper than the body of the wood4 ,this
 figure is one of the most prized       
properties of red gum4 ,it is that which
 makes the wood the closest known       
imitator of ,circassian walnut4  ,all   
red gum is not figured1 and that which  
is figured may be worked in a way to    
conceal or make little use of the       
figure4 ,it shows best in rotary cut    
veneer and tangentially sawed lumber4   
,various woods are imitated with red    
gum4 ,it is stained or painted to look  
like oak1 cherry1 mahogany1 and even    
maple4  ,some trees have thin sapwood1  
and others are all sapwood4 ,this       
peculiarity sometimes leads to          
misunderstandings in lumber             
transactions4 ,a buyer specifies red    
gum1 expecting to get red heartwood1 but
 the seller delivers lumber cut from the

 red gum tree1 though light colored     
sapwood may predominate4 ,properly      
speaking1 the name is applied to the    
tree as a whole and does not refer to   
any particular color of wood in the     
tree4 ,the term 8red0 is said to have   
referred originally to the color of     
autumn leaves1 and not to the wood4     
,the fruit of red gum is a bur1 midway  
in appearance and size between the      
sycamore ball and the chestnut bur4 ,it 
hangs on the tree until late in winter4 
,the resin which exudes from wounds in  
the bark is of much commercial          
importance and is shipped from ,new     
,orleans and ,mexican ports4 ,near the  
northern limit of the species' range the
 trees yield little resin1 but it is    
abundant farther south4 ,in the southern
 states it is used locally as chewing   
gum4 ,it is known commercially as copalm
 balm4      ,,witch ,,hazel 7,hamamelis 
virginiana7 is a cousin to red gum1 but 
there is small resemblance4 ,it is known
 as winter bloom1 snapping     hazel1   

and spotted alder4 ,its range extends   
from ,nova ,scotia to     ,nebraska1    
,texas1 and ,florida4 ,it reaches its   
largest size among the     southern     
,appalachian mountains where the extreme
 height is sometimes     forty feet1    
with a diameter of eighteen inches2 but 
few people have     ever seen a witch   
hazel that large4 ,it is usually fifteen
 or twenty     feet high and three or   
four inches in diameter4 ,the wood is   
much     like that of red gum1 being    
diffuse-porous with obscure medullary   
rays1 and a thin line of summerwood4 ,it
 is of little commercial use2     in    
fact1 no report has been found that a   
single foot of it has ever     been used
 for any purpose4 ,yet it is a most     
interesting little tree4     ,it blooms 
in the fall1 sometimes as late as the   
middle of ,november4     ,its rusty     
summer foliage turns yellow in autumn1  
and as the leaves     begin to fall1 the
 tree bursts into delicately-scented    
golden     flowers1 the most visible    

part of each consisting of four petals  
which float out like streamers4 ,at the 
same time that flowers are     scenting 
the air1 the seeds are discharging4 ,a  
full year is required     to ripen them2
 and when dry1 cold weather comes1 the  
contraction of     their envelopes      
shoots them with sufficient force to    
send them     fifteen or twenty feet4   
,they depend on neither wings1 birds1   
nor     squirrels to scatter them4 ,the 
origin of the name witch hazel is       
disputed2 but the person who examines   
the open-topped button which     holds  
the black seeds1 and notes the fantastic
 resemblance to a     weasen face1 will 
feel satisfied that he can guess the    
origin of the     name4 ,the tree's bark
 is used for medicine1 in extracts and  
gargles4  ,illustration     ,,black     
,,gum  ,illustration3 ,,black ,,gum     
,,black ,,gum  7,nyssa ,sylvatica7      
,black gum grows from the ,kennebec     
river in ,maine to ,tampa bay1 ,florida2
 westward to southern ,ontario and      

southern ,michigan2 ,southward through  
,missouri1 as far as the ,brazos river  
in ,texas4 ,the names by which it is    
known in different regions are black    
gum1 sour gum1 tupelo1 pepperidge1 wild 
pear tree1 gum1 and yellow gum4  ,the   
leaves of black gum are simple and      
alternate2 not serrate4 ,they are       
attached by very short petioles1 which  
are fuzzy when young2 they are a rich1  
brilliant green above and lighter below2
 rather thick1 with prominent midrib4   
,as early as the latter part of ,august 
the leaves commence to turn a gorgeous  
red4 ,the flowers are greenish and      
inconspicuous1 growing in thick         
clusters1 the staminate ones small and  
plentiful1 the pistillate ones larger4  
,they bloom in ,april1 ,may or ,june4   
,the fruit of black gum is a drupe about
 one and a half inches long2 inside of  
it is a rough1 oval pit2 the pulp is    
acrid until mellowed by frost4  ,the bad
 name given to black gum by early       
settlers of this country has stayed with

 it1 though the faults found with it    
then1 should hold no longer4 ,the       
pioneers were nearly all clearers of    
farms4 ,they went into the woods with   
ax1 maul1 mattock1 wedges and gluts1 and
 made fields and fenced them4 ,the      
fencing was as important as the         
clearing1 for the woods were alive with 
hogs1 cattle1 and horses1 and the crop  
was safe nowhere except behind an       
eight-rail staked and ridered fence4    
,the farmer mauled the rails from timber
 which he cut in the clearing1 and there
 it was that he and black gum got       
acquainted4 ,the oak1 chestnut1 walnut1 
cherry1 yellow poplar1 and red cedar    
were split into rails and built into    
fences2 but black gum never made a fence
 rail4 ,no combination of maul1 wedge1  
glut1 determination1 and elbow grease   
ever split a black gum log within the   
borders of the ,american continent4 ,an 
iron wedge1 driven to its head in the   
end of a rail cut1 will not open a crack
 large enough to insert the point of a  

pocket knife4 ,in fact1 it is as easy to
 split the log crosswise as endwise4    
,consequently1 the early farmers heaped 
their anathemas and maranathas on black 
gum and passed it by4  ,nevertheless1   
the tree had its virtues even in the    
eyes of the rail-splitters2 for1 though 
it was unwedgeable1 it helped along the 
fence rail industry in a very           
substantial way by furnishing the       
material of which mauls were made4 ,it  
drove the wedges and gluts which opened 
other timbers4 ,about the only maul that
 would beat out more rails than one of  
black gum was that made of a chestnut   
oak knot4 ,the oak beetle's only        
advantage over gum was that it was      
harder and wore longer4 ,so involved and
 interlaced are the fibers of black gum1
 that they cross one another not only at
 right angles1 but at every conceivable 
angle4 ,this can be seen in examining   
very thin pieces with a magnifying      
glass4  ,the wood is not hard1 but is   
moderately strong1 and stiff4 ,it has   

been compared with hickory1 but it is so
 inferior in almost every essential that
 no comparison is justified4  ,black gum
 weighs #ci4fa pounds per cubic foot4   
,it is very porous1 but the pores are   
too small to be seen by the naked eye1  
and are diffused through the wood and   
form no distinct lines or groups4 ,the  
summerwood is a thin dark line1 not     
prominent enough to clearly delimit the 
yearly rings of growth4 ,the medullary  
rays are numerous1 but very thin4 ,in   
quarter-sawed wood they produce a       
luster1 but the individual rays are     
practically invisible4 ,the wood is not 
durable in contact with the soil4  ,the 
standing tree is apt to fall a victim to
 the agencies of decay4 ,hollow trunks1 
mere shells1 are not uncommon4 ,the     
entire heartwood is liable to fall away4
 ,the pioneers cut these hollow trees1  
and sawing them in lengths of about two 
feet1 made beehives of them4 ,they      
called them gums because they were cut  
from gum trees4 ,larger sizes1 used in  

place of barrels1 were also called gums1
 but these were usually made from       
sycamores4 ,the black gum is not usually
 large4 ,individuals have been measured 
that were five feet in diameter and more
 than a hundred in height1 but an       
average of sixty feet high and two in   
diameter is probably too much1 except in
 the southern ,appalachian mountains    
where the species attains its largest   
size4  ,it is a tree which will always  
be easily recognized after it has been  
seen and identified once4 ,its general  
outline1 particularly when leaves are   
off1 is different from other trees      
associated with it4 ,it might possibly  
be mistaken for persimmon unless looked 
at closely2 but there are               
easily-recognized points of difference4 
,its branches are very small1 slender1  
and short4 ,its bark is rougher than    
that of any other gum1 and is much      
darker in color4 ,it is the bark's color
 that gives the tree its name4 ,the     
leaves have smooth edges4 ,in the fall  

they change to gorgeous red1 and one of 
their peculiarities is that half a leaf 
may be red while the other half remains 
green4 ,toward the end of the season1   
the green disappears4 ,the dark blue    
drupes ripen in ,october4 ,they do not  
seem to be food for any living creature4
  ,sawmills include black gum with      
tupelo in reporting lumber cut1 and     
generally call both of them gum without 
distinction4 ,the woods are quite       
different1 and neither the standing tree
 nor the lumber of one need be mistaken 
for the other4 ,the range of black gum  
is much more extensive than that of     
tupelo4 ,gum lumber cut north of the    
,ohio and ,potomac rivers may be safely 
classed as black gum1 though a little of
 both red and tupelo gum is found north 
of those streams4 ,in the ,south1 the   
species cannot be separated by regions1 
for all the gums grow from ,texas to    
,virginia4 ,the total annual output of  
black gum is not known1 but some        
operators estimate it at about          

#bj1jjj1jjj feet a year1 or nearly      
one-fourth as much as tupelo4  ,the bulk
 of black gum lumber is used in the     
rough1 for floors1 sheathing1 frames1   
and scaffolds2 but a considerable       
portion is further manufactured4 ,the   
amounts thus used annually have been    
ascertained for a few states1 and       
furnish a basis for estimates for the   
whole country3 ,mississippi1 #g1jjj     
feet2 ,maryland1 #he1jjj2 ,illinois1    
#abj1jjj2 ,louisiana1 #abj1jjj2         
,missouri1 #aij1jjj2 ,texas1 #cfj1jjj2  
,massachusetts1 #dge1jjj2 ,alabama1     
#dhf1jjj4  ,the uses are general1 except
 that the wood is not employed where    
attractive figure is required1 for black
 gum is as plain as cottonwood4 ,it is  
not displeasing in its plainness1 for   
the surface finishes nicely with a soft 
gloss which1 except that it lacks       
figure1 suggests the sap of red gum4 ,it
 is specially useful in situations where
 noncleavability is required4 ,black gum
 mallets for stone masons and           

woodworkers are in the market4 ,mine    
rollers require a much larger amount4   
,the entire #he1jjj feet reported in    
,maryland was made into such rollers4   
,they furnish the bearing for the rope  
that hauls the car up the incline out of
 the coal pit4 ,its toughness qualifies 
it for wagon hubs1 but it is sometimes  
objected to because its softness causes 
the mortises to wear larger where the   
spokes are inserted1 and the wheel does 
not stand as well as when the hubs are  
of good oak4 ,early farmers and         
lumbermen preferred black gum for ox    
yokes1 and some are still seen where    
oxen are used2 but many other woods are 
as strong and equally as serviceable for
 yokes4 ,rollers of this wood for glass 
factories are common4 ,it is made into  
hatters' blocks where a wood is wanted  
which1 when thoroughly seasoned1 will   
hold its shape4 ,it is less popular for 
this purpose than yellow poplar4 ,one of
 the best places for black gum is in the
 manufacture of bored water pipe4 ,the  

wood's interlaced fiber prevents        
splitting under the internal stress due 
to hydrostatic pressure4 ,the shell of  
such pipes can be thinner than with most
 woods4 ,a drawback is found in the     
non-durable qualities of black gum4     
,however1 the internal pressure of water
 keeps the wood thoroughly saturated1   
and prolongs its life when used as      
pipes4  ,the makers of firearms employ  
black gum as gunstocks and pistol grips4
 ,the wood is stained to make it darker4
 ,it is cut by the rotary process into  
cheap veneer and is made into baskets   
and berry crates4 ,less trouble with the
 veneer1 on account of breaking1 is     
experienced than might be expected of a 
wood so cross-grained4 ,it is sawed into
 thin lumber for boxes for shipping     
coffee and other groceries4 ,it is a    
substitute for cottonwood and yellow    
poplar in the manufacture of certain    
lines of woodenware1 notably1 ironing   
boards1 rolling pins1 potato mashers1   
and chopping bowls4 ,it is made into    

interior finish for houses2 and         
furniture manufacturers find many places
 where it is a serviceable material4    
,musical instrument makers employ it1   
particularly as trusses for pianos1 and 
in frames of pipe organs4 ,in ,louisiana
 it is converted into excelsior1 and in 
,mississippi into broom handles1 and    
parts of agricultural implements1       
particularly hoppers and seedboxes4     
,all gums are hard to season1 and this  
one is no exception4 ,it checks badly1  
but the checks are usually very small4  
,illustration     ,,tupelo              
,illustration3 ,,tupelo     ,,tupelo    
7,nyssa ,aquatica7   ,tupelo is said to 
be an ,indian name4 ,white men have     
applied it to three species of gum1 all 
of the same genus1 namely1 black gum    
7,nyssa sylvatica71 sour tupelo 7,nyssa 
ogeche71 and tupelo 7,nyssa aquatica74  
,probably1 the name tupelo applies as   
well to one as to the other1 for it is  
said to refer to the drupe-like fruit2  
but custom confines the name to the     

species now under consideration4 ,it is 
largest of the three species1 most      
abundant1 and most important4 ,sour gum 
is heard in ,arkansas and ,missouri1    
swamp tupelo in ,south ,carolina and    
,louisiana1 cotton gum in the two       
,carolinas and ,florida1 wild olive tree
 in ,louisiana1 and olive tree in       
,mississippi4  ,the range of tupelo     
extends from ,virginia along the coast  
to ,florida1 northward in the           
,mississippi valley to southern         
,illinois1 and westward to ,arkansas and
 ,texas4 ,it prefers swamps and attains 
largest size in low ground which is     
subject to frequent overflow4 ,the tree 
will stand in several feet of water the 
greater part of the year without injury4
 ,it is closely associated with cypress1
 the planer tree1 and other species     
which grow in deep swamps4  ,tupelo has 
not figured much in tree literature     
outside the books of botanists4         
,travelers and local writers have paid  
it little attention4 ,it has not been   

remarkable for anything in the past1 and
 has escaped observation to a large     
extent because it grows in swamps and   
along bayous1 remote from the usual     
routes of travel4 ,its flowers attracted
 no attention1 its fruit was worthless1 
and the early settlers did not put      
themselves to trouble to procure the    
wood for any purpose4 ,that was the     
situation from the early settlement of  
the country where this species is found 
up to a very recent period when economic
 conditions began to bring tupelo into  
notice4  ,it first attracted attention  
in the markets as a substitute for      
yellow poplar4 ,that was brought about  
by an attempt to pass it as poplar4 ,the
 growing scarcity of that wood in the   
region about ,chesapeake bay led to the 
trial of tupelo4 ,it was sold as bay    
poplar1 and the purchaser was left to   
infer that it was poplar cut in the     
region tributary to ,chesapeake bay4    
,probably few buyers were deceived1 but 
they found the wood a fair substitute   

for the yellow poplar which they had    
been purchasing in the ,baltimore and   
,norfolk markets4 ,it is known as bay   
poplar yet in many localities4 ,it goes 
to ,england as such4 ,one of its most   
important uses in that country is as    
casing for electric wire fittings4 ,it  
has1 however1 many other important uses 
in ,england and on the continent4 ,it is
 claimed that it may be stained to      
imitate ,circassian walnut in the       
manufacture of furniture4 ,this is      
possible1 but most probably tupelo has  
been confused with red gum which is a   
well-known substitute for ,circassian   
walnut4  ,tupelo trees attain a height  
from seventy to a hundred feet1 and a   
diameter of two to four feet above the  
swelled base4 ,the general appearance of
 the bark suggests both yellow poplar   
and red gum4 ,trees have a habit of     
forking near the tops4 ,the leaves are  
five or seven inches long1 sometimes    
with smooth margins1 and often with a   
few sharp points4 ,flowers appear in    

,march and ,april1 and fruit ripens     
early in ,autumn4 ,it is a dark purple1 
tough-skinned drupe1 about an inch long4
  ,the wood weighs #cb4cg pounds per    
cubic foot4 ,it is soft1 and has about  
three-fourths the strength and little   
more than half the stiffness of white   
oak4 ,it is not well suited to places   
where strength and rigidity are         
required4 ,the fibers are interwoven1   
making the wood difficult to split4 ,the
 heart is brown1 often nearly white2 the
 sapwood is very thick2 and the annual  
rings are not clearly defined1 because  
of the similarity between the springwood
 and summerwood4 ,the pores are small   
but numerous1 and are scattered evenly  
through the whole annual ring4 ,the wood
 of roots differs from that of the trunk
 more than is usual with hardwoods4 ,it 
is very light1 and has been long        
employed in the ,south as a substitute  
for cork as floats for fish nets4       
,tupelo is often logged with cypress4   
,the two trees grow in close association

 in deep swamps4 ,the butt cuts of      
tupelo are so heavy that they float     
deep1 or even go to the bottom4 ,it was 
formerly customary1 and still is to some
 extent1 to girdle trees whose trunks   
were to be floated to the mills4 ,in the
 course of one season the standing trees
 dry sufficiently for the logs to float4
 ,at other times1 trees are cut green1  
the logs are skidded and allowed to dry 
some months before they are rafted or   
floated to the mills4 ,the sapwood is   
liable to decay1 even in the brief      
period while the logs are on the skids4 
,the wood may be protected against decay
 to some extent by smearing the ends of 
the logs with tar or some other         
substance which prevents the spores of  
decay-producing fungus from entering4   
,the seasoning of tupelo was formerly a 
problem exceedingly vexatious to the    
lumberman4 ,the wood is full of water1  
and warping was one of the troubles     
which was constantly encountered4       
,finally experience gained the mastery1 

and seasoning troubles are fewer now4   
,shrinkage of four or five per cent is  
not unusual in passing lumber from the  
green to dry state4  ,tupelo is like    
hickory in one respect--factories use   
more wood than the sawmills cut4 ,the   
shops and manufacturing plants of ten   
states use as much tupelo as is cut by  
all the sawmills in the ,united ,states4
 ,these states are ,alabama1 ,arkansas1 
,illinois1 ,louisiana1 ,maryland1       
,michigan1 ,mississippi1 ,missouri1     
,north ,carolina1 and ,texas4 ,the      
reason for factory use exceeding the    
sawmill cut is that much reaches        
factories1 in the form of veneer1 which 
does not pass through a sawmill4 ,the   
lumber output of most of the timber     
trees of this country is from one-third 
to one-half greater than the factory    
use4 ,the difference represents the     
rough lumber used1 and which never goes 
to a factory4  ,tupelo lately entered   
the general market1 but the yearly      
demand now exceeds #ajj1jjj1jjj feet4   

,its uses range from boxes and cheap    
handles to interior finish and material 
for musical instruments4 ,it is         
particularly liked for containers for   
berries and small fruits1 on their way  
to market4 ,its whiteness and clean     
appearance fit it for that use4  ,higher
 grades of shipping boxes are also made4
 ,wholesale grocers order largely of    
this wood for spice1 coffee1 and tea    
boxes4 ,these commodities are exacting  
in their requirements because their     
odor1 which is often regarded as the    
criterion of their value1 must not be   
impaired4 ,a wood with an odor of its   
own is immediately ruled out4 ,cigar box
 makers use tupelo1 sometimes as thin   
lumber for the whole box1 but usually as
 backing over which to lay a thin veneer
 of ,spanish cedar4 ,plug tobacco boxes 
are also made of tupelo4  ,in ,illinois 
and ,michigan tupelo is listed among    
woods manufactured into pianos1 organs1 
mandolins1 and guitars4 ,in ,maryland   
they make scows and barges of it4 ,in   

,arkansas and ,louisiana it is worked   
into excelsior and slack cooperage      
stock4 ,it is a favorite wood in        
,mississippi for pumplogs and broom     
handles4 ,its leading reported use in   
,texas is for porch columns4 ,in        
,missouri it is manufactured into       
laundry appliances1 such as washboards1 
clothes racks1 and ironing boards4 ,in  
nearly all manufacturing centers of the 
country it is made into furniture and   
interior finish4 ,it is frequently      
substituted for yellow poplar in panels1
 not only in furniture and cabinet work1
 but in carriage bodies4  ,the supply of
 tupelo in southern forests is fairly   
large1 and will meet demand for some    
years1 but it is a tree of slow growth1 
and when present stands are cut1 a new  
supply will probably never come4        
,,sour ,,tupelo 7,nyssa ogeche7 appears 
to be the only member of the     gum    
group whose fruit is of any value to    
man1 and it is not very     important4  
,the large1 dull red drupes ripen in    

,july and ,august1 and     sometimes    
hang on the trees until late fall1      
allowing ample time for     gathering   
them4 ,they are very sour1 for which    
reason the tree is     called sour gum4 
,the fruit is put through a pickling    
process which     renders it palatable  
and it is not an infrequent article on  
southern     pantry shelves4 ,the range 
of the tree is confined to the region   
near     the coast from the southern    
border of ,south ,carolina1 through the 
,ogeechee river valley in ,georgia1 to  
northern and western ,florida4     ,the 
botanical name refers to the river along
 whose course the trees     are most    
abundant4 ,local names are gopher plum1 
,ogeechee lime1 and     wild lime4 ,the 
tree is sixty or seventy feet high1 one 
or two in     diameter1 and is often    
divided in several stems4 ,its wood is  
lightest of the gums1 weighing only     
#bh4ge pounds per cubic foot4 ,it     is
 diffuse-porous1 and the springwood is  
scarcely distinguishable     from the   

summerwood4 ,the annual rings of growth 
are indistinct1 and     the medullary   
rays are thin and inconspicuous4 ,the   
wood is weak1     soft1 tough1 and      
white1 and little difference is apparent
 between     heart and sapwood4 ,the    
flowers are rich in honey and are       
valuable to     bee keepers4 ,it appears
 that no reports exist of the use of    
this     wood for any purpose4 ,it is   
not abundant anywhere4      ,,water     
,,gum 7,nyssa biflora7 is a member of   
the gum group1 and is of     small      
importance4 ,trees above thirty feet    
high are unusual1 and the     trunk is  
of poor form1 owing to its greatly      
enlarged base4 ,this gum     is found on
 the margins of small ponds in the pine 
barrens from     ,north ,carolina to the
 ,gulf coast4 ,the leaves turn purple   
and red in     the fall1 and are then   
conspicuous objects4 ,the fruit is a    
blue     drupe about a third of an inch 
long4 ,the wood is light1 tough1 and    
difficult to split4  ,illustration      

,,black ,,walnut  ,illustration3 ,,black
 ,,walnut     ,,black ,,walnut          
7,juglans ,nigra7   ,this tree has few  
names4 ,it is called walnut1 black      
walnut1 and walnut-tree4 ,the color of  
the wood and bark is responsible for the
 word black in the name1 though some    
people use the adjective to distinguish 
the tree from butternut which is often  
known as white walnut4 ,the natural     
range of black walnut covers #fjj1jjj or
 #gjj1jjj square miles1 and it has been 
extended by planting4 ,its northern     
limit stretches from ,new ,york to      
,minnesota1 its southern from ,florida  
to ,texas4 ,it is difficult to say where
 the species found its highest          
development in the primeval forests1 for
 very large trees were reported in ,new 
,york1 among the southern ,appalachian  
mountains1 in the ,ohio valley1 and     
beyond the ,mississippi in ,arkansas1   
,oklahoma1 ,missouri1 and ,kansas4 ,the 
wood cut in ,ohio and ,indiana has been 
of greater commercial importance than   

that from any other portion of its      
range1 but that has been due1 in part1  
to the fact that it came into market    
before the best of the forest growth had
 been destroyed in those states1 and    
instead of burning it or mauling it into
 rails1 as eastern farmers did in early 
times1 the farmers of the ,ohio valley  
sold their walnut4 ,early in the history
 of black walnut lumbering1 ,indiana and
 ,ohio came to the front as the most    
important sources of supply1 and they   
still hold that position1               
notwithstanding the original forests of 
those states were supposed to be nearly 
exhausted long ago4 ,the states cutting 
most black walnut in #aiaj1 in the order
 named1 were ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1
 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,missouri1 ,west
 ,virginia1 ,virginia1 ,pennsylvania1   
and ,iowa4  ,during the period from     
#ahfj to #ahhj black walnut was in much 
demand for furniture1 and the largest   
yearly cut was #abe1jjj1jjj feet4 ,it   
was during that period of twenty years  

that operators pushed into all of the   
out-of-the-way places in search of the  
timber4 ,logs were hauled on wagons long
 distances to bring them out of remote  
valleys and slopes where no timber buyer
 had ever gone before4 ,the walnut      
buyers made such a thorough canvas of   
the country that it was generally       
supposed no merchantable tree from      
,kansas to ,virginia would escape4 ,many
 a dooryard giant whose wide branches   
had shaded the family roof for          
generations1 fell before the ax of the  
contractor who was willing to pay fifty 
dollars for a single trunk1 though it   
might be twenty miles from the nearest  
railroad or navigable stream4 ,in spite 
of the thoroughness of the search1 many 
a walnut tree was spared4 ,logs have    
been going to market ever since1 and    
still they go4 ,they will continue to go
 for years1 generations1 and centuries2 
for walnut trees grow with rapidity4    
,the trunk's value increases with age4  
,the dark colored heartwood only is     

merchantable1 and young trees have      
little heartwood4 ,the thick1 white sap 
constitutes most of the trunk until long
 after the tree has reached small sawlog
 size4 ,then the transformation to the  
dark1 valuable heartwood goes on with   
fair rapidity1 and the outer shell of   
sapwood becomes thinner as the heart    
increases1 and in time a trunk is       
produced which is fit for good logs4    
,value comes only with age4 ,the quarter
 or half a century which has passed     
since the country was so diligently     
ransacked for merchantable walnut1 has  
been sufficient to develop many a tree  
which was then rejected by the          
purchasers4 ,many a tree now a foot in  
diameter had scarcely sprouted then4 ,in
 a region of #gjj1jjj square miles1     
walnut trees do not need to grow very   
close together to produce a yearly cut  
of #cj1jjj1jjj or #dj1jjj1jjj feet4     
,black walnut is valuable for its color1
 figure1 and the fine polish it takes4  
,it is stronger than white oak1 weight  

for weight1 but it is eight pounds      
lighter per cubic foot4 ,the figure of  
the wood is due wholly to the annual    
rings1 as its medullary rays are        
invisible to the naked eye4 ,the wood is
 very porous1 and the pores are diffused
 in all parts of the annual rings1      
except in the thin1 pencil-like mark    
representing the outward boundary of the
 summerwood4 ,when sapwood changes to   
heartwood1 some of the pores disappear1 
but those which remain are abundantly   
sufficient to absorb any stains or      
fillers which the wood finisher may wish
 to apply4  ,the annual sawmill cut of  
black walnut in the ,united ,states is  
from #ce1jjj1jjj to #dj1jjj1jjj feet1   
but much goes to foreign countries in   
the log1 and a considerable quantity    
goes to veneer mills--about #b1ejj1jjj  
feet a year--and a quantity finds its   
way to various factories where it is    
worked up without any statistical record
 being made of it4  ,black walnut is    
never used as rough lumber4 ,it all goes

 to factories of some kind to be        
converted into finished commodities4 ,it
 is not possible to say where it all    
goes1 for statistics of manufacture are 
fragmentary in this country4 ,it may be 
of interest to know that demand for     
walnut by factories in the following    
states was #aa1fda1acg feet in #aiaj3   
,alabama1 ,arkansas1 ,illinois1         
,kentucky1 ,maryland1 ,massachusetts1   
,missouri1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,texas4
 ,the wood served so many purposes that 
a list of them would be monotonous4 ,in 
,illinois the largest users are the     
sewing machine and the musical          
instrument industries2 in ,michigan the 
makers of automobiles and of musical    
instruments2 in ,kentucky the           
manufacturers of coffins1 furniture1 and
 musical instruments2 in ,massachusetts1
 the makers of furniture and of         
firearms4 ,these uses probably afford a 
fairly accurate index for the whole     
country4 ,during the ,civil war the     
largest demand for walnut came from     

gunstock makers4 ,doubtless the largest 
use from #ahfe to #ahhe was for         
furniture4  ,much of the best black     
walnut is exported4 ,the logs are       
flattened on the four sides to make them
 fit better in ships and cars1 and also 
to be rid of most of the sapwood which  
is valueless4 ,the ends are painted with
 red lead or some other substance to    
lessen liability to check4 ,sometimes   
export walnut is sawed in thick planks4 
,large quantities of old-time walnut    
furniture have been resurrected in      
recent years from granary and garret    
where it was stored long ago to have it 
out of the way4 ,some of the old beds1  
lounges1 cupboards1 and chairs were of  
heavy1 solid walnut1 the kind not made  
now4 ,some of it has been furbished1    
re-upholstered1 and set among the       
heirlooms2 other pieces have been sold  
to furniture makers who saw the solid   
wood in veneers1 and use it again4  ,the
 search for old walnut did not stop with
 dragging antique furniture from        

cubbyholes and attics1 but two-inch     
lumber has been pulled from floors of   
old barns1 and mills4 ,many old fence   
rails were made into gun stocks during  
the ,civil war4 ,later1 walnut stumps   
were pulled from field and wayside1 and 
went to veneer mills4 ,some finely      
figured wood comes from stumps where    
roots and trunk join4  ,an occasional   
walnut tree develops a large burl which 
is valued for its figured wood4         
,sometimes the burl is the form of a    
door knob1 with the tree trunk growing  
through the center4 ,the burl sometimes 
has a diameter three or four times as   
great as the trunk4 ,the origin of such 
burls is supposed to be a mass of buds  
which fail to break through the bark4   
,black walnut has a compound leaf from  
one to two feet long1 with from fifteen 
to twenty-three leaflets1 each about    
three inches long and an inch or two    
wide4 ,the nuts ripen in the fall1 and  
are valuable4 ,they are borne chiefly by
 trees growing in open ground2 forest   

trees do not bear until old1 and then   
only a few nuts4 ,the walnuts which     
germinate are usually those buried by   
squirrels1 and forgotten4  ,within the  
past twenty or thirty years plantations 
have been made in states of the ,middle 
,west4 ,many young planted trees have   
been cut for fence posts1 with          
disappointing results4 ,it was known    
that old walnut is durable1 and it was  
supposed young trunks would be1 when    
used for posts2 but young trees are     
nearly all sapwood which rots quickly4  
,forest grown walnut trees vary in size 
from a diameter of two feet and a height
 of fifty1 to a diameter of six or more 
and a height of #ajj or #abj4 ,trunks   
which grow in the shade are tall1 clear1
 and symmetrical2 those in the open are 
shorter1 with more taper4               
,,pale-,,leaf ,,hickory 7,hicoria       
villosa7 is a small tree but large      
enough to be useful wherever it exists  
in sufficient quantity4 ,the     largest
 specimens attain a height of fifty feet

 and a diameter of     eighteen inches4 
,the tree bears nuts when very small1   
and the kernel     is sweet4 ,the bark  
of this hickory is rough but not shaggy4
 ,the     range extends from ,new       
,jersey to ,florida and west to         
,missouri and     ,texas4 ,it is most   
abundant in the lower ,appalachian      
ranges4 ,the wood     possesses the     
common characteristics of the hickories1
 and it is cut     with them wherever it
 is found1 but is seldom or never       
reported     separately in lumber       
operations4      ,,small ,,pignut       
,,hickory 7,hicoria odorata7 is         
considered a species by     some        
botanists while others regard it as a   
variety4 ,it is called     small pignut 
in ,maryland1 and occasionally little   
shagbark4 ,this     last name refers to 
the roughness of the bark which         
resembles the     bark of elm4 ,the     
range of the tree extends from          
,massachusetts to     ,missouri and     
south to the ,ohio and the ,potomac     

rivers4 ,the wood     differs little    
from that of pignut hickory1 and the    
uses are the     same4 ,no distinction  
is made between them at the shop and    
factory4     ,this tree is by some      
botanists believed to be a hybrid       
between     shagbark and pignut4 ,it is 
sometimes called false shagbark4 ,the   
nut     is edible4  ,illustration       
,,butternut  ,illustration3 ,,butternut 
,,butternut  7,juglans ,cinerea7   ,this
 tree is known as butternut or as white 
walnut in all parts of its range4       
,butternut is in reference to the oily  
kernel of the nuts1 and white walnut is 
the name given by those who would       
distinguish the tree from black walnut4 
,persons acquainted with one of the     
species in its native woods are usually 
sure to be acquainted with the other1   
for their ranges are practically        
co-extensive1 except that black walnut  
extends farther southwest1 butternut    
farther northeast4 ,butternut grows from
 ,new ,brunswick to ,south ,dakota1 from

 ,delaware to ,arkansas1 and along the  
,appalachian highlands to northern      
,georgia and ,alabama4  ,butternut      
resembles black walnut in a good many   
ways and differs from it in several4    
,they are very closely related          
botanically--as closely as are brothers 
in the same household4 ,black walnut is 
larger1 stronger1 better known1 and has 
always dominated and eclipsed the other 
in usefulness and public esteem2 yet    
butternut is a tree both useful and     
interesting4 ,no person acquainted with 
both would ever mistake one for the     
other1 winter or summer4 ,botanists tell
 how to distinguish butternut from black
 walnut by noting minor differences4    
,the person who is not a botanist needs 
no such help4 ,he knows them at sight1  
and there is no possibility of mistaking
 them4  ,butternut in the forest may    
attain a height of eighty or #ajj feet1 
and a diameter of three1 but few persons
 ever see a specimen of that size1 and  
never in open ground4 ,in shade1 the    

butternut does its best to get its crown
 up to light and sunshine1 but it is    
weak4 ,it often gives up the struggle   
and remains in the shade of trees which 
overtop it4 ,in that situation its crown
 is small1 thin1 and appears to rest    
lightly in the form of a small bunch of 
yellowish-green leaves on the top of a  
tall1 spindling bole1 which is seldom   
straight1 but is made up of slight1     
undulating curves4 ,the pale1 yellowish 
tinge of the bark suggests a plant      
deprived of sunshine4  ,when butternut  
grows in open ground where light falls  
upon its crown and on all sides1 it     
assumes a different form and presents   
another figure4 ,the trunk is nearly as 
short as that of an apple tree4 ,it     
divides in large branches and limbs1 and
 these spread wide2 leaves are healthy1 
yet the crown of a butternut always     
looks thin compared with that of the    
black walnut4 ,tests show that butternut
 wood1 when thoroughly dry1 is somewhat 
stiffer than black walnut2 but it is    

light and weak4 ,it is about two-thirds 
as heavy and two-thirds as strong as    
black walnut4 ,the growing tree betrays 
the wood's weakness4 ,large limbs snap  
in storms4 ,trees become lopsided1 and a
 symmetrical1 well-proportioned         
butternut crown is an exception4 ,the   
broken branches leave openings for the  
entrance of decay1 and butternuts nearly
 always die of disease rather than of   
old age4  ,leaves are compound1 and from
 fifteen to thirty inches in length4    
,few trees of this country have larger  
leaves4 ,there are from eleven to       
seventeen leaflets4 ,they are hairy and 
sticky4 ,hands that handle them are     
covered with mucilage-like substance4   
,the nuts1 which grow in clusters of    
three or five1 are of the same color as 
the leaves and covered with the same    
sticky fuzz4 ,the nuts are two inches or
 more in length1 and are borne          
abundantly when trees stand in open     
ground4 ,size rather than age appears to
 determine the period when trees        

commence to bear4 ,those of extra vigor 
produce when ten or twelve years old4   
,the nuts are salable in the market4    
,they fall with the leaves1 immediately 
after the first sharp frost1 and all    
come down together4 ,a single day       
frequently suffices to strip the last   
leaf from a tree1 though some of the    
nuts may hang a little longer4 ,the     
kernels are very rich1 when the nuts are
 dry1 and are apt to cloy the appetite2 
but they are improved by freezing where 
they lie on the ground among the leaves2
 but they must be used quickly after    
they thaw1 or they will spoil4 ,nuts    
nearly full-grown but not yet hard are  
made into pickles1 but the fuzz must    
first be washed off with hot water4     
,butternut bark has played a rather     
important role in the country's affairs4
 ,doctors in the ,revolutionary war made
 much of their medicine of the roots and
 bark of this tree4 ,drugs were         
unattainable1 and physicians were forced
 to betake themselves to the woods for  

substitutes1 and their pharmacopoeias   
were enriched by the butternut tree4    
,housewives dyed cloth a brown color    
with this bark long before aniline dyes 
found their way into this country4      
,whole companies of ,confederate        
soldiers from the mountain regions in   
the ,civil war wore clothes dyed in     
decoctions of butternut bark1 and       
popularly known as 8butternut jeans40   
,the annual output of butternut lumber  
is placed at a little more than         
#a1jjj1jjj feet a year4 ,it is widely   
used1 but in small amounts4 ,in         
,maryland it is made into ceiling and   
flooring2 in ,north ,carolina into      
cabinet work1 fixtures for stores and   
offices1 and into furniture2 in         
,michigan its reported uses are boat    
finish1 interior finish for houses1     
molding1 and screen frames4 ,in         
,illinois it is used for all the        
purposes listed above and also for      
church altars and car finish4 ,these    
uses are doubtless typical1 and hold    

good in all parts of the country where  
any use is made of butternut4  ,the wood
 has figure similar to that of black    
walnut1 but the color is lighter4 ,it is
 nearer brown than black4 ,the pores are
 diffused through the annual ring1 but  
are more numerous and of larger size in 
the inner than in the outer part4 ,the  
springwood blends gradually with the    
wood of the latter part of the season1  
without sharp distinction1 but the ring 
terminates in a black line which is the 
chief element of contrast in the wood's 
figure4  ,the future value of butternut 
will be less in the lumber than in the  
nuts4 ,the tendency in that direction is
 now apparent4 ,when land is cleared1   
the trees which would formerly have gone
 to the sawmill1 are now left to bear   
nuts4 ,the averaged price paid by       
factories in ,north ,carolina for       
butternut is #dj a thousand feet4 ,it is
 cheaper in the ,lake ,states4          
,,mexican ,,walnut 7,juglans rupestris7 
will never amount to much as a          

timber tree1 though it is by no means   
useless4 ,it is known by     several    
names1 among them being western walnut1 
dwarf walnut1 little     walnut1 and    
,california walnut4 ,the last name is   
applied in ,arizona     through a       
misunderstanding of the tree's identity4
 ,it is there     confused with the     
,california walnut which is a different 
species4     ,the ,mexican walnut's     
range extends from central ,texas1      
through ,new     ,mexico to ,arizona1   
and southward into ,mexico4 ,it prefers 
the     limestone banks of streams in   
,texas where it is usually shrubby1     
seldom attaining a height above thirty  
feet4 ,it reaches its largest     size  
in canyons among the mountains of ,new  
,mexico and ,arizona where     it       
reaches a height of sixty feet4 ,trunks 
are sometimes five feet in     diameter4
 ,the wood weighs #dj4he pounds per     
cubic foot1 is dark in     color1 but   
the tone is not as regular as that of   
black walnut2     neither is it as      

strong and stiff4 ,it polishes well1 and
 is said to     be durable in contact   
with the soil4 ,it finds its way in     
small     amounts to local mills1 shops1
 and factories where it is made into    
various commodities4 ,it is particularly
 liked for the lathe1 and is     suited 
better for turnery than for any other   
purpose4 ,it is made     into gavels1   
cups1 spindles1 parts of grills2 and it 
is also worked     into picture frames1 
handles1 and small pieces of furniture4 
,it does     not appear that lumber     
sawed from this walnut ever gets into   
the     general market1 but the whole   
output1 which is small1 is consumed     
locally4 ,trees do not occur in pure    
stands and the whole supply     consists
 of isolated trees or small groups1 with
 few trunks large     enough for        
sawlogs4 ,the nuts are dwarfs4 ,all are 
not the same size1     but none are as  
large as a hickory nut4 ,many that grow 
on the     diminutive trees along the   
water courses in western ,texas are not 

as     large1 husks and all1 as a       
nutmeg1 and the nut itself is about half
     the size of a nutmeg1 and not      
dissimilar in appearance4 ,the kernels  
of such a nut are too small to have any 
commercial value1 but they     are rare 
morsels for the native ,mexicans and    
,indians who pick them     by           
pocketfuls4 ,trees in the stony canyon  
of ,devil's river1 in ,texas1     are in
 full bearing when so small that a man  
can stand on the ground     and pick    
walnuts from their highest branches4    
,the ,mexican walnut is     occasionally
 cultivated in the eastern part of the  
,united ,states and     in ,europe4 ,it 
is hardy as far north as ,massachusetts4
      ,,california ,,walnut 7,juglans   
californica7 is a small tree confined   
to ,california1 and pretty close to the 
coast1 though it grows in     ,eldorado 
county4 ,it is most abundant within     
twenty or thirty miles     of tidewater4
 ,in the southern part of the state it  
ascends to an     elevation of #d1jjj   

feet4 ,it prefers the banks of streams  
and the     bottoms of canyons where the
 soil is moist1 but it will grow in dry 
situations4 ,trees occur singly or in   
small groups4 ,their average     size is
 fifteen or twenty feet high1 and eight 
or ten inches in     diameter2 but trees
 occasionally are sixty feet high and   
eighteen     inches through4 ,the leaves
 are small1 measuring from six to nine  
inches in length1 with from nine to     
seventeen leaflets4 ,nuts are     about 
half the size of eastern black walnuts4 
,the kernel is edible4     ,the wood is 
heavier than black walnut1 and somewhat 
lighter in     color4 ,otherwise the two
 woods are much alike1 except in        
strength     and stiffness4 ,in these   
the ,california wood is inferior4 ,it   
has not     been reported for any use1  
but it is suitable for a number of      
purposes1 provided logs of sufficient   
size could be had4 ,the trunk1     in   
addition to being small1 is usually     
short4 ,the tree is intolerant     of   

shade1 and is not often found in        
forests4 ,it grows rapidly and     will 
attain a diameter of fifteen inches in  
twenty years or less2     but it        
apparently does not live long4 ,its     
principal usefulness in     ,california 
is as a shade tree1 and as a stock in   
nurseries on which     to graft ,english
 walnut4  ,illustration     ,,shagbark  
,,hickory  ,illustration3 ,,shagbark    
,,hickory     ,,shagbark ,,hickory      
7,hicoria ,ovata7   ,twelve species of  
hickory grow in the ,united ,states1 all
 east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,none   
grow anywhere else in the world1 as far 
as known4 ,they were widely dispersed   
over the northern hemisphere in         
prehistoric times4 ,the records of      
geology1 written by leaf prints in the  
rocks1 tell of forests of hickory in    
,europe1 and even in ,greenland1        
probably a hundred thousand or more     
years ago1 and certainly not in times   
that can be called recent4 ,no records  
there later than the ice age have been  

found4 ,this leads to the presumption   
that the sheet of ice which pushed down 
from the ,north and covered the larger  
portions of ,europe and ,north ,america1
 overwhelmed the hickory forests1 and   
all others1 as far as the southern limit
 of the ice's advance4  ,in ,europe the 
hickory was utterly destroyed1 and it   
never returned after the close of the   
reign of ice2 but ,america was more     
fortunate4 ,the ice sheet pushed little 
farther in its southward course than the
 ,ohio and ,missouri rivers1 and forests
 south of there held their ground1 and  
they slowly worked their way back north 
as the ice withdrew4 ,hickory recovered 
part but not all of its lost ground in  
,america1 for it is now found no farther
 north than southern ,canada1 which is  
more than a thousand miles from its old 
range in ,greenland4  ,the early        
settlers in ,new ,england and in the    
,south at once came into contact with   
hickory4 ,it was one of the first woods 
named in this country1 and the name is  

of ,indian origin1 and is spelled in no 
fewer than seventeen ways in early      
literature relating to the settlements4 
,it is probable that ,john ,smith1 a    
prominent man in early ,virginia and    
,new ,england1 was the first man who    
ever wrote the name4 ,he spelled it as  
the ,indians pronounced it1             
8powcohiscora10 and it has been trimmed 
down to our word hickory4 ,the ,indian  
word was the name of a salad or soup    
made of pounded hickory nuts and water1 
and was only indirectly applied to the  
tree itself4  ,the first settlers along 
the ,atlantic coast nearly always called
 this tree a walnut1 and the name white 
walnut was common4 ,they were           
unacquainted with any similar           
nut-bearing tree in ,europe1 except the 
walnut1 and most people preferred       
applying a name with which they were    
already familiar4 ,hickories and walnuts
 belong to the same family1 and have    
many points in common4  ,although there 
are twelve hickories in the ,united     

,states1 and in many respects they are  
similar1 all are not of equal value4    
,some are very scarce1 and the wood of  
others is not up to standard4 ,from a   
commercial standpoint1 four surpass the 
others4 ,these are shagbark 7,hicoria   
ovata71 shellbark 7,hicoria laciniosa71 
pignut 7,hicoria glabra71 and mockernut 
7,hicoria alba74 ,the wood of some of   
the others is as good1 but is scarce2   
and still others1 particularly the      
pecans1 are abundant enough1 but the    
wood is inferior4 ,it is impossible in  
business to separate the hickories4     
,lumbermen do not do it2 manufacturers  
cannot do it4 ,in some regions one is   
more abundant than the others1 and      
consequently is used in larger          
quantities1 but in some other region a  
different species may predominate in the
 forest and in the factory4 ,it cannot  
be truthfully asserted that one hickory 
is always as good as another1 or even   
that a certain species in one region is 
as good as the same species in another  

region4 ,all parts of the same tree do  
not produce wood of equal value4  ,along
 certain general lines1 hickories have  
many properties in common4 ,the wood is 
ring-porous1 that is1 the inner edge of 
the yearly growth ring has a row of     
large pores4 ,others are scattered      
toward the outer part of the ring1      
generally decreasing in number and size 
outward4 ,there is no distinct division 
between spring and summerwood4 ,the     
medullary rays are thin and obscure4    
,the unaided eye seldom notices them4   
,the sapwood is white in all species of 
hickory1 and is usually very thick4 ,the
 heartwood is reddish4 ,common opinion  
has long held that sapwood is tougher   
and more elastic than heartwood1 and    
therefore to be preferred for most      
purposes4 ,tests made a few years ago by
 the ,united ,states ,forest ,service   
ran counter to the long-established     
opinion of users1 by showing that in    
most respects the redwood of the heart  
was as good as the white sapwood4       

,however1 where resiliency is the chief 
requisite1 as in slender handles1 many  
manufacturers still prefer sapwood4     
,hickory is very strong1 probably the   
strongest wood in common use in this    
country4 ,the statement that one wood is
 stronger than all others is hardly     
justified because averages of strength  
should be taken1 and not isolated       
instances4 ,satisfactory averages have  
not yet been worked out for a large     
number of our woods2 but1 as far as     
existing figures may be accepted1       
hickory is at the head of the list for  
strength1 toughness1 and resiliency4    
,choice samples of certain woods may    
exceed the average of hickory in some of
 these particulars4 ,sugar maple1       
hornbeam1 and locust occasionally show  
greater strength than hickory1 but they 
lack in toughness and resiliency--the   
very properties which give hickory its  
chief value for many purposes4          
,considerable misunderstanding exists as
 to second growth hickory4 ,some suppose

 it consists of trees of commercial size
 developed from sprouts where old trees 
have been cut4 ,that is not generally   
correct4 ,when small hickory trees are  
cut1 the stumps often sprout1 but hoop  
poles are about the only commodity made 
from that kind of hickory4 ,if sprouts  
are left to grow large1 the trees       
produced are generally defective4 ,good 
hickory grows from the nut4 ,the term   
8second growth0 means little1 unless it 
is explained in each instance just what 
conditions are included4 ,in one sense1 
all young1 vigorous trees are second    
growth1 and that is often the idea in   
the mind of the speaker4 ,some would    
restrict it to trees which have come up 
in old fields or partial clearings1     
where they have plenty of light1 and    
have grown rapidly4 ,their trunks are   
short1 the wood is tough1 and there is  
little red heartwood4 ,the larger a     
pine1 oak1 or poplar1 provided it is    
sound1 the better the wood2 but not so  
with hickory4 ,great age and large size 

add no desirable qualities to this wood4
  ,shagbark is largest of the true      
hickories4 ,the pecans are not usually  
regarded as true hickories from the     
wood-user's viewpoint4 ,some shagbarks  
are #abj feet high and four feet in     
diameter1 but the average size is about 
seventy-five tall1 two in diameter4     
,there is confusion of names among all  
the hickories1 and shagbark is misnamed 
and over-named as often as any of the   
others4 ,many persons do not know       
shagbark and shellbark apart1 though the
 ranges of the two species lie only     
partly in the same territory4 ,shagbark 
is known as shellbark hickory1 shagbark 
hickory1 shellbark1 upland hickory1     
hickory1 scaly bark hickory1 white      
walnut1 walnut1 white hickory1 and red  
heart hickory4 ,most of the names refer 
to the bark1 which separates into thin  
strips1 often a foot or more long1 and  
six inches or more wide2 and this       
remains more or less closely attached to
 the trunk by the middle1 giving the    

shaggy appearance to which the tree owes
 its common name4  ,the leaf-buds are   
large and ovate1 with yellowish-green   
and brown scales4 ,the leaves are       
compound and alternate2 they have rough 
stalks containing five or seven         
leaflets2 they are sessile1 tapering to 
a point and having a rounded base4 ,the 
lower pair of leaflets is markedly      
different from the rest in shape2       
sharply serrate and thin2 dark green and
 glabrous above2 lighter below4 ,the    
flowers do not appear until the leaves  
have fully matured4 ,they grow in       
catkins2 the staminate ones are light   
green1 slender1 and grow in groups of   
three on long peduncles2 the pistillate 
ones grow in spikes of from two to five 
flowers4 ,the fruit grows within a      
dense1 green husk1 shiny and smooth on  
the outside1 opening in four parts4 ,the
 nut is nearly white1 four-angled1 and  
flattened at the sides4 ,the kernel is  
sweet and of a strong flavor4  ,this    
tree's range is not much short of       

#a1jjj1jjj square miles1 but it is not  
equally abundant in all parts4 ,it grows
 from southern ,maine to western        
,florida2 is found in ,minnesota and    
,nebraska1 and southward beyond the     
,mississippi4 ,it is most common and of 
largest size on the western slopes of   
the southern ,appalachian mountains and 
in the basin of the lower ,ohio river4  
,its favorite habitat is on low hills1  
or near streams and swamps1 in rich and 
moderately well drained soil4  ,the     
hickories have long tap roots1 and they 
do best in soils which the tap roots can
 penetrate1 going down like a radish4   
,the root system makes most hickories   
difficult trees to transplant4 ,early in
 life they do a large part of their     
growing under ground1 and when that     
growth is interrupted1 as it must be in 
transplanting1 the young tree seldom    
recovers4 ,those who would grow         
hickories for timber1 nuts1 or as       
ornaments1 should plant the seed where  
the tree is expected to remain4 ,most of

 the planting of hickory in the forest  
is done by squirrels which bury nuts1   
with the apparent expectation of digging
 them up later4 ,occasionally one is    
missed1 and a young tree starts4  ,the  
uses of this wood are typical of all the
 other hickories4 ,handles and light    
vehicles consume most of it4 ,the       
markets are in all parts of this        
country1 and in manufacturing centers in
 many foreign lands4  ,illustration     
,,bitternut ,,hickory  ,illustration3   
,,bitternut ,,hickory     ,,bitternut   
,,hickory  7,hicoria ,minima7   ,the    
tannin in the thin shelled nuts which   
grow abundantly on this tree gives the  
name bitternut4 ,the name is truly      
descriptive4 ,gall itself scarcely      
exceeds the intense bitterness of the   
kernel1 when crushed between the teeth4 
,the sense of taste does not immediately
 detect the bitterness in its full      
intensity4 ,a little time seems to be   
necessary to dissolve the astringent    
principal and distribute it to the      

nerves of taste4 ,when this has been    
accomplished1 the bitterness remains a  
long time1 seeming to persist after the 
last vestige of the cause has been      
removed4 ,in that respect it may be     
likened to the resin of the incense     
cedar of ,california which is among     
tastes what musk is among odors1 nearly 
everlasting4 ,the bitterness of this    
hickory nut has much to do with the     
perpetuation of the species4 ,no wild or
 tame animal will eat the fruit unless  
forced by famine4 ,consequently1 the    
nuts are left to grow1 provided they can
 get themselves planted4 ,that is not   
always easy1 for small quadrupeds which 
bury edible nuts for food1 and then     
occasionally forget them1 show no       
interest whatever in the unpalatable    
bitternut4 ,it is left where it falls1  
unless running water1 or some other     
method of locomotion1 transports it to  
another locality4 ,this happens with    
sufficient frequency to plant the nuts  
as widely as those of any other hickory4

 ,it is believed that this is the most  
abundant of the hickories4  ,the tree   
bears names other than bitternut4 ,it is
 called swamp hickory1 though that name 
is more applicable to a different       
species1 the water hickory4 ,pig hickory
 or pignut are names used in several    
states1 but without good reason4 ,hogs  
may sometimes eat the nuts1 but never   
when anything better can be found4      
,besides1 pignut is the accepted name of
 another species 7,hicoria glabra74 ,in 
,louisiana they call it the bitter pecan
 tree4 ,bitter hickory is a common name 
in many localities4 ,in ,new ,hampshire 
it is known as pig walnut1 in ,vermont  
as bitter walnut1 and in ,texas as white
 hickory4 ,the names are so many1 and so
 often apply as well to other hickories 
as to this1 that the name alone is      
seldom a safe guide to identification4  
,it has two or three characters which   
will help to pick it out from among     
others4 ,its leaves and bark bear       
considerable resemblance to ash4 ,the   

leaves are the smallest among the       
hickories1 and the bark is never shaggy4
 ,the small branches always carry yellow
 buds1 no matter what the season of the 
year4 ,the compound leaves are from six 
to ten inches long1 and consist of from 
five to nine leaflets1 always an odd    
number4  ,bitternut hickory's range     
covers pretty generally the eastern part
 of the ,united ,states4 ,it is one of  
the largest and commonest hickories of  
,new ,england1 and is likewise the      
common hickory of ,kansas1 ,nebraska1   
and ,iowa4 ,it grows from ,maine through
 southern ,canada to ,minnesota1 follows
 down the western side of the           
,mississippi valley to ,texas1 and      
extends into western ,florida4  ,hickory
 is often lumbered in ways not common   
with other hardwoods4 ,it is not        
generally found in ordinary lumber      
yards1 and is not cut into lumber as    
most other woods are4 ,it is in a class 
by itself4 ,the person who would consult
 statistics of lumber cut in the ,united

 ,states to ascertain the quantity of   
hickory going to market1 would utterly  
fail to obtain the desired information4 
,the statistics of lumber cut in the    
,united ,states for the year #aiaj      
listed the total for hickory at         
#bgb1beb1jjj feet1 distributed among #cc
 states1 and cut by #f1cdi mills4       
,reports by users of this wood in a     
number of states show that probably     
twice as much goes to factories to be   
manufactured into finished commodities1 
as all the sawmills cut4 ,this means    
that much hickory goes to factories     
without having passed through sawmills  
to be first converted into lumber4 ,it  
goes as bolts and billets1 and as logs  
of various lengths4 ,some sawmills in   
the hickory region cut dimension stock  
and sell it to factories to be further  
worked up2 but that is a comparatively  
small part of the hickory that finds its
 way to factories of various kinds4     
,many sawmills refuse to cut hickory1   
claiming that it does not pay them to   

specialize on a scarce wood4 ,scattered 
trees occur among other timber1 but     
these are left when the other logging is
 done4 ,special operators go after the  
hickory1 and distribute it among various
 industries which are in the market for 
it4 ,that method often results in much  
waste1 because the man who is           
specializing in one commodity1 such as  
wagon poles1 ax handles1 sucker-rods1   
wheel stock1 or the like1 is apt to cut 
out only what meets his requirements1   
and abandon the rest4 ,some of the      
hickory camps where such stock is       
roughed out are spectacles of           
carelessness and waste1 with heaps of   
rejected hickory which1 though not      
meeting requirements for the special    
articles in view1 are valuable for many 
other things4 ,few woods contribute to  
the trash heap more in proportion to the
 total cut than hickory2 but the waste  
nearly all occurs before the factories  
which finally work up the products are  
reached4 ,these factories are often     

hundreds of miles from the forests where
 the hickory grows4  ,hickory was not a 
useful farm timber in early times1 as   
oak and chestnut were4 ,it decayed      
quickly when exposed to weather1 and was
 not suitable for fence rails1 posts1   
house logs1 or general lumber4 ,it was  
sometimes used for barn floors1 but when
 seasoned it was so hard to nail that it
 was not well liked4 ,the pioneers were 
not able to use this wood to advantage1 
because it is a manufacturer's material1
 not a farmer's or a villager's standby4
 ,it can be said to the credit of the   
pioneers1 however1 that they knew its   
value for certain purposes1 and employed
 as much of it as they needed4  ,fuel   
was the most important place for hickory
 on the farm4 ,all things considered1 it
 is probably the best firewood of the   
,american forest4 ,the yawning          
fireplaces called for cords of wood     
every month of winter in the northern   
states4 ,enough to make a modern buggy  
would go up the chimney in a rich red   

blaze in an hour1 and no one thought    
that it was waste2 and it was not waste 
then1 because farms had to be cleared1  
and firewood was the best use possible  
for the hickory at that time4 ,every    
cord burned in the chimney was that much
 less to be rolled into logheaps and    
consumed in the clearing for the new    
cornfield4  ,hickory has always been    
considered the best material for smoking
 meat4 ,more than #cj1jjj cords a year  
are now used that way4 ,it was so used  
in early times1 when every farmer smoked
 and packed his own meat4 ,hickory smoke
 was supposed to give bacon a flavor    
equalled by no other wood2 and in       
addition to that it was believed to keep
 the skippers out4  ,the nuts were made 
into oil which was thought to be        
efficacious as a liniment employed as a 
remedy against rheumatism to which      
pioneers were susceptible because their 
moccasins were porous and their feet    
were often wet4 ,the oil was used also  
for illuminating purposes4 ,it fed the  

flame of a crude lamp4  ,no other wood  
equalled hickory for 8split brooms10 the
 kind that swept the cabins before broom
 corn was known or carpet sweepers and  
vacuum cleaners were invented4 ,the     
toughness1 smoothness1 and strength of  
hickory made it the best oxbow wood1 and
 the same property fitted it for barrel 
hoops4 ,thousands of fish casks in ,new 
,england and tobacco hogsheads in       
,maryland and ,virginia were hooped with
 hickory before ,george ,washington was 
born4 ,the wood's value for ax handles  
was learned early4 ,the ,indians used it
 for the long1 slender handles of their 
stone hammers with which they barked    
trees in their clearings1 and broke the 
skulls of enemies in war4  ,bitternut   
hickory has about ninety-two per cent of
 the strength of shagbark1 and          
seventy-three per cent of its stiffness4
 ,it yields considerably more ash when  
burned1 and is rated a little lower in  
fuel value4      ,,mocker ,,nut         
,,hickory 7,hicoria alba7 has many      

names4 ,it is called     mocker nut in  
,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new    
,york1 ,new ,jersey1     ,delaware1     
,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1     
,texas1 ,arkansas1     ,illinois1 ,iowa1
 and ,kansas2 white heart hickory1      
,rhode ,island1 ,new     ,york1         
,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,north        
,carolina1 ,texas1 ,illinois1           
,ontario1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1 ,minnesota1   
and ,nebraska2 black hickory1           
,texas1 ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1       
,missouri2 big bud and red hickory1     
,florida2 hardback hickory1 ,illinois2  
white hickory1 ,pennsylvania1     ,south
 ,carolina2 big hickory nut1 ,west      
,virginia2 hognut1 ,delaware4     ,the  
name mocker nut is supposed to refer to 
the thick shell and     disappointingly 
small kernel within4 ,the range is not  
as extensive     as some of the other   
hickories4 ,beginning in southern       
,ontario1 it     extends westward and   
southward to eastern ,kansas and the    
eastern     half of ,texas4 ,the region 

of its most abundant growth is in the   
basin of the lower ,ohio and in         
,arkansas1 the best specimens           
appearing in fertile uplands4 ,this is  
said to be the only hickory     that    
invades the southern maritime pinebelt1 
growing on the low     country along the
 ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts in          
abundance4 ,the leaves     are fragrant 
with a powerful1 resinous odor2 they    
have five or seven     leaflets with    
hairy petioles or stems4 ,the bark      
resembles that of     bitternut1 and is 
not scaly like that of shagbark4 ,the   
wood weighs     #ea4ba pounds per cubic 
foot4 ,it is hard1 strong1 tough1       
flexible4 ,it     has about ninety-four 
per cent of the strength of shagbark1   
and     eighty per cent of its          
stiffness4 ,certain selected specimens  
of this     species are probably as     
strong as any hickory2 but1 as is the   
case     with all woods1 there is great 
difference between specimens1 and       
general averages only are to be relied  

upon4 ,g4 ,w4 ,letterman1 who           
collected woods for ,sargent's tests1   
procured a sample of this     hickory   
near ,allenton1 ,missouri1 which showed 
strength sufficient to     sustain      
#bj1jjj pounds per square inch1 and its 
measure of stiffness     was the        
enormous figure of #b1bjh1jjj pounds per
 square inch4      ,the uses of mocker  
nut hickory do not differ from those of 
other     hickories4 ,the tree is       
frequently nearly all sapwood1 to which 
the     name white hickory is due4 ,some
 persons suppose that the heartwood     
is white1 but that misconception is due 
to the fact that some pretty     large  
trees have no heartwood1 but are sap    
clear through4      ,the term 8black    
hickory0 is sometimes applied to three  
species with     dark-colored bark which
 bears some resemblance to the bark of  
ash4     ,they are bitternut 7,hicoria  
minima71 pignut 7,hicoria glabra71      
and mocker nut 7,hicoria alba74 ,when   
the word black is thus used1     it     

refers to the bark and the general      
outward appearance of the     tree1 and 
not to the wood1 which is as white as   
that of any other     hickory4          
,illustration     ,,pignut ,,hickory    
,illustration3 ,,pignut ,,hickory       
,,pignut ,,hickory  7,hicoria ,glabra7  
,the name of this tree is unfortunate1  
although so far as the nuts are         
concerned1 no injustice is done4 ,it is 
one of the best hickories in the quality
 of its wood1 and also as an ornamental 
tree4 ,it is likewise abundant in many  
parts of its range1 which extends from  
,maine to ,kansas1 ,texas1 ,florida1 and
 throughout most of the territory       
enclosed by the boundary lines thus     
delimited4  ,the name pignut is common  
in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 ,new      
,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,west
 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south    
,carolina1 ,florida1 ,alabama1          
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1       
,arkansas1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1        
,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 ,iowa1      

,kansas1 ,nebraska1 and ,minnesota2     
bitternut in ,arkansas1 ,illinois1      
,iowa1 and ,wisconsin2 black hickory in 
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,arkansas1    
,missouri1 ,iowa1 and ,indiana2 broom   
hickory in ,missouri2 brown hickory in  
,mississippi1 ,delaware1 ,texas1        
,tennessee1 ,minnesota2 hardshell in    
,west ,virginia2 red hickory in         
,delaware2 switch bud hickory in        
,alabama2 and white hickory in ,new     
,hampshire and ,iowa4  ,the nuts are    
generally bitter1 but some trees bear   
fruit which is not very offensive to the
 taste4 ,the avidity with which swine   
feed upon it gives the common name4     
,this tree is doubtless confused many   
times with bitternut1 though their      
differences are enough to distinguish   
them readily if they grow side by side4 
,as far as the woods of the two species 
are concerned1 there is little occasion 
to keep them separate4 ,the pignut is a 
forked tree more frequently than any    
other species of hickory2 and the nuts  

vary in shape and size more than those  
of any other4 ,the tree is more         
remarkable for its variations than for  
its regularity4 ,in one thing1 however1 
it is pretty constant3 the limbs and    
branches are smooth and clean1 hence the
 botanical name glabra4 ,as a name for  
this tree1 smooth hickory would be      
preferable to pignut4 ,trunks attain a  
height of eighty or ninety feet and a   
diameter of three or four1 but the      
extreme sizes are rare4 ,the largest    
specimens are found in the lower ,ohio  
valley1 and the species is most common  
in ,missouri and ,arkansas4 ,it grows   
farther south and farther west than any 
other hickory except pecan4 ,its        
southern limit is in ,florida and its   
western in ,texas4  ,the uses of hickory
 fall into general classes4 ,more is    
manufactured into vehicles than into any
 other single class of commodities1 but 
not more than into all other articles   
combined4 ,the second largest users of  
hickory are the manufacturers of        

handles4 ,the third largest demand comes
 from makers of agricultural implements 
and farm tools4 ,large amounts are      
required for athletic goods1 meat       
smoking1 and various miscellaneous      
purposes4 ,the total amount used yearly 
in this country1 and exported to foreign
 countries1 is not accurately known1 but
 it probably exceeds #ejj1jjj1jjj feet1 
board measure4 ,about half of this      
passes through sawmills in the usual    
manner1 and the other half goes directly
 from the forest to the factory or to   
the consumer4  ,the superiority of      
,american buggies1 sulkies1 and other   
light vehicles is due to the hickory in 
their construction4 ,no other wood      
equals this in combination of desirable 
physical properties4 ,though heavy1 it  
is so strong1 tough1 and resilient that 
small amounts suffice1 and the weight of
 the vehicle can be reduced to a lower  
point1 without sacrificing efficiency1  
than when any other wood is employed4   
,it is preminently a wood for light     

vehicles4 ,oak1 ash1 maple1 and elm     
answer well enough for heavy wagons     
where strength is more essential than   
toughness and elasticity4 ,hickory is   
suitable for practically all wooden     
parts of light vehicles except the body4
 ,the slender spokes look like frail    
dowels1 and seem unable to maintain the 
load1 but appearances are deceptive4    
,the bent rims are likewise very        
slender1 but they last better than      
steel4 ,the shafts and poles with which 
carriages and carts are equipped will   
stand severe strains and twists without 
starting a splinter4 ,the manufacturing 
of the stock is little less than a fine 
art4 ,in scarcely any other wood-using  
industry--probably excepting the making 
of handles--is the grain so closely     
watched4 ,hickory users generally speak 
of the annual growth rings as the grain4
 ,the grain must run straight in spokes1
 rims1 shafts1 and poles4 ,if the grain 
crosses the stick1 a break may occur by 
the simple process of splitting1 and the

 hickory in that case is no more        
dependable than many other woods4       
,handle makers observe the same rule1   
and must have straight grain4 ,the more 
slender the handle1 the more strictly   
the rule must be followed4 ,a cross     
grained golf club handle would fail at  
the first stroke4 ,an ax handle1 if it  
has cross grain1 will last a little     
longer1 but it will speedily split4     
,many of the best slender handles are of
 split hickory4 ,the line of cleavage   
follows the grain1 but a saw does not   
always do so4 ,heavy handles1 like those
 for picks and sledges1 are not so      
strictly straight grained1 because they 
are made strong enough to stand much    
more strain than is ever likely to be   
put on them4 ,red heartwood is          
frequently used in handles of that kind4
 ,peavey and canthook handles are       
generally split from billets1 because   
the grain must be straight4 ,though they
 are among the largest and heaviest of  
handles1 breakage must be guarded       

against with extra care1 for the snap of
 a peavey handle at a critical moment   
might cost the operator his life by     
precipitating a skidway of logs upon    
him4  ,the hickory which goes into      
agricultural implements fills many      
places1 among the most important being  
connecting rods4 ,it is often made into 
springs to take up or check oscillation4
 ,it is used for that purpose as picker 
sticks in textile mills4  ,furniture    
makers could get along without hickory1 
and they do not need much4 ,it is       
oftenest seen in dowels1 slender        
spindles1 and the rungs of chairs4 ,the 
makers of sporting and athletic goods   
bend it for rackets1 hoops1 and rims1 or
 make vaulting poles1 bats1 or trapezes4
  ,,shellbark ,,hickory 7,hicoria       
laciniosa7 is often mistaken for        
shagbark4 ,the ranges of the two species
 coincide in part only4 ,shagbark grows 
farther east1 north and south than      
shellbark4 ,the latter occupies an      
island1 as it were1 inside the          

shagbark's range4 ,shellbark is found   
from central ,new ,york and eastern     
,pennsylvania1 westward to ,kansas1 and 
southward to ,north ,carolina and middle
 ,tennessee4 ,the species is at its best
 in the lower ,ohio valley and in       
,missouri4 ,the largest trees are #abj  
feet high and three in diameter1 and are
 often free from branches half or       
two-thirds of the length4 ,the species  
prefers rich1 deep bottom lands1 and    
does not suffer from occasional         
inundation from overflowing rivers4 ,the
 average tree is not quite as large as  
shagbark4 ,the leaves are larger than   
those of any other hickory1 ranging in  
length from fifteen to twenty-two       
inches4 ,there are from five to nine    
leaflets1 usually seven4 ,the upper ones
 are largest1 and may be eight or nine  
inches long and four or five wide4 ,in  
the autumn the leaflets drop from the   
petioles which adhere to the branches   
and furnish means of identifying the    
tree in winter4 ,the nuts including the 

hulls are as large as small apples4     
,when ripe1 the hulls open and the nuts 
fall out2 but the hulls fall also4 ,the 
nuts are as large as shagbark nuts1 but 
the two are seldom distinguished in     
market1 though the shagbark's are a     
little richer in flavor4 ,the bark's    
roughness gives the tree its name4      
,strips three or four feet long and five
 or six inches wide curl up at the lower
 ends--sometimes at both ends--and      
adhere to the trunk several years4 ,the 
species has other names4 ,it is known as
 big shellbark in ,rhode ,island1       
,pennsylvania1 ,west ,virginia1         
,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1 and    
,kansas2 bottom shellbark in ,illinois2 
western shellbark or simply shellbark in
 ,rhode ,island and ,kentucky2 thick    
shellbark in ,south ,carolina1 ,indiana1
 and ,tennessee2 kingnut in ,tennessee4 
,the wood weighs #ej4ec pounds per cubic
 foot1 and is very hard1 strong1 tough1 
and flexible4 ,the heartwood is dark    
brown1 the sapwood nearly white4 ,this  

hickory usually has less sapwood in     
proportion to heart than other members  
of the species2 but the wood is not kept
 separate from the others when it goes  
to market1 and its uses are as extensive
 as the other hickories'4 ,it is        
believed by some foresters that         
shellbark hickory is worth cultivating  
for its nuts1 as it is a vigorous       
bearer2 but little planting has been    
done4 ,east of the ,alleghanies1        
particularly in ,virginia1 some planting
 has been carried out on old plantations
 for ornamental purposes4 ,on account of
 its long taproot1 the tree is difficult
 to transplant1 and the nuts should be  
planted where the trees are expected to 
remain4  ,illustration     ,,pecan      
,illustration3 ,,pecan     ,,pecan      
7,hicoria ,pecan7   ,the name is pecan  
in ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south  
,carolina1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1      
,texas1 ,arkansas1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1
 ,indiana1 ,iowa1 and ,kansas2 pecan nut
 and pecan tree in ,louisiana4 ,the name

 is of ,indian origin1 and means walnut4
 ,the tree's natural range is smaller   
than the present area in which the tree 
is found1 for it has been extensively   
planted in recent years4 ,it is found as
 far north as ,iowa1 south to ,texas1   
and east to ,alabama and ,kentucky4 ,the
 highest development of the wild tree is
 in the lower ,ohio valley4 ,forest     
trees were once found there which were  
said to be six feet in diameter and #agj
 high4 ,specimens that large would be   
hard to find now4  ,the pecan is a      
hickory4 ,as to wood1 it is the poorest 
of the hickories1 and as to nuts it is  
the best4 ,its compound leaves are from 
twelve to twenty inches long with from  
nine to seventeen leaflets4 ,the latter 
are from four to eight inches in length1
 and from one to three wide4 ,the first 
pairs on the petiole are smallest4 ,the 
fruit grows in clusters of from three to
 eleven1 the number exceeding any other 
hickory4 ,the nuts are four-angled1 and 
long for their width4  ,the wood of     

pecan has disappointed those who have   
attempted to use it like other          
hickories4 ,it does not differ much from
 them in appearance1 but it falls low in
 mechanical tests4 ,in strength1        
toughness1 and stiffness it is inferior 
to the poorest of the other hickories4  
,it has less than half the strength and 
half the stiffness of shagbark hickory4 
,it is a fairly good fuel1 but is high  
in ash4  ,the inferior quality of the   
wood has saved many a pecan tree from   
the sawmill and the wagon shop4 ,fine   
trunks stand near public highways1 along
 river banks1 and in fields1 while all  
merchantable hickories of other species 
have been sent to market4 ,the uses of  
the wood are few4 ,if some of it goes to
 wagon shops or to factories where      
agricultural vehicles are made1 it is   
employed for parts which are not        
required to endure strain or sustain    
sudden jars4  ,fortunately it is a tree 
with a value of another kind4 ,it is the
 most important nut tree of the ,united 

,states at this time1 and it promises to
 remain so4 ,the forest-grown pecans    
were an article of food for ,indians who
 once lived in the region1 and though   
white settlers who succeeded the        
,indians as occupants of the land1      
depended less upon forest fruits than   
the red men had done1 yet the pecan was 
often of supreme importance in the early
 years of settlement4 ,the nuts have    
constituted an article of commerce ever 
since the region had markets4           
,nurserymen were not slow to recognize  
the value of the pecan tree for planting
 purposes1 and nursery grown stock has  
been on the market many years4          
,extensive orchards have been planted in
 ,texas1 ,louisiana1 ,florida1 and other
 southern states1 and some of the       
earliest of these orchards are now in   
bearing4 ,however1 by far the largest   
part of pecans on the market is wild    
fruit from the forests4 ,many are       
shipped in from ,mexico1 but most grow  
in the rich woods of southern states4   

,they are gathered like chestnuts in    
northern woods4 ,the people who pick    
them sell to local stores at low prices1
 often taking pay in merchandise4       
,buyers collect the stock from country  
and village merchants1 and put it on the
 general market1 often at three or four 
times the price paid to the gatherers of
 the nuts4  ,one of the most important  
matters connected with pecan is the     
large number of horticultural varieties 
which have been produced by cultivation 
and selection4 ,more than seventy have  
been listed in nursery catalogues and   
special reports4 ,some of the nuts are  
twice the size of those of the forest1  
and shells have been reduced in thinness
 until some of them are really thinner  
than they should be to stand the rough  
usage which comes to them in reaching   
markets4  ,dealers occasionally polish  
pecans to impart the rich1 brown color  
which is supposed to give them the      
appearance of being fresh and of high   
grade4 ,the polishing is produced by    

friction1 when the nuts in bulk are     
shaken violently4 ,last year's stock    
takes on as bright a polish as fresh    
stock1 and the color and smoothness     
alone are not sufficient to prove that  
pecans are fresh from the trees4  ,the  
planted pecan tree grows rapidly and is 
as easily raised as fruit trees4 ,the   
wild tree is long-lived1 and the        
cultivated varieties will probably be   
like it4      ,,nutmeg ,,hickory        
7,hicoria myristicformis7 is so named   
because the     nut has the size and the
 wrinkled surface of a nutmeg1 though   
the     shape is different4 ,the husk   
enclosing the nut is almost as thin as  
paper4 ,the only other name by which it 
is known is bitter waternut1     in     
,louisiana4 ,the name scarcely applies1 
for the kernel is said not     to be    
bitter4 ,the range of nutmeg hickory    
extends from the coast of     ,south    
,carolina to ,arkansas4 ,it is rather   
abundant in ,arkansas1 but     scarce in
 most other parts of its range4 ,the    

tree has several     interesting        
features4 ,it was partly discovered a   
long time before     the discovery was  
complete4 ,in #ahjb ,andre ,f4 ,michaux 
saw the nut and     to that extent the  
species was discovered1 but many years  
passed     before a full description was
 given to the world by a competent      
botanist4 ,the wood rates among the     
strongest and stiffest of all the       
hickories1 according to present         
information2 but the calculations       
were based on too few tests to be       
considered final4 ,two samples of       
wood procured near ,bonneau's depot1    
,south ,carolina1 by ,w4 ,h4            
,revenel1 showed the remarkable breaking
 strength of #ai1hbb pounds     per     
square inch1 and the measure of         
stiffness exceeded #b1jjj1jjj     pounds
 to the square inch4 ,that strength is  
sixteen per cent above     shagbark4    
,the weight of nutmeg hickory is #df4if 
pounds to the cubic     foot4 ,the wood 
is hard1 tough1 and compact4 ,the       

structure1 including     pores1         
medullary rays1 annual rings1 springwood
 and summerwood1 is     similar to the  
wood of other hickories4 ,trees grow    
best in sandy     soil but near swamps  
and rivers where there is plenty of     
water4 ,the     largest trunks are      
eighty or one hundred feet in height and
 two in     diameter4 ,when use is made 
of this hickory it serves the same      
purposes as the wood of other trees of  
the group4 ,it is never     reported    
separately in statistics of wood        
utilization4 ,it is too     scarce to be
 important as a timber tree4 ,it        
apparently has a future     as an       
ornament1 though it has not yet been    
widely planted4 ,it has     proved a    
success in the ,carolinas and it thrives
 in the climate of     ,washington1 ,d4 
,c4 ,the luster of its foliage makes it 
the most     beautiful of the hickories4
 ,in common with other members of the   
genus1 its long taproot renders the     
transplanting of nursery stock          

difficult4      ,,water ,,hickory       
7,hicoria aquatica7 is known as swamp   
hickory in     ,south ,carolina1        
,florida1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana2 
bitter pecan in     ,mississippi and    
,louisiana1 and water bitternut in      
,tennessee and     ,south ,carolina4    
,the northern limit of this species is  
in ,virginia     near ,mobjack bay1 the 
southern limit in the ,caloosa valley1  
,florida1     west to the ,brazos river1
 ,texas1 and north to southern          
,illinois4 ,the     wood is hard1 heavy1
 strong1 but rather brittle2 the sapwood
 is     thick and often is nearly white1
 while the heartwood is dark brown4     
,it is the most porous of the hickories1
 and the pores are     distributed      
generally through the annual rings of   
growth4 ,in other     hickories they are
 largely restricted to the inner part of
 each     ring1 though a few are        
dispersed through all parts4 ,in swamp  
hickory     there is little difference  
in appearance between the wood grown    

early in the season and that produced   
later4 ,the tree is a rapid     grower4 
,it is an inhabitant of deep swamps1 and
 if the land is     inundated a         
considerable part of the year1 the tree 
seems to grow     all the better4 ,at   
its best it may attain a height of #ajj 
feet1 and     a diameter of two1 but    
that size is unusual4 ,the nut is small 
and     wrinkled1 and when broken open1 
pockets of red bitter powder are        
frequently found inside the shell4      
,usually the nuts are too bitter     to 
be eaten1 but it is said that near the  
western limit of the     tree's range1  
nuts are sometimes edible4      ,the    
only reported uses for the wood are fuel
 and fencing4 ,it is poor     fence     
material1 because1 like other hickories1
 it decays in a short     time when     
exposed to weather4 ,the wood of this   
genus is rich in     foods on which     
decay-producing fungi feed4 ,fungus is a
 low order of     plant life which sends
 its hair-like threads into the wood    

cells and     consumes the material     
found there2 but numerous insects bore  
into     wood to procure food4 ,few     
woods suffer from such attacks more than
     hickory4 ,even after it is seasoned
 and manufactured into     commodities1 
it is frequently attacked by various    
species of powder     post beetles1 and 
much injury results4 ,water hickory     
while yet     standing is often greatly 
damaged by the larv of certain moths    
which find their way into the soft wood 
just under the bark and     tunnel      
minute galleries which subsequently fill
 with brown     substance4 ,according to
 ,r4 ,b4 ,hough1 these brown streaks in 
water     hickory are hard enough to    
turn the edge of steel tools4 ,they not 
only damage the structure of the wood   
but spoil its appearance4      ,,bitter 
,,pecan 7,hicoria texana7 is a ,texas   
species which has not     been reported 
elsewhere4 ,the average size of the tree
 is from     fifteen to twenty-five feet
 in height and eight to ten inches in   

diameter2 but in rich bottom land1      
particularly along the ,brazos          
river1 specimens sometimes attain a     
diameter of three feet and a     height 
of #ajj4 ,the leaves are from ten to    
twelve inches in length1     with from  
seven to eleven leaflets4 ,the nuts are 
very bitter1 but     are of             
approximately the same size and shape as
 edible pecans4 ,the     shells are thin
 and very brittle4 ,the tree's range    
extends inland     #ajj or #aej miles   
from the ,texas coast4      ,,north     
,,carolina ,,shagbark ,,hickory         
7,hicoria carolin-septentrionalis7      
is found in the neighboring parts of the
 four states3 ,north     ,carolina1     
,georgia1 ,tennessee1 and ,alabama4 ,in 
the best land this     tree is          
occasionally eighty feet high and two or
 three in diameter1     but when it     
occurs on dry hillsides its average     
height is twenty or     thirty feet1 and
 its diameter about a foot4 ,the        
compound leaves are     from four to    

eight inches long1 with usually three1  
but occasionally     five leaflets4 ,the
 sweet nuts are small and brown4 ,the   
bark     separates into thick strips a  
foot or more in length and three or     
four inches wide4 ,the rough trunk      
resembles the northern shagbark         
hickory4 ,the wood is very tough1       
strong1 and hard1 the heart light       
reddish-brown1 the thin sapwood nearly  
white4 ,it is not     distinguished from
 the other hickories in commerce1 and it
 has the     same uses when any use is  
made of it4  ,illustration     ,,white  
,,elm  ,illustration3 ,,white ,,elm     
,,white ,,elm  7,ulmus ,americana7      
,six species of elm occur in the ,united
 ,states1 not counting the planer tree  
as an elm1 though lumbermen usually     
consider it as such4#e ,the white elm is
 the most common1 is distributed most   
widely1 and is commercially the most    
important4 ,more of it is used as       
lumber1 slack cooperage1 and other forms
 of forest products1 than all other elms

 of this country combined4 ,the         
statistics of sawmill output collected  
annually by the ,united ,states census  
are not compiled in a way to show the   
elms separately4 ,all go in as one4 ,the
 annual lumber cut of elm in the whole  
country is about #bfe1jjj1jjj feet1     
distributed over thirty-four states1    
with ,wisconsin leading1 followed in the
 order named by ,michigan1 ,indiana1    
,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,arkansas1 ,new ,york1
 and ,minnesota4 ,in addition to lumber1
 elm furnishes about #acj1jjj1jjj slack 
cooperage staves yearly4      #e ,the   
elms are white elm 7,ulmus americana71  
cork elm 7,ulmus     racemosa71 slippery
 elm 7,ulmus pubescens71 cedar elm      
7,ulmus     crassifolia71 wing elm      
7,ulmus alata71 and red elm 7,ulmus     
serotina74 ,they are all confined to the
 region east of the ,rocky              
,mountains4  ,the elms1 taken as a      
class1 are much alike4 ,there is more   
resemblance between the species than    
between species of oaks or pines1 yet   

some difference exists between elms4    
,this holds not only between different  
species1 but between individuals of the 
same species4 ,climate1 situation1 and  
soil have much to do with the character 
of the wood of the same species4 ,so    
great is the difference at times that   
fairly good judges of timber are        
deceived as to the species4 ,a tree     
growing on dry1 rocky soil produces wood
 quite different from one on rich1 deep1
 well-watered soil4 ,not only is the    
wood of one different from that of the  
other1 but the appearances of the       
standing trees are not alike4 ,the      
differences may not show in leaves1     
flowers1 and fruit as much as in the    
shapes and sizes of trees1 and the habit
 of the branches4  ,white elm is by     
common consent the type of the genus1   
the standard by which the other species 
are measured4 ,it is proper to compare  
certain properties and characters of    
other elms with white elm1 in order that
 a general view of all may be had4 ,the 

dry weights1 per cubic foot1 of wood are
 as follows3 ,white elm #dj4ed pounds1  
slippery elm #dc4ce1 cedar elm #de4ae1  
cork elm #de4bf1 and wing elm #df4fi4   
,figures which show the weight of the   
southern red elm 7,ulmus serotina7 are  
not available4 ,white elm is thus shown 
to be lightest of the group4  ,its      
breaking strength averages #ab1aeh      
pounds per cubic inch1 under the usual  
tests by which the strength of woods is 
determined4 ,reduced to everyday        
language that means that #ab1aeh pounds 
would just break a white elm stick1 #b  
inches square1 and resting on supports  
twelve inches apart4 ,that is the       
meaning of 8breaking strength10 or      
8modulus of rupture10 as the term is    
used in engineering text books relating 
to woods4 ,the following figures for the
 breaking strength of other elms make   
comparisons with white elm easy3 ,cedar 
elm #aa1jjj2 wing elm #aa1afb2 slippery 
elm #ab1cdb2 cork elm 7often called rock
 elm7 #ae1agb4 ,it is shown that two    

elms are stronger and two weaker than   
white elm4 ,this wood rates very little 
below white oak in strength4  ,the      
different species of elms vary          
considerably in stiffness1 or the       
ability to spring back when bent4 ,this 
factor is expressed by engineers in high
 figures1 is purely technical1 and is   
based on a wood's ability to stretch and
 regain its former position4 ,the only  
service which the figures can render to 
the layman is to furnish a basis for    
comparing one wood with another4 ,the   
stiffer a wood1 the greater its         
resistance to an effort to stretch it   
lengthwise4 ,white elm's measure of     
stiffness 7modulus of elasticity7 is    
#a1jgj1jjj pounds per square inch2 wing 
elm #hec1jjj2 cedar elm #iha1jjj2       
slippery elm #a1cah1jjj2 cork elm       
#a1eab1jjj4 ,it is shown here1 as was   
shown in the figures representing the   
strength of the elms1 that two species  
rate above and two below white elm in   
stiffness4  ,white elm is known by      

several names4 ,the color of the bark is
 responsible for the name gray elm among
 lumbermen and woodworkers of the ,lake 
,states4 ,american elm is a translation 
of its botanical name1 and is neither   
descriptive nor definitive1 because     
there are other elms as truly ,american 
as this one4 ,white elm distinguishes   
its wood from the redder wood of        
slippery elm1 but it would often be     
difficult if not impossible to identify 
the elms1 or any one of them1 by the    
color of the wood alone4 ,some persons  
who call this elm white doubtless refer 
to the color of the bark1 as is the case
 with those who speak of it as gray elm4
 ,it is known as water elm in several   
states1 but that name is applied        
indiscriminately to any elm that        
frequents river banks1 as most of them  
do in some part of their range4 ,it is  
called rock elm when it is found on     
stony uplands1 and swamp elm on low wet 
ground4 ,in some parts of the           
,appalachian mountain ranges it is      

called astringent elm to distinguish it 
from slippery elm4  ,white elm surpasses
 the others in extent of range4 ,its    
northern boundary stretches from        
,newfoundland1 across ,canada to the    
eastern base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 a
 distance of nearly #c1jjj miles4 ,it   
runs south through the ,atlantic states 
to ,florida1 a distance of #a1bjj miles 
or more4 ,its southwestern limit is in  
,texas4 ,the area thus bounded is about 
#b1ejj1jjj square miles4 ,a few other   
trees have ranges as large1 but none    
much exceed it4 ,it covers so much of   
,america1 and is so important in many   
parts of its range1 that it is clearly  
the leading elm in this country4 ,it is 
entitled to first place among elms for  
other reasons4  ,it is not easy to give 
any sure features or characteristics by 
which the layman may always distinguish 
this elm from others with which it is   
associated2 however1 by carefully       
observing certain features1 the identity
 of white elm is generally easy to      

establish4  ,the leaves have teeth along
 the margins like beech and birch4 ,they
 have straight primary veins running    
from the midrib to the points of the    
teeth4 ,before falling in autumn the    
leaves turn yellow4 ,the foliage is not 
very thick1 and most of it is near the  
ends of the limbs4 ,the bloom comes     
early in the spring1 ahead of the       
leaves1 and the seeds are ripe and ready
 for flight before the leaves are grown4
 ,sometimes the seeds are ripe almost   
before the leaves are out of the buds4  
,the seeds are oblong1 and about the    
size of a small lentil4 ,the wing       
entirely surrounds the seed1 and is     
about half an inch long4 ,the flight of 
elm seeds is an interesting phenomenon4 
,the individual seeds are so small that 
they are not easily seen as they sail   
away from the tall tree top but when    
they go in swarms1 in fitful puffs of   
wind1 they are not hard to see4 ,it is  
chiefly by their fruits that they are   
known1 that is1 by the multitudes of    

seedlings that appear a few weeks later4
 ,if one seedling elm in a thousand     
should reach maturity1 there would be   
little besides elms in the whole        
country4 ,they spring up by highways and
 hedges1 in gutters1 fields1 and even   
between cobbles and bricks of paved     
streets2 but in a few days they have    
crowded one another to death1 or have   
perished from other causes1 and those   
which manage to live to maturity do not 
much more than make up for old trees    
which perish from natural causes4  ,the 
botanist ,michaux pronounced the white  
elm 8the most magnificent vegetable of  
the temperate zone40 ,a number of trees 
are larger1 though this reaches great   
size4 ,sargent sets the limit of the    
tree at #abj feet high and eleven feet  
in trunk diameter4 ,that size is1 of    
course1 unusual1 but it has been        
surpassed at least in height4 ,a tree in
 ,jefferson county1 ,pennsylvania1 was  
#adj feet high1 and although forest     
grown1 it had a spread of crown of      

seventy-six feet4 ,it was sent to the   
sawmill where it made #h1hbj feet of    
lumber4 ,that trunk was only five feet  
in diameter4  ,some of the finest forest
 grown elms in this country have been   
cut in ,michigan4 ,their trunks were as 
tall1 straight1 and shapely as yellow   
poplars1 and their crowns surpassed     
those of poplars4 ,it was formerly not  
unusual for sawlogs to be cut from elm  
limbs which branched from the trunk     
fifty or more feet from the ground4 ,the
 best of the forest grown elm of this   
country has been cut2 but it is still   
lumbered throughout the whole eastern   
half of the ,united ,states4  ,the      
finest elms of this country1 and        
doubtless the finest in the world1 are  
the planted trees in some of the ,new   
,england villages4 ,the largest of them 
have been growing for two hundred years1
 and in many instances they still show  
the vigor of youth4 ,trunks six or seven
 feet through are not uncommon1 but the 
glory of the trees is not alone in the  

trunks4 ,their spread and form of crown 
are magnificent4 ,the largest are #aej  
feet across1 and some of the splendid   
branches1 rising in parabolic curves1   
are fully #ajj feet long1 from the      
junction with the tree to the tips of   
the twigs4 ,the most apt comparison for 
that form of elm is the spray of a      
fountain4 ,the upward jet of water      
corresponds to the trunk of the tree2   
the upward1 outward1 and downward curves
 of the spray represent the crown of the
 elm4 ,trees which take that form are   
grown in open ground where sunlight and 
air reach every side4 ,forest grown     
trees are less symmetrical1 but even in 
dense woods1 the elm frequently rises   
clear above the canopy of other trees1  
and develops the fountain form of crown4
 ,the new ,england street and park elms 
surpass those farther west only because 
they are older4 ,the splendid trunks and
 crowns are the work of centuries4      
,illustration     ,,cork ,,elm          
,illustration3 ,,cork ,,elm     ,,cork  

,,elm  7,ulmus ,racemosa7   ,this tree  
is called cork elm in ,vermont1         
,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new    
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,arkansas1         
,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,wisconsin1       
,michigan1 ,iowa1 and ,ohio2 rock elm in
 ,rhode ,island1 ,kentucky1 ,west       
,virginia1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1        
,wisconsin1 ,iowa1 ,michigan1 ,nebraska2
 hickory elm in ,missouri1 ,iowa1       
,illinois1 and ,indiana2 white elm in   
,ontario2 ,thomas elm in ,tennessee2    
northern cork-barked elm in ,tennessee2 
corkbark elm1 ,new ,york2 northern cork 
elm1 ,vermont2 wahoo1 ,ohio2 cliff elm  
in ,wisconsin4  ,cork elm is the natural
 name4 ,it is a descriptive term which a
 stranger would be apt to apply on      
seeing the tree for the first time4 ,the
 bark of the branches1 after it has     
attained an age of three or four years1 
becomes rough by the growth of ridges   
and protuberances4 ,this feature is     
sometimes so prominent that it at once  
attracts attention1 particularly when   

the branches are bare of leaves2 hence  
the name cork elm4  ,lumbermen insist on
 naming the tree rock elm4 ,they refer  
to the hardness of the wood1 or they may
 have in mind the dry1 stony situations 
where tough1 strong elm grows4 ,the     
latter is often the case1 because the   
name is applied also to slippery elm and
 white elm if they grow on stony ground4
 ,a wide-spread opinion prevails that   
wood which grows among rocks is harder1 
tougher1 stronger1 and more durable than
 that produced by deep1 fertile soil4   
,it is possible to cite much evidence to
 support that view1 and the case might  
be considered proved1 but for the fact  
that an equal1 or greater amount of     
evidence1 in every way as trustworthy1  
may be cited on the other side4 ,the    
strongest hickory1 ash1 and oak do not  
come from stony land4 ,it sometimes     
happens that a species with tough1      
strong wood1 is found on rocks1 but it  
is not tough because it is there1 but in
 spite of being there4  ,the name cliff 

elm which this tree bears in ,wisconsin 
is but another form of the name rock    
elm1 and clearly has reference to the   
situation where the tree grows in that  
part of the country4 ,hickory elm1 on   
the other hand1 a name applied to this  
tree much farther south1 is a           
recognition of the wood's toughness4    
,in some particulars it does not fall   
much below hickory in toughness1 but is 
not as strong1 elastic1 or capable of as
 smooth polish4 ,the latter property is 
one of the recommendations of hickory   
when used for handles4 ,it is very      
smooth to the touch2 cork elm is less   
so4 ,in the northern woods1 elm ax      
handles are in use1 and some axmen      
prefer them to hickory4 ,such is        
probably the case when the best cork elm
 and a medium or poor quality of hickory
 are in competition4  ,the fibers of    
cork elm are interlaced1 rendering the  
splitting of the wood difficult4 ,for   
uses in which that is a desirable       
property1 it is preferable to hickory4  

,it is better for hubs for large wagons1
 and that is a very important use for   
this elm4  ,the wood of all the elms is 
ring-porous2 that is1 the springwood1 or
 inner part of the annual ring1 consists
 of one or more rows of large ducts4    
,the summerwood contains pores in large 
numbers1 but they are small1 and are    
usually arranged in short curved lines4 
,the medullary rays are not prominent in
 the wood of any of the elms1 and       
quarter-sawing adds no beauty to the    
lumber4 ,the wood is practically without
 figure1 on account of either annual    
rings or medullary rays2 but it may be  
stained1 polished1 and made very        
attractive4 ,that is done oftener with  
white elm than with any other4  ,the    
strength of cork elm created demand for 
it in boat building at an early day4    
,the tree is and always was scarce in   
the vicinity of the ,atlantic sea board1
 and the earliest boat builders seem not
 to have been acquainted with the wood4 
,it was most abundant in the forests of 

,michigan1 though it extended westward  
to ,nebraska4 ,it was plentiful in the  
province of ,ontario1 and the timbers   
from that region acquainted ,english    
shipbuilders with the merits of the     
wood4 ,they sent contractors into       
,michigan to buy cork elm1 long before  
the other hardwoods of that region had  
attracted the attention of the outside  
world4 ,the most convenient supplies of 
cork elm on the ,lower ,michigan        
peninsula thus passed through ,canada to
 ship yards on the other side of the    
sea4 ,the wood is reputed to be more    
durable than any of the other elms4  ,it
 is generally understood that the       
country's supply of cork elm is running 
short1 but there are no statistics which
 show how much is left or how much has  
been cut4 ,it is doubtful if the        
original forests1 including the whole   
country1 had one tree of cork elm to    
twenty of white elm4 ,the average size  
of cork elm is sixty feet high and two  
in diameter4 ,the trunks are well       

shaped1 if forest grown4 ,they develop  
small crowns in proportion to the size  
of trunks2 and the crowns are less      
graceful than those of white            
elm--lacking the long1 sweeping curves  
of the latter4 ,the general contour of  
the tree has been compared to white oak4
  ,cork elm grows well when planted on  
the ,pacific coast1 in environments     
quite different from its native habitat4
 ,in the forest it increases in size    
slowly2 when planted it makes much      
better headway4 ,it has a disagreeable  
habit of sprouting which puts it out of 
favor as a park tree4  ,the wood of the 
different elms is largely used for      
manufacturing purposes4 ,they are       
sometimes kept separate1 but generally  
not4 ,the particular place where cork   
elm is preferred is in the manufacture  
of vehicles and boats1 but it is by no  
means confined to those commodities4    
,the state of ,michigan alone sends     
#ej1jjj1jjj feet of elm a year to its   
factories to be converted into articles 

of general utility4 ,furniture makers   
take over #b1jjj1jjj feet of it1 though 
elm is not classed as a furniture wood4 
,in certain places it is superior to    
almost every other wood4 ,no matter how 
discolored it becomes by weathering and 
the accumulation of foreign substances1 
a vigorous application of soap1 water1  
and a scrubbing brush will whiten it4   
,it is liked in certain parts of        
refrigerators which need constant       
scrubbing4 ,elm to the extent of        
#h1jjj1jjj feet goes into refrigerators 
in ,michigan alone4  ,the strength and  
toughness of elm make it suitable for   
frames of tables4 ,when thus used1 it is
 generally out of sight1 but not        
infrequently it is made into table legs 
as well as frames4 ,statistics show that
 more than a million feet are           
manufactured yearly into handles in     
,michigan alone4 ,all three of the      
northern elms--white1 cork1 and         
slippery--are listed in the handle      
industry4  ,many millions of feet of elm

 are yearly converted into automobile   
stock--#c1jjj1jjj in ,michigan4         
,horse-drawn vehicles take more4 ,the   
most common place for it is the hub1 but
 it serves also as shafts1 poles1       
reaches1 and even as spokes for wagons  
of the largest size4  ,the important    
place in the slack cooperage industry   
held by elm is well known4 ,it is a     
flour barrel wood1 but is employed for  
barrels of many other kinds4 ,it stands 
high as veneer1 not the kind of which   
the visible parts of furniture are made1
 but the invisible interior1 built up of
 veneer sheets glued together4 ,a       
similar kind of veneer forms the boxes  
or frames of trunks--the part to be     
covered by metal1 leather1 or cloth4    
,the slats which strengthen the outside 
of trunks are frequently of elm4  ,this 
wood is not in favor for one important  
purpose1 hardwood distillation4 ,it has 
escaped pretty generally also from being
 employed as a farm material1 on account
 of its poor lasting qualities4 ,some   

slippery elm was mauled into fence rails
 in the pioneer days of ,ohio1 ,indiana1
 and southern ,michigan1 but that was   
only because it was plentiful and       
convenient4 ,cork elm probably never    
made a fence rail1 because it is so     
unwedgeable that no rail splitter would 
have anything to do with it4 ,at the    
best1 it is but a temporary makeshift as
 fence posts1 but by applying creosote  
and other preservative treatments to    
lessen decay1 it measures up with most  
other post woods4  ,the elms are not    
indispensable woods in this country1 but
 their exhaustion1 should it ever come1 
will leave many places hard to fill4 ,as
 far as known1 no woodlots of any       
species of elm have been planted in this
 country1 and there is little prospect  
that any will be planted1 because the   
slow growth of the trees discourages    
foresters4 ,a century or two is a long  
look ahead4  ,however1 the exhaustion of
 no species of the elms in this country 
need be expected soon4 ,the most        

apparent peril lies ahead of cork elm1  
because it never was abundant1 and      
demand1 which has been large for a long 
time1 is still strong4 ,the species is  
scattered over more than #bjj1jjj square
 miles1 and a long time must elapse     
before the last cork elm finds its way  
to the sawmill4 ,the situation of white 
elm is more promising4 ,it may be among 
the last trees of the ,american forests 
to take its final departure4 ,its wide  
range and its bounteous seed crops      
insure a supply1 though not necessarily 
a large one1 for a long time4 ,the      
greatest peril to elms1 as well as to   
many other forest trees1 is that1 when  
weakened by depletion1 some disease will
 attack them and destroy the remnants4  
,experience in ,new ,england and        
elsewhere has shown that elm has no     
great resisting power when a strong     
attack is made upon it4  ,illustration  
,,slippery ,,elm  ,illustration3        
,,slippery ,,elm     ,,slippery ,,elm   
7,ulmus ,pubescens7   ,this tree is     

known as slippery elm in every state    
where it grows1 thirty or more2 but in  
some localities it has other names also4
 ,it is doubtful if any person who is   
acquainted with the tree would fail to  
recognize it by the name slippery elm1  
though some who are acquainted with the 
lumber only might not know it by that   
name4 ,those who call it red elm have in
 mind the color of the heartwood which  
is of deeper red than the wood of any   
other elm1 or they may refer to the     
tawny pubescence on the young shoots in 
winter4 ,the botanical name describes   
that characteristic4  ,in the ,north1   
the slippery elm is sometimes known as  
moose elm4 ,it furnishes forage in      
winter for the moose and other          
herbivorous animals when ground plants  
are covered with snow4 ,the moose is    
able to eat branches as thick as a man's
 thumb4 ,the principal food element in  
the twigs is the mucilaginous inner     
bark4 ,it is this which gives the tree  
its name slippery elm4 ,the value of the

 bark as a food has been questioned4 ,it
 is agreeable to the taste of both man  
and beast1 but it is claimed that a     
human being will starve to death on it1 
though it will prolong life several     
days4 ,the lower animals1 however1 seem 
able to derive more benefit from eating 
the bark4 ,an incident of the ,war of   
#ahab appears to prove this4 ,the army  
under ,general ,harrison1 operating in  
the vicinity of ,lake ,erie1 kept the   
horses of the expedition alive by       
feeding them on slippery elm bark1      
stripped from the trees and chopped in  
small bits4  ,the inner bark has long   
been used for medicinal purposes4 ,it is
 now ground fine and is kept for sale in
 drug stores1 but formerly it was a     
household remedy which most families in 
the country provided and kept in store  
along with catnip1 mandrake1 sage1      
dogwood blossoms1 and other rural       
remedies which were depended upon to    
rout diseases in the days when          
physicians were few4 ,the slippery elm  

bark was peeled from the tree in long   
strips1 the rough outer layers were     
shaved off1 leaving the mucilaginous    
inner layer4 ,that was from an eighth to
 a quarter of an inch thick4 ,it was    
dried and put away for use4 ,when needed
 it was pounded to a pulp1 moistened    
with water1 and applied as a poultice1  
if an external remedy was wanted4 ,if a 
medicine was needed1 a decoction was    
drunk as tea4 ,there is no question that
 the remedy often produced good results 
when no doctor was within reach4 ,a     
well-known medical writer said          
three-quarters of a century ago that the
 slippery elm tree was worth its weight 
in gold4  ,the range of slippery elm    
extends from the lower ,st4 ,lawrence   
river through ,canada to ,north ,dakota4
 ,it is found in ,texas as far west as  
the ,san ,antonio river1 and its western
 limit is generally from #bjj to #cjj   
miles west of the ,mississippi river4   
,its range extends south nearly to the  
,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it is not this tree's

 habit to grow in thick stands1 but it  
occurs singly or in small groups on the 
banks of streams or on rich hillsides4  
,the average size is scarcely half that 
of white elm4 ,few trees exceed a height
 of seventy feet and a diameter of two4 
,it grows rapidly at first1 but does not
 live to old age4 ,the crown lacks the  
symmetry and beauty so conspicuous in   
white elm4 ,the limbs follow no law of  
regularity1 but leave the trunk at      
haphazard4 ,the fruit is mature before  
the leaves are half grown4 ,the seeds   
have more wing area than those of white 
elm2 and1 like those of white elm1 the  
wing surrounds the flat seed on all its 
edges4 ,the leaves are rough to the     
touch1 and when crumpled in the hand1   
the crunching sensation is unpleasant4  
,next to white elm1 slippery elm appears
 to be more abundant than any other     
member of the group2 but statistics do  
not give the basis for close estimates4 
,the factories of ,michigan use         
#c1gjj1jjj feet of slippery elm a year1 

and #dd1jjj1jjj of white elm4 ,the      
proportion of slippery to white is      
larger in the factories of ,illinois4   
,the uses are the same as for other     
elms4 ,the wood is rated more durable   
than the others1 but it is not in much  
demand for outdoor work where resistance
 to decay is an important consideration4
 ,it is sometimes set for fence posts1  
but the results are scarcely            
satisfactory1 particularly for round    
posts which are largely sapwood4 ,posts 
sawed from the heartwood of large trees 
would do better4 ,the deeper red of the 
heartwood gives it an advantage over the
 other elms for furniture and finish    
where natural colors are shown2 but this
 is not important because no elm's      
natural color stands for much in the    
estimation of users of fine woods4 ,the 
more common use of slippery elm is for  
boxes and cooperage4 ,next to red gum1  
it is employed in larger quantities for 
cooperage in ,illinois than any other   
wood4  ,the supply is rapidly           

decreasing4 ,the cut for lumber is the  
chief drain1 but a not inconsiderable   
one is the peeling of trees for bark4   
,this goes on all over the species'     
range and much of it is done by boys    
with knives and hatchets4 ,it is often  
hard to find slippery elms within miles 
of a town1 because all have succumbed to
 bark hunters4      ,,cedar ,,elm       
7,ulmus crassifolia7 appears to bear    
this name because it     is often found 
associated with red cedars on the dry   
limestone hills     of ,texas4 ,there is
 little in the form and appearance of   
the tree to     suggest the tall1       
tapering conical crown of cedar4 ,there 
is still     less in the wood4 ,in some 
parts of ,texas the species is called   
red     elm1 on account of the color of 
the wood1 while in ,arkansas1 which     
is near the northern boundary of its    
range1 it is locally known as     basket
 elm1 because basket makers find        
desirable qualities in its     wood4 ,it
 is a species of rather limited range1  

but it is abundant in     certain       
regions4 ,it is found as far east as    
,sunflower river1     ,mississippi1     
north into ,arkansas1 west to ,pecos    
river1 ,texas1 and     south into       
,mexico4 ,it is confined to three       
states1 this side the ,rio     ,grande4 
,trees on dry hills are inclined to be  
shrubby1 but in damp     valleys where  
soil is fertile1 specimens attain a     
height of eighty     feet and a diameter
 of three1 but the average is not nearly
 so     large4 ,the leaves are small but
 numerous4 ,the flowering habits of     
this elm are somewhat erratic4 ,the     
usual time for bloom to appear is       
,august1 and a month or six weeks       
afterwards the small seeds are     ready
 for flight2 but occasionally1 as if not
 satisfied with its     first effort1   
the tree blooms again in ,october1 and  
ripens a second     crop late in the    
fall4 ,the seeds are poorly supplied    
with wings1     which are reduced to    
narrow margins surrounding the seed4 ,it

 does     not appear1 however1 that the 
species is in any way handicapped in    
securing reproduction4 ,the small shoots
 are equipped with flat1     corky      
keels1 similar to but much smaller than 
those of the wing elm4      ,this tree  
is important for the lumber it produces4
 ,it is the common     and most abundant
 elm of ,texas1 and it is found in a    
large part of     that state4 ,the wood 
is the weakest of the elms1 and is      
likewise     quite brittle2 but in the  
region where it is most abundant it     
compares favorably with any other4 ,the 
best is cut from the largest     trees1 
which grow in valleys where moisture is 
abundant4 ,the growth     found on the  
dry hills is of poor quality1 and is    
worth little1 even     for fuel4 ,the   
highest development in ,texas1 and also 
the highest in     the species' range1  
is in the valleys of ,trinity and       
,guadalupe     rivers4 ,in ,texas this  
wood is employed in furniture factories 
as     inside frames1 to be covered by  

other woods1 but it is not employed     
as outside parts of furniture1 unless in
 very cheap kinds4 ,it is     suitable  
for drain boards and floors of          
refrigerators where it is     wet much  
of the time4 ,under such circumstances  
it is more easily     kept clean than   
most other woods4 ,it whitens with      
repeated     scrubbings4 ,one of its    
most common uses in ,texas is for wagon 
hubs4     ,some wheelwrights pronounce  
it next to the best native wood for that
     purpose1 the first place being     
accorded ,osage orange4 ,the tree is    
often planted for shade along the       
streets of ,texas towns1 and            
develops thick crowns and satisfactory  
forms4      ,,red ,,elm 7,ulmus         
serotina7 is a lately discovered member 
of the elm     family4 ,it so closely   
resembles the cork elm that it was      
supposed to     be of the same species1 
and the close scrutiny of a botanist was
     required to discover that it was a 
separate species4 ,sargent     observed 

the flowers opening in ,september while 
those of cork elm     appear in early   
spring4 ,the seeds ripen in ,november1  
while cork     elm's are ripe early in  
the summer4 ,the tree was named red elm1
 the     wood being reddish-brown4 ,that
 name is widely applied to slippery     
elm1 but it is improbable that much     
confusion will result4 ,the red         
elm's range is quite restricted and in  
that area the slippery elm is     not   
important4 ,red elm occurs on limestone 
hills and river banks     from central  
,kentucky to northern ,georgia and      
,alabama4 ,it attains a     height of   
fifty or sixty feet and a diameter of   
two or three4 ,the     leaves are from  
two to four inches in length1 and one or
 two wide1     with margins toothed like
 the other elms4 ,the midrib is yellow1 
and     in the autumn the leaves change 
to an orange yellow before falling4     
,branches which are two or three years  
old develop corky wings1 two     or     
three in number4      ,it is not known  

that mechanical tests of the wood have  
been made in     a regular way to       
determine its physical properties1 but  
superficial     examination indicates   
that it is hard1 tough1 and strong1     
apparently     about the same as cork   
elm4 ,special lists of uses for this    
wood have     not been compiled for the 
reason that lumbermen and operators of  
sawmills have never distinguished it    
from other elms of the region4          
,since it has never been left standing  
in districts where other elms     are   
cut1 it is evident that it has been     
regularly put to use for     vehicles1  
agricultural implements1 boxes1 crates1 
and slack     cooperage1 because such   
articles have been manufactured in the  
region4 ,the red elm has been           
occasionally planted as a shade tree    
along streets of towns in northern      
,georgia and ,alabama4  ,illustration   
,,planertree  ,illustration3            
,,planertree     ,,planertree  7,planera
 ,aquatica7   ,this tree is a first     

cousin of the elms1 but it is no more an
 elm than a hackberry is an elm4 ,it is 
a member of the family but is of a      
different genus1 and it is the sole     
representative of its genus in the known
 world4 ,there is only one kind of      
planertree1 with no nearer relatives    
than the elms on one side and hackberry1
 sugarberry1 and palo blanco on the     
other4 ,except those kinsfolk1 it is    
alone on earth4 ,the name is in honor of
 ,johann ,jacob ,planer1 a ,german      
botanist whose efforts did much for     
science nearly two hundred years ago4   
,the name of the species aquatica1      
recognizes the tree's habit of growing  
where water is abundant4 ,it is a swamp 
species1 or rather1 it prefers          
situations subject to periodic overflow4
 ,it looks like an elm1 and that has led
 people to call it water elm4 ,that is  
the name by which it is usually known in
 ,florida4 ,in ,alabama it is called the
 ,american planertree1 which is an      
unnecessary restriction1 since there is 

no planertree except this one4 ,the     
,louisiana ,french gave it the name     
plene1 and the abridgement of its name  
is yet heard in that state4 ,in ,north  
,carolina it has acquired the name      
sycamore1 but without good reason4 ,it  
does not look in the least like         
sycamore4  ,it has the leaf of an elm1  
and it resembles that tree in bark1 and 
somewhat in general form4 ,the layman   
detects the first important difference  
when he examines the seeds4 ,those of   
the elms have wings1 but the            
planertree's are without those          
appendages1 and they would be useless if
 it had them1 unless they were as large 
as the parachute of the basswood seed4  
,the planertree bears a sort of nut1 a  
third of an inch long1 and too heavy to 
be transported far on the ordinary      
membranous wings of tree seeds4 ,water  
is doubtless the principal agent in     
carrying the seeds from place to place4 
,probably few of them are transported   
far1 because the water about the trees  

is generally stagnant2 and1 besides1 the
 species does not seem to be extending  
its range or increasing in numbers4     
,the planertree has a history4 ,if the  
terms which the ,roman historian        
,tacitus applied to people1 could be    
applied to trees1 it might be said of   
this species1 as he said of certain     
tribes3 8,the cowards fly the farthest  
and are the last survivors40 ,the       
planertree is now found only in certain 
southern swamps1 from ,north ,carolina  
to ,florida1 and west to ,missouri and  
,texas4 ,in former periods1 as is shown 
by the records of geology1 there were   
several species1 and they had a wide    
range over portions of the northern     
hemisphere4 ,they appear to have been a 
strong group of trees1 able to hold     
their ground with the best inhabitants  
of the forest4 ,they were in the ,rocky 
,mountains1 and far north in ,alaska4   
,they were in ,europe also1 or were     
represented there by some very similar  
species4  ,for some reason which is not 

definitely known1 they lost out when    
competition with other trees became     
keen1 and in the course of long periods 
of time they disappeared from their     
former ranges in the ,north and ,west4  
,they took to the swamps1 just as the   
tribes of which ,tacitus spoke1 took to 
the morasses when they could no longer  
face their enemies on open ground4 ,it  
was a far cry from ,alaska to the       
,chattahoochee swamps in ,florida1 yet  
that was where ,a4 ,h4 ,curtis and      
,charles ,mohr went to procure typical  
planertree specimens for the tests which
 ,sargent made of ,american woods4  ,it 
has been suggested that tree species    
which have lost out in competition for  
ground1 have been those which were at   
some decided disadvantage in the matter 
of getting their seeds properly         
scattered and planted4 ,the case has not
 been proved1 because there are as many 
facts and as much argument against that 
hypothesis as for it4 ,the bigtrees of  
,california are a noted example of a    

species which lost out and retreated to 
a corner1 yet their seeds fly like      
birds4 ,plainly1 something besides      
winged seeds is needed to keep the      
species in the fight4 ,however1 it is   
not difficult to see that the           
planertree1 with wingless seeds and of  
so little use as food that no bird or   
rodent will carry them or bury them1 has
 been much handicapped in the long      
contest which has crowded it from the   
arctic circle to the cotton belt4  ,it  
has the habits of the subdued and       
conquered tree4 ,it has adapted itself  
to swamps where few species can grow1   
and where competition for light and room
 is reduced to a minimum4 ,yet1 even    
there1 it is content to take the        
leavings of more ambitious species4 ,the
 crowns make little effort to rise up to
 the light1 for which many other trees  
battle during their whole existence4    
,the planertree's low1 broad top of     
contorted branches places it perpetually
 in the shade of any other trees which  

overtop it4  ,the wood of the planertree
 is lighter in weight1 poorer in fuel   
value1 weaker1 and more brittle than the
 poorest of the elms4 ,the annual ring  
lacks the rows of large open pores      
common in all the elms1 but it has many 
small pores scattered through the whole 
year's growth4 ,it is not easy to note a
 difference between the springwood and  
that which grows later4 ,the wood is    
soft1 light brown in color1 and the     
nearly white sapwood is thick4 ,it is   
often1 perhaps generally1 a tree of     
fairly rapid growth1 and since it does  
not reach large size1 it is probably    
short-lived1 but exact information along
 that line is lacking4  ,the tallest    
trees seldom exceed a height of forty   
feet and a diameter of two4 ,it is      
evident that a tree of that size and    
form does not tempt the lumberman to    
much exertion to procure it4 ,an        
examination of reports of sawmill       
operations and of the utilization of    
woods by shops and factories in the     

southern states has failed to find a    
single instance where the planertree has
 been reported in use for any purpose   
whatever4 ,doubtless1 trees are         
sometimes cut and the lumber gets into  
the market1 but not under its own name4 
,the species is interesting for reasons 
other than that it ever has had or ever 
can have a place in the country's lumber
 industry4      ,,wing ,,elm 7,ulmus    
alata71 which is the smallest of the    
elms1 is     plentifully supplied with  
names1 but in most parts of its range it
     is known as wing or winged elm4 ,it
 is also called wahoo or wahoo     elm1 
and the ,west ,virginians have named it 
witch elm2 the ,north     ,carolinans   
refer to it often as simply elm2 from   
,florida to ,texas     some call it cork
 elm2 in ,alabama it is water elm2 in   
,arkansas     mountain elm2 while in    
other regions it is corky elm1          
small-leaf     elm1 and red elm4 ,some  
of these names are self-explanatory4    
,wing elm     does not relate to a      

winged seed1 but to winged twigs4 ,that 
characteristic of the tree is very      
prominent4 ,the wings consist of        
flattened keels along opposite sides of 
the branches4 ,a twig no more     than a
 quarter of an inch in diameter may be  
decorated with wings     half an inch or
 more wide1 making the twig four or five
 times as     wide as it is thick4 ,as  
the twig enlarges1 the wings do not     
broaden     in proportion4 ,the lowest  
branches and those nearest the trunk are
     most generously furnished with     
wings4 ,they appear to be entirely      
ornamental1 for it is not known that    
they serve any useful purpose4     ,the 
growth is different from those which    
give cork elm its name4 ,the     latter 
occur on the large branches1 often in   
the form of isolated     protuberances1 
but the wings are fairly continuous for 
a foot or     more1 except that they    
terminate abruptly at the nodes1 but    
recommence immediately after4 ,branches 
less than a year old seldom     have    

wings4 ,the name wahoo appears to have  
lost its etymology if it     ever had   
any4 ,dictionaries tell what it means1  
but they shy at its     origin4 ,it is a
 southern word which is applied to this 
elm1 and also     to other trees1 and   
occasionally it means a fish instead of 
a tree4     ,some would trace it to the 
cry of an owl1 others to a name in      
,gulliver's ,travels1 with a slight     
change in spelling4      ,wing elm at   
its best is about fifty feet high and   
two in diameter2     but much of the    
stand is small4 ,the best occurs west of
 the     ,mississippi river4 ,the range 
extends from ,texas to ,virginia1 south 
to ,florida1 and north to ,illinois4 ,in
 ,texas it is a fairly important        
wood in furniture factories1 the annual 
supply being about a million     feet4  
,it is used by turners for table legs4  
,in an investigation of     the uses of 
the wood1 the same difficulty is        
encountered that makes     difficult a  
study of the uses of all the            

elms--conflict and     uncertainty of   
names4 ,there are few regions in the    
hardwood areas of     this country which
 produce one elm and no more2 and after 
all     practical means of              
identification are resorted to1 there is
 often     doubt and uncertainty        
concerning the exact species of elm     
lumber     found in use4 ,fortunately1  
it generally makes little difference1   
because anyone of them is good enough   
for ordinary use4 ,wing elm is          
extensively planted for shade along the 
streets of towns in the     lower       
,mississippi valley1 but more frequently
 on the west side of     the valley4    
,when the trees grow in the open they   
develop broad     crowns1 and the       
branches1 even of comparatively small   
trees1 are     long enough to reach well
 over the sidewalks1 and cast           
satisfactory     shade4 ,the            
dark-colored winged twigs add much to   
the ornamental     value of the street  
trees4      ,,fremontia                 

7,fremontodendron californicum7 is not  
botanically in the     elm family1 but  
it is popularly known as slippery elm in
 the region     where it occurs1 and for
 that reason it is here given place     
among     the elms4 ,it is known also as
 leatherwood4 ,it is a ,california      
species1 ranging among the lower        
mountains and higher foothills in       
dry1 gravelly soils1 from the ,mexican  
boundary five hundred miles             
northward in the state4 ,the            
mucilaginous inner bark tastes like that
     of the true slippery elm4 ,the     
shape of the leaf much more resembles   
sycamore than elm2 and it is an         
evergreen4 ,it bears a bright yellow1   
roselike flower1 and the seeds are      
small1 reddish-brown4 ,the wood is      
fine grained1 clear reddish-brown1 with 
thick1 whitish sapwood4 ,it     is very 
soft4 ,the tree attains its largest size
 among the foothills     of the ,sierra 
,nevada mountains1 but even there it is 
too small to     have much economic     

value1 seldom exceeding thirty feet in  
height and     a foot in diameter4 ,its 
most important use is as a forage plant 
for     cattle and sheep4 ,in that      
particular it resembles slippery elm in 
northern woods4 ,the tree is            
occasionally planted in the eastern     
states and in ,europe for ornament4 ,in 
its native range it grows     slowly4   
,illustration     ,,hackberry           
,illustration3 ,,hackberry              
,,hackberry  7,celtis ,occidentalis7    
,hackberry is a common name for this    
tree in nearly all parts of its range1  
but it has other names4 ,it is sometimes
 confused with sugarberry 7,celtis      
mississippiensis74 ,they call it nettle 
tree in ,rhode ,island1 ,massachusetts1 
,delaware1 and ,michigan1 and in        
,tennessee it is known as ,american     
nettle-tree4 ,in ,vermont it is hoop    
ash2 in ,rhode ,island one-berry2       
hack-tree in ,minnesota1 and juniper    
tree in ,new ,jersey4  ,the name        
hackberry is not of ,american origin4   

,it dates far back in the languages of  
western ,europe and is believed to have 
the same origin as the word haw1 which1 
in its turn meant hedge4 ,if that       
etymology is correct1 the word really   
means hedge berry1 which is not an      
inappropriate name for the tree4 ,the   
name is sometimes applied to a small    
bird cherry in ,europe4 ,the ,new       
,jersey name juniper-tree is in         
recognition of the resemblance of the   
berries to those of red cedar or red    
juniper4 ,no reason has been assigned   
for the name nettle-tree4  ,its range   
covers about #b1jjj1jjj square miles in 
the ,united ,states besides part of     
,canada4 ,it grows from the ,atlantic on
 the coast of ,new ,england to the tide 
water of the ,pacific on ,puget sound2  
in southern ,florida and in ,texas4 ,it 
is not found in pure stands1 but often  
as single trees far apart4 ,this is the 
case in the northeastern part of the    
,united ,states in particular where     
probably not more than one tree might be

 found in a whole county4 ,frequently   
the people in the neighborhood do not   
know what the tree is1 and suppose it is
 the last representative on earth of    
some disappearing species4  ,it is far  
from being a disappearing tree4 ,not    
only is it widely dispersed over the    
,united ,states1 but related species are
 scattered through many countries of the
 old world1 from ,denmark to ,india4    
,there are said to be between fifty and 
sixty species1 only two of which are in 
the ,united ,states4  ,it has been      
claimed by scholars that the lotus      
referred to by ancient writers was the  
hackberry4 ,it was reputed to cause     
forgetfulness when eaten1 but the claim 
was fictitious1 for the fruit does not  
produce that effect4 ,it is not now     
regarded as human food4 ,tennyson deals 
with the fiction very beautifully in the
 poem 8,lotus ,eaters10 but he took     
liberties with botany when he           
represented fruit and flowers on the    
same branch2 for1 though the berries    

hang several months1 they drop before   
the next season's flowers appear4  ,the 
hackberry belongs to the elm family1    
being of the same relation as the       
planertree4 ,the leaves resemble those  
of the elm1 but are more sharply        
pointed4 ,the fruit is usually classed  
as a berry4 ,it ripens in ,september and
 ,october1 but remains on the tree      
several months1 becoming dry4 ,it is    
about one-fourth inch long1 dark purple1
 with a tough1 thick skin1 and with     
flesh dark orange4 ,most of the pale    
brown seeds are eaten by birds4  ,the   
tree varies greatly in size4 ,in some   
remote corners of its immense range it  
is little more than a shrub1 while at   
its best it may attain a height of #ajj 
feet and a diameter of three or four4   
,its average size is about that of      
slippery elm4 ,the bark varies as much  
in appearance as the tree in size4      
,sometimes it has the smooth surface and
 pale bluish-green appearance that      
suggest the bark of beech2 again it is  

darker and rougher1 like the elm4 ,it   
frequently exhibits the harsh warty bark
 which is peculiar to the hackberry1 and
 when present it is a pretty safe means 
of identification4 ,the warts may be    
conical1 oblong1 or sharp-pointed1 and  
probably an inch in height4 ,when       
closely examined1 most of them are found
 to consist of parallel strata of bark  
which may usually be pulled off without 
much difficulty4 ,the warts are a       
decided disadvantage to the tree in some
 of the low swampy districts of         
,louisiana where ,spanish moss is a     
pest4 ,this moss 7which is not a true   
moss71 is propagated principally by     
tufts and strands which are carried by  
wind until they find anchorage among the
 branches of trees where they increase  
and multiply at a rapid rate until they 
finally smother or break down the       
unfortunate tree which supplied a       
lodging place4 ,the hackberry's warts   
catch and hold every flying strand of   
moss that touches them1 and hundreds1   

perhaps thousands of pounds of it may   
accumulate on a single tree4 ,the       
grayish-green color of the moss often   
exactly matches the hue of the tree's   
bark4  ,the reported annual cut of      
hackberry lumber in the ,united ,states 
is less than #e1jjj1jjj feet4 ,that can 
be only a fraction of the total output4 
,few mills report it separately1 but    
list it as ash4 ,the wood looks more    
like ash than elm4 ,it is heavy1 but    
only moderately hard and strong4 ,its   
color is more yellowish than ash1 but   
the annual rings of growth resemble that
 wood4 ,the sapwood is thick1 and growth
 is rapid where conditions are          
favorable4  ,it is doubtless used by    
industries in thirty states or more1 but
 comparatively few factories report it4 
,in ,texas it is listed in the box and  
crate industry4 ,in ,louisiana it rises 
to more importance1 for that is the     
region where the tree attains its best4 
,slack coopers make kegs1 tubs1 and     
barrels of it2 vehicle manufacturers    

convert it into parts of buggy tops and 
the running gears of wagons2 it serves  
for furniture and interior finish2 and  
it takes the place of ash for hoe       
handles and parts of agricultural       
implements4 ,the uses are nearly the    
same in ,mississippi1 but it is used    
there for rustic seats and other outdoor
 furniture4 ,in ,missouri it is found   
suitable for cart axles1 saddle trees1  
stitching horse jaws1 and wagon beds4   
,in ,arkansas it goes with ash into     
flooring1 and interior finish for       
houses4 ,illinois builders work it into 
fixtures for stores4 ,in ,michigan it   
serves the same purposes as in ,texas1  
baskets1 boxes1 and crates4 ,these      
examples doubtless are representative of
 its uses wherever the tree is found in 
commercial quantities4 ,the wood is not 
durable in contact with the soil4 ,it is
 also liable to attack by boring insects
 if logs are allowed to retain their    
bark4  ,the hackberry has been planted  
to a small extent as a street tree in   

the southern towns1 but it is not as    
popular as the elms and oaks4 ,it will  
never occupy a more important position  
in the country's lumber industry than it
 holds at present4 ,it is a tree which1 
for some reason1 inspires little        
enthusiasm in anybody2 but nature takes 
care of it fairly well1 and the small   
sweet drupes which it bears are a       
guarantee that the species will not want
 for seed carriers as long as birds     
continue to have access to its branches 
in winter4  ,,sugarberry 7,celtis       
mississippiensis7 is frequently mistaken
 for hackberry even by persons who ought
 to be able to distinguish them4        
,botanists formerly confused the two1   
and probably some insist still that     
sugarberry is only a variety of         
hackberry4 ,the leaves generally have   
smooth margins1 and that would          
differentiate the tree from the         
hackberry were it not that sometimes the
 sugarberry has serrate leaves4 ,the    
drupes are bright orange red and are    

usually smaller than the purple fruit of
 hackberry4 ,as for the wood of the two 
species1 it is not easy to tell one from
 the other4 ,the sugarberry's range is  
not one-third as extensive as           
hackberry's1 but covers some hundreds of
 thousands of square miles in the       
southeastern quarter of the ,united     
,states4 ,its northern limit is in      
,illinois and ,indiana where it occupies
 rich bottom lands and the banks of     
streams4 ,it reaches its largest size in
 the lower ,ohio river basin1 grows     
southward into ,florida and west into   
,texas1 ,arkansas1 and ,missouri4 ,it   
crosses the ,rio ,grande into ,mexico1  
appearing to outstrip the hackberry in  
that direction4 ,it outstrips it in     
another direction also1 for it is found 
in the ,bermuda islands4 ,the ,french of
 ,louisiana called it bois inconnu1 or  
the unknown wood4  ,this tree shows a   
marked tendency to run into varieties1  
and cultivation would probably develop  
the tendency4 ,the differences between  

the species and the varieties are plain 
enough to the systematic botanist1 but  
are such that the lumberman or other    
ordinary observer would scarcely notice 
them4 ,the variety which has been named 
,celtis mississippiensis reticulata1 but
 without any ,english name except       
sugarberry1 is a tree forty or fifty    
feet high1 covered with blue-gray bark1 
very rough4 ,it ranges from ,dallas1    
,texas1 to the ,rio ,grande and westward
 into ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 and ,utah1
 and into southern ,california and      
,lower ,california4 ,in eastern ,texas  
it is found on dry limestone hills1 but 
westward only in mountain canyons in the
 vicinity of water4 ,in the southern    
part of ,texas this tree is usually     
known as palo blanco1 but those who     
apply that name have no idea that it is 
a variety of sugarberry but suppose it  
is a tree peculiar to their region4 ,in 
,cameron and ,hidalgo counties1 ,texas1 
either because an extra good quality    
grows there1 or because some opinion    

exists in its favor1 it is liked for    
wagon material1 and occasionally is     
turned for table legs and other parts of
 furniture4 ,it is quite common in that 
part of ,texas as an ornamental tree in 
yards and along streets of small towns4 
,the whiteness of the bark is the most  
striking feature4  ,illustration        
,,white ,,ash  ,illustration3 ,,white   
,,ash     ,,white ,,ash  7,fraxinus     
,americana7   ,this tree is generally   
called white or gray ash1 or simply ash4
 ,american ash is a translation of its  
botanical name and is not often used in 
business transactions in this country4  
,in some parts of the ,south the term   
cane ash is occasionally employed1 but  
there seems to be no agreement among    
those who use the name as to what it    
means4 ,this is the common ash in the   
lumber trade4 ,there are more than a    
dozen species in the ,united ,states1   
but white ash goes to market in larger  
amounts than all others together4 ,this 
is known in a general way1 but exact    

figures cannot be given1 because        
statistics of the cut of different      
species of ash are not kept separate4   
,the range of this tree covers at least 
a million square miles1 and all or part 
of every state east of the ,mississippi 
river and west of it from ,nebraska to  
,texas4 ,it is reported cut for lumber  
in thirty states4 ,the various ashes are
 lumbered in thirty-nine states4 ,ash   
does not occur in pure stands but is    
scattered in forests of other species1  
sometimes growing in small clumps4 ,it  
is difficult to name an average size for
 the tree1 because climate and soil     
control the growth over a large area    
where conditions vary4 ,trees #abj feet 
high and six feet in diameter are said  
to have stood in the primeval forests in
 the lower ,ohio valley2 but logs four  
feet through are seldom seen now4 ,trees
 seventy or eighty feet high and three  
in diameter are above the average in any
 region where this tree is now lumbered4
 ,some of the old planted trees of ,new 

,england are five or six feet through1  
and are finely proportioned1 but growing
 as they do in the open1 they have      
larger crowns than are found in forest  
trees4  ,all species of ash have        
compound leaves1 and those of white ash 
are from eight to twelve inches long4   
,the under sides of the leaflets are    
white1 and some persons have this fact  
in mind when they call the species white
 ash1 while others refer to the bark1   
and still others to the wood4 ,it is a  
characteristic of the tree that most of 
the leaves grow near the ends of the    
limbs4 ,for that reason the crown       
appears open when viewed from below1 and
 the larger limbs and branches are      
naked4 ,the leaves demand light1 and    
they arrange themselves on the          
extremities of the limbs to get it4     
,when the tree is crowded1 it sheds its 
lower limbs and its crown rises rapidly 
until it reaches abundance of light4    
,this produces long trunks in forests4  
,the boles are often not quite straight1

 but have several slight crooks1 yet    
keep close to a general perpendicular   
line4 ,that form is due to a peculiarity
 of growth4 ,the leading shoot of a     
growing ash has more than one terminal  
bud4 ,if a side bud pushes ahead1 the   
stem leans a little in that direction2  
next1 a bud on the other side may gain  
the ascendancy1 producing a slight lean 
for a few years in that direction2 or   
two side buds may develop               
simultaneously1 causing a forked trunk4 
,mature trees often carry the history of
 these peculiarities of growth4  ,the   
seeds of white ash are equipped for     
moderate flight4 ,the wing is large1 but
 the seed attached to the end of it is  
heavy enough to give it a sharp tilt    
downward when it begins its flight      
through the air1 and it generally shoots
 at a steep angle toward the ground4 ,it
 is not apt to whirl through the air    
with a gliding motion like a maple seed4
 ,consequently1 ash seeds are not great 
travelers4 ,they are dispersed with     

economy1 however1 for all do not come   
down at once1 but many hang on the tree 
for months1 and a few go with every     
strong wind1 thus getting themselves    
scattered in every direction4 ,their    
power of germination is low1 and only   
about forty per cent of seeds are       
fertile4 ,this is due to the fact that  
pistillate and staminate flowers do not 
grow on the same tree1 and fertilization
 is imperfect4  ,the importance of ash  
in the industries of the country does   
not depend on the quantity but the      
quality of the wood4 ,although the      
various species are produced in         
thirty-nine states1 as shown by mill    
statistics1 the total yield is less than
 #bej1jjj1jjj feet a year4 ,that is     
exceeded by several woods1 among them   
hickory1 elm1 beech1 basswood1 chestnut1
 and even larch4  ,the wood of ash which
 has grown rapidly is generally         
considered superior to that of slow     
growth4 ,the reason is found in the fact
 that trees of slow growth do most of   

their growing early in the season1 and  
the wood is porous2 but trees of rapid  
growth lay summerwood on abundantly1 and
 it is dense4 ,few species show a       
sharper line between spring and         
summerwood than ash1 for which reason   
the annual rings are clear-cut and      
distinct4 ,what figure ash has is       
produced by the growth rings1 and not by
 medullary rays4 ,quarter-sawing brings 
out no additional beauty4 ,slight crooks
 in many logs produce a moderate cross  
grain in lumber1 which gives to finished
 ash its characteristic figure or grain4
 ,when straight-grained wood is wanted1 
as when it is for tool handles and oars1
 logs without crooks are selected4  ,the
 wood of white ash is heavy1 hard1      
strong1 elastic1 but rather brittle4 ,it
 lacks the toughness of hickory4 ,the   
medullary rays are numerous1 but small  
and obscure4 ,the color is brown1 the   
sapwood much lighter1 often nearly      
white4 ,it is not durable in contact    
with the soil4 ,notwithstanding its     

name1 the wood rates low in ash1 and its
 fuel value is under that of white oak4 
,the states which produce the largest   
yearly cut of this species are1 ranging 
downward in the order named3 ,arkansas1 
,ohio1 ,wisconsin1 ,kentucky1 ,indiana1 
,michigan1 and ,tennessee4  ,the uses of
 white ash are so numerous that they can
 be presented only in classes4 ,it goes 
into almost every wood-using industry1  
but in different sections of country    
certain uses lead4 ,thus in ,illinois   
the makers of butter tubs take more of  
it than any other industry2 in ,michigan
 automobiles lead1 and in ,arkansas the 
handle factories are largest buyers2 in 
,louisiana boat oars consume most2 in   
,alabama and ,missouri car construction 
is in the lead2 in ,texas boxes and     
crates2 in ,north ,carolina wagons2 in  
,kentucky handles2 in ,maryland musical 
instruments2 and in ,massachusetts      
furniture4 ,the utilization of ash in   
these states1 scattered over the eastern
 half of the ,united ,states1 indicates 

fairly well the wood's most important   
lines of usefulness4 ,a considerable    
quantity is made into flooring and      
interior finish4 ,it is classed among   
sanitary woods1 that is1 it does not    
stain or taint food products by contact4
  ,the total quantity of merchantable   
white ash in the country is not known1  
but there is still enough to meet       
demand1 and the extent of the tree's    
range makes supplies convenient in      
nearly all manufacturing states4 ,the   
species grows rather rapidly1 and trees 
a hundred or a hundred and fifty years  
old yield logs of good size4  ,,texas   
,,ash 7,fraxinus texensis7 has been     
regarded by some as a variety of white  
ash1 while others1 including ,sudworth  
and ,sargent1 consider it a distinct    
species4 ,it is often called mountain   
ash where it occurs among the mountains 
of western ,texas4 ,its range lies      
wholly in that state1 and extends from  
the vicinity of ,dallas to the valley of
 ,devil's river4 ,the compound leaves   

are smaller than those of white ash1 and
 are usually composed of five leaflets4 
,the winged seeds ripen in ,may1 and are
 an inch or less in length4 ,the largest
 trees are fifty feet high and two or   
three in diameter2 but generally the    
trees are much smaller4 ,the wood is    
strong1 heavy1 and hard4 ,the annual    
rings are marked by one or more rows of 
open ducts1 and the medullary rays are  
inconspicuous4 ,the heartwood is light  
brown1 the sapwood lighter4 ,this ash is
 employed within its range for various  
purposes1 but it is not of sufficient   
abundance to constitute an important    
commodity4 ,in market it is not         
distinguished from white ash4  ,,gregg  
,,ash 7,fraxinus greggii7 has some      
peculiarities which make it worthy of   
mention as one of the minor species4    
,its range is in the dry mountains of   
western ,texas where a number of ashes  
seem to have put in an appearance as    
members of the thinly-peopled vegetable 
kingdom of that region4 ,the compound   

leaves of ,gregg ash are seldom three   
inches long1 and the leaflets are often 
half an inch long and less than a       
quarter of an inch wide4 ,the petioles  
are winged like the twigs of wing elm4  
,the undersides of the leaves have small
 black dots4 ,the winged seeds are as   
proportionately small as the leaves4    
,the flowers have not been described by 
botanists1 for the species is not well  
known4 ,the largest trees are scarcely  
twenty-five feet high and eight inches  
in diameter4 ,more frequently they are  
shrubs from four to twelve feet tall4   
,the wood is heavy1 hard1 brown in color
 and of slow growth4  ,,dwarf ,,ash     
7,fraxinus anomala7 might be mistaken   
for some other species were its telltale
 winged seeds missing4 ,it has lost the 
leaflets from its compound leaf1 and a  
single one remains4 ,occasionally1      
however1 a stem bearing three leaflets  
is found4 ,the seeds are equipped with  
wide1 oblong wings4 ,it is a desert     
species1 and the desolate surroundings  

of its habitat explain why nature has   
dispensed with as much foliage as       
possible4 ,it is found in southwestern  
,colorado1 in southern ,utah1 and on the
 western slopes of the ,charleston      
mountains in southern ,nevada4 ,trees   
are small and the wood is not of much   
use for other than fuel1 but a few small
 ranch timbers are made of it where     
other kinds are scarce4 ,trunks are     
usually not more than six or seven      
inches in diameter4 ,the wood is heavy1 
hard1 and light brown in color4         
,,fringe ,,ash 7,fraxinus cuspidata7 has
 some difficulty in proving     that it 
is entitled to be called a tree in the  
,united ,states1 though     southward in
 ,mexico its right to that title is     
unquestioned4 ,it is     very small     
where its range extends over the dry    
ridges and rocky     slopes of          
southwestern ,texas and southern ,new   
,mexico and ,arizona4     ,its compound 
leaves are five or seven inches long1   
and the leaflets     which number from  

three to seven have long1 slender tips4 
,the     trowel-shaped fruit is about   
one inch long4 ,the wood resembles white
     ash1 but trunks of considerable    
size are not found4 ,the name refers    
to the flowers1 and they give this small
 tree its value for     ornamental      
purposes4 ,the flowers appear in ,april 
and are extremely     fragrant4         
,illustration     ,,black ,,ash         
,illustration3 ,,black ,,ash     ,,black
 ,,ash  7,fraxinus ,nigra7   ,when      
,george ,washington was a surveyor      
locating land on the upper waters of the
 ,potomac river1 and westward on the    
,kanawha and ,ohio rivers1 he always    
spoke of this ash as 8hoop tree0 when he
 marked it with two or with three       
8hacks10 depending upon whether it      
designated a 8corner0 or a 8line10 or a 
8pointer0 in the system of surveying    
then in use4 ,trees were used then as   
landmarks1 and were duly recorded in the
 surveyor's field notes1 and were       
described in the deeds when the title to

 the land passed from one party to      
another4 ,it was not unusual1 if        
subsequent litigation came up1 to cut   
blocks from marked trees to prove that  
such a corner was at such a place4 ,the 
8hacks0 or ax marks1 were sometimes     
healed over and invisible at the bark1  
but were found deep in the wood4 ,the   
rings of growth covering the ax marks   
afforded an admissible record of the    
years that had passed since the survey  
was made4 ,the selection of the black   
ash as a landmark was one of the few    
instances in which ,washington showed   
poor judgment2 because it is a tree of  
short life1 and might be expected to die
 before a great many years4  ,the name  
hoop ash is applied to this tree yet4   
,it has always been good material for   
barrel hoops1 because it splits into    
thin pieces1 and is sufficiently tough4 
,it is known as basket ash for the same 
reason4 ,the ,new ,england ,indians were
 making fish baskets of it when the     
first white people landed on those      

shores1 and settlers speedily learned   
the art from the children of the        
wilderness4 ,those untutored savages    
knew little of wood technology1 but they
 were able to take advantage of a       
peculiarity in the structure of black   
ash wood1 which the white man's         
microscope has revealed to him4 ,the    
,indians doubtless discovered it        
accidentally4 ,the springwood in the    
annual ring of black ash is made up of  
large pores1 crowded so closely together
 that there is really very little actual
 wood substance there4 ,in other words1 
the springwood is chiefly air spaces4   
,the result is1 that billets of black   
ash are easily separated into thin      
strips1 the cleavage following the weak 
lines of springwood4 ,a little beating  
and bending causes the annual rings to  
fall apart4 ,in some way the ,indians   
found that out1 and utilized their      
knowledge in manufacturing baskets in   
which to carry fish1 acorns1 hickory    
nuts1 and other forest and water        

commodities4  ,the white people extended
 the scope of application to include    
chairs and other furniture in which     
splits are manipulated4 ,it is worthy of
 note that ,indians made a similar      
discovery with northern white cedar or  
arborvit1 which separates into thin     
pieces by beating and bending4 ,barrel  
makers took advantage of the splitting  
properties of black ash to make hoops of
 it1 hence the name hoop ash1 or hoop   
tree as ,washington called it4 ,the name
 basket ash has a similar origin4  ,the 
names swamp ash and water ash refer to  
situations in which the tree grows best4
 ,it is one of the thirstiest           
inhabitants of the forest4 ,its         
aggressive roots ramify through the soil
 and drink up the moisture so           
voraciously that if water is not        
abundant1 neighboring trees and plants  
may find their roots robbed1 and the    
functions of healthy growth will be     
interfered with4 ,this has led to a     
general belief that black ash poisons   

trees that it touches4 ,it simply robs  
their roots4 ,carolina and ,lombardy    
poplars will sometimes do the same      
thing4  ,the name black ash by which    
this tree is now known in most regions  
where it grows refers to the color of   
the large1 prominent1 shiny1 blue-black 
buds in late winter and early spring2 to
 the very dark green leaves in          
summer--which at a distance resemble the
 foliage of post oak--and1 to some      
extent1 to the dark brown color of the  
heartwood1 though the wood is not always
 a safe means of identification if      
judged from superficial appearance only4
 ,the form of the tree assists in       
identifying it2 for it is the slimmest  
of the ashes1 in proportion to its      
height4 ,trunks three feet through are  
heard of1 but few persons have ever seen
 one much over twenty inches1 and many  
are about done growing when they are one
 foot in diameter4 ,yet the trunks of   
such are very tall1 perhaps seventy or  
eighty feet4 ,their appearance has been 

likened to tall1 slender columns of dark
 gray granite4 ,they often stand so     
straight that a plummet line will not   
reveal a deviation from the             
perpendicular4  ,the tree has been      
called elder-leaved ash4 ,the form of   
the foliage has something to do with    
that name1 but the odor more4 ,crush the
 leaves1 and they smell like elder4 ,the
 compound leaves are from twelve to     
sixteen inches long2 the leaflets range 
from seven to eleven in number1 and the 
side leaflets have no stalks4 ,the      
leaves appear late in spring1 and they  
fall early in autumn4 ,they drop with   
the butternut leaves1 and like them1 all
 at once4 ,the seed is winged1 and the  
wing forms a margin entirely round the  
seed4  ,the wood of black ash is rather 
soft1 moderately heavy1 tough1 but only 
moderately strong1 not durable in       
contact with the soil1 dark brown in    
color with sapwood whiter4 ,the species 
ranges farther north than any other ash1
 and grows in cold swamps and on the low

 banks of streams and lakes from        
,newfoundland to ,winnipeg1 and         
southward to ,virginia1 southern        
,illinois1 southern ,missouri1 and      
,arkansas4  ,black ash fills many       
important places in the country's       
wood-using industries1 but the total    
quantity is not large4 ,in #aiaj        
,michigan manufacturers reported the    
annual quantity in that state at        
#i1aaj1dcb feet1 and in ,illinois the   
total was #i1icf1jjj feet4 ,the uses for
 the wood in ,michigan may be regarded  
as typical of the whole country4 ,the   
reported uses were1 auto seats1 baskets1
 boat finish1 butter tubs1 candy pails1 
carriage seats1 crating1 church pews1   
fish nets1 office fixtures1 flooring1   
furniture1 ice chests1 interior finish1 
jelly buckets1 kitchen cabinets1 lard   
tubs1 piano frames1 putty kegs1 racked  
hoops1 spice kegs1 tin plate boxes1     
veneer1 washboards1 and woven splint    
boxes4  ,black ash burls are            
characteristic excrescences on the      

trunk4 ,they begin as small lumps or    
knobs under the bark1 and never cease   
growing while the tree lives4 ,they may 
reach the dimensions of wash tubs1 but  
most do not exceed the size of a gallon 
measure4 ,the grain of the wood is      
exceedingly distorted and involved4 ,the
 burls are sliced or sawed in veneers   
which are much prized by cabinet makers4
 ,early ,new ,englanders made bowls of  
them1 which seldom checked or split     
during generations of service4 ,the     
burls are believed to be due to         
adventitious buds2 that is1 buds which  
originate deep in the wood1 but are     
never able to force their way through   
the bark4 ,the internal structure of the
 ash burl indicates that the buried bud 
grows1 branches1 and sends shoots in    
various directions1 but all of them are 
hopelessly enmeshed in the wood         
substance1 and never are able to free   
themselves and burst through the bark4  
,a constantly enlarging excrescence is  
the result4  ,,blue ,,ash 7,fraxinus    

quadrangulata7 is named from a blue dye 
procured from the inner bark4 ,the      
botanical name relates to the square    
shape of the young twigs1 particularly  
the twigs of young trees1 and was given 
by ,a4 ,f4 ,michaux who found the       
species growing in the ,south4 ,it      
reaches its best development on the     
lower ,wabash river in ,indiana and     
,illinois and on the ,big ,smoky        
mountains in ,tennessee4 ,its northern  
limit reaches southern ,michigan1 its   
western is in ,missouri4 ,it is not     
abundant1 if found at all1 east of the  
,appalachian mountains4 ,trees may reach
 a height of #ajj feet and a diameter of
 three1 but about seventy is the average
 height1 with a diameter of two feet or 
less4 ,the leaves resemble those of     
black ash in form1 but the foliage when 
seen in mass is yellow-green instead of 
dark green like that of black ash4 ,the 
seeds look like those of black ash4 ,the
 tree bears perfect flowers1 and in that
 respect differs from most other species

 of ash4  ,the wood is heavier than that
 of any other member of the ash group1  
except ,texas ash4 ,it weighs about the 
same as white oak1 which is six pounds  
per cubic foot more than white ash      
weighs4 ,in general appearance the wood 
resembles white ash1 but it is usually  
considered stronger and more springy4   
,the trunks of young trees are largely  
or entirely sapwood4 ,sometimes no      
heartwood is formed until an age of     
seventy or eighty years is reached4     
,many manufacturers of ash tool handles 
prefer this species to any other ash1   
because of its thick1 white sapwood4 ,it
 is often made into handles for hoes1   
rakes1 shovels1 pitchforks1 spades1 and 
snaths for scythes4 ,makers of vehicles 
draw liberally upon this wood within its
 range1 as do furniture makers and the  
manufacturers of flooring4 ,it is       
regarded as harder than white ash1 and  
consequently better flooring material4  
,,leatherleaf ,,ash 7,fraxinus velutina7
 changes its velvety leaves to     a    

leathery condition1 hence the conflict  
in the meanings of its two     names4   
,velutina means velvet-like4 ,the       
compound leaves are seldom     six      
inches long1 often not three1 and they  
are made up of from three     to nine   
leaflets4 ,the small seeds are equipped 
with wings4 ,the tree     is small and  
would be without any commercial         
importance except that     it grows in  
an arid region where any wood is        
welcome4 ,it is made     into ax1       
hammer1 and pick handles1 and wagon     
makers are often glad     to get it4 ,it
 is found among the mountains and       
canyons of western     ,texas1 in ,new  
,mexico1 ,arizona1 southern ,nevada1 and
 southeastern     ,california1 near the 
shores of ,owen's lake4 ,the largest    
trees are     scarcely forty feet high  
and eight inches in diameter4 ,the wood 
is     not hard or strong1 and is of    
slow growth4 ,the largest trunks are    
apt to be hollow4 ,sapwood is           
comparatively thick4      ,,berlandier  

,,ash 7,fraxinus berlandieriana7 may not
 be entitled to a     place among native
 species1 of the ,united ,states4 ,some 
suppose it     was introduced from      
,mexico by early ,spanish settlers in   
western     ,texas4 ,it now grows wild  
there along ,nueces and ,blanco rivers  
where     specimens thirty feet high and
 a foot in diameter are found4          
,southward in ,mexico it is a popular   
street tree1 and trunks reach     six or
 eight feet in diameter4 ,the wood is   
soft and is used only     locally and in
 very small quantities4  ,illustration  
,,oregon ,,ash  ,illustration3 ,,oregon 
,,ash     ,,oregon ,,ash  7,fraxinus    
,oregona7   ,this tree is unusual in    
that it has only one common name1 and   
that is a translation of its botanical  
name which was given it by ,nuttall who 
visited the ,pacific coast several years
 before the discovery of gold4  ,the    
moist bottom lands of southwestern      
,oregon are best suited to its growth1  
and here the best individuals and most  

abundant stands are found4 ,moist soil  
and climate are essential to proper     
development of this tree1 and in such   
environment it is found from ,puget     
,sound southward along the coast to ,san
 ,francisco4 ,a little further from the 
coast it grows along the foothills of   
the ,sierra ,nevada mountains1 to the   
low mountains in ,san ,diego and ,san   
,bernardino counties1 ,california1 in   
the southern extension of its range     
occupying a rather dry region4  ,the    
trunk grows to a height of eighty or    
#ajj feet1 and is often three feet in   
diameter4 ,it is covered with a         
gray-brown bark1 exfoliating in flaky   
scales4 ,the leaves are from five to    
fourteen inches long1 and have five or  
seven firm1 light-green leaflets1 finely
 toothed and bluntly pointed4 ,the      
flowers appear in ,april and ,may and   
are in compact panicles2 the fruit in   
clusters1 broadly winged and round      
pointed1 and from one to two inches     
long4  ,the scarcity of good hardwoods  

on the ,pacific coast gives this ash    
more importance than it otherwise would 
have1 and the importance which it       
possesses has been frequently           
overstated4 ,it is not abundant of form 
and size fitting it for lumber4 ,it has 
long been cut in small quantities1 but  
never in large4 ,the census returns for 
#aiaj show that less than #djj1jjj feet 
per year are reported in its entire     
range4 ,three-fourths of this is sawed  
in ,oregon1 the remainder in            
,washington4 ,though the species has a  
range of #hjj miles north and south     
through ,california1 no sawmill reported
 a foot of it4 ,however1 it is probable 
that census returns fail to do this wood
 full justice2 for it is well known that
 considerable quantities are            
manufactured into articles without      
passing through sawmills4 ,chief among  
such commodities is slack cooperage4    
,butter tubs of ,oregon ash are common4 
,much goes to wagon shops1 and some of  
it without aid of sawmills4  ,little or 

none of this wood is shipped outside its
 range1 and its use is local4 ,boat     
builders work it into finish for cabins 
and upper parts1 and some serves as     
ribs4 ,it is often seen as handles for  
picks1 shovels1 spades1 pitchforks1 and 
rakes4 ,a little finds place1 combined  
with other woods1 in office and store   
fixtures4 ,its grain resembles that of  
white ash4 ,it is not as heavy1 and it  
is not believed to be as strong4 ,it is 
hard1 brittle1 brown in color1 with     
thick1 lighter-colored sapwood4         
,furniture makers list it as shop       
material1 and such is its largest       
reported use in ,washington4 ,a moderate
 amount is made into saddletrees and    
stirrups1 and much is used as fuel4     
,oregon ash has been planted for shade  
and ornament in both this country and   
,europe4 ,it grows rapidly and develops 
a symmetrical crown4 ,the habit it has  
of coming into leaf late in the spring  
and throwing its foliage down early in  
autumn is held by some as a serious     

objection to it as an ornamental tree2  
but it has compensating habits4 ,it is  
remarkably free from disease1 and1      
though leaves come late and go early1   
while its foliage is on1 it is healthy  
and vigorous4 ,reproduction is          
satisfactory in the tree's wild state1  
and there is no danger that the species 
will disappear4 ,no movement has yet    
been made to plant this ash for         
commercial timber growing4  ,,green     
,,ash 7,fraxinus lanceolata7 has been   
given that name on account of the bright
 color of its foliage4 ,it has other    
names1 however1 which indicate that its 
greenness is not always preminently     
prominent4 ,in ,iowa and ,arkansas they 
call it blue ash2 in ,kansas and        
,nebraska white ash2 in some regions it 
is known as water ash1 and elsewhere    
swamp ash4 ,some botanists do not regard
 it as a separate species but call it a 
variety of red ash1 but the consensus of
 opinion is that it is a distinct       
species1 though there appear to be      

connecting forms grading from red ash   
into green ash4 ,certain it is that the 
two are distinct enough in certain parts
 of the country4 ,the range of green ash
 is more extensive than that of any     
other ash in this country4 ,beginning in
 ,vermont it passes southward to        
,florida2 northwestward to the          
,saskatchewan river several hundred     
miles north of the international        
boundary line2 along the base of the    
,rocky ,mountains and over the ranges to
 ,arizona1 and through ,texas4 ,this    
includes more than half of the area of  
the ,united ,states4 ,notwithstanding a 
range so extensive1 the total quantity  
of green ash timber in the country is   
not large4 ,no pure forests or extensive
 stands exist4 ,trees are widely        
dispersed1 and when lumbermen cut them1 
the wood is sold as some other1 usually 
as white ash4 ,the wood has the general 
characters of red ash4 ,it weighs about 
forty-four pounds per cubic foot of dry 
wood2 is moderately strong1 fairly stiff

 and elastic1 and1 like other species of
 ash1 it is not durable in contact with 
the soil4  ,green ash is more planted   
than any other in the cold and dry      
regions of the ,west and ,northwest4 ,it
 is a prairie tree and is found along   
highways and in door yards from ,kansas 
northward into ,british ,america4 ,it   
stands drought better than any other    
ash1 and resists cold fully as well1 and
 yet it endures the warm weather and the
 rains of the ,south and flourishes     
there4 ,it is not a large tree1 but of  
sufficient size for use as furniture1   
finish1 and vehicle making4 ,it is      
seldom listed in statistics of woods    
which go to sawmills1 yet it is known   
that a good many logs find their way to 
mills1 while wagon makers and slack     
coopers employ it in producing their    
commodities4 ,the tree is an abundant   
seeder1 and the seeds continue to fall  
during most of the winter4      ,,red   
,,ash 7,fraxinus pennsylvanica7 is      
neither a large tree nor very           

abundant1 yet it has a wide range and is
 put to use wherever     lumbermen find 
it convenient4 ,the lumber generally    
passes in the     market as white ash1  
and for most purposes it is as good1 but
 is     rated lower than that wood in   
elasticity4 ,it is called brown ash in  
,maine1 black ash in ,new ,jersey1 river
 ash in ,rhode ,island4 ,the last       
name is bestowed because the tree       
prefers moist land near rivers and      
ponds1 and largest specimens are found  
in such situations1 where it     is     
often an associate of black ash and is  
frequently mistaken for     it1 though  
it should not be difficult to tell the  
species apart4 ,a     slight reddish    
tinge sometimes shows on the outer bark2
 the inner     layer of bark is reddish2
 the small twigs and the under sides of 
leaves are clothed with hairs which     
sometimes suggest redness2 and     the  
heartwood is reddish-brown4 ,persons who
 speak of the tree as red     ash       
probably have one or more of those      

characteristics in mind4 ,as a     tree 
it has no striking peculiarities4 ,its  
usual height is forty or     sixty feet2
 its diameter from fifteen to twenty    
inches2 its compound     leaves ten or  
twelve inches long1 with seven or nine  
leaflets2 its     seeds one or two      
inches in length1 narrow1 and sharply   
pointed1 with     slender1 graceful     
wing4      ,the range of red ash is from
 ,new ,brunswick to ,dakota1 and from   
,florida to ,alabama1 with all of the   
included region of a million     square 
miles4 ,it attains its best development 
in the north ,atlantic     states1 while
 it is usually inferior west of the     
,alleghany     mountains4 ,it develops a
 broad crown in open ground1 but even   
there     its lower limbs die and drop1 
while in forests the trunk grows tall   
and the crown is reduced4 ,it is planted
 for shade and ornament1 but     it     
seems to have no superiority over white 
ash for that purpose4     ,some of the  
,michigan manufacturers list red ash    

separately in their     factories1 and  
apparently this is not done elsewhere in
 the country4     ,about three-quarters 
of a million feet a year are used in    
that     state1 and since uses there are
 doubtless typical of uses in the       
country generally1 the list possesses   
importance3 ,automobile frames1         
boxes1 butter tubs1 crates1 eveners1    
flooring1 furniture1 interior           
finish1 neck yokes1 singletrees1 wagon  
poles4 ,farther east in early     times 
red ash was occasionally split for fence
 rails1 but that use     is important   
now only as history4      ,,pumpkin     
,,ash 7,fraxinus profunda7 is a tree of 
peculiar interest4 ,it     was unknown  
before #ahic1 though the region had been
 settled over a     hundred years4 ,it  
has the largest leaves1 largest fruit1  
and largest     swelled base of all     
,american ashes4 ,notwithstanding that1 
it     remained so deeply hidden in     
swamps that it escaped discovery4 ,the  
botanical name refers to the deep swamps

 in which the tree chooses     its      
habitation4 ,its great1 swelled base    
enables it to stand on the     soft mud 
of lagoon bottoms1 and the abnormal     
swelling is ribbed like     a pumpkin1  
hence the only ,english name the tree   
has ever had4 ,these     are not the    
only remarkable things connected with   
this ash4 ,its     range includes three 
or four deep swamps1 far apart4 ,one is 
in     southern ,missouri1 ,new ,madrid 
country1 another near ,varney1          
,arkansas1 and a third1 in a vast morass
 on the ,apalachicola river1            
,florida4 ,it is believed to have been  
originally a ,florida species1     and  
by some freak of nature it reached the  
,missouri and ,arkansas     swamps4     
,certain other ,florida plants          
accompanied it1 one of which     was    
corkwood 7,leitneria floridana74 ,it is 
expected that pumpkin     ash will be   
found elsewhere in deep swamps          
intermediate between the     extremes of
 its range4 ,the uses of this wood are  

few1 because it is     scarce1 and the  
trees are difficult of access on account
 of being     nearly always surrounded  
by water4 ,lumbermen who operate in     
swamps     occasionally bring out a few 
ash logs with cypress and tupelo4 ,no   
tests seem to have been made of the     
wood4 ,trees are sometimes #abj     feet
 high and three in diameter above the   
swelled bases4      ,,water ,,ash       
7,fraxinus caroliniana7 is much lighter 
in weight than     any other ,american  
ash1 and the wood is also lighter in    
color4 ,it is     weaker and less       
elastic than any other1 and is lower in 
fuel value4     ,it weighs less than    
white pine4 ,it grows in deep swamps    
from     southern ,virginia to ,florida 
and westward in swamps to ,texas4 ,some 
have confused it with pumpkin ash1 but  
the two are quite distinct4     ,this   
tree is also called poppy ash4 ,the     
leaves are from seven to     twelve     
inches long1 with five or seven leaflets
 which are much     blunter than most   

other ash leaves4 ,the seeds are nearly 
in the     center of the broad1 long    
wing1 and are better flyers than most   
ash     seeds4 ,the tree seldom exceeds 
forty feet in height1 or twelve         
inches in diameter4 ,it is not known    
that the wood is ever used4 ,its        
scarcity will keep it from becoming     
important1 though its uncommon          
lightness may lead to its employment for
 certain purposes4      ,,biltmore ,,ash
 7,fraxinus biltmoreana7 is named from  
,biltmore1 ,n4 ,c41     where the tree  
attains its best development1 a height  
of forty or     fifty feet and a foot or
 less in diameter4 ,its range extends   
from     northern ,west ,virginia       
southward along the foothills of the    
,appalachian mountains to ,georgia1     
,alabama1 and middle ,tennessee4 ,the   
seed wings are slender1 and only        
slightly narrowed at the end4 ,the      
leaf is ten or twelve inches long1 with 
seven or nine leaflets4 ,the     twigs  
of young trees are hairy4 ,an occasional

 log doubtless goes to     sawmills1 but
 no report has been made of uses of the 
wood4      ,,florida ,,ash 7,fraxinus   
floridana7 is a deep swamp tree1 thirty 
or     forty feet high1 and a few inches
 in diameter4 ,it is found in the       
valley of ,st4 ,mary's river1 southern  
,georgia1 and along the lower           
,apalachicola river1 ,florida4 ,the     
compound leaves are five or more        
inches long with three or five leaflets4
 ,the seeds are small but     their     
wings are wide and long4 ,no report has 
been made concerning     the quality of 
the wood1 nor has it been used1 as far  
as known4 ,the     supply is very small4
  ,illustration     ,,sugar ,,maple     
,illustration3 ,,sugar ,,maple          
,,sugar ,,maple  7,acer ,saccharum7     
,the makers of sugar in the ,north call 
this tree sugar maple1 but lumbermen and
 users of wood nearly always speak of it
 as hard maple4 ,all maples--and there  
are nearly a dozen--are tolerably hard1 
and sugar may be obtained from most of  

them2 but this species is hardest of    
all1 and the most prolific sugar maker1 
hence the two names are appropriate4 ,it
 is often called rock maple1 which name 
refers to its hard wood4 ,in some       
regions the name most heard is sugar    
tree4  ,its range extends from          
,newfoundland through ,canada to ,lake  
of the ,woods1 southward through        
,minnesota1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1 and         
,arkansas to ,texas4 ,it is found in    
every state east of the ,mississippi1   
but it is not abundant in the ,south4   
,its best development is found from ,new
 ,england across the northern states to 
,michigan4 ,some very fine sugar maple  
is found in fertile valleys and on      
slopes among the ,appalachian ranges    
from ,pennsylvania southward4 ,the      
largest lumber cut of maple is in the   
following states1 ranging in the order  
given3 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1           
,pennsylvania1 ,west ,virginia1 ,new    
,york1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,vermont4   
,since the different species of maple   

are not reported separately in          
statistics1 there is no way of          
determining how much each of the maples 
supplies4 ,it is well known that sugar  
maple greatly exceeds all others4  ,at  
its best this tree may exceed a height  
of #ajj feet and a diameter of three2   
but the average for mature timber in the
 best part of its range is sixty or     
eighty feet in height1 and two in       
diameter4 ,the flowers appear with the  
leaves in early spring1 but the seeds do
 not ripen until autumn1 when they are  
bright red4 ,they are winged1 and       
usually two grow together1 but they     
sometimes become detached1 in which case
 each is capable of flight with its     
single wing4 ,it is characteristic of   
maple seeds to whirl rapidly while      
falling1 and if a moderate wind is      
blowing1 they glide considerable        
distances4 ,they usually fly farther    
than the seeds of ash although their    
wings are no larger4 ,the immense       
numbers of seeds borne by the sugar     

maple insure abundant reproduction in   
the vicinity of parent trees4 ,the seeds
 sprout readily1 but often so closely   
crowded together that most of them die  
the first few weeks4 ,not one in ten    
thousand can even become a large tree1  
and yet large trees are exceedingly     
abundant in extensive regions4 ,they    
often form nearly pure stands1 crowding 
to death all rivals that try to obtain a
 foothold4 ,on the other hand1 this     
maple often contents itself with a place
 among other forest trees4  ,it is one  
of the most vigorous and dependable of  
trees4 ,it does not grow fast1 but it   
keeps steadily at it a long time1 and   
enjoys unusually good health4 ,its worst
 enemy is coal smoke1 but fortunately1  
most sugar maple forests are out of     
reach of that disturber1 though shade   
trees near factory towns and in the     
vicinity of coke ovens often suffer4    
,woodlots of sugar maple1 occupying     
corners of farms in the northern states 
from ,minnesota to ,maine1 present      

pictures of health1 vigor1 cleanliness1 
and beauty which no forest tree         
surpasses4 ,the intense green and the   
density of the crowns in summer make the
 trees conspicuous in any landscape     
where they occur1 while their brilliant 
colors in autumn are the chief glory of 
the forest where they abound4  ,the wood
 of this tree is hard1 strong1 and      
dense4 ,it is three pounds lighter per  
cubic foot than white oak1 and          
theoretically it rates a little lower in
 fuel value1 but those who use both     
woods as fuel consider maple worth more4
 ,it is thirty per cent stronger than   
white oak1 and fifty-three per cent     
stiffer4 ,the wood is diffuse-porous1   
that is1 the pores are not arranged in  
bands or rows1 as they usually are in   
oaks1 but are scattered in all parts4   
,they are too small to be seen with the 
naked eye1 but under a magnifying glass 
they are visible in large numbers4 ,the 
yearly ring is not very distinct1       
because of the slight contrast between  

spring and summerwood4 ,the medullary   
rays are numerous but small4 ,in wood   
sawed along radial lines1 from heart to 
sap1 small silvery flecks are numerous4 
,these are the medullary rays4 ,they add
 something to the appearance of         
quarter-sawed maple1 but not enough to  
induce mills to turn out much of it4    
,such figures as maple has are brought  
out best in tangential sawing--that is1 
cut like a slab off the side of the log4
 ,three distinct figures are recognized 
in sugar maple1 and to some extent they 
belong to other maples4 ,these forms of 
wood are known as birdseye1 curly1 and  
blister maple4 ,they are accidental     
forms and exist in certain trees only4  
,students of wood structure are not     
wholly agreed as to the cause of these  
forms1 but one of them1 the birdseye    
effect1 is believed to be due to        
adventitious buds which distort the wood
 in their vicinity4 ,these buds start   
near the center of the tree when it is  
small1 but never succeed in forcing     

their way out4 ,they remain just beneath
 the bark during most or the whole of   
the tree's life4 ,a pin-like core1      
resembling a fine thread1 connects the  
birdseye with the tree's pith4 ,this    
thread is the pith of the embryonic     
branch formed by the bud which never    
breaks through the bark4 ,when the wood 
is sawed tangentially1 small1 dark-brown
 points or dots show the center of the  
buds1 or the pith line connecting it    
with the tree's center4 ,curly maple and
 blister maple are not believed to be   
formed in the same way as birdseye4     
,the uses of sugar maple are nearly     
universal1 where a hard1 white wood is  
wanted4 ,many large trees contain little
 colored heart1 and trees are generally 
fifty years old before they have any4   
,more maple is worked into flooring than
 into any other one commodity4 ,mills in
 ,michigan alone1 in #aiaj1 made        
#ahe1faa1ffb feet of maple flooring4 ,it
 was shipped to practically every       
civilized country in the world4 ,many   

builders consider it the best wooden    
floor that can be laid4 ,in a test made 
in a large store in ,philadelphia some  
years ago1 a marble floor wore through  
sooner than maple1 when the same wear   
was on both4  ,nearly all kinds and     
classes of furniture have places for    
maple1 either as outside material or    
inside frames1 drawer bottoms1 or       
partitions4 ,vehicle manufacturers      
employ it for heavy axles1 running gear1
 parts of automobiles1 sleigh runners   
and frames1 and hand sleds4 ,it is made 
into handles from gimlet sizes to cant  
hooks4 ,gymnasium apparatus owes much to
 the whiteness1 smoothness1 and strength
 of maple4 ,woodenware from toothpicks  
to ironing boards2 from butcher blocks  
to butter molds2 from door knobs to die 
blocks1 is dependent on maple for some  
of its best material4 ,it is largely    
used for boxes1 in both solid and veneer
 form4 ,only two woods are now employed 
in larger amounts for veneers in the    
,united ,states than maple4 ,they are   

red gum and yellow pine4  ,maple is one 
of the three woods most largely employed
 in hardwood distillation in this       
country2 beech and birch are the others4
 ,maple sugar is a product of this tree 
almost exclusively1 and the business is 
large4 ,in some parts of ,new ,england  
it is claimed that a grove is worth more
 for sugar than the land is worth for   
agriculture4      ,,silver ,,maple      
7,acer saccharinum7 is generally called 
soft maple by     lumbermen4 ,it is     
known also as white maple1 river maple1 
silver-leaved maple1 swamp maple1 and   
water maple4 ,the sinuses of     the    
leaves are very deep4 ,the lighter color
 of its bark and the pale     green of  
the leaves distinguish soft maple at a  
glance from sugar     maple when both   
are in full leaf4 ,the greenish-yellow  
flowers open     in early spring1 and   
the seeds are ripe in ,april or ,may1   
depending     on the season and region4 
,the seeds have large wings and fly     
well4     ,they germinate in a few days 

after they find suitable soil1 and      
before the end of the summer the        
seedlings have grown several     leaves4
 ,the vigor thus displayed continues    
until the tree is large4     ,it is a   
fast grower1 and for that reason has    
been extensively     planted as a street
 and park tree4 ,the wisdom of doing so 
is     doubtful1 for this maple throws  
out long limbs which are often          
broken by wind4 ,the trunk is subject to
 disease1 and a row of old     soft     
maples nearly always presents a ragged1 
unkempt1 neglected     appearance4 ,as  
to beauty of form and crown1 there is   
little     comparison between it and the
 planted sugar maple4 ,soft maples in   
forests range from seventy-five to #abj 
feet in height1 and two to     four in  
diameter2 that is1 they attain about the
 same size as sugar     maples4 ,the    
species covers a million square miles1  
practically the     whole country east  
of the ,mississippi1 some west of that  
river1 and     most of eastern ,canada4 

,it is a useful wood for many purposes4 
,the custom of mixing this     with     
sugar maple makes it impossible to      
clearly separate the two     woods      
afterwards4 ,it is the opinion of some  
well-informed     manufacturers that    
about five per cent of the total maple  
cut in the     ,united ,states is soft  
maple4 ,the ratio is less in the ,north 
and more     in the ,south4 ,the wood is
 hard1 strong1 rather brittle1 easily   
worked1 pale brown with thick1 white    
sapwood4 ,some rather large     trunks  
have no sapwood4 ,it is in general use1 
but not for as many     purposes as     
sugar maple4 ,the largest places found  
for it are as     flooring and          
woodenware1 though furniture and boxes1 
particularly     veneer boxes1 consume  
much4 ,its weight is three-fourths that 
of     sugar maple4 ,the largest trees  
and the best wood grow in the lower     
,ohio valley4  ,illustration     ,,red  
,,maple  ,illustration3 ,,red ,,maple   
,,red ,,maple  7,acer ,rubrum7   ,this  

tree's names describe it4 ,some refer to
 color of leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1   
others to situation where it grows best4
 ,it is known as red maple and swamp    
maple2 also as water maple1 white maple1
 scarlet maple1 and shoepeg maple4 ,new 
,york ,indians called it ah-we-hot-kwah1
 which meant red flower4 ,most trees    
looked alike to ,indians1 and when they 
gave a name1 it was descriptive4  ,the  
redness of this maple is so marked that 
it cannot escape notice4 ,the flowers1  
fruit1 twigs1 and leaves all possess the
 property at one time or another during 
the season4 ,the flower comes before the
 leaf1 during the first warm days of    
spring4 ,that is pretty early in the    
,south1 and later in the ,north4 ,the   
flowers are bright scarlet1 and very    
conspicuous1 growing in umbel-like1     
drooping clusters4 ,the staminate and   
pistillate ones frequently grow on      
different trees1 and always in separate 
clusters4  ,the fruit ripens quickly1   
and is sometimes almost mature before   

the leaves appear4 ,the date of ripening
 depends upon latitude4 ,the tree's     
range north and south exceeds a thousand
 miles and that makes much difference in
 climate4 ,in the ,south the fruit      
outstrips the leaves and has about      
reached maturity before the unfolding   
leaves are large enough to hide it2 but 
in ,new ,england and ,new ,york the     
leaves are large before the fruit is    
mature4 ,the seed is the characteristic 
maple key1 with a wing to carry it4 ,the
 fruit--and by that term the seed with  
its attached wing is meant--is bright   
red1 and a tree loaded with the vivid   
clusters is a beautiful spectacle4 ,two 
seeds are generally fast together1 and  
they make surprising flights in that    
condition1 passing with whirling motion 
through the air4 ,gravity spins them1   
but wind carries them forward1 and the  
random of their flight depends on the   
strength of the wind1 which happens to  
be blowing when they sever their        
connection with the tree4  ,the seeds   

germinate quickly when they light on    
damp soil4 ,if they do not find such    
situations1 they soon perish2 because   
they do not retain their vitality long4 
,by the middle of summer the young trees
 have several leaves1 and from that time
 on the struggle is mainly among        
themselves for space and moisture1      
because they stand so thick that it is a
 survival of the fittest4  ,the young   
twigs are generally red in spring1 but  
they do not present as conspicuous a    
mass as the flowers and fruit do4 ,the  
leaves are simple1 with long reddish    
petioles4 ,they have three or five      
lobes1 the lower pair often entirely    
missing1 and small if present4 ,each    
lobe has a pointed apex1 and is         
irregularly serrate4 ,the base of the   
leaf is rounded2 also the sinuses1 which
 extend far into the body of the leaf4  
,the upper surface of the leaf is bright
 green1 the lower a silvery-white4 ,in  
the fall this tree is entitled to the   
name scarlet2 for then the brilliant    

hues of the leaves are remarkably fine4 
,the range of red maple covers more than
 a million square miles1 and touches    
every state east of the ,mississippi    
river1 and west of that stream it       
extends from ,south ,dakota to ,texas4  
,it prefers rather swampy ground1 but   
wants fertile soil4 ,it is frequently   
found on the banks of creeks and rivers1
 and rarely on hillsides4 ,it is most   
abundant in the ,south1 particularly in 
the lower ,mississippi valley1 while    
trees of larger size are found in the   
valley of the lower ,ohio4 ,in the      
,north it takes more to low wet swamps  
where it sometimes grows in such        
thickets as almost to exclude other     
species4  ,the best red maple trees     
attain a height of #ajj feet or more1   
and a diameter of four feet or less4    
,the average size is seventy feet high  
and two in diameter4 ,the form of the   
tree1 like that of all other maples1    
depends much upon the situation in which
 it grows4 ,good saw timber is not often

 cut from this species near the outer   
borders of its range4  ,the wood is     
about three-fourths as strong as hard   
maple1 and is five pounds lighter per   
cubic foot1 but is about six pounds     
heavier than soft or silver maple4 ,it  
may1 therefore1 be considered that in   
some important points red maple is      
midway between hard and soft maple4 ,in 
color it is light brown1 slightly tinged
 with red4 ,the sapwood is thick and    
lighter in color than the heart4 ,the   
tree is usually not of rapid growth4    
,the contrast between the springwood and
 summerwood is not strong4 ,the wood is 
very porous1 but the pores are so small 
that the unaided eye cannot discern     
them4 ,the medullary rays are numerous1 
but thin1 and are seldom considered in  
working the lumber4  ,mills which saw   
this maple do not separate the lumber   
from other maples4 ,the woodsman knows  
the difference1 but the lumberman does  
not consider it worth while to pile the 
sawed stock separately4 ,it sometimes   

goes to market as hard maple1 sometimes 
as soft1 but never under its own name4  
,consequently1 it has no uses which are 
not also common to other maples4        
,lumbermen cut it when they find it     
mixed with other hardwoods where they   
are carrying on logging operations4     
,red maple is made into flooring1       
interior finish1 and veneer box         
material4 ,veneers are also made for    
furniture4 ,these are the most important
 uses for the wood1 but the             
manufacturers of woodenware employ it   
for numerous commodities1 such as trays1
 bowls1 ironing boards1 grain scoops1   
snow shovels1 clothes racks1 garment    
hangers1 and clothes pins4 ,this species
 shows birdseye effect similar to that  
of sugar maple1 but less of the stock   
goes to market4 ,logs with birdseye wood
 are generally reduced to veneer by the 
rotary process4 ,curly and wavy grains  
also occur in this maple4 ,the wavy     
grain was much sought after by the early
 hunters who equipped their long rifles 

with stocks4 ,having found a piece of   
timber with the desired wavy grain1 the 
hunter proceeded to shave and whittle   
until the stock was fitted to the       
barrel1 and the gun was complete4 ,some 
of the stocks made with no tools but an 
ax1 drawing knife1 and a pocket knife1  
were works of art which are worthy of   
preservation in museums4  ,occasionally 
some unknown rural ,stradivari made a   
violin and selected the curly wood of   
red maple for the neck and sides4 ,a few
 of these instruments are floating about
 the country1 but an age of fifty or a  
hundred years has not yet imparted      
classic value to them1 but the wood is  
unsurpassed in delicacy of grain and    
figure4  ,sugar may be manufactured from
 red maple1 but in smaller quantity than
 from sugar maple4 ,in the days when    
every frontier settlement did its own   
manufacturing1 inks and dyes were made  
from the bark of this tree4 ,the tannin 
boiled from the bark was treated with   
sulphate of iron1 and it became ink2    

when alum was added it became black dye2
 when the sulphate of iron was omitted1 
and alum alone was put in1 a            
cinnamon-colored dye resulted4  ,red    
maple is one of the most desirable trees
 for planting in parks and by roadsides4
 ,nurserymen complain that seedlings are
 more difficult to manage than silver   
maples2 nor do they grow as rapidly1 but
 the trees are worth much more when once
 established4 ,they have shorter and    
stronger branches than silver maple2 are
 less liable to be attacked by disease2 
are more handsome in every way2 but they
 demand damper soil1 and succeed poorly 
in any other4 ,that drawback tends to   
restrict the artificial planting of this
 tree4      ,,mountain ,,maple 7,acer   
spicatum7 is known also as moose maple1 
low     maple1 and water maple4 ,it is a
 small tree at its best1 seldom more    
than twenty-five feet high and eight    
inches in diameter1 while in     most   
parts of its range it is only a shrub4  
,its best growth is on     mountain     

slopes of eastern ,tennessee and western
 ,north ,carolina4 ,it     likes moist1 
rich hillsides1 and does not object to  
shade4 ,the     flowers come late1 but  
within a month or six weeks after the   
bloom     appears1 the fruit is full    
grown1 but it remains on the tree till  
autumn4 ,the tree's bark is smooth and  
very thin4 ,the absence of     stripes  
distinguishes this tree from striped    
maple1 which has nearly     the same    
range4 ,mountain maple grows from ,maine
 to ,minnesota1     southward to        
,michigan1 and along the mountains to   
,georgia4 ,the wood     is light1 soft1 
brown tinged with red4 ,the small size  
of the trunk     forbids its conversion 
into ordinary lumber4 ,the only         
commercial use     reported for it is in
 ,pennsylvania where it is cut along    
with other     hardwoods for destructive
 distillation4      ,,florida ,,maple   
7,acer floridanum7 is a species         
according to some1     and according to 
others is a variety of the hard maple4  

,its range is     limited1 and the      
available quantity of the wood is small4
 ,it is     found in the swamps of      
southern ,georgia and western ,florida1 
and     westward to ,texas1 ,louisiana1 
and southern ,arkansas4 ,near the       
southwestern limits of its range in     
,texas and ,mexico1 it is often a       
shrub2 but in the best part of its range
 it becomes a tree fifty or     sixty   
feet high and two or three in diameter4 
,the wood passes for     hard maple when
 sawed into lumber1 but it is not often 
sent to     sawmills4 ,the makers of    
bent wood rustic furniture in some of   
the     southern towns1 particularly in 
,louisiana1 have found the slender      
branches of ,florida maple well suited  
to that purpose4      ,,drummond ,,maple
 7,acer rubrum drummondii7 is a variety 
of red maple1     not a separate        
species4 ,its range lies in the coastal 
plain of     ,alabama and ,georgia1     
western ,louisiana1 eastern ,texas1     
southwestern     ,tennessee1 and        

southern ,arkansas4 ,it grows in deep   
swamps1 and has     three-lobed leaves1 
and large-winged fruit1 ripening in     
,april and     ,may4 ,the wood is too   
scarce to be important in the lumber    
trade1 but     where it can be had it is
 used4 ,violin makers have procured some
     finely curled wood of this maple in
 ,union ,parish1 ,louisiana4 ,some of   
the wood from that district has been    
made into gunstocks also4               
,,whitebark ,,maple 7,acer leucoderme7  
has been classed as a variety of        
sugar maple1 and also as a separate     
species4 ,it is named from the     light
 gray color of the bark of young stems2 
but the color turns     dark with age4  
,the tree is usually twenty or thirty   
feet high with a     diameter of a foot 
or more4 ,the wood is of good quality1  
but no     uses1 except fuel1 have been 
reported4 ,trees are not abundant1 but  
the range covers parts of ,north        
,carolina1 ,tennessee1 ,georgia1        
,alabama1 ,louisiana1 and ,arkansas4 ,it

 is occasionally planted as a     shade 
tree along the streets of towns of      
,georgia and ,alabama4  ,illustration   
,,oregon ,,maple  ,illustration3        
,,oregon ,,maple     ,,oregon ,,maple   
7,acer ,macrophyllum7   ,botanists      
prefer to call this tree broadleaf      
maple4 ,the name is not inappropriate1  
as its extraordinarily broad leaves     
constitute the most striking feature of 
the tree where it stands in the woods4  
,the leaf is usually wider than it is   
long4 ,some exceed a foot in both       
measurements4 ,bigleaf maple is not an  
uncommon name for the tree in ,oregon1  
where it attains its highest development
 in damp valleys where the soil is good4
 ,the name white maple is not           
particularly descriptive of any feature 
of the tree1 though the name is applied 
in both ,oregon and ,washington4 ,in    
,california it is known simply as maple4
 ,there is small likelihood in that     
region that it will be confused with any
 other member of the maple household2   

nor is there much danger of such a thing
 in any part of the ,pacific coast1 for1
 though four species of maple occur     
there1 no one of them bears close enough
 resemblance to this one to be mistaken 
for it4  ,the ,oregon maple's range     
north and south covers twenty degrees of
 latitude4 ,in that particular it is not
 much surpassed1 if surpassed at all1 by
 any maple of this country4 ,its        
northern limit lies in ,alaska1 its     
southern close to the ,mexican boundary1
 in ,san ,diego county1 ,california4    
,its range east and west is restricted4 
,it has a width of about one hundred and
 fifty miles in ,california1 where it   
grows from the coast to the foothills of
 the ,sierra ,nevada mountains4 ,an     
altitude of #e1fjj feet appears to be   
the limit of its range upward4 ,it      
attains altitudes above #e1jjj feet at  
several points in the ,sierra ,nevada   
range4 ,it descends nearly to sea level4
 ,its geographical range is similar to  
the ranges of several other ,pacific    

coast species which occupy long ribbons 
of territory stretching north and south 
parallel with the coast of the ,pacific 
ocean4  ,this maple's leaves change to a
 clear reddish-yellow before falling4   
,flowers appear after the leaves are    
grown1 and the seeds ripen late in      
autumn4 ,some of them hang until late in
 winter1 but the habit varies in        
different parts of the range1 as is     
natural in view of its great extension  
north and south4 ,the trees which stand 
in open ground are very abundant        
seeders1 but those in dense stands      
produce sparingly1 in that particular   
following the habit of most trees4 ,this
 maple often grows in dense1 nearly pure
 stands in ,oregon and ,washington where
 soil and other conditions are          
favorable4  ,the sizes and forms of     
,oregon maple vary greatly4 ,john ,muir 
spoke of forests whose trees were eighty
 or one hundred feet high1 so dense with
 leaves and so abundantly supplied with 
branches that moss and ferns formed a   

canopy with foliage and limbs high over 
head1 like an aerial garden2 while      
,george ,b4 ,sudworth described it in   
certain situations as a short-stemmed1  
crooked tree from twenty-five to thirty 
feet high and under a foot in diameter4 
,this maple has been called the most    
valuable hardwood of the ,pacific coast1
 but that claim is made also for other  
trees4 ,some persons rate it with the   
hard maple of the ,east1 in properties  
which commend it for use4 ,it is        
doubtful if the claim can be            
substantiated4 ,according to ,sargent's 
figures for strength1 stiffness1 weight1
 and fuel value1 it lacks much of       
equalling the eastern tree4 ,it is      
twelve pounds per cubic foot lighter2   
has not three-fourths the fuel value2   
and is little more than half as strong  
or as stiff4 ,the comparison is more in 
favor of the western tree when color of 
wood and appearance of grain are        
considered4 ,the wood is light brown    
with pale tint of red4 ,the rings of    

annual growth are tolerably distinct1   
with a thin1 dark line separating the   
summerwood of one year from the         
springwood of the next4 ,the pores are  
scattered with fair evenness in all     
parts of the ring4 ,they are small and  
numerous4 ,the medullary rays are thin  
and abundant4 ,in quarter-sawed wood    
they show much the same as in hard      
maple1 but are rather darker in color4  
,the mirrors are decidedly tinged with  
brown4 ,the wood is reported poor in    
resisting decay when in contact with the
 soil4  ,the largest use of ,oregon     
maple appears to be for furniture1      
second1 for interior finish1 and        
following these are numerous            
miscellaneous uses4 ,statistics of the  
cut of this wood1 as shown by sawmill   
reports1 are unsatisfactory4 ,census    
returns include it with all other maples
 of the country1 without figures for    
species4 ,the cut of maple for all the  
western states seems too small to give  
this wood justice4 ,the amount reported 

used in ,washington1 ,oregon1 and       
,california exceeds the total reported  
sawmill cut in the ,west4  ,oregon maple
 is an important handlewood4 ,the smooth
 grain appeals to broom makers4 ,the    
wood is made into ax handles1 but for   
that use it is much below hickory1 or   
even hard maple or white oak4 ,it is    
converted into pulleys in ,washington1  
also into saddle trees1 and tent        
toggles4 ,boat makers employ it for     
finish material1 in which capacity it   
fills the same place1 and must meet the 
same requirements as in interior finish 
for houses4 ,curly or wavy wood is      
occasionally found and this is worked   
into finish and also into furniture4    
,the figure is as handsome as in eastern
 maple1 but birdseye is less frequent4  
,counter tops for stores and bar tops   
for saloons are sometimes made of       
figured maple4 ,it is seen also in grill
 work and show cases1 but in order to   
show the figured wood to the best       
advantage it should be worked in flat   

surfaces4  ,oregon maple is converted   
into flooring of the ordinary tongued   
and grooved kind1 and also into parquet 
flooring4 ,rotary veneers are made into 
boxes and baskets4 ,solid logs are      
turned for rollers of various sizes and 
kinds4 ,mill yards use them for         
offbearing lumber1 and house movers find
 them about the best local material to  
be had4 ,this maple has been            
successfully stained in imitation of    
mahogany1 and is said to pass           
satisfactory tests where the color is   
the principal consideration4  ,the      
amount of this species available in the 
,northwest is not definitely known1 but 
it is a relatively scarce wood4 ,no     
attention has ever been given to        
planting it as a commercial proposition4
 ,it is not of very rapid growth1 and   
unless it is in dense stands1 it        
develops a short trunk and large crown4 
,it is better suited for shade and      
ornament1 and is to be seen as a street 
tree in some western towns4 ,it does not

 flourish in the eastern states1 but has
 found the climate of western ,europe   
more congenial and is occasionally found
 as an ornamental tree there4  ,the     
relative importance of this maple in the
 state of ,washington is indicated by   
the amount used annually compared with  
certain other hardwoods4 ,in #aiaa the  
consumption of willow was #b1jjj feet1  
vine maple #aj1jjj1 ,oregon ash #eh1jjj1
 ,oregon oak #aig1jjj1 western birch    
#cae1jjj1 ,oregon maple #icb1ejj1 red   
alder #a1hha1ejj1 and black cottonwood  
#cb1egb1bjj4  ,,vine ,,maple 7,acer     
circinatum7 is sometimes called mountain
 maple1 though the name is misleading4  
,it may grow among mountains1 but always
 near streams4 ,it is found at various  
altitudes from near sea level to #e1jjj 
feet above4 ,it ranges from the coast   
region of ,british ,columbia southward  
through ,washington and ,oregon to      
,mendocino county1 ,california4 ,this   
tree is more useful than might be       
inferred from its name1 or even from a  

study of it in its usual form4 ,only an 
occasional tree is good for the wood    
user4 ,a height of twenty feet and a    
diameter of six inches are above the    
average4 ,it is called vine maple       
because of its habit of sprawling on the
 ground like a vine4 ,the trunk lacks   
sufficient stiffness to hold it erect4  
,it grows upward to a certain point1    
then leans over and the branches lie on 
the ground4 ,some of them take root and 
in course of time what was first a      
single stem becomes a thicket of        
branches and stems4 ,the winter snow    
often has much to do with bending the   
trunk1 which appears to have no power to
 get back to the perpendicular when once
 bowed down4 ,the damp situation where  
this tree thrives best1 induces a       
luxuriant growth of moss and mold which 
help to bury the branches that lie on   
the ground4  ,the tree prospers in deep 
shade4 ,the young leaves are rose red1  
and in the fall become yellow or        
scarlet4 ,the fruit is the              

characteristic maple key4 ,the wing     
becomes rose-red before falling in      
autumn4 ,though this tree is more a     
curiosity than a lumberman's asset1 it  
is not without value4 ,handle makers use
 #aj1jjj feet of it a year in the state 
of ,washington4 ,it is shaved and turned
 for ax and shovel handles4 ,it has     
two-thirds the strength and less than   
half the stiffness of eastern hard      
maple4 ,the tree grows slowly and the   
annual rings are very narrow and        
indistinct4 ,seventy or eighty years are
 required to produce a trunk five inches
 in diameter4 ,the wood is hard1 and    
checks badly in seasoning4 ,the bark is 
very pale brown--suggesting the color of
 a potato sprout that has grown in a    
dark cellar4 ,the ,indians liked the    
wood for fish net bows1 though there    
appears to have been no very good reason
 why they preferred it to other woods of
 the region4 ,its most extensive use at 
present is as fuel1 but it is not       
particularly sought after4 ,the tree's  

future is not promising4 ,under         
domestication it does not take on its   
fantastic1 moldy1 moss-grown form1 and  
its forest growth will never be         
encouraged by lumbermen4  ,,dwarf       
,,maple 7,acer glabrum7 is one of the   
smallest of the maples1 but in a north  
and south direction its range is equal  
to that of any other4 ,its southern     
limit is among the canyons of ,arizona1 
and its northern on the coast of ,alaska
 within six or seven degrees of the     
,arctic circle4 ,it extends to          
,nebraska1 and is found east of the     
continental divide far north in ,british
 ,america4 ,it reaches its largest size 
on ,vancouver island and on the ,blue   
mountains in ,oregon4 ,it here is large 
enough to make small sawlogs1 but it is 
usually shrubby in other parts of its   
range4 ,it grows from sea level in      
,alaska to #i1jjj feet altitude among   
the ,sierra ,nevada mountains of        
,california4 ,two forms of leaf occur4  
,one is three-lobed2 the other is a     

compound leaf1 the lobes having formed  
separate leaves4 ,the bright upper      
surface of the leaf gives the species   
its botanical name4 ,the seeds have     
large1 wide wings4 ,it cannot be        
ascertained that the wood of this maple 
has ever been used for anything4        
,illustration     ,,box ,,elder         
,illustration3 ,,box ,,elder     ,,box  
,,elder  7,acer ,negundo7   ,attempts to
 ascertain the meaning of the word      
negundo which botanists apply to this   
species have not been crowned with      
entire success4 ,it is known to be a    
word in the ,malayalam language of the  
,malabar coast of ,india1 and is there  
applied to a tree1 apparently referring 
to a peculiar form of leaf4 ,the name   
was transferred to the box elder by     
,moench1 and has been generally adopted 
by botanists1 although at least seven   
other scientific names have been given  
the tree4 ,it bears ten or more ,english
 names in different regions4 ,among     
these names are ash-leaved maple1 known 

from ,massachusetts to ,montana and     
,texas2 cut-leaved maple in ,colorado2  
three-leaved maple in ,pennsylvania2    
black ash in ,tennessee2 stinking ash in
 ,south ,carolina2 sugar ash in         
,florida2 water ash in the ,dakotas2 and
 box elder wherever it grows4  ,the     
tree's geographical range does not fall 
much short of #c1jjj1jjj square miles1  
and is equalled by few species of this  
country4 ,it extends from ,new ,england 
across ,canada to ,alberta1 thence to   
,arizona1 and includes practically all  
the ,united ,states east and south of   
those lines4 ,it thrives in hot and cold
 climates1 and high and low elevations2 
in regions of much rain1 and in those   
with little4 ,that fact has been turned 
to account by tree planters1            
particularly in the years when the      
western plains were being settled by    
homesteaders4 ,the box elder was the    
chief tree on many a timber claim where 
the letter of the law rather than the   
spirit was carried out4 ,it afforded the

 earliest protection against scorching  
summer sun and the keen winds of winter 
about many a frontiersman's cabin on the
 plains4 ,it was the earliest street    
tree in many western towns4 ,the people 
planted it because they knew it would   
grow1 and they were not so sure of a    
good many other trees4 ,green ash was   
often its companion in pioneer plantings
 on the plains4 ,many towns which set   
box elders along the streets when they  
did not know of anything better1 still  
have the trees1 though they would       
willingly exchange them for something   
else4 ,they are not ideal street and    
park trees2 do not produce shapely      
trunks and crowns2 and drop leaves all  
summer and seeds all winter4 ,the tree  
is reputed to be short lived1 yet some  
of those planted a generation or two ago
 show no symptoms of decline4  ,there is
 no good reason why this tree should be 
called an elder1 or an ash1 except that 
its leaves are compound4 ,if that is a  
reason1 it might be called a hickory or 

a walnut1 since they bear compound      
leaves4 ,it is clearly a maple4 ,its    
fruit shows it to be so1 and ,indians of
 the far ,northwest who had no other    
maple1 formerly manufactured sugar from 
this tree1 collecting the sap in wood or
 bark troughs and boiling it with hot   
stones4  ,the compound leaf does not    
necessarily take it out of the maple    
group4 ,it requires no great exercise of
 imagination to understand how a lobed  
leaf1 by deepening the sinuses between  
the lobes1 might become a compound leaf 
in the process of evolution4 ,there may 
be no visible evidence that the box     
elder's leaf reached its present form by
 that process1 but there is another     
maple which is at the present time      
developing a compound leaf in that way1 
or seems to be doing so4 ,it is the     
dwarf maple 7,acer glabrum7 of the      
,northwest coast4 ,lobed leaves and     
compound leaves may occur on the same   
tree4  ,the seeds of box elder resemble 
those of other maples4 ,they ripen in   

the fall1 and are blown off by wind1 few
 at a time1 during several months4 ,the 
trees are from fifty to seventy feet    
high1 and from one and a half to three  
feet in diameter4 ,the trunk is apt to  
divide near the ground in several large 
branches1 and is not of good form for   
sawlogs1 being often crooked as well as 
short4 ,the small branches1 particularly
 those less than a year old1 are usually
 nearly as green as the leaves4 ,this   
fact may assist in identifying the tree 
when the leaves are off4 ,the bark bears
 more resemblance to ash and basswood   
than to maple4  ,the wood is lightest of
 the maples4 ,it weighs less than       
twenty-seven pounds to the cubic foot2  
has less than half the strength and     
about forty per cent of the stiffness of
 sugar maple2 and is much inferior to it
 in most mechanical properties4 ,it is  
equal1 if not superior to most maples in
 whiteness4 ,the pores are small1       
numerous1 and scattered through all     
parts of the growth ring1 as is         

characteristic of maple wood4 ,the tree 
grows rapidly4 ,the summerwood is a     
thin1 dark line1 separating one annual  
ring from another4 ,the medullary rays  
are many and obscure1 but when wood is  
sawed or split along a radial line1 they
 are easily seen1 and show the true     
maple luster4  ,the uses of box elder   
are similar to those of soft maple4 ,the
 wood is seldom reported under its own  
name4 ,in fact1 an examination of       
wood-using reports of various states1   
shows that in only two states1 ,michigan
 and ,texas1 has box elder been listed  
separately4 ,its uses in the former     
state were for boxes1 crates1 flooring1 
handles1 woodenware1 and interior       
finish1 while in ,texas it was made into
 furniture4 ,the tree is of commercial  
size in at least thirty states1 and is  
cut and marketed in all of them4 ,tests 
of the wood for pulp are said to be     
satisfactory1 and it finds its way in   
rather large amounts to cooper shops    
where it is made into slack barrels4 ,it

 is cut as acid wood along with other   
maples1 beech1 and birch1 and is        
converted into charcoal and other       
products of distillation4  ,it may be   
expected that box elder will exist in   
the ,united ,states as long as any other
 forest tree remains4 ,it is willing to 
be crowded off good land into low       
places1 which are almost swamps1 and    
there it grows free from disturbance2   
but if given the opportunity it will    
appropriate the most fertile soil within
 reach of it2 and by scattering seeds   
during four or five months of the year1 
it manages to do much effective         
planting4      ,,california ,,box       
,,elder 7,acer negundo californicum7 is 
a variety of     box elder1 and not a   
separate species4 ,as the name implies1 
it is a     ,california tree1 and it    
occurs in the valleys and among the     
,coast     ,range mountains from the    
lower ,sacramento valley to the western 
slopes of the ,san ,bernardino          
mountains4 ,the tree is from twenty to  

fifty feet high and from ten to thirty  
inches in diameter4 ,the     leaves and 
young twigs are hairy1 in that respect  
differing from the     eastern box      
elder4 ,the seeds are scattered during  
winter4 ,the wood     is very pale      
lemon-yellow or creamy-white1 the heart 
and sapwood     hardly distinguishable4 
,the wood is soft and brittle1 but is   
suited     to the same purposes as the  
eastern box elder4 ,no reports of its   
uses appear to have been made4 ,it is   
found on the borders of streams     and 
in the bottoms of moist canyons4 ,it is 
believed to be a     short-lived tree4  
,,striped ,,maple 7,acer pennsylvanicum7
 is usually thirty or forty     feet    
high1 and eight or ten inches in        
diameter4 ,its range extends     from   
,quebec to northern ,georgia1 westward  
to ,minnesota1 and is of     largest    
size on the slopes of ,big ,smoky       
mountains of ,tennessee1 and     the    
,blue ,ridge in ,north and ,south       
,carolina4 ,it grows best in shade1     

but maintains itself in open ground2 is 
generally shrubby in the     northern   
part of its range4 ,the name refers to  
the bark4 ,the stripes     are          
longitudinal and are caused by the      
parting of the outer bark and     the   
exposure to view of the lighter colored 
inner layers4 ,the bark     of small    
trees is greenish1 but later in life the
 color is darker1     and the stripes   
largely disappear4 ,among its names are 
moosewood1 so     called because it is  
good browse for moose and other deer2   
goosefoot     maple1 a reference to the 
form of the leaf2 whistlewood1 an       
allusion     to the ease with which the 
bark slips from young branches in spring
     when boys with jack-knives are on  
the search for whistle material4        
,the names mountain alder and striped   
dogwood are based on                    
misunderstanding of the tree's family   
relations4      ,the young leaves are   
rose colored when they unfold1 and when 
full     grown are six inches wide4 ,the

 wood is light and soft1 and light      
brown in color1 the thick sapwood       
lighter4 ,the wood is liable to         
contain small brown pith flecks1 which  
in longitudinal sections     appear as  
brown streaks an inch or less in length 
and as thick as a     pin1 and in cross 
section they are brown dots4 ,they are  
not natural     to the wood but are     
caused by the larv of certain moths     
which     burrow into the cambium layer1
 or soft inner bark1 and excavate       
narrow galleries up and down the trunk4 
,the galleries afterwards     fill with 
dark material4 ,the insects sometimes   
attack other maples1     the birches1   
service1 and other trees4 ,the wood of  
striped maple is     little used1       
because of the small size of the trees4 
,the species is     planted for ornament
 in this country and ,europe4           
,,black ,,maple 7,acer nigrum7 has been 
by some considered a variety of         
sugar or hard maple1 and by others a    
separate species4 ,it is as     large as

 the sugar maple and its range is much  
the same1 but it is     more abundant in
 the western part of its range than in  
the ,east4 ,the     name refers to the  
color of the bark of old trunks4 ,if the
 name had     considered the bark of    
young twigs it would have been yellow or
     orange maple1 because the twigs are
 of that color4 ,in summer the          
peculiar drooping posture of the leaves 
calls attention to this     tree4       
,however1 the bark1 twigs1 and leaves   
combined are not     sufficient to set  
it apart1 in the eyes of most people1   
for it     generally passes without     
question as sugar maple1 even when it   
stands side by side with that tree4 ,it 
yields sugar abundantly4 ,the     wood  
is a little heavier than that of sugar  
maple1 but the     difference cannot be 
noticed except when the two woods are   
weighed4     ,their uses are the same4  
,no maker of furniture1 flooring1 or    
finish     ever protests against black  
maple4 ,the tree generally prefers lower

     and damper ground than sugar maple1
 and is often found along     streams4  
,illustration     ,,serviceberry        
,illustration3 ,,serviceberry           
,,serviceberry  7,amelanchier           
,canadensis7   ,this tree will never be 
other than a minor species in the       
,united ,states1 but it is not a        
worthless member of the forest4 ,it     
belongs to the rose family1 and         
therefore is near akin to the haws1     
thorns1 and crabapples4 ,the genus is   
found in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 as
 well as in the ,united ,states4 ,two   
tree species occur in this country1 or1 
according to some botanists1 three1 one 
west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 two east4
  ,the serviceberry has a number of     
names3 ,june berry1 service-tree1 ,may  
cherry1 ,indian cherry1 wild ,indian    
pear1 currant tree1 shadberry1 savice1  
and sarvice4 ,the northern limit of its 
range is in ,newfoundland1 the southern 
in ,florida4 ,it grows westward to      
,minnesota and ,arkansas2 but it is not 

plentiful except in certain restricted  
localities4 ,it is most abundant among  
the ranges of the ,appalachian          
mountains1 and of its largest size      
toward the south4 ,it is dispersed      
through forests generally1 a tree or    
bush here and there2 but it prefers the 
borders of forests1 the brinks of       
cliffs1 banks of streams1 or some other 
open space where light is abundant4 ,it 
prospers most in rich soil but does     
fairly well in ground thin and dry4     
,the bloom1 where it occurs1 is a       
conspicuous feature of the landscape1   
though generally a tree on ten or twenty
 acres represents the density of its    
stand4 ,the white1 showy bloom comes    
early in spring1 when most trees are yet
 bare of leaves4 ,occasionally1 however1
 the serviceberry is more abundant1 and 
the rows and clumps of blooming trees   
along creek banks or about the margins  
of glades or other openings in the      
forests1 look like distant snowdrifts4  
,the fruit is a berry a half inch or    

less in diameter1 bright red when fully 
grown in early summer1 and changing to  
purple when ripe4 ,the seeds are brown  
and very small1 and each berry contains 
from five to ten4 ,when circumstances   
are favorable1 the tree is a prolific   
bearer1 the slender branches bending    
beneath the weight4 ,the tree need not  
reach any particular size before        
beginning to bear4 ,on some of the      
severely burned summits of the          
,alleghany mountains in ,west ,virginia1
 #d1jjj feet or more above sea level1   
this tree1 when only two or three feet  
high1 bears abundantly4 ,such trees are 
probably sprouts from roots of older    
trunks destroyed by fire4 ,at its best1 
it reaches a height of forty or fifty   
feet and a diameter of one or possibly  
two feet4 ,trunks of largest size occur 
among the southern ,appalachian ranges4 
,the wood is heavy and very hard and    
strong4 ,it is liable to check and warp 
in seasoning1 is satiny1 and is         
susceptible of a good polish4 ,medullary

 rays are very numerous1 but obscure2   
color1 dark brown1 often tinged with    
red4 ,the wood is stronger1 stiffer and 
heavier than white oak4 ,it possesses   
most of the properties to make it a wood
 of great value1 but its scarcity1 and  
the usual small size of the trees1      
relegate it to the class of minor woods4
 ,some use is made of it in turnery and 
for other small articles4 ,it is        
frequently planted in gardens for its   
bloom and berries4 ,in such situations  
it lacks some of the charm which it     
holds as part and parcel of the         
wildwoods where its early spring bloom  
is thrown against a background of       
leafless branches4  ,,western           
,,serviceberry 7,amelanchier alnifolia7 
is also called pigeonberry and sarvice4 
,its botanical name refers to the       
resemblance of its leaves to those of   
alder4 ,its range covers a million      
square miles1 and the species reaches   
its best development on islands and rich
 bottom lands of the lower ,columbia    

river4 ,it is found as far south as     
,california1 north to ,yukon territory1 
east to ,lake ,superior and northern    
,michigan4 ,it is nowhere a tree of     
attractive size1 and is usually a shrub 
about ten feet tall and one inch thick4 
,trees are sometimes thirty feet high   
and six or eight inches in diameter4    
,the fruit is blue-black and sweet1 and 
pleasant to the taste if not overripe4  
,indians in the northern and western    
range of this tree gather the berries   
industriously while they last1 and many 
of the white settlers do likewise4 ,the 
birds flock to the thickets for their   
share1 and though the berries are small1
 the bears in the region consider them  
worthy of prompt and continued          
attention4 ,the berries are generally a 
little more than half an inch in        
diameter1 and ripen in ,july or ,august1
 depending on latitude4 ,cattle1 sheep1 
goats1 and deer find this small tree or 
bush a source of food4 ,they do not     
object to eating the berries when       

obtainable1 but their principal attack  
is on the leaves and tender shoots which
 afford excellent browse4 ,fortunately1 
the serviceberry is so tenacious of life
 that it is next to impossible to browse
 it to death4 ,if eaten down to the     
ground1 with little left but bare and   
barked trunks sticking up like bean     
poles1 the roots will throw up sprouts  
year after year1 making the service     
thicket a permanent browse-pasture4     
,fire is not able to destroy such a     
thicket1 for1 when the tops are burned  
off1 the sprouts will quickly spring up 
with vigor unimpaired4 ,as a source of  
food for insects1 birds1 beasts1 and    
men1 few trees1 in proportion to size   
and quantity1 are the equal of western  
serviceberry4 ,flowers1 fruit1 leaves   
and sprouts are all food for something4 
,,longleaf ,,service ,,tree             
7,amelanchier obovalis7 is by some      
regarded a variety rather than a        
species4 ,it occupies in part the same  
range as serviceberry1 but runs much    

farther north1 reaching the valley of   
,mackenzie river in latitude #fe4 ,it is
 found in ,north ,carolina and ,alabama1
 but it is only a shrub in the extreme  
southern part of its range4 ,the fruit  
ripens in early summer and is reddish   
purple4 ,trees are seldom more than     
thirty feet high and eight inches in    
diameter4 ,a variety with large fruit is
 occasionally planted as an ornamental  
tree4 ,unless the crop of serviceberries
 is unusually plentiful in a locality1  
the most of it is eaten by birds which  
temporarily abandon nearly all other    
sources of food and give their undivided
 attention to the perishable harvest    
which must be garnered in at once or it 
will be lost4  ,,narrowleaf ,,crab      
7,malus angustifolia7 is one of the wild
 crabapples of the ,united ,states4     
,they are of the genus ,malus and the   
thousands of varieties of cultivated    
apples are derived from them1 or from   
other species found in the old world    
which are very similar4 ,they belong to 

the rose family4 ,the narrowleaf crab is
 found from ,pennsylvania to ,florida   
and westward to ,tennessee and          
,louisiana4 ,it thrives best in open    
spaces in the forest and is often found 
in glades and along the banks of streams
 in the ,north1 while in the ,south it  
occurs in depressions in the pine       
barrens4 ,the flowers are much like     
those of apple1 very fragrant1 and in   
color are white1 pink1 or rose4 ,when in
 full bloom1 the tree is a beautiful    
object1 and its odor is carried long    
distances4 ,the fruit is an apple in all
 respects except size and taste4 ,it is 
somewhat flattened1 and is an inch or   
less across4 ,it is fragrant when fully 
ripe1 and many a person has been led by 
appearances to taste1 only to meet      
disappointment4 ,the flesh is hard and  
sour1 and unfit for food in its natural 
state1 but by cooking and artificial    
sweetening1 it is made into preserves4  
,the tree reaches a height of twenty or 
thirty feet and a diameter of eight or  

ten inches4 ,it is smaller than the     
sweet crab4 ,the wood is hard1 heavy1   
light brown1 tinged with red1 with thick
 yellow sapwood4 ,it is not put to many 
uses1 but is occasionally made into     
small handles1 and levers4 ,it has been 
much used as stock on which to graft    
apples4 ,farmers who wanted orchards    
formerly dug up small crabapples in the 
surrounding woods and fields1 planted   
them in an orchard1 and when securely   
rooted1 the apples of desired kinds were
 grafted on4 ,if successful1 the apple  
finally replaced the crab by spreading  
its own bark and wood over the entire   
trunk1 until no part of the original    
stock remained visible4 ,the sweet crab 
was also employed as a stock on which to
 graft apples4  ,,sweet ,,crab 7,malus  
coronaria7 is the wild crab of the      
northeastern states1 although it        
intrudes on the region to the southwest 
to a limited extent4 ,it finds use in   
ornamental planting in the region of    
best growth4 ,it is known as ,american  

crab1 sweet scented crab1 crab apple1   
wild crab1 crab1 ,american crab apple1  
and fragrant crab4 ,its range extends   
from the shores of ,lake ,erie in       
,canada1 south through ,new ,york and   
,pennsylvania1 along the ,alleghany     
mountains to ,alabama2 west to          
,minnesota1 eastern ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 
,louisiana1 and eastern ,texas4 ,it     
needs moist soil for good growth and the
 best types are found in the lower ,ohio
 basin4 ,in height this tree rarely     
exceeds thirty feet and it is bushy1    
having short rigid limbs4 ,the leaves   
are rounded and sharply toothed1 the    
blossoms generally white and very       
fragrant2 the fruit small1 dry1 yellow1 
tinged with red4 ,the wood is heavy1 not
 strong1 heart light red1 sapwood       
yellow4 ,it is used for tool handles1   
small turned articles1 and for carving  
and engraving4  ,,oregon ,,crabapple    
7,malus rivularis7 grows wild from the  
,aleutian ,islands1 ,alaska1 southward  
to central ,california1 and is of       

largest size in ,washington and ,oregon 
where trees are occasionally forty feet 
high and eighteen inches in diameter1   
but they are generally about ten feet   
high and form dense thickets4 ,the fruit
 is oblong1 ripens late in autumn1 is   
greenish1 or reddish1 or clear lemon    
yellow in color1 and rather pleasant to 
the taste4 ,the tree grows slowly1 the  
wood is hard1 and light reddish-brown in
 color1 and is suitable for tool        
handles4  ,,iowa ,,crab 7,malus ioensis7
 grows from ,minnesota to ,texas and is 
the common crabapple of the ,mississippi
 basin4 ,large trees are twenty-five    
feet high and a foot in diameter4 ,it is
 believed that this tree crosses with   
the common apple1 and produces a variety
 known as the soulard apple 7,malus     
soulardi74 ,wild apple 7,malus malus7 is
 a ,european species introduced into    
this country and now running wild4      
,,mountain ,,ash 7,pyrus americana7 is  
closely related to the crabs4 ,it       
occurs from ,newfoundland to ,manitoba1 

and southward along the     mountains to
 ,north ,carolina4 ,trees have compound 
leaves1 red berries     the size of     
small cherries1 and reach a height of   
thirty feet and a     diameter of a foot
 or more4 ,there are several forms or   
varieties1     among them the small     
fruit mountain ash 7,pyrus americana    
microcarpa7 of the ,alleghany mountains4
  ,illustration     ,,red ,,haw         
,illustration3 ,,red ,,haw     ,,red    
,,haw  7,cratgus ,coccinea7   ,this tree
 belongs to the rose family1 and the    
genus ,cratgus consists of a large group
 of small1 thorny trees1 scattered      
through many parts of the world4 ,they  
are known by their thorns1 but          
comparatively few of them are known by  
name to the ordinary observer1 and they 
afford a perpetual source of study1     
victory1 and bewilderment to the trained
 botanist4 8,no other group of ,american
 trees10 says ,sudworth1 8presents such 
almost insurmountable difficulties in   
point of distinctive characters4 ,it is 

impossible1 and fortunately unnecessary1
 for the practical forester to know them
 all1 and exceedingly difficult even for
 the specialist40 ,more than one hundred
 species of these thorn trees occur in  
the ,united ,states1 exclusive of       
shrubs4 ,their bloom resembles that of  
apple and pear trees4 ,bees and insects 
swarm round the flowering trees1        
assisting in cross fertilization4 ,the  
various species are aggressive4 ,they   
force their way into vacant spaces1 and 
their thorns protect them against       
browsing animals4 ,the wood is sappy and
 heavy1 and for most of the species it  
is valueless4 ,the growing brambles1    
however1 perform an important service in
 forest economy4 ,seeds of various      
valuable trees are blown by wind or     
carried by birds and mammals into the   
thickets where they germinate and get a 
start under the protecting shelter of   
the thorns4 ,finally the seedlings      
overtop the brambles1 gain the mastery1 
shade the thorns to death1 and develop  

valuable forests4 ,the thorn trees shed 
their leaves annually4 ,their seeds are 
slow to germinate1 some not sprouting   
until the second year4 ,the fruit is    
worthless for human consumption1 but    
some of it has a tart and not unpleasant
 taste4 ,it is of many colors and sizes1
 depending on species4  ,no attempt is  
here made to name or to list the        
species4 ,such a list would1 for most   
people1 be a dull catalogue of names1   
and many of them in ,latin because there
 are no ,english equivalents4 ,a few    
representative species are given4 ,the  
red haw1 though not the most abundant1  
is widely distributed1 and is probably  
as well known as any4 ,its range extends
 from ,newfoundland westward through    
southern ,canada to the eastern base of 
the ,rocky ,mountains1 thence south to  
,texas and ,florida4 ,it covers one-half
 of the ,united ,states4 ,in the        
northern part of its range the red haw  
is confined to the slopes of low hills  
and along water courses1 but south in   

the ,appalachian mountains it grows at  
an elevation of several thousand feet4  
,it has various names in different      
regions4 ,it is called scarlet haw1 red 
haw1 white thorn1 scarlet thorn1        
scarlet-fruited thorn1 red thorn1 thorn1
 thorn bush1 thorn apple1 and hedge     
thorn4 ,the fact is worthy of note that 
it is well known and is clearly         
recognized in every region where it     
grows1 though various names are given   
it4  ,the red haw never reaches large   
size4 ,in rare cases it may attain a    
height of thirty feet and a diameter of 
ten inches1 but it is usually less than 
half that size4 ,where it grows in the  
open it develops a round crown4 ,the    
branches are armed with chestnut-brown  
thorns from an inch to an inch and a    
half in length4 ,the bright scarlet     
color of the fruit gives name to the    
tree4 ,it ripens late in ,september or  
in ,october1 and at that time the tree  
presents a beautiful appearance4 ,the   
branches frequently remain laden with   

fruit after the leaves have fallen4     
,the wood of red haw is of a high       
character and but for its scarcity would
 have wide commercial use4 ,it is among 
the heavy woods of this country4 ,a     
cubic foot of it1 thoroughly seasoned1  
weighs #ec4ga pounds4 ,the tree is of   
slow growth and therefore the annual    
rings are narrow1 and the wood is dense4
 ,the evenness and uniformity of the    
rings of yearly growth make the wood    
susceptible of a high polish4 ,the      
medullary rays are very obscure in red  
haw1 and for that reason the appearance 
of the wood is much the same1           
irrespective of the direction in which  
it is cut4 ,in that respect it is       
similar to the wood of most members of  
the thorn family--usually being too     
small to be quarter-sawed4 ,however1    
even if the trees were large enough1    
quarter-sawing would bring out little   
figure4  ,red haw is a lathe wood4 ,it  
is well suited to some other purposes1  
and has been used for engraving blocks1 

small wedges1 and rulers1 but the best  
results come from the lathe4 ,if it is  
thoroughly seasoned it is not liable to 
crack or check1 though cut thin in such 
articles as goblets and napkin rings4   
,the turner sometimes objects to the    
wood because of its hardness and the    
rapidity with which it dulls tools4     
,this drawback1 however1 is compensated 
for by the smoothness and fine polish   
which may be given to the finished      
article4 ,red haw checker pieces have   
been compared with ebony for wearing    
quality4 ,in color the ebony is more    
handsome1 and on that account is        
generally preferred4  ,perhaps the most 
extensive use of red haw is in the      
manufacture of canes4 ,most of the      
species of thorn are suitable for that  
purpose on account of their weight1     
strength1 and hardness4 ,red haw is not 
specially preferred1 but is used with   
others4 ,as a source of wood supply1 the
 tree will never be important1 but as an
 adornment to the landscape it will     

always be valuable1 and at the same time
 will fill a minor place in the         
country's list of commercial woods4     
,,summer ,,haw 7,cratgus stivalis7 is a 
southern species which contributes more 
or less to the food supply of the people
 within its range4 ,it is known also as 
,may haw and apple haw4 ,the flowers    
appear in ,february and ,march1 are     
about one inch in diameter1 and flushed 
with red toward the apex4 ,the fruit    
ripens in ,may1 is bright red1 very     
fragrant1 and is from half to           
three-fourths of an inch in diameter4   
,the flesh is of a pleasant taste1 and  
is gathered in large quantities by      
country people for making preserves and 
jelly4 ,it is sold in town and city     
markets1 particularly in ,new ,orleans4 
,the range of this thorn tree is from   
,south ,carolina and ,florida1 to       
,texas4 ,it attains a height of twenty  
or thirty feet1 and a diameter sometimes
 as great as eighteen inches4 ,it       
reaches its largest size in ,louisiana  

and ,texas4 ,it grows well on land which
 may be submerged several weeks in      
winter4 ,the wood has not been reported 
for any use4  ,,cockspur 7,cratgus      
crus-galli7 may be taken as the type of 
more than twenty species of cockspur    
thorns growing in this country4 ,its    
other names are red haw1 ,newcastle     
thorn1 thorn apple1 thorn bush1 pin     
thorn1 haw1 and hawthorn4 ,it grows     
southwestward from ,canada to ,texas1   
and extends into ,florida4 ,the largest 
trees are twenty-five feet high and a   
foot in diameter4 ,the fruit is dull    
red1 half inch in diameter1 ripens in   
,september and ,october1 and hangs on   
the branches until late winter4 ,hogs   
eat the fruit when they can get it1 and 
boys utilize the small apples as bullets
 for elder pop guns4 ,the thorns are    
formidable slender spines from three to 
eight inches long1 strong1 and extremely
 sharp4 ,they were formerly used as pins
 to close wool sacks in rural carding   
mills4 ,the many species of cockspur    

thorns are multiplied by numerous       
varieties4 ,fence posts and fuel are cut
 from the best trunks4  ,,pear ,,haw    
7,cratgus tomentosa7 is a representative
 of at least ten species4 ,it is called 
pear haw without any very satisfactory  
reason1 since the fruit bears little    
resemblance to pears4 ,it is half an    
inch in diameter1 dull orange red in    
color1 and sweet to the taste1 but it is
 of little value as food4 ,the tree has 
been occasionally planted for ornament1 
but never for fruit4 ,the flowers are   
showy4 ,trees at their best are fifteen 
or twenty feet high and five or six     
inches in diameter4 ,they have few      
thorns and such as they have are small4 
,the tree's range extends from ,new     
,york to ,missouri1 and along the       
,appalachian mountains to northern      
,georgia1 and west to ,texas and        
,arkansas4 ,it is known in different    
parts of its range as black thorn1 red  
haw1 pear thorn1 white thorn1 common    
thorn1 hawthorn1 thorn apple1 and thorn 

plum4  ,,hog ,,haw 7,cratgus            
brachyacantha7 is distinguished by its  
blue fruit4 ,the name indicates that the
 fruit is unfit for human food but is   
eaten by swine4 ,in some parts of       
,louisiana the dense thickets produce   
considerable quantities of forage for   
hogs4 ,the range is not extensive1 being
 confined to ,louisiana and eastern     
,texas where the tree occurs in low1 wet
 prairies4 ,the largest specimens are   
forty or fifty feet high and eighteen   
inches in diameter4 ,it is one of the   
largest of the thorns1 and the best     
trunks are of size to make small1 very  
short sawlogs1 but it does not appear   
that the wood has ever been manufactured
 into commodities of any kind4 ,the tree
 is occasionally planted for ornament4  
,,black ,,haw 7,cratgus douglasii7      
reaches its best development on the     
,pacific coast where trees occur thirty 
or more feet in height and a foot and a 
half in diameter4 ,the principal range  
is west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 from  

,british ,columbia to northern          
,california1 but it extends eastward to 
,wyoming1 and the tree is found also in 
northern ,michigan4 ,the fruit is black 
or very dark purple1 is edible1 and     
matures in early autumn1 falling soon   
after4 ,the heartwood is brownish-red4  
,no use for the wood has been found on  
the ,pacific coast4  ,,washington ,,haw 
7,cratgus cordata71 also known as       
,washington thorn1 ,virginia thorn1     
heart-leaved thorn1 and red haw1 grows  
on banks of streams from the valley of  
the upper ,potomac river southward      
through the ,appalachian ranges to      
northern ,georgia1 and westward to      
,missouri and ,arkansas4 ,flowers are   
rose-colored1 the fruit ripens in the   
fall and hangs till late winter4 ,trees 
are twenty or thirty feet high1 and a   
foot or less in diameter4 ,washington   
haw is frequently planted in this       
country and in ,europe4  ,,english      
,,hawthorn 7,cratgus oxyacantha7 was    
introduced into this country from       

,europe and has become naturalized in   
some of the eastern states4 ,thirty or  
more varieties are distinguished in     
cultivation4 ,it is worthy of note that1
 although the ,united ,states has more  
than #acj species of thorn trees of its 
own1 with varieties so numerous that no 
one has yet named or counted all of     
them1 a foreign thorn has been          
introduced and added to the number4     
,illustration     ,,mahogany            
,illustration3 ,,mahogany     ,,mahogany
  7,swietenia ,mahagoni7   ,this tree   
belongs to the family ,meliace which has
 about forty genera1 all of which are   
confined to the tropic except ,swietenia
 to which mahogany belongs4 ,this tree  
has made its way up from southern       
latitudes and has secured a foothold in 
,florida where it is confined to the    
islands and the most southern part of   
the mainland4  ,no attempt is here made 
to settle or even to take part in the   
disputes among dendrologists as to what 
mahogany is4 ,there are said to be more 

than forty different trees which pass as
 mahogany in lumber markets4 ,various   
descriptions and keys have been         
published for the purpose of separating 
and identifying different woods which   
are bought and sold as mahogany4 ,these 
woods grow on every continent except    
,europe2 but those which pass as        
mahogany nearly all come from ,africa or
 ,america4 ,some are well known1 both as
 to origin and botany1 while others are 
doubtful4 ,logs sometimes appear in     
markets and no one knows where they come
 from1 or the species which produce     
them4 ,it has been maintained that      
annual rings will separate true mahogany
 from the false--that the true has no   
annual rings4 ,at the best1 this        
evidence is only negative and is worth  
little1 since many tropical trees show  
no annual rings1 and yet are no kin to  
mahogany4 ,neither is it certain that   
true mahogany shows no yearly rings4    
,some trees do not1 but others may4 ,the
 ring1 as is well known1 is produced    

because the tree grows part of the year 
and rests part4 ,in the tropics where   
growth is continuous1 the ring may not  
exist1 but it sometimes does exist1 and 
thus upsets the theory4 ,besides1 it    
proves little in the case of mahogany   
which has a range extending from south  
of the equator northward into the       
temperate zone1 where there are seasonal
 changes4 ,it also grows near sea level 
and at considerable altitudes1 and      
elevation alone might make considerable 
variation in the character of the wood4 
,the two most important mahoganies of   
commerce--leaving botany out of the     
question--grow in ,africa and in        
,america4 ,the most important of the    
,african mahoganies is ,khaya           
senegalensis1 and of the ,american is   
,swietenia mahagoni4 ,it is the latter  
which extends its range into the ,united
 ,states1 and it alone will be          
considered in these pages as true       
mahogany2 the status of foreign woods   
which pass as mahogany will not be      

discussed4  ,leaves of the mahogany tree
 are three or four inches long1 and an  
inch or more wide4 ,they are compound1  
with from three to five pairs of        
leaflets4 ,the tree is an evergreen and 
presents a fine appearance4 ,the flowers
 appear in ,july and ,august1 are small 
and cup-shaped4 ,fruit is four or five  
inches long and two or more wide4 ,it   
ripens in late fall or early winter4    
,the nearly square seeds are            
three-fourths of an inch long4 ,in      
,florida the tree rarely exceeds fifty  
feet in height and two in diameter2 but 
in tropical countries it may exceed a   
height of #ajj and a diameter of eight  
or ten4 ,the bark is thin4  ,the wood is
 practically of the same weight as white
 oak1 but is stronger and more elastic4 
,it is exceedingly hard1 very durable1  
and is susceptible of high polish4      
,medullary rays are numerous but small  
and obscure4 ,the color is rich         
reddish-brown1 turning darker with age1 
but the thin sapwood is yellow4 ,it is  

known in ,florida as mahogany1 madeira1 
and redwood4  ,the uses of mahogany are 
so many and so well-known that it is    
unnecessary to speak of them in detail4 
,there were importations into the       
,united ,states nearly three hundred    
years ago1 and it has been coming ever  
since4 ,one thing about this wood       
deserves mention3 the price has not     
varied much in three hundred years4     
,different prices have prevailed1 owing 
to distance from supply and differences 
in grade and quality2 and that holds    
true today2 but for similar grades1 the 
prices have been remarkable for their   
evenness4  ,florida never figured       
largely in the world's supply of        
mahogany4 ,at their best1 the trees were
 neither large nor numerous1 but their  
quality was good4 ,cutting of this      
timber ceased in ,florida about         
three-quarters of a century ago4 ,the   
islands and the small area of the       
mainland where the timber grew1 were    
stripped4 ,the logs were shipped to the 

,bahama islands and it is said they     
found their ultimate market in ,england4
 ,a few trees were overlooked here and  
there1 and some that were small         
seventy-five years ago1 have grown to   
merchantable size since4 ,these have    
been cut1 a few at a time1 and the      
cutting is still going on4 ,the total is
 now only a few thousand feet a year1   
and one of the markets for the logs1    
probably the chief market1 is ,miami1   
,florida4 ,the logs are small1 and are  
generally cut and brought in by negroes 
who find a tree now and then1 cut the   
logs1 and float them as near to market  
as possible1 and haul them the rest of  
the way4 ,the scarcity of the trees may 
be inferred from the fact that the      
average resident of south ,florida1     
where the range of the mahogany lies1   
never saw one4 ,in appearance the tree  
when seen at a little distance1         
resembles a young1 vigorous black walnut
 tree4  ,,china ,,tree 7,melia          
azedarach7 belongs to the same family as

 mahogany but is of a different genus4  
,it is not native in the ,united        
,states1 but has been extensively       
planted and is running wild4 ,it is a   
forest tree in some parts of ,louisiana1
 but is found under pure forest         
conditions only here and there4 ,as     
such1 the trunk and thin crown look like
 a forest grown butternut tree in       
,wisconsin4 ,it is abundant in yards and
 along streets1 where it is often called
 ,chinaball tree4 ,a little of the wood 
is used4 ,the color resembles mahogany1 
but the texture is much coarser4 ,annual
 rings are clearly marked by rows of    
large pores1 and the wood does not      
polish well4 ,it is sometimes known as  
pride of ,india1 which country is its   
native home1 or it was carried there    
from ,persia at an early date4 ,a       
variety1 commonly known as the ,texas   
,umbrella tree 7,melia azedarach        
umbraculifera71 has been widely planted1
 and is known by its short trunk and    
dense1 round crown4  ,,soapberry        

7,sapindus saponaria71 known also as    
false dogwood1 is a species of south    
,florida1 and is one of three soap trees
 in this country4 ,it has no family     
kinship with mahogany1 but the          
appearance of the trees leads some      
persons to conclude that they are       
related to the ,china tree4 ,in fact1   
one of the species is locally known as  
wild ,china and ,chinaberry4 ,they are  
called soap trees because their fruit   
has a property which causes water to    
foam1 and the natives of the ,west      
,indies once used it for soap4 ,the     
botanical name ,sapindus means 8,indian 
soap40 ,the tree is twenty-five or      
thirty feet high1 and ten or twelve     
inches in diameter4 ,the bloom appears  
in ,november in ,florida1 and the fruit 
ripens the following spring4 ,the wood  
is heavy1 rather hard1 and is light     
brown1 tinged with yellow4 ,it reaches  
largest size on the ,thousand ,islands1 
,florida4 ,another species is ,sapindus 
marginatus which attains size similar to

 that of the first4 ,it is found in     
southern ,florida1 but is not abundant4 
,it grows as far north as the mouth of  
the ,st4 ,john river4 ,a third species  
is ,sapindus drummondi which has its    
range from western ,louisiana1          
,arkansas1 and southern ,kansas1 through
 ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,arizona1 to 
,mexico4 ,the flowers appear in ,may and
 ,june1 and the fruit ripens in         
,september and ,october1 but it hangs on
 the trees until the following spring4  
,when first ripe1 it is half an inch in 
diameter1 and yellow1 but when it dries 
it turns black4 ,trees attain diameters 
up to two feet1 and heights of forty or 
fifty4 ,it is commonly supposed to be   
the ,chinaberry1 by persons who judge by
 general appearances1 but the two are   
not related4 ,the wood's appearance     
suggests the heartwood of ash4 ,it      
probably reaches its best development in
 ,texas where it is manufactured into   
boxes1 crates1 and even furniture1 but  
not in large amounts4 ,it is reputed to 

be a rapid grower1 and it may be under  
the most favorable circumstances1 but it
 is usually of rather slow growth4 ,the 
wood splits readily into thin strips    
which are employed in making baskets for
 harvesting cotton4 ,in western ,texas  
it is made into pack saddle frames4     
,,mountain ,,mahogany 7,cercocarpus     
ledifolius7 is not a mahogany1 and      
is not even in the same family4 ,it     
belongs to the rose family1 and     is  
closely related to the crabapple2 but   
since it is commonly known     as       
mahogany1 it is proper to mention it    
here4 ,extensive     consideration is   
unnecessary1 for the tree is not        
important as a     source of wood4      
,three species are recognized by some   
botanists1 four     by others4 ,all are 
western1 and are noted for their        
long-tailed     fruit4 ,the generic name
 refers to that feature4 ,the seed1 with
 its     tail1 is carried by the wind1  
or it catches in the wool of sheep and  
the hair of cattle and goats1 or the    

feathers of birds1 and is     carried   
far and near4 ,the mountain mahogany    
sometimes is thirty feet     high1 and  
two in diameter4 ,it grows from #e1jjj  
to #i1jjj feet     elevation1 sometimes 
on steep cliffs4 ,its range extends from
 ,wyoming     and ,montana to ,oregon1  
,california1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico4
 ,the wood     is bright1 clear red1 or 
rich dark brown4 ,it reaches its largest
     size on the mountains of central   
,nevada4 ,another species is known as   
valley mahogany 7,cercocarpus           
parvifolius74 ,it ranges from ,nebraska 
to ,oregon1 and ,texas to ,california4  
,its rate of growth is very slow1       
and it seldom exceeds a height of thirty
 feet and a diameter of ten     inches4 
,the wood is reddish-brown4 ,a third    
species1 called ,trask     mahogany     
7,cercocarpus traski7 is chiefly notable
 on account of     its restricted range4
 ,it occurs as far as known1 in a single
 canyon     of ,santa ,catalina island1 
off the southern coast of ,california4  

,some     of the specimens are twenty   
feet high and six inches in diameter4 ,a
     fourth species1 or a variety1 is   
known as short-flower mahogany          
7,cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus74 
,it occurs in western ,texas1           
southern ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1     
usually at elevations about #e1jjj      
feet above sea level where the largest  
trees are not more than eight     inches
 in diameter and twenty-five feet high4 
,,vauquelinia 7,vauquelinia californica7
 belongs to the same family     as the  
so-called western mahoganies1 that is1  
the rose family2 but     it is of a     
different genus4 ,its range is largely  
south of the     international boundary1
 but it extends into southern ,arizona  
where     the best development of the   
species occurs about #e1jjj feet above  
the sea on grassy slopes4 ,it is seldom 
more than a bush1 and the     wood is   
very heavy and hard1 and is dark-brown1 
streaked with red4  ,illustration       
,,black ,,willow  ,illustration3 ,,black

 ,,willow     ,,black ,,willow  7,salix 
,nigra7   ,the willows and the          
cottonwoods belong to the same family of
 trees1 ,salicace1 and the family is    
fairly numerous1 and it has some        
well-defined traits of character4 ,the  
quinine-bitter of the bark is ever      
present1 but more marked in willows than
 in cottonwoods4 ,though quite          
unpleasant to the taste1 it is harmless4
 ,the leaves never grow in pairs1 and in
 most instances they fall early in      
autumn1 and some without changing color4
 ,male and female flowers are borne on  
different trees1 and fertilizing is done
 by insects1 often by honey bees and    
bumblebees4 ,fruit ripens in late       
spring1 and the seeds are equipped for  
flight by being provided with           
exceedingly fine silky hairs4 ,the wind 
carries them long distances4 ,the trees 
generally grow in the immediate vicinity
 of streams or in situations where the  
soil is damp1 but there are exceptions4 
,the willow family consists of two      

genera1 one the cottonwoods or poplars1 
the other the willows proper4 ,there are
 about seventy-five species of willow in
 ,america1 twenty of them trees4 ,some1 
however1 are quite small and only       
occasionally attain sizes which place   
them in the tree class4 ,the willows are
 old residents of this continent4 ,they 
grew in the central portion of what is  
now the ,united ,states in the          
,cretaceous age1 as is proved by their  
leaf prints in the rocks4 ,they have    
held their ground ever since1 and there 
is no likelihood that they are about to 
give it up4 ,few species are better     
fitted for holding what they have4 ,a   
few trees are capable of seeding a large
 region in a few years1 and if soil and 
situation are suitable1 reproduction    
will be abundant4 ,the willows' tenacity
 of life is often remarkable4 ,it       
sometimes seems next to impossible to   
kill them by cutting off their tops4    
,there are said to be instances in      
,europe where willows have been         

pollarded successively during hundreds  
of years1 the crops of sprouts being    
used for wickerwork and other purposes4 
,no such records exist in this country1 
but the willow's sprouting habit is well
 known4 ,a shoot stuck in the ground    
will grow1 and a fence post will sprout4
 ,many willows develop large stools1 or 
roots1 and repeatedly send up numerous  
sprouts1 and it makes little difference 
how often they are cut1 others will come
 up4  ,comparatively few willows that   
start in life ever become trees4 ,they  
are suppressed by crowding1 or meet     
misfortunes of one kind or another which
 keep them small1 but occasionally a    
tree of good size results4 ,willow trees
 are usually not old4 ,probably few     
reach an age exceeding #aej years4      
,large trunks1 in old age1 are apt to be
 hollow or otherwise defective1 though a
 willow tree will live many years after 
much of its trunk has disappeared4 ,a   
little green bark on the side1 and      
sprouts from the stump will maintain    

life long after all usefulness has      
ceased4  ,young willows are usually     
pliant and tough1 old are stiff and     
brash4 ,they range from sea level up to 
#aj1jjj feet or more2 grow profusely in 
the wet lands about the gulf of ,mexico1
 and likewise on the bleak coasts of the
 ,arctic ocean4 ,commander ,peary found 
willows blooming in considerable        
profusion on the extreme northern shore 
of ,greenland1 where they produce enough
 growth during the few weeks of summer  
sunshine to afford the muskox the means 
of eking out a living during his sojourn
 in those inhospitable regions4  ,the   
identification of willows is one of the 
most difficult tasks that fall to the   
botanists4 ,black willow is             
unquestionably the most important willow
 in this country from the lumberman's   
standpoint4 ,it is the common tree      
willow that attains size suitable for   
sawlogs4 ,if a forest grown willow of   
large size is encountered east of the   
,rocky ,mountains in the ,united        

,states1 it is pretty safe to class it  
as black willow4 ,there are some others 
which grow large1 but not many4 ,planted
 willows1 both large and small1 may be  
foreign species1 and white willows1     
which are not native in this country1   
but have been widely planted1 and are   
running wild1 may be occasionally found 
of ample size for saw timber4  ,black   
willow's range extends from ,new        
,brunswick to ,florida1 west to the     
,dakotas1 and south to ,texas1 thence   
passing into ,mexico1 ,new ,mexico1     
,arizona1 and ,california4 ,it attains  
its best size in the ,ohio and          
,mississippi valleys1 though large trees
 are found in other parts of its range4 
,it is difficult to say what its average
 size is1 for some black willows are    
only a few feet high and an inch or two 
in diameter4 ,the largest trees exceed  
#ajj feet in height and three in        
diameter4 ,an extreme size of seven feet
 in diameter has been reported4 ,it is  
not unusual to see willow logs three    

feet in diameter in mill yards in       
,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,arkansas1
 and logs four feet in diameter are not 
so unusual as to excite much comment4   
,the average sizes1 however1 of willow  
sawlogs in that region are from eighteen
 inches to two feet4  ,the wood of black
 willow is pale reddish-brown4 ,when    
freshly cut it is sometimes purple1     
almost black4 ,when sawed in lumber and 
exposed to the air the dark color fades4
 ,the wood is soft but firm4 ,it has    
about fifty per cent of the strength of 
white oak1 and forty per cent of its    
stiffness4 ,it weighs #bg4gg pounds per 
cubic foot2 and considering its weight1 
it is tolerably strong and stiff4       
,probably no other wood in the ,united  
,states is as systematically cheated out
 of its just credit as this one4 ,many  
of the oaks are seldom given their      
proper names1 but they are listed as oak
 in sawmill output1 and thus the genus1 
if not the species is given credit4 ,but
 willow is almost totally ignored4 ,the 

,united ,states census in #aiaj credited
 to all the willow lumber in this       
country an amount less than a million   
and a half feet2 yet a single mill in   
,louisiana1 and not a large mill at     
that1 cut and sold four times that much 
during that year4 ,the wood was cut by  
hundreds of other mills1 some a few logs
 only1 others considerable quantities4  
,it is sold for various purposes1 and   
much of it goes as cottonwood4 ,in some 
instances it is called brown cottonwood4
 ,probably ninety per cent is made into 
boxes1 but it has many other uses4 ,it  
is cut into excelsior1 made into rotary 
cut veneer1 and finds place in the      
manufacture of furniture2 it is a common
 woodenware material2 slack coopers make
 barrels of it2 and it is turned for    
baseball bats4  ,the supply of black    
willow in this country is not small4 ,it
 is usually found in wet situations     
along streams4 ,sometimes islands and   
low flats are taken possession of and   
pure stands result4 ,the growth is      

sometimes phenomenal4 ,trunks may add   
nearly or quite an inch to their        
diameter per year when conditions are   
exceptionally favorable4 ,instances1    
apparently well authenticated1 are      
reported of abandoned fields along the  
,mississippi1 which in sixty years grew 
#ajj1jjj feet of willow per acre4       
,,longstalk ,,willow 7,salix longipes7  
sometimes grows to a height of          
thirty feet with a diameter of six or   
eight inches4 ,its range     extends    
from ,maryland to ,texas1 and is at its 
best in the ,ozark     region of        
southwestern ,missouri and northwestern 
,arkansas4      ,,almondleaf ,,willow   
7,salix amygdaloides7 grows across      
northern     ,united ,states and        
southern ,canada from ,new ,york to     
,oregon1 and     occurs as far south as 
,missouri and ,ohio1 and is abundant in 
the     lower ,ohio valley4 ,at its best
 it is seventy feet high and two feet   
in diameter4 ,the wood is light1 soft1  
and the heartwood is brown4             

,,smoothleaf ,,willow 7,salix lvigata7  
attains a diameter of one foot     and a
 height of forty or fifty4 ,it is a     
,pacific coast tree1     occurring in   
,california on the western slopes of the
 ,sierra ,nevadas     up to an altitude 
of #c1jjj feet4 ,it is known as black   
willow4 ,the     wood is pale           
reddish-brown4      ,,silverleaf        
,,willow 7,salix sessilifolia7 looks    
like longleaf willow1     and though    
usually a shrub it sometimes is         
twenty-five feet high and     ten inches
 in diameter4 ,it grows from the mouth  
of the ,columbia     river to southern  
,california4      ,,yewleaf ,,willow    
7,salix taxifolia7 ranges from western  
,texas1     through southern ,arizona   
into ,mexico and ,central ,america4     
,trees are     occasionally forty feet  
high and more than one foot in diameter4
 ,a     little fuel and fence posts are 
cut from this willow4      ,,bebb       
,,willow 7,salix bebbiana7 is nearly    
always shrubby1 but     occasionally    

reaches a trunk diameter of six or eight
 inches and a     height of twenty feet4
 ,its northern limit lies within the    
,arctic     circle1 its southern in     
,pennsylvania1 ,nebraska1 and ,arizona4 
,west of     ,hudson bay it forms almost
 impenetrable thickets1 and in ,colorado
 it     ascends mountains to elevations 
of #aj1jjj feet4      ,,glaucous        
,,willow 7,salix discolor71 commonly    
known as silver or     pussy willow1    
ranges from ,nova ,scotia to ,manitoba1 
and southward to     ,delaware1 ,west   
,virginia1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 and     
,missouri4 ,it is one     of the best   
known willows within its range1 on      
account of its     flowers which are    
among the earliest of the season1 and   
very showy4     ,the largest specimens  
are scarcely twenty-five feet high and  
twelve     inches in diameter4          
,,mackenzie ,,willow 7,salix cordata    
mackenzieana7 is not abundant1 and      
is one of the smallest of the tree      
willows4 ,it is nearly always a         

shrub4 ,its range extends from          
,california nearly to the ,arctic       
circle1 where it occurs in gravelly soil
 on the borders of mountain     streams4
      ,,missouri ,,willow 7,salix       
missouriensis7 is so named because it   
occurs principally in ,missouri1 but its
 range extends into ,kansas     and     
,iowa4 ,it is occasionally forty feet   
high and a foot in diameter4     ,it is 
used for fence posts4      ,,bigelow    
,,willow 7,salix lasiolepis7 is         
generally called white willow     on    
account of its gray bark4 ,it occurs in 
,california and ,arizona1     and at its
 best it is twenty-five feet high and   
ten inches in     diameter4 ,some use is
 made of it as fuel1 where other wood is
     scarce4      ,,nuttall ,,willow    
7,salix nuttallii71 called also mountain
 willow in     ,montana1 ranges from    
,british ,america1 east of the ,rocky   
,mountains1     to southern ,california4
 ,its usual height is twenty or         
twenty-five     feet1 and its diameter  

six or eight inches4 ,in southern       
,california     it grows #aj1jjj feet   
above sea level4      ,,hooker ,,willow 
7,salix hookeriana7 occurs in the coast 
region from     ,vancouver island to    
southern ,oregon1 and varies in height  
from a     sprawling shrub to a height  
of thirty feet and a diameter of one4   
,little use is made of it4      ,,silky 
,,willow 7,salix sitchensis71 known also
 as ,sitka willow1     ranges from      
,alaska to southern ,california4 ,the   
largest specimens are     twenty-five   
feet high and ten inches in diameter4   
,trunks are largely     sapwood and are 
of little commercial importance4        
,,broadleaf ,,willow 7,salix            
amplifolia71 known also as feltleaf     
willow1 was discovered in ,alaska in    
#ahii4 ,the leaves are woolly4 ,the     
largest trees rarely exceed a height of 
thirty feet and a diameter     of six   
inches4 ,its range extends to the valley
 of the ,mackenzie     river4      ,a   
number of foreign willows have become   

naturalized in the ,united     ,states4 
,among them is white willow 7,salix     
alba71 which grows to     large size1   
probably as large as black willow2 crack
 willow 7,salix     fragilis71 so named 
on account of the brittleness of its    
twigs2 and     weeping willow 7,salix   
babylonica74 ,the botanical name is     
based on     the supposition that it was
 this willow1 growing by the rivers near
     ,babylon1 on which the captive     
,hebrews hung their harps4 ,basket      
willow is planted for its osiers in     
several eastern states4 ,it is     not a
 single species1 but a group of         
varieties developed by     cultivation4 
,illustration     ,,hardy ,,catalpa     
,illustration3 ,,hardy ,,catalpa        
,,hardy ,,catalpa  7,catalpa ,speciosa7 
,this tree belongs to the family        
,bignoniace which has its name from ,abb
 ,bignon1 librarian of ,louis ,,xv4     
,about one hundred genera belong to this
 family1 only three of which reach the  
size of trees in the ,united ,states4   

,these include the catalpas1 the desert 
willow1 and the black calabash tree4    
,seven species of catalpa are known1 two
 of them occurring in the ,united       
,states4 ,others are found in ,china and
 the ,west ,indies4 ,the name is an     
,indian word and was first heard among  
the tribes of the ,carolinas4 ,it seems 
probable that the name catalpa as       
applied to a tree and catawba1 applied  
to a grape1 have the same origin1 and in
 some way refer to the ,catawba         
,indians1 a small tribe--said to be     
,sioux--that lived two hundred years ago
 in the western part of the ,carolinas  
and neighboring regions where one of the
 catalpa species was first heard of by  
,europeans4 ,the tree in that region is 
still often called catawba4  ,the two   
catalpas of this country are known to   
botanists as ,catalpa speciosa and      
,catalpa catalpa4 ,much confusion has   
resulted from attempts to distinguish   
one from the other4 ,botanists are able 
to clear the matter up among themselves1

 but the general public has not been so 
successful4 ,john ,p4 ,brown1 of        
,connersville1 ,indiana1 specialized on 
catalpas during many years1 and         
published numerous tracts1 pamphlets1   
and books for the purpose of educating  
the public to the point where the       
differences between common catalpa and  
hardy catalpa could be distinguished4   
,his labor was likewise directed toward 
inducing land owners to plant catalpa   
for commercial purposes4 ,due to his    
efforts1 and otherwise1 catalpa was for 
a time the most advertised plantation   
tree in this country4 ,some supposed    
that hardy catalpa was the wood which   
was to save the country from a          
threatened timber famine4 ,claims made  
for it were wide and far reaching4  ,the
 judgment of history has been--if it may
 be classed as a matter of history--that
 the tree fell short of expectation4    
,this does not imply an inferiority of  
the wood itself1 or a slower rate of    
growth than was claimed for it2 but     

exceptional cases were interpreted as   
averages1 and for that reason the whole 
situation was overestimated4 ,when all  
conditions are perfect1 hardy catalpa   
grows rapidly and grows large1 but it   
demands nearly perfect conditions or it 
will disappoint4 ,it wants ground rich  
enough and damp enough to grow good     
crops of corn1 and farmers are not      
generally willing to put that class of  
land to growing fence posts and railroad
 ties4  ,the range of hardy catalpa     
before the species was spread by        
artificial planting1 was through        
southern ,illinois and ,indiana1        
southeastern ,missouri and northeastern 
,arkansas1 western ,louisiana and       
eastern ,texas1 and western ,kentucky   
and ,tennessee4 ,its position on the    
fertile banks of streams1 and on flood  
plains subject to frequent inundation1  
indicates that the spread of the species
 was effected by running water4 ,in that
 case1 the dispersal of seeds would be  
down stream1 implying that the starting 

place of the species was along the lower
 reaches of the ,wabash river4  ,the    
catalpa may reach a height of #ajj or   
#abj feet and a diameter of four feet2  
but few trees attain that size4 ,the    
leaves are ten or twelve inches long and
 seven or eight wide1 and are           
considerably larger than those of common
 catalpa4 ,the flowers appear late in   
,may or early in ,june1 and are showy4  
,the prevailing colors are white and    
purple1 and the blossoms are about two  
inches long and two and a half wide4    
,the fruit is a pod from eight to twenty
 inches long1 and the enclosed seeds are
 nearly an inch long1 shaped like beans4
 ,the trees are prolific bearers4  ,the 
tree is known by several names in       
different parts of its range1 including 
the territory where it is known only    
from plantings4 ,it is called western   
catalpa to distinguish it from the other
 species found farther east and south4  
,in ,missouri and ,iowa it is known as  
cigar tree4 ,the name ,indian bean is an

 allusion to the large seeds4           
,shawneewood is another name referring  
to the supposed interest of ,indians in 
the tree4 ,shawnee was the name of a    
tribe of ,indians in the ,ohio valley in
 early times4  ,the wood weighs less    
than twenty-six pounds per cubic foot1  
and is soft and weak4 ,it is rated very 
durable in contact with the soil1 and   
this is one of the chief advantages     
claimed for it4 ,the annual rings are   
clearly marked by several bands or rows 
of large open ducts1 and the denser     
summerwood forms a narrow band4 ,the    
medullary rays are numerous and obscure4
 ,the heartwood is brown1 the sapwood   
lighter4 ,in appearance1 the heartwood  
suggests butternut1 but it is coarser1  
and lacks the gloss shown by polished   
butternut4 ,quarter-sawing produces no  
figure1 but when sawed at right angles  
to the radial lines1 the annual rings   
are cut in a way to give figure         
resembling that of ash or chestnut4     
,the wood of this catalpa has been      

thoroughly tried out for a number of    
purposes4 ,furniture and finish have    
been made of it with varying success1   
and molding and picture frames are      
listed among its uses4 ,it is not a     
sawlog tree4 ,statistics of lumber cut  
seldom mention it1 though now and then a
 log finds its way to a mill4 ,efforts  
have been made to pass the wood as      
mahogany1 but with poor success4 ,the   
counterfeit is easily detected1 since   
the artificial color which may be       
imparted to catalpa is about the only   
resemblance to mahogany4  ,in the lower 
,mississippi valley some success1 but on
 a very small scale1 has resulted from  
attempts to induce catalpa to grow in   
crooks suitable for small boat knees4   
,the young trunk1 after being hacked on 
one side1 is bent and induced to grow   
the crook or knee4 ,natural crooks have 
been utilized in the manufacture of     
knees for small boats in ,louisiana4    
,probably ninety per cent of all the    
catalpa ever cut has gone into fence    

posts4 ,it is habitually crooked4 ,a    
straight bole is the exception2 though  
in plantations trees are crowded and    
pruned until they grow fairly straight1 
and sometimes trunks of forest grown    
trees of large size are nearly faultless
 in their symmetry4  ,it was once       
believed in some quarters that catalpa  
would solve the railroad tie problem by 
growing good ties quickly4 ,it must be  
admitted1 however1 that in spite of     
extensive plantings1 the railroad tie   
problem has not yet been solved by      
catalpa4  ,,common ,,catalpa 7,catalpa  
catalpa7 originated many hundred miles  
outside the range of hardy catalpa1 to  
judge by the localities in which it was 
first found by white men4 ,it is        
supposed to have been indigenous in     
southwestern ,georgia1 central ,alabama1
 and ,mississippi1 and northwestern     
,florida4 ,its range has been greatly   
extended by planting1 and it grows in   
most parts of the country east of the   
,rocky ,mountains1 as far north as ,new 

,england4 ,it has been planted in many  
parts of ,europe4 ,its leaves1 flowers1 
fruit1 and the tree itself are smaller  
than hardy catalpa4 ,the pods hang      
unopened all winter4 ,the trunks        
sometimes are three feet in diameter and
 sixty high1 but are generally small1   
crooked1 rather angular1 and poor in    
appearance1 but the leaves and flowers  
are ornamental4 ,the wood is durable in 
contact with the ground1 and its largest
 use has been for posts1 crossties1 and 
poles4  ,,desert ,,willow 7,chilopsis   
linearis7 does not even belong to the   
willow family1 notwithstanding its      
names1 all of which are based on the    
presumption that it is a willow4 ,the   
shape and size of its leaves are        
responsible for that misapprehension4   
,the very narrow leaves may be a foot   
long4 ,it is called flowering willow and
 ,texas flowering willow4 ,its flowers  
are always emphasized when it is        
compared with willow1 for they are      
totally different from the willow's     

characteristic catkins4 ,the flowers    
appear in early summer in racemes three 
or four inches long1 and continue open  
during several months in succession4    
,the fruit is a pod seven or nine inches
 long1 and as slender as a lead pencil4 
,it is this pod which gives the plainest
 hint of its relationship to the        
catalpas1 for it is in good standing in 
the family with them4 ,the seeds        
resemble very small beans with wings at 
each end4 ,they are light1 and the wind 
disperses them4 ,the tree is a prolific 
seeder4  ,the range of this small tree  
extends across western ,texas1 ,new     
,mexico1 ,arizona1 ,utah1 ,nevada1 into 
,san ,diego county1 ,california4 ,the   
tree occurs in dry1 gravelly1 porous    
soil near the banks of streams and in   
depressions in the desert4 ,the wood is 
weak and soft1 the heart brown1 streaked
 with yellow4 ,no use has been found for
 it4 ,the tree is cultivated for        
ornament in ,mexico and sometimes in the
 southern states4 ,the flowers look well

 when they are encountered in the       
desert4 ,they are white1 faintly tinged 
with purple1 with bright yellow spots   
inside4 ,they are funnel shaped and have
 the odor of violets4  ,illustration    
,,cucumber  ,illustration3 ,,cucumber   
,,cucumber  7,magnolia ,acuminata7      
,this tree is a member of the magnolia  
family which has ten genera in ,north   
,america1 two of them1 magnolia and     
liriodendron1 being trees4 ,the family  
has its name from ,pierre ,magnol1 a    
,french botanist who died in #agae4 ,the
 genus magnolia has seven species in the
 ,united ,states1 all of which are of   
tree size4 ,they are evergreen magnolia 
7,magnolia ftida71 sweet magnolia       
7,magnolia glauca71 cucumber 7,magnolia 
acuminata71 largeleaf umbrella          
7,magnolia macrophylla71 umbrella tree  
7,magnolia tripetala71 ,fraser umbrella 
7,magnolia fraseri71 and pyramidal      
magnolia 7,magnolia pyramidata74 ,the   
remaining member of the magnolia family 
is the yellow poplar 7,liriodendron     

tulipifera74 ,though of the same family 
it is of a different genus from the     
seven other magnolias4  ,the cucumber is
 the hardiest member of the magnolia    
family4 ,it is found in natural growth  
farther north than any other1 yet it has
 the appearance of a southern tree4 ,all
 magnolias look like trees belonging in 
the ,south4 ,their large leaves indicate
 as much1 and some of them do not       
venture far outside of the warm         
latitudes4 ,it is one of the oldest of  
all the families of broadleaf trees1 and
 it has been a family that during an    
immense period of the earth's history   
has clung near the old homestead where  
it came into existence countless ages   
ago4 ,there were magnolias growing in   
the middle ,appalachian region1 and     
eastward to the present ,atlantic coast1
 so far in the past that the time can be
 measured only by hundreds of thousands 
of years4 ,leaf prints in rocks1 which  
were once mud flats1 tell the           
story--though but a page here and       

there--of the magnolia's ancient        
history1 doubtless antedating by long   
periods the earliest appearance of man  
on earth4  ,next to the yellow poplar1  
the cucumber tree is the most important 
species of the magnolia family1 at least
 as a source of lumber4 ,as an          
ornamental tree it may not equal some of
 the others1 particularly certain of the
 southern species which are evergreen   
and produce large1 showy flowers4  ,the 
cucumber tree receives its name from its
 fruit1 which looks like a cucumber when
 seen at a distance1 but it is far from 
being one4 ,its intense bitter makes it 
safe from the attacks of birds and      
beasts4 ,so far as known1 it is not     
eaten1 tasted1 or touched by any living 
creature--except man4 ,some of the      
pioneer settlers1 in the days when there
 was precious little to eat on the      
frontiers1 discovered a way of          
extracting the bitter from the wild     
cucumber1 and making some sort of a     
pickle of the remainder2 but the art    

seems to have been lost with the passing
 of the pioneers of the ,daniel ,boone  
type1 and the wild cucumber now hangs   
untouched1 and tempts nobody4 ,it is    
three inches or less in length1         
generally slightly curved1 and is green 
in color until fully ripe4 ,even the    
flowers which produce the fruit are     
green1 with the merest suggestion of    
yellow4 ,they are so inconspicuous that 
few persons ever notice them1 even      
though cucumber trees stand in door     
yards4 ,the ripe cucumbers are dark red 
or scarlet1 or rather the seeds are1    
which grow on the surface like grains of
 corn on a cob1 though fewer in number  
and farther apart4 ,something seems to  
be lacking in the machinery by which the
 flowers are fertilized1 with the result
 that often nearly half the seeds which 
ought to cover the surface of the       
cucumber1 fail to materialize4 ,there   
are many blank spaces representing      
flowers which the pollen missed4  ,there
 is likewise something missing in the   

modus operandi of scattering the seeds4 
,they have no wings1 and the wind is    
powerless to carry them4 ,they are as   
bitter as quinine and no bird1 squirrel1
 or mouse will plant1 carry1 or touch   
them4 ,nature appears to have forgotten 
to provide any other means for          
dispersing the seeds of this remarkable 
tree4 ,when seeds are fully ripe1 they  
drop away from the parent fruit--the    
cucumber--but the fall of each seed is  
arrested by a small thread which        
suspends it from one to three inches    
below the fruit4 ,there the seeds hang1 
swinging and dangling in the wind4 ,what
 part the threads play in the economy of
 nature is not apparent1 unless their   
purpose is to expose the seeds to a     
chance of becoming entangled with the   
wings1 feet1 or feathers of flying      
birds1 whereby they may be carried away 
and dropped in suitable places for      
growing4 ,there can be no doubt that    
this happens occasionally1 and          
constitutes one of the methods of seed  

dispersal4 ,others are transported by   
flowing water4  ,the chances seem to be 
greatly against the survival of the     
cucumber tree in competition with       
maples1 birches1 pines1 and cottonwoods1
 whose winged seeds are wind-borne2 or  
with oaks1 hickories1 and walnuts whose 
heavy1 wingless nuts are planted hither 
and thither by accommodating squirrels  
which are intent only on providing for  
their own winter wants1 but in reality  
are industrious and effective forest    
planters4 ,notwithstanding the          
disadvantages under which the cucumber  
tree is placed1 it has managed to hold  
its ground in the forest during immense 
periods of time1 and it seems to be as  
firmly established now as ever4  ,the   
leaves of this tree are from seven to   
ten inches long1 and four to six wide4  
,in autumn before they fall they turn a 
blotched yellow-brown color4 ,the first 
severe frost brings them all down in a  
heap4 ,at sunset the tree may be laden  
with leaves1 and by the next noon all   

will be on the ground4 ,they are so     
heavy that the wind does not move them  
far1 and they drop in heaps beneath the 
branches4 ,in color they resemble owl   
feathers1 and the suggestion that comes 
to one's mind1 who happens to pass under
 a cucumber tree the morning following  
the first frost1 is that during the     
night some prowler picked a roost of    
owls and scattered the feathers on the  
ground4  ,the range of cucumber extends 
from western ,new ,york to ,alabama1    
following the ,appalachian mountains2   
and westward to ,illinois and           
,mississippi1 appearing west of the     
,mississippi river in ,arkansas4 ,it    
occurs on low rocky slopes1 the banks of
 mountain streams1 and on rich bottom   
land4 ,it is of largest size and is most
 abundant in the narrow valleys in      
eastern ,tennessee and the western parts
 of the ,carolinas4 ,the tree is from   
two to four feet in diameter1 and sixty 
to ninety feet high4 ,the trunk is of   
good form for sawlogs4 ,among its local 

names are pointed-leaf magnolia1 black  
lin1 magnolia1 and mountain magnolia4   
,the wood of cucumber resembles that of 
yellow poplar in appearance and in      
physical properties1 except that it is  
ten per cent heavier than poplar4 ,it   
usually passes for that wood at sawmill 
and factory4 ,the ,federal census       
credits it with less than a million feet
 a year as lumber4 ,that is much too    
small4 ,it is valuable and finds ready  
sale4 ,manufacturers of wooden pumps    
regard it as the best material for the  
bored logs4 ,it is worked into interior 
finish for houses1 flooring for cars1   
interior parts of furniture1 woodenware1
 boxes and crates1 slack cooperage1     
including veneer barrels4  ,the tree is 
planted for ornament in the northern    
states and ,europe4 ,the chief value    
lies in its large1 green leaves and     
symmetrical crown4 ,the red fruit adds  
to the tree's attractiveness late in    
summer4      ,,largeleaf ,,umbrella     
7,magnolia macrophylla7 is valuable     

chiefly as a     sort of ornamental     
curiosity1 on account of its enormous   
leaves and     flowers4 ,the leaf is    
from twenty to thirty inches long and   
ten to     twelve wide4 ,it drops in    
autumn before its green color has       
undergone     much change4 ,the leaves  
lack toughness1 and the wind whips them 
into     strings long before the summer 
is ended4 ,thus what otherwise would    
be highly ornamental becomes somewhat   
unsightly4 ,when well protected     from
 wind by surrounding objects1 the leaves
 fare better and last     longer4 ,the  
white1 fragrant flowers are likewise    
remarkable on     account of size4 ,they
 are cup-shaped and some of them are    
almost a     foot across4 ,they pay a   
penalty no less severe than the leaves  
pay1     on account of large size1 and  
are liable to be thumped and bruised    
by swinging leaves and branches4        
,the largeleaf umbrella is a tree of the
 southern ,appalachian     mountains    
although its range extends southwest to 

,louisiana1 and     northward from there
 to ,arkansas4 ,it is at its best in    
deep rich     soil of sheltered valleys1
 occurring in isolated groups1 but never
     in pure forests4 ,it is known as   
large-leaved cucumber tree1             
great-leaved magnolia1 large-leaved     
umbrella tree1 and long-leaved          
magnolia4 ,the fruit is nearly a sphere1
 from two to three inches in            
diameter1 and bright rose color when    
fully ripe4 ,the seeds are              
two-thirds of an inch long4 ,the smooth1
 light gray bark is usually     less    
than a quarter of an inch thick4 ,large 
trees are forty or fifty     feet high  
and twenty inches in diameter4 ,it is   
not considered     valuable for lumber1 
because of scarcity and small size4 ,the
 wood is     considerably heavier than  
yellow poplar1 and is hard but not      
strong2     light brown in color with   
thick1 light yellow sapwood4 ,reports do
     not show that the wood is put to   
any use4 ,planted trees are hardy as    

far north as ,massachusetts1 and success
 has attended the tree's                
introduction in the parks and gardens of
 southern ,europe4      ,,yellow        
,,flowered ,,cucumber ,,tree 7,magnolia 
acuminata cordata7 is     usually       
considered a variety of the common      
cucumber tree1 rather     than a        
separate species4 ,the most noticeable  
feature is the yellow     blossom which 
gives the names by which it is generally
 known1 among     such being            
yellow-flowered magnolia1 and yellow    
cucumber tree4 ,it is     not a garden  
variety1 for it grows wild2 but it has  
been cultivated     during more than a  
century1 and has undergone changes which
 are not     matched by wild trees4 ,the
 finest forms of the forest variety are 
found on the ,blue ,ridge in ,south     
,carolina1 and in central ,alabama4     
,the cultivated tree is distinguished by
 its darker green leaves1 and     by its
 smaller1 bright1 canary-yellow flowers4
 ,the variety has no     value as a     

timber tree1 but is widely appreciated  
as an ornament4     ,cultivated trees   
generally remain small in size1 and do  
not develop     the long1 clean trunks  
common with the cucumber tree under     
forest     conditions4      ,,umbrella  
,,tree 7,magnolia tripetala7 is one of  
the magnolias and     should not be     
confounded with the ,asiatic umbrella   
tree often     planted in yards4 ,the   
flower is surrounded by a whorl of      
leaves     resembling an umbrella1 hence
 the name4 ,it is also known as         
cucumber1 magnolia1 and elkwood4 ,the   
range of the tree extends from          
,pennsylvania to ,alabama and west to   
,arkansas4 ,it prefers the margins      
of swamps and the rich soil along       
mountain streams4 ,leaves are           
eighteen inches long and half as wide4  
,they fall in autumn4 ,flowers     are  
cup-shaped and creamy-white4 ,the fruit 
somewhat resembles that     of the      
common cucumber tree1 but is rose       
colored when fully ripe4     ,trees are 

thirty or forty feet high and a foot or 
more in diameter4     ,the brown        
heartwood is light1 soft1 and weak1 and 
is used little or     not at all for    
commercial purposes4 ,the tree is       
cultivated for     ornament in the      
northern states and in ,europe4         
,illustration     ,,yellow ,,poplar     
,illustration3 ,,yellow ,,poplar        
,,yellow ,,poplar  7,liriodendron       
,tulipifera7   ,in diameter of trunk the
 yellow poplar is1 next to sycamore1 the
 largest hardwood tree of the ,united   
,states1 and if both height and trunk   
diameter are considered1 it surpasses   
the sycamore in size4 ,it belongs to a  
very old group of hardwoods which have  
come down from remote geological ages1  
and the species is now found only in the
 ,united ,states and ,china4 ,mature    
trees are from three to eight feet in   
diameter and from #ij to #ahj in height4
  ,it has many names in different parts 
of its range1 but it is never mistaken  
for any other tree4 ,the peculiar       

notched leaf is a sure means of         
identification4 ,the resemblance of the 
flower to the tulip has given it the    
name tulip tree in some localities1 and 
botanists prefer that name4 ,it is so   
called in ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1     
,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new      
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1         
,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 ,west         
,virginia1 ,district of ,columbia1      
,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1     
,georgia1 ,arkansas1 ,kentucky1 ,ohio1  
,indiana1 ,illinois1 and ,ontario4 ,wood
 users in ,new ,england and in some of  
the other northern states prefer the    
name whitewood and it is so known1 in   
part at least1 in ,new ,england1 ,new   
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1 ,south  
,carolina1 ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 
and ,illinois4 ,yellow poplar is the    
name preferred by lumbermen in nearly   
all regions where the tree is found in  
commercial quantities1 notably in ,new  
,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1     
,delaware1 ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1  

,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,alabama1  
,arkansas1 ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1  
,illinois1 ,missouri1 and ,tennessee4   
,the name is often shortened to poplar1 
which is used in ,rhode ,island1        
,delaware1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 
,florida1 ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1   
,ohio1 and ,indiana4 ,the name tulip    
poplar is less frequently heard1 and    
blue poplar and hickory poplar are terms
 used in ,west ,virginia1 ,virginia1 and
 ,north ,carolina1 but generally under  
the impression that they refer to a     
different form or species4 ,in ,rhode   
,island it is called popple1 in ,new    
,york cucumber tree1 and canoe wood in  
,tennessee and in the upper ,ohio       
valley4  ,the botanical range of yellow 
poplar is wider than its commercial     
range2 that is1 a few trees are found in
 regions surrounding the borders of the 
district where the tree is profitably   
lumbered4 ,the boundaries of its range  
run from southwestern ,vermont1 westward
 to ,lake ,michigan near ,grand ,haven1 

southward to northern ,florida1 and west
 of the ,mississippi river in ,missouri 
and ,arkansas4 ,the productive yellow   
poplar timber belt has never been that  
large but has clung pretty closely to   
the southern ,appalachian mountain      
ranges and to certain districts lying   
both east and west of them4 ,the best   
original stands were in ,pennsylvania1  
,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1  
western ,north ,carolina1 eastern       
,kentucky and ,tennessee1 and in some   
parts of ,ohio and ,indiana4 ,however1  
considerable quantities of good yellow  
poplar have been cut in other regions4  
,the physical properties of the wood of 
yellow poplar fit it for many purposes  
but not for all4 ,it is not very strong 
and is tolerably brittle4 ,it is light  
in weight1 medium soft1 and is easily   
worked4 ,the annual rings of growth are 
not prominent compared with some of the 
oaks1 yet select logs show nicely in    
quarter-sawing4 ,the medullary rays are 
numerous1 but small and not prominent1  

for which reason bright streaks and     
flecks are not characteristic of the    
wood4 ,yellow poplar is fairly stiff and
 elastic1 but is not often selected on  
account of those qualities4 ,in color it
 is light yellow or brown4 ,the color   
gives name to the tree4 ,the sapwood is 
whiter1 and it is the abnormally thick  
sapwood of some trees which causes them 
to be called white poplar4 ,the wood has
 little figure1 and it is seldom        
employed for fine work without stain or 
paint of some kind4 ,it is not usually  
classed as long lasting when exposed to 
the weather1 yet cases are known where  
weather boarding of houses1 and bridge  
and mill timbers of yellow poplar have  
outlasted the generation of builders4   
,the quantity of yellow poplar in the   
country is but a remnant of the former  
enormous supply that covered the rich   
valleys and fertile coves in a region   
exceeding #bjj1jjj square miles4 ,it    
occupied the best land1 and much was    
destroyed by farmers in clearing fields4

 ,it was not generally found in groves  
or dense stands1 but as solitary trees  
scattered through forests of other      
woods4 ,the trunks are tall and shapely1
 the crowns comparatively small4 ,the   
form is ideal for sawlogs1 and very few 
trees of ,america produce a higher      
percentage of clear1 first class lumber4
 ,that is because the forest-grown      
poplar early sheds its lower branches1  
and the trunks lay on nothing but clear 
wood4 ,in the yellow poplar's region it 
was the principal wood of which the     
pioneers made their canoes for crossing 
and navigating rivers4 ,it is still best
 known by the name canoewood in some    
regions4 ,it worked easily and was      
light1 and a thin-shelled canoe lasted  
many years1 barring floods and other    
accidents4 ,builders of pirogues1       
keelboats1 barges1 and other vessels for
 inland navigation in early times when  
roads were few and streams were the     
principal highways of commerce1 found no
 timber superior to yellow poplar4 ,it  

could be had in planks of great size and
 free from defects1 and while not as    
strong as oak1 it was strong enough to  
withstand the usual knocks and          
buffetings of river traffic4  ,yellow   
poplar sawlogs have probably exceeded in
 number any other wood1 except white    
pine1 floated down rivers and creeks to 
market4 ,the wood floats well and       
lumbermen have usually pushed far up the
 rivers1 ahead of other lumber          
operations1 to procure it4 ,enormous    
drives have gone and are still going out
 of rivers in the ,appalachian region4  
,the uses of yellow poplar are so many  
that an enumeration is impracticable1   
except by general classes4 ,these are   
boxes and woodenware1 vehicles1         
furniture1 interior finish1 and car     
building4 ,there is another class       
consisting of low-grade work1 such as   
common lumber1 pulpwood1 and the like4  
,there is a class of commodities which  
are usually packed in boxes and require 
a wood that will impart neither taste   

nor stain4 ,that requirement is met by  
yellow poplar4 ,it has been an important
 wood for boxes in which food products  
are shipped4 ,it is so used less        
frequently now than formerly because of 
increased cost1 but veneer is employed  
to a large extent1 and while the total  
quantity of wood going into box         
factories is smaller than formerly1 the 
actual number and contents of poplar    
boxes are perhaps about the same4 ,it is
 a white wood and shows printing and    
stenciling clearly4 ,that is an         
important point with many manufacturers 
who wish to print their advertisements  
on the boxes which they send out4       
,woodenware1 particularly ironing       
boards1 bread boards1 and pantry and    
kitchen utensils1 are largely made of   
poplar because it is light1 attractive1 
and easily kept clean4 ,it is popular as
 pumplogs for the same reason4  ,as a   
vehicle wood1 yellow poplar is not a    
competitor of oak and hickory4 ,they are
 for running gear and frames2 poplar for

 tops and bodies4 ,no wood excels it for
 wide panels4 ,it receives finish and   
paint so well that it is not surpassed  
by the smoothest metals4 ,many of the   
finest carriage and automobile tops are 
largely of this wood4 ,in case of slight
 accidents it resists dints much better 
than sheet metal4  ,cheap furniture was 
once made of yellow poplar4 ,it now     
enters into the best kinds1 and is      
finished in imitation of costly woods1  
notably mahogany1 birch1 and cherry4 ,no
 ,american wood will take a higher      
polish4 ,it is also much employed as an 
interior wood by furniture              
manufacturers4 ,it fills an important   
place as cores or backing over which    
veneers are glued4  ,when used as an    
interior house finish and in car        
building1 it is nearly always stained or
 painted4 ,many of the broad handsome   
panels in passenger cars1 which pass for
 cherry1 birch1 mahogany1 or rosewood1  
are yellow poplar1 to which the finisher
 and decorator have given their best    

touches4  ,all poplar lumber is not     
wide1 clear stock1 though much of it is4
 ,the lower grades go as common lumber  
and small trees are cut for pulpwood4 ,a
 large part of the demand for high-grade
 yellow poplar is in foreign countries1 
and a regular oversea trade is carried  
on by exporters4 ,foreign manufacturers 
put the wood to practically the same    
uses as the best grades in this country4
  ,yellow poplar seasons well1 and is a 
satisfactory wood to handle4 ,when      
thoroughly dry it holds its shape with  
the best of woods4 ,bluing is apt to    
affect the green wood if unduly exposed4
 ,fresh poplar chips in damp situations 
sometimes change to a conspicuous blue  
color within a day or two4 ,however1    
millmen do not experience much          
difficulty in preventing the bluing of  
the lumber4  ,,gyminda 7,gyminda        
grisebachii7 is also called false       
boxwood1 and belongs to the staff       
family4 ,the name gyminda is artificial 
and meaningless4 ,the genus has a single

 species which occurs in the islands of 
southern ,florida where trees of largest
 size are scarcely twenty-five feet high
 and six inches in diameter4 ,the wood  
is very heavy1 hard1 fine-grained1 and  
is nearly black4 ,it is suitable for    
small articles1 but it is not known to  
be so used1 and its scarcity renders    
improbable any important future use of  
the wood4 ,the fruit is a small berry1  
ripening in ,november4 ,the range of the
 species extends to ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1
 and other islands of the ,west ,indies4
  ,illustration     ,,evergreen         
,,magnolia  ,illustration3 ,,evergreen  
,,magnolia     ,,evergreen ,,magnolia   
7,magnolia ,ftida7   ,this is not a     
timber tree of first importance4 ,a few 
years ago it was seldom cut except in   
very small quantities2 but it was found 
to possess good qualities1 and now it   
goes regularly to the mills which saw   
hardwoods in the region where it grows4 
,the wood of different magnolia trees1  
or even the wood of the same tree1 shows

 lack of uniformity4 ,some of it looks  
like yellow poplar and compares         
favorably with it in several            
particulars1 while other of it is very  
dark1 with hard flinty streaks which not
 only present a poor appearance1 but    
dull the tools of the woodworking       
machines and create an unfavorable      
impression of the wood generally4 ,this 
magnolia holds pretty closely to the    
damp lands in all parts of its range4   
,the amount of the annual cut is not    
known1 because it goes in with the minor
 species in most places and no separate 
account is taken4 ,it is coming into    
more notice every year1 and some        
manufacturers have been so successful in
 finding ways to make it serviceable    
that the best grades are easily sold4   
,the wood does not hold its color very  
well4 ,the light-colored sapwood is apt 
to become darker after exposure to the  
air1 and the dark heartwood fades a     
little4 ,the tree is so handsome in the 
forest that it is occasionally spared   

when the surrounding trees are removed4 
,it is doubtful if any ,american tree   
surpasses it as an ornament when its    
leaves1 trunk1 flowers1 and bark are    
considered4 ,it is not perfect in all of
 these particulars2 in fact1 it         
possesses some serious faults4 ,the     
crown is often too small for the tree's 
height2 the branches straggle1 many on  
some parts of the trunk and few on      
others2 the flowers are objectionable   
because of strong odor which is         
unpleasant to most people4 ,but these   
shortcomings are more than compensated  
for by splendid qualities4 ,the rich1   
dark green of the leaves1 their size and
 profusion1 their changeless luster1    
place them in a position almost beyond  
the reach of rivalry from any other     
tree4  ,those who see this splendid     
inhabitant of the forest only where it  
has been planted in northern states1 and
 elsewhere outside of its natural range1
 miss much of the best it has to give4  
,it belongs in the ,south4 ,the wet     

lands1 the small elevations in deep     
swamps1 the flat country where forests  
are dense1 are its home4 ,the           
yellowish-green trunk rises through the 
tangled foliage that keeps near the     
ground1 and towers fifty feet above1 and
 there spreads in a crown of green so   
deep that it is almost black4 ,it likes 
company1 and seldom grows solitary4 ,its
 associates are the southern maples1 red
 gum1 tupelo1 cypress1 a dozen species  
of oak1 and occasionally pines on nearby
 higher ground4 ,festoons of            
grayish-green ,spanish moss often add to
 the tropical character of the scene4   
,the moss seldom hangs on the magnolia1 
but is frequently abundant on           
surrounding trees4  ,lumbermen formerly 
left the evergreen magnolia trees on    
tracts from which they cut nearly       
everything else4 ,large areas which had 
once been regarded as swamps were thus  
converted into parks of giant magnolias1
 many of which towered seventy or eighty
 feet4 ,the tracts were left wild1 and  

those who so left them had no purpose of
 providing ornament1 but they did so4   
,many a scene was made grand by its     
magnolias1 after other forest growth had
 been cut away4  ,the range of evergreen
 magnolia is from ,north ,carolina to   
,florida and west to ,arkansas and      
,texas4 ,the species reaches largest    
size in the vicinity of the             
,mississippi1 both east and west of it4 
,trees eighty feet high and four feet in
 diameter occur1 and trunks are often   
without limbs one-half or two-thirds    
their length1 when they grow in forests4
  ,the common name for the tree in most 
parts of its range is simply magnolia1  
though that name fails to distinguish it
 from several other species1 some of    
which are associated with it4           
,occasionally it is called big laurel1  
great laurel magnolia1 laurel-leaved    
magnolia1 laurel1 and laurel bay4 ,bull 
bay is a common name for it in ,georgia1
 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi4 ,it is     
called bat tree1 but the reason for such

 a name is not known4  ,leaves are from 
five to eight inches long and two or    
three wide1 and dark green above1 but   
lighter below4 ,they fall in the spring 
after remaining on the branches two     
whole years4  ,the odor of the flowers  
is unpleasant1 but they are attractive  
to the sight1 being six or eight inches 
across1 with purple bases4 ,the         
flowering habit of this tree is all that
 could be desired4 ,it is in bloom from 
,april till ,august4  ,the fruit        
resembles that of the other magnolias   
and is three or four inches long and two
 or less wide4 ,its color is            
rusty-brown4 ,the ripe seeds hang awhile
 by short threads1 according to the     
habit of the family4 ,the wood is       
stronger than poplar1 fully as stiff1   
and nearly fifty per cent heavier4 ,the 
annual rings are rather vaguely marked  
by narrow bands of summerwood4 ,pores   
are diffuse1 plentiful1 and very small4 
,medullary rays are larger than those of
 yellow poplar1 and show fairly well in 

quarter-sawed stock4 ,the wood is       
compact and easily worked1 except when  
hard streaks are encountered4 ,the      
surface finishes with a satiny luster2  
color creamy-white1 yellowish-white1 or 
often light brown4 ,occasionally the    
wood is nearly diametrically the        
opposite of this1 and is of all darker  
shades up to purple1 black1 and blue    
black4 ,the appearance of the dark wood 
suggests decay1 but those who pass it   
through machines1 or work it by hand1   
consider it as sound as the lighter     
colored wood4  ,the uses of magnolia are
 much the same in all parts of its      
range1 and those of ,louisiana1 where   
the utilization of the wood has been    
studied more closely than in other      
regions1 indicate the scope of its      
usefulness4 ,it is there made into parts
 of boats1 bar fixtures1 boxes1 broom   
handles1 brush backs1 crates1 door      
panels1 dugout canoes1 excelsior1       
furniture shelving1 interior finish1 ox 
yokes1 panels1 and wagon boxes4 ,in     

,texas where the annual consumption     
probably exceeds a million feet1 it is  
employed by furniture makers1 and       
appears in window blinds1 packing boxes1
 sash1 and molding4 ,in ,mississippi1   
fine mantels are made of carefully      
selected wood1 quarter-sawed to bring   
out the small1 square 8mirrors0 produced
 by radial cutting of the medullary     
rays4  ,evergreen magnolia has long been
 planted for ornament in this country   
and ,europe4 ,it survives the winters at
 ,philadelphia4 ,several varieties have 
been developed by cultivation and are   
sold by nurseries4  ,southern forests   
have contributed1 and still contribute1 
large quantities of magnolia leaves for 
decorations in northern cities during   
winter4 ,the flowers are not            
successfully shipped because they are   
easily bruised1 and they quickly lose   
their freshness and beauty4      ,,sweet
 ,,magnolia 7,magnolia glauca7 ranges   
from ,massachusetts to     ,texas and   
south to ,florida4 ,it reaches its      

largest size on the     hummock lands of
 the latter state4 ,trees are           
occasionally seventy     feet high and  
three or more in diameter1 but in many  
parts of its     range it is small1 even
 shrubby4 ,among the names by which it  
is     known are white bay1 swamp       
laurel1 swamp sassafras1 swamp magnolia1
     white laurel1 and beaver-tree4 ,it 
inhabits swamps in the northern     part
 of its range1 hence the frequency of   
the word 8swamp0 in     coining names   
for it4 ,beaver-tree as a name is       
probably due to its     former abundance
 about beaver dams1 where impounded     
water made the     ground swampy4 ,in   
the ,north1 sweet magnolia's chief value
 is in its     flowers1 which are two or
 three inches across1 creamy-white1 and 
fragrant4 ,they were formerly very      
abundant near the mouth of the          
,susquehanna river in ,maryland and     
,pennsylvania1 and northward     through
 ,new ,jersey2 but the traffic in the   
flowers has destroyed the     growth in 

many places where once plentiful4 ,it is
 not important as a     timber resource1
 but it is employed for a number of     
useful purposes     where logs of fair  
size may be had4 ,the sapwood is        
creamy-white1 but     the heart is      
nearly as dark as mahogany1 and in      
,texas it is used to     imitate that   
wood4 ,the brown and other shades       
combine with fine     effect4 ,one of   
its common uses is for broom handles4   
,heartwood is     worked into high-grade
 chairs4 ,it takes a beautiful polish4  
,,fraser ,,umbrella 7,magnolia fraseri7 
ranges south from the ,virginia         
mountains to ,florida and west to       
,mississippi4 ,it is of largest size    
in ,south ,carolina where trees are     
sometimes thirty feet high and a        
foot or more in diameter4 ,the leaves   
fall in autumn of the first     year2   
the creamy-white1 sweetly-scented       
flowers are eight or ten     inches in  
diameter1 and the fruit resembles that  
of the other     magnolias4 ,the wood is

 weak1 soft1 and light4 ,the heart is   
clear     brown1 the sapwood nearly     
white4 ,it has not been reported in use 
for     any commercial purpose4 ,among  
its other names it is known as          
long-leaved cucumber tree1 ear-leaved   
umbrella tree1 ,indian bitters1         
water lily tree1 and mountain magnolia4 
,in cultivation this species     is     
hardy as far north as ,massachusetts1   
and it is planted for     ornament in   
,europe4      ,,pyramid ,,magnolia      
7,magnolia pyramidata7 seems to have    
generally     escaped the notice of     
laymen1 and it therefore has no ,english
 name     except the translation of the 
,latin term by which botanists know it4 
,its habitat lies in southern ,georgia  
and ,alabama1 and western     ,florida1 
and it is occasionally seen in          
cultivation in western     ,europe4 ,it 
is a slender tree1 twenty feet or more  
in height4 ,its     flowers are three or
 four inches in diameter1 and           
creamy-white in     color4 ,a tree so   

scarce cannot be expected to be         
commercially     important4             
,,western ,,black ,,willow 7,salix      
lasiandra7 is a rather large tree when  
at its best1 reaching a diameter of two 
feet or more1 and a height     of fifty1
 but in other parts of its range it     
rarely exceeds ten feet     in height4  
,it follows the western mountain ranges 
southward from     ,british ,columbia   
into ,california4 ,the wood is soft1    
light1 and     brittle1 and is used     
little if at all4 ,lyall willow 7,salix 
lasiandra lyalli7 is a well marked      
variety of this species and is a        
tree of respectable size4               
,,glossyleaf ,,willow 7,salix lucida7 is
 a far northern species which     has   
its southern limit in ,pennsylvania and 
,nebraska4 ,it grows nearly     to the  
,arctic circle4 ,trees twenty-five feet 
high and six or eight     inches in     
diameter are the best this species      
affords4      ,,longleaf ,,willow       
7,salix fluviatilis7 is known also as   

sandbar     willow1 narrowleaf willow1  
shrub1 white1 red1 and osier willow1 and
     by still other names4 ,it ranges   
from the ,arctic circle to ,mexico1     
reaching ,maryland on the ,atlantic     
coast1 and ,california on the           
,pacific4 ,in rare cases it is sixty    
feet high1 and two in diameter1     but 
it is usually less than twenty feet     
high4  ,illustration     ,,wahoo        
,illustration3 ,,wahoo     ,,wahoo      
7,evonymus ,atropurpureus7   ,no one    
seems to know what the original meaning 
of the word wahoo was4 ,it is applied to
 no fewer than six different trees in   
this country1 four of them elms1 one a  
basswood1 and one the tree now under    
consideration4 ,the generic name1       
,evonymus1 appears to be an effort to   
put somebody's seal of approval on the  
name1 for it means in the ,greek        
language 8of good name40  ,it belongs to
 the family ,celastrace1 which means the
 staff family4 ,some designate members  
of this group as 8,spindle trees10      

because formerly in ,europe the wood was
 employed for knitting needles1 hooks   
for embroidering1 spindles for spinning 
wheels1 and the like4 ,unless the       
members of the family in ,europe have   
wood quite different from that of the   
wahoo tree in this country1 no adequate 
reason can be found for the use of the  
wood for spindles or staffs1 because it 
is poor material for that purpose4 ,it  
may be compared with basswood4  ,this   
beautiful little tree1 scarcely more    
than a shrub in most regions of its     
growth1 is a widely distributed species1
 its range extending through western    
,new ,york to ,nebraska1 southeastern   
,south ,dakota and eastern ,kansas1 and 
in the valley of the upper ,missouri    
river1 ,montana1 southward to northern  
,florida1 southern ,arkansas and        
,oklahoma4 ,in these localities it is   
generally a shrub1 rarely reaching a    
height of more than nine or ten feet4   
,it attains the proportions of a tree   
only in the bottom lands of southern    

,arkansas1 ,oklahoma1 and in the lower  
,appalachian regions4 ,the most         
favorable habitat of the tree is moist  
soil along the banks of streams4 ,in the
 southern and western parts of its      
range1 under favorable conditions of    
soil and climate1 and when isolated from
 other species1 the wahoo tree grows to 
rather large size and develops a wide   
flat top of slender spreading branches4 
,the largest and most beautiful         
specimens of wahoo grow in the          
mountainous regions of ,west ,virginia1 
eastern ,tennessee1 and western ,north  
,carolina4 ,in these sections it is no  
unusual thing for a tree of this species
 to attain a height of sixty or seventy 
feet and a diameter of twenty or        
twenty-four inches4 ,it is never found  
in pure stands but is isolated along the
 edge of the forest1 and thrives best   
near water courses4  ,the tree is known 
by a variety of names in the different  
parts of the country4 ,the ,indians are 
said to have called it wahoo4 ,burning  

bush1 a very popular name1 is especially
 appropriate1 as no brighter dash of    
color is displayed by any tree than the 
scarlet fruit of this growth1 which     
remains on the branches long after the  
leaves have fallen1 often until the     
winter storms beat it to the ground4    
,the growth is also called occasionally 
by the name bleeding-heart tree1 in     
reference to the blood-red contents     
revealed by the bursting fruit4  ,the   
wahoo in the fall of the year may be    
identified by the flaming color of its  
fruit1 or rather the seeds of the fruit4
 ,the hull bursts and exposes the bright
 red seeds within4 ,these1 contrary to  
the usual run of red fruits1 are not of 
a glossy surface1 and in this the tree  
is unique4 ,during the summer season1   
however1 identification is not such a   
simple matter1 for the foliage is quite 
ordinary1 and the flat1 unassuming      
flowers have little that is distinctive 
about them2 but as the autumn approaches
 and the leaves turn a pale yellow      

color1 the tree becomes a conspicuous   
and beautiful object with its scarlet   
berries4  ,the bark of the wahoo is     
ashen gray1 thin1 furrowed1 and divided 
into minute scales4 ,on the branchlets  
it is a dark purplish-brown1 later      
becoming brownish-gray4  ,the heartwood 
of wahoo is white1 with a slight tinge  
of orange4 ,the sapwood1 scarcely       
distinguishable from the heartwood1 is  
more nearly white in tone4 ,the wood is 
heavy and close-grained but not very    
hard4 ,it weighs when seasoned a little 
less than forty pounds to the cubic     
foot4 ,such of this wood as is sawed    
into lumber1 which is but a small       
quantity1 sells commercially with poplar
 saps1 thus masquerading like its forest
 fellow1 the cucumber tree4 ,the        
character of the wood is such that it   
will not stand exposure to the weather  
any length of time4 ,it is far from     
durable1 but is remarkably clear from   
defects and answers admirably many      
purposes for which sap poplar is        

desirable4  ,the leaves of the tree are 
waxy in appearance1 opposite1 entire1   
elliptical or ovate in shape1 from two  
to four inches long1 one to two broad4  
,they are finely serrate and pointed at 
both apex and base1 and the stems are   
short and stout4  ,the flowers1 which   
appear in ,may and ,june1 are definitely
 four-parted1 presenting a ,maltese     
cross in shape4 ,they are half an inch  
across1 and their rounded petals are    
deep purple in color4 ,the fruit which  
succeeds these flowers and which ripens 
in ,october is also four-parted4 ,it is 
about half an inch across1 a pale purple
 when full size1 and hangs on long      
slender stems4 ,when ripe the purple    
husk bursts and reveals the seed        
enveloped in a scarlet outer coat that  
fits it loosely4 ,the leaves1 bark1 and 
fruit of the wahoo are acrid and are    
reputed to be poisonous4  ,the wood is  
one-third heavier than that of yellow   
poplar1 and it is evident that it would 
not pass as poplar with any one disposed

 to reject it4 ,it is also much harder  
than poplar1 and is more difficult to   
season1 as it checks badly4 ,the        
medullary rays are so thin as to be     
scarcely discernible4 ,the wood contains
 many very small pores4 ,the bark is    
said to possess some value for medicinal
 purposes4 ,no special uses for the wood
 have been reported1 and it is too      
scarce to be of much value4 ,the tree's 
principal importance is as an ornament1 
and it shows well in winter borders     
where the bright colors of the seeds are
 exposed4 ,it is planted both in this   
country and in ,europe4 ,the plantings  
seldom or never reach tree size4        
,,florida ,,boxwood 7,schfferia         
frutescens7 is of the same family as    
wahoo but of another genus1 and is quite
 a different kind of tree4 ,the generic 
name is in honor of ,jakob ,christian   
,schaeffer1 a distinguished ,german     
naturalist who died in #agij4 ,two      
species of this tree occur in the       
,united ,states1 one the ,florida       

boxwood1 the other a small1 shrubby     
growth in the dry regions of western    
,texas and northern ,mexico4 ,florida   
boxwood is a ,west ,indies tree which   
flourishes in the ,bahamas and southward
 along the other islands to ,venezuela4 
,it has gained a foothold on the islands
 of southern ,florida where it has found
 conditions favorable and it grows to a 
height of thirty or forty feet1 and     
reaches a trunk diameter of ten inches1 
but such are trees of the largest size4 
,the leaves are bright yellow-green1    
about two inches long1 and one or less  
in width4 ,they appear in ,florida in   
,april and persist a full year1 until   
the foliage of the succeeding crop      
displaces them4 ,the flowers which are  
small and inconspicuous1 open about the 
same time as the leaves4 ,the fruit is a
 scarlet berry which ripens in          
,november1 and has a decidedly          
disagreeable flavor4 ,the bark is very  
thin4  ,when sound wood in sufficiently 
large pieces is obtainable it is        

valuable for a number of purposes1 but  
chiefly as a substitute for ,turkish    
boxwood as engraving blocks4 ,the trees 
are always small in ,florida1 which is  
the only place in the ,united ,states   
where they occur1 and the largest are   
often hollow or otherwise defective4    
,the wood weighs #dh4bg pounds per cubic
 foot1 thoroughly dry1 which is about   
two pounds heavier than white oak4 ,it  
is rich in ashes1 having about four     
times as much as white oak4 ,the color  
of the heartwood is a bright1 clear     
yellow to which is due the name         
yellow-wood occasionally applied to the 
tree in the region where it grows1 as   
well as in markets where it is sold4    
,this is not the tree known in commerce 
as ,west ,indies boxwood1 though it may 
be an occasional substitute4 ,it is said
 that ,florida boxwood was formerly much
 more abundant in this country than it  
is now4 ,it was lumbered for the        
,european market at about the same time 
that the south of ,florida was stripped 

of its mahogany4 ,it is suitable for    
many small articles where a hard1       
even-grained wood is wanted4  ,,ironwood
 7,cyrilla racemiflora7 ranges from the 
coast region of ,north ,carolina to     
,florida1 and west near the coast to    
,texas4 ,it is known as leatherwood1    
burnwood1 burnwood bark1 firewood1 red  
titi1 and white titi4 ,ten woods besides
 this are called ironwood in some parts 
of this country4 ,the name is applied   
because the hardness of the wood        
suggests iron4 ,it is not remarkable for
 its weight nor its strength4 ,the      
medullary rays are thin and             
inconspicuous4 ,in color it is brown1   
tinged with red4 ,it is not apparent why
 it is a favorite fire wood1 for its    
fuel value does not rate high           
theoretically1 being much below many    
species with which it is associated4    
,the largest trees rarely exceed a      
height of thirty feet and a diameter of 
twelve inches4 ,they flourish in shady  
river bottoms and along the borders of  

sandy swamps and shallow ponds4  ,the   
tree occasionally assumes the form of a 
bush and sends up many stems which      
produce almost impenetrable thickets4   
,aside from its use as fuel1 it is in   
small demand anywhere4 ,in ,texas it is 
sometimes made into wedges1 and similar 
uses for it are doubtless found in other
 regions where it is abundant4 ,it is   
named from ,domenico ,cirillo1 an       
,italian naturalist who died in #agii4  
,,titi 7,cliftonia monophylla7 is of the
 cyrilla family and is one of three     
species which occasionally pass under   
that name4 ,it sometimes reaches a      
height of fifty feet and a diameter of  
one or more4 ,its range follows the     
coast region from ,south ,carolina to   
,louisiana4 ,it betakes itself to swamps
 and flourishes in situations that would
 be fatal to many species4 ,half under  
water during many months of the year it 
is placed at no disadvantage4 ,it grows 
equally well in shallow swamps which are
 rarely overflowed4 ,near the southern  

limits of its range in ,florida it is   
reduced to a shrub4 ,it is known as     
ironwood and buckwheat tree4 ,the last  
name is due to its seeds which are about
 the size of a buckwheat grain and      
otherwise resemble it4 ,the flowers     
appear in early spring on long racemes1 
and are very fragrant4 ,the wood weighs 
about thirty-nine pounds per cubic foot1
 is not strong1 but is moderately hard4 
,it is valuable as fuel and burns with a
 clear1 bright flame4  ,illustration    
,,mountain ,,laurel  ,illustration3     
,,mountain ,,laurel     ,,mountain      
,,laurel  7,kalmia ,latifolia7   ,this  
tree belongs to the heath family and not
 to the laurels1 as the name seems to   
imply4 ,the same is true of             
rhododendron4 ,the kalmia genus has five
 or six species in this country1 but    
only one of tree size1 and then only    
when at its best4 ,mountain laurel      
reaches its best development in ,north  
and ,south ,carolina in a few secluded  
valleys between the ,blue ,ridge and the

 western mountains of the ,appalachian  
ranges4 ,the largest specimens are forty
 or fifty feet high and a foot or a foot
 and a half in diameter4 ,trunks are    
contorted and unshapely1 and lumber is  
never sawed from them4  ,the tree has   
many names1 most of them1 however1 are  
applied to the species in its shrubby   
form4 ,a common name is simply laurel1  
but that does not distinguish it from   
the great laurel which is often         
associated with it4 ,calico bush is one 
of its names1 and is supposed to be     
descriptive of the flowers4 ,spoonwood  
is one of its northern names1 dating    
back to the times when early settlers1  
who carried little silverware with them 
to their frontier homes1 augmented the  
supply by making spoons and ladles of   
laurel roots4 ,ivy is a common name1    
sometimes mountain ivy1 or poison ivy4  
,poison laurel and sheep laurel are     
among the names also4 ,the leaves are   
poisonous1 and if sheep feed on them1   
death is apt to follow4 ,the exact      

nature of the poison is not understood4 
,sheep seldom feed on the leaves1 and do
 so only when driven by hunger4 ,other  
names are small laurel1 wood laurel1 and
 kalmia4 ,the last is the name of the   
genus1 and is in honor of ,peter ,kalm1 
a ,swedish naturalist4  ,the species is 
found from ,new ,brunswick to           
,louisiana1 but principally among the   
ranges of the ,appalachian mountains4   
,its thin bark makes it an easy prey to 
fire and the top is killed by a moderate
 blaze4 ,the root generally remains     
uninjured and sends up sprouts in large 
numbers4 ,thickets almost impenetrable  
are sometimes produced in that way4     
,flowers and foliage of mountain laurel 
are highly esteemed as decorations1     
foliage in winter1 and the flowers in   
,may and ,june4 ,the bloom appears in   
large clusters1 and various colors are  
in evidence1 white1 rose1 pink1 and     
numerous combinations4 ,the seeds are   
ripe in ,september1 and the pods which  
bear them burst soon after4  ,the wood  

of mountain laurel weighs #dd4fb pounds 
per cubic foot4 ,it is hard1 strong1    
rather brittle1 of slow growth1 brown in
 color1 tinged with red1 with lighter   
colored sapwood4 ,this description      
applies to the wood of the trunk2 but in
 nearly all cases where mention is made 
of the wood of this tree1 it refers to  
the roots4 ,these consist of            
enlargements or stools1 often protruding
 considerably above the ground4 ,if the 
area has been visited repeatedly by     
fire1 the roots are generally out of    
proportion to the size of the tops4 ,in 
that respect they resemble mesquite1    
except that the enlarged root of        
mesquite penetrates far beneath the     
surface while that of mountain laurel   
remains just below the surface or rises 
partly above it4  ,the utilization of   
mountain laurel is not confined to the  
trunks which reach tree size4 ,generally
 it is the root that is wanted4 ,roots  
are usually sold by weight1 because of  
the difficulty of measuring them as     

lumber or even by the cord4 ,the annual 
product of this material in ,north      
,carolina alone amounts to about #he1jjj
 pounds1 all of which goes to           
manufacturers of tobacco pipes and cigar
 holders4 ,the use of the laurel root   
for pipes is as old as its use for      
spoons4 ,pioneers who raised and cured  
their own tobacco smoked it in pipes    
which were their own handiwork4 ,the    
laurel root was selected then as now    
because it carves easily1 is not        
inclined to split1 does not burn        
readily1 and darkens in color with age4 
,it is cheap material1 is found         
throughout an extensive region1 and the 
supply is so large that exhaustion in   
the near future is not anticipated4     
,the wood is employed in the manufacture
 of many small articles other than      
tobacco pipes4 ,paper knives1 small     
rulers1 turned boxes for pins and       
buttons1 trays1 plaques1 penholders1    
handles for buckets1 dippers1 and       
firewood1 are among the uses for which  

laurel is found suitable4  ,it is of no 
small importance for ornamental         
purposes1 and is often seen growing in  
clumps and borders in public parks and  
private yards1 where its evergreen      
foliage and its bloom make it a valuable
 shrub4 ,it is planted in ,europe as    
well as in this country4  ,,great       
,,laurel 7,rhododendron maximum7 is also
 in the heath family4 ,more than two    
hundred species of rhododendron are     
known1 and seventeen are in this        
country1 but only one attains tree size4
 ,the generic name means 8rose tree10   
and the name is well selected4 ,the     
flowers are the most conspicuous feature
 belonging to this species1 and few wild
 trees or shrubs equal it for beauty4   
,it is not native much west of the      
,alleghany mountains1 but grows north   
and east to ,nova ,scotia4 ,it is at its
 best among the mountains1 thrives in   
deep ravines where the shade is dense1  
and on steep slopes and stony mountain  
tops4 ,it forms extensive thickets which

 are often so deep and tangled that it  
is difficult to pass through them4 ,this
 laurel is seldom found growing on      
limestone4 ,it reaches its largest size 
in the ,south4 ,trees thirty or forty   
feet high and a foot in diameter occur  
in favored localities4 ,it grows on the 
,alleghany mountains in ,west ,virginia 
at an elevation exceeding #d1jjj feet   
and there forms vast thickets4 ,some use
 is made of the wood for engraving      
blocks and as tool handles4 ,it is hard1
 strong1 brittle1 of slow growth1 and   
light clear brown4 ,it is frequently    
planted in parks in this country and    
,europe1 and three or more varieties are
 distinguished in cultivation4 ,this    
laurel's leaves have a peculiar habit of
 shrinking and rolling up when the      
thermometer falls to zero or near it4   
,among the names applied to it are great
 laurel1 rose bay1 dwarf rose bay tree1 
wild rose bay1 bigleaf laurel1 deer     
tongue1 laurel1 spoon hutch1 and        
rhododendron4  ,,catawba ,,rhododendron 

7,rhododendron catawbiense7 is a rare1  
large-flowered species of the mountain  
regions from ,west ,virginia southward  
to ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,the wood is  
not put to use1 and the species is      
chiefly valuable as an ornamental shrub4
 ,it seldom reaches large size4         
,,sourwood 7,oxydendrum arboreum7       
follows the ,alleghany mountain ranges  
south from ,pennsylvania1 and extends   
into ,florida1 reaching the ,atlantic   
coast in ,virginia1 and ,indiana1       
,tennessee1 and ,louisiana westward4    
,the best development of the species is 
found among the western slopes of the   
,big ,smoky mountains in ,tennessee4 ,it
 is called sorrel-tree1 sour gum1 and   
sour gum bush1 on account of the acidity
 of the leaves when chewed4 ,arrow-wood1
 another name1 refers to the long1      
straight stems between the whorls of    
branches of young trees--those three or 
four feet high4 ,the stems are of proper
 size for arrows1 and amateur bowmen use
 them4 ,those who designate the tree as 

lily-of-the-valley have in mind the     
flowers4 ,the shape suggests an opening 
lily1 but the size does not4 ,the flower
 is about one-third of an inch long1 but
 panicles several inches long are       
covered with them4 ,they open in ,july  
and ,august1 and in ,september the fruit
 is ripe4 ,the seed is pale brown and   
one-eighth of an inch long4  ,the       
sourwood tree at its best is fifty or   
sixty feet high and from twelve to      
eighteen inches in diameter4 ,the bark  
of young trees is smooth1 but on mature 
trunks it resembles the exceedingly     
rough bark of an old black gum4 ,in     
fact1 many people suppose this tree to  
be black gum1 never having noticed the  
difference of leaf1 fruit1 and flower4  
,the genus consists of a single species4
 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1 compact1 and 
it takes good polish4 ,the medullary    
rays are numerous1 but thin1 and they   
contribute little or nothing to the     
figure of the wood4 ,the annual rings   
show little difference between          

springwood and summerwood1 and          
consequently produce poor figure when   
the lumber is sawed tangentially4 ,the  
pores are many and small and are        
regularly distributed through the yearly
 ring4 ,heartwood is brown1 tinged with 
red1 the sapwood lighter4 ,the strength 
and elasticity of sourwood are moderate4
 ,the wood is made into sled runners in 
some of the mountain districts where it 
occurs1 but no particular qualities fit 
it for that use4 ,it is occasionally    
employed for machinery bearings4 ,it has
 been reported for mallets and mauls1   
but since it is not very well suited for
 those articles1 the conclusion is that 
those who so report it have confused it 
with black gum which it resembles in the
 living tree1 but not much in the wood4 
,small handles are made of it1 and it   
gives good service1 provided great      
strength and stiffness are not required4
 ,sourwood is not abundant anywhere1 and
 seldom are more than a few trees found 
in a group4      ,,tree ,,huckleberry   

7,vaccinium arboreum7 is the only tree  
form of     twenty-five or thirty       
species of huckleberry in this country4 
,the     cranberry is one of the best   
known species4 ,the range of tree       
huckleberry extends from ,north         
,carolina to ,texas1 and it reaches its 
largest size in the latter state where  
trunks thirty feet high and     ten     
inches in diameter occur1 but not in    
great abundance4 ,the fruit     which   
this tree bears has some resemblance to 
the common     huckleberry1 but is      
inferior in flavor1 besides being dry   
and     granular4 ,it ripens in ,october
 and remains on the branches most of    
the winter4 ,the fruit is about a       
quarter of an inch in diameter1     dark
 and lustrous1 and is a conspicuous and 
tempting bait for     feathered         
inhabitants of swamp and forest4 ,the   
bark of the roots is     sometimes used 
for medicine1 and that from the trunk   
for tanning1     but it is too scarce to
 become important in the leather        

industry4     ,the tree is known in     
different parts of its range as         
farkleberry1     sparkleberry1 myrtle   
berry1 bluet1 and in ,north ,carolina it
 is known     as gooseberry4 ,the wood  
is hard1 heavy1 and very compact2 is    
liable     to warp1 twist1 and check in 
drying2 polishes with a fine1 satiny    
finish4 ,medullary rays are numerous1   
broad1 and conspicuous2 wood     light  
brown1 tinged with red4 ,small articles 
are turned from it4  ,illustration      
,,osage ,,orange  ,illustration3 ,,osage
 ,,orange     ,,osage ,,orange          
7,toxylon ,pomiferum7   ,osage orange   
belongs to the mulberry family4 ,there  
are fifty-four genera1 three of which   
are found in the ,united ,states1 the   
mulberries1 the ,osage orange1 and the  
figs4 ,osage orange is known by several 
names1 the principal one of which refers
 to the ,osage ,indians1 who formerly   
lived in the region where the tree      
grows4 ,it is called orange because the 
fruit1 which is from two to five inches 

in diameter1 looks like a green orange1 
but it is unfit for food4 ,in its range 
most people call it bodark or bodock1   
that being a corruption of the name by  
which the ,french designated it1 bois   
d'arc1 which means bow wood4 ,it was so 
called from the fact that ,indians made 
bows of it when they could get nothing  
better4 ,its value as material for bows 
seems to be traditional and greatly     
overestimated4 ,it is lower in          
elasticity than white oak and very much 
lower than hickory1 and1 theoretically1 
at least1 it is not well suited for     
bows4 ,the wood is known also as mock   
orange1 bow-wood1 ,osage apple tree1    
yellow-wood1 hedge1 and hedge tree4 ,the
 last name is given because many hedges 
have been made of it4  ,osage orange has
 been planted in perhaps every state of 
the ,union1 and grows successfully in   
most of them4 ,it is one of the most    
widely distributed of ,american forest  
trees1 but its distribution has been    
chiefly artificial4 ,it was found       

originally in a very restricted region1 
from which it was carried for hedge and 
ornamental planting far and wide4 ,its  
natural home1 to which it was confined  
when first discovered1 embraced little  
more than ten thousand square miles1 and
 probably half of that small area       
produced no trees of commercial size4   
,its northern limit was near ,atoka1    
,oklahoma1 its southern a little south  
of ,dallas1 ,texas2 a range north and   
south of approximately one hundred      
miles4 ,its broadest extent east and    
west was along ,red ,river1 through     
,cooke1 ,grayson1 ,fanning1 ,lamar1 and 
,red ,river counties1 ,texas1 about #abj
 miles4 ,some ,osage orange of          
commercial size grew outside the area   
thus delimited1 but no large amount4    
,much of that region1 particularly south
 of ,red ,river1 was prairie1 without   
timber of any kind2 but scattered here  
and there were belts1 strips1 thickets1 
and clumps of ,osage orange mixed with  
other species4 ,on the very best of its 

range1 and before disturbed by white    
men1 this wood seldom formed pure stands
 of as much as #ajj acres in one body1  
and since the country's settlement1 the 
stands have become smaller or have been 
entirely cleared to make farms4 ,all    
accounts agree that the ,osage orange   
reaches its highest development on the  
fertile lands along ,boggy and ,blue    
rivers in ,oklahoma1 though fine bodies 
of it once grew south of the ,red ,river
 in ,texas1 and much is still cut there 
though the choicest long ago            
disappeared4 ,few trees are less        
exacting in soil1 yet when it can make  
choice it chooses the best4 ,in its     
natural habitat it holds its place in   
the black1 fertile flats and valleys1   
and is seldom found on sandy soil4 ,it  
is not a swamp tree1 though it is       
uninjured by occasional floods4 ,the    
tracts where it grows are sometimes     
called 8bodark swamps10 though marshy in
 wet weather only4  ,the tree attains a 
height of fifty or sixty feet when at   

its best1 but specimens that tall are   
unusual4 ,trunks are occasionally two or
 three feet in diameter1 but that size  
is very rare4 ,at the present time      
probably ten trees under a foot in      
diameter are cut for every one over that
 size4  ,rough and unshapely as ,osage  
trees are1 they have been more closely  
utilized than most timbers4 ,fence posts
 are the largest item4 ,the board       
measure equivalent of the annual cut of 
posts has been placed at #ah1djj1jjj4   
,the posts are shipped to surrounding   
states1 in addition to fencing nearly   
#dj1jjj square miles of northern ,texas 
and southern ,oklahoma4 ,houseblocks    
constitute another important use4 ,these
 are short posts set under the corners  
of buildings in place of stone          
foundations4 ,the annual demand for this
 kind of material amounts to about      
#a1jjj1jjj board feet4 ,an equal amount 
goes into bridge piling4 ,the principal 
demand comes from highway commissioners4
 ,telephone poles take a considerable   

quantity1 and insulator pins more4  ,one
 of the most important uses of ,osage   
orange is found in the manufacture of   
wagon wheels1 though the total quantity 
so used is smaller than that demanded   
for fence posts4  ,about #aj1jjj or     
#ab1jjj wagons with ,osage orange       
felloes or rims are manufactured        
annually in the ,united ,states4 ,that  
use of the wood is not new4 ,it began in
 a small way soon after the settlement  
of the region4 ,at first the work was   
hand-done by local blacksmiths and      
wheelwrights4 ,they found the wood      
objectionable1 from the workman's       
standpoint1 on account of its extreme   
hardness and the difficulty of cutting  
it4 ,that objection is still urged      
against it though machines have taken   
the place of the hand tools of former   
times4 ,saws and bits are quickly       
dulled1 and the cost of grinding1       
repair1 and replacement increases the   
operator's expense much above ordinary  
mill outlay for such purposes4 ,on that 

account many prefer to work the wood    
green4 ,it is then softer1 and cuts more
 smoothly4 ,if seasoned before it is    
passed through the machines it is liable
 to 8pull40 ,that term is used to       
indicate a rough-breaking of the fibres 
by the impact of knives4 ,the readiness 
with which the wood splits calls for    
extraordinary care in boring it1 and    
many felloes are spoiled in finishing   
them to receive the tenoned ends of     
spokes4  ,a number of commodities are   
made of ,osage orange but in quantities 
so small that the total wood used does  
not constitute a serious drain upon the 
supply4 ,police clubs are occasionally  
made as a by-product of the rim mill4   
,some years ago at the ,texas state fair
 at ,dallas1 a piano was exhibited1 all 
visible wood being ,osage orange1       
handsomely polished4 ,the rich color of 
this wood distinguishes it from all     
other ,american species4 ,when oiled it 
retains the yellow color1 but unoiled   
wood fades on long exposure4 ,clock     

cases of ,osage have been manufactured  
locally1 and gun stocks made of it are  
much admired1 though the wood's weight  
is an argument against it for gun       
stocks4 ,canes split from               
straight-grained blocks1 and shaved and 
polished by hand1 are occasionally met  
with1 but none manufactured by machinery
 have been reported4 ,sawmills in the   
,osage orange region use the wood as    
rollers for carriages and off-bearing   
tables4 ,rustic rockers and benches of  
the wood1 with the bark or without it1  
figure to a small extent in local trade4
 ,it has been tried experimentally for  
parquetry floors1 with satisfactory     
results4 ,sections of streets have been 
paved with ,osage orange blocks4 ,the   
wood wears well and is nearly proof     
against decay1 but no considerable      
demand for such blocks appears ever to  
have existed4 ,railroads which were     
built through the region years ago cut  
,osage for ties and culvert timber1 but 
no such use is now reported4 ,the demand

 for the wood for tobacco pipes is      
increasing1 more than #ajj1jjj blocks   
for such pipes having been sold during a
 single year4  ,osage orange weighs     
#dh4ba pounds per cubic foot4 ,it is    
twenty-eight per cent stronger than     
white oak1 but is not quite as stiff1 is
 very brittle1 and under heavy impact1  
will crumble4 ,for that reason1 ,osage  
wagon felloes will not stand rocky      
roads4 ,the bark is sometimes used for  
tanning1 and the wood for dyeing4       
,,red ,,mulberry 7,morus rubra7 is      
frequently spoken of simply as          
mulberry1 and is sometimes called black 
mulberry4 ,the full grown     fruit is  
red1 but turns black or very dark purple
 when ripe4 ,the     berry is composed  
of a compact and adhering cluster of    
drupes1 each     drupe about one        
thirty-second of an inch long4 ,what    
seems to be a     single berry is really
 an aggregation of very small fruits1   
each     resembling a tiny cherry4 ,the 
mulberry is naturally a forest tree1    

but it is permitted to grow about the   
margins of fields1 and is     often     
planted in door yards for its fruit and 
its shade4 ,it is     looked upon by    
many as a tame species4      ,two       
mulberries grow naturally in this       
country4 ,the red species     ranges    
from ,massachusetts west to ,kansas1 and
 south to ,texas and     ,florida4 ,its 
best growth is found in the lower ,ohio 
valley and the     southern foot hills  
of the ,appalachian mountains4 ,the     
largest trees     are seventy feet high 
and three or four in diameter4 ,if this 
tree     were abundant the wood's place 
in furniture and finish would be        
important4 ,the heartwood is dark1 of   
good figure1 and fairly strong4     ,it 
takes a fine polish1 and resembles black
 walnut1 though usually     of a little 
lighter shade4 ,its largest use is as   
fence posts4 ,it is     durable in      
contact with the soil4 ,the effect when 
made into     furniture1 finish1 and    
various kinds of turnery1 is pleasing4  

,farm     tools1 particularly scythe    
snaths1 are made of it1 and it has been 
reported for slack cooperage and boat   
building1 but such uses are             
apparently infrequent4 ,the wood is     
evidently sold under some other         
name1 or without a name1 for the total  
sawmill output in the ,united           
,states is given in government          
statistics at only #a1jjj feet1 which   
is probably not one per cent of the cut4
      ,,mexican ,,mulberry 7,morus      
celtidifolia7 ranges from southern      
,texas     to ,arizona4 ,trees are      
seldom more than thirty feet high and   
one in     diameter4 ,the berry is about
 half an inch long1 black1 and made up  
of a hundred or more very small drupes4 
,it is edible1 but its taste     is     
insipid4 ,the wood is heavy and is of   
dark orange or dark brown     color4 ,it
 is suitable for small turnery and other
 articles1 but no     reports of uses   
for it have been found4 ,the tree is    
occasionally     planted for its fruit  

by ,mexicans1 but ,americans care little
 for it4      ,two foreign mulberries   
have been extensively planted in this   
country1 and in some localities they are
 running wild and are     mistaken for  
native species4 ,one is the white       
mulberry 7,morus     alba71 a native of 
,china2 the other is the paper mulberry 
7,broussonetia papyrifera7 a different  
genus1 but of the same     family4 ,it  
is a native of ,japan1 and has been     
naturalized in some of     the southern 
states4 ,nine varieties of the white    
mulberry have been     distinguished in 
cultivation4  ,illustration             
,,persimmon  ,illustration3 ,,persimmon 
,,persimmon  7,diospyros ,virginiana7   
,persimmon belongs to the ebony family1 
and the family has contributed to the   
civilization of the human race since    
very early times4 ,some of the oldest   
furniture in existence1 that which was  
found hidden in the ruins of ancient    
,egypt1 is ebony1 and there is evidence 
among the old records in the land of the

 ,nile that the ,egyptians made voyages 
southward through the ,red sea and      
brought back cargoes of ebony from      
,punt1 a region in eastern ,africa4 ,the
 name ebony is believed to be derived   
from a ,hebrew word1 probably brought to
 ,palestine by some of ,solomon's       
captains who traded along the south     
coast of ,asia or the east coast of     
,africa about the time of the building  
of the first temple4 ,the botanical name
 for the genus 7diospyros7 is made up of
 two words meaning 8,jupiter's          
wheat0--supposed to be a reference to   
the value of persimmons as food4 ,the   
name1 however1 is not as old as the     
,hebrew word1 nor is the ,hebrew as old 
as the references to ebony in the       
records of ,egypt4 ,a piece of the old  
furniture--not less than #d1jjj years   
old--is still in existence4 ,it probably
 matches in age the cedar of ,lebanon   
coffins in the oldest ,egyptian tombs4  
,the ebony family consists of five      
genera1 one of which is persimmon       

7diospyros74 ,this genus consists of    
#afj species1 only two of them in the   
,united ,states4 ,thus the persimmon    
trees of this country are a very small  
part of the family to which they belong1
 but they are a highly respectable part 
of it4 ,the word persimmon is of ,indian
 origin1 and was used by the tribes near
 the ,atlantic coast4 ,the original     
spelling was 8pessimin10 and that was   
probably about the pronunciation given  
it by the aborigines4  ,it has never    
been called by many names4 ,it is known 
as date plum in ,new ,jersey and        
,tennessee1 and as possumwood in        
,florida4 ,the avidity with which       
opossums feed on the fruit is           
responsible for the name4  ,the range of
 persimmon extends from ,connecticut to 
,florida1 and westward to ,iowa1        
,missouri1 and ,texas4 ,it reaches its  
largest size in the ,south4 ,it is of   
vigorous growth1 spreading by means of  
seeds1 and also by roots4 ,the latter is
 the most common method where the ground

 is open4 ,such situations as old1      
abandoned fields invite the spread of   
persimmons4 ,roots ramify under the     
ground1 and sprouts spring up1 often    
producing thickets of an acre or more4  
,trees do not generally reach large size
 if they grow in that way1 but their    
crowded condition does not make them    
fruitless as can be attested to by many 
a boy who penetrates the persimmon      
thickets by means of devious paths that 
wind with many a labyrinthic turn which 
takes in all that is worth finding4     
,the variation in the quality of        
persimmons is greater than that of most 
wild fruits4 ,nature usually sets a     
standard and sticks closely to it1 but  
the rule is not adhered to in the case  
of persimmons4 ,some are twice as large 
as others2 some are never fit to eat1 no
 matter how severely or how often they  
are frosted2 others require at least one
 fierce frost to soften their austerity2
 but some may be eaten with relish      
without the ameliorating influence of   

frost4  ,the austerity of a green       
persimmon is due to tannin4 ,it is      
supposed that cultivation might remove  
some of this objectionable quality1 but 
no great success has thus far attended  
efforts in that direction4 ,japanese    
persimmons1 which are of a different    
species1 are cultivated with success in 
,california4  ,the sizes of persimmon   
trees vary according to soil1 climate1  
and situation4 ,they average rather     
small1 but occasionally reach a height  
of #ajj feet and a diameter of nearly   
two4 ,mature trunks are usually little  
over twelve inches in diameter1 and many
 never reach that size4  ,the dry wood  
weighs #di4bh pounds per cubic foot1    
which is about the weight of hickory4   
,it is hard1 strong1 compact1 and is    
susceptible of a high polish4 ,the      
yearly rings are marked by one or more  
bands of open ducts1 and scattered ducts
 occur in the rest of the wood4 ,the    
medullary rays are thin and             
inconspicuous2 color of heartwood dark  

brown1 often nearly black2 the sapwood  
is light brown1 and frequently contains 
darker spots4  ,the value of persimmon  
depends largely upon the proportion of  
sapwood to heartwood4 ,that was the case
 formerly more than it is now2 for until
 recent years the heartwood of persimmon
 was generally thrown away1 and the     
sapwood only was wanted2 but demand for 
the heart has recently increased4 ,there
 is much difference in the proportion of
 heartwood to sapwood in different      
trees4 ,it does not seem to be a matter 
of size1 nor wholly of age4 ,small      
trunks sometimes have more heart than   
large ones4 ,a tree a hundred years old 
may have heartwood scarcely larger than 
a lead pencil1 and occasionally there is
 none4 ,in other instances the heart is 
comparatively large4  ,persimmon has    
never been a wood of many uses1 as      
hickory and oak have been4 ,in early    
times it was considered valuable almost 
wholly on account of its fruit1 and that
 had no commercial value1 as it was     

seldom offered for sale in the market4  
,in the language of the southern negroes
 who fully appreciated the fruit1 it was
 8something good to run at0--meaning    
that the ripe persimmons were gathered  
and eaten from the trees while they     
lasted1 but that few were preserved4    
,it is recorded that the 8small wheel0  
of the pioneer cabins was occasionally  
made of persimmon wood4 ,the wheel so   
designated was the machine on which wool
 and flax were spun by the people in    
their homes4 ,spinning wheels were of   
two kinds1 one large1 with the operator 
walking to and fro1 the other small1    
with the operator sitting4 ,it was the  
small wheel which was sometimes made of 
persimmon4 ,there is no apparent reason 
why it should have been made of that    
wood in preference to any one of a dozen
 others4  ,the demand for persimmon in a
 serious way began with its use as      
shuttles in textile factories4 ,weavers 
had made shuttles of it for home use on 
hand looms for many years before the    

demand came from power looms where the  
shuttles were thrown to and fro by      
machinery4 ,up to some thirty years ago1
 shuttles for factories were generally  
made of ,turkish boxwood1 but the supply
 fell short and the advance in price    
caused a search for substitutes4 ,two   
satisfactory shuttlewoods were found in 
this country1 persimmon and dogwood4    
,the demand came not only from textile  
mills in ,america but from those of     
,europe4 ,the manufacture of shuttle    
blocks became an industry of            
considerable importance4  ,persimmon    
wood is suitable for shuttles because it
 wears smooth1 is hard1 strong1 tough1  
and of proper weight4 ,most woods that  
have been tried for this article fail on
 account of splintering1 splitting1     
quickly wearing out1 or wearing rough4  
,the shuttle is not regarded as         
satisfactory unless it stands #a1jjj    
hours of actual work4 ,some woods which 
are satisfactory for many other purposes
 will not last an hour as a shuttle4    

,the manufacture of shuttles1 after the 
square has been roughed out1 requires   
twenty-two operations4 ,probably more   
shuttlewood comes from ,arkansas than   
from any other section1 though a dozen  
or more states contribute persimmon4    
,the total sawmill cut of this wood in  
the ,united ,states is about #b1ejj1jjj 
feet1 but this does not include that    
which never passes through a sawmill4   
,the wood has other uses4 ,it has lately
 met demand from manufacturers of golf  
heads4 ,skewers are made of it in ,north
 ,carolina1 and billiard cues and       
mallets in ,massachusetts4  ,the        
heartwood is dark and shuttle makers and
 golfhead manufacturers will not have   
it4 ,until recently it was customary to 
throw it away1 because no sale for it   
could be found4 ,it is now known to be  
suitable for parquet flooring and for   
brush backs1 and the demand for the     
heartwood is as reliable as for the     
sapwood4 ,a little of the dark wood is  
cut in veneer and is employed in panel  

work1 and other is used in turnery4     
,the seeds of persimmon furnished one of
 the early substitutes for coffee in    
backwoods settlements when the genuine  
article could not be obtained4 ,they    
were parched and pounded until          
sufficiently pulverized4 ,during the    
,civil war many a confederate camp in   
the ,south was fragrant with the aroma  
of persimmon seed coffee1 after the     
soldiers had added the fruit to their   
rations of cornbread4  ,,mexican        
,,persimmon 7,diospyros texana7 grows in
 ,texas and ,mexico4 ,it is most        
abundant in southern and western ,texas1
 where it suits itself to different     
soils1 is found on rich moist ground    
near the borders of prairies1 and also  
in rocky canyons and dry mesas4 ,the    
largest trees are fifty feet high and   
twenty inches in diameter1 but trunks   
that large are not abundant4 ,the tree  
differs from the eastern persimmon in   
that the sapwood is thinner1 and the    
heartwood makes up a much greater       

proportion of the trunk2 the uses are   
consequently different1 since it is     
taken for its dark wood1 the eastern    
tree for its light-colored sap4 ,the    
fruit of the ,mexican persimmon is      
little esteemed4 ,it is small1 black1   
and the thin layer of pulp between the  
skin and the seed is insipid4 ,until    
fully ripe it is exceedingly austere4   
,the ,mexicans in the ,rio ,grande      
valley make a dye of the persimmons and 
use it to color sheep skins4 ,the       
fruit's supply of tannin probably       
contributes to the tanning as well as   
the dyeing of the sheep pelts4 ,the wood
 is heavier than eastern persimmon1 and 
has more than three fold more ashes in a
 cord of wood1 amounting to about #afj  
pounds4 ,the bark is thin and the trunk 
gnarled4 ,the dark color of the wood    
gives it the name black persimmon in    
,texas4 ,mexicans call it chapote4      
,sargent pronounces it the best         
,american substitute for boxwood for    
engraving purposes1 but it does not     

appear to be used outside of ,texas4    
,the wood is irregular in color1 even in
 the same piece1 being variegated with  
lighter and darker streaks1 and cloudy  
effects4 ,it ought to be fine brush-back
 material4 ,it is worked into tool      
handles1 lodge furniture1 canes1 rules1 
pen holders1 picture frames1 curtain    
rings1 door knobs1 parasol handles1 and 
maul sticks for artists4  ,illustration 
,,flowering ,,dogwood  ,illustration3   
,,flowering ,,dogwood     ,,flowering   
,,dogwood  7,cornus ,florida7   ,the    
dogwood or cornel family is old but not 
numerous4 ,it originated several hundred
 thousand years ago and spread over much
 of the world1 but preferred the        
temperate latitudes4 ,one species at    
least crossed the equator and           
established itself in the highlands of  
,peru4 ,there are forty or fifty species
 in all1 about one-third of them in the 
,united ,states1 but most are shrubs4   
,black gum and tupelo are members of the
 family1 and are giants compared with   

the dogwoods4 ,in ,europe the tree is   
usually called cornel1 and that has been
 made the family name4 ,it is a very old
 word1 coined by the ,romans before the 
days of ,caesar4 ,they so named it      
because it was hard like horn 7cornus   
meaning horn in the ,latin language74   
,they used it as shafts of spears1 and  
so common was that use that when a      
speaker referred to a spear he simply   
called it by the name of the wood of the
 handle or shaft1 as when ,virgil       
described a combat which was supposed to
 have occurred #hjj years before the    
,christian era1 and used the words3     
8,clogged in the wound the ,italian     
cornel stood40  ,the qualities of this  
wood which led to important uses among  
the ,romans1 have always made dogwood a 
valuable material4 ,civilized nations do
 not need it for spear shafts1 but they 
have other demands which call for large 
amounts4  ,the flowering dogwood has    
other names in this country4 ,it is     
generally known simply as dogwood1 but  

it is called boxwood in ,connecticut1   
,rhode ,island1 ,new ,york1             
,mississippi1 ,michigan1 ,kentucky1 and 
,indiana2 false box-dogwood in          
,kentucky2 ,new ,england boxwood in     
,tennessee2 flowering cornel in ,rhode  
,island2 and cornel in ,texas4  ,its    
range extends from ,massachusetts       
through ,ontario and ,michigan to       
,missouri1 south to ,florida1 and west  
to ,texas4 ,the area where it grows     
includes about #hjj1jjj square miles4   
,it is most common and of largest size  
in the ,south1 comparatively rare in the
 ,north1 generally occurs in the shade  
of taller trees1 and prefers            
well-drained soil1 but is not particular
 whether it is fertile or thin4  ,the   
dogwood is valuable as ornament and for 
its wood4 ,it was formerly a source of  
medicine1 from roots1 bark1 and flowers2
 but it seems to have been largely      
displaced by other drugs2 was once      
considered a good substitute for        
quinine1 that use having been learned   

from ,indian doctors4 ,the ,indians dug 
roots for a scarlet dye with which the  
vain warrior stained escutcheons on     
buckskin1 and colored porcupine quills  
and bald eagle feathers for decorating  
his moccasins and his hair4  ,the       
dogwood varies in size from a shrub with
 many branches to a tree forty feet     
high1 eighteen inches in diameter1 and  
with a flat but shapely crown4 ,the     
trunk rises as a shaft with little      
taper1 until the first branches are     
reached4 ,all the branches start at the 
same place1 and the trunk ends          
abruptly--divides into branches4        
,flowers are an important part of the   
tree1 as might be inferred from the     
prominence given them in the tree's     
names4 ,in the ,south the flowers appear
 in ,march1 in the ,north in ,may1 and  
in both regions before the opening of   
the leaves4 ,the flowers on vigorous    
trees are three or four inches across1  
white1 and very showy4 ,a dogwood tree  
in full bloom against a hillside in     

spring is a most conspicuous object1 and
 is justly admired by all who have      
appreciation of beauty4 ,the flowers    
fall as leaves appear1 and for some     
months the tree occupies its little     
space in the forest unobserved2 but in  
the autumn it bursts again into glory1  
and while not quite as conspicuous an   
object as when in bloom1 it is no less  
worthy of admiration4 ,the fall of the  
leaves reveals the brilliant scarlet    
fruit which ladens the branches4 ,the   
berries are just large enough for a good
 mouthful for a bird1 but birds spare   
them until fully ripe to the harvest1   
and they then harvest them very rapidly4
 ,the tree is thus permitted to display 
its fruit a considerable time before    
yielding it to the feathered inhabitants
 of the air whose mission in forest     
economy is to scatter the seeds of      
trees1 when nature provides the seeds   
themselves with no wings for flying4    
,the two periods in the year when       
dogwood is highly ornamental1 the       

flowers in spring before leaves appear1 
and fruit in autumn after leaves fall1  
are responsible for this tree's         
importance in ornamental planting4 ,it  
is a common park tree1 but it is small1 
generally not more than fifteen feet    
high1 and it occupies subordinate places
 in the plans of the landscape garden4  
,it is a filler between oaks1 pines1 and
 spruces1 and it passes unnoticed1      
except when in bloom and in fruit4      
,dogwood is about four pounds per cubic 
foot heavier than white oak1 has the    
same breaking strength1 and is lower in 
elasticity4 ,it is quite commonly       
believed that this tree has no          
heartwood1 but the belief is erroneous4 
,it seldom has much1 and small trunks   
often none2 but when dogwood reaches    
maturity it develops heart4 ,sometimes  
the heartwood is no larger than a lead  
pencil in trunks forty or fifty years   
old4 ,the heart is brown1 sapwood is    
white1 and is the part wanted by the    
users of dogwood4 ,annual rings are     

obscure and it is a tree of slow growth4
 ,the wood is as nearly without figure  
as any in this country4 ,it seldom or   
never goes to sawmills4 ,the logs are   
too small4 ,most of the supply is bought
 by manufacturers of shuttles and golf  
stick heads1 in this country and        
,europe4 ,they purchase it by the cord  
or piece4 ,it does not figure much in   
any part of the lumber business1 but is 
cut and marketed in ways peculiar to    
itself4 ,log cutters in hardwood forests
 pay little attention to it4 ,the       
dogwood harvest comes principally from  
southern states4 ,village merchants are 
the chief collectors1 and they sell to  
contractors who ship to buyers in the   
manufacturing centers4 ,the village     
merchants buy from farmers1 who cut a   
stick here and there as they find it in 
woodlots1 forests1 or by the wayside1 on
 their own land or somebody else's4     
,when the cutter next drives to town he 
throws his few dogwoods in the wagon1   
and trades them to the store keeper for 

groceries or other merchandise4 ,it is  
small business1 but in the aggregate it 
brings together enough dogwood to supply
 the trade4  ,dogwood has many uses1 but
 none other approaches shuttle making   
and golfhead manufacture in importance4 
,the wood is made into brush blocks1    
wedges1 engraver's blocks1 tool handles1
 machinery bearings as a substitute for 
lignum-vit1 small hubs1 and many kinds  
of turnery and other small articles4    
,,western ,,dogwood 7,cornus nuttallii7 
is a larger1 taller tree than the       
eastern flowering dogwood4 ,a height of 
#ajj feet is claimed for it in the low  
country along the coast of ,british     
,columbia1 but there are no authentic   
reports of trees so large anywhere south
 of the boundary between ,canada and the
 ,united ,states4 ,its height ranges    
from twenty to fifty feet1 and its      
diameter from six to twenty inches4 ,the
 appearance is much the same as its     
eastern relative4 ,its berries are red1 
and grow in clusters of forty or less2  

the bark on old trunks is rough1 but is 
smooth on those of medium size2 the     
flowers are generally described as very 
large and showy1 but the true flower is 
quite an inconspicuous affair1 being a  
small1 greenish-yellow1 button-like     
cluster1 surrounded by four or six      
snowy-white or sometimes pinkish scales 
which are popularly but erroneously     
supposed to form a portion of the real  
flower4 ,the western dogwood in its     
native forest often puts out flowers in 
autumn2 is well supplied with foliage   
which assumes red and orange colors in  
the fall when the showy berries are at  
their best4 ,however1 the tree has not  
yet won its way into the good graces of 
landscape gardeners1 and has not been   
much planted in parks4 ,it wants some of
 the good points possessed by the       
flowering dogwood4 ,the western tree    
shows to best advantage in its native   
forest where it thrives on gentle       
mountain slopes and in low bottoms1     
valleys1 and gulches1 provided the soil 

is well drained and rich4 ,it runs      
southward fifteen hundred miles from    
,vancouver island to southern           
,california4 ,it cares little for       
sunshine1 and often is found growing    
nicely in dense shade4 ,seedlings do    
better where shade is deep4 ,the wood is
 lighter but somewhat stronger than that
 of the flowering dogwood2 is pale      
reddish-brown1 with thick sapwood2 is   
hard1 and checks badly in seasoning4    
,mature trees are from #ajj to #aej     
years4  ,,blue ,,dogwood 7,cornus       
alternifolia7 is given that name because
 of the blue fruit it bears4 ,it has a  
number of other names1 among them being 
purple dogwood1 green osier1 umbrella   
tree1 pigeonberry1 and alternate-leaved 
dogwood1 the last being simply a        
translation of its botanical name4 ,it  
grows in more northern latitudes than   
the flowering dogwood1 and does not     
range as far south4 ,it is found from   
,nova ,scotia to ,alabama1 and westward 
to ,minnesota1 but its southern habitat 

lies along the ,appalachian mountain    
ranges4 ,it attains size and assumes    
form similar to the flowering dogwood4  
,the wood is heavy1 hard1 brown1 tinged 
with red1 the sapwood white4 ,it is a   
deep forest tree1 but has been          
domesticated in a few instances where it
 has been planted as ornament4 ,the wood
 seems to possess the good qualities of 
flowering dogwood1 but no reports of    
uses for it have been made4  ,two       
varieties of flowering dogwood have been
 produced by cultivation1 weeping       
dogwood 7,cornus florida pendula71 and  
red-bract dogwood 7,cornus florida      
rubra74 ,english cornel or dogwood      
7,cornus mas7 has been planted in many  
parts of this country4 ,the so-called   
,jamaica dogwood is not in the dogwood  
family4       ,,andromeda 7,andromeda   
ferruginea7 is a small southern tree of 
,south     ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and     
,florida1 and in the latter state is    
sometimes     known as titi1 though     
other trees also bear that name4 ,the   

largest     are thirty feet high1 if by 
chance one can be found standing erect1 
for most of them prefer to sprawl at    
full length on the ground4 ,the         
fruit is a small berry of no value4 ,the
 wood is weak1 but hard and             
sufficiently compact to receive fine    
polish4 ,the heartwood is light         
brown1 tinged with red4  ,illustration  
,,california ,,laurel  ,illustration3   
,,california ,,laurel     ,,california  
,,laurel  7,umbellularia ,californica7  
,this tree's range lies in southern     
,oregon and in ,california4 ,it is a    
member of the laurel family and is      
closely related to the eastern sassafras
 and the red and the swamp bays of the  
southern states2 but it is not near kin 
to the eastern laurels which1 strange as
 it may appear1 do not belong to the    
laurel family1 notwithstanding the names
 they bear4  ,the people of ,california 
and ,oregon have several names for this 
interesting tree4 ,it is known as       
mountain laurel1 ,california bay tree1  

myrtle tree1 cajeput1 ,california olive1
 spice tree1 laurel1 bay tree1          
oreodaphne1 and ,california sassafras4  
,those who call it laurel name it on    
account of its large1 lustrous1 thick   
leaves which adhere to the branches from
 two to six years4 ,all new leaves do   
not come at once1 as with most trees1   
but appear a few at a time during the   
whole summer4  ,the names which connect 
this tree with sassafras1 spice and     
cajeput are based on odor and taste4    
,all members of the laurel family in    
this country are characterized by       
pungent1 aromatic odor and taste1 and   
the one under consideration shares these
 properties in a remarkable degree4     
,when the leaves and the green bark are 
crushed1 they give off a light1 volatile
 oil in follicles which float in the    
air1 like those of an onion1 and when   
inhaled it produces severe pain over the
 eyes1 and may induce dizziness and     
violent sneezing4 ,though the symptoms  
are alarming to one who is undergoing   

the experience for the first time1 no   
serious inconvenience follows4 ,dried   
leaves are capable of producing a       
similar effect but with less violence4  
,the ,california laurel's close         
relationship to the camphor tree is     
readily believed by persons who inhale  
some of the oily spray from the crushed 
leaves4  ,attempts have been made to    
produce the commercial oil of cajeput1  
or a substitute for it1 by distilling   
the leaves and bark of this laurel4 ,a  
passable substitute has been            
manufactured1 but it cannot be marketed 
as the genuine article4 ,by distilling  
the fruit a product known as umbellulic 
acid has been obtained4  ,the           
,california laurel carries a very dense 
crown of leaves4 ,this is due partly to 
the old crops which hang so long1 and to
 the tree's habit of lengthening its    
leading shoots during the growing       
season1 and the constant appearance of  
young leaves on the lengthening shoots4 
,it can stand an almost unlimited amount

 of shade itself1 and is by no means    
backward in giving abundance of shade to
 small growth which is trying to        
struggle up to light from below4 ,it    
delights in dense thickets1 but it      
prefers thickets of its own species4    
,its fruiting habits and its disposition
 to occupy the damp1 rich soil along the
 banks of small water courses1 are      
responsible for the thick stands4 ,the  
fruit itself is an interesting thing4   
,it is yellowish-green in color1 as     
large as a good-sized olive1 and looks  
much like it4 ,the fruit ripens in      
,october1 and falls in time to get the  
benefit of the autumn rains which visit 
the ,pacific coast4 ,since the trees    
generally grow along gulches1 the fruit 
falls and rolls to the bottom4 ,the     
first dashing rain sends a flood down   
the gulches1 the laurel drupes are      
carried along and are buried in mud     
wherever they can find a resting place4 
,germination takes place soon after4    
,the fruit remains under the mud1       

attached to the roots of the young      
plants1 until the following summer4     
,the result is that if a laurel gets a  
foothold in a gulch through which water 
occasionally flows1 lines of young      
laurels will eventually cover the banks 
of the gulch as far down stream as      
conditions are favorable4  ,the wood of 
,california laurel weighs #dj4fj pounds 
per cubic foot when kiln-dried4 ,that is
 nine pounds heavier than sassafras4 ,it
 is very heavy when green and sinks when
 placed in water4 ,it is hard and very  
firm1 rich yellowish brown in color1    
often beautifully mottled2 but this     
applies to the heartwood only1 and not  
to the thick sapwood4  ,lumbermen have  
discovered that the wood's color can be 
materially changed by immersing the logs
 when green1 and leaving them submerged 
a long time4 ,the beautiful 8black      
myrtle10 which has been so much admired1
 is nothing more than ,california laurel
 which has undergone the cold water     
treatment4  ,the annual rings of growth 

are clearly marked by dark bands of     
summerwood4 ,the rings are often wide1  
but not always1 for sometimes the growth
 is very slow4 ,the wood is             
diffuse-porous1 and the pores are small 
and not numerous4 ,the wood's figure is 
brought out best by tangential sawing1  
as is the case with so many woods which 
have clearly-marked rings but small and 
obscure medullary rays4 ,figure is not  
uniform2 that is1 one trunk may produce 
a pattern quite different from another4 
,the figure of some logs is particularly
 beautiful2 these logs are selected for 
special purposes4 ,sudworth says that   
none of our hardwoods excels it in      
beautiful grain when finished1 and      
,sargent is still more emphatic when he 
declares that it is 8the most valuable  
wood produced in the forests of ,pacific
 ,north ,america for interior finish of 
houses and for furniture40  ,the wood of
 this tree has more than ninety per cent
 of the strength of white oak1 is       
considerably stiffer1 and contains a    

smaller amount of ash1 weight for weight
 of wood4 ,the species reaches its best 
development in the rich valleys of      
southwestern ,oregon1 where1 with the   
broadleaf maple1 it forms a considerable
 part of the forest growth4 ,the largest
 trees are from sixty to eighty feet    
high1 and two to four in diameter4 ,in  
crowded stands the trunks are shapely1  
and often measure thirty or forty feet  
to the first limbs2 but more commonly   
the trunk is short4  ,the boat yards in 
southwestern ,oregon were the first to  
use ,california laurel for commercial   
purposes1 but early settlers made a     
point of procuring it for fuel when they
 could4 ,the oil in the wood causes it  
to burn with a cheerful blaze1 and      
campers in the mountains consider       
themselves fortunate when they find a   
supply for the evening bonfire4         
,shipbuilders have drawn upon this wood 
for fifty years for material4 ,it is    
made into pilot wheels1 interior finish1
 cleats1 crossties1 and sometimes deck  

planking4 ,furniture makers long ago    
made a specialty of the wood for their  
,san ,francisco trade4 ,for thirty years
 travelers admired the superb furniture 
of the ,palace hotel in that city1 and  
wondered of what wood it was made4 ,it  
was the ,california laurel4 ,the hotel's
 furniture was hand-made1 or largely so1
 at a time when woodworking factories   
were few on the ,pacific coast4 ,the    
furniture was finally destroyed in the  
,san ,francisco earthquake4 ,furniture  
is still one of the products made of the
 wood1 but the quantity is small4 ,other
 products are interior finish2 fixtures 
for banks1 stores and offices2 musical  
instruments1 including organs2          
mathematical instruments1 and           
carpenters' tools1 including rulers1    
straight-edges1 spirit levels1 bench    
screws and clamps1 and handles of many  
kinds4  ,makers of novelties and small  
turnery find it serviceable for paper   
knives1 pin trays1 match safes1 brush   
backs1 and many articles of like kind4  

,one of the largest uses for it is as   
walking beams for pumping oilwells in   
central and southern ,california4 ,the  
beauty of grain has nothing to do with  
this use4  ,country blacksmiths repair  
wagons and agricultural implements with 
this wood4 ,farmers have long employed  
it about their premises for posts1      
gates1 floors1 and building material4   
,cooks flavor soup with the leaves1 and 
poultrymen make henroosts of poles1     
believing that the wood's odor will keep
 insects away4 ,this is probably the old
 sassafras superstition carried west by 
early ,california settlers4       ,,red 
,,bay 7,persea borbonia7 is a southern  
member of the laurel     family1 and    
close akin to sassafras and the         
,california laurel4 ,the     bark is    
red1 hence the name2 but it is known    
also as bay galls1     laurel tree1     
,florida mahogany1 false mahogany1 and  
sweet bay4 ,it     grows from ,virginia 
to ,texas1 but is most abundant near the
 coast1     yet it ascends the          

,mississippi valley to ,arkansas4 ,the  
leaves remain     on the tree a full    
year1 but turn yellow toward the last1  
in     consequence of which the species 
is not evergreen4 ,in shape and         
color the leaves resemble laurel4 ,the  
fruit is a small1 dark blue     drupe1  
with thin flesh4 ,the wood is heavy1    
hard1 very strong1     rather brittle1  
bright red1 with thin1 lighter-colored  
sapwood4 ,it     was once very popular  
in the ,south for furniture4 ,rare      
pieces1 some     #aej years old1 are    
still found in southern homes4 ,the wood
 was     exported prior to #agda from   
the ,carolinas1 and the quantity seems  
to     have been considerable4 ,it was  
then regarded as a finer wood than      
mahogany4 ,it was exported to the ,west 
,indies1 where mahogany was             
abundant1 and was made into furniture   
and finish for the homes of     wealthy 
planters and merchants4 ,an old report  
describes the wood as     resembling    
8watered satin40 ,it was in early demand

 by shipbuilders1     but it has now    
ceased to go to boat yards4 ,except in  
rare instances1     it is not reported  
by any wood-using industries4 ,in ,texas
 a little     is made into pin trays1   
small picture frames1 canes1 and        
shelves4 ,it     deserves a more        
important place1 for when polished and  
finished1 it     is one of the          
handsomest woods of this country4 ,trees
 attain a     height of sixty or seventy
 feet1 and a diameter of two or three4  
,,swamp ,,bay 7,persea pubescens7       
attains a height of thirty or forty     
feet1 but is seldom more than a foot in 
diameter1 and is too small     for saw  
timber4 ,the wood is strong1 heavy1     
rather soft1 orange     colored1        
streaked with brown1 and not as handsome
 as its larger     relative1 red bay1   
which is associated with it from ,north 
,carolina     to ,mississippi4 ,it is an
 evergreen in some cases1 but in others 
the     leaves turn yellow the second   
spring4 ,the black fruit is a drupe     

nearly an inch long4 ,the wood is       
without attractive figure1 since     its
 medullary rays are obscure1 and the    
annual rings are indistinct     and     
produce little contrast when the trunks 
are sawed tangentially4     ,color is   
the chief attraction that can be claimed
 for the wood4 ,a     little is         
occasionally worked into interior       
finish4  ,illustration     ,,locust     
,illustration3 ,,locust     ,,locust    
7,robinia ,pseudacacia7   ,locust       
belongs to the pea family1 known in     
botany as ,leguminos4#f ,in most parts  
of its range it is known simply as      
locust1 but in some localities it is    
called black locust1 an allusion to the 
color of the bark2 yellow locust1       
descriptive of the heartwood2 white     
locust1 referring to the bloom2 red     
locust1 probably a reference to the     
wood1 and green locust for the same     
reason2 acacia and false acacia2 honey  
locust1 a name which belongs to another 
species2 post locust1 because it has    

always been a favorite tree for fence   
posts2 and pea-flower locust1 a         
reference to the bloom4      #f ,this is
 a very large family1 containing trees1 
shrubs1 and     vines1 such as locusts1 
acacias1 beans1 and clovers4 ,there are 
#dcj     genera in the world1 and many  
times that many species4 ,the ,united   
,states has seventeen genera and thirty 
species of the pea family     that are  
large enough to be classed as trees4    
,their common names     follow3 ,florida
 ,cat's ,claw1 ,huajillo1 ,texan ,ebony1
 ,wild ,tamarind1     ,huisache1 ,texas 
,cat's ,claw1 ,devil's ,claw1 ,leucna1  
,chalky ,leucna1     ,screwbean1        
,mesquite1 ,redbud1 ,texas ,redbud1     
,honey ,locust1 ,water     ,locust1     
,coffeetree1 ,horsebean1 ,small-leaf    
,horsebean1 ,greenbark     ,acacia1     
,palo ,verde1 ,frijolito1 ,sophora1     
,yellow-wood1 ,eysenhardtia1     ,indigo
 ,thorn1 ,locust1 ,new ,mexican ,locust1
 ,clammy ,locust1 ,sonora     ,ironwood1
 ,jamaica ,dogwood4 ,these species are  

treated separately in     the following 
pages1 and are given space according to 
their relative     commercial importance
 in the particular regions where they   
grow4  ,several of the names refer to   
the color of the wood1 and seem         
contradictory1 for yellow1 green1 and   
red are not the same2 yet the names     
describe with fair accuracy4 ,color of  
the heartwood varies with different     
trees1 yellow with some1 tinged with red
 with others1 and sometimes it might be 
appropriately called blue locust1 for   
the heartwood is nearer that color than 
any other4  ,the natural range of locust
 seems to have been confined to the     
,appalachian mountain ranges from       
,pennsylvania to ,georgia4 ,it probably 
existed as a low shrub in parts of      
,arkansas and ,oklahoma4 ,its range has 
been extended by planting until it now  
reaches practically all the states1 but 
is running wild in only about half of   
them4 ,it has received a great deal of  
attention from foresters and tree       

planters4 ,it attracted notice very     
early1 because of its hardness1         
strength1 and lasting properties4 ,at   
one time the planting of locust came    
nearly being a fad4 ,in ,england it was 
supposed that it would rise to great    
importance in shipbuilding1 and in      
,france it was looked upon as no less   
important4 ,books were written on the   
subject in both ,english and ,french4   
,all the details of planting and        
utilization were discussed4 ,its generic
 name1 ,robinia1 is in honor of a       
,frenchman1 ,robin4 ,extravagant claims 
were once made for the wood4 ,when      
,american ships were gaining victory    
after victory over ,english vessels in  
the war of #ahab1 it was asserted in    
,england that the cause of ,american    
success was the locust timber in their  
ships4 ,the claim may have been partly  
true1 but other factors contributed to  
the phenomenal series of successes4     
,the locust craze died a natural death4 
,too much was claimed for the wood4     

,possibilities in the way of growth were
 over estimated4 ,it was assumed that   
the tree1 if planted1 would grow        
everywhere as vigorously as on its      
native mountains in ,pennsylvania1      
,maryland1 and ,virginia1 where trees   
two or three feet in diameter and eighty
 feet high were found4 ,experience      
proved later that nature had planted the
 locust in the best place for it1 and   
when transplanted elsewhere it was apt  
to fall short of expectations4 ,outside 
of its natural range it grows vigorously
 for a time1 and occasionally reaches   
large size2 but in recent years the     
locust borer has defeated the efforts of
 man to extend the range of this species
 and make it profitable in regions      
distant from its native home4 ,the tree 
is often devoured piecemeal1 branches   
and twigs breaking and falling1 and     
trunks gradually disappearing beneath   
the attacks of the hungry borers4 ,no   
effective method of combating the pest  
is known4 ,the planting of locust trees1

 once so common1 has now nearly ceased4 
,within its native range1 and beyond    
that range when it has a chance1 locust 
is a valuable and beautiful tree4 ,it is
 valuable at all times on account of the
 superior wood which it furnishes1 and  
beautiful when in bloom and in leaf4 ,a 
locust in full flower is not surpassed  
in ornamental qualities by any tree of  
this country4 ,it is a mass of white1   
exceedingly rich in perfume4 ,it blooms 
in ,may or ,june4 ,during the summer its
 foliage shows tropical luxuriance with 
exquisite grace4 ,its compound leaves   
are from eight to fourteen inches long1 
with seven to nine leaflets4 ,they come 
late in spring and go early in autumn4  
,the tree's thorns1 resembling cat      
claws1 are affixed to the bark only1 and
 usually fall with the leaves4 ,the     
fruit is a pod three or four inches     
long1 and contains four or eight        
wingless seeds4 ,they depend on animals 
to carry them to planting places4 ,the  
pods dry on the branches1 and rattle in 

the wind most of the autumn4 ,the tree  
spreads by underground roots which send 
up sprouts4 ,a locust in winter is not a
 thing of beauty4 ,it appears to be     
dead2 not a bud visible4 ,its black1    
angular branches lack every line of     
grace4  ,locust wood is remarkable for  
strength1 hardness1 and durability4 ,it 
is about one pound per cubic foot       
lighter than white oak1 but is          
thirty-four per cent stiffer and        
forty-five per cent stronger4 ,its      
strength exceeds that of shagbark       
hickory1 and it is doubtful whether a   
stronger wood exists in the ,united     
,states4 ,its hardness is equally       
remarkable1 and is said to be due to    
crystals formed in the wood cells1 and  
known as 8rhaphides40 ,its durability is
 probably equal to that of ,osage       
orange1 mesquite1 and catalpa1 but it is
 not easy to fix a standard of          
durability by which to compare different
 woods4 ,locust is the best fence post  
wood in this country1 because it is     

usually much straighter than other very 
durable woods4 ,the posts are expected  
to last at least thirty years1 and have 
been known to stand twice that long4    
,for more than #aej years locust was    
almost indispensable in shipbuilding1   
furnishing the tree nails or large pins 
which held the timbers together4 ,it    
supplied material for other parts of    
ships also1 but in smaller quantities4  
,the substitution of steel ships for    
wooden lessened demand for locust pins1 
and in many instances large iron nails  
are used to fasten timbers together4 ,in
 spite of this1 the demand for locust   
tree nails is nearly always ahead of    
supply4  ,the wood's figure is fairly   
strong1 due to the contrast between the 
springwood and that grown later1 but not
 to the medullary rays1 which are small 
and inconspicuous4 ,the wood is not in  
much demand for ornamental purposes4    
,small amounts are made into policemen's
 clubs1 rake teeth1 hubs for buggy      
wheels1 ladder rungs1 and tool handles4 

,the tree grows rapidly where conditions
 are favorable1 and very slowly when    
they are not4 ,usually trees of fence   
post size are twenty years old at least1
 but trunks thirty five years old have  
been known to produce a post for each   
two years of age1 though that was       
exceptional4 ,railroads1 especially in  
,pennsylvania1 planted locust largely a 
few years ago for ties4 ,it has been    
reported that in some instances         
expectations of growth have not been    
fully realized4      ,,clammy ,,locust  
7,robinia viscosa7 was originally       
confined to the     mountains of ,north 
,carolina and ,south ,carolina where its
 attractive     flowers brought it to   
the notice of nurserymen who have       
enlarged its     natural range a hundred
 if not a thousand fold4 ,it is now     
grown in     parks and gardens not only 
in the ,united ,states east of the      
,mississippi river and as far north as  
,massachusetts1 but in most     foreign 
countries that have temperate climates4 

,it is usually a     shrub1 but on some 
of the ,north ,carolina mountains it    
attains a     height of forty feet and a
 diameter of twelve inches4 ,the wood is
     seldom or never used for any       
commercial purpose4 ,the leaves are from
     seven to twelve inches long1 and   
contain thirteen to twenty-one          
leaflets4 ,the flowers appear in ,june1 
possess little odor1 and are     admired
 solely for their beauty4 ,they are     
mingled red and rose     color4 ,the    
pods are from two to three and a half   
inches long1 and     contain small1     
mottled seeds4 ,the wood is hard and    
heavy1 the heart     brown and the sap  
yellow4 ,in its wild haunts it is       
usually a shrub     five or six feet    
high4      ,,new ,,mexican ,,locust     
7,robinia neo-mexicana7 is a small      
southwestern     tree1 seldom exceeding 
a height of twenty-five feet or a       
diameter of     eight inches4 ,it ranges
 from ,colorado to ,arizona1 and takes  
its name     from its presence in ,new  

,mexico4 ,it reaches its largest size   
near     ,trinidad1 ,colorado4 ,it is   
found at elevations of #g1jjj feet4     
,leaves     are from six to twelve      
inches long1 and the leaflets number    
from     fifteen to twenty-one4 ,the    
flowers appear in ,may and are less     
showy     than those of the eastern     
locust4 ,the wood is heavy1 exceedingly 
hard1 the heartwood yellow1 streaked    
with brown1 the thin sapwood     light  
yellow4 ,this locust is occasionally    
used locally for small     posts or     
stakes1 but is generally too small4 ,it 
is sometimes met     with in cultivation
 in ,europe and the eastern states4     
,,texan ,,ebony 7,zygia flexicaulis7    
ranges from the ,texas coast     through
 ,mexico to ,lower ,california4 ,it     
reaches a height of thirty     feet or  
more1 and a diameter of two or less4 ,it
 is a beautiful tree     along the lower
 ,rio ,grande where it reaches its      
largest size4 ,the     light yellow or  
cream-colored1 very fragrant flowers    

bloom from ,june     till ,august2 the  
fruit ripens in ,autumn but adheres     
several months     to the branches4     
,mexicans roast the seeds as a          
substitute for     coffee4 ,the color of
 the heartwood gives this tree its name1
 but it     is not a true ebony4 ,the   
wood of the roots is blacker than that  
of     the trunk1 and small articles    
made of roots resemble black ebony of   
,ceylon4 ,the trunk wood is liable to be
 streaked with black1 brown1     and    
medium yellow4 ,the rings of annual     
growth are frequently of     different  
colors4 ,considerable demand is made    
upon this wood in     ,texas for        
crossties4 ,it is very durable1 but is  
so hard that holes     must be bored for
 the spikes4 ,it is sold in large       
amounts as     cordwood1 and it burns   
well4 ,other articles made of this      
so-called     ebony are foundation      
blocks for buildings and rollers for    
moving     houses4 ,it is used also for 
small turnery4      ,,huajillo 7,zygia  

brevifolia7 has no ,english name1 but   
,americans in     the ,rio ,grande      
valley where this tree grows call it by 
its ,mexican     name4 ,it is a larger  
tree in ,mexico than on this side of the
 river4     ,it is not often more than  
thirty feet high and six inches in      
diameter1 and is generally a shrub4 ,its
 beautiful foliage looks like     masses
 of ferns1 and the flowers range from   
white to violet-yellow4     ,the wood is
 dark1 hard1 heavy1 and is seldom used  
for anything but     fuel4              
,,florida ,,cat',s ,,claw 7,zygia       
unguis-cati71 with a ,latin name that   
would make ,julius ,caesar stare and    
gasp1 reaches its largest size in       
the ,united ,states on ,elliott's ,key1 
,florida4 ,its name refers to its       
curved thorns4 ,trunks twenty-five feet 
high and eight inches in     diameter   
are the largest in this country4 ,it    
bears pods1 but the     leaves are not  
compound1 thus differing from most trees
 of the pea     family4 ,the wood is not

 put to any use1 though it is very hard 
and     heavy1 rich red1 varying to     
purple1 with clear yellow sapwood4 ,it  
is     said to check badly in drying4   
,the bark is used for medicine in some  
of the islands of the ,west ,indies4    
,illustration     ,,honey ,,locust      
,illustration3 ,,honey ,,locust         
,,honey ,,locust  7,gleditsia           
,triacanthos7   ,this tree has never    
suffered for want of names1 but most of 
them refer either to the sweetness of   
the pod or to the fierceness of the     
thorns4 ,the belief has long prevailed  
that it was the pods of this tree on    
which ,john the ,baptist fed while a    
recluse in the ,syrian desert4 ,the     
tradition should not be taken seriously4
 ,it was certainly not this tree1 if    
any1 which furnished food to the prophet
 in the wilderness1 for it does not grow
 in ,syria4 ,some related species may   
grow there1 for species of ,gleditsia   
occur in western ,asia as well as in    
,china1 ,japan1 and west ,africa4 ,the  

generic name is in honor of ,johann     
,gottlieb ,gleditsch1 a ,german botanist
 who died in #aghf4  ,the name honey    
locust refers to the pod1 not the       
flowers4 ,the latter are greenish1      
inconspicuous1 and though eagerly sought
 by bees1 they offer no particular      
attractions to people4 ,few persons ever
 notice them4  ,in some of the          
southwestern states the tree is called  
black locust1 though for what reason it 
is not apparent4 ,sweet locust1 by which
 name it is known in several states1 has
 reference to the pods1 as do the names 
honey1 and honey-shucks locust1 applied 
in different localities4 ,many persons  
in naming the tree have thorns in mind4 
,it is known as three-thorned acacia1   
thorn locust1 thorn tree1 thorny locust1
 and thorny acacia4 ,the botanist who   
named it considered thorns a            
characteristic1 for ,triacanthos means  
8three-thorned40  ,no one who has ever  
had dealings with the thorns1 will fail 
to duly consider them4 ,they are about  

the most ferocious product of ,american 
forests4 ,the tree's trunk and largest  
branches bristle with them1 standing out
 like porcupine quills1 and sharper than
 any needle devised by human ingenuity4 
,microscopists use them for picking up  
and handling minute objects1 their      
points being smooth and delicate though 
their shafts may be strong and rough4   
,thorns are arrested branches1 coming   
from deep down in the wood4 ,no more can
 one of them be pulled out than a limb  
can be extracted by the roots4 ,they    
come from the center of the tree or     
limb4 ,some put out leaves and become   
true branches1 but others sharpen their 
points1 assume an attitude of hostility1
 and remain thorns to the end of their  
lives4 ,some of them are a foot long1   
and are so strong that birds flying     
against them are impaled and meet cruel 
death4 ,a well-armed trunk is proof     
against the agility and skill of the    
squirrel4 ,he cannot negotiate the      
thorns1 and probably he tries only once4

 ,the hot pursuit of a dog will not     
compel him to attempt it4 ,all trees1   
however1 are not formidably thorned2    
some have few1 and certain varieties    
have none4  ,the honey locust is        
sometimes called the ,confederate pin   
tree in the ,south4 ,this is a reference
 to the ,civil war1 and the use         
occasionally made of the thorns by      
soldiers in mending the rents in their  
torn uniforms4 ,the thorns were once put
 to a somewhat similar use among the    
,alleghany mountains where local        
factories for carding and spinning      
country wool employed them to pin up the
 mouths of wool sacks4  ,the natural    
range of honey locust has been greatly  
extended by man4 ,it was not originally 
found east of the ,alleghany mountains4 
,it grew from western ,pennsylvania to  
northern ,alabama and ,mississippi1 and 
westward to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,it is
 now naturalized east of the            
,alleghanies1 and southward to the ,gulf
 of ,mexico4 ,planting for ornamental   

purposes and for hedges has been the    
cause of its extension into new         
territory4 ,in spite of thorns1 it is   
ornamental4 ,its foliage is thin1 and   
its flowers inconspicuous1 but the tree 
possesses a grace which wins it favor4  
,it grows very rapidly1 and in a short  
time a seedling becomes a respectable   
tree1 and continues its rapid growth a  
long time4 ,in southern ,indiana and    
,illinois1 which is the best part of its
 range1 trees have attained a height of 
#adj feet and a diameter of six4 ,the   
average size of forest-grown specimens  
is seventy-five feet in height1 and two 
or more in diameter4  ,the leaves are   
seven or eight inches long1 doubly      
compound2 the fruit a pod a foot or more
 in length1 which assumes a twist when  
ripe1 or sometimes warps several ways4  
,the green pod contains a sweet         
substance often eaten by children1 but  
it is believed to be of little value for
 human food4 ,cattle devour the pods    
when in the sugary condition2 but they  

cannot often obtain them1 because thorns
 intervene1 when the pods would         
otherwise be in reach4 ,in rural        
districts1 a domestic beer is brewed    
from the young fruit4 ,the juice        
extracted from it is permitted to       
ferment1 but the beverage is probably   
never sold in the market4  ,the pods are
 in no hurry to let go and fall1 even   
after they are fully ripe4 ,they become 
dry1 distort themselves with a number of
 corkscrew twists1 and hang until late  
fall or early winter1 rattling in the   
wind and occasionally shaking out a seed
 or two4  ,honey locust has never been  
considered important from the           
lumberman's standpoint4 ,sawlogs go to  
mills here and there1 but never many in 
one place4 ,the wood is not listed under
 its own name1 but is put in with       
something else4 ,occasionally1 it is    
said1 it passes as sycamore in the      
furniture factory1 though the difference
 ought not be difficult to detect4 ,it  
doubtless depends to a considerable     

degree on the particular wood1 for all  
honey locust does not look alike when   
converted into lumber4 ,some of that in 
the lower ,mississippi valley might pass
 as sycamore if inspection is not too   
conscientiously carried out4 ,the       
medullary rays1 being darker than the   
body of the wood1 suggest sycamore in   
quarter-sawed stock4 ,some of it goes   
into furniture1 finish1 balusters1 newel
 posts1 panels1 and molding1            
particularly in eastern ,texas4 ,in     
,louisiana1 where wood of similar       
texture and appearance might be         
expected1 it is not looked on with      
favor1 but is employed only in the      
cheapest1 roughest work4  ,the principal
 use of the wood is for posts and       
railroad ties4 ,it lasts well1 and is   
strong4 ,claims have been made that it  
is generally equal and in some ways     
superior to locust4 ,it is difficult to 
see on what these claims are based4 ,it 
is lighter1 less elastic1 and much      
weaker4 ,figures showing the comparative

 durability of the two woods are not    
available1 but in like situations1      
locust would doubtless last much longer4
 ,as timber trees1 the former may have  
the advantage over locust in being free 
from attacks of borers1 attaining       
greater size1 and thriving in a much    
larger area4 ,it has been planted for   
ornament in other lands than this1 and  
is now prospering in all the important  
countries of the temperate zone4 ,one   
variety is thornless1 and is known to   
botanists as ,gleditsia triacanthos     
lvis2 another has short thorns4         
,,water ,,locust 7,gleditsia aquatica7  
looks so much like honey locust     that
 the two are often supposed to be the   
same species in ,louisiana2     yet     
there are a number of differences4      
,water locust has fewer thorns     and  
they are smaller1 and often flat like a 
knife blade4 ,the pods     are entirely 
different from those of honey locust1   
being short and     wide4 ,the two      
species share the same range to some    

extent1 but that     of water locust is 
smaller1 extending from ,south ,carolina
 to ,texas1     ,illinois1 and          
,missouri2 but the best of the species  
is west of the     lower ,mississippi   
where trees may reach a height of sixty 
feet and a     diameter of two4 ,the    
wood is heavy1 hard1 and strong1 the    
heartwood     rich bright brown1 tinged 
with red1 the sapwood yellow4 ,the wood 
is     much like that of honey locust1  
and when used at all is employed in     
the same way4      ,,texas ,,locust     
7,gleditsia texana7 is of no importance 
as a timber     tree1 and deserves      
mention only because its extremely      
restricted     range gives it an        
interest4 ,it exists1 as far as known1  
in a single     grove on the bottom     
lands of the ,brazos river1 near        
,brazoria1 ,texas1     where some of the
 trees exceed #ajj feet in height1 and a
 diameter of     two4 ,the bark is      
smooth and thin1 the leaves resemble    
those of honey     locust1 and the pods 

are about one-third as long4            
,,huisache 7,acacia farnesiana7 is      
native along the ,rio ,grande in        
,texas1 but it is running wild in       
,florida from planted trees4 ,it is     
one of the most widely distributed      
species in the world1 both by           
natural dispersal and by planting2 and  
it is one of the handsomest     members 
of the large group of acacias which     
includes more than #djj     species4 ,it
 bears delicate double-compound leaves1 
small and     graceful4 ,a tree in full 
leaf in its native wilds along the ,rio 
,grande looks like a trembling fluffy   
mass of green silk4 ,nature     formed  
the tree for ornament1 not for timber4  
,it attains a height of     from twenty 
to forty feet1 diameter eighteen inches 
or less4 ,trunk     usually divides into
 several branches near the ground4      
,perhaps the     only place in this     
country where the wood is used is in    
southern     ,texas where is it called  
8cassie10 a shortening of acacia4 ,the  

wood     so much resembles mesquite that
 locally they are considered the        
same4 ,huisache warps and checks in     
seasoning1 but it is employed in     a  
small way for furniture1 usually as     
small table legs1 spindles1     knobs1  
and ornaments4 ,it takes high polish1   
and resembles the best     grades of    
black walnut1 but is much heavier1      
harder1 and stronger4     ,it is next to
 impossible to drive a nail into it     
without first     boring a hole4 ,when  
used as crossties1 holes must be bored  
for the     spikes4 ,the heartwood      
resists decay a long time1 but the thin 
sapwood is liable to be riddled by small
 boring insects1 which     seldom or    
never enter the heartwood4      ,,texas 
,,cat',s ,,claw 7,acacia wrightii7 is a 
hardluck tree of western     ,texas     
where it is usually found on dry1       
gravelly hills and in stony     ravines4
 ,its twice-compound leaves are among   
the smallest of the     acacias1 seldom 
exceeding two inches in length4 ,the    

fragrant1 light     yellow flowers      
appear from ,march to ,may1 and the     
short pods ripen in     midsummer1 but  
like so many trees of the pea family1   
they are in no     hurry to fall4 ,the  
largest trees are thirty feet high and  
one in     diameter1 but most people    
associate cat's claw with low1 tangled  
brush1 tough as wire1 and armed with    
curved thorns so strong that     their  
hold on clothing can hardly be broken4  
,when a cat's claw bush     strikes out 
to become a tree--which is              
infrequent--it grows rapidly4     ,it   
has been known to attain a diameter of  
nine inches in     twenty-three years4  
,the heart is dark in color and         
exceedingly hard4     ,the color varies 
from nearly red to nearly black1 and    
takes a polish     almost like ivory4   
,the thin yellow sapwood is preyed on by
 boring     insects4 ,heartwood is made 
into canes1 umbrella sticks1 tool       
handles1 rulers1 and turned novelties4  
,,devil',s ,,claw 7,acacia greggii7 has 

such paradoxical names as     paradise  
flower1 ramshorn1 and cat's claw4 ,it   
deserves them all     where it grows    
wild on the semi-deserts of the         
,southwest from ,texas     to           
,california4 ,the double-compound leaves
 are one or two inches     long1 its    
bright1 creamy-yellow and exquisitely   
fragrant flowers are     the glory of   
desert places1 while its masses of      
thorns readily     suggest the common   
name by which it is known4 ,the wood is 
scarce1     but extraordinarily fine4   
,it is dark rich red1 but clouded with  
streaks and patches of other shades1    
becoming at times gray1 at     others   
green4 ,no nail can be driven into it1  
and an ordinary gimlet     will hardly  
bore it4 ,it is so saturated with oil   
that it is greasy     to the touch4 ,it 
is manufactured into small articles1 but
 apparently     is not used outside of  
the locality where it grows4 ,the wood  
is     often contorted1 due to pits and 
cavities which slowly close as the      

tree advances in age4 ,they add to      
rather than detract from the     wood's 
beauty4  ,illustration     ,,coffee     
,,tree  ,illustration3 ,,coffee ,,tree  
,,coffeetree  7,gymnocladus ,dioicus7   
,this tree is scarce though its range   
covers several hundred thousand square  
miles1 from ,new ,york to ,minnesota1   
and from ,tennessee to ,oklahoma4 ,it   
never occurs in thick stands1 and       
usually the trees are widely scattered4 
,many districts of large size within the
 limits of its range appear to have     
none4  ,the names coffeetree and        
,kentucky coffeetree refer to the custom
 of the pioneers1 who settled the region
 south of the ,ohio river1 and who used 
the grotesque fruit as a substitute for 
coffee at a time when the genuine       
article could not be procured4 ,the seed
 is a very hard bean that can be        
procured in abundance1 where trees      
abound4  ,the beans were softened by    
roasting or parching1 and were then     
pounded into meal with hammers1 and     

boiled for coffee4 ,the beverage was    
black and bitter1 and a little of it    
would go a long way with a modern coffee
 drinker4 ,when the ,kentuckians were   
able to procure coffee they let the wild
 substitute alone4  ,the name was       
sometimes varied by calling it coffeenut
 or coffeenut tree1 and sometimes it was
 known as coffeebean and coffeebean     
tree4 ,it is less easy to explain why it
 was called mahogany in ,new ,york1 and 
virgilia in ,tennessee4 ,some knew it as
 the nicker tree1 but the reason for the
 name is not known4 ,stump tree was     
another of its names4 ,this was meant to
 be descriptive of the tree's appearance
 after it had shed its leaves4 ,it has  
remarkable foliage1 double compound     
leaves two or three feet long1 with four
 or five dozen leaflets4 ,when leaves   
fall in autumn it looks as if the tree  
is shedding its twigs2 and when all are 
down1 the stripped and barren appearance
 of the branches suggests the name stump
 tree4  ,the flowers are greenish-purple

 and are inconspicuous4 ,in this respect
 they differ from many trees of the pea 
family which are noted for their        
attractive bloom4 ,the fruit is among   
the largest of the tree pods of this    
country1 ranging in length from six to  
ten inches and from one and a half to   
two in width4 ,when fully grown they are
 heavy enough to make their presence    
felt if they drop on the heads of       
persons beneath4 ,they are slow to fall1
 however1 and it is not unusual for them
 to cling to the branches until late    
winter or early spring4  ,the coffeetree
 has been known to attain a diameter of 
five feet and a height of more than a   
hundred1 but the usual size is about    
half of that4 ,it prefers rich bottom   
lands1 and the trunks generally separate
 into several stems a few feet above the
 ground4 ,only one species exists in    
this country1 and as far as known1 only 
one other species elsewhere1 and that   
grows in southern ,china where it is    
said the natives make soap of the pods4 

,it is not known that any such          
utilization has been attempted in this  
country4  ,the coffeetree's range has   
been considerably extended by planting  
for ornament4 ,in summer it is          
attractive1 but from the first autumn   
frost until the leaves put out the      
following spring1 it is uninteresting4  
,the spring leaves are late1 and the    
branches are bare more than half the    
year4  ,the wood is heavy1 strong1 and  
durable in contact with the soil4 ,the  
heart is rich light brown1 tinged with  
red1 the sapwood thin and lighter       
colored4 ,annual rings are distinct4    
,the springwood is porous and wide1 the 
summerwood dense4 ,the medullary rays   
are inconspicuous and of no value in    
giving figure to the wood4 ,when the    
annual rings are cut diagonally across  
they give figure like that of ash4 ,the 
wood of the coffeetree has never been in
 much demand4 ,furniture makers may use 
it sometimes1 but specific instances of 
such use do not exist in manufacturers' 

reports4 ,there are many places in      
furniture and finish which it might fill
 in a satisfactory manner4  ,it is      
suitable for fence posts1 and that is   
where it commonly gives service4 ,it is 
occasionally employed as frame work in  
house and barn building1 but is not     
sought for that purpose1 and is used    
only when it happens to be at hand4     
,though the tree has the habit of       
branching1 some of the trunks grow tall 
and shapely1 and are good for two or    
three sawlogs or railcuts4 ,an          
occasional tree serves as fuel4         
,medicine is sometimes made of a        
decoction of the fresh green pulp of    
unripe pods2 and the leaves are reported
 to produce a fly poison if soaked in   
water4  ,,redbud 7,cercis canadensis7 is
 also known as ,judas tree1 red ,judas  
tree1 ,canadian ,judas tree1 and salad  
tree4 ,the last name refers to a custom 
in some parts of its range of making    
salad of the flowers4 ,it is the flower 
rather than the bud that is red and     

gives the tree its name1 the bloom being
 conspicuous in early spring4 ,the tree 
ranges from ,new ,jersey to ,missouri1  
,texas1 ,louisiana1 and ,florida1 but   
reaches its fullest development in      
southern ,arkansas1 ,oklahoma1 and      
eastern ,texas where trunks fifty feet  
high and a foot in diameter are found4  
,it is shrubby in many parts of its     
range4 ,leaves are not compound4 ,the   
fruit is a pink or rose-colored pod two 
or three inches in length1 and by some  
is considered nearly as ornamental      
though not as showy as the flowers4 ,no 
one ever thinks of redbud as a timber   
tree or considers its wood1 yet it might
 be used for a number of purposes4 ,it  
is heavy and hard1 but weak2 and the    
heartwood is rich dark brown tinged with
 red4 ,the tree is planted for ornament 
in this country and ,europe4  ,,texas   
,,redbud 7,cercis reniformis7 differs   
somewhat from the common redbud1 but it 
takes a botanist to point out the       
differences4 ,the largest trees are     

forty feet high and a foot in diameter2 
the range extends from eastern ,texas   
into ,mexico2 the wood closely resembles
 that of the other species1 and is not  
known to be used for any purpose4       
,,california ,,redbud 7,cercis          
occidentalis7 is often classed as a     
shrub1 but ,sudworth gives it a place   
among the forest trees of the ,pacific  
coast4 ,the pea-shaped flowers are a    
clear magenta color4 ,the pods turn     
purple when ripening but afterwards     
change to russet-brown4 ,the wood is    
dark yellowish-brown1 but because of the
 smallness of the trunks1 it can never  
be important4 ,the tree is found along  
the ,california mountains1 six hundred  
miles north and south2 is an abundant   
seeder1 and is valuable as a protection 
to slopes and ravines1 and as an        
ornament4  ,,horsebean 7,parkinsonia    
aculeata7 is generally called retama in 
the valley of the lower ,rio ,grande in 
,texas where the species attains its    
largest size4 ,trees are occasionally   

thirty feet high and a foot or more in  
diameter4 ,trunks usually separate in   
several stems near the ground4 ,the     
range extends from southern ,texas to   
,california1 and the species is         
naturalized in south ,florida1 the ,west
 ,indies1 and many tropical countries4  
,leaves vary in form1 and are           
occasionally eighteen inches long4      
,fruit consists of pods1 each containing
 from two to eight beans4 ,the yellow   
flowers are small and fragrant2 the bark
 on young twigs is green1 but on older  
trunks is brown4 ,the brown1 however1 is
 easily rubbed off1 exposing the green  
beneath1 as may be seen in school       
grounds in some of the southern towns in
 ,texas where this tree has been planted
 for ornament1 and abrasions1 due to    
children climbing about the spreading   
stems1 keep the bark green4 ,the upper  
branches are armed with thorns which    
discourage the climbing propensities of 
children4 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1     
tinged with yellow1 and is made into    

small novelties1 but is not of much     
importance4  ,,small-,,leaf ,,horsebean 
7,parkinsonia microphylla7 is well      
named1 for the compound leaves1 with    
four or six pairs of leaflets1 are about
 an inch long1 covered with hairs1 and  
fall at the end of a few weeks4         
,consequently1 the tree is bare most of 
the year1 except for the pale yellow    
flowers which appear in spring before   
the leaves1 and the clusters of striped 
pods1 each containing from one to three 
beans4 ,the pods are nearly always      
present1 for they have the pea family   
habit of adhering to the branches a long
 time4 ,trees reach a height of fifteen 
or twenty feet1 and a diameter of ten   
inches or less4 ,the wood is very hard  
and dense1 in color deep                
yellowish-brown1 often mottled and      
streaked with dull red2 the sapwood     
thick and yellow4 ,the wood is suitable 
for small articles1 but its scarcity    
renders it of little importance4 ,it is 
found in the deserts of southern        

,arizona and the adjacent parts of      
,california1 and is usually a small     
shrub4  ,,jamaica ,,dogwood             
7,ichthyomethia piscipula7 is the lone  
representative of the genus1 and is     
found in this country only in southern  
,florida4 ,it is not in the same family 
with the dogwoods1 and its name is      
misleading4 ,the ,carib ,indians        
formerly used the leaves to stupify fish
 and render them easier to catch2 hence 
the botanical name4 ,the leaves are     
compound1 but bear little resemblance to
 the foliage of most members of the pea 
family to which this tree belongs4 ,the 
flowers are the tree's chief source of  
beauty1 and are delicately clustered1   
hanging in bunches a foot long4 ,the    
fruit is a pod three or four inches     
long1 with four wings running the full  
length4 ,the wings are useless for      
flying4 ,trees are forty or fifty feet  
high and two or three feet in diameter2 
are common in southern ,florida and on  
the islands4 ,the wood is of            

considerable importance in the region   
where it grows but figures little in    
general markets4 ,it weighs #ed4dc      
pounds per cubic foot1 and is moderately
 strong and stiff4 ,in color it is a    
clear yellow-brown1 with thick1 lighter 
colored sapwood4 ,it is very durable in 
contact with the ground1 and in ,florida
 it is used for posts1 and occasionally 
for railway ties4 ,it has been commonly 
reported as a wood for boatbuilding in  
,florida1 but its importance for that   
purpose has probably been overstated1   
since an investigation of the           
boatbuilding industry in ,florida failed
 to find one foot of this wood in use1  
although some may be employed but not   
listed in reports4  ,illustration       
,,yellow-,,wood  ,illustration3         
,yellow-wood     ,,yellow-,,wood        
7,cladrastis ,lutea7   ,this wood's     
color is evidently responsible for its  
names yellow ash1 yellow locust1 and    
yellow-wood in ,tennessee1 ,north       
,carolina1 and ,kentucky1 but no reason 

is offered for the name gopherwood by   
which it is known in some parts of      
,tennessee4 ,the botanical name is based
 on the brittleness of the twigs4 ,it is
 the only species of the genus1 and it  
is not known to grow anywhere1 except by
 planting1 outside of ,kentucky1        
,tennessee1 ,alabama1 and ,north        
,carolina4  ,it occurs in an area not   
much exceeding #fj1jjj square miles1 and
 it is not abundant in that area4 ,it   
prefers limestone ridges and slopes1 and
 does best where the soil is fertile4   
,it often overhangs the banks of        
mountain streams1 and is most abundant  
and of largest size in the vicinity of  
,nashville1 ,tennessee1 where a few     
trees have reached a diameter of three  
or four feet and a height of fifty or   
sixty4 ,a diameter of eighteen or       
twenty-four inches is a good average4   
,the tree's habit of dividing six or    
seven feet from the ground into two or  
more stems is responsible for the       
scarcity of trunks suitable for saw     

timber1 even in localities where trees  
of large size are found4 ,however1 an   
occasional trunk develops a shapely     
form4 ,it goes to sawmills so seldom    
that it is never mentioned in statistics
 of lumber cut or wood-utilization4     
,most people who are acquainted with    
this tree1 know it as planted stock in  
parks and yards where it is a favorite  
on account of its flowers4 ,the bloom   
may properly be described as rare from  
two viewpoints4 ,the beauty of its large
 clusters of white flowers differs from 
those of all associated trees2 and it   
seldom blooms4 ,one year of plenty is   
generally followed by several lean      
years4 ,those who plant the tree        
understand this1 and feel amply repaid  
for the long wait1 when the flowering   
year arrives4 ,the planted tree is often
 known as virgilia1 that being the name 
under which nurseries sell it4 ,flowers 
appear about the middle of ,june1 in    
clusters a foot or more in length4 ,it  
is claimed1 but with what correctness   

cannot at present be stated1 that the   
odor of flowers of different trees      
varies greatly1 being faint with some1  
and strong and luxurious with others4   
,the leaves are compound1 but have no   
resemblance to those of locust and the  
acacias4 ,they are eight or twelve      
inches long1 with five or seven         
leaflets4 ,in autumn before falling they
 change to a clear yellow1 but adhere to
 the branches until rather late in the  
season4 ,the fruit1 which consists of   
small pods hanging in clusters1 is ripe 
in ,september4  ,yellow-wood is a little
 below white oak in strength and seven  
pounds per cubic foot under it in       
weight2 is hard1 compact1 and           
susceptible of a beautiful polish4      
,rings of yearly growth are clearly     
marked by rows of open ducts1 and       
contain many evenly-distributed smaller 
ducts4 ,the wood is bright1 clear       
yellow1 changing to brown on exposure2  
sapwood nearly white4 ,trunks of largest
 size are generally hollow or otherwise 

defective4  ,the uses of yellow-wood    
have been few4 ,in the days when        
families in remote regions were under   
the necessity of manufacturing1 growing1
 or otherwise producing nearly every    
commodity that entered into daily life1 
the settlers among the mountains of     
,kentucky and ,tennessee discovered that
 the wood of this tree1 particularly the
 roots1 yielded a clear1 yellow dye4    
,the process of manufacture was simple4 
,the wood was reduced to chips with an  
ordinary ax1 and the chips were boiled  
until the yellow coloring matter was    
extracted4 ,the resulting liquor was the
 dye1 and it gave the yellow stripe to  
many a piece of home-made cloth in the  
cabins of mountaineers4  ,the women     
usually attended to the dye making and  
the manufacture of yarn and cloth2 but  
the men found a way to utilize          
yellow-wood in producing an article once
 so common in ,tennessee and ,kentucky  
that no cabin was without it--the trusty
 rifle4 ,the gunsmith1 assisted by the  

blacksmith1 made the barrel and the     
other metal parts1 but the hunter       
generally was able to whittle out the   
wooden stock4 ,yellow-wood's lightness1 
strength1 and color suited the gun stock
 maker's purpose1 and he slowly hewed   
and whittled the article1 fitted it to  
the barrel1 adjusted it to his shoulder1
 and completed a weapon which never     
failed the owner in time of need4       
,,frijolito 7,sophora secundiflora7 is  
found in ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and      
southward in ,mexico4 ,the name is      
,spanish and means 8little bean40 ,a    
common name for it in ,english is coral 
bean4 ,sophora is said to be an ,arabic 
word of uncertain meaning1 except that  
it refers to some kind of a tree that   
bears pods4 ,it is a species1 therefore1
 which draws its names from four        
languages1 while the name applied to it 
by ,comanche ,indians is translated     
8sleep-bush40 ,the bright scarlet seeds1
 as large as beans1 but in shape like   
door-knobs1 grow from one to eight in a 

pod1 and contain a narcotic poison1     
8sophorin40 ,it is probable that        
,indians discovered that the beans1 if  
eaten1 produced sleep1 hence the name4  
,the tree is from twenty-five to        
thirty-five feet high1 and from six to  
ten inches in diameter4 ,the leaves are 
compound1 and consist of seven or nine  
leaflets4 ,the small1 violet-blue       
flowers appear in early spring4 ,they   
are not conspicuous1 but their presence 
cannot escape the notice of a traveler  
in the dry1 semi-barren canyons and on  
the bluffs where the tree holds its     
ground4 ,their odor calls attention to  
their presence4 ,the perfume is powerful
 but pleasant1 unless the contact is too
 close4 ,the pods are from one to seven 
inches long1 and hang on the boughs     
until late winter4 ,it is not believed  
that birds or mammals distribute the    
seeds1 as their poison renders them     
unfit for food4 ,running water appears  
to be the principal agent of            
distribution4 ,the tree reaches its     

largest size in the vicinity of         
,metagorda bay1 ,texas4 ,among the dry  
western canyons it is usually a shrub4  
,the small size of this tree stands in  
the way of extensive use of the wood4   
,it burns well and its principal        
importance is as fuel4 ,the weight is   
#fa4cd pounds per cubic foot2 it is     
hard1 compact1 susceptible of a         
beautiful polish2 medullary rays are    
numerous and thin2 color is orange1     
streaked with red1 the sapwood brown or 
yellow4 ,the wood is worked into a few  
small articles4  ,,sophora 7,sophora    
affinis7 ranges through portions of     
,arkansas and ,texas4 ,it is popularly  
supposed to be a locust1 and is called  
pink locust or beaded locust1 the first 
name based on the color of the wood1 the
 last on the appearance of the pod which
 looks like a short string of beads1    
sometimes three inches in length1 but   
usually shorter4 ,in early times the    
pioneers manufactured ink from the pods4
 ,it was a fairly serviceable article1  

but was never sold1 each family making  
its own4 ,this tree's flowers appear in 
early spring with the leaves4 ,trunks   
reach a height of twenty feet and a     
diameter of eight or ten inches2 but the
 habit of separating into several stems 
a few feet above the ground lessens the 
use of the wood1 even as posts1 for the 
stems are usually very crooked4 ,the    
tree's preferred habitat is on limestone
 bluffs1 or along the borders of        
streams1 or in depressions in the       
prairie where small groves often occur4 
,the wood weighs fifty-three pounds per 
cubic foot1 and is very hard and strong4
 ,the annual rings are clearly marked   
with bands of large1 open pores2        
medullary rays are thin and             
inconspicuous2 color of the heartwood   
light red1 the sapwood yellow4 ,the wood
 is not sawed into lumber1 but is       
whittled into canes and tool handles4   
,,greenbark ,,acacia 7,cercidium        
floridum7 is properly named4 ,its green 
bark makes up for its scarcity of       

leaves1 and answers the purpose of      
foliage4 ,the manufacture of the tree's 
food goes on in the bark1 because the   
leaves are too small to do the work4    
,the foliage resembles that of locust   
and acacia in form1 but the compound    
leaves are about an inch in length1 and 
the leaflets are one-sixteenth of an    
inch long4 ,flowers are small1 but the  
tree puts on three or four crops of them
 in a single summer4 ,the pods are two  
inches long4 ,the tree is found in the  
,united ,states only in the south and   
west of ,texas1 where it is occasionally
 called palo verde4 ,it attains a height
 of twenty feet and a diameter of ten   
inches when at its best4 ,the wood is   
pale yellow tinged with green1 and1     
because of small size1 is of little     
importance4  ,,palo ,,verde 7,cercidium 
torreyanum7 sheds its leaves and its    
pods so early in the season that its    
branches are bare most of the year4     
,trees are from fifteen to thirty feet  
high1 and some are considerably more    

than a foot in diameter4 ,its range     
covers a portion of southern            
,california1 the lower part of the ,gila
 valley in ,arizona1 and extends        
southward into ,mexico4 ,it is a typical
 tree of the desert1 and its extreme    
poverty of foliage enables it to live in
 a dry1 hot climate4 ,it clings to the  
sides of desert gulches and canyons1    
ekes out a dreary life in depressions   
among desolate dunes and hills of sand  
and gravel1 and spends its allotted     
period of years in solitude1 growing    
either singly or in small groups where  
the full foliage at the best time of    
year is insufficient to offer much      
obstruction to the full glare of the sun
 from a cloudless sky4 ,the small       
flowers have little beauty or sweetness1
 but what they have is wasted on the    
desert air4 ,wayfarers in the barren    
country use the wood for camp fires4    
,,indigo ,,thorn 7,dalea spinosa7       
receives its name from the color of     
its flowers which appear in ,june4 ,the 

tree has few leaves and they     fall in
 a short time4 ,this appears to be a    
provision of nature to     enable the   
tree to endure the heat and dryness of  
its desert home4     ,its range covers  
the lower ,gila valley in ,arizona1 and 
extends into     the ,colorado desert in
 southern ,california4 ,it is not       
abundant1 and     if it were1 it is of a
 size so small that it is practically   
valueless for commercial purposes4 ,some
 trees are a foot in diameter     and   
twenty feet high4 ,the wood is light1   
soft1 and of a rich     chocolate-brown 
color4 ,it is known also as indigo bush 
and dalea4      ,,eysenhardtia          
7,eysenhardtia orthocarpa7 is so little 
known that it     has no ,english name4 
,it grows from western ,texas to        
southern     ,arizona1 but reaches tree 
size only near the summit of ,santa     
,catalina mountains in ,arizona where it
 is twenty feet or less in     height   
and seldom more than eight inches in    
diameter4 ,it inhabits an     arid      

region1 and bears fruit sparingly1 with 
usually a single seed     in a pod4 ,the
 wood is heavy and hard1 light          
reddish-brown in color1     with thin   
yellow sap4 ,it is not of commercial    
importance and     probably never will  
be4  ,illustration     ,,mesquite       
,illustration3 ,,mesquite     ,,mesquite
  7,prosopis ,juliflora7   ,there are   
known to be sixteen species at least of 
mesquite in the world1 in ,asia1        
,africa1 and ,north and ,south ,america4
 ,the one here considered has a         
geographical range of at least seven    
thousand miles north and south1 from    
,kansas to ,patagonia1 and an east and  
west range of four thousand miles1 if   
the naturalized growth in ,hawaii may be
 considered the western outpost of the  
species4#g      #g ,botanists have had  
much controversy among themselves       
concerning     mesquite1 particularly as
 to what is its correct name4 ,in giving
 in     these pages some of the         
important facts concerning this         

interesting     tree1 or group of       
species and varieties1 it is not        
necessary to     touch the points in    
dispute4  ,the generic name prosopis is 
a ,greek word meaning 8burdock20 the    
rest of the botanical name is ,latin1   
meaning 8,july flower40 ,mesquite is an 
,aztec word 7mezquitl71 coming down     
through the ,spanish4 ,other names for  
the tree are algaroba1 honey locust1    
honey pod1 and ironwood4  ,the largest  
size of mesquite is found along the ,rio
 ,grande in southern ,texas where trees 
three feet in diameter and fifty feet   
high are found1 but individuals of that 
size are rare4 ,the species is supposed 
not to extend west of ,new ,mexico1 but 
varieties grow farther west4  ,the      
leaves are compound1 with twenty or more
 leaflets4 ,the foliage is thin and     
casts a penumbrous shadow2 trees        
generally occur wide apart1 and there is
 enough sunshine reaching the ground to 
satisfy grass and other plants growing  
there4 ,the pods are from four to nine  

inches long1 and each contains from ten 
to twenty seeds4 ,the principal growth  
of this tree in the ,united ,states is  
in ,texas4 ,it has been planted in      
,hawaii and has run wild in some of the 
islands of the group4 ,it is of slow    
growth1 but of remarkable vitality1     
holds its own1 and gains ground in the  
face of obstacles4  ,persons well       
acquainted with conditions in ,texas1   
both past and present1 say that the     
mesquite area is at least double now    
what it was when the state came into the
 ,union4 ,old stands were scattered here
 and there1 but hundreds of square miles
 which were in grass only1 and little of
 that1 half a century ago1 now support  
forests of mesquite4 ,it is perhaps a   
misnomer to designate some of these     
stands as forests1 for they present a   
rather ragged and sorry appearance1 but 
they are forests in the process of      
forming4 ,the old growth1 which is found
 principally in the counties bordering  
on the lower ,rio ,grande1 is made up of

 trunks of large size1 but the stands   
that have come on within the past fifty 
or sixty years are of smaller trees4 ,a 
large mesquite trunk is from one to     
three feet in diameter2 a small one from
 one foot down to an inch or two4 ,a    
person would need to hunt from center to
 circumference of ,texas to find many   
mesquite trunks that would make a       
straight sawlog twelve feet long4 ,the  
tree is generally one of the most       
crooked1 deformed and unpromising in the
 whole country2 and its habit of        
dividing into forks near the ground1    
like a peach tree1 makes it still more  
difficult to make use of4 ,in fact1 in  
winter when mesquite trees are bare of  
leaves the appearance of a forest       
reminds the observer of an old1         
neglected1 diseased1 moss-grown peach   
orchard in the eastern states2 but in   
summer the leaves conceal much of the   
trunk scaliness and deformity1 and there
 is something positively restful and    
attractive in the prospect of a wide    

range of these trees1 covering hills and
 prairies4 ,the leaves are compound like
 the acacias1 and are delicate and      
graceful4  ,the spread of mesquite in   
the last fifty or seventy-five years has
 been attributed to the checking of     
grass fires which ,indians once set     
yearly to keep the prairies open4 ,the  
dispersion of the trees is facilitated  
by the scattering of seeds by cattle    
which feed on the pods4 ,it is a tree   
hard to kill4 ,roots send up sprouts    
year after year during long periods4    
,sometimes1 but not often in ,texas1    
when adverse circumstances become so    
severe that the mesquite tree can no    
longer survive above the surface1 it    
grows beneath the ground1 sending only a
 few sprouts up for air4 8,dig for wood0
 is a term applied to trees of that     
kind1 when fuel is dragged out with     
mattocks1 grab hooks1 and oxen4  ,the   
roots of the mesquite penetrate farther 
beneath the surface for water than any  
other known tree in this country4       

,depths of fifty or sixty feet are      
occasionally reached4 ,well diggers on  
the frontiers learned to go to the      
mesquite for water4 ,large trunks never 
develop unless their roots are          
abundantly supplied with moisture4      
,railroad engineers on the 8,staked     
,plains0 of northwestern ,texas turned  
that knowledge to account in boring     
wells4  ,though mesquite is seldom or   
never mentioned in the lumber business1 
it is and has been one of the most      
important trees of the region4 ,its fuel
 value is very great4 ,it has cooked    
more food1 warmed more buildings1 burned
 more bricks1 than any other wood in    
,texas4 ,the tannic acid in it injures  
boilers and it is not much used for     
steam purposes4 ,it is very high in ash4
 ,a cord of mesquite wood when burned   
leaves from ninety to one hundred pounds
 of ashes4 ,this exceeds five fold the  
ashes left when white oak is burned4    
,mesquite is a high-grade furniture     
material1 though it is difficult to work

 because of its exceeding hardness4     
,ordinary wood-working tools and        
machinery will not stand it4 ,suites of 
nine pieces are sold in some            
southwestern cities at #bjj or #cjj4    
,the merchants find difficulty in       
getting mesquite furniture made4        
,factories do not want to handle it1    
though the articles sell higher than    
mahogany4 ,large1 heavy tables1 deeply  
carved1 are sold in some of the cities1 
but all seem to be made to order and    
largely by hand4 ,the appearance of the 
polished and finished wood is a little  
lighter in color than mahogany4 ,it is  
not uniform in color1 but shades from   
tone to tone in the same piece4 ,a      
little of the lighter colored sapwood is
 worked in with pleasing effect4 ,some  
of the tones resemble black walnut1 and 
some suggest the luster of polished     
cherry4  ,mesquite is brittle4 ,pieces  
of large size may be broken by a few    
blows with an ax4 ,it has about half the
 strength of white oak1 and is very low 

in elasticity4 ,the wood has been used  
for two hundred years--possibly for     
thousands of years--as beams and sills  
for adobe houses2 but it is not required
 to carry much weight4 ,spaniards       
employed it in building their churches  
and forts within its range4 ,a timber   
taken from the ,alamo1 at ,san ,antonio1
 ,texas1 in #aiab1 was said to have     
served more than #aij years with no sign
 of decay4 ,fence posts survive the men 
who set them4 ,paving blocks outlast    
sandstone subjected to the same use4    
,railroads in southern ,texas employ    
this wood for crossties1 but it is so   
hard that holes must be bored for the   
spikes4  ,mesquite baskets are made by  
hand of splits the size of knitting     
needles1 some of white sapwood1 others  
of dark heartwood4 ,such baskets1 large 
enough to contain five quarts1 sell in  
the curio shops at ,san ,antonio for    
#a4be each4 ,some wagon makers insist   
that mesquite is in the same class with 
,osage orange for wagon felloes in hot1 

dry regions2 but it does not appear that
 much of it is so used4 ,the brittleness
 of the wood is against it1 in use as   
felloes1 except for vehicles of the     
heaviest sort where large pieces are    
demanded4  ,among the uses of mesquite1 
by-products are an important            
consideration4 ,the pods are food for   
farm stock4 ,before the first railroad  
reached ,san ,antonio mesquite pods were
 a regular market commodity4 ,the       
,mexicans know how to make bread and    
brew beer from the fruit2 tan leather   
with the resin2 dye leather1 cloth1 and 
crockery with the tree's sap2 make ropes
 and baskets of the bark4 ,parched pods 
are a substitute for coffee2 bees store 
honey from the bloom which remains two  
months on the trees2 riled water is     
purified with a decoction of mesquite   
chips2 vinegar is made from the         
fermented juice of the legumes2 tomales 
of mesquite bean meal1 pepper1 chicken1 
and cornshucks2 mucilage from the gum2  
and candy and gum drops from the dried  

sap4  ,one of the most promising uses   
for this wood is in turnery4 ,short     
lengths can be utilized to advantage4   
,the artistic color fits it for the     
manufacture of lodge gavels1 curtain    
rings1 goblets1 plaques1 trays1 and     
numerous kinds of novelties4 ,spindles  
for grills and stairways do not suffer  
in comparison with black walnut1        
mahogany1 cherry1 and teak4 ,the wood is
 porous1 annual rings narrow and        
indistinct1 and the medullary rays thin 
and inconspicuous4  ,a variety          
7,prosopis juliflora glandulosa7 is     
found from ,kansas to eastern ,texas1   
and also in ,arizona and ,california4   
,it is the common mesquite of eastern   
,texas4 ,another variety 7,prosopis     
juliflora velutina7 occurs in some of   
the hot valleys of southern ,arizona and
 southward in ,mexico4      ,,screwbean 
7,prosopis odorata7 is known also as    
screwpod mesquite1     and tornillo4    
,the name is due to the pod's habit of  
growing in     spiral form1 there being 

a dozen or more tight twists4 ,the      
flowers     appear in early spring and  
new crops follow until summer4 ,the pods
     ripen early in autumn or late in   
summer1 and many become infested        
with grubs4 ,the tree is from           
twenty-five to thirty feet high1 and a  
foot or less in diameter4 ,its range    
extends from western ,texas and         
,utah and ,nevada through ,new ,mexico  
and ,arizona to southern                
,california4 ,the wood is stronger and  
stiffer than common mesquite1     but a 
little lighter4 ,its uses are much the  
same1 and it has the     same habits of 
growth1 including its disposition to    
develop enormous     roots4 ,the name   
might lead to the conclusion that the   
flower is rich     in perfume1 but such 
is not the case4 ,the tree grows slowly 
and     lives to old age1 if it escapes 
fire and other accidents4      ,,chalky 
,,leuc,,na 7,leucna pulverulenta71      
commonly called mimosa1     occurs in   
the ,united ,states only in southern    

,texas1 but is somewhat     abundant in 
,mexico1 where trees sixty feet high and
 nearly two feet     in diameter are    
sometimes manufactured into lumber4     
,along the ,rio     ,grande it is called
 8tepeguaja0 by ,mexicans4 ,this name is
 said to be     equivalent to           
8hardwood10 which is an appropriate     
name4 ,it is very     smooth and        
handsome when finished1 and is used for 
tool handles1     small spindles1       
grills1 and other small articles1       
particularly     products of the lathe4 
,in color it resembles the lighter      
shades of     mahogany2 weighs about    
forty-two pounds per cubic foot2 foliage
     extremely delicate and the tree is 
highly valuable for ornamental          
purposes4 ,it has been planted outside  
of its natural range4 ,the pods         
sometimes exceed a foot in length4      
,,leuc,,na 7,leucna glauca7 is small and
 probably will never be of     much     
importance4 ,trunks are seldom more than
 five inches in diameter     and twenty 

feet high4 ,the tree grows in canyons   
and ravines in     western ,texas4 ,the 
compound leaves are six or seven inches 
long1     with thirty or less pairs of  
leaflets2 fruit is a pod six or eight   
inches long4 ,the rich brown wood is    
streaked with red4  ,illustration       
,,sweet ,,birch  ,illustration3 ,,sweet 
,,birch     ,,sweet ,,birch  7,betula   
,lenta7   ,ten species of birch occur in
 the ,united ,states1 including ,alaska4
 ,six are eastern and four western4#h   
,sweet birch is known by that name in   
many localities1 but in others as black 
birch1 cherry birch1 river birch1       
mahogany birch1 and mountain mahogany4  
,its range extends from ,newfoundland to
 northwestern ,ontario1 south to        
southern ,indiana1 ,kentucky1 and along 
the ,appalachian mountains to ,tennessee
 and ,north ,carolina4 ,probably the    
best development of the species is found
 in the ,adirondack region of northern  
,new ,york1 in the northern peninsula of
 ,michigan1 through southern ,ontario1  

and along the mountain ranges southward 
through ,pennsylvania and ,west         
,virginia4      #h ,the eastern species1
 which do not extend west of the        
continental     divide1 are1 ,sweet     
,birch 7,betula lenta71 ,yellow ,birch  
7,betula     lutea71 ,river ,birch      
7,betula nigra71 ,paper ,birch 7,betula 
papyrifera71 ,white ,birch 7,betula     
populifolia7 and ,blue ,birch           
7,betula crulea74 ,the western birches1 
none of which are known to     extend   
much east of the continental divide1    
are3 ,western ,birch     7,betula       
occidentalis71 ,mountain ,birch 7,betula
 fontinalis71 ,white     ,alaska ,birch 
7,betula alaskana71 and ,kenai ,birch   
7,betula     kenaica74 ,the last two    
occur in ,alaska1 but not in ,united    
,states     proper4  ,it attains a      
height of seventy or eighty feet1 and a 
diameter of two or three4 ,it prefers   
deep1 moist1 rich soil1 but will grow in
 comparatively dry1 rocky ground4 ,its  
seeds are produced in large numbers and 

are scattered by the wind a hundred feet
 or more from the parent tree4 ,they    
lack the wing power and the buoyancy of 
the seeds of some of the other birches1 
but they manage to get themselves sown  
in sufficient numbers1 and their powers 
of germination are good4  ,the young    
seedling comes into existence with      
smooth bark1 but it does not keep it    
through life4 ,as age increases1 the    
bark becomes rough and black4 ,it is not
 shed in papery rolls and flakes as is  
the bark of river birch1 yellow birch1  
and paper birch1 with which it is       
associated in some parts of its range4  
,it is generally an easy tree to        
identify and the black1 rough bark is   
generally a sufficient guide4  ,the     
sweet birch is tapped like sugar maple1 
but not for the same purpose or to the  
same extent--only an occasional tree4   
,immense quantities of sap will flow    
from it during the two or three weeks   
when the buds are swelling in the       
spring4 ,it is said that as much as two 

tons has been known to flow from a      
medium sized birch in a single season4  
,the sap is made into a beer which has  
some commercial value1 but is chiefly   
used locally4 ,one of the ways of making
 it1 employed by farmers and woodsmen1  
is to jug the sap1 put in a handful of  
shelled corn1 and let fermentation do   
the rest4  ,a substance known in        
commerce as oil of wintergreen is       
procured almost exclusively from this   
birch1 though occasionally it is made   
from the small wintergreen plant        
7,gaultheria procumbens74 ,the product  
is manufactured in very crude stills    
made by mountaineers in ,pennsylvania   
and southward along the mountains where 
sweet birch is abundant4 ,frequently the
 woodsman's whole family go into the    
business1 chopping down birch bushes and
 hacking them with hatchets into chips  
of the desired sizes4 ,the oil is       
extracted from the hogged mass by a     
steaming and roasting process4 ,it is   
sold by the quart to country            

storekeepers who ship it to wholesale   
druggists where it is refined and used  
to flavor candy1 medicine1 and drugs4   
,the woodsman who manufactures the oil  
prefers young birches from half an inch 
to two or three inches in diameter1 and 
he usually procures them in old logging 
grounds where seedlings have sprung up4 
,it is said that on an average one      
hundred small birch trees are destroyed 
for each quart of oil that goes to      
market4 ,it is a process wasteful in the
 extreme4  ,in the open ground1 sweet   
birch develops a full crown1 short      
trunk1 abundance of limbs1 with numerous
 slender1 graceful twigs and small      
branches4 ,its leaves form a dense mass1
 and they are so free from attacks by   
insects and worms that diseased foliage 
is unusual4 ,that cannot be said1       
however1 of the trunk4 ,it is not       
particularly liable to disease1 but many
 old trees show the results of decay4   
,it is of slow growth1 and a small tree 
may be much older than its size         

indicates4 ,the sapwood is generally    
thick1 heartwood forms slowly1 and the  
contrast in color between sap and heart 
is strong4  ,the wood of sweet birch had
 few uses in early times1 except fuel4  
,the pioneer sawmill had little to do   
with it4 ,lumber was hard to saw and was
 seasoned with difficulty4 ,its tendency
 to warp was too great a tax on the     
lumberman's patience and ingenuity4 ,the
 only way he could hold it straight was 
to cob a few layers in the bottom of a  
pile1 and stack thousands of feet of    
other lumber on top1 and leave it a year
 or two4 ,that was generally too much   
trouble1 particularly when the wood had 
slow sale1 and the price was low4 ,birch
 reached market in large quantities only
 when modern mills and improved drykilns
 came into existence4  ,the wood is     
heavy1 strong1 hard1 in color dark brown
 tinged with red4 ,the light brown or   
yellow sapwood generally makes up       
seventy or eighty annual rings4 ,the    
difference between springwood and that  

of the later season is not clearly      
marked1 and consequently the rings are  
often indistinct4 ,the wood is very     
porous1 and the pores are diffused      
through all parts of the ring4 ,they are
 too small to be seen with the naked    
eye1 except under the most favorable    
conditions4 ,the medullary rays are     
numerous but so small that they appear  
on the quartered wood merely as a gloss1
 which1 however1 gives the surface a    
rich appearance4  ,forms known as curly 
and wavy birch are highly esteemed4     
,they are accidents of growth1 well     
developed in birch1 and occurring in    
several other woods4 ,difficulties are  
encountered in assigning sweet birch its
 individual place in the industrial     
world4 ,as a tree it is well known1 but 
that is not the case when its lumber    
goes to market4 ,the sweet birch log    
goes into the sawmill1 but when the     
lumber goes out at the other end of the 
mill1 it is often simply birch having   
lost the adjective 8sweet0 somewhere in 

the operation4 ,the reason is that sweet
 birch and yellow birch1 quite distinct 
in the forest1 are often mixed and      
become one1 to all intents and purposes1
 when they reach the market4 ,that is   
not always the case1 but it frequently  
is4 ,something depends on the region4   
,the yellow birch's range is more       
extensive1 and in areas where it is     
abundant1 and sweet birch is not1 it    
prevails in the lumber markets4 ,but    
south and southeast of the great lakes1 
as well as in the northeastern part of  
the country1 the two species mingle1 and
 they are apt to go to market simply as 
birch4 ,the woods may be distinguished  
by a microscopic examination1 but the   
ordinary observer would make many       
mistakes if he attempted to tell one    
from the other in the lumber yard4  ,the
 two woods are different in several     
physical properties4 ,both are heavy1   
but sweet birch weighs #dg4dg pounds per
 cubic foot1 while yellow birch weighs  
only #dj4hd pounds1 according to tests  

averaged by ,sargent4 ,yellow birch     
rates a little above the other in       
breaking strength4 ,both are very stiff1
 but yellow birch rates superior4 ,in   
most respects the two woods are put to  
similar uses--flooring1 interior finish1
 furniture--but for some purposes sweet 
birch is preferred4 ,it is substituted  
oftener for cherry and mahogany1 and for
 that reason is known as cherry birch or
 mahogany birch4 ,its color makes the   
substitution easy1 and the appearance of
 the grain1 with a little doctoring with
 stains and fillers1 helps in the       
deception4 ,the buyer may be deceived as
 to the exact kind of wood he is        
getting1 but he is not cheated in the   
quality4 ,birch is substituted where    
strength is required1 as in the rails of
 beds1 the frames of sofas1 davenports1 
large chairs1 and certain parts of large
 musical instruments4 ,it is much       
stronger1 and fully as hard as cherry or
 mahogany1 and as its appearance is so  
much like them1 the article is actually 

better on account of the substitution4  
,sweet birch is largely employed for    
various parts of vehicle manufacture1   
particularly for wagon hubs and frames  
of automobiles4 ,it is also much used in
 the manufacture of sleds1 boats1 and   
handles4  ,the demand is heavy and the  
supply is diminishing4 ,the tree is of  
such slow growth that few timber owners 
will be inclined to wait for a second   
crop1 after the old trees have been cut1
 since #aej years are necessary under   
forest conditions to produce a          
merchantable tree4      ,,sonora        
,,ironwood 7,olneya tesota7 is a desert 
tree1 and the only     representative of
 the genus4 ,it takes its name from the 
,mexican     state where it is most     
abundant and where it was discovered in 
#aheb4     ,it grows in southern        
,california and ,arizona1 and there it  
thrives in     gulches and depressions  
in the desert1 frequently associated    
with     mesquite4 ,it is so heavy that 
perfectly dry wood will sink in water4  

,the heartwood is deep chocolate-brown1 
mottled with red1 the thin     sapwood  
is lemon-yellow4 ,its hardness renders  
it difficult to work1     and it can    
scarcely be split4 ,the wood is made    
into canes and other     small articles 
of great beauty4 ,it is not abundant1   
and the small     supply is remote from 
manufacturing centers2 otherwise it     
would be     more valuable4 ,it is      
excellent fuel1 but it is burned chiefly
 by     stockmen and miners in their    
camps4 ,the largest trees are thirty    
feet high and eighteen inches in        
diameter4 ,it is an evergreen1 and      
its pea-like flowers brighten many a    
remote desert place4      ,,wild        
,,tamarind 7,lysiloma latisiliqua7 is   
forty or fifty feet high1     two or    
three in diameter1 grows in southern    
,florida1 and has     double-compound   
leaves1 four or five inches long4 ,the  
fruit is a pod     one inch wide and    
five or less in length4 ,the wood weighs
 forty     pounds to the cubic foot1 is 

neither strong nor tough1 very low in   
elasticity1 is rich dark brown tinged   
with red1 the sapwood white4     ,it has
 been reported for boatbuilding1 and    
claims have been made     that it is    
equal to mahogany for that purpose1 but 
the claim is of     doubtful validity1  
in view of the rather poor showing it   
makes in     several physical           
properties1 though it takes good polish4
  ,illustration     ,,yellow ,,birch    
,illustration3 ,,yellow ,,birch         
,,yellow ,,birch  7,betula ,lutea7      
,there is little likelihood of mistaking
 the yellow birch for any other as it   
stands in the woods4 ,its points of     
individuality may be discovered on      
slight acquaintance1 and there is little
 need of studying leaves1 flowers1 and  
fruit to find ways of distinguishing    
this birch from other members of the    
family4 ,its tattered1 yellow and gray  
bark fixes it in the memory of all who  
have seen it a few times4 ,two other    
eastern birches have tattered1 curling  

bark also1 but they do not look like    
this4 ,they are the paper birch and the 
river birch4 ,the former is too white to
 be mistaken for yellow birch1 and the  
river birch is too much the color of    
bronze or copper4 ,yellow birch is named
 from the color of its bark1 the part   
which shows when the outer layers break 
and roll back1 disclosing the fresh1    
smooth1 satiny layers below4 ,sometimes 
the tree is called silver birch1 gray   
birch1 or swamp birch4  ,its geographic 
range is bounded by a line drawn from   
,newfoundland to northern ,minnesota1   
southward through the ,lake ,states1 and
 along the ,atlantic coast to ,delaware4
 ,it follows the ,appalachian ranges of 
mountains to eastern ,tennessee and     
western ,north ,carolina4 ,generally the
 tree is small near the southern limit  
of its range4 ,the best grows in        
,michigan and ,wisconsin1 but it is of  
considerable importance in ,minnesota4  
,few trees are better equipped than     
yellow birch to perpetuate their        

species4 ,it is an abundant seeder1 and 
the seeds are light1 winged1 and they   
are scattered by wind over long         
distances4 ,sometimes they are carried  
miles4 ,of course1 most of them fall in 
unfavorable places1 and either do not   
germinate or perish soon after2 but they
 are not particularly choice in         
situations1 and will grow on bare       
mineral soil1 even in old fields1 where 
they are flooded with sunshine1 or they 
will grow in deep shade where a beam of 
sunlight seldom touches them4 ,they     
often germinate without touching mineral
 soil1 and take root quickly and grow   
vigorously4  ,it is not unusual in the  
northern part of the tree's range1 and  
on high mountains farther south1 to see 
yellow birches standing on high1        
spreading roots1 two1 three1 or four    
feet above the ground4 ,that peculiar   
attitude is brought about by the manner 
in which the seed begins to grow4 ,it   
falls on moss which occupies the top of 
a log or a stump4 ,the moss in the deep 

shade retains much moisture1 and the    
seed germinates1 grows1 sends roots down
 the sides of the log or the stump until
 they strike mineral soil1 and become   
firmly fixed4 ,in course of time the log
 or stump decays1 and the spreading     
roots continue to sustain the trunk1    
high above the ground4 ,this attitude of
 the yellow birch tree is very common in
 damp woods4 ,occasionally the seed     
finds lodgment in the moss on top of a  
large rock4 ,the roots descend the sides
 until they reach the ground1 and as the
 rock does not decay1 the tree grows to 
maturity on the rock4 ,the most         
favorable seed bed for this species is a
 mass of rotten wood where a log has    
decayed and fallen to pieces4           
,frequently such a plot is covered with 
yellow birch seedlings4 ,they have the  
space all to themselves1 because the    
seeds of few trees or plants will grow  
in rotten wood1 unmixed with mineral    
soil4  ,the trunk of yellow birch       
averages a little smaller than that of  

sweet birch1 but may equal it in some   
instances4 ,trees reach a height of #ajj
 feet and a diameter of three or four1  
but a more common size1 even in the     
regions of best development1 is a height
 of sixty or seventy feet1 and a        
diameter of two or less4  ,yellow birch 
was a long time coming into use4 ,one of
 the first things learned about it by   
early settlers in the region where it   
was abundant1 was that it decays quickly
 in situations alternately wet and dry4 
,that prejudiced the woodsmen against   
it1 and they were not disposed to give  
it a fair trial1 as long as there was   
plenty of other timber4 ,all birches are
 subject to quick decay1 if conditions  
are right to produce it4 ,yellow birch  
in the woods sometimes dies standing1   
and when that happens1 the wood falls to
 pieces so quickly that the bark may    
remain standing with very little inside 
of it except powder of decayed wood4    
,this tree is seldom mentioned in early 
accounts of lumber operations1 and      

practically never with a good word4     
,operators generally left it standing   
when they cut the timber which grew with
 it4  ,yellow birch is heavy1 very      
strong1 hard1 light brown tinged with   
red1 with thin1 nearly white sapwood4   
,the color of the heartwood varies      
considerably4 ,the pores are very       
numerous1 rather small1 and are         
scattered through the wood with little  
tendency to run in bands or groups4 ,the
 springwood blends gradually with the   
summerwood in a way to make the         
boundaries of the annual rings somewhat 
indistinct4 ,medullary rays are         
numerous1 but very thin and obscure4    
,quarter-sawing adds little or nothing  
to the appearance of the wood4 ,it has  
poor figure1 except an occasional tree  
with wavy or curly grain1 or with burls4
  ,the wood may be readily stained4 ,the
 pores hold the coloring matter applied1
 and by varying the application1 the    
appearance of the surface can be varied4
 ,the colors of mahogany and of cherry  

are easily imparted1 and yellow birch   
often imitates those woods4  ,vehicle   
makers choose this wood for its strength
 and elasticity4 ,in the ,north it is   
manufactured into frames for cutters and
 sleighs of all kinds4 ,it is a         
competitor of sugar maple for that      
purpose4 ,hubs are made of it for       
horse-drawn vehicles1 and its hardness  
gives long wear where the spokes are    
inserted4 ,that is one of the first     
points of failure when a soft1 inferior 
wood is used for hubs4 ,the spokes work 
loose4  ,manufacturers of automobiles   
have tried out yellow birch as material 
for frames2 it has stood the test1 and  
is much used in competition with other  
woods4 ,the amount demanded for that    
purpose is not necessarily large1 but it
 must be the best wood that can be had4 
,this material reaches the markets in   
all grades4 ,large amounts are used for 
packing boxes1 crates1 and shipping     
containers4 ,low grades answer for these
 purposes1 leaving the better sorts for 

the more exacting industries4 ,the logs 
are cut in rotary veneer for baskets1   
and for ply work4 ,some of the veneer in
 three-ply is worked into commodities of
 high class1 such as seats and backs of 
theater chairs4  ,birch flooring        
competes closely with maple for popular 
favor4 ,it may lack something of maple's
 whiteness1 but it takes no second place
 in hardness1 smoothness1 and wearing   
qualities4 ,it is made into parquet     
flooring as well as the ordinary tongued
 and grooved article4 ,as such1 the sap 
matches the light colored woods1 and the
 heart the dark4  ,it goes into all     
kinds of interior house finish1 from    
floor to ceiling1 and the finest grades 
are often devoted to stair work4 ,door  
and window frames are made of it in     
large quantities1 but it is not suited  
to outside work exposed to weather1     
because of its tendencies to decay4 ,it 
is much employed as door material4      
,furniture demands the same class of    
wood4 ,medium priced articles may be of 

solid birch1 but the best commodities   
are made of veneers laid upon other     
woods4 ,figured birch is a favorite     
material for that class of work4  ,the  
more common commodities manufactured of 
this wood can be listed only by groups1 
because of their great number4          
,novelties constitute a large class4    
,one of the earliest demands was from   
the manufacturers of pill boxes1 such as
 apothecaries use4 ,that was before     
anyone had tried to sell yellow birch in
 the general market1 and the demand came
 principally from ,new ,england and ,new
 ,york4 ,another early demand came from 
coopers who found that barrel hoops of  
yellow birch were highly satisfactory   
for certain kinds of vessels4 ,fish kits
 were among the first to appear in birch
 hoops4 ,small saplings were used1 not  
over two inches in diameter4 ,they are  
large enough to make two hoops by       
splitting4 ,the bark was left on1 and   
the identity of the wood was never in   
doubt1 because when the sapling is of   

that size1 the bark is a fine yellow4   
,it has not yet commenced to crack open 
and roll up1 as it does later4 ,millions
 of birch hoops are still produced      
yearly in the ,united ,states1 but all  
of them are not of this species4 ,the   
hoop business has existed much more than
 a century1 and millions of young       
birches have been cut every year to meet
 the demand4  ,birch broom handles have 
been a commodity since the first lathe  
went to work on that product4 ,they are 
made of all the commercial birches1 but 
yellow birch contributes a large part4  
,other handles are manufactured of it   
also1 such as are fitted to hand saws1  
planes1 drawing knives1 chisels1 and    
augers4  ,illustration     ,,river      
,,birch  ,illustration3 ,,river ,,birch 
,,river ,,birch  7,betula ,nigra7       
,this tree is known as red birch1 river 
birch1 water birch1 blue birch1 black   
birch1 and simply as birch4 ,the name   
red birch refers to the color of the    
bark which is exposed to view in the    

process of exfoliation4 ,the trunk is   
constantly getting rid of its outer     
bark1 and in doing so1 the exterior     
layers are rolled back1 hang a while1   
and are gradually whipped off by the    
wind4 ,the new bark which is exposed to 
view when the old is rolled back is     
reddish4 ,its color varies considerably1
 sometimes suggesting the tint of old   
brass1 again it is brown1 but people in 
widely separated regions have seen fit  
to call the tree red birch because of   
the color of its bark4 ,the name black  
birch is not appropriate1 though the old
 bark near the base of large trunks may 
suggest it4 ,no reason can be assigned  
for calling it blue birch1 unless the   
foliage in early summer may warrant such
 a term4 ,river birch and water birch   
are more appropriate1 as these names    
indicate the situations where the       
species grows4 ,it clings to water      
courses almost as closely as sycamore4  
,a favorite attitude of the tree is to  
lean over a river or pond1 with the     

long1 graceful limbs almost touching the
 water4  ,nature seems to recognize the 
tree's habit of hanging over muddy      
banks1 and has prepared it for that     
manner of life4 ,seeds are ripe early in
 summer when the rivers are falling4    
,they are scattered by myriads on the   
muddy shores and upon the water4 ,those 
which fall in the mud find at once a    
suitable place for germination1 and     
those whose fortune it is to drop in the
 water float away with the current or   
they are driven by the wind until they  
lodge along the shores1 and the receding
 water leaves them in a few days1 and   
they spring up quickly4 ,before the     
autumn or early winter high water comes1
 they are well rooted in the mud and    
sand1 ready to put up a fight for their 
lives4  ,the provision is a wise one4   
,if the seeds matured in the fall1 when 
water is low1 they would be strewn along
 the low shores1 and before they could  
take root and establish themselves1 the 
high water and the ice of winter would  

destroy them4 ,the seeds need mud to    
give them a start in life1 and they need
 that start early in summer4  ,the range
 of river birch is less extensive than  
that of the other important eastern     
birches1 yet it is by no means limited4 
,its eastern boundary is in             
,massachusetts1 its western in          
,minnesota1 and it adheres fairly well  
to a line drawn between the two states4 
,its range extends #bjj miles west of   
the ,mississippi and covers most of the 
southern states4 ,it is found in an area
 of nearly #a1jjj1jjj square miles1 but 
is scarce in most of it4 ,in certain    
restricted localities it is fairly      
abundant1 but there are thousands of    
square miles in the limits of its range 
which have not a single tree4 ,its      
greatest development is in the south    
,atlantic states1 and in the lower      
,mississippi basin4  ,trees at their    
best are from eighty to ninety feet high
 and from two to four in diameter1 but  
most trunks are less than two feet in   

diameter4 ,the tree frequently forks    
fifteen or twenty feet from the ground1 
or occasionally sends up several stems  
from the ground4 ,forms of that kind are
 practically useless for lumber4  ,the  
wood is among the lightest of the       
birches and weighs #ce4ia pounds per    
cubic foot4 ,it is rather hard1 medium  
strong1 the heartwood light brown in    
color1 with thick1 pale sapwood4 ,it    
rates below sweet and yellow birch in   
stiffness1 is very porous1 but the pores
 are quite small1 and can scarcely be   
seen without a magnifying glass4 ,they  
are diffused throughout the entire      
annual ring4 ,there is no marked        
difference in the appearance of the     
springwood and that of the late season4 
,the medullary rays are very small and  
have little effect on the appearance of 
the wood1 no matter in what way the     
sawing is done4  ,the wood is apt to    
contain pith flecks and streaks4 ,these 
are small1 brown spots or lines         
scattered at random through the wood4   

,they are a blemish which is not easily 
covered up if the wood is to be         
polished2 but they are small and may not
 be objectionable4 ,the flecks are      
caused by insects which1 early in the   
season1 bore through the bark into the  
cambium layer 7the newly-formed wood71  
where eggs are deposited4 ,the young    
insect cuts a tunnel up or down along   
the cambium layer1 an inch or less in   
length and a sixteenth of an inch wide4 
,this gallery subsequently fills with   
brown deposits which remain permanently 
in the wood4 ,sometimes these deposits  
are sufficiently hard to turn the edge  
of tools4  ,river birch is widely used  
but in small amounts4 ,it may properly  
be described as a neighborhood          
wood--that is1 wherever it grows in     
considerable quantity it is put to use1 
but nearly always in a local way4 ,for  
example1 in ,louisiana1 where it is as  
abundant as in any other state1 it is a 
favorite material for ox yokes1 and no  
report from that state has been made of 

its employment for any other purpose4   
,the reason given for its extensive use 
for ox yokes there is that it is very   
strong for its weight1 and that it      
resists decay4 ,the yokes there are     
usually left out of doors when not in   
use1 and the dampness and hot weather   
cause rapid decay of most woods4 ,the   
birches are usually listed as           
quick-decaying woods1 but the verdict   
from ,louisiana seems to be that river  
birch is an exception4  ,plain furniture
 is made of it1 and the manufacturers of
 woodenware find it suitable for most of
 their commodities4 ,it is sometimes    
listed as wooden shoe material1 but no  
particular instance has been reported   
where it has been so used in this       
country4 ,in ,maryland some of the      
manufacturers of peach baskets make     
bands or hoops of it1 and pronounce it  
as satisfactory for that purpose as elm4
  ,the supply is not in much danger of  
exhaustion4 ,the species is equipped to 
take care of itself1 occupying as it    

does1 ground not in demand for farming  
purposes4 ,when a tree once gets a start
 it has a chance to escape the ax until 
large enough for use4  ,,white ,,alaska 
,,birch 7,betula alaskana7 is usually   
called simply white birch where it      
grows4 ,it is not exclusively an ,alaska
 species though that is the only place  
where it touches the territory of the   
,united ,states4 ,it is supposed by some
 to be closely related to the white     
birches of northern ,asia1 but the      
relationship1 if it exists1 has not been
 established4 ,in ,alaska it grows as   
far north as any timber extends4 ,it was
 first discovered and reported in #aheh 
on the ,saskatchewan river1 east of the 
,rocky ,mountains1 and its range is now 
known to extend down the valley of the  
,mackenzie river toward the ,arctic     
ocean to a point more than #ajj miles   
north of the ,arctic circle4 ,it is     
common in many parts of ,alaska both    
along the coast and in the interior4 ,in
 some portions of that territory it is  

an important source of fuel4 ,trees are 
from twenty-five to sixty feet high1 and
 from six to eighteen inches in         
diameter4 ,the bark is thin and often   
nearly white1 separating into thin      
scales4 ,the tree bears typical birch   
cones1 but larger than those of some of 
the other species4 ,no tests of the     
wood's physical properties have been    
made1 but it looks like the wood of     
paper birch1 and will probably attain to
 considerable importance in the future1 
since it grows over a large area1 and in
 many parts is abundant4 ,there remain  
many things for both botanists and      
wood-users to investigate concerning    
this tree which has a range of more than
 half a million square miles4  ,,western
 ,,birch 7,betula occidentalis7 is      
believed to be the largest birch in the 
world1 and yet it is not of much        
commercial importance in the ,united    
,states1 because of scarcity1 occurring 
only in northwestern ,washington and in 
the adjacent parts of ,british          

,columbia1 as far as its range has been 
determined4 ,it resembles paper birch1  
and has often been supposed to be that  
tree4 ,the people in the restricted     
region where it grows speak of it simply
 as birch4 ,the largest trees are #ajj  
feet high and four feet in diameter1    
clear of limbs forty or fifty feet4 ,a  
height of seventy feet and a diameter of
 two are common4 ,the general color of  
the trunk is orange-brown1 the new bark1
 exposed by exfoliation1 is yellow4 ,the
 tree prefers the border of streams and 
the shores of lakes4 ,though it is the  
largest of the birches1 its seeds are   
among the smallest4 ,they are provided  
with two wings and are good flyers4     
,manufacturers of flooring and interior 
finish in ,washington reported the use  
of #cae1jjj feet of this birch in #aiaa4
 ,that was the only use found for it in 
the only state where it grows4          
,information is meager as to the        
probable quantity of this birch         
available4 ,it has been reported in     

,idaho1 but exact information on the    
subject is lacking4      ,,mountain     
,,birch 7,betula fontanalis7 is a minor 
species concerning     which there has  
been much contention among botanists4   
,it has finally     been called mountain
 birch because it grows on mountains1 as
 high as     #aj1jjj feet among the     
,sierra ,nevadas in ,california4 ,it has
 many     local names for a tree so     
small as to be almost a shrub throughout
     most of its range3 ,black birch1   
sweet birch1 cherry birch1 water        
birch1 and canyon birch4 ,its bark is of
 the color of old copper2     wood is   
light yellowish-brown1 with thick white 
sapwood2 trunks     seldom exceed ten   
inches in diameter and thirty feet high2
 range     extends from northern        
,british ,columbia to ,california1 and  
along the     ,rocky ,mountains to      
,colorado and possibly further south4   
,the uses of     the wood are few4      
,illustration     ,,paper ,,birch       
,illustration3 ,,paper ,,birch          

,,paper ,,birch  7,betula ,papyrifera7  
,this tree is called paper birch because
 the bark parts in thin sheets like     
paper4 ,it is known as canoe birch from 
the fact that ,indians and early white  
explorers and travelers constructed     
canoes of the bark4 ,the name silver    
birch is an allusion to the color of the
 bark2 and big white birch is the name  
used when the purpose is to distinguish 
it from the white birch with which it is
 associated in the northeastern part of 
its range4 ,it grows as far north as    
,arctic ,british ,america1 east to      
,labrador1 south to ,michigan and       
,pennsylvania1 and west nearly or quite 
to the base of the ,rocky ,mountains4   
,this indicated area exceeds #a1jjj1jjj 
square miles4 ,the quantity of birch of 
this species in the forests is unknown1 
but it runs into billions of feet1      
probably exceeding any other single     
species of birch4 ,the tree sometimes   
grows dispersed through forests of other
 woods1 sometimes in nearly pure stands4

 ,persons well acquainted with the      
species have expressed the opinion that 
paper birch exists in larger quantities 
now than at the time when the country   
was first explored by white men4 ,that  
can be said of few other species2 but   
probably holds true of lodgepole pine in
 the ,west1 loblolly pine in the        
,southeast1 and mesquite in the         
,southwest4 ,each of these species took 
advantage of man's presence and         
influence to extend its range4 ,cattle  
spread the mesquite2 the lodgepole pine 
came up in fire-burned tracts2 loblolly 
pine spread into abandoned fields2 and  
paper birch profited by fires which     
destroyed large tracts of timber4  ,the 
seeds are light1 are furnished with     
wings which sail them long distances    
through the air1 and they are quickly   
scattered over the burned areas where   
they spring up4 ,in the contest1 they   
are competitors of aspen4 ,birch often  
captures the ground1 but does not always
 do it4 ,some of the largest stands in  

the ,northeast occupy tracts bared by   
fire half a century or more ago4 ,when  
paper birch does not find open tracts1  
it contents itself with sharing ground  
with other species4 ,that was the usual 
manner of its growth in the original    
forests2 but it has been quick to seize 
opportunities to take full possession4  
,it does not like shade and1 if crowded1
 one of the first things it does is to  
rid its lower trunk of all branches4    
,only limbs remain which are at the top 
where they receive plenty of light4     
,therefore1 forest-grown paper birches  
have long1 clean trunks1 though they are
 not always straight4 ,the largest trees
 are seventy feet high and three in     
diameter1 but those fifty feet in height
 and eighteen inches in diameter are    
above rather than under the average4    
,the bark of paper birch has played an  
important part in ,american history1    
story1 and poetry4 ,it was the canoe    
material1 the roof1 and the utensil in  
its region4 ,the ,indians had brought   

the art of canoe making to perfection   
before white men went among them4 ,the  
bark peels from the trunks in large     
pieces1 and may be separated into thin  
sheets1 which are very tough1 strong1   
and durable4 ,the ,indians sewed pieces 
of bark together1 using the long1       
slender roots of tamarack for thread4   
,the bark was stretched and tied over a 
frame1 the shape of the canoe1 and made 
of northern white cedar1 or some other  
light wood4 ,holes in the bark1 and the 
partings at the seams1 were stopped with
 resin from balsam fir1 wax from balm of
 ,gilead1 or resin from pine4 ,the      
forest supplied all the material needed 
by the ,indian1 and a canoe thus made1  
and large enough to carry #hjj or #a1jjj
 pounds1 weighed no more than fifty     
pounds4 ,frail as it seemed1 it was good
 for long service on rivers and lakes1  
and could weather storms of no small    
severity4  ,white men adopted the bark  
canoes at once1 and learned from        
,indians how to make them4 ,the daring  

explorers and venturesome fur traders   
who threaded every river and navigated  
every important lake of ,british        
,america1 found the birch canoe equal to
 every requirement1 even to attacking   
whales in the tidewater of the ,arctic  
ocean4 ,the bark from this birch was    
used for tents and the roofs of cabins2 
vessels in which to store or carry food 
were made of it1 as well as beds on     
which to sleep1 and wrapping material   
for bundles4 ,these uses have now       
practically ceased2 but as sport1       
recreation1 and for the novelty1        
articles1 from canoes to visiting cards1
 are still made of the bark4  ,the wood 
of paper birch is valuable for certain  
purposes4 ,the trees are largely white  
sapwood1 which is without figure4 ,it is
 as plain a wood as grows in the forest1
 but it may be stained4 ,that1 however1 
is seldom done4 ,the heartwood is dark  
or red1 and is made into brush backs and
 parquet flooring1 but the hearts are   
small1 and no large quantity of that    

wood is used4 ,the largest use of paper 
birch is for spools1 the common kind for
 thread4 ,some of larger size are made  
for use in mills4 ,the sapwood only is  
accepted by makers of spools4 ,the heart
 is cut out1 and most of it is thrown   
away or burned under the boilers4 ,the  
qualities of paper birch which appeal to
 spool makers are1 white color1 small   
liability to warp1 and the ease with    
which it may be cut without dulling the 
tools4 ,the logs are worked into bars of
 the various spool sizes1 and are       
carefully seasoned4 ,one of the problems
 that must be constantly solved is the  
prevention of sap stain while the bars  
are seasoning4 ,the wood discolors      
quickly and deeply4  ,tooth picks1 shoe 
pegs1 and shoe shanks are other         
important commodities manufactured from 
paper birch4 ,it has not yet been       
satisfactorily converted into lumber1   
because it is more valuable for spools1 
tooth picks1 pegs1 and the like4 ,this  
wood is frequently listed as a pulpwood1

 and it is quite generally believed that
 its use for that purpose is important4 
,this is apparently an error1 as the    
wood is not even mentioned in statistics
 of pulpwood output in this country4    
,paper birch weighs #cg4aa pounds per   
cubic foot1 is strong1 hard1 tough2     
medullary rays are numerous but very    
small and obscure2 wood is              
diffuse-porous1 and earlywood blends    
gradually with latewood in the annual   
rings which are not very distinct4      
,this is one of the woods which does not
 threaten to become soon exhausted4 ,a  
supply for half a century1 at present   
rate of use1 is in sight1 if no more    
should grow2 but in fifty years new     
forests1 now young1 will be large enough
 to use4      ,,kenai ,,birch 7,betula  
kenaica7 is an ,alaska species          
concerning which     comparatively      
little is known1 except that its        
botanical identity     and something of 
its range have been established4 ,its   
small size1     and the remote regions  

where it grows1 do not necessarily      
indicate     that it can never be       
important4 ,scarcity of other woods may 
give it     a place which it does not   
now occupy4 ,no reports on the          
properties     of the wood have been    
made4 ,the bark is deep brown in color4 
,trees     are from twenty to thirty    
feet high and from twelve to eighteen   
inches in diameter4 ,the trunks are very
 short4 ,cones are an inch or     less  
in length and the double winged seeds   
are very small4 ,the name     applied to
 this species relates to the region     
where the best     developed trees have 
been found4 ,as far as known1 the       
species is     confined to the coast    
region of ,alaska and to adjacent       
islands from     the head of ,lynn canal
 westward4 ,it has been reported on     
,koyukuk     river above the ,arctic    
circle4      ,,white ,,birch 7,betula   
populifolia7 is known also as gray      
birch1     old-field birch1 poverty     
birch1 poplar-leaved birch1 and small   

white     birch4 ,it is chiefly confined
 to the northeastern part of the ,united
     ,states1 but grows as far east as  
,nova ,scotia1 and west to the          
southern shore of ,lake ,ontario4 ,it   
occurs on the ,atlantic coast     south 
to ,delaware1 and along mountain ranges 
to ,west ,virginia4 ,the     names      
describe either the habits or the       
appearance of the tree4 ,the     bark is
 white1 and is the most prominent       
feature of a thicket of     these       
graceful but practically worthless      
little birches4 ,it is     called an    
old-field species because it quickly    
scatters its small1     winged seeds    
over abandoned farmland and takes       
possession when it     does not have to 
compete with stronger species4 ,poverty 
birch is an     allusion1 either to the 
poor ground it occupies or the          
unpromising     nature of the tree      
itself4 ,the resemblance of its leaves  
to those of     cottonwood leads some   
people to prefer the name poplar-leaved 

birch4     ,the tree at its best is     
seldom more than forty feet high and    
eighteen inches in diameter4 ,a height  
of twenty or thirty feet is     the     
usual size4 ,the stem is generally      
clothed with branches nearly     to the 
ground4 ,the wood is light1 soft1 not   
strong or durable1 heart     light      
brown1 thick sap nearly white4 ,the form
 and size of the trunk     exclude it   
from sawmills1 but it has some special  
uses3 ,spools1 shoe     pegs1 and hoops4
 ,its small size does not disqualify it 
for service     along those lines4 ,the 
tree springs up quickly1 grows with fair
     rapidity1 and dies young4 ,it is   
cut for cordwood in ,new ,england and   
makes good fuel4 ,it takes possession of
 areas bared by fire1 and     protects  
the ground1 furnishing shelter for more 
valuable species     which come later4  
,,blue ,,birch 7,betula crulea7 is a    
small tree of which more     information
 is to be desired4 ,it is rarely more   
than thirty feet     high with a        

diameter of eight or ten inches4 ,its   
leaves are     long-pointed1 its cones  
about an inch in length1 the bark is    
thin1     white tinged with rose1 and is
 lustrous4 ,bark is not easily          
separated into layers1 in that respect  
differing from the paper     birch4 ,the
 inner bark is of light orange color4   
,it is probably put     to no use1      
unless for fuel or as hoops4 ,it is     
smallest of ,new     ,england birches1  
and its range has not been fully        
determined1 but it     is known to grow 
in ,maine and ,vermont1 and probably    
will be found in     other parts of ,new
 ,england and in the adjacent regions of
 ,canada4 ,it     has been compared with
 a ,european species of birch1 the      
,betula     pendula4  ,illustration     
,,red ,,alder  ,illustration3 ,,red     
,,alder     ,,red ,,alder  7,alnus      
,oregona7   ,many species of alder are  
found in various parts of the world1 and
 on both sides of the equator1 but      
chiefly in the northern hemisphere4     

,some of these are trees1 others are    
shrubs4 ,six species belonging in the   
tree class grow in the ,united ,states1 
besides others which remain shrubs4     
,some trees are burdened with names1    
changing them with locality1 but not so 
with alder4 ,an adjective may accompany 
the name1 as red1 white1 seaside1 or    
mountain1 to describe it1 but it is     
always alder1 no matter where it grows4 
,the different species cover much of the
 ,united ,states1 and few large areas   
are found which have not one or more    
species4 ,it grows from sea level up to 
#g1jjj feet or more1 but some species   
thrive at one elevation1 and others     
above or below4  ,the alders are old    
inhabitants of the earth4 ,they had a   
place in the ,eocene and ,miocene       
forests of the old world and new4 ,it is
 not apparent that they have either     
gained or lost in extent of range during
 the hundreds of thousands of years     
which measure their tenancy on the      
earth4 ,they have not been aggressive in

 pushing their way1 nor have they shown 
a disposition to retire before the      
aggression of other trees4 ,some alders 
bear seeds equipped with wings for wind 
distribution1 others produce wingless   
seeds which depend on water to bear them
 to suitable situations and plant them4 
,of course1 the water-borne seeds are   
planted on muddy shores or on the banks 
of running streams1 and the trees of    
those species are confined to such      
situations4 ,the alders belong to the   
birch family4  ,red alder is the largest
 of the alder group in this country4    
,mature trees are from forty to ninety  
feet high1 and from one to three feet in
 diameter4 ,the northern limit of its   
range crosses southern ,alaska2 its     
southern border is in southern          
,california4 ,it is a ,pacific coast    
tree1 with a north and south range of   
#b1jjj miles4 ,trunks are straight1 and 
branches are generally slender4 ,the    
largest specimens grow in the vicinity  
of ,puget ,sound4 ,the bark is thin1    

leaves are from three to ten inches     
long1 cones from one-half to one inch in
 length1 seeds have very narrow1 thin   
wings1 and are about the size of radish 
seeds4 ,the cones remain green in color 
until the seeds are fully ripe1 but they
 finally turn brown1 and seeds are      
liberated during the fall and winter4   
,red alder is given that name because   
the newly cut wood is liable to change  
quickly to a reddish-brown4 ,this       
applies to the whitish sapwood only2 but
 since the trunk is largely sapwood1 it 
is an important matter4 ,it is not      
apparent whether the change in color is 
due to attack by fungi1 or to some      
chemical change in the sap4 ,it is not  
believed that the change in color       
weakens the wood1 at least it does not  
appear to do so immediately4 ,the heart 
is reddish1 and when dressed and        
polished1 it presents a fine appearance4
  ,red alder when thoroughly air dry    
weighs about thirty pounds per cubic    
foot1 which is slightly above the weight

 of basswood4 ,it is strong for its     
weight1 rating only eight per cent below
 white oak1 while in stiffness or       
elasticity it is about twelve per cent  
above white oak4 ,it is not difficult to
 season1 is soft1 stands well when made 
up1 and is one of the most important    
hardwoods of the northwest ,pacific     
coast4 ,more than #b1jjj1jjj feet a year
 go to wood-using factories in          
,washington and ,oregon4  ,the ,indians 
of the ,northwest1 when they had only   
stone hatchets or the crudest kinds of  
metal tools1 found red alder a wood     
which worked so easily that they        
specialized with it4 ,they made canoes  
of the largest trunks1 and all manner of
 troughs1 trays1 trenches1 platters1 and
 dugouts1 some of no more than a pint in
 capacity1 others holding three or four 
bushels4 ,the ,field ,museum in ,chicago
 has a collection of these ,indian      
utensils made of alder4 ,the workmanship
 shows considerable skill mixed with    
barbaric art4 ,there are carvings of    

eagles and bears which are not entirely 
grotesque4 ,the utensils were designed  
primarily to contain food at ceremonial 
feasts1 or it was stored for times of   
scarcity4 ,among them are cooking       
vessels of alder in which meat was      
boiled by filling the troughs with water
 and dropping in hot stones4  ,furniture
 manufacturers are the largest users of 
red alder4 ,carefully selected          
heartwood1 finished in the proper color1
 looks much like cherry1 though it lacks
 something of the characteristic cherry 
luster4 ,the sapwood in its natural     
color resembles the sapwood of yellow   
birch4 ,the annual rings are defined by 
narrow bands of dense summerwood4 ,the  
pores are small and diffused through the
 entire ring1 as with birch4 ,medullary 
rays are very thin and do not show much 
figure2 neither do the rings of growth1 
in tangential sawing1 display much      
contrast4 ,it is1 therefore1 a          
figureless wood1 entering into          
practically all grades of furniture1 in 

the region where alder is plentiful1 but
 it shows to particularly good advantage
 in panels4  ,reports on                
wood-utilization on the ,pacific coast  
list this wood for archery bows but     
particulars as to amount used1 and why  
it is used at all1 are not given4 ,the  
physical properties of the wood do not  
seem to fit it for that use4 ,it is     
wanting in both strength and elasticity 
which are the prime1 almost the only1   
factors considered in selecting bow     
wood4 ,no account has been found of any 
employment of alder for bows by ,indians
 of the region where it grows4  ,broom  
handle turners in ,washington use       
#cej1jjj feet of alder a year4 ,the     
smooth finish which may be imparted to  
the wood constitutes its chief value for
 broom handles4 ,it is well liked for   
porch columns4 ,when the center is bored
 out1 the wood seldom checks4 ,in that  
respect it resembles yellow poplar4 ,it 
takes paint well and holds it a long    
time4 ,comparatively large amounts are  

converted into interior finish4 ,it is  
made into spindles1 newel posts1        
railing1 panels1 molding1 ornaments1 and
 pedestals4 ,occasionally it is finished
 in the wood's natural color4  ,many    
minor places are found for red alder4   
,frames of pack saddles are made of it2 
it forms parts of pulleys2 is available 
for small turnery2 and it is sometimes  
worked into bodies and compartments for 
business wagons1 such as butchers and   
bakers use4 ,the bark is rich in tannin 
and is said to be employed in local     
tanneries1 but no statistics are        
available showing the annual supply4    
,,white ,,alder 7,alnus rhombifolia7 is 
known simply as alder in the region     
where it grows4 ,where this tree and red
 alder occupy the same range they are   
commonly supposed to be the same4 ,the  
range of white alder extends from       
northern ,idaho to southern ,california4
 ,it is the common alder of central     
,california where it attains its best   
development1 and the only alder at low  

altitudes in southern ,california4      
,trees vary in height from thirty to    
eighty feet1 and in diameter from one to
 three4 ,a common size is fifty feet    
high and fifteen inches in diameter4    
,like most alders1 it sticks close to   
water courses1 and is usually found in  
the bottoms of gulches where water flows
 most of the year4 ,the flowers begin to
 appear in midsummer as dark1           
olive-brown catkins less than an inch in
 length4 ,by midwinter they are fully   
developed1 and the tree is loaded with  
catkins from four to six inches long and
 thick as lead pencils4 ,in the gulches 
among the elevated foothills it is not  
unusual for trees to be bending beneath 
snow and flowers at the same time4 ,that
 is about the period when the seeds of  
the preceding year complete their       
dispersal4 ,the cones hang closed nearly
 a whole twelve months1 and when they   
give up their seeds1 they often do it   
slowly4 ,the seeds are the size of pin  
heads1 and seem to have had wings once1 

but lost them4 ,the remnants remain1 but
 are of no use4 ,if running water does  
not carry seeds to new grounds they lie 
beneath the parent tree4 ,the wood of   
white alder is five pounds lighter per  
cubic foot than red alder4 ,its         
structure is less satisfactory4         
,medullary rays are irregular1 some     
being thin as those of sweet birch1     
while others are as broad as rays of    
chestnut oak4 ,those of large size seem 
to be scattered at haphazard1 and are so
 irregular and uncertain that no        
dependence can be placed in them for    
figure4 ,trees are largely sapwood1     
which is nearly white when freshly cut1 
but it quickly turns brown2 heartwood is
 pale1 yellowish-brown4 ,this is said to
 be one of most quickly-decaying woods  
of the western forests when logs are    
left lying in damp woods4 ,the white    
alder ought to be suitable for nearly   
every purpose for which red alder is    
used4      ,,mountain ,,alder 7,alnus   
tenuifolia7 is too small to contribute  

much     to the lumber supply of the    
country1 though it may yield fuel in    
some localities where there is little   
else4 ,its range extends from     ,yukon
 territory to ,lower ,california1 a     
distance of #d1jjj miles1 and     it    
nearly touches both the torrid and      
frigid zones4 ,it is found from     the 
,rocky ,mountains to the ,pacific in the
 ,united ,states4 ,few trunks     exceed
 twenty-five feet in height or six      
inches in diameter2 but the     form is 
generally brush1 in tangled thickets    
along the courses of     mountain       
streams1 and on boggy slopes1 up to     
#g1jjj feet in altitude4     ,the wood  
is light brown1 and there are no reports
 showing its use     for any purpose    
except firewood4      ,,sitka ,,alder   
7,alnus sitchensis7 is one of the       
smallest of the     arborescent species1
 and in most instances it is a shrub a  
few feet     high4 ,at its best it is   
thirty feet high and eight inches in    
diameter4 ,it grows from ,alaska to     

,oregon1 and eastward to ,alberta       
and ,montana4 ,it is found in mountain  
regions #d1jjj feet above the     sea4  
,the wood is valuable for fuel only4    
,this species was discovered     about  
eighty years ago1 but was practically   
lost sight of until     recently4 ,many 
persons saw it but supposed it to be one
 of the other     alders4               
,,lanceleaf ,,alder 7,alnus acuminata7  
is a southwestern species1     ranging  
through southern ,new ,mexico and       
southern ,arizona and south     #d1jjj  
miles to ,peru4 ,in the ,united ,states 
it ascends to altitudes of     #d1jjj or
 #f1jjj feet where it fringes the banks 
of streams1 and     flourishes in the   
bottoms of canyons4 ,the largest trees  
are thirty     feet high and eight      
inches in diameter4 ,flowers open in    
,february     before the appearance of  
the leaves4 ,the seeds have small wings 
which are of little or no use4          
,,seaside ,,alder 7,alnus maritima7     
grows in ,maryland1 ,delaware1 and      

,oklahoma1 and the largest trunks are   
thirty feet high and five     inches in 
diameter4 ,it is found on the banks of  
ponds and streams4     ,the flowers     
appear in ,july1 and the seeds of last  
year's crop ripen     at the same time4 
,the wood is light1 soft1 and brown1    
heart and sap     being scarcely        
distinguishable4 ,the wood is not used4 
,the ,european ,alder 7,alnus glutinosa7
 has been naturalized in a few          
places in the ,united ,states1 and      
several varieties are distinguished     
in cultivation4 ,a native shrubby       
species 7,alnus rugosa7 is common     in
 many parts of the eastern states4 ,it  
is not usually listed as a     tree1    
being too small1 but it is sometimes    
twenty-five feet high and     three or  
four inches in diameter4 ,in ,europe the
 charcoal made from     alder is        
considered excellent material for the   
manufacture of gun     powder1 and      
considerable areas of alder in ,england 
are held in     reserve against an      

emergency4 ,it is probable that the     
,american     alders would answer as    
well as the ,european species4          
,illustration     ,,hornbeam            
,illustration3 ,,hornbeam     ,,hornbeam
  7,ostrya ,virginiana7   ,this tree    
belongs to the birch family and is      
closely related to the alders and to    
blue beech4 ,four species of hornbeam   
are known in the world1 and two of them 
are in the ,united ,states4 ,one is well
 known to most persons who are familiar 
with eastern hardwood forests1 but the  
other is seldom seen because of the     
limited extent of its range4  ,the      
well-known hornbeam is found in the     
valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence river1     
throughout ,nova ,scotia and ,ottawa1   
along the northern shore of ,lake ,huron
 to northern ,minnesota1 south through  
the northern states and along the       
,alleghany mountains to the             
,chattahoochee region of western        
,florida2 through eastern ,iowa1        
southeastern ,missouri and ,arkansas1   

eastern ,kansas1 ,oklahoma and the      
,trinity river region of ,texas4 ,it is 
known as ironwood1 hop-hornbeam1        
leverwood1 and hardhack4  ,the ,indians 
were small users of wood except for     
fuel1 but they had places where they put
 wood to special uses4 ,they chose      
hornbeam1 when they could get it1 for   
one of these places4 ,it was a favorite 
material for the handles of their stone 
warclubs4 ,the stone heads were chipped 
to various forms1 but were usually      
egg-shaped with a groove round the      
middle for fixing the handle4 ,this was 
made fast with thongs of rawhide1 and   
was generally nearly or quite two feet  
long1 and slender as a golf stick4      
,great strength and a high degree of    
elasticity were required to stand the   
strain when a warrior swung his club in 
battle4 ,hornbeam meets these           
requirements exactly1 and doubtless the 
,indian found this out by experience4   
,it is about thirty per cent stronger   
than white oak1 and forty-six per cent  

more elastic4 ,the demand for warclub   
handles made no great inroads on the    
hornbeam supply1 but it affords proof   
that the ,indians sometimes used good   
judgment4  ,the different names of this 
tree describe some characteristic of the
 wood or foliage4 ,the fruit resembles  
hops1 hence one of the names4 ,hardness 
gives it the other names by which it is 
known4 ,it is the custom nearly         
everywhere to call any wood ironwood if 
it is extra hard4 ,no fewer than eleven 
species of the ,united ,states are known
 as ironwood in some parts of their     
ranges4  ,the leaves of hornbeam are    
simple and alternate2 they taper to a   
sharp point at the end1 while the base  
is rounded4 ,they are doubly and sharply
 serrate4 ,in color they are dark green 
above1 and lighter below1 tufted in     
places1 resembling birch leaves in some 
respects1 although they are quite       
different in texture1 the leaves of     
birch being glossy1 while those of      
ironwood are rough4 ,they are joined to 

the twig with a short petiole1 hardly a 
fourth of an inch in length4  ,the      
flowers grow in long catkins1 staminate 
ones sometimes more than two inches     
long1 covered with fringed scales4 ,the 
pistillate catkins are usually shorter4 
,hornbeam blooms in ,april and ,may and 
its fruit ripens in ,august and         
,september4 ,the seed is a small nut    
equipped with balloon-like wings1       
intended for wind distribution4 ,the    
seeds are often carried1 rolled1 and    
tumbled considerable distances4 ,they   
keep on going until their wings are torn
 off or wear out1 or until they become  
inextricably entangled among twigs or   
other obstacles4 ,comparatively few of  
the seeds ever find lodgment in         
situations suitable for germination4    
,consequently1 hornbeam is scarce4  ,it 
is not easy to state the average size of
 the hornbeam1 though it is usually     
small and never very large4 ,sometimes  
it reaches a height of fifty or sixty   
feet and a diameter of two or more1 but 

such sizes are unusual4 ,trees a foot in
 diameter and forty feet high are more  
common4 ,the foliage is thin1 and the   
tree is satisfied to grow in shade1     
provided the shadows are not too dense4 
,the leaves must have a little sunshine1
 and the flecks that fall through the   
open spaces in the forest canopy high   
above1 suffice4 ,the hornbeam makes no  
effort to overtop its fellow trees2 but 
when it grows in the open1 as on a rocky
 bank or ridge1 where it catches the    
full light1 the crown puts on more      
leaves1 and multiplies its branches1 and
 it is no longer the lean tree which    
some of the ,indians called it4 ,forest 
grown specimens produce clear trunks1   
but those in the open are limby almost  
to the ground4  ,hornbeam has neither   
smell nor taste4 ,it burns well1 the    
embers glowing brightly in still air4   
,the weight of a cubic foot of seasoned 
wood is fifty-one pounds4 ,it is strong1
 hard1 heavy1 tough1 and exceedingly    
durable when exposed to variable        

weather1 or when in contact with the    
soil4 ,it takes a beautiful polish4     
,trees more than a foot in diameter are 
often found to be hollow4  ,the wood is 
strong1 hard1 tough1 durable in contact 
with the soil2 heartwood light brown1   
tinged with red1 or often nearly white2 
thick1 pale sapwood which generally does
 not change to heart for forty or fifty 
years4 ,the annual rings are not uniform
 in appearance4 ,some are easily        
distinguishable1 while others are vague4
 ,this variation is due to the irregular
 development of the dark summerwood in  
the outer portion of the rings4 ,it is  
at times distinct and again is hardly   
discernible4  ,the wood is              
diffuse-porous1 and the pores are too   
small to be easily seen by the naked    
eye4 ,the medullary rays are small and  
obscure4 ,in quarter-sawed wood they    
show as a silvery gloss1 but the        
appearance is too monotonous to be      
attractive4 ,neither is there striking  
figure when the wood is sawed           

tangentially1 because of the small      
contrast in the different parts of the  
yearly ring4 ,hornbeam may1 therefore1  
be listed among woods which have little 
or no figure4 ,no one ever thinks of    
using it for the sake of its beauty4    
,because of the small size and limited  
quantity hornbeam will never come into  
commercial prominence4 ,its uses are    
almost entirely local and domestic4 ,the
 lumberman or the farmer selects a      
hornbeam sapling as being the best      
material obtainable for making a wagon  
or sleigh tongue1 a skid1 or a lever4   
,the farmer often laboriously works a   
section of the flint-like wood into     
minor agricultural implements4  ,the    
statistics of sawmill cut in the ,united
 ,states do not mention hornbeam even   
among such minor species as holly1      
,osage orange1 alder1 and apple4        
,however1 it is known that an occasional
 log goes to sawmills in the ,lake      
,states1 and doubtless in other regions1
 and in some instances the wood is kept 

separate from others and is sold to fill
 special orders4 ,manufacturers of farm 
tools consider it the best wood for rake
 teeth4 ,that use has come down from the
 time when farmers made their own rakes 
and pitchforks4 ,they learned the wood's
 value by experience1 and manufacturers 
cater to the trade4  ,it is sometimes   
called lever wood1 and that name dates  
from long ago when the man who needed a 
lever went into the woods and cut one to
 suit his needs4 ,the modern lever is   
usually somewhat different and partakes 
more of the nature of a handle4 ,they   
are seen in sawmills where they         
manipulate the carriage machinery2 on   
certain agricultural implements where   
their function is to throw clutches in  
and out of gear2 sometimes they are used
 as the handle by which the rudder of a 
small boat is controlled2 and           
occasionally the lever has a place as an
 adjunct of a wagon or log-car brake4   
,in all of these uses strength and      
stiffness are required1 and durability  

is duly considered4  ,wagon makers and  
repairers find several uses for         
hornbeam4 ,it would be more frequently  
employed if it were more plentiful4     
,nearly any blacksmith who runs a repair
 shop for vehicles will testify to that4
 ,it fulfills every requisite for axles2
 is made into felloes for heavy wagons2 
and is considered the best obtainable   
wood for the tongues of heavy logging   
wheels and stone wagons4  ,among various
 occasional uses of this wood it is     
listed by the manufacturers of reels for
 garden hose2 rungs for long ladders2   
stakes for sleds1 and also for cross    
pieces and parts of runners of sleds2   
wedges for the makers of machinery2 and 
hammer and hatchet handles4 ,it is a    
pretty active competitor of dogwood for 
some of these uses1 and it has been     
suggested for shuttles1 but no report of
 its use in that capacity seems to have 
been made4  ,one of its most common uses
 is as fence posts4 ,few lines of fence 
are built exclusively of hornbeam posts1

 because not enough can be had in one   
place2 but posts are cut singly or a few
 together from ,maine to ,arkansas1 and 
the aggregate number is large4 ,the wood
 is said to outlast the heartwood of    
white oak when in contact with the      
ground1 and it is so strong that posts  
of small size stand the pull of wires or
 the weight of planks or pickets4       
,hornbeam is of slow growth and there is
 little reason to believe that it will  
ever be seriously considered by timber  
growers2 but it will doubtless win its  
way to favor as an ornamental tree4 ,it 
has been planted in city parks in ,new  
,england and elsewhere1 and its form1   
foliage1 and habits are much liked4 ,the
 pale green pods or cones--they are not 
exactly the one or the other--remain a  
long time on the branches and are       
delicately ornamental until after the   
autumn frosts change their green into   
brown4 ,then comes the flying time of   
the balloon seeds1 and that is an       
interesting period in parks and yards   

where the tree's habits may be closely  
studied4      ,,knowlton ,,hornbeam     
7,ostrya knowltoni7 is interesting      
chiefly on     account of its extremely 
limited range1 and its far removal from 
all     its kin4 ,it is an exile in a   
distant country4 ,it has thus far been  
found only on the southern slope of the 
canyon of the ,colorado river     in    
,arizona1 about seventy miles north of  
,flagstaff4 ,it occurs at an            
elevation of #f1jjj or #g1jjj feet above
 the sea4 ,trees are twenty or          
thirty feet high and twelve or eighteen 
inches in diameter1 and     trunks      
usually divide a foot or two above the  
ground into three or     more branches1 
which are often crooked and contorted4  
,such sizes and     forms could not be  
of much value for anything but fuel1    
even if     abundant4 ,the heart is     
light reddish-brown1 sapwood thin4 ,the 
leaves     are round instead of pointed 
at the apex1 as with the other          
hornbeam2 but the flowers and fruit are 

much the same4 ,botanists     speculate 
in vain as to how this species happens  
to be so far     removed from other     
members of its family4  ,illustration   
,,silverbell  ,illustration3            
,,silverbell     ,,silverbell ,,tree    
7,mohrodendron ,carolinum7   ,this tree 
belongs to the storax family1 which is  
not a very numerous family as forest    
families are generally counted1 but it  
is old and highly respectable4 ,its     
members are found in the old world and  
the new in both ,north and ,south       
,america1 in ,europe1 ,asia1 and the    
,malay ,archipelago4 ,trees of the      
storax family produce1 or they are      
supposed to produce1 resins and gums1   
balsams1 and aromatic exudations1 but   
some give little or none4 ,the priests  
and soothsayers of idolatrous nations of
 ancient times laid great stress on     
storax4 ,they insisted on having the    
resin as an adjunct to their            
superstitious rites4 ,it was the incense
 offered in their worship1 and they     

compassed sea and land to obtain it for 
that purpose4 ,it is not improbable that
 the southern peninsulas of ,asia and   
the far-off ,molucca islands were       
visited in ancient times to procure the 
incense which ultimately found its way  
to the ,mediterranean regions4  ,it is1 
therefore1 interesting to find that two 
members of the old storax family are    
quietly living in the coast region and  
among the mountains of the southeastern 
part of the ,united ,states4 ,no one has
 ever suspected that they might be      
capable of yielding resinous incense    
suitable for the altars of heathen gods4
 ,they are the silverbell tree1 and its 
little cousin1 the snowdrop tree        
7,mohrodendron dipterum74 ,they have had
 common names a long time1 but their    
botanical names are the result of a     
recent christening4 ,they are named from
 ,charles ,mohr who wrote an interesting
 book on the flora of ,alabama4 ,the    
silverbell tree is the larger of the two
 and deserves first consideration4  ,it 

has a somewhat extensive range1 but in  
some parts it is so scarce that few     
persons ever see it4 ,it is found from  
the mountains of ,west ,virginia to     
southern ,illinois1 south to middle     
,florida1 northern ,alabama1 and        
,mississippi1 and through ,arkansas and 
western ,louisiana to eastern ,texas4   
,under cultivation1 this tree is known  
as the snowdrop tree in ,rhode ,island1 
,pennsylvania1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south 
,carolina1 ,florida1 and ,louisiana4 ,in
 ,rhode ,island1 under cultivation1 it  
is also sometimes known as the          
silverbell tree1 and bears the same name
 in ,alabama1 ,florida1 and             
,mississippi4 ,in parts of ,tennessee it
 is known as the wild olive tree1 and in
 other parts of the state as the bell   
tree4 ,in various localities in ,alabama
 it is referred to as the four-winged   
halesia2 and in others as opossumwood4  
,it is indiscriminately known in various
 sections of ,texas as the rattlebox and
 calicowood1 and some of the furniture  

manufacturers in ,north ,carolina list  
it as box elder1 though it is only      
distantly related to the true box elder4
 ,in the ,great ,smoky mountains in     
,tennessee1 where the species reaches   
its greatest development1 it bears a    
variety of names1 among them being      
tisswood1 peawood1 bellwood1 and        
chittamwood4  ,the tree varies in size  
from a shrubby form so small that it is 
scarcely entitled to the name of tree1  
up to a height of eighty1 ninety1 and   
even more than #ajj feet with diameters 
up to nearly four feet4 ,the largest    
sizes occur only among the ranges of the
 ,great ,smoky mountains in ,blount1    
,sevier1 and ,monroe counties1          
,tennessee4 ,no reason is known why this
 tree in that region should so greatly  
exceed its largest dimensions in other  
areas2 but most species have a locality 
where the greatest development is       
reached1 and this has found the         
favorable conditions in the mountains of
 eastern ,tennessee4 ,some of the trees 

measure sixty feet or more to the first 
limbs4  ,lumbermen of the country are   
not generally acquainted with           
silverbell1 as is natural since its     
commercial range is so limited4 ,it is  
not listed in statistics of sawmill cut 
or of veneer mills4 ,the wood-using     
industries of the country do not report 
it1 except in the one state1 ,north     
,carolina1 and there in very small      
amounts4 ,doubtless1 it is occasionally 
used elsewhere1 but it escapes mention  
in most instances4 ,it has been made    
into mantels at ,knoxville1 ,tennessee1 
and passes as birch4  ,the wood is      
light1 soft1 usually narrow-ringed1     
color light brown1 the thick sapwood    
lighter4 ,it weighs thirty-five pounds  
per cubic foot1 and when burned it      
yields a low percentage of ash4 ,the    
wood's chief value is due to its color  
and figure4 ,best results are not       
obtained by sawing the logs into lumber1
 because the handsomest part of the     
figure is apt to be lost4 ,it is        

preminently suited to the cutting of    
rotary veneer4 ,by that method of       
conversion the birdseye and the pitted  
and mottled effects are brought out in  
the best possible manner4 ,veneers so   
cut from logs selected for the figure1  
possess a rare beauty which no other    
,american wood equals4 ,there is a      
pleasing blend of tones1 which are due  
to the direction in which the distorted 
grain is cut4 ,this distinguishes the   
wood from all others and gives it an    
individuality4 ,much of the figure      
appears to be due to the presence of    
adventitious buds1 similar to those     
supposed to be responsible for the      
birdseye effect in maple4  ,the leaves  
of silverbell are bright green at       
maturity and are from four to six inches
 long and two or three wide4 ,they turn 
yellow before falling in autumn4 ,the   
flowers give the tree its name1 for they
 resemble delicate bells1 about one inch
 in length4 ,they appear in early spring
 when the leaves are one-third grown1 on

 slender1 drooping stems from one to two
 inches long4 ,the trees are loaded     
throughout the whole crown1 and present 
an appearance that is seldom surpassed  
for beauty in the forests of this       
country4  ,the fruit is peculiar and is 
not particularly graceful4 ,it has too  
much the appearance of the load carried 
by a well-fruited vine of hops4 ,it     
ripens late in autumn and persists      
during most of the winter4 ,there is    
nothing in its color1 shape1 or taste to
 tempt birds or other creatures to make 
food of it1 though1 under stress of     
circumstances1 they may sometimes do so4
 ,the fruit is two inches or less in    
length and an inch wide1 and has four   
wings1 which seem to be practically     
useless for flight4 ,the seed is about  
half an inch long4  ,the bark of the    
trunk is bright red-brown and about half
 an inch thick1 with broad ridges which 
separate on the surface into thin papery
 scales4 ,the young branches wear an    
early coat of thick1 pale wool or hairs1

 light1 reddish-brown during the first  
summer1 but later changing to an orange 
color4  ,the botanical range of the     
species is extensive1 though the        
tree-form is confined to a few counties 
among the southern ,appalachian         
mountains4 ,the northern limit of its   
range is in ,west ,virginia where it is 
so scarce that many a woodsman never    
recognizes it4 ,unless it is caught     
while in the full glory of its bloom1 it
 attracts no attention4 ,it is not there
 a tree1 but a shrub1 hidden away among 
other growth1 along mountain streams or 
on slopes where the soil is fertile4    
,the blooming shrub might1 at a         
distance1 be mistaken for a dogwood in  
full blossom1 but a closer inspection   
corrects the mistake4  ,it is true of   
this species as of many others that the 
range has been greatly extended by      
planting4 ,the bell-like white flowers  
early drew attention of nurserymen who  
were on the lookout for trees for       
ornamental planting4 ,it was carried to 

,europe long ago1 and graces many a yard
 and park in the central and northern   
countries of that continent4 ,it now    
grows and thrives in the ,united ,states
 six hundred miles northeast of its     
natural range1 where it endures the     
winters of eastern ,massachusetts1      
blooms as bounteously as in its native  
haunts among the shaded streams of the  
,alleghany mountains4  ,,snowdrop ,,tree
 7,mohrodendron dipterum7 is a near     
relative of the silverbell tree1 and    
looks much like it1 except that it is   
smaller1 has larger leaves1 and the     
flowers are creamy-white4 ,the two      
occupy the same territory in part of    
their ranges1 but they differ in one    
respect4 ,the silverbell tree grows with
 great luxuriance among the mountains   
while the snowdrop tree keeps to the low
 country and is seldom or never found   
growing naturally at any considerable   
elevation4 ,it prefers swamps or damp   
situations near the coast4 ,while the   
silverbell tree's range includes ,west  

,virginia1 that of the snowdrop extends 
no farther north than ,south ,carolina4 
,it follows the coast to ,texas1 and    
runs north through ,louisiana to central
 ,arkansas4 ,its range has been greatly 
enlarged by planting1 and the northern  
winters do not kill it on the southern  
shores of ,lake ,erie4 ,the largest     
trees are about thirty feet high and six
 inches in diameter1 but the growth in  
most places is shrubby4 ,leaves are four
 or five inches long and three or four  
wide4 ,flowers are one inch long and are
 borne in profusion4 ,they constitute   
the tree's chief value as an ornament1  
though the foliage is attractive4 ,the  
bloom lasts a month or six weeks1 from  
the middle of ,march till the last of   
,april4 ,the fruit has two wings instead
 of four1 as with silverbell1 but       
occasionally two rudimentary wings are  
present4 ,the wood is light1 soft1      
strong1 color light brown1 with thicker1
 lighter sapwood4 ,the smallness of the 
trunks makes their use for lumber       

impossible4 ,the species is valuable for
 ornamental purposes only1 and has been 
planted both in this country and        
,europe4 ,it has a number of names by   
which it is known in different          
localities1 among them being cowlicks in
 ,louisiana1 and silverbell tree in the 
,north where it has been planted outside
 of its natural range4  ,illustration   
,,sycamore  ,illustration3 ,,sycamore   
,,sycamore  7,platanus ,occidentalis7   
,probably no person with a practical    
knowledge of trees ever mistakes        
sycamore for anything else4 ,the tree   
stands clear-cut and distinct4 ,until   
the trunk becomes old1 it sheds its     
outer layer of bark yearly1 or at least 
frequently1 and the exfoliation exposes 
the white1 new bark below4 ,the upper   
part of the trunk and the large branches
 are white and conspicuous in the       
spring1 and are recognizable at a long  
distance4 ,no other tree in the         
,american forest is as white4 ,the      
nearest approach to it is the paper     

birch of the ,north1 or the white birch 
of ,new ,england4  ,notwithstanding the 
tree's individuality1 it has a good many
 names4 ,it is generally known as       
sycamore throughout the states of the   
,union1 but it is frequently called     
buttonwood in ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire1
 ,rhode ,island1 ,massachusetts1 ,new   
,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1     
,delaware1 ,south ,carolina1 ,alabama1  
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1       
,arkansas1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1        
,nebraska1 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,ohio1
 and ,ontario2 buttonball tree in       
several of the eastern states and       
occasionally in ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,ohio1
 ,michigan1 and ,nebraska2 the plane    
tree in ,rhode ,island1 ,delaware1      
,south ,carolina1 ,kansas1 ,nebraska1   
and ,iowa2 the water beech in ,delaware2
 the platane1 cottonier1 and bois puant 
in ,louisiana4 ,probably the finest     
growth of the sycamore ever encountered 
was in ,ohio and ,indiana1 and these    
states still contain isolated patches of

 magnificent specimens of the wood4 ,the
 ,black ,swamp of ,ohio was originally a
 famous sycamore country1 of which      
,defiance was the center of lumber      
manufacture4 ,many parts of ,indiana    
produced a good sycamore growth1 and a  
considerable amount of timber of        
excellent quality still exists1 but is  
now largely owned by farmers who are    
generally holding it out of the market4 
,the range of sycamore extends from     
,maine to ,nebraska1 and south to ,texas
 and ,florida4 ,it is one of the largest
 of ,american hardwoods1 and in diameter
 of trunk it is exceeded by none4 ,trees
 are on record that were from ten to    
fourteen feet in diameter1 and it was   
not unusual in the primeval forests for 
them to tower nearly or quite #abe4 ,in 
height a number of hardwoods exceed it1 
the yellow poplar in particular2 but    
none of them has a larger trunk than the
 largest sycamores4 ,however1 the       
mammoths are generally hollow4 ,the     
heart decays as rings of new growth are 

added to the outside of the shell4 ,so  
large were the cavities in some of the  
sycamores in the original forests that  
more than one case is on record of their
 being used by early settlers as places 
of abode4  ,the tree thrives best in the
 immediate vicinity of rivers and       
creeks4 ,it needs abundance of water for
 its roots1 but is not insistent in its 
demand for deep1 fertile soil1 for it   
grows on gravel bars along water        
courses1 provided some soil and sand are
 mixed with the gravel4 ,great age is   
doubtless attained1 but records are     
necessarily lacking in cases where the  
annual rings of growth must be depended 
upon2 because the hollow trunks have    
lost most of their rings by decay4      
,sycamore bears abundance of light seed 
which is scattered short distances by   
wind and much farther by running water4 
,its ideal place for germinating is on  
muddy shores and wet flats4 ,here the   
seeds are deposited by wind and water1  
and in a short time multitudes of       

seedlings spring up4 ,though most of    
them are doomed to perish before they   
attain a height of a few feet1 survivors
 are sufficient to assure thick stands  
on small areas4 ,the trunks grow tall   
rapidly1 and until they reach           
considerable size1 they remain solid and
 make good sawlogs2 but at an age of    
seventy-five or #ajj years1             
deterioration is apt to set in2 some    
die1 others become hollow1 and the      
result is a good stand of large         
sycamores is unusual4 ,the veterans are 
generally scattered through forests of  
other species4  ,the statement has often
 been made in recent years that sycamore
 is becoming very scarce and that the   
annual output is rapidly declining4     
,statistics do not show a declining     
output4 ,the cut of sycamore in #aiji   
was approximately twice as great as in  
#ahii4 ,it is true that the supply is   
not very large1 and it never was large  
compared with some other hardwoods2 but 
it appears to be holding its own as well

 as most forest trees4 ,the cut in the  
,united ,states in #aiaj was            
#de1jjj1jjj1 and it was credited to     
twenty-six states4 ,indiana was the     
largest contributor1 and it had held    
that position a long time4 ,states next 
below it in the order named were        
,missouri1 ,arkansas1 ,tennessee1       
,kentucky1 ,ohio1 and ,illinois4        
,doubtless some of the sycamore lumber  
now going to market has grown since old 
settlers cut the primeval stands when   
they cleared their fields4 ,it will     
continue to grow1 and since it usually  
occupies waste places1 it may be        
depended upon to contribute pretty      
regularly year by year during time to   
come4 ,it is one of the forest trees    
which have never suffered much from     
fires1 because it grows in damp         
situations4  ,the wood of sycamore      
weighs #ce4ci pounds per cubic foot1 is 
hard1 but not strong1 difficult to split
 and work2 the annual rings are limited 
by narrow bands of dark summerwood4 ,the

 rings are very porous4 ,the medullary  
rays are rather small1 but can be easily
 seen without a glass4 ,they run in     
regular1 radial lines1 close together1  
and the pores are in rows between4 ,the 
rays of sycamore vary from the rule with
 most woods1 in that they are darker    
than the body of the wood4  ,one of the 
earliest uses of sycamore was by farmers
 who cut hollow trunks1 sawed them in   
lengths of three or four feet1 nailed   
bottoms in them1 and used them for      
barrels for grain4 ,they were called    
gums4 ,solid logs two or three feet in  
diameter were cut in lengths of a foot  
or less1 bored through the center1 and  
used as wheels for ox carts4 ,the ox    
yoke was often made of sycamore4        
,butchers used sycamore sections about  
three feet high for meat blocks4 ,the   
wood is tough1 and continual hacking    
fails to split it4 ,the use for meat    
blocks continues at the present time4   
,in ,illinois #a1fjj1jjj feet were so   
employed in #aiaj4  ,one of the earliest

 employments of the wood for commercial 
purposes was in the manufacture of boxes
 for plug tobacco2 but it has now been  
largely replaced by cheaper woods4 ,its 
freedom from stain and odor is its chief
 recommendation for tobacco boxes4 ,some
 of it is in demand for cigar boxes4    
,the modern uses of sycamore are many4  
,it is made into ordinary crates and    
shipping boxes in most regions where it 
grows4 ,rotary cut veneer is worked into
 berry crates and baskets1 and into     
barrels4 ,ice boxes and refrigerators   
are among the products4 ,slack coopers  
are among the largest users1 but some of
 the manufactured stave articles belong 
more properly to woodenware1 such as    
tubs1 washing machines1 candy buckets1  
and lard pails4  ,furniture makers      
demand the best grades1 and most of the 
quarter-sawed stock goes to them1 though
 the manufacturers of musical           
instruments buy some of the finest4 ,use
 is pretty general from pipe organs and 
pianos down to mandolins1 guitars and   

phonographs4 ,it enters extensively into
 the making of miscellaneous            
commodities4 ,as small a toy as the     
stereoscope consumes much sycamore4     
,makers of trunks find it suitable for  
slats1 and it serves as small squares   
and borders in parquetry4 ,it is a      
choice wood for barber poles and saddle 
trees1 and its fine appearance when     
worked in broad panels leads to its     
employment as interior finish for       
houses1 boats1 and passenger cars4      
,,california ,,sycamore 7,platanus      
racemosa7 is one of the three           
species of sycamore now found growing   
naturally in the ,united     ,states4   
,they are survivors of a very old family
 and appear to have     been crowded    
down from the far ,north by the cold1 or
 to have made     their way south for   
some other reason4 ,sycamores flourished
 in     ,greenland in the ,cretaceous   
age1 some millions of years ago1 as is  
shown by fossil remains dug up in that  
land of ice and eternal     winter4     

,they grew in central ,europe1 about the
 same time1 but long     ago disappeared
 from there4 ,sycamores were growing in 
the ,united     ,states an immense      
period of time ago1 and were doubtless  
lifting     their giant white branches  
high above the banks of ancient rivers  
while the gorgeous bloom of yellow      
poplars brightened the forests on       
the rich bottom lands farther back4     
,several species of sycamores     which 
grew in the ,united ,states during the  
,tertiary age are now     extinct4 ,all 
seem to have been much like those which 
have come down     to the present day4  
,the ,california sycamore is found in   
the southern half of that state1     and
 in ,lower ,california4 ,it grows from  
sea level up to #e1jjj feet1     and has
 the same habits as the larger sycamore 
of the ,east1 and     prefers the banks 
of streams and the wet land in the      
bottoms of     canyons4 ,it attains a   
height of from forty to eighty feet1 and
 a     diameter of from two to five4    

,some trees are larger1 one in          
particular near ,los ,angeles having a  
trunk diameter of nine feet4     ,the   
tree is usually extremely distorted and 
misshaped1 leaning1     twisted1 and    
forking and reforking until a practical 
lumberman would     pronounce it a      
hopeless proposition4 ,this applies1    
however1 to     trunks which grow in the
 open1 and that is where most of them   
grow4     ,when they are found crowded  
in thick stands in the bottoms of       
canyons1 their trunks are shapely enough
 for short sawlogs4 ,the wood     is    
very similar to that of eastern         
sycamore1 and it is used for     similar
 purposes1 when used at all4 ,the balls 
are strung five on one     tough stem1  
which is from six to ten inches long4   
,the eastern     sycamore usually has a 
stem for each ball4 ,the seeding habits 
of     both trees are the same4         
,,arizona ,,sycamore 7,platanus         
wrightii7 has its range in southern ,new
     ,mexico1 southern ,arizona1 and    

neighboring regions in ,mexico1 where   
it grows in the bottoms of canyons up to
 #f1jjj feet above sea4 ,the     tree   
attains a height of from thirty to      
eighty feet1 and a diameter     of two  
to five4 ,the trunk is seldom shapely1  
but often divides in     large branches1
 some of which are fifty or sixty feet  
long4 ,there     are usually three balls
 on a stem1 and the leaf is shaped much 
like     the leaf of red gum1 but there 
is considerable variation in form4      
,the wood resembles eastern sycamore in 
color and most other     features1 but  
when quarter-sawed the flecks produced  
by the     medullary rays are generally 
smaller1 and give a mottled effect4 ,the
     wood has not been much used1 but   
apparently it is not inferior to        
eastern sycamore4  ,illustration        
,,black ,,cherry  ,illustration3 ,,black
 ,,cherry     ,,black ,,cherry  7,prunus
 ,serotina7   ,this widely distributed  
tree supplies the cherry wood of        
commerce4 ,its natural range extends    

from ,nova ,scotia westward through the 
,canadian provinces to the              
,kaministiquia river2 south to ,tampa   
bay in ,florida and west to ,north      
,dakota1 eastern ,nebraska1 ,kansas1    
,oklahoma1 and eastern ,texas4 ,the tree
 is known as wild black cherry1 wild    
cherry1 black cherry1 rum cherry1       
whiskey cherry1 and choke cherry4       
,cherry belongs to a remarkably large   
family and the ordinary observer would  
never suspect the relationship that     
exists between it and other growths to  
which it bears little resemblance4 ,it  
is in the rose family 7,rosace74 ,it has
 multitudes of small and large cousins1 
most of them small1 however4 ,among them
 are the crabapple1 the serviceberry1   
the haws1 thorns1 plums1 and the peach1 
besides plants which do not rise to the 
dignity of trees4  ,the crown of black  
cherry is narrow and the branches are   
horizontal4 ,in height the tree ranges  
from fifty to one hundred or more feet4 
,the bark is a dark reddish-brown1 rough

 and broken into plates1 becoming       
smoother toward the top4 ,the branchlets
 are a rich reddish-brown1 and are      
marked with tiny orange-colored dots4   
,the leaves are small1 alternate1 oblong
 or oval lanceolate1 taper-pointed at   
the apex and pointed or rounded at the  
base1 finely serrate2 at maturity       
glabrous1 firm1 glossy1 the light       
colored midrib being very distinct4 ,the
 flowers are white and grow on pedicels 
in long slender racemes1 which terminate
 leafy shoots4 ,the fruit is almost     
black1 showing deep red coloring beneath
 and is a small round drupe2 vinous1    
although not disagreeable to the taste4 
,in most instances a liking for it must 
be acquired1 but comparatively few      
people ever take the trouble to acquire 
it4 ,the old settlers among the         
,alleghany mountains had a way of       
pressing the juice from the drupes and  
by some simple process converting it    
into 8cherry bounce10 a beverage        
somewhat bitter but it never went       

begging when the old-time mountaineers  
were around4 ,this was doubtless what   
persons had in mind who called it rum   
cherry4 ,few fruits1 either wild or     
tame1 contain more juice in proportion  
to bulk4 ,ripe fruit is employed as a   
flavor for alcoholic liquors4 ,the bark 
contains hydrocyanic acid and is used in
 medicine4 ,the peculiar odor of cherry 
bark is due to this acid4  ,in early    
years the ripening of the cherry crop   
among the ranges of the ,appalachian    
mountains was a signal for bears to     
congregate where cherry trees were      
thickest4 ,the cubs were then large     
enough to follow their mothers--in      
,august--and it was considered a        
dangerous season in the cherry woods1   
because the old bears would grow fierce 
if molested while feeding4 ,the         
mountaineers knew enough to stay away   
from the danger points at that time1    
unless they went there purposely to     
engage in a bear fight4 ,it was a common
 saying among those people that 8cherry 

bears0 should be let alone4  ,the       
cherry's chief importance in this       
country has been due to its lumber4     
,unfortunately1 that value lies chiefly 
in the past1 for the supply is running  
low4 ,it never was very great1 for1     
though the species has a large range1 it
 is sparingly dispersed through the     
forests4 ,in many parts of its range a  
person might travel all day in the woods
 and see few cherry trees1 and perhaps  
none4 ,the best stands hardly ever cover
 more than a few acres4 ,generally the  
trees grow singly or in clumps4 ,it     
appears to be nearly wholly a matter of 
soil and light1 for the seeds1 which are
 carried by birds1 are scattered in     
immense numbers1 and only those grow    
which chance to find conditions just    
right4 ,the tree wants rich ground and  
plenty of room1 which is a combination  
not often found in primeval forest      
regions2 but1 since the country has been
 largely cleared1 cherry trees spring up
 along fence rows and in nooks and      

corners4 ,if let alone they grow        
rapidly1 but trunks so produced are of  
little value for lumber1 because too    
short and limby4 ,in the forest the tree
 lifts its light crown high on a slender
 trunk to reach the sunshine1 and such  
trunks supply the cherry lumber of      
commerce4 ,near the northern limit of   
its range it seems to abandon its demand
 for good soil and is content if it is  
supplied with light only4 ,it betakes   
itself to the face of cliffs1 sometimes 
overhanging the sea1 and so near it that
 the branches are drenched in spray     
thrown up by breakers4 ,it is needless  
to say that no good lumber is produced  
under such circumstances4  ,the first   
loss of cherry occurred when the farms  
were cleared4 ,it stood on the best     
ground1 and the land-hungry             
,anglo-,saxon wanted that for himself4  
,he cut the tall shapely cherry trees1  
built fences and barns of some of the   
logs1 and burned the balance in the     
clearing4 ,then came the pioneer        

lumberman who did not take much1 because
 his old up-and-down saw1 which was run 
by water1 would cut only about a        
thousand feet a day1 and there was      
plenty of other kinds of timber4 ,but   
when the steam mill put in its          
appearance1 cherry went fast4 ,its price
 was high enough to pay for a long haul4
 ,from that day till this1 cherry has   
gone to market as rapidly as millmen    
could get to it4  ,next to walnut1 it is
 the highest priced lumber produced in  
the ,united ,states4 ,the average cut   
per mill1 according to returns of those 
who sawed it in #aiji1 was only #aa1bjj 
feet1 and the total output that year was
 only #bd1eid1jjj feet1 contributed by  
twenty-nine states4 ,the five leading   
producers were1 in the order named1     
,west ,virginia1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new    
,york1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana4 ,the next   
year the total output fell to           
#ah1bcg1jjj feet1 and cherry went down  
to a place among the 8minor species10   
such as dogwood1 alder1 locust1 and     

buckeye4 ,the day of its importance in  
the lumber industry is past4 ,it has    
become too scarce to attract much       
attention1 but there will always be some
 cherry in the market1 though veteran   
trunks1 three and four feet through and 
good for four sixteen-foot logs1 will be
 seldom seen in the years to come4      
,while good taste ordinarily dictates   
that cherry be finished in a tone       
approximating its natural color1 it is  
quite frequent that it masquerades as   
mahogany4 ,a well-known and perfect     
method of making cherry look like       
mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with
 diluted nitric acid1 which prepares it 
for the materials to be subsequently    
applied2 afterwards1 to a filtered      
mixture of an ounce and a half of       
dragon's blood dissolved in a pint of   
spirits of wine1 is added one-third that
 quantity of carbonate of soda1 the     
whole constituting a very thin liquid   
which is applied to the wood with a soft
 brush4 ,this process is repeated at    

short intervals until the wood assumes  
the external appearance of mahogany4    
,while cherry is employed as an         
imitation of mahogany1 it is in its turn
 imitated also4 ,sweet birch is finished
 to look like cherry1 and for that      
reason is sometimes known as cherry     
birch4  ,cherry weighs #cf4bh pounds per
 cubic foot2 it is very porous1 but the 
pores are small and are diffused through
 all parts of the annual ring4 ,the wood
 has no figure4 ,its value is due to    
color and luster4 ,the medullary rays   
are numerous but small1 and in          
quarter-sawing they do not show as      
mirrors1 like oak1 but as a soft luster 
covering the whole surface4  ,the       
principal uses of cherry have always    
been in furniture and finish1 but it has
 many minor uses1 such as tool handles1 
boxes for garden seeds1 spirit levels   
and other tools1 and implements1        
patterns1 penholders1 actions for organs
 and piano players1 baseblocks for      
electrotypes and other printing plates1 

and cores for high-class panels4 ,aside 
from its color1 its chief value is due  
to its comparative freedom from checking
 and warping4 ,this cherry is one of the
 few trees that cross the equator4 ,it  
extends from ,canada far down the west  
coast of ,south ,america4      ,,choke  
,,cherry 7,prunus virginiana7 is widely 
distributed in ,north     ,america from 
,canada to ,mexico4 ,it is said to      
attain its largest size     in the      
,southwest where trees are sometimes    
forty feet high and a     foot in       
diameter4 ,the name is due to the       
astringency of the half     ripe fruit  
which can scarcely be eaten4 ,when fully
 ripe it is a     little more tolerable1
 and is then black1 but is red before it
 is     ripe4 ,the color of immature    
cherries deceives the unsophisticated   
into believing they are ripe4 ,in       
,canada the fruit is made into pies     
and jelly1 and it is said the tree is   
occasionally planted for its     fruit4 
,the ,indians of former times made food 

of it4 ,the tree is     small1 and      
bruised branches emit a disagreeable    
odor2 leaves contain     prussic acid1  
and when partly withered1 they are      
poisonous to     cattle4 ,the trunks are
 nearly always too small for commercial 
purposes1 and are apt to be affected    
with a fungous disease known as         
black knot4      ,,western ,,choke      
,,cherry 7,prunus demissa7 grows from   
the ,rocky     ,mountains to the        
,pacific in the ,united ,states4 ,it is 
often regarded     as the western form  
of choke cherry1 but it has more        
palatable     fruit1 and trees are a    
little larger1 while trunks are so      
crooked     that no user of wood cares  
to have anything to do with them4 ,the  
wood is weak1 but is hard and heavy4    
,,bitter ,,cherry 7,prunus emarginata7  
belongs to the far ,west1 and is        
found from ,british ,columbia to        
southern ,california4 ,in size it       
ranges from a low shrub to a tree a foot
 in diameter and forty feet     high4   

,the largest sizes are found in western 
,washington and ,oregon4     ,the wood  
is soft and brittle1 brown streaked with
 green4 ,it is not     known that any   
attempt has been made to put the wood of
 this tree to     any useful purpose4   
,the bark and the leaves are exceedingly
 bitter4     ,fruit ripens from ,june to
 ,august1 depending on region and       
elevation1     and it is from one-fourth
 to one-half inch in diameter1 black1   
and     intensely bitter4               
,,hollyleaf ,,cherry 7,prunus           
ilicifolia7 is a ,california species    
growing in the bottoms of canyons from  
,san ,francisco bay to the     ,mexican 
line4 ,it is rarely more than thirty    
feet high1 but has a     large trunk1   
sometimes two feet in diameter4 ,the    
wood is heavy1     hard1 and strong1 and
 it ought to be valuable in the         
manufacture of     small articles1 but  
fuel is the only use reported for it4   
,the fruit     is insipid1 and ripens   
late in autumn4 ,the foliage is much    

admired     and has led to the planting 
of the species for ornamental purposes4 
,illustration     ,,wild ,,red ,,cherry 
,illustration3 ,,wild ,,red ,,cherry    
,,wild ,,red ,,cherry  7,prunus         
,pennsylvanica7   ,in addition to the   
name wild red cherry by which this tree 
is known in most parts of its range1 it 
is called bird cherry in ,maine1 ,new   
,hampshire1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1  
,minnesota1 ,iowa2 red cherry in ,maine 
and ,rhode ,island2 fire cherry in ,new 
,york and many other localities2 pin    
cherry in ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire1    
,new ,york1 ,michigan1 ,iowa1 and ,north
 ,dakota2 pigeon cherry in ,vermont1    
,new ,hampshire1 ,rhode ,island1 ,new   
,york1 ,ontario1 and ,north ,dakota2 and
 wild cherry in ,tennessee and ,new     
,york4 ,its range extends from          
,newfoundland to ,hudson bay1 west to   
,british ,columbia1 south through the   
,rocky ,mountains to ,colorado1 and in  
the ,east along the ,appalachian ranges 
to ,north ,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,it 

reaches its largest size among the ,big 
,smoky mountains in ,tennessee and      
,north ,carolina4  ,it is ordinarily a  
tree thirty or forty feet high1 and from
 eight to ten inches in diameter1 though
 trunks are sometimes twenty inches     
through4 ,it grows fast1 but is very    
short-lived4 ,many stands disappear in  
thirty years or less1 but individuals   
survive two or three times that long1 if
 they stand in open ground4 ,one of its 
names is fire cherry1 and that fitly    
describes it4 ,like paper birch and     
lodgepole pine1 it follows forest fires 
where the ground is laid bare by the    
burning4 ,nature seems to have made     
peculiar provisions whereby this tree   
clothes barren tracts which have been   
recently burned4 ,in the first place1 it
 is a prolific seeder4 ,its small1 red  
cherries are borne by bushels on very   
young trees4 ,birds feed on them almost 
exclusively while they last1 and the    
seeds are scattered over the surrounding
 country4 ,they have such thick shells  

that few germinate unless they pass     
through a moderate fire1 which cracks   
the shells1 or at least they do not     
sprout until they come in direct contact
 with mineral soil4 ,when a fire burns a
 forest1 thousands of the cherry        
seedlings spring up4 ,many persons have 
wondered where they come from so        
quickly4 ,they were already scattered   
among the forest leaves before the fire 
passed4 ,the heat crazed their shells1  
and the burning of the leaflitter let   
them down on the mineral soil where they
 germinated and soon came up by         
thousands4 ,the case is a little        
different with paper birch and with     
aspen1 which are also fire trees4 ,their
 seeds cannot pass through fire without 
perishing1 and when birches and aspens  
follow a fire it means that the seeds   
were scattered by the wind after the    
passing of the fire4 ,doubtless cherry  
seeds are often scattered after the fire
 has passed2 but it is believed that    
most of those which spring up so quickly

 have passed through the fire without   
being destroyed4  ,this small cherry is 
one of the means by which damage by     
forest fires is repaired4 ,the tree is  
of little value for lumber or even for  
fuel2 but it acts as a nurse tree--that 
is1 it shelters and protects the        
seedlings of other species until they   
obtain a start4 ,by the time the cherry 
trees die1 the seedlings which they have
 nursed are able to take care of        
themselves1 and a young forest of       
valuable species is established4        
,except in this indirect way1 the wild  
red cherry is of little use to man4 ,the
 wood is soft1 light1 and of pleasing   
color1 but trees are nearly always too  
small to be worked into useful articles4
 ,about the only industry of which there
 is any record1 which draws supplies    
from this source1 is the manufacture of 
pipe stems4 ,the straight1 slender1     
bright-barked branches are cut into     
requisite lengths and bored endwise1 and
 serve for stems of cheap pipes1 and    

occasionally for those more expensive4  
,the bark1 like that of most cherries1  
is marked by dark bands running part way
 round the stems4 ,these are known as   
lenticels1 and exist in the bark of most
 trees1 but they are usually less       
conspicuous in others than in cherry4   
,it is this characteristic marking which
 gives the cherry pipe stem its value4  
,wild red cherry blooms from ,may to    
,july1 depending on latitude and        
elevation1 and the fruit ripens from    
,july to ,september4 ,the cherries hang 
in bunches1 are bright red1 quite sour1 
and the seed is the largest part4 ,they 
are occasionally made into jelly1 wine1 
and form the basis of certain cough     
syrups4  ,,west ,,india ,,cherry        
7,prunus sphrocarpa7 grows near the     
shores of ,biscayne bay1 ,florida4 ,it  
there blooms in ,november and the fruit 
ripens the next spring4 ,the tree       
attains a height of from twenty-five to 
thirty feet1 and a diameter of five or  
six inches4 ,when grown in the open at  

,miami1 ,florida1 it is larger1 and is  
much liked as an ornament4 ,the thin1   
smooth bark is brown1 tinged with red1  
and is marked by large conspicuous      
lenticels4 ,the wood is hard and light1 
and of light clear red color4 ,it is too
 scarce to be of much importance1 but   
paper knives1 napkin rings1 and other   
novelties made of it are sold in        
souvenir stores in southern ,florida4   
,its range extends south to ,brazil4    
,,willowleaf ,,cherry 7,prunus          
salicifolia7 is a small tree1 also      
called ,mexican cherry1 is more common  
south of the ,united ,states than in    
this country1 ranging as far south as   
,peru4 ,it is found on some of the      
mountains of southern ,new ,mexico and  
,arizona4  ,,laurel ,,cherry 7,prunus   
caroliniana7 is a southern species which
 sticks close to the coast in most of   
its range from ,south ,carolina to      
,texas4 ,it has many names1 among them  
wild peach1 wild orange1 mock orange1   
evergreen cherry1 mock olive1 and       

,carolina cherry4 ,leaves hang two      
years1 and the fruit remains nearly one4
 ,the latter is black and about half an 
inch long4 ,the withered leaves are     
poisonous if eaten by cattle4 ,the tree 
is thirty or forty feet high1 and eight 
or ten inches in diameter4 ,the wood is 
heavy1 hard1 and strong1 color light    
brown to dark1 rich brown1 sometimes of 
much beauty1 but no record has been     
found of any use for it4 ,the tree is   
often planted for ornament4      ,,wild 
,,plum 7,prunus americana7 is found from
 ,new ,jersey to ,montana1     southward
 to ,new ,mexico and ,texas1 and extends
 to ,florida and     ,mexico4 ,its range
 covers about a million square miles4   
,there are     seven or more species of 
wild plums in the ,united ,states4 ,the 
fruit     of all of them is edible4     
,they have been planted accidentally or 
otherwise in many localities where they 
were not found before the     country   
was settled4 ,the plum was an important 
fruit in the     country's early        

history4 ,the pioneers gathered wild    
fruits before     planted orchards came 
into bearing1 and the plum was one of   
the best     which nature supplied4     
,early travelers among the ,indians in  
the     ,south frequently spoke of      
,indian peaches4 ,such references have  
led     some to believe that the peach  
was native in that region1 but it is    
safe to conclude that what was called   
the peach was really some     species of
 wild plum4 ,these fruits were among the
 earliest to become     domesticated4   
,in fact1 they were abundant about the  
sites of ,indian     towns and old      
fields1 where the savages had scattered 
seeds without     any purpose on their  
part of planting trees2 and early       
settlers     imitated the ,indians1 and 
plums were soon growing in the vicinity 
of     most of the cabins4 ,as a forest 
tree1 it usually thrived best on the    
banks of streams1 for there it could    
find more sunshine than in the     deep 
woods1 and it bore much more fruit4 ,the

 ranges of several     species of plums 
overlapped1 and different sizes and     
colors of fruit     were found in the   
same locality even before white men     
assisted the     spread of species4 ,the
 common plum1 known to botanists as     
,prunus     americana1 is recognized    
under many names among laymen2 among    
these     names are yellow plum1 red    
plum1 horse plum1 hog plum1 ,august     
plum1     native plum1 and goose plum4  
,usually the plum's skin is red1 and the
     flesh yellow1 which accounts for   
its names1 both red and yellow4 ,the    
tree ranges in height from twenty to    
thirty-five feet1 and from five     to  
ten inches in diameter4 ,the wood is    
heavy1 hard1 and strong1 and     dark   
rich-brown4 ,it is suitable for turnery 
and small novelties1 but     little of  
it has been used4      ,,canada ,,plum  
7,prunus nigra7 appears to be the most  
northern member     of the plum group4  
,it grows from ,newfoundland to         
,manitoba1 and south     into the       

northern tier of states4 ,its range has 
been much extended     by planting1 and 
a number of varieties have appeared4 ,it
 is twenty     or thirty feet high1 and 
five to eight inches in diameter4       
,flowers     appear in ,april and ,may1 
and the fruit is ripe in ,september and 
,october4 ,the plums are about an inch  
long1 orange-red in color1 with         
yellow flesh4 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1 
and strong4 ,those who     cultivate    
this tree often do so for the beauty of 
the flowers1     rather than for the    
value of the fruit4 ,the wood is not    
used for     commercial purposes4       
,,black ,,sloe 7,prunus umbellata71     
known also as southern bullace     plum1
 hog plum1 and wild plum1 ranges from   
,south ,carolina1 round the     coast   
through ,florida1 to ,louisiana and up  
the ,mississippi valley     into        
,arkansas4 ,the tree is fifteen or      
twenty feet high and from six     to ten
 inches in diameter4 ,the fruit ripens  
from ,july to ,september1     is black  

when ripe1 and often nearly an inch     
long4 ,the people where     it grows use
 it for jelly4 ,it is not reported that 
the wood is used     for any purpose4   
,,western ,,plum 7,prunus subcordata7   
grows west of the ,cascade     mountains
 from southern ,oregon to central       
,california4 ,it is often a     low     
bush1 but at its best forms a tree      
twenty feet high and six     inches in  
diameter1 but its wood is of no economic
 importance4 ,its     deep1 purple-red  
plums ripen in autumn and are an        
excellent wild     fruit1 juicy and     
tart4 ,during the fruit season the plum 
thickets     were formerly infested by  
both bears and ,indians1 and many a     
fight     for possession took place1    
with victory sometimes on one side1     
sometimes on the other4 ,the white      
inhabitants now make jam and jelly      
of the fruit4      ,,alleghany ,,sloe   
7,prunus allegheniensis7 is so named    
because it is     best developed among  
the ,alleghany mountains of             

,pennsylvania4 ,the     tree is eighteen
 or twenty feet high and six or eight   
inches in     diameter4 ,the wood is    
without value for commercial purposes1  
but the     tree's fruit has some local 
importance4 ,it ripens about the middle 
of ,august1 and is somewhat less than an
 inch in diameter1 with dark1           
reddish-purple skin1 covering yellow    
flesh4      ,,chickasaw ,,plum 7,prunus 
angustifolia7 is a well-known wild plum 
of     the ,south from ,delaware to     
,texas1 and north to ,kansas4 ,its      
natural     range is not known1 because 
it has been so widely planted1          
accidentally or otherwise1 near farm    
houses and in fence corners4     ,its   
bright1 red fruit goes only to local    
markets4 ,negroes gather     most of the
 crop in the ,south4 ,the wood is not   
considered to have     any value1 but1  
in common with other plums1 it possesses
 qualities     which fit it for many    
small articles4      ,,garden ,,wild    
,,plum 7,prunus hortulana7 is supposed  

to have originated     in ,kentucky from
 a cross between the ,chickasaw plum and
 the common     wild plum 7,prunus      
americana74 ,it has spread from         
,virginia to ,texas4     ,the largest   
trees are thirty feet high and a foot in
 diameter4 ,the     fruit ripens in     
,september and ,october1 is deep red or 
yellow1 with     hard1 austere1 thin    
flesh1 quite sour4 ,the fruit is called 
wild     goose or simply goose plum in  
,tennessee and ,kentucky4               
,horticulturists have made many         
experiments with this plum4      ,,cocoa
 ,,plum 7,chrysobalanus icaco71 also    
called gopher plum1 grows     in        
southern ,florida1 and its insipid fruit
 is seldom eaten except by     negroes  
and ,seminole ,indians4 ,there is little
 sale for it in the     local markets4  
,trees are sometimes thirty feet high   
and a foot in     diameter4 ,the light  
brown wood is heavy1 hard1 and strong1  
but it is     seldom used4 ,the tree    
grows in ,africa and ,south ,america as 

well as     in ,florida4  ,illustration 
,,beech  ,illustration3 ,,beech         
,,beech  7,fagus ,atropunicea7   ,there 
is only one beech in the ,united        
,states1 and four or five in ,europe and
 ,asia4 ,the southern portion of ,south 
,america has several species which      
usually pass for beech4 ,one or more of 
them are evergreen4 ,old world species  
are sometimes planted in parks and      
cemeteries in this country1 but as      
forest trees they have no importance in 
the ,united ,states and probably never  
will have4 ,it becomes a simple matter1 
therefore1 to deal with the tree in this
 country4 ,it is alone1 and has no      
nearer relatives than the chestnuts1    
chinquapins1 and the oaks1 all of which 
are members of the same family1 and the 
beech gives the name to the             
family--,fagace4 ,the blue beech1 which 
is common in most states east of the    
,mississippi river and in some west1 is 
not a member of the same family1 though 
it looks enough like beech to be closely

 related to it4  ,the name has come down
 from remote antiquity4 ,it is one of   
the oldest names in use4 ,it is said to 
have descended through thousands of     
years from old ,aryan tribes of ,asia   
which were among the earliest to use a  
written language4 ,for the want of      
better material1 they cut the letters on
 beech bark1 and a piece of such writing
 was called 8boc40 ,it was but a step   
from that word to book--a collection of 
writings4 ,both beech and book came from
 the same word 8boc0 and the connection 
between them is very evident4 ,the      
pronunciation has been little changed by
 the ,germanic races during thousands of
 years1 but the ,romans translated it   
into ,latin and called it 8liber10 from 
which we have the word library4         
,doubtless in very ancient times1 say   
#e1jjj years before the building of     
,solomon's temple1 the libraries beyond 
the ,euphrates river consisted of       
several cords of trimmed and lettered   
beech bark4 ,such material being        

perishable1 it has wholly disappeared4  
,the matter is not now directly         
connected with the lumber interests1 but
 it increases one's respect for beech to
 know how important a part it must have 
played in the ancient world1 whereby it 
stamped its name so indelibly upon the  
language of the most intelligent portion
 of the human race4  ,the word buckwheat
 has the same origin4 ,it means beech   
wheat1 so named because the grains are  
triangular like beech nuts4 ,the tree is
 always known as beech in this country1 
though it may have a qualifying word    
such as red1 white1 ridge4  ,it usually 
grows in mixed forests of hardwoods1 but
 it is often found in the immediate     
presence of hemlock and spruce1 grows   
from ,maine to ,florida1 and west to    
,arkansas4 ,considerable areas are often
 occupied by little else4 ,this is      
attested by the frequency with which    
such names as 8beech flat10 8beech      
ridge10 8beech woods10 and 8beech       
bottom0 are encountered in local        

geography4 ,perhaps the finest examples 
of beech growth in the ,united ,states  
occur in the higher altitudes of the    
lower ,appalachian range in eastern     
,tennessee1 and western ,north          
,carolina1 where trees are frequently   
encountered1 showing a bole of perfectly
 symmetrical form1 of from three to more
 than four feet in diameter1 and of a   
sheer height of seventy feet before a   
limb is encountered4 ,the wood which    
grows in this section is nearly as hard 
as that of the ,north1 but that growing 
on lower levels in the ,south is of a   
much softer texture and lighter color1  
the heart being pinkish rather than     
reddish-brown4  ,beech is one of the    
truly beautiful trees of the forest4 ,in
 the eyes of many1 the beech is as much 
to be admired as the ,american elm or   
sugar maple4 ,certainly in spring when  
it is covered with its staminate        
blossoms1 it is a splendid sight1 and   
its perfect leaves are seldom spotted or
 eaten by insects4 ,in winter1 it is    

particularly interesting4 ,its beautiful
 bark then appears very bright4 ,after  
its fine leaves have fallen1 though many
 of them1 pale and dry1 cling to the    
branches throughout the winter1 the     
structure of its massive head is seen to
 advantage4 ,in the ,canadian markets   
and those of many of the middle and     
western states1 its nuts are gathered   
and sold in considerable quantities4    
,these nuts are favorite food of both   
the red and gray squirrel and these     
rodents collect them in considerable    
quantities during the late fall1 and    
store them in tree hollows for their    
winter's supply of food4 ,it often      
happens1 in felling beech trees in the  
winter1 that shelled beech nuts to the  
quantity of a quart or more will be     
found secreted in some hollow by these  
provident little animals4  ,formerly    
beech was little used for lumber1 but   
was long ago given an important place as
 firewood and material for charcoal4    
,its excellent qualities as lumber have 

now made it popular in most markets4    
,the sapwood is comparatively thin and  
the heart is very much esteemed for many
 purposes4 ,many millions of feet of it 
are converted into flooring and the     
8pure red0 product is very highly       
esteemed for ornamental floors4 ,it has 
not as good working qualities as maple1 
but still it stays in place even better 
than does that famous flooring material4
 ,nearly all the large flooring         
factories of the ,north1 whose principal
 output is maple1 have a side line of   
beech flooring1 and in the ,south1      
notably in ,nashville1 a considerable   
quantity of the wood is made into       
flooring4 ,in full growth this beautiful
 tree is round topped1 with wide        
spreading and horizontal branches1 and  
shows a normal altitude of about sixty  
feet4 ,in this form of growth branches  
appear on the body very close to the    
ground1 and their ends often trail upon 
it4 ,in its forest form1 where trees of 
any sort are of commercial importance1  

it often attains a height of ninety or  
#ajj feet1 with smooth rounded bole as  
symmetrical as the pillar of a          
cathedral1 with a diameter of from two  
to four feet4 ,its time to bloom is     
,april or ,may1 and its nuts ripen in   
,october4 ,the bark is a light          
bluish-gray1 and remarkably smooth2 the 
leaves are simple1 alternate1 with very 
short petioles1 oblong with pointed apex
 and rounded or narrowed base4 ,the ribs
 are straight1 unbranching1 and         
terminate in remote teeth4 ,the fruit is
 a pair of three-sided nuts with a sweet
 and edible kernel which grows in a     
four-celled prickly burr1 splitting when
 ripe4  ,beech is an excellent fuel and 
it has long been used for that purpose4 
,it is so regularly dispersed over the  
country that most neighborhoods were    
able to get it in the years when        
families cut their own firewood4 ,later1
 when charcoal was burned to supply     
primitive iron furnaces1 before coke    
could be had1 beech was always sought   

for4 ,still later1 when large commercial
 plants were built to carry on          
destructive distillation of wood1 beech 
was still a favorite4 ,its modern uses  
are many4 ,there is scarcely a plant    
east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 engaged  
in the manufacture of hardwood          
commodities1 which does not use beech4  
,in ,michigan alone nearly #cj1jjj1jjj  
feet a year are demanded by box makers1 
and more than that much more by         
manufacturers of other commodities4 ,it 
is widely employed for furniture1 filing
 cabinets1 vehicles1 interior finish1   
agricultural implements1 woodenware1 and
 musical instruments4 ,it is one of the 
heaviest and strongest of the common    
hardwoods1 and gives long service when  
kept dry1 but does not last well in damp
 situations4  ,beech is strictly a      
forest tree4 ,this does not mean that it
 will not grow in the open1 but when it 
does grow there it makes poor lumber1   
short and limby4 ,the seedlings must    
have shade if they are to do any good1  

but after they attain a certain size    
they can endure the light4 ,the roots   
lie close to the surface of the ground1 
and the trampling of cattle often kills 
large trees4  ,,blue ,,beech 7,carpinus 
caroliniana7 is not in the beech family1
 but the name by which it is commonly   
known1 and its resemblance to beech1    
justify its consideration with beech4   
,the bluish color of the bark is        
responsible for its common name1 but it 
is known by several others1 among them  
being water beech1 because it often     
grows on or near the banks of streams1  
and it seldom seems more at home than   
when it is hanging over the bank of a   
creek where shade is deep and moisture  
plentiful4 ,it is often called hornbeam 
and ironwood1 and it is closely related 
to hop hornbeam 7,ostrya virginiana74   
,it grows from ,quebec1 to ,florida and 
from ,dakota to ,texas1 reaching its    
largest size in eastern ,texas where it 
is sometimes sixty feet high and two in 
diameter1 though this size is unusual4  

,few trees develop a bole less          
acceptable to lumbermen4 ,in addition to
 being short1 crooked1 twisted1 and     
covered with limbs1 it is nearly always 
ribbed and fluted1 so that a log1 even  
if but a few feet long1 is apt to be    
almost any shape except round4 ,the     
thick sapwood is pale white1 heart pale 
brown4 ,the annual rings are usually    
easily seen1 but they are vague1 because
 of so little difference between the    
springwood and summerwood2              
diffuse-porous2 medullary rays thin and 
usually seen only in the aggregate as a 
white luster where wood is sawed        
radially4 ,the uses of this wood are    
many1 but the amounts very small4 ,it is
 made into singletrees and ax and hammer
 handles in ,michigan1 wagon felloes in 
,texas and other parts of the           
,southwest2 levers and other parts of   
agricultural implements in various      
localities4 ,it seldom goes to sawmills1
 is generally marketed in the form of   
bolts1 and is hard1 stiff1 and strong4  

,illustration     ,,chestnut            
,illustration3 ,,chestnut     ,,chestnut
  7,castanea ,dentata7   ,five species  
of chestnut are known1 three of them in 
the ,united ,states4 ,one of these1     
,castanea alnifolia1 is a shrub and has 
no place in a list of trees4 ,chestnut  
and chinquapin are the two others4 ,they
 are in the beech family to which oaks  
belong also4 ,the ancient ,greeks       
designated these as food trees          
7,fagace71 not an inappropriate name for
 chestnut which probably furnishes more 
human food than any other wild tree4    
,its range extends from ,maine to       
,michigan and southward to ,north       
,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,it attains   
its greatest size in western ,north     
,carolina and eastern ,tennessee4 ,it is
 one of the few well-known woods of the 
,united ,states that does not bear a    
half dozen or more local names in the   
various localities of its growth1 but   
the wood is invariably known as         
chestnut4  ,trees vary in size from     

sixty to #ajj feet in height1 and from  
two to four in diameter4 ,trunks six    
feet through occur where trees have     
grown in the open1 but such are not     
tall1 and are not valuable for lumber4  
,chestnut trees are sometimes heard of  
in this country with trunks ten and     
twelve feet through1 but such must be   
very scarce1 because no one seems to    
know just where they are located4 ,it is
 not improbable that in rare cases such 
sizes have existed4 ,in ,france and     
,italy trees much larger are well       
authenticated1 but that chestnut is of a
 species different from ours4  ,chestnut
 is a very long-lived tree where it is  
fortunate enough to escape the attacks  
of worms and disease2 but as age comes  
on1 it is almost certain to be attacked4
 ,insects bore the wood1 and fungus     
induces decay4 ,frequently the heartwood
 of large trunks is all gone1 and the   
trees stand mere shells with scarcely   
enough sound wood left to support the   
diseased tops4  ,few species sprout with

 more vigor than chestnut4 ,in the      
mountains of eastern ,tennessee1 ,w4 ,w4
 ,ashe found that ninety-nine per cent  
of stumps sprout4 ,this applies as well 
to veterans of three hundred years as to
 young growth4 ,sprouts which rise from 
the top of a high stump are liable to   
meet misfortune1 because1 under their   
disadvantage they cannot develop        
adequate root systems2 but sprouts which
 spring from the root collar1 or near   
it1 may grow to large trees4 ,it is     
claimed by some that a chestnut which   
grows from a sprout has straighter grain
 than one springing from seed4 ,the     
latter's trunk is liable to develop a   
spiral twist1 not only of the wood1 but 
also of the bark2 but the sprout-grown  
tree lacks the twist4  ,chestnut blooms 
in midsummer1 and the profusion of pale 
golden catkins makes the isolated tree a
 conspicuous object at that time4 ,bloom
 is nearly always abundant1 but the nut 
crop fails frequently4 ,several         
accidents may happen1 but the most      

frequent cause of scarcity in the       
chestnut crop is a spell of rainy       
weather while the trees are in bloom4   
,the rain hinders proper pollenization4 
,many thousands of bushels of chestnuts 
are sent to market yearly in the ,united
 ,states4 ,the nuts are smaller but     
sweeter than those of ,european         
chestnut4 ,the largest part of the crop 
is collected from trees in open ground4 
,those in dense forests bear only a few 
nuts at the top4 ,open-grown trees      
develop enormous and shapely crowns2 and
 it is not unusual for farmers who value
 their nut bearing trees to pollard     
them4 ,this puts the tree out of        
consideration as a source of lumber4    
,its branches multiply1 but the trunk   
remains short4 ,it is claimed that a    
chestnut orchard of good form and in a  
region where large crops are frequent1  
is more profitable than an apple        
orchard4 ,the tree does not demand rich 
land1 but must have well-drained soil4  
,it grows on rocky slopes and ridges1   

and will prosper where most other       
valuable trees will barely exist4  ,it  
grows rapidly in its early life1 but    
does not maintain the rate many decades4
 ,large trees are old4 ,in the southern 
,appalachians the ages of telegraph     
poles forty feet long and six inches in 
diameter at the top range from          
forty-five to sixty-five years4 ,trees  
of round fence-post size may grow in    
fifteen years4 ,few trees will produce  
posts more quickly or in larger numbers 
per acre4 ,in some instances nearly a   
thousand saplings large enough for posts
 stand on a single acre4 ,sprout-growth 
chestnut often forms nearly pure stands 
of considerable extent4  ,the value of  
this tree is in its wood as well as its 
nuts4 ,more than #ejj1jjj1jjj feet of   
lumber are cut from it yearly4 ,long    
before it was much thought of as a      
sawmill proposition1 it was manufactured
 in large amounts into rails and posts  
by farmers1 particularly in ,new        
,england and in the ,appalachian region4

 ,axes1 crosscut saws1 mauls1 and wedges
 were the means of manufacture4 ,untold 
millions of fence rails were split      
before wire fences were thought of4 ,it 
is a durable wood1 made so by the tannic
 acid it contains4 ,as fence rails1 it  
was more durable than the best oak1 and 
where both were equally convenient1     
farmers nearly always chose chestnut4   
,on high and dry ridges a chestnut rail 
fence would last from twenty-five to    
fifty years1 and in extreme cases very  
much longer1 even a full century it is  
claimed4  ,dry chestnut wood weighs     
#bh4jg pounds per cubic foot1 which     
makes it a light wood4 ,its annual rings
 are as clearly marked as those of any  
tree in this country4 ,the springwood is
 filled with large open pores1 the      
summerwood with small ones4 ,the        
medullary rays are minute1 and of no    
value in giving figure to the wood4     
,nevertheless1 chestnut has strong      
figure1 but it is due solely to the     
arrangement of the spring and summerwood

 of the annual rings4 ,it is commonly   
classed as a coarse-grained wood4 ,the  
finisher can greatly alter its          
appearance by rubbing the pores full of 
coloring matter4 ,the wood is likewise  
susceptible to change in tone in the    
fumes of ammonia1 and by similar        
treatment with other chemicals4 ,the    
light colors of mission furniture are   
generally the result of treatment of    
that kind4  ,the largest cut of chestnut
 lumber comes from ,west ,virginia1     
,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 and           
,connecticut4 ,the largest use by any   
single industry is probably by the      
manufacturers of musical instruments1   
though the honor may be divided with    
furniture1 interior house finish1 and   
coffins and caskets4 ,it is much        
employed as core or backing on which to 
glue veneers4 ,the lumber of old1 mature
 trees is best liked for this purpose1  
because it is not apt to shrink and     
swell1 and it holds glue4 ,it is no     
detriment that it is riddled with worm  

holes the size of pins4 ,that kind of   
chestnut is known in the trade as 8sound
 wormy40 ,some persons claim that such  
lumber is better as backing for veneer  
than sound pieces1 because it is        
lighter1 is sufficiently strong1 and the
 small holes seem to help the glue to   
stick4 ,wormy chestnut is frequently not
 objected to for outside work because   
the small holes are not hard to fill and
 cover up4 ,the uses of chestnut are    
many4 ,between #f1jjj1jjj and #g1jjj1jjj
 crossties go into railroad construction
 yearly4 ,from #af1jjj to #bj1jjj tons  
of wood are demanded annually for       
tanning extract4 ,every part of the tree
 is available4  ,in recent years a      
disease due to fungus has attacked      
chestnut forests of ,pennsylvania and   
neighboring regions4 ,it has destroyed  
the timber on large areas1 and the loss 
threatens to increase4 ,a tree usually  
dies in one or two years after it is    
attacked4 ,the fungus works beneath the 
bark and completely girdles the tree4   

,the spores of the fungus are believed  
to be carried from tree to tree on the  
feet of birds1 on the bodies of insects1
 and by the wind4      ,,goldenleaf     
,,chinquapin 7,castanopsis chrysophylla7
 occurs on the     ,pacific coast from  
the ,columbia river to southern         
,california4 ,it is     of its largest  
dimensions in the coast valleys of      
northern     ,california where it       
occasionally attains a size equal to the
     chestnut tree of the eastern       
states1 but in many other parts of its  
range it is shrubby4 ,it is an          
evergreen1 and its name is descriptive  
of the underside of the leaf4 ,late in  
summer1 flowers and fruit in     several
 stages of growth may be seen at the    
same time4 ,the nuts are     sweet and  
edible4 ,in northern ,california the    
bark is sometimes mixed     with that of
 tanbark oak and sold to tanneries4 ,the
 wood is     considerably heavier than  
chestnut1 and is sometimes employed in  
the     making of agricultural          

implements4 ,it has small and obscure   
medullary rays1 and its pores are       
arranged more like those of live     oak
 than of chestnut2 that is they run in  
wavy1 radial lines and not     in       
concentric rings as in chestnut4 ,the   
heartwood is darker than     chestnut4  
,,chinquapin 7,castanea pumila7 is a    
little chestnut that grows from         
,pennsylvania to ,texas4 ,it is         
generally a shrub or a bush ten or      
fifteen feet high east of the ,alleghany
 mountains1 but in some of     the      
southern states it reaches a height of  
fifty feet and a diameter     of two or 
more1 and is of largest size in southern
 ,arkansas and     eastern ,texas4 ,it  
has no name but chinquapin which is an  
,indian word     supposed to have the   
same meaning that it now has4 ,the nut  
is from     one-fourth to one-half as   
large as a chestnut1 and is fully as    
sweet4 ,it is sold in the markets of the
 ,south and ,southwest1 but is     not  
an important article of commerce4 ,where

 the trees are large     enough1 the    
wood is put to the same uses as         
chestnut4 ,it is     manufactured into  
furniture in ,texas1 and is bought by   
railroads for     ties4  ,illustration  
,,basswood  ,illustration3 ,,basswood   
,,basswood  7,tilia ,americana7   ,there
 are about twenty species of basswood in
 the world1 and from three to six of    
them are in the ,united ,states4        
,authors do not agree on the number of  
species in this country4 ,there are at  
least three1 and they occupy1 in part1  
the same range1 with consequent         
confusion4 ,they are much alike in      
general appearance1 and not one person  
in twenty knows one from the other4 ,the
 same names apply to all1 when they     
occur in the same region4 ,few trees    
carry more names1 and with less reason4 
,basswood is generally not difficult to 
identify in summer1 but in winter a     
person only slightly acquainted with    
different trees might take it for       
cucumber1 and if of small size1 it might

 possibly be mistaken for ash or        
mountain maple4 ,when the tree is       
bearing leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1     
there is no excuse for mistaking it for 
any other4 ,the fruit1 a cluster of four
 or five berry-like globes1 hangs under 
a leaf1 fixed by a short stem to the    
midrib4 ,this feature alone should be   
sufficient to identify the basswood in  
this country4  ,among the many names by 
which this tree is known1 in addition to
 basswood1 are ,american linden1 linn1  
lynn1 limetree1 whitewood1 beetree1     
black limetree1 wickup1 whistle wood1   
and yellow basswood4  ,the range is     
extensive1 its northeastern boundary    
lying in ,new ,brunswick1 its           
southwestern in ,texas4 ,it reaches     
,lake ,winnipeg1 and is found in        
,georgia4 ,this delimited area is little
 short of a million square miles4 ,it   
reaches a height of from sixty to #abj  
feet1 and a diameter of from eighteen   
inches to four feet4 ,it has a decided  
preference for rich soil1 and the best  

lumber is cut in fertile coves and      
flats1 or in low land near streams4 ,the
 largest trees formerly grew in the     
forests of the lower ,ohio valley1 but  
few of the giants of former times are to
 be found in that region now4 ,they went
 to market a generation or two ago4 ,the
 largest cut of basswood lumber now is  
in ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 and ,west     
,virginia1 but most of that from ,west  
,virginia is white basswood 7,tilia     
heterophylla74  ,the wood weighs #bh4bj 
pounds per cubic foot1 which is more    
than the other basswoods in this country
 weigh4 ,the rings of annual growth are 
not very clearly marked4 ,they may be   
distinguished1 in most cases1 by a      
narrow1 light-colored line4 ,this is the
 springwood4 ,in some trees it is much  
more distinct than in others4 ,the wood 
is very porous1 but the pores are small1
 cannot readily be seen with the naked  
eye1 and are scattered pretty evenly    
through the yearly ring4 ,the medullary 
rays are small but numerous4 ,they give 

quarter-sawed lumber a pleasing luster1 
but are too minute to develop much      
figure4 ,the general tone of the wood is
 white4 ,it is soft1 works easily1 holds
 its shape well1 and is tough1 but is in
 no sense a competitor of oak and       
hickory in toughness1 though it shows   
the quality best in thin panels which   
resist splitting and breaking4  ,in the 
days when it was customary to ceil      
houses with boards1 both overhead and   
the walls of rooms1 carpenters were     
partial to basswood because of its      
softness4 ,dressing lumber was then     
nearly always done by hand1 and the     
carpenter who pushed the jack plane ten 
or twelve hours a day1 looked pretty    
carefully to the softness of the wood he
 handled4 ,in tongued and grooved work1 
as in ceiling and wainscoting1 it was   
not necessary to dress the fitting edges
 as carefully when basswood was used as 
in using some others1 because it is so  
soft that fittings can be forced1 and   
cracks may be closed by driving the     

boards together4  ,slack coopers have   
long employed basswood for barrel       
headings1 and also in the manufacture of
 various kinds of small stave ware1 such
 as pails1 tubs1 and kegs4 ,in this use1
 as in ceiling1 the softness of the wood
 is a prime consideration1 because the  
pressure of the hoops will close any    
small openings4 ,its whiteness and its  
freedom from stains and unpleasant odors
 are likewise important when vessels are
 to contain food products4 ,box makers  
like the wood on that account1 and large
 quantities are manufactured into       
containers for articles of food4  ,much 
basswood is cut into veneer1 some of    
which serves in single sheets as in     
making small baskets and cups for       
berries and small fruits1 but a large   
part of the output is devoted to ply    
work4 ,usually three sheets are glued   
together1 but sometimes there are five4 
,by crossing the sheets1 to make the    
grain of one lie at right angles to the 
next1 plies of great strength and       

toughness are produced4 ,trunk makers   
are large users of such1 and many panels
 of that kind are employed by           
manufacturers of furniture and musical  
instruments4  ,woodenware factories find
 basswood one of their most serviceable 
materials1 and it is made into ironing  
boards1 wash boards1 bread boards1 and  
cutting boards for cobblers1 saddlers1  
and glass cutters4 ,its lightness and   
toughness make it serviceable as valves 
and other parts of bellows for          
blacksmiths1 organs1 and piano players4 
,makers of gilt picture frames prefer it
 for molding which is to be overlaid    
with the gilt or gold4 ,it is           
serviceable for advertising signs       
because its whiteness contrasts well    
with printing4 ,makers of thermometers  
use it frequently for the wooden body of
 the instrument1 and yard sticks are    
made of it4 ,apiarists find no wood more
 suitable for the small1 light frames in
 which bees build the comb4  ,the uses  
of this wood are so many and so various 

that lists would prove monotonous4 ,the 
annual cut in this country1 exclusive of
 veneer1 is nearly #cej1jjj1jjj feet1   
and the demand for veneer takes many    
millions more4  ,basswood is named for  
the bark1 and the spelling was formerly 
bastwood4 ,the manufacture of articles  
from the bark was once a considerable   
industry1 not so much in this country as
 in ,europe4 ,however1 some use has been
 made of the bark here4 ,louisiana      
negroes make horse collars of it by     
braiding many strands together1 and     
chair bottoms are woven of it in lieu of
 cane and rattan1 and it is likewise    
woven into baskets of coarse kinds4     
,bark is prepared for this use by       
soaking it in water1 by which the annual
 layers of the bark are separated1 long1
 thin sheets are produced1 and these are
 reduced to strips of the desired width4
  ,the annual cut of basswood lumber is 
declining with no probability that it   
will ever again come up to past figures2
 but basswood is in no immediate danger 

of disappearing from ,american forests4 
,it is not impossible that it may be    
planted for commercial purposes4 ,in    
central ,europe1 forests of basswood1   
there called linden1 are maintained for 
the honey which bees gather from the    
bloom4 ,in this country it is often     
called beetree because of the richness  
of its flowers in nectar4 ,possibly bee 
owners may grow forests for the honey1  
and when trees are mature1 dispose of   
them for lumber4      ,,white ,,basswood
 7,tilia heterophylla7 attains a trunk  
diameter as     great as that of the    
common basswood1 but is not as tall4    
,trees     sixty or seventy feet high   
are among the tallest4 ,this species    
ranges from ,new ,york to ,alabama1 and 
is found as far west as     southern    
,illinois1 and its best development is  
among the rich     valleys and fertile  
slopes of the ,appalachian mountains    
from     ,pennsylvania southward4 ,it is
 the prevailing basswood of ,west       
,virginia1 and reaches its largest size 

on the high mountains of     ,north     
,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,it averages  
about two pounds lighter     per cubic  
foot than the common basswood1 but      
ordinarily neither the     lumber nor   
the standing trees of the two species   
are distinguished4     ,only persons    
somewhat skilled in botany are able to  
tell one species     of basswood from   
another as they occur in the forests of 
this     country4      ,,downy          
,,basswood 7,tilia pubescens7 is a      
southern member of the     basswood     
group1 and is scarce4 ,its range extends
 from ,north ,carolina     to ,arkansas 
and ,texas4 ,trees are rarely more than 
forty feet high     and fifteen inches  
in diameter4 ,the wood is light brown1  
tinged with     red1 and the sap is     
hardly distinguishable from the heart4  
,as far as     it is used at all1 its   
uses are similar to those of other      
basswoods4      ,,southern ,,basswood   
7,tilia australis7 is confined1 as far  
as is now     known1 to a small section 

of ,alabama1 where it attains a height  
of     sixty feet in rich woodlands4 ,no
 reports on the quality of the wood     
have been published1 and the species is 
too scarce to possess much     interest 
to others than systematic botanists4    
,,florida ,,basswood 7,tilia floridana71
 as its name suggests1 is a     ,florida
 species1 and has not been reported     
elsewhere4 ,it seems to be     the      
smallest of ,american basswoods1 the    
largest trees being little     more than
 thirty feet high4 ,no tests of the wood
 have been made and     no uses         
reported4      ,,michaux ,,basswood     
7,tilia michauxii7 has been listed for a
 long     time1 but is still not well   
known4 ,its range extends from ,canada  
to     ,georgia and westward to ,texas4 
,trees three feet in diameter and       
eighty feet high have been reported4    
,only botanists distinguish it     from 
other species of basswood with which it 
is associated4      ,,pawpaw 7,asimina  
triloba7 is of more value for its fruit 

than its     wood4 ,it grows from ,new  
,york to ,texas1 but in certain         
localities     only4 ,it is the most    
northern species of the custard apple   
family1     and is usually of little    
importance above an altitude of #a1ejj  
feet4     ,in ,arkansas and some other  
southwestern regions it is called       
banana4     ,it is usually a shrub1 but 
may reach a height of forty feet and a  
diameter of twelve inches4 ,the wood is 
light1 soft1 and weak4 ,pond     apple  
7,annona glabra71 called custard apple  
in some parts of its     range in       
,florida1 is a member of the same       
family4 ,it attains the     size of     
pawpaw1 and the wood is similar4        
,illustration     ,,american ,,holly    
,illustration3 ,,american ,,holly       
,,american ,,holly  7,ilex ,opaca7      
,holly is a characteristic member of a  
large family scattered through most     
temperate and tropical regions of the   
world4 ,it belongs to the family        
,aquifoliace1 a name which conveys      

little meaning to an ,english reader    
until botanists explain that it means   
trees with needles on their leaves1 acus
 meaning needle1 and folium leaf4 ,how  
well holly1 with its spiny leaves1 fits 
in that family is seen at once4  ,about 
#age species of holly are dispersed in  
various parts of the world1 the largest 
number occurring in ,brazil and ,guiana4
 ,ilex is the classical name of the     
evergreen oak in southern ,europe4  ,the
 glossy green foliage and the brilliant 
red berries of the holly tree have long 
been associated in the popular mind with
 the ,christmas season4 ,mingled with   
the white berries and dull green foliage
 of the mistletoe1 it is the chief      
,yuletime decoration1 and many hundred  
trees are annually stripped of their    
branches to supply this demand4 ,the    
growth is still quite abundant1 but if  
the destruction and waste continue1     
,american holly will soon be exhausted4 
,its range extends from ,massachusetts  
to ,texas and from ,missouri to         

,florida4 ,in ,new ,england1 the trees  
are few and small1 and the same holds   
true in many parts of the ,appalachian  
region4 ,the largest trees are found in 
southern ,arkansas and eastern ,texas4  
,in the ,north it grows in rather dry1  
gravelly soil1 often on the margins of  
oak woods1 but in the ,south it takes to
 swamps1 and does best on river bottoms 
where the soil is rich4 ,it is often    
associated with evergreen magnolia1     
which it resembles at a distance1 though
 differences are plain enough on close  
examination4 ,the light1 grayish-green  
barks of the two trees look much alike2 
but the magnolia's leaves are larger1   
thicker1 and lack the briers on the     
margins4  ,holly varies in size from    
small straggling bushes to well-formed  
trees fifty or sixty feet high and two  
or three in diameter4 ,the principal    
value of holly is not in its wood1 but  
in its leaves and berries4 ,some persons
 suppose that holly leaves never fall4  
,that is true of no tree that attains   

any considerable age4 ,an examination of
 a holly thicket1 or a single tree1 in  
the spring of the year will reveal a    
fair sprinkling of dead leaves on the   
ground1 though none may be missed from  
the branches4 ,those that fall are three
 years old1 and they come down in the   
spring4 ,there are always two full years
 of leaves on the trees4  ,flowers are  
the least attractive part of holly4 ,few
 people ever notice the small1          
unobtrusive cymes1 scattered along the  
base of the young shoots in the early   
spring1 with the crop of young leaves4  
,nothing showy about them attracts      
attention4  ,the fruit is the well-known
 berry1 the glory of winter decorations4
 ,it is usually red1 but sometimes      
yellow4 ,the latter color is not often  
seen in decorations because it is a poor
 contrast with the glossy green of the  
leaves4 ,the berries ripen late in      
autumn and hang until nearly spring1    
provided they are let alone4 ,that is   
seldom their fortune1 for if they escape

 the wreath hunter at ,christmas1 they  
remain subject to incessant attacks by  
birds4 ,fortunately1 the berries are not
 very choice food for the feathered     
bevies that fly in winter2 otherwise1   
the trees would be stripped in a day or 
two4 ,birds are attracted by the color1 
and they keep pecking away1 taking one  
or two berries at a bait1 and in the    
course of a long winter they get most of
 them4  ,the gathering of holly leaves  
and berries is an industry of much      
importance1 taken as a whole2 but it    
lasts only a short time1 and is carried 
on without much system4 ,the greatest   
source of supply is northern ,alabama1  
and the neighboring parts of surrounding
 states2 but some holly is gathered in  
all regions where it is found4 ,those   
who collect it for market make small    
wages1 but the harvest comes at a season
 when little else is doing1 and the few 
dimes and dollars picked up are regarded
 as clear gain--particularly since most 
of the holly harvesters have no land of 

their own and forage for supplies on    
other people's possessions4  ,the seeds 
of holly are a long time in germinating1
 and those who plant them without       
knowing this are apt to despair too     
soon4 ,the great differences in the     
germinating habits of trees are         
remarkable4 ,some of the maples bear    
seeds which sprout within a few days    
after they come in contact with damp    
soil1 certain members of the black oak  
group of trees drop their acorns with   
sprouts already bursting the hulls1 and 
mangroves are in a still greater hurry1 
and let fall their seeds with roots     
several inches long ready to penetrate  
the mud at once4 ,but holly is in no    
hurry4 ,its seeds lie buried in soil    
until the second year before they send  
their radicles into the soil4 ,they are 
so slow that nurserymen usually prefer  
to go into the woods and dig up         
seedlings which are already of plantable
 size4  ,users of woods find many places
 for holly but not in large amounts4    

,the reported output by all the sawmills
 in the ,united ,states in #aiji was    
#cg1jjj feet1 and ,maryland produced    
more than any other state4 ,the wood is 
employed for inlay work1 parquetry1     
marquetry1 small musical instruments1   
and keys for pianos and organs4         
,engravers find it suitable for various 
classes of work1 its whiteness giving   
the principal value4 ,it approaches     
ivory in color nearer than any other    
,american wood4 ,brush back             
manufacturers convert it into their     
choice wares4 ,it is occasionally worked
 into small articles of furniture1 but  
probably never is used in large pieces4 
,the wood is rather light1 and the vague
 boundaries between the annual rings1   
and the smallness and inconspicuousness 
of the medullary rays1 are responsible  
for the almost total absence of figure1 
no matter in what way the wood is       
worked4 ,the so-called ,california holly
 7,heteromeles arbutifolia7 is of a     
different family1 and is not a holly4   

,,dahoon ,,holly 7,ilex cassine7 grows  
in cold swamps and on their borders in  
the coast region from southern ,virginia
 to southern ,florida1 and westward to  
,louisiana4 ,it is often found on the   
borders of pine barrens1 is most common 
in western ,florida and southern        
,alabama1 and when at its best1 is from 
twenty-five to thirty feet high and a   
foot or more in diameter4 ,the leaves   
are nearly twice as long as those of    
common holly1 and are generally         
spineless or nearly so4 ,the fruit      
ripens late in autumn and hangs on the  
branches until the following spring4    
,the berries are sometimes bright red1  
oftener dull red1 and those fully up to 
size are a quarter of an inch in        
diameter4 ,some hang solitary1 others in
 clusters of three4 ,the wood is light  
and soft1 weighing less than thirty     
pounds per cubic foot4 ,the heart is    
pale brown1 and the thick sapwood nearly
 white4 ,the tree is known locally as   
yaupon1 dahoon1 dahoon holly1 and       

,henderson wood4 ,this species passes   
gradually into a form designated as     
,ilex myrtifolia1 which ,sargent        
surmises may be a distinct species4     
,another form1 narrowleaf dahoon 7,ilex 
cassine angustifolia71 is listed by     
,sudworth4  ,,yaupon ,,holly 7,ilex     
vomitoria7 is a small1 much-branched    
tree1 often shrubby1 and at its best is 
seldom more than twenty-five feet high  
and six inches in diameter4 ,its range  
follows the coast from southern         
,virginia to ,st4 ,john's river1        
,florida1 and westward to eastern       
,texas4 ,it sticks closely to tidewater 
in most parts of its habitat1 but when  
it reaches the ,mississippi valley it   
runs north into ,arkansas4 ,it attains  
its largest size in ,texas1 and is      
little more than a shrub elsewhere4     
,berries are produced in great          
abundance1 are red when ripe1 but they  
usually fall in a short time and are not
 much in demand for decorations4 ,the   
wood weighs over forty-five pounds per  

cubic foot1 is hard1 and nearly white1  
but turns yellow with exposure4 ,the    
leaves of this holly were once gathered 
by ,indians in the southeastern states  
for medicine4 ,the savages journeyed    
once a year to the coast where the holly
 was abundant1 boiled the leaves in     
water1 and produced what they called the
 8black drink40 ,it was nauseating in   
the extreme1 but they drank copious     
draughts of it during several days1 then
 departed for their homes1 confident    
that good health was assured for another
 year4      ,,mountain ,,holly 7,ilex   
monticola7 is so named because it grows 
among     the ,appalachian ranges from  
,new ,york to ,alabama4 ,it is best     
developed in the elevated district where
 ,tennessee and ,north and     ,south   
,carolina meet near one common boundary4
 ,it is elsewhere     shrubby4 ,the     
leaves are deciduous1 and the bright    
scarlet berries     are nearly as large 
as cherries4 ,they fall too early to    
make them     acceptable as ,christmas  

decorations4 ,the wood is hard1 heavy1  
and     creamy-white1 and if it could be
 had in adequate quantities1 would      
be valuable4 ,the trees are sometimes a 
foot in diameter and forty     feet     
high1 but they are not abundant4 ,their 
leaves bear small     resemblance to the
 typical holly leaf1 but look more like 
those of     cherry or plum4            
,,deciduous ,,holly 7,ilex decidua7 is  
called bearberry in ,mississippi     and
 possum haw in ,florida1 while in other 
regions it is known as     swamp holly  
because of its habit of clinging to the 
banks of streams     and betaking itself
 to swamps4 ,it keeps away from         
mountains1 though     it is found in a  
shrubby form between the ,blue ,ridge   
and the sea in     the ,atlantic states1
 from ,virginia southward4 ,it runs west
 through     the ,gulf region to ,texas1
 and ascends the ,mississippi valley to 
,illinois and ,missouri1 attaining tree 
size only west of the     ,mississippi4 
,the wood is as heavy as white oak1     

hard1 and     creamy-white1 both heart  
and sap4 ,doubtless small quantities are
     employed in different industries1  
but the only direct report of its       
use comes from ,texas where it is turned
 for drawer and door knobs in           
furniture factories4 ,most but not all  
of the leaves fall in early     winter4 
,the berries obey the same rule1 some   
fall and others hang     till spring4   
,they are orange or orange-scarlet4     
,illustration     ,,yellow ,,buckeye    
,illustration3 ,,yellow ,,buckeye       
,,yellow ,,buckeye  7sculus ,octandra7  
,four species and one variety of buckeye
 are native in the ,united ,states1     
yellow buckeye1 ,ohio buckeye1          
,california buckeye1 small buckeye1 and 
purple buckeye4 ,they belong in the     
horse chestnut family4 ,the so-called   
,texas buckeye is in a different family1
 and is not a true buckeye1 but is close
 kin to the soapberry4 ,the buckeyes are
 named for the large white spot on the  
smooth1 brown nut1 resembling the eye of

 a deer4 ,the yellow buckeye is the most
 important of the group1 is the largest 
and most abundant4 ,it is known by the  
name of buckeye in ,north ,carolina1    
,south ,carolina1 ,alabama1             
,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1 and   
,kentucky4 ,it is called sweet buckeye  
in ,west ,virginia1 ,mississippi1       
,texas1 ,missouri1 and ,indiana1        
probably owing to the fact that it does 
not exhale the disagreeable odor        
characteristic of other members of the  
family4 ,yellow buckeye is the term     
applied to it in ,south ,carolina and   
,alabama2 large buckeye in ,tennessee2  
big buckeye in ,tennessee and ,texas4   
,it flourishes from ,allegheny county1  
,pennsylvania1 southward along the      
,alleghany mountains to northern        
,georgia and ,alabama1 westward along   
the valley of the ,ohio river to        
southern ,iowa1 through ,oklahoma and   
the valley of the ,brazos river in      
eastern ,texas4 ,it thrives best along  
streams and in dense1 rich woods4 ,it   

reaches its fullest development on the  
slopes of the ,alleghany mountains in   
,north ,carolina and ,tennessee4  ,the  
leaves of the buckeye are compound1 with
 from five to seven leaflets2 flowers   
appear in ,may or ,june and are dull    
yellow2 the fruit is a large brown nut1 
one or two of which are enclosed in a   
rough1 uneven husk1 about two inches or 
more in diameter4 ,the tree grows from  
forty to #ajj feet in height1 and       
attains a diameter of from one to three 
and a half feet4  ,buckeye grows        
intermingled with poplar1 oak1 maple1   
beech and a variety of other hardwoods4 
,from its comparatively limited growth  
as compared with the totality of the    
average hardwood forest1 it never has   
been recognized1 and probably never will
 be1 as a distinctive type of ,american 
commercial wood4 ,the timber is felled  
with the other valuable trees           
surrounding it1 and its appearance1 when
 manufactured into lumber is so similar 
to that of the sap of poplar or         

whitewood that almost without exception 
it is assorted with poplar saps1 and    
goes on the market masquerading as that 
wood4 ,there is probably not one        
lumberman in a thousand1 handling       
poplar1 that is able to distinguish     
buckeye from sap poplar in his shipments
 of that wood4  ,sawmills make no       
distinction between the different       
species4 ,all that comes is buckeye1 but
 nearly all of it is the yellow species1
 though doubtless a little of all the   
others is cut into lumber and veneer1 or
 goes to the slack cooperage shop1 or to
 the pulp mill4 ,the woods of all are   
quite similar1 and they are used for the
 same purposes4 ,if one is employed in  
larger quantities than another1 it is   
because it is more convenient1 or of    
better form or larger size4  ,early uses
 of buckeye were as important as those  
of the present day1 though amounts were 
smaller4 ,many an ,ohio statesman of    
former times boasted that1 as a baby1 he
 was rocked in a buckeye sugar trough   

for a cradle4 ,they claimed with pride  
that the prevalance of the custom caused
 ,ohio to be known as the buckeye state1
 a name which clings to it still4 ,next 
to yellow poplar1 buckeye was considered
 the best wood from which to hew the    
small troughs which collected the sugar 
water from the tapped maples in early   
spring2 but the range of buckeye did not
 extend northward into the real maple   
area1 and the troughs like those which  
rocked the inchoate ,ohio statesmen were
 unknown in the ,north1 but were        
familiar along the mountain ranges      
southward4 ,dough trays1 bread boards1  
chopping bowls1 and troughs in which to 
salt bacon and pork1 were hewed from    
buckeye by farmers and village          
woodworkers4  ,it weighs #bg4bd pounds  
per cubic foot2 is diffuse-porous1 and  
the slight difference between the wood  
grown in spring and that of late summer 
renders the annual rings indistinct4 ,it
 has little figure1 no matter how it is 
sawed2 medullary rays are thin and      

obscure4 ,softness is one of the        
principal qualities1 and it is also     
weak1 and is wanting in rigidity4 ,these
 are its faults1 but it has virtues4 ,it
 is tasteless and odorless1 and these   
properties make it valuable in the      
manufacture of boxes in which food      
products are shipped4 ,the reported cut 
of buckeye in the ,united ,states is    
from #aa1jjj1jjj to #ac1jjj1jjj feet a  
year4 ,the reports of factories which   
use the wood in making commodities throw
 light on the question of actual use4   
,north ,carolina works #aj1jjj feet a   
year into cabinets and office fixtures2 
,michigan #ajj1jjj into candy and       
chocolate boxes1 dishes1 and bowls2     
,maryland uses #bjj1jjj feet yearly for 
practically the same purposes1 but with 
the added commodities of spice drawers  
and tea chests4 ,makers of artificial   
limbs consider buckeye one of their best
 materials1 but it is second to willow4 
,the 8cork legs0 are usually either     
buckeye or willow4 ,pulp mills grind the

 wood for paper1 but it is not          
separately listed in pulp statistics1   
and the total cut cannot be stated4 ,it 
is converted into veneer and finds many 
places of usefulness1 but here1 also1 no
 separate figures are to be had4  ,the  
nuts are large and abundant1 but almost 
wholly useless for man or beast4        
,bookbinders make paste of them1 as a   
substitute for flour1 and with          
satisfactory results4 ,the paste resists
 ferments much better than that         
manufactured from flour2 but the demand 
upon the nut supply for that purpose is 
very small4 ,squirrels and other small  
animals leave buckeyes alone4 ,some     
writers1 whose acquaintance with this   
tree was apparently acquired at long    
range1 state that the nuts are food for 
cattle4 ,no person with knowledge of the
 buckeye says that4 ,cattle occasionally
 eat a few1 but are poisoned thereby1   
and if they recover1 they never again   
have anything to do with buckeyes4      
,this tree is ornamental during a few   

months of the year4 ,its flowers are    
attractive1 and its large1 vigorous     
leaves and conspicuous fruit are admired
 in summer2 but early in the fall the   
leaves come down1 the husks burst from  
the nuts and strew the ground with      
unsightly fragments4 ,the tree is seldom
 planted1 but the horse chestnut1 a     
foreign species1 takes its place4       
,,ohio ,,buckeye 7sculus glabra7 was    
once thought to be more abundant in     
,ohio than elsewhere1 hence the name2   
but its best development is in          
,tennessee and northern ,alabama4 ,the  
disagreeable odor emitted by the bark   
gives it the names fetid and stinking   
buckeye1 and it is known also as        
,american horse chestnut4 ,its range is 
approximately the same as that of yellow
 buckeye1 but it is a smaller tree1     
rarely more than thirty feet high1      
though it is seventy in exceptional     
cases4 ,in common with other trees of   
the species1 it prefers rich soil along 
water courses4 ,the wood was formerly in

 demand for chip hats1 but that use has 
apparently ceased4 ,the sapwood is      
darker than the heart which is an       
exception to the general rule4 ,dark    
streaks1 probably stains due to fungus1 
occasionally run through the trunk4 ,in 
weight1 strength1 and stiffness the wood
 is approximately the same as yellow    
buckeye4 ,its odor is sufficient to     
distinguish it from that species1 and it
 associates with no other except on rare
 occasions when it may be found with the
 small buckeye in western ,tennessee and
 southern ,missouri4  ,,california      
,,buckeye 7sculus californica7 occurs   
only in the state whose name it bears4  
,it is a short1 much-branched1          
ill-formed tree2 root large and shaped  
somewhat like an inverted tub1 often    
standing a foot or more above the       
ground1 and the branches rising from it4
 ,a tree so formed is without value to  
the general lumberman1 but cabinet      
makers sometimes grub out the root and  
saw it transversely into thin lumber or 

veneer and make small articles which    
possess considerable figure1 due to the 
involved growth1 but little variety of  
color4 ,its tone is light yellow4 ,the  
tree is found in the central part of    
,california1 from near sea level up to  
#d1ejj in the ,sierra ,nevadas4 ,it gets
 away from the immediate vicinity of    
water courses and grows on hillsides4   
,it is heavier than any other ,american 
buckeye1 and has very thin sapwood4 ,the
 other properties of the wood1 and the  
botanical characters of the tree are    
common to other members of the species4 
,the seeds depend for their dispersal on
 running water1 when the tree grows by a
 stream1 or on gravity1 if situated on a
 hillside4 ,the seed will not grow      
unless buried in moist soil1 and it     
retains its vitality only a few months4 
,few trees in the ,united ,states have  
larger seeds than buckeyes4 ,the tree is
 short-lived1 reaching maturity in most 
cases in less than a hundred years4 ,it 
is sometimes planted for ornament in    

this country and in ,europe4  ,,small   
,,buckeye 7sculus austrina7 is one of   
the latest recognized members of the    
buckeye household4 ,it seldom attains a 
diameter above five or six inches1 or a 
height of twenty-five feet4 ,it is1     
therefore1 too small to be seriously    
considered as a source of lumber1 and   
even if trunks were large enough1 the   
species is too scarce to furnish many   
logs4 ,it grows on rich uplands from    
western ,tennessee and southern         
,missouri to ,texas4 ,the bright red    
flowers open in ,april1 the fruit falls 
in ,october4  ,,purple ,,buckeye 7sculus
 octandra hybrida7 is a variety         
characterized by red or purple flowers  
and by leaves woolly on the under sides1
 and bark of lighter color than that of 
yellow buckeye4 ,the range follows the  
,appalachian mountains from ,west       
,virginia southward4 ,it has been       
reported in ,texas also4 ,if the wood is
 used at all1 it goes for the same      
purposes as yellow buckeye4             

,illustration     ,,sassafras           
,illustration3 ,,sassafras              
,,sassafras  7,sassafras ,sassafras7    
,the ,french settlers in ,florida were  
the first white men to give the name    
sassafras to this tree1 but the ,indians
 called it by that name long before4 ,it
 was a tree which ,indians were sure to 
name1 because it had an individuality   
which appealed to them4 ,it is not known
 what the real meaning of the word was1 
when the southern ,indians used it4     
,after the ,french adopted the name in  
,florida1 it passed to other colonies   
and other languages1 and has led to     
numerous disputes since4 ,many have     
erroneously supposed that the name is of
 ,latin origin4 ,when the ,english      
colony was founded at ,jamestown1       
,virginia1 in #afjg1 the tree was well  
known by that name1 but it was          
pronounced so variously and spelled in  
so many ways that it was often almost   
unrecognizable4 ,it is pronounced       
variously and spelled differently yet4  

,it is called sassafras in most regions1
 and in others is saxifrax1 sassafas1   
sassafac1 sassafrac1 and saxifrax tree4 
,its range covers the territory from    
,massachusetts to ,iowa and ,kansas1 and
 south to ,florida and ,texas4 ,some of 
that range it has occupied for vast     
periods of time1 for sassafras leaves   
have been found embedded in the         
,cretaceous formations of ,long ,island4
 ,near the northern limit of its range  
it is generally small1 often of brush   
size2 but further south it becomes a    
tree which sometimes exceeds #ajj feet  
in height1 and three or four in         
diameter4 ,the best development of the  
species is in ,arkansas and ,missouri4  
,sassafras belongs to the laurel family4
 ,strangely enough1 the two trees which 
are usually supposed to be typical      
laurels--namely1 mountain laurel        
7,kalmia latifolia7 and great           
rhododendron1 do not belong to the      
laurel family1 but the heath family4    
,the laurel family to which sassafras   

belongs includes many species in all    
parts of the world1 some are evergreen1 
others are not1 but all characterized by
 the strong1 pungent odor of their wood 
or bark1 and all having fruit with a    
single seed like a plum or cherry4 ,the 
camphor tree from the distillation of   
whose wood commercial camphor 7except   
synthetic camphor made largely from     
turpentine7 is derived1 belongs to this 
family1 as do certain bay trees of the  
southern states4 ,it was formerly       
supposed that sassafras existed only in 
the eastern half of the ,united ,states2
 but a species closely resembling ours1 
if not identical with it1 has recently  
been found in ,china4 ,the ,california  
laurel 7,umbellularia californica7 is in
 the same family with sassafras4  ,this 
tree has had a peculiar history4 ,it was
 once supposed to possess miraculous    
healing powers1 and was shipped from    
,virginia to ,england in one of the     
first cargoes to go to that country from
 the present territory of the ,united   

,states4 ,its supposed value did not    
consist in its use as lumber1 but in    
some medicinal property which it was    
reputed to possess4 ,people appeared to 
believe that it would renew the youth of
 the human race4 ,some portion of this  
superstition has clung round sassafras  
to this day1 and it is not entirely     
confined to ignorant people4 ,bedsteads 
made of sassafras were supposed to drive
 away certain nightly visitors which    
disturb slumber4 ,in southeastern       
,arkansas and northwestern ,mississippi1
 bedsteads are still made of this wood1 
with the belief that sleep will be      
sounder4 ,the same custom doubtless     
prevails elsewhere4 ,in northern        
,louisiana floors of sassafras are      
occasionally laid in negro cabins       
because of the same superstition1 and in
 the firm belief that it will keep out  
animals as large as rats and mice4 ,some
 of the mountaineers of ,kentucky1 where
 each family makes its own soap1 insist 
that the kettle must be stirred with a  

sassafras stick or it will produce a    
poor quality of soap4 ,among the        
mountains of ,west ,virginia many a     
farmer equips his henhouse with         
sassafras poles for roosts1 fully       
convinced that he has put an effective  
quietus on all tribes1 shoals1 and      
kindred of menopon pallidum1 and the    
hens will sleep better4  ,the production
 of sassafras oil is perhaps the largest
 industry dependent upon this tree4     
,roots are grubbed by the ton and are   
subjected to destructive distillation4  
,much of this work is carried on in     
,virginia where sassafras spreads       
quickly into abandoned fields1 springing
 up from seeds carried by birds4        
,veritable thickets soon take           
possession4 ,here is where the sassafras
 oil supply comes from4 ,contractors    
often clear the old fields and make them
 ready for tillage1 taking the roots for
 pay4  ,the wood weighs #ca4db pounds   
per cubic foot2 is very durable when    
exposed to dampness2 is slightly        

aromatic2 inclined to check in drying2  
the layers of annual growth are marked  
by rings of large pores2 summerwood is  
quite distinct from the earlier growth2 
medullary rays are many and thin2 color 
dull orange-brown1 the thin sapwood     
light yellow4  ,sassafras goes to       
sawmills in all regions where it is     
large enough for lumber1 but the total  
cut is small4 ,reports from sawmills in 
#aiji credited this species with only   
#be1jjj feet in the ,united ,states1 and
 it was still less in #aiaj4 ,it is     
evident that this is only a small       
portion of the total output1 and        
probably ,tennessee alone produces that 
much4 ,the wood is sold with other      
species and loses its name1 frequently  
passing as ash4 ,the wood bears         
considerable resemblance to ash1 in     
grain and color1 but is lighter in      
weight1 and much lower in strength4     
,sassafras was one of the canoe woods of
 early times along the lower            
,mississippi and its tributaries4 ,its  

two principal advantages over most woods
 with which it was associated was its   
light weight and lasting qualities4     
,canoes of this timber in ,louisiana    
have given continued service for a third
 of a century4  ,in all parts of its    
range1 wherever it is of sufficient     
size1 it has been used for posts4 ,it is
 generally considered good for about    
twenty years4 ,large trunks were        
formerly split for rails1 and a few are 
utilized in that way still1 but most    
timber large enough for rails1 now goes 
to sawmills4 ,in ,texas most of the     
sassafras supplied by sawmills is       
manufactured into furniture1 but is     
listed as ash4 ,the same thing is done  
in ,arkansas and ,missouri1 but the use 
in the latter state is extended to      
interior house finish and office and    
bank fixtures4 ,sometimes it is made the
 outside wood1 and the figure caused by 
sawing the logs tangentially is         
accentuated by stains and fillers4 ,the 
figure of quarter-sawed wood is not     

attractive because the medullary rays   
are too small4 ,it lasts well as        
railroad ties and a few are found in    
service in many parts of the tree's     
range1 but those who see it in the track
 are liable to mistake it for chestnut4 
,a by-product of sassafras deserves     
mention--tea made from the flowers or   
from the bark of the roots4 ,it is      
relished in the early spring1 and is    
popular in most regions where the tree  
is known4 ,the bark is a commercial     
commodity4 ,it is tied in small bundles1
 and the price at retail ranges from a  
nickel to a dime each4 ,drug stores and 
grocers sell it4 ,in the city of        
,washington in early spring sassafras   
peddlers canvas the city from center to 
circumference4 ,they are generally negro
 men and women who dig the roots on the 
neighboring hills of ,virginia and      
,maryland1 strip the bark1 tie it in    
small bundles1 and by diligence and     
perseverance1 succeed in converting the 
merchandise into money4  ,sassafras is  

often cited as an example of a tree with
 leaves of different forms4 ,three      
shapes are common1 and all frequently   
occur on the same tree1 and even on the 
same twig4 ,one has no lobes1 another   
has one lobe like the thumb of a mitten1
 and another has three4  ,,lancewood    
7,ocotea catesbyana7 is a small         
evergreen tree1 looks much like laurel1 
and grows in southern ,florida1 on the  
islands and on the mainland in the      
vicinity of ,biscayne bay4 ,it is       
closely related to sassafras1 and the   
bark has an aromatic odor4 ,it belongs  
to a group of trees with nearly #bjj    
species scattered in hot regions of both
 hemispheres4 ,this is the only one     
belonging to the ,united ,states1 and it
 appears to be a newcomer on these      
shores1 from the fact that it has       
succeeded in obtaining so limited a     
foothold4 ,it keeps well south of the   
region where it is likely to be frosted 
and it seldom exceeds a height of thirty
 feet and a diameter of eighteen inches4

 ,the fruit ripens in autumn and is dark
 blue with flesh thin and dry4 ,the wood
 is hard1 heavy1 strong1 checks badly in
 drying1 and has a rich brown color1 the
 sapwood being yellow4 ,rings of annual 
growth are marked with many small1      
regularly-distributed open ducts2       
medullary rays are thin and numerous2   
wood weighs #dg4id pounds per cubic     
foot2 durable in contact with the soil1 
beautifully colored1 and is highly      
prized for small cabinet work and       
novelties4 ,at ,miami1 ,florida1 small  
trunks cut on neighboring hummocks1 or  
brought from the keys1 are worked into  
souvenirs to be sold to visitors4       
,lancewood fishing rods are among the   
strongest and most expensive on the     
market2 but little of the material of   
which they are made grows in ,florida4  
,it is also manufactured into billiard  
cues and small handles4  ,illustration  
,,madrona  ,illustration3 ,,madrona     
,,madrona  7,arbutus ,menziesii7        
,madrona is an interesting tree which   

ranges from ,british ,columbia southward
 to central ,california1 attaining its  
greatest development in the redwood     
forests of northern ,california1 where  
trees are sometimes one hundred feet    
high and six or seven feet in diameter4 
,it is not only an interesting tree     
itself1 but it has many interesting     
relatives1 some of which are trees1     
others shrubs1 and still others only    
small plants or vines4 ,it may be called
 a second cousin to the common          
huckleberry1 the mountain laurel1       
trailing arbutus1 the azaleas1 the tiny 
wintergreen1 and the great rhododendron4
 ,it has some poor relations1 but many  
that are highly respectable4 ,it belongs
 to the heath family1 of which there are
 seventy genera1 and more than a        
thousand species2 but less than half of 
them are in ,america1 the others being  
scattered widely over the world4  ,the  
madrona1 when at its best1 is one of the
 largest members of the family2 but it  
is not always at its best4 ,it sometimes

 degenerates into a sprawling shrub1    
where it grows on poor ground and on    
cold1 dry mountain tops4 ,it is         
manifestly not fair to study any tree at
 its worst1 and it is particularly not  
fair to the madrona1 which varies so    
greatly in its appearance4 ,at one place
 it may be scarcely large enough to     
shade the lair of a jackrabbit1 and at  
another it spreads its branches wide    
enough to shade an army--a small army1  
however1 say1 about two thousand men4 ,a
 tree of that size may be found within a
 few hours' ride of ,san ,francisco4    
,its branches cover an area of from     
eight thousand to ten thousand square   
feet4  ,when madrona grows in the open  
it throws out wide limbs like a southern
 live oak1 though not so large or long4 
,its crown is rounded and graceful2 but 
when it grows in forests1 where other   
trees crowd it1 the trunk rises straight
 up to lift the crown into the sunlight 
and fresh air4 ,the madrona is seen in  
all its glory in northwestern           

,california1 where it catches some of   
the warmth and the moist air from the   
,pacific4 ,it follows the ranges of the 
,siskiyou mountains eastward near the   
boundary of ,california and ,oregon4 ,it
 is usually mixed with other forest     
trees1 but sometimes large stands nearly
 pure are encountered1 and there the    
long trunks1 rather gray near the       
ground1 but wine-colored above1 rise in 
imposing beauty and are lost in the     
evergreen crowns4  ,the leaves suggest  
those of laurel1 but are broader4 ,the  
large clusters of white flowers are     
among the glories of the vegetable      
kingdom4 ,george ,b4 ,sudworth1         
dendrologist of the ,united ,states     
,forest ,service1 who usually describes 
in strictly prosaic terms1 breaks away  
from that habit long enough to compare  
madrona flowers to lilies of the valley1
 in his 8,forest ,trees of the ,pacific 
,slope40 ,the flowers appear from ,march
 to ,may1 depending on latitude and     
elevation4  ,the brilliant orange-red   

fruit ripens in the fall1 and is often  
borne in great abundance4 ,it renders   
the crowns of the trees very beautiful4 
,the fruit is about half an inch long   
and contains many small angular seeds4  
,the fruit is said to contain a         
substance which puts to sleep wild      
creatures that feed on it4 ,the claim is
 probably mythical1 for birds breakfast 
extravagantly on it in the morning1 and 
apparently do not do any sleeping until 
after sunset4  ,this tree was discovered
 by and named for ,archibald ,menzies1 a
 ,scotch botanist who traveled in the   
,northwest more than a hundred years    
ago4 ,it has several local names1 among 
them being madrove1 laurel wood1        
madrone-tree1 laurel1 and manzanita4    
,the last is the proper name of another 
small tree which is associated with     
madrona and is closely related to it4   
,the wood weighs #dc4ie pounds per cubic
 foot4 ,it is a little below eastern    
white oak in fuel value1 a little above 
it in strength1 and somewhat under it in

 stiffness4 ,the color is pale          
reddish-brown1 resembling applewood in  
tone1 but generally not quite so dark4  
,the wood is porous1 but the pores are  
very small4 ,medullary rays are numerous
 but thin4 ,on account of the rays being
 of a little deeper red than the other  
wood1 quarter-sawed stock is handsome   
and of somewhat peculiar appearance4    
,the figure is much like quarter-sawed  
beech1 but of deeper1 more handsome     
color4 ,the contrast between springwood 
and summerwood is not strong1 though    
easily seen4 ,generally1 the summerwood 
constitutes about one-fourth of the     
annual ring4 ,the tree grows slowly1 but
 with much irregularity4 ,the increase  
in one season may be four or five times 
as great as in another4 ,the bark       
exfoliates1 and is quite thin4  ,madrona
 has never been put to much use4        
,difficulties in seasoning it have stood
 in the way4 ,the wood warps and checks4
 ,similar difficulties with other woods 
have been overcome1 and such troubles   

should not be unduly discouraging4 ,the 
beauty of the wood is unquestioned4 ,it 
presents a fine appearance when worked  
into furniture1 particularly in small   
panels and turned work1 like spindles1  
knobs1 and small posts4 ,when made into 
grills it shows a surprising richness of
 tone4 ,the wood polishes almost to the 
smoothness of holly4 ,small quantities  
are made into flooring2 a little goes to
 the furniture makers2 lathes turn some 
of it for novelties and souvenirs2 fuel 
cutters sell it as cordwood2 and tanbark
 peelers cut the trees for the thin1    
papery bark4 ,in that case the trunks   
are left to decay1 unless they happen to
 be convenient to a cordwood market4    
,one of the most extensive uses for the 
wood of madrona is for charcoal burning4
 ,blacksmiths buy it because it is      
cheaper than coal1 and some is used in  
shops where soldering and welding are   
done2 but the most exacting demand comes
 from gunpowder manufacturers4 ,they    
find this wood almost equal to alder and

 willow as a source of charcoal suitable
 for powder4  ,,mexican ,,madrona       
7,arbutus xalapensis7 might properly be 
called ,texas madrona as it occurs in   
that state and probably in no other1 but
 its range extends southward into       
,mexico4 ,it produces a poorly shaped   
trunk seldom much more than twenty feet 
high and one foot in diameter1 and      
usually divided into several branches   
near the ground4 ,it blooms in ,march   
and ripens its fruit in midsummer4 ,the 
tree is found on dry limestone hills1   
and in the valley of the ,rio ,blanco1  
and among the ,eagle mountains4 ,cabinet
 makers in ,texas put the wood to rather
 exacting uses after they have carefully
 seasoned it to overcome its natural    
tendency to check4 ,it is very hard2 its
 color is a little lighter than         
applewood which it resembles2 annual    
rings are scarcely visible1 so regular  
and even is the year's growth4 ,in      
,texas the wood is made into plane      
stocks1 tool handles1 and mathematical  

instruments4  ,,arizona ,,madrona       
7,arbutus arizonica7 has a restricted   
range on the ,santa ,catalina and ,santa
 ,rita mountains of southern ,arizona1  
where it ascends to an altitude of      
#h1jjj feet4 ,the species extends       
southward into ,mexico4 ,the largest    
trees attain a height of fifty feet and 
a diameter of two4 ,trunks are usually  
straight and shapely1 and show the thin1
 red bark common to the genus4 ,the wood
 resembles that of the species in       
,texas1 and doubtless is suited to the  
same purposes1 but no utilization of it 
has been reported1 except for fuel1 and 
for fences and sheds on mountain        
ranches4 ,when the region becomes more  
thickly settled1 the value of the wood  
will be appreciated4      ,,manzanita   
7,arctostaphylos manzanita7 is not      
generally welcomed by     botanists into
 the tree class4 ,they say it is too    
small2 but it is     as large as some of
 the laurels which go as trees without  
question1     and is shaped much like   

them4 ,there are several species of     
manzanita4 ,the word is ,spanish and    
means 8little apple40 ,the name is      
natural1 for one of the most noticeable 
things about manzanita is     the fruit1
 the size of well-grown huckleberries4  
,it is shaped like     an apple1 and its
 tart taste suggests that fruit4 ,the   
,digger ,indians     along the foothills
 of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains in    
,california     gather the berries by   
the sack1 dry them1 and keep them for   
winter--if they can4 ,it is often       
impossible to keep them because1        
like other fruit1 they are apt to become
 wormy4 ,when the ,indians     discover 
them in that condition they display rare
 thrift and economy     for savages1 by 
soaking the fruit and pressing out the  
juice1 which     is said to pass for a  
pretty fair quality of cider1 but it    
must be     quickly consumed or it will 
mother and change to vinegar4 ,indians  
now put the berries to use less         
frequently than in early times when     

they were nearly always hungry4         
,manzanita is of the same family as     
madrona4 ,its range extends along       
the mountains of the ,pacific coast     
ranges from ,oregon to ,mexico1 and     
inland to ,utah4 ,the largest trees are 
about twenty feet high and a     foot or
 less in diameter2 very much divided and
 branched1 with limbs     crooked in    
more ways1 perhaps1 than those of any   
other     representative of the         
vegetable kingdom4 ,thousands of canes  
are cut     from the branches1 and if   
any living man ever saw a straight one  
he     failed to report it4 ,manzanita  
grows in almost impenetrable thickets   
on dry slopes and ridges4 ,its thin     
foliage casts so pale a shadow     that 
the tree's shade is little cooler than  
the boiling sun upon the     open naked 
ground and rocks4 ,the bark is a        
reddish-chocolate color1     and        
exfoliates in scales of papery thinness4
 ,the heart is nearly of     the same   
color as the bark1 but the sap is white 

and very thin4 ,the     wood is hard1   
strong1 stiff1 but exceedingly brittle4 
,if a branch is     sharply bent it will
 fly into splinters4      ,the uses of  
the wood are numerous1 but the total    
quantity demanded     is moderate4      
,novelty stores sell small articles to  
tourists in     ,california1 sometimes  
passing the wood off as mountain        
mahogany     which does not so much as  
belong to the same family4 ,the most    
common     articles manufactured by     
novelty shops from manzanita are canes1 
paper weights1 paper knives1 rulers1    
spoons1 napkin rings1 curtain     rings1
 cuff buttons1 dominos1 manicure sticks1
 jewel boxes1 match     safes1 pin      
trays1 and photo frames4  ,illustration 
,,cottonwood  ,illustration3            
,,cottonwood     ,,cottonwood#i         
7,populus ,deltoides7      #i ,the      
following species grow in the ,united   
,states3 ,cottonwood     7,populus      
deltoides71 ,aspen 7,populus            
tremuloides71 ,largetooth     aspen     

7,populus grandidentata71 ,swamp        
,cottonwood 7,populus     heterophylla71
 ,balm of ,gilead 7,populus             
balsamifera71 ,lanceleaf     ,cottonwood
 7,populus acuminata71 ,narrowleaf      
,cottonwood 7,populus     angustifolia71
 ,black ,cottonwood 7,populus           
trichocarpa71 ,fremont     ,cottonwood  
7,populus fremontii71 ,mexican          
,cottonwood 7,populus     mexicana71    
,texas ,cottonwood 7,populus wislizeni74
   ,eleven species of cottonwood are    
found in the ,united ,states1 if all    
trees of the genus ,populus are classed 
as cottonwoods4 ,it is not universally  
admitted1 however1 that they should be  
so classed4 ,the common cottonwood is   
the most widely known of all of them1   
but it is recognized under different    
names in different regions1 viz43 ,big  
cottonwood1 yellow cottonwood1 cotton   
tree1 ,carolina poplar1 necklace poplar1
 broadleaf poplar1 and whitewood4  ,its 
range covers practically all of the     
,united ,states east of the ,rocky      

,mountains4 ,it is rare or missing in   
eastern ,new ,england and southern      
,florida1 and most abundant in the      
,mississippi valley1 and there the      
largest trees are found4 ,some exceed   
#ajj feet in height1 and four in        
diameter4 ,extreme sizes of #adj feet in
 height with diameters of from seven to 
nine have been reported4 ,the cottonwood
 was a frontier tree on the western     
plains when settlers began to push into 
the region4 ,it grew as far west as any 
hardwood of the eastern forests1 and was
 found beyond meridian #ajj1 which was  
supposed to be the boundary between the 
region of rains and the semi-arid       
country4 ,the cottonwood clung to the   
river banks and to islands in the       
rivers1 and by that means escaped the   
,indian's prairie and forest fires which
 he kindled every year to improve the   
range for the buffalo4 ,it is supposed  
that most of the open country east of   
meridian #ajj was originally timbered1  
and that the ,indians destroyed the     

forests by their long-continued habit of
 burning the woods and prairies every   
year to improve the pasture4 ,cottonwood
 was the longest survivor1 because it   
grew in damp places where fires did not 
burn fiercely4 ,black willow was its    
most frequent companion on the western  
outposts of the forests4  ,the          
cottonwood was fitted for holding its   
ground1 and pushing forward4 ,its light 
seeds are carried by millions on the    
wind and by water4 ,the tree bears large
 quantities of cotton 7hence the name71 
and when the wind whips it from the     
tree1 seeds are caught among the fibers 
and carried along1 to be scattered miles
 away4  ,this tree was not much thought 
of by eastern people who had plenty of  
other kinds of wood1 but pioneers on the
 plains who had a hard time to get any1 
found cottonwood useful4 ,it made       
fences1 corncribs1 stables1 cabins1 ox  
yokes1 and fuel4 ,the first canoes made 
by white men on the upper ,missouri     
river were of cottonwood4 ,lumber cut   

from this tree is inclined to warp and  
check unless carefully handled1 and this
 prejudiced it in the eyes of many2 but 
difficulties of that kind were easily   
mastered1 and instead of being a        
neglected wood it became popular4 ,some 
of the largest early orders came from   
,germany4 ,vehicle makers in this       
country employed it for wagon beds1 as a
 substitute for yellow poplar when that 
wood's cost advanced4 ,manufacturers of 
agricultural implements were pioneers in
 its use1 it being excellent material   
for hoppers1 chutes1 and boxes4         
,cottonwood weighs #bd4bd pounds per    
cubic foot1 which is approximately the  
weight of white pine4 ,it has about the 
stiffness of white oak1 but only about  
eighty per cent of white oak's strength1
 and fifty per cent of its fuel value4  
,the wood is very porous1 but the pores 
are small1 usually invisible to the     
naked eye4 ,the medullary rays are small
 and obscure4 ,the appearance of the    
wood is not improved by quarter-sawing4 

,the summerwood forms a thin1 dark line1
 so faint that the annual rings are     
often scarcely distinguishable4 ,the    
tree is generally a rapid grower2       
heartwood is brown1 sapwood lighter1 but
 as a whole1 this tree produces white   
wood4  ,the annual cut is declining4 ,it
 was little more than half in #aiaj what
 it was in #ahii4 ,some regions where   
large trees were once abundant now have 
few4 ,the sawmill output in #aiaj for   
the ,united ,states--including several  
species--was #bbj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,the    
veneer cut was #cc1jjj1jjj feet1 log    
measure2 the slack cooperage staves1    
chiefly for flour barrels1 numbered     
#dd1jjj1jjj2 and pulpwood amounted to   
about #ah1jjj1jjj feet4 ,the lumber cut 
was largest in the following states in  
the order named3 ,arkansas1 ,louisiana1 
,mississippi1 ,missouri1 ,tennessee1    
,iowa1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 ,oklahoma1
 and ,minnesota4 ,the tree was lumbered 
in forty-one states4  ,cottonwood is a  
standard material in several lines of   

manufacturing4 ,it is made into nearly  
every kind of box that goes on the      
market1 from the cigar box to those in  
which pianos are shipped4 ,manufacturers
 of food products are particularly      
anxious to procure this wood1 and it is 
one of the best for woodenware1 such as 
dough boards1 ironing boards1 and cloth 
boards4 ,it is used by manufacturers of 
agricultural implements1 interior       
finish1 bank and office fixtures1       
musical instruments1 furniture1 vehicle 
tops1 trunks1 excelsior1 saddle trees1  
caskets and coffins1 and numerous       
others4  ,there is no danger that       
cottonwood will disappear from this     
country1 but it will become scarce4 ,it 
is being cut much faster than it is     
growing1 and is losing favor as a       
planted shade and park tree1 because of 
its habit of shedding cotton in the     
spring and its leaves in the early      
autumn4  ,,swamp ,,cottonwood 7,populus 
heterophylla7 is known also as river    
cottonwood1 black cottonwood1 downy     

poplar1 and swamp poplar4 ,its range    
describes a crude horseshoe1 running    
from ,rhode ,island down the ,atlantic  
coast in a narrow strip1 where it is    
neither abundant nor of large size2     
touching northern ,florida2 running     
westward to eastern ,texas and thence up
 the ,mississippi basin and the ,ohio   
river to southwestern ,ohio4 ,there is  
nothing handsome about its appearance   
with its heavy limbs and sparse1 rounded
 crown4 ,in the eastern range the       
average height is probably not more than
 fifty feet but in the fertile          
,mississippi valley it reaches #ajj and 
has a long merchantable bole three feet 
in diameter4 ,its bark is rugged1       
dirty-brown and broken into loose1      
conspicuous ridges4 ,it is easily       
distinguished from the other cottonwoods
 by the orange-colored pith in the      
twigs4 ,the buds are rounded and red and
 have a resinous odor4 ,sawmills and    
factories never list this wood          
separately4 ,it comes and goes as       

cottonwood4 ,its uses are the same as   
those of common cottonwood4 ,the two    
species grow in mixture throughout the  
entire range of the swamp cottonwood4   
,,texas ,,cottonwood 7,populus          
wislizeni7 is a rather large tree and is
 the common cottonwood in the upper     
valley of the ,rio ,grande in ,new      
,mexico and western ,texas4 ,the        
yellowish color of the twigs is apt to  
attract attention4 ,the wood is used    
about ranches and occasionally a log    
finds its way to local sawmills2 but its
 importance is limited to the region    
where it grows4  ,,mexican ,,cottonwood 
7,populus mexicana7 extends its range   
north of the ,mexican boundary into     
southern ,arizona and southwestern ,new 
,mexico4 ,it is abundant in ,mexico     
where the largest trees are eighty feet 
high and three or four in diameter4 ,it 
is smaller near the northern limits of  
its range1 and there it hugs the banks  
of mountain streams4 ,stockmen use the  
trunks1 which are usually small enough  

to be called poles1 to make fences and  
sheds4  ,,narrowleaf ,,cottonwood       
7,populus angustifolia7is a mountain    
species which manages to live in the    
semi-arid regions from the ,rocky       
,mountains of ,canada to ,arizona1 but  
is seldom found below an elevation of   
#e1jjj feet1 and it ranges up to        
#aj1jjj4 ,trunks are eighteen inches or 
less in diameter1 and fifty or sixty    
feet high4 ,the seeds are larger than   
those of most other cottonwoods4 ,it    
being a semi-desert species1 its wood is
 appreciated where it is accessible1 and
 it has local uses only4  ,,lanceleaf   
,,cottonwood 7,populus acuminata7 is a  
small tree with limited range1 growing  
in the arid region along the eastern    
base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 southward
 from the ,black ,hills4 ,it is found   
also north of the ,canadian border4 ,it 
is usually fifteen or eighteen inches in
 diameter1 and thirty or forty feet     
high4 ,trunks seldom go to sawmills1 but
 some local use is made of the wood4    

,trees are occasionally planted for     
shade in towns of western ,nebraska and 
,wyoming4  ,,fremont ,,cottonwood       
7,populus fremontii71 called white      
cottonwood in ,new ,mexico1 but         
elsewhere simply cottonwood1 grows from 
western ,texas to ,california1 and as   
far north as ,utah and ,colorado4 ,it   
sometimes attains a diameter of five or 
six feet and a height of #ajj4 ,the     
,indians in ,new ,mexico formerly made  
rude1 clumsy ox carts of this wood1     
without a scrap of iron or other metal  
in the vehicles4 ,one of the carts is   
preserved in the ,national ,museum1     
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,the wood is tough 
and light1 but it is dull white1 with no
 attractive figure4 ,even the annual    
rings are hardly distinguishable4 ,logs 
are occasionally sawed into lumber1 and 
farmers in western ,texas make wagon    
beds of it4  ,illustration     ,,balm   
,,of ,,gilead  ,illustration3 ,,balm    
,,of ,,gilead     ,,balm ,,of ,,gilead  
7,populus ,balsamifera7   ,this tree is 

known in different regions by the       
following names3 ,balsam1 balm of       
,gilead1 cottonwood1 poplar1 balsam     
poplar1 and tacamahac4 ,the usual name1 
balm of ,gilead1 is applied in          
recognition of the supposed healing     
virtue of the wax which covers the buds 
and young leaves4 ,it has long been used
 in medicine1 but its exact value is    
still a matter of discussion4 ,the wild 
,indians of the ,north discovered a use 
for the balsam in mending their bark    
dishes1 and plugging knot holes in the  
wooden trenchers4 ,the wax is slow to   
dissolve in water1 and it resisted for a
 long time such soups as were known to  
the redman's culinary art4 ,bees know   
the value of the wax and use it to seal 
cracks and crevices in their hives and  
to hold the comb in place4 ,it is       
popularly believed that the economy of  
the wax on the buds is to keep them from
 freezing4 ,that view is erroneous1 for 
it would take more than a coating of wax
 to keep the buds warm with the         

thermometer from fifty to seventy       
degrees below zero1 as it is every      
winter in some parts of this tree's     
range4  ,balm of ,gilead is a native of 
the ,north from the ,atlantic to the    
,pacific1 but its finest growth is about
 the headwaters of the ,mackenzie river1
 on ,peace and ,laird rivers1 and the   
lower valley of the ,athabaska4 ,sixty  
years ago ,sir ,john ,franklin reported 
that most of the driftwood of the       
,arctic ocean was this species4 ,since  
that time the range has been more       
definitely determined1 and it is now    
known that the tree grows so far north  
that it is for some weeks in darkness1  
and again in summer for some weeks in   
unbroken sunshine4 ,it grows in ,alaska 
nearly #bjj miles north of the ,arctic  
circle4 ,its natural range southward    
reaches ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1      
,michigan1 ,nebraska1 ,nevada1 and      
,oregon4  ,trees of all sizes abound1   
from mere shrubs in the outskirts of its
 range to trunks #ajj feet high and six 

feet in diameter in favored localities4 
,in the ,united ,states the best timber 
seldom exceeds thirty inches in diameter
 and sixty or seventy feet in height4   
,the bark on limbs and young trunks is  
brownish-gray1 frequently so tinged with
 green that it is noticeable at a       
considerable distance2 but usually large
 trees have reddish-gray bark with deep 
furrows and wide ridges4 ,year-old twigs
 are clear1 shiny reddish-brown2 end    
buds are about an inch long1 the side   
buds somewhat shorter4  ,the wood is not
 distinguishable in appearance from that
 of the other poplars or cottonwoods1   
but it is lighter than most of them1    
weighing #bb4fe pounds per cubic foot1  
has a breaking strength which places it 
among the weakest woods1 but in         
stiffness making a much better showing4 
,the pores are small1 numerous1 and are 
distributed equally through all parts of
 the wood4  ,balm of ,gilead bears seeds
 abundantly and scatters them widely4   
,it must do its planting quickly in the 

short summers of the cold ,north4 ,it   
sticks close to alluvial flats1 banks of
 rivers1 borders of lakes and swamps1   
and gravelly soils4 ,it grows to a      
diameter of fifteen inches in about     
forty-five years4  ,though balm of      
,gilead is not one of the most important
 timber trees of this country1 its place
 is by no means obscure4 ,no separate   
tally is kept of it among woods cut for 
pulp1 but it goes with aspen and other  
similar species as 8poplar40 ,a little  
better account is kept of the amount    
passing through wood-using factories4   
,the annual quantity so reported in     
,illinois is #b1gge1jjj feet1 and it is 
made into boxes and crates4 ,the lumber 
is shipped from the ,north1 since it    
does not grow as far south as ,illinois4
 ,the situation is different in         
,michigan1 for balm of ,gilead grows    
there4 ,the amount going yearly into    
factories in that state is reported at  
#d1iab1jjj feet4 ,it is made into many  
commodities1 but boxes and crates take  

most of it4 ,the wood is reduced to     
veneer and converted into berry buckets1
 grape baskets1 fruit and egg crates1   
and other small shipping containers4 ,it
 is made into excelsior and woodwool    
which are used as packing material4     
,druggist's barrels are manufactured    
from this wood4 ,these are small1       
two-piece vessels1 bored hollow1 with a 
closely fitting lid1 and varying in size
 from a couple of inches high1 to nearly
 a foot4 ,they contain powders1         
perfumes1 pills1 and other commodities  
in small bulk4 ,the wood is worked into 
pails1 tubs1 and kegs4 ,furniture makers
 put balm of ,gilead to use in several  
ways4 ,it is cut thin for shelving2 it  
is made into panels1 and is employed as 
cores over which to lay veneers of more 
expensive materials4 ,woodenware        
factories generally keep it in stock in 
the northern states4  ,the supply is    
ample at present to meet all demands4   
,cutters of pulpwood probably take more 
than sawmills1 and are satisfied with   

smaller timber4 ,trees are often planted
 for ornament1 but few if any have yet  
been propagated for forestry purposes4  
,,hairy ,,balm ,,of ,,gilead 7,populus  
balsamifera candicans7 is not a species 
but a variety1 and it is so different   
from balm of ,gilead that it is entitled
 to a place of its own4 ,ordinarily it  
passes under the common names applied to
 balm of ,gilead4 ,it is a cultivated   
tree in eastern ,canada and northeastern
 ,united ,states1 where it has escaped  
from cultivation and is running wild4   
,both ,sargent and ,sudworth say that   
nothing is definitely known of the      
tree's native range2 while it has been  
claimed by others that it once grew wild
 in ,michigan but was destroyed by      
lumbermen4 ,probably most planted balm  
of ,gileads are of this variety1 as they
 are very ornamental4 ,it is a large    
tree with branches less upright and     
crowns more open than in the wild       
species4 ,the leaves are wide1          
heart-shaped1 and are usually silvery   

white beneath with minute hairs on the  
margins1 on the veins1 and leaf stems4  
,it is not improbable that this variety 
could be more profitably planted for    
forestry purposes than the species which
 grows wild2 but there is no present    
indication that foresters favorably     
consider either of them4  ,,largetooth  
,,aspen 7,populus grandidentata7 is     
named on account of the shape of the    
leaves4 ,it is sometimes called aspen1  
popple1 white poplar1 and large poplar4 
,the wood weighs #bh4hg pounds per cubic
 foot1 and is the heaviest of the poplar
 group except ,fremont cottonwood of the
 arid southwestern regions4 ,the wood is
 white1 attractive1 but not strong4 ,it 
was formerly manufactured into chip hats
 and shoe heels in ,new ,england1 and is
 now used for baskets1 crates1 boxes1   
buckets1 refrigerators1 excelsior1 and  
pulp4 ,northern factories usually give  
it the general name 8poplar10 and for   
that reason its importance in the lumber
 trade is underestimated4 ,trees may    

reach a height of seventy feet with a   
diameter of two2 but a height of forty  
or fifty is more usual4 ,the species'   
range extends from ,nova ,scotia to     
,minnesota1 southward to ,delaware and  
,illinois1 and along the ,appalachian   
mountains to ,north ,carolina and       
,tennessee4  ,,gumbo ,,limbo 7,bursera  
simaruba7 is a south ,florida species   
and is known also as ,west ,indian      
birch4 ,it is in a family by itself with
 no near relative4 ,it is not a birch4  
,the wood is spongy and very light1     
weighing less than nineteen pounds per  
cubic foot4 ,it decays with remarkable  
rapidity4 ,branches thrust in the ground
 take root and grow4 ,an aromatic resin1
 exuding from wounds in the bark1 is    
manufactured into varnish4 ,the leaves  
are substituted for tea1 and gout       
remedies are made from the resin4 ,large
 trees are fifty feet high and two feet 
or more in diameter4 ,another ,florida  
tree1 not in the same family as this1 is
 also called gumbo limbo 7,simarouba    

glauca71 paradise tree1 and bitter wood4
 ,ailanthus 7,ailanthus glandulosa7 is  
in the same family as paradise tree1 but
 is not native in this country1 though  
extensively planted here4  ,,angelica   
,,tree 7,aralia spinosa74 ,this is a    
small tree1 which usually develops      
little or no heartwood4 ,the springwood1
 or the inner and porous part of the    
ring1 is broad and yellow1 the          
summerwood1 or exterior part of the     
ring1 is narrow and dark4 ,the wood's   
figure1 due to the marked contrast      
between the outer and inner portions of 
the rings1 is strong4 ,when finished it 
shows a rich yellow1 but somewhat       
lighter than dwarf sumach which it      
resembles4 ,it is made into small shop  
articles1 like button boxes1 photograph 
frames1 pen racks1 stools1 and arms for 
rocking chairs4 ,its range extends from 
,pennsylvania to ,texas4 ,it is         
sometimes known as ,hercules' club4     
,,aspen 7,populus tremuloides7 is widely
 known but not everywhere by     the    

same name4 ,it is called quaking asp1   
mountain asp1 aspen leaf1     white     
poplar1 popple1 poplar1 and trembling   
poplar4 ,the peculiarity     of the tree
 which is apt to attract attention1 and 
which gives it     most of the names it 
carries1 is the leaf's habit of being   
nearly     always in motion4 ,the day is
 remarkably still if aspen foliage is   
not stirring4 ,this is due to the long1 
flat leaf stem1 which is so     limber  
that it offers little resistance to air 
currents4 ,the     difference in color  
between the upper and lower sides of the
 leaves     affords sufficient contrast 
to attract notice1 and for that reason a
     person will observe the motion of  
aspen leaves when he might fail to      
see a similar movement among the leaves 
of other species where the     contrast 
of colors is not so marked4 ,aspen is   
credited with being     the most widely 
distributed tree of ,north ,america4 ,it
 grows from     ,tennessee to the       
,arctic ocean1 from ,mexico to northern 

,alaska1 from     ,labrador to ,bering  
strait4 ,it is found at sea level1 and  
at #aj1jjj     feet elevation among the 
mountains of ,california4 ,its very     
small     seeds grow in enormous        
numbers4 ,winds carry them miles1 and   
scatter     them by millions4 ,they     
spring up quickly when they fall on     
mineral     soil4 ,this places it in the
 class with 8fire trees0--those which   
take possession of burned tracts4 ,paper
 birch is in this class4     ,aspen has 
replaced pines over large burned areas  
of the ,rocky     ,mountains4 ,it grows 
quickly but is weak if it has to contend
 with     other trees4 ,if crowded it   
speedily gives up the fight and dies4   
,the     wood is not strong1 but is     
useful for several purposes4 ,next to   
spruce and hemlock1 it is the most      
important pulpwood in this     country1 
and it is coming into considerable use  
as lumber4 ,the     whiteness of the    
wood--it looks much like holly--makes it
 a favorite     for small boxes and     

vessels for shipping and containing     
foods4 ,it is     made into jelly       
buckets1 lard pails1 fish kits1 spice   
kegs1 sugar     buckets and a long line 
of similar articles4 ,it turns well1 and
 is     made into wooden dishes4        
,michigan alone uses two and a half     
million     feet of it a year2 and it is
 in demand along the whole northern tier
     of states from ,maine to           
,washington1 but because it is not      
separately     listed in lumber output1 
it is difficult to say how much is used4
     ,trees are usually small1 though   
trunks three feet in diameter are       
not unknown4 ,it grows rapidly1 and may 
be expected to fill an     important    
place in this country's future timber   
supply4 ,there will     be no occasion  
to plant it by artificial means1 for    
nature will     attend to the planting4 
,illustration     ,,black ,,cottonwood  
,illustration3 ,,black ,,cottonwood     
,,black ,,cottonwood  7,populus         
,trichocarpa7   ,this member of the     

cottonwood group is a strong tree that  
holds its ground in various latitudes   
and at many elevations1 ranging from sea
 level up to eight or nine thousand     
feet1 and in latitude from ,alaska to   
southern ,california1 a distance of     
nearly three thousand miles4 ,its east  
and west extension is more restricted   
and seldom exceeds four hundred miles4  
,its habitat covers an area of half a   
million square miles1 and in that space 
it finds conditions which vary so       
greatly that the tree which can meet    
them must possess remarkable powers of  
adaptation4  ,beginning in ,alaska and  
the interior of ,yukon territory1 it has
 an arctic climate4 ,it there not only  
grows on the coast1 but it strikes the  
interior4 ,it appears on the headwaters 
of several streams which flow into the  
,mackenzie or ,hudson bay4 ,it passes   
south through ,british ,columbia and    
enters the ,united ,states west of the  
,rocky ,mountains4 ,it has been reported
 as far east as ,idaho and ,montana1 but

 further information is needed before   
its limits in that direction can be     
definitely fixed4  ,when it enters      
,california it prefers the elevated     
valleys and canyons of the ,sierra      
,nevadas1 though it occurs sparingly    
among the coast ranges4 ,it is generally
 found in the ,sierras at elevations of 
from #c1jjj to #f1jjj feet1 though it   
occurs between #h1jjj and #i1jjj4 ,among
 the ,san ,jacinto mountains of southern
 ,california it grows at an altitude of 
#f1jjj feet4  ,when it occurs at low    
levels it is usually found on river     
bottoms and sand bars1 in sandy and     
humous soils1 and there the largest     
trees are found4 ,at higher elevations  
it is more apt to occur in canyon       
bottoms and gulches1 in moist1 sandy or 
gravelly soil1 and in such situations   
the black cottonwood is smaller4 ,the   
best growth occurs where the climate is 
humid and the precipitation is great4   
,beyond the reach of sea fogs1 where the
 tree depends on soil moisture chiefly1 

it is smaller4  ,it is an intolerant    
tree4 ,it must have light4 ,when it is  
crowded a tall1 slender trunk is        
developed and the small crown is lifted 
clear above its competitors into the    
full light4 ,if it cannot succeed in    
gaining that position its growth is     
stunted or the tree meets an early      
death4  ,the black cottonwood is the    
greatest of the cottonwoods4 ,this      
country produces no other to match it1  
and1 as far as known1 the whole world   
has none4 ,the ,pacific coast is        
remarkable for the giant trees it       
produces1 but most of them are          
softwoods--the redwoods1 the bigtree1   
the sugar pine1 ,douglas fir1 western   
larch1 noble fir1 ,sitka spruce and     
western red cedar4 ,this cottonwood is  
the largest of the ,pacific coast       
hardwoods4 ,in trunk diameter it is     
excelled by the weeping oak in the      
interior valleys of ,california1 but    
when both height and diameter are       
considered1 the black cottonwood is in  

the ,west what yellow poplar is in the  
,east1 the largest of the hardwoods4    
,sargent says this tree reaches a height
 of two hundred feet and a diameter of  
eight1 but ,sudworth is more            
conservative and places the trunk limit 
at six feet4 ,the average size is much  
below the figures given1 but abundance  
of logs exceeding three feet in diameter
 reach the sawmills of ,washington and  
,oregon4  ,old trees range from #aej to 
#bjj years in age1 but trees under #ajj 
years old are large enough for saw      
timber4 ,records of the ages of the     
largest trunks have not been reported4  
,black cottonwood is a prolific seeder1 
but the seeds do not long retain their  
vitality4 ,if they find lodgment in damp
 situations1 where other conditions are 
favorable1 the rate of germination is   
high4 ,seedlings are often very numerous
 on wet bars4  ,the excellent quality of
 the wood and its suitability for many  
purposes bring it much demand on the    
,pacific coast4 ,in the state of        

,washington more than #cj1jjj1jjj feet  
were used by wood-using industries in   
#aiaj4 ,smaller quantities were reported
 in ,oregon and ,california4  ,in       
strength the wood is approximately the  
same as common cottonwood1 but in       
stiffness it much exceeds the eastern   
species4 ,its elasticity rates high1 and
 compares favorably with some of the    
valuable eastern hardwoods4 ,in weight  
it is slightly under common cottonwood4 
,trees are of fine form1 nearly always  
straight1 and are generally free from   
limbs to a considerable height4  ,the   
wood is grayish-white1 soft1 tough1     
odorless1 tasteless1 long-fibered1 nails
 well1 is easily glued1 and cuts into   
excellent rotary veneer with            
comparatively small expenditure of      
power4 ,it does not split easily after  
it has undergone seasoning1 and this    
property commends it to box makers4 ,it 
is little disposed to shrink and swell  
in atmospheric changes4 ,the absence of 
odor and taste gives it much of its     

value for box making1 because foods are 
not contaminated by contact with it4    
,it is manufactured into veneer berry   
baskets and is one of the most suitable 
woods on the ,pacific coast for that    
purpose4 ,candy barrel makers use it in 
preference to most others1 and a long   
line of woodenware articles draw much of
 their material from this source4 ,many 
thousands of cords are cut yearly for   
the pulp mills1 where material for paper
 is produced4 ,black cottonwood and     
white fir are the principal woods used  
for pulp on the ,pacific coast4  ,not   
only is it used for rotary-cut veneer1  
but it is made into cores or backing on 
which veneers of costly woods are glued 
in the manufacture of furniture1        
interior finish and fixtures for banks1 
stores and offices4 ,it serves in the   
same way in casket making1 and is       
demanded in millions of feet4  ,it is   
employed in amounts larger than any     
other wood by excelsior mills in the    
northern ,pacific coast region4 ,it is  

the only wood demanded by that industry 
in ,washington and #f1djj1jjj feet were 
cut into that product in #aiaj4  ,slack 
coopers find it as valuable in their    
business in the far ,west as the common 
cottonwood is in the ,east1 and hundreds
 of thousands of staves are made yearly4
 ,it is in demand for the manufacture of
 flour barrels and those intended for   
other food products4  ,trunk makers use 
it in three-ply veneers for the bodies1 
trays1 boxes and compartments of trunks 
and for suit cases4 ,though soft and    
light1 it is very tough1 and sheets of  
veneer with the grains placed           
transversely resist strains much better 
than solid wood of the same thickness4  
,vehicle makers employ black cottonwood 
for the tops and shelves of business    
wagons4 ,another of its uses is as      
bottoms of drawers for bureaus1         
wardrobes1 and chiffoniers1 and as      
partitions in desk compartments4 ,a full
 line of kitchen and pantry furniture is
 made wholly or in part of this wood in 

the regions where it is cheap and       
abundant4  ,the cottonwoods belong to a 
very ancient race of broadleaf trees1   
and like several others1 they seem to   
have had their origin1 or at least a    
very early home1 in the far ,north1     
where intense cold now excludes almost  
every form of vegetable growth except   
the lowest orders4 ,the ,cretaceous age 
saw cottonwoods growing in ,greenland4  
,the cotton which then1 as now1 carried 
the seeds and planted them fell on more 
hospitable shores then than can now be  
found in the far frozen ,north4 ,the    
genus was not confined to the arctic and
 subarctic regions1 however1 for there  
were cottonwoods at that time1 or later1
 in more southern latitudes4 ,there were
 many species in the central portion of 
this country1 and also in ,europe1 long 
before the ice age destroyed all the    
forests north of the ,ohio and the      
,missouri rivers4 ,some of the old      
species long ago ceased to exist1 but   
others appear to have come down to the  

present time without great change4  ,the
 cottonwood shows wonderful vitality1   
which is doubtless a survival of the    
characteristic which enabled it to come 
down from former geologic epochs to the 
present time4 ,a damaged and mutilated  
tree will recover4 ,a broken limb1      
thrust in the ground1 will grow4        
,,black ,,poplar 7,populus nigra7 is    
quite distinct from black               
cottonwood1 though both belong to the   
same family4 ,the latter is a           
,pacific coast species1 while the former
 belongs in ,europe1 although     it may
 have been introduced into that country 
from ,persia or some     other eastern  
region4 ,it is common in the ,united    
,states1 on account     of having       
escaped from cultivation4 ,the best     
known variety of this     tree is the   
,lombardy poplar 7,populus nigra        
italica74 ,it is easily     recognized  
by the characteristic attitude of the   
branches which grow     upward close    
against the trunk4 ,the crowns of the   

trees are very     long and slender1    
sometimes not ten feet across though    
fifty feet     high4 ,their slimness    
gives the trees the appearance of being 
much     taller than they really are4   
,they were formerly popular for planting
     along lanes and in door yards4     
,their slender and pointed spires cut   
the horizon with a peculiar effect4     
,planting is less common now than       
formerly1 because people have come to   
know the trees better4 ,they     are    
probably the most limby of all the      
members of the cottonwood     group4    
,the long trunks are masses of knots    
when the limbs have been     trimmed    
away1 and any desire to make lumber of  
the trees is apt to     be discouraged1 
though not infrequently logs go to local
 sawmills1     and farmers haul the     
boards home to put them to some use     
about the     place4 ,in ,michigan and  
,ohio1 box makers use the lumber for the
     rougher and cheaper articles which 
they turn out4      ,the most           

discouraging thing about ,lombardy      
poplar is the tendency of     the trees 
to send up sprouts4 ,the living trees do
 it1 and the stumps     are worse4 ,the 
sprouts are not confined to the ground  
immediately     round the base of the   
tree1 but spring up many feet or many   
yards     distant1 until they produce a 
veritable jungle4 ,years are often      
required to complete their extermination
 by grubbing and cutting4      ,,white  
,,poplar 7,populus alba7 is a ,european 
species but has become     naturalized  
in the ,united ,states4 ,it is widely   
planted as a shade     tree1 and has    
escaped from cultivation4 ,it may be    
known by the white     undersides of its
 small leaves1 and by its               
yellowish-green bark     which remains  
smooth1 except on large trunks4 ,it is  
not yet     important as a source of    
lumber1 but the vigor of its growth     
indicates that it may sometime become   
so4 ,the wood is soft1 white1     and   
light4 ,some persons consider the tree  

objectionable as an     ornament because
 of its habit of sending up sprouts from
 the roots1     and because its woolly  
leaves collect dust and smoke until they
 are     almost black by the end of     
summer4  ,illustration     ,,mangrove   
,illustration3 ,,mangrove     ,,mangrove
  7,rhizophora ,mangle7   ,the mangrove 
family is large and widely scattered1   
but only one member has gained a        
foothold in the ,united ,states1 and it 
occupies only limited areas in south    
,florida1 at the delta of the           
,mississippi1 and on the coast of       
,texas4 ,the family's fifteen genera are
 confined to the tropics1 with a little 
overlapping on the temperate zones4 ,the
 botanical name ,rhizophora refers to   
the tree's peculiar roots1 and mangle is
 the ,spanish for mangrove4 ,this is one
 of the few trees in this country which 
are known by a single name4 ,it is      
always called mangrove1 and attains its 
best development in ,florida4  ,the     
leaves hang two years1 are from three to

 five inches long and one or two wide4  
,flowers are not showy1 but they are    
nearly always present1 blooming the year
 round1 the yellow blossom about an inch
 in diameter4 ,the fruit proper is about
 an inch long1 but its habit of         
sprouting while still on the tree and   
sending down a long stem-like root1     
gives the impression that the fruit is  
several inches long1 sometimes a foot4  
,it is not an easy matter to state the  
average size of mangrove trees4         
,peculiar habits of growth make         
measurements difficult4 ,neither is it  
easy to tell where a tree begins and    
where it ends4 ,mangrove thickets along 
some of the rivers of south ,florida1   
within the influence of tide water1 are 
strange forms of vegetation4 ,if the    
foliage alone is considered from a      
little distance1 it reminds one of a row
 of fig trees in ,louisiana or          
,california4 ,the color and general     
appearance suggests fig trees4 ,a nearer
 approach reveals beneath the crowns a  

mass of roots1 stems1 and limbs1 joined 
with the ground beneath and the crowns  
above4 ,in addition to these1 there are 
many others that dangle from above1 like
 rope ends1 some nearly touching the    
ground1 others several feet above4      
,these are roots or limbs1 by whichever 
name one cares to call them4 ,they grow 
from overhead branches1 and strike for  
the ground4 ,when they touch the soil1  
they quickly anchor themselves1 and     
become stems4 ,they then look like      
slender poles set as props under the    
branches of an overladen fruit tree4    
,this strange habit of growth gives the 
tree its character4 ,most mangroves     
stand in water4 ,they fringe the banks  
of rivers and bayous1 extending the     
fringe as far as the water is shallow4  
,growth of that kind is generally from  
ten to twenty feet high1 and the largest
 stems from an inch in diameter up to   
three or four2 but these dimensions     
cannot be taken as limits to size4      
,sometimes the trees are sixty or       

seventy feet high1 but those which stand
 in water seldom reach that size4 ,trees
 which have their beginning in the water
 sometimes end their days high and dry  
on the land4  ,the mangrove is a land   
builder4 ,the sycamore and willow are   
land builders on a small scale1 along   
northern water-courses1 but mangrove    
excels them a hundred or a thousand fold
 where it grows on the low shores of    
,florida4 ,the seed is prepared for     
land-building work before it drops from 
the tree4 ,it sprouts a long1 peculiar  
root--it looks like a very slender1     
big-ended cucumber--the large1 heavy end
 down4 ,this attains a length of several
 inches or a foot4 ,when it drops from  
the branch1 the end sticks in the mud   
and takes root1 grows1 and produces a   
tree4 ,but generally it falls in water1 
and not on a mud bank4 ,in that case it 
floats away1 the heavy end down1 the    
light end barely appearing on the       
surface4 ,winds and currents drive it   
about until the lower tip finally       

touches bottom in some shallow place4   
,there it takes root1 and unless        
circumstances are extremely adverse1 it 
holds fast1 finally becomes a tree1     
sends branches down from above to take  
root at the bottom of the water1 and a  
clump is produced4 ,the tangled mass of 
stems and roots catches driftwood and   
mud1 resulting finally in a little      
island1 and later the island is joined  
to the mainland4 ,thus the land is      
built4 ,many large flats in ,florida owe
 their origin to this tree4 ,when land  
is permanently above water1 the mangrove
 loses1 to some extent1 its ability to  
send roots down from the limbs4 ,nature 
seldom does something for nothing1 and  
since the mangrove's aerial roots no    
longer serve a useful purpose in        
nature's economy1 they are dispensed    
with4 ,trunks then reach much larger    
size1 and become timber instead of      
thickets4 ,the accompanying picture     
shows a mangrove that no longer stands  
in water1 and its habit of growth is    

changing4  ,thickets of mangrove are    
useful1 not only in building new land1  
but in protecting that already built4   
,frequently the force of waves is       
broken1 which otherwise would destroy   
low shores4 ,tremendous seas1 in time of
 storms1 will roll over thickets of     
mangrove without uprooting them or      
breaking the stems4 ,again nature's fine
 engineering is apparent4 ,when men     
build lighthouses which must endure the 
shocks of waves1 they have learned to   
construct them of open beams and lattice
 work4 ,the wave passes through without 
delivering the full impact of the blow  
to the structure4 ,no solid masonry will
 stand what a comparatively light open  
frame will endure without injury1       
because it allows the waves to pass on4 
,a large wave may strike with a force of
 #f1jjj pounds to the square foot4 ,the 
mangrove thickets are like the          
open-framed lighthouse--they let the    
waves pass through and spend their force
 gradually beyond1 but they hold the    

shore against washing4  ,admirable and  
wonderful as is nature's provision for  
protecting the land by a fringe of      
lattice work of branches and stems1 the 
marvelous efficiency of the provision   
has been greatly increased in another   
way4 ,suppose1 for illustration1 that   
cottonwood instead of mangrove formed   
the protective thickets along stormy    
shores4 ,the first hour of heavy seas   
would reduce the trees to fragments4    
,the weak1 brittle trunks and limbs     
would quickly break to pieces4 ,but     
mangrove passes through storm after     
storm unharmed4 ,it is scarcely         
believable that accident accounts for   
the fact that the best wood for the     
place is in the place2 but it is        
probable1 rather1 that ages of          
development and natural selection gave  
to mangrove the qualities which make    
possible the accomplishment of its work4
 ,it is one of the strongest1 and as far
 as available data may be depended upon1
 it is absolutely the most elastic wood 

in the ,united ,states4 ,shellbark      
hickory is rated high in both strength  
and elasticity2 but mangrove rates      
higher4 ,sargent gives hickory's measure
 of elasticity at #a1ibe1jjj pounds per 
square inch2 but mangrove's is          
#b1ccc1jjj pounds4  ,it is thus fitted  
in the highest manner to perform the    
work needed4 ,it plants itself in the   
right place2 develops stems which will  
endure most and suffer least2 possesses 
enormous strength for resisting force1  
yet is so extremely elastic that the    
force of waves is exhausted upon the    
trunks and branches without flattening  
them upon the ground or crushing them4  
,few things of the vegetable world show 
more perfect adaptation to environment4 
,the wood's very heaviness seems to add 
one more quality fitting it for its     
place4 ,when a trunk falls in the water1
 it does not float away as most trees   
would1 but sinks like iron1 lies on the 
bottom1 helps to hold the forming island
 or bar in place1 and in its death as in

 its life it is a land-builder4 ,its    
efficiency in that particular is        
increased by the fact that it is little 
affected by marine borers which1 in the 
warm1 brackish waters1 usually destroy  
wood in a short time4  ,mangrove is not 
important commercially1 though it is    
used for a number of purposes4 ,the wood
 weighs #gb4d pounds per cubic foot1    
takes good polish1 though it is inclined
 to check in drying2 it contains many   
small pores2 medullary rays numerous and
 thin2 color reddish-brown streaked with
 lighter brown4 ,the principal use of   
the bark is for tanning and the trunks  
for piles4 ,it is well fitted for fence 
posts1 but not many have been used in   
the region where it grows4 ,it rates    
high as fuel1 but its great weight      
increases transportation charges if the 
haul is long4  ,tanbark peelers in      
,florida have cut much of the large     
mangrove forest4 ,they took the bark1   
and abandoned the trunks4 ,there is no  
likelihood that the species will be     

exterminated4 ,much of the growth is    
practically inaccessible1 and the trunks
 are too small to tempt bark peelers1   
and cordwood cutters find plenty of     
material more convenient4      ,,other  
,,species4--,two other trees of this    
country are called mangrove     though  
they are not even in the same family4   
,one is the black     mangrove          
7,avicennia nitida71 called also        
blackwood and black tree4     ,it is a  
,florida species of the family          
,verbenace1 and has some of     the     
mangrove's habits4 ,it takes root and   
grows on muddy shores and     is a land 
builder4 ,the largest trees are sixty or
 seventy feet high     and two in       
diameter1 but are usually less than     
thirty feet high4 ,the     bark is used 
in tanning1 and no use for the wood is  
reported1 except     for fuel4 ,white   
mangrove 7,laguncularia racemosa71 known
 also as     white buttonwood1 is a     
,florida species4 ,it attains a height  
of     thirty or forty feet and a       

diameter of a foot or more4 ,it reaches 
its largest size on the shores of ,shark
 river1 ,florida4 ,the wood is     dark 
yellow-brown1 and the bark is rich in   
tannin1 and the tree may     become     
valuable as a source of tanbark4        
,near akin to white mangrove is ,florida
 buttonwood 7,conocarpus     erecta7    
which is highly esteemed as fuel4 ,it   
burns slowly like     charcoal4 ,trees  
are from twenty to fifty feet high4 ,its
 range lies     in southern ,florida4   
,black olive tree 7,terminalia buceras7 
belongs     in the south ,florida group1
 and the wood is exceedingly hard and   
heavy4 ,the trunk is often two or three 
feet in diameter1 but lies on     the   
ground like a log1 with upright stems   
growing from it4 ,tanners     make use  
of the bark4  ,illustration             
,,cabbage ,,palmetto  ,illustration3    
,,cabbage ,,palmetto     ,,the ,,palms  
,lumbermen in this country could get    
along very well without the palms1 as   
they are little used for ordinary       

lumber4 ,their wood does not grow in    
concentric rings1 like that of the      
ordinary tree4 ,the stems are usually   
single1 cylindrical1 and unbranched4    
,the fruit is berry-like1 and is usually
 one seeded1 though sometimes there are 
two or three4 ,when a seed sprouts1 it  
puts out at first a single leaf1 like a 
grain of corn4 ,about #acj genera of    
palms are recognized in the world1 most 
of them in the tropics1 but several in  
the ,united ,states are of tree size4   
,botanists divide the palms of the      
,united ,states into two groups1 the    
palm family and the lily family4 ,the   
yuccas belong in the lily family4 ,in   
the very brief treatment that can be    
given the subject here1 it is not       
necessary to recognize strict family    
divisions4  ,,cabbage ,,palmetto 7,sabal
 palmetto7 grows in the coast region    
from ,north ,carolina to southern       
,florida1 and west to the ,apalachicola 
river4 ,it is sometimes called ,bank's  
palmetto1 cabbage tree1 and tree        

palmetto4 ,the name cabbage is due to   
the large leaf-bud in the top of the    
stem which is cooked as a substitute for
 cabbage4 ,a sharp hatchet and some     
experience are necessary to a successful
 operation in extracting the bud from   
the tough fibers which surround it4     
,this palm is a familiar sight in the   
coast region within its range4 ,the tall
 trunks1 with tufts of leaves at the    
tops1 suggest the supposed scenery of   
the ,carboniferous age4 ,usually the    
trunks1 in thick stands1 rise straight  
like columns from twenty to forty feet  
high1 but occasionally they bend in     
long1 graceful curves1 as if the weight 
of the tops caused them to careen1 which
 is probably what does happen4 ,they    
vary in diameter from eight inches to   
two feet4  ,the leaves are five or six  
feet long1 and seven or eight wide1 with
 stems six or seven feet long4 ,flowers 
occur in racemes two feet or more in    
length4 ,the fruit is spherical and     
about a third of an inch in diameter4   

,the roots are an important part of this
 palm1 and are adapted to their         
environment1 forming a rounded mass four
 or five feet in diameter1 while small  
rope-like roots1 half an inch in        
diameter1 penetrate the wet marshy soil 
fifteen or twenty feet4 ,the large1     
globe-like mass gives support in the    
soft soil1 and the stringy roots supply 
water and mineral substances essential  
to growth4 ,the wood is light1 soft1    
pale-brown1 with numerous hard1         
fibro-vascular bundles1 the outer rim   
about two inches thick and much lighter 
and softer than the interior4 ,the most 
important use for the wood at present is
 as wharf piles4 ,it lasts well and is  
ideal in form4 ,it is of historical     
interest that ,fort ,moultrie which     
defended ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 
in the ,revolutionary war1 was built of 
palmetto logs4 ,when the ,british made  
their memorable attack in #aggf1 their  
cannon balls buried in the spongy logs  
without dislodging them1 and the fort   

successfully withstood the bombardment  
of ten hours1 and disabled nine of the  
ten ,british ships taking part in the   
assault4  ,the wood is employed to a    
small extent in furniture making1 and   
the bark for scrubbing brushes4 ,some of
 the finest forests of palmetto in      
,florida are much injured by fire that  
runs up the trunks to feed on stubs of  
leaves4  ,,silktop ,,palmetto 7,thrinax 
parviflora7 and silvertop palmetto      
7,thrinax microcarpa7 are species met   
with on some of the islands off the     
coast of southern ,florida4  ,,mexican  
,,palmetto 7,sabal mexicana7 is much    
like cabbage palmetto in size and       
general appearance1 and is put to       
similar uses1 except that the leaf-bud  
does not appear to be used as food4 ,the
 tree occurs in ,texas along the lower  
,rio ,grande1 and southward into ,mexico
 where the leaves are employed as house 
thatch by improvident ,mexicans and     
,indians who do not care to exert       
themselves to procure better roofing    

material4 ,in the vicinity of           
,brownsville1 ,texas1 trunks of this    
palm are employed as porch posts and    
present a rustic appearance4 ,they are  
said to last many years4 ,the average   
size of trunks in ,texas is fifteen or  
twenty feet high and a foot or less in  
diameter1 but some much larger are found
 in ,mexico4 ,some of the wharfs along  
the ,texas coast are built on palmetto  
piles4 ,it is said the trunks are not as
 strong as those of the cabbage palmetto
 in ,florida4  ,,sargent ,,palm         
7,pseudophnix sargentii7 is interesting 
but not commercially important1 but may 
become so as an ornamental plant4 ,it is
 occasionally planted on lawns in south 
,florida4 ,leaves are five or six feet  
long with stems still longer4 ,the      
clusters of flowers are sometimes three 
feet in length4 ,a single species is    
known1 occurring on certain keys in     
southern ,florida1 and is so limited in 
its range that it would be possible to  
count every tree in existence4 ,a grove 

of #bjj or #cjj trees occurs on ,key    
,largo4  ,,royal ,,palm 7,oreodoxa      
regia7 is one of the largest palms of   
this country4 ,it is said to reach a    
height of eighty feet1 but such sizes   
are rare4 ,the trunk rises from an      
enlarged base1 and may be two feet in   
diameter4 ,bark is light gray in color1 
and its appearance suggests a column of 
cement4 ,leaves are ten or twelve feet  
long1 and the stems increase the total  
length to twenty feet or more4 ,flowers 
are two feet in length1 and in ,florida 
open in ,january and ,february4 ,the    
fruit is smaller than would be expected 
of a tree so large4 ,it is a drupe about
 the size of a half-grown grape4 ,the   
wood is spongy1 but the outer portion of
 the stem is strong and is made into    
canes and other small articles4 ,trunks 
are sometimes used as wharf piles4 ,this
 palm's range is confined to south      
,florida in this country1 but it is     
common in the ,west ,indies4 ,in ,miami 
and other towns of southern ,florida it 

is much planted for ornament4  ,,fanleaf
 ,,palm 7,neowashingtonia filamentosa7  
also called ,washington palm1           
,california fan palm1 ,arizona palm1 and
 wild date1 ranges through southern     
,california1 and occupies depressions in
 the desert west of the ,colorado river4
 ,there are said to be several forms and
 varieties4 ,it ranges in height from   
thirty-five to seventy feet and in      
diameter from twenty to thirty inches4  
,trunks are of nearly the same diameter 
from bottom to top1 or taper very       
gradually4 ,they usually lean a little4 
,dead leaves hang about the trunks and  
blaze quickly when fire touches them1   
but the palm is seldom killed by fire4  
,the small black fruit is about a third 
of an inch in diameter1 and of no       
commercial importance2 wood is little   
used2 and the tree is chiefly           
ornamental1 and has been much planted in
 ,california4  ,,mohave ,,yucca 7,yucca 
mohavensis7 is one of a half dozen or   
more palms of the yucca genus and the   

lily family4 ,trees of this group are   
characterized by their stiff1           
sharp-pointed leaves1 some of which are 
called daggers and others bayonets4     
,both names are appropriate4 ,the       
,mohave yucca takes its name from the   
,mohave desert in ,california1 where it 
is occasionally an important feature of 
the doleful landscape4 ,the ragged1     
leather-like leaves1 forming the tops of
 the short1 weird trees1 rattle in the  
wind1 or resound with the patter of     
pebbles when sandstorms sweep across the
 dry wastes4 ,it is believed to be one  
of the most slowly-growing trees of this
 country4 ,trunks are seldom more than  
fifteen feet high and eight or ten      
inches in diameter4 ,the wood is spongy 
and interlaced with tough1 stringy      
fibers4 ,stockmen whose ranges include  
this tree1 make corrals of the stems by 
setting them in the ground as palisades4
 ,when weathered by wind and made bone  
dry by the sun's fierce heat1 the trunks
 are reduced to almost cork-lightness4  

,other yuccas are the ,spanish bayonet  
7,yucca treculeana7 of ,texas2          
,joshua-tree 7,yucca arborescens71 which
 ranges from ,utah to ,california and is
 known as tree yucca1 yucca cactus1 and 
the ,joshua2 ,schott yucca 7,yucca      
brevifolia7 of southern ,arizona2       
broadfruit yucca 7,yucca macrocarpa7 of 
southwestern ,texas2 aloe-leaf yucca    
7,yucca aloifolia7 with a range from    
,north ,carolina near the coast to      
,louisiana2 and ,spanish dagger 7,yucca 
gloriosa71 on the coast and islands of  
,south ,carolina4      ,,giant ,,cactus 
7,cereus giganteus7 is a leafless tree  
of ,arizona and     attains a height of 
forty or sixty feet1 diameter of one or 
two4     ,about twenty genera of cactus 
are known in the world and a large      
number of species4 ,two genera1 the     
cereuses and opuntias1 have             
representatives of tree size in this    
country4 ,the two genera differ     in  
form4 ,cereus in the ,latin language    
means a candle1 and the     cactuses of 

that genus stand up in straight stems   
like candles1 or     have branches like 
old-fashioned candlesticks4 ,the        
opuntias have     flat1 jointed stems1  
like thick leaves4 ,giant cactus bears  
flowers     four inches long and two    
wide2 fruit two inches long and one     
wide1     and edible4 ,indians derive a 
considerable part of their food from    
this cactus4 ,they use the wood for     
rafters1 fences1 fuel1 lances1     and  
bows4 ,the trunks consist of bundles of 
fiber1 very hard and     strong4 ,in the
 dry region where this cactus grows1 the
 woody parts     of fallen stems last   
long periods1 some say for centuries1   
but there     are no records4 ,schott   
cactus 7,cereus schottii7 and ,thurber  
cactus     7,cereus thurberi7 are found 
in southern ,arizona and southward in   
,mexico4      ,,cholla 7,opuntia        
fulgida7 ranges from ,nevada southward  
into ,mexico4     ,it is popularly      
called 8divil's tongue cactus10 but     
there are other     species with the    

same name4 ,trunks are occasionally ten 
or twelve     feet high1 and the wood is
 made into canes and small articles of  
furniture1 but as lumber it is not      
important4 ,the fruit is not     eaten4 
,a closely-related species is known as  
tassajo 7,opuntia     sponsior74 ,it is 
found on the dry mesas of southern      
,arizona where     trunks may be ten    
feet high and a few inches in diameter4 
,it has the     same uses as cholla4 ,a 
third species is ,opuntia versicolor of 
southern ,arizona4 ,it is similar to the
 other opuntias4 ,attempts have     been
 made to grow spineless varieties of    
this group of cactuses4 ,it     is      
believed that cattle1 sheep1 and goats  
would thrive on the pulpy     growth1 if
 the thorns could be gotten rid of4 ,the
 semi-desert     regions of the         
,southwest produce enormous quantities  
of cactus of     many kinds1 and if     
those worthless species could be made   
way with     and thornless varieties    
substituted1 it is probable that much   

land     now worthless would become     
valuable4  ,illustration  ,illustration3
 ,,yellow ,,cedar     ,,minor ,,species 
,a considerable number of trees grow in 
this country which1 taken singly1 are of
 small importance1 but in the aggregate 
they fill a place which would be        
difficult to fill without them4 ,most of
 them are local1 and are seldom heard of
 outside of the regions where they grow4
 ,some are small1 and for that reason   
are not demanded by the ordinary user of
 lumber2 but small size is not          
necessarily a bar to the use of a wood4 
,many places may be filled by pieces too
 small for the sawmill4 ,sometimes a    
diminutive trunk contains material of   
extraordinary hardness1 or it may be    
polished to a rare smoothness1 or the   
colors may be exquisite4 ,numerous      
commodities can be successfully         
manufactured from blocks or billets     
which are only a few inches in diameter 
and a foot or two in length4 ,this is   
particularly true of some of the rare   

hardwoods of ,florida and southern      
,texas where tropical species have      
extended their ranges northward over the
 borders of the ,united ,states4 ,some  
of the small trees in that group are    
known by name in only the immediate     
locality where they grow1 and their     
qualities are scarcely appreciated even 
there4 ,in some instances railroad ties 
are hewed from wood which is fit for the
 finest furniture4  ,it is no uncommon  
thing for ,mexicans along the ,rio      
,grande to warm their huts and cook     
their meals with fuel chopped from      
trunks of ,texas ebony1 algarita1 cat's 
claw1 bluewood1 huisache1 retama1 and   
junco4 ,those who have traveled among   
the ,indian rancherias of ,new ,mexico  
and ,utah have grown familiar with the  
peculiar odor filling the air in the    
vicinity of camp fires4 ,it is the smoke
 of the rare junipers which the ,indians
 burn for fuel2 and yet it is wood of   
such soft tones and exquisite blending  
of colors that the shades of a ,persian 

rug suffer by comparison4 ,among the ten
 thousand islands which fringe the      
coasts of south ,florida1 and also among
 the hummocks of the mainland1 are rare 
trees whose wood is unsurpassed in      
hardness1 fineness of texture1 and      
beauty4 ,these are not being used at    
all1 or only as fuel to feed some       
fisherman's or camper's fire1 or to make
 a smoke to drive away mosquitoes4 ,the 
time will come when small and scarce    
woods will be sought1 if they are       
valuable for any special purpose4 ,in   
preceding pages of this book many minor 
species have been listed and briefly    
described in connection with those more 
important1 and with which they are      
closely related4 ,there are more than a 
hundred others which were necessarily   
omitted from former pages4 ,a few of    
these deserve at least a brief mention1 
and are listed in the following         
paragraphs4  ,k,,berlinia 7,kberlinia   
spinosa7 is commonly considered a       
curiosity2 a tree without a relative in 

the world1 and without leaves1 flowers1 
or fruit4 ,the popular notion is wrong1 
of course1 for no tree is without       
relatives1 and none without leaves1     
flowers1 and fruit1 or something that   
takes their place4 ,the flowers1 leaves1
 and fruit of this tree are small and   
escape notice of the casual observer1   
but they exist4 ,its nearest relative in
 this country is the paradise tree of   
,florida and the ailanthus introduced   
from ,china4 ,it has a small1 thorny1   
crooked trunk2 the wood is dark1 turning
 nearly black with exposure2 it is rich 
with oil2 and it is very hard4 ,the     
species grows in certain places along   
the ,rio ,grande4 ,the wood is made into
 canes1 rulers1 knife handles1 turned   
articles1 and a little furniture of the 
smaller kinds4 ,the trunks are too small
 for ordinary sizes of lumber4  ,,gum   
,,elastic 7,bumelia lanuginosa7 ranges  
from ,georgia to ,texas1 and in ,florida
 is called black haw4 ,children in      
,texas mix its berries with chewing gum1

 to increase the quantity1 and the name 
which they apply to it is 8gum stretch  
it40 ,an exuded resin is also used for  
chewing gum4 ,trees are sometimes sixty 
feet high and two in diameter1 and a    
considerable number of logs go to       
hardwood mills1 where they lose their   
name1 and possibly appear as ash lumber1
 or occasionally as maple4 ,the wood is 
white1 tinged with yellow1 and is       
manufactured into agricultural          
implements4 ,a scarce and smaller       
species1 known as buckthorn bumelia and 
ironwood 7,bumelia lycioides7 covers    
nearly the same range4 ,from a tree of  
the same family in southern ,asia the   
gutta percha of commerce is obtained4   
,other woods of the same family in this 
country are mastic 7,sideroxylon        
mastichodendron7 of south ,florida1 a   
tree sometimes sixty feet high and three
 feet in diameter1 useful for boat      
building2 satinleaf 7,chrysophyllum     
monopyrenum71 also of ,florida1 a tree  
twenty-five feet high and one in        

diameter1 the wood very heavy1 hard1 and
 strong2 tough bumelia 7,bumelia tenax71
 ranging from ,south ,carolina to       
,florida1 a tree twenty feet high and   
six inches in diameter1 called black haw
 in some parts of its range2 saffron    
plum or ant's wood 7,bumelia            
angustifolia71 growing in ,florida and  
,texas1 the trunk twenty feet high and  
six inches in diameter2 wood orange     
colored1 and the fruit sweet2 bustic    
7,dipholis salicifolia71 in south       
,florida1 a tree forty feet high and    
eighteen inches in diameter1 with wood  
exceedingly hard1 strong1 and heavy1 and
 dark brown or red in color2 wild       
sapodilla or dilly 7,mimusops sieberi71 
a tree of south ,florida with rich1 very
 dark brown wood1 height of tree twenty 
feet1 diameter one foot4  ,,dwarf       
,,sumach 7,rhus copallina7 is known by  
many names4 ,it is distinguished from   
staghorn sumach by its smooth branches1 
those of staghorn being hairy4 ,sumach's
 chief importance is due to its value as

 tanning material4 ,leaves and small    
branches are used4 ,the family has some 
well-known members in other parts of the
 world1 among them the mangoes4 ,the    
name dwarf sumach is not well selected1 
for the species is nearly as large as   
any other sumach4 ,trees are sometimes  
thirty feet high and ten inches in      
diameter4 ,the tree's range extends from
 ,new ,england to ,florida and ,texas4  
,it reaches its largest size west of the
 ,mississippi river4 ,in the ,east and  
,north it is usually a shrub4 ,trees of 
largest size are not believed to exceed 
fifty years in age4 ,the wood is richly 
striped with yellow and black4 ,balls   
turned of it1 seven inches in diameter1 
are used for newel-post ornaments1 and  
smaller balls are made for use in       
darning stockings4 ,cups are turned on  
the lathe1 and the bright stripes in the
 wood give the wares a striking         
appearance4 ,it was formerly much       
employed for spiles in tapping maple    
trees for sugar making4 ,staghorn sumach

 7,rhus hirta7 is of a different species
 but of the same genus4 ,its range      
extends from ,new ,brunswick nearly to  
the ,mississippi river4 ,its name refers
 to the down on the young branches      
resembling the velvet on the horns of a 
deer at certain seasons4 ,the tree is   
known as ,virginia sumach and hairy     
sumach4 ,its compound leaves are        
sometimes two feet long--two or three   
times the size of dwarf sumach's4       
,trunks have been reported forty feet   
high and more than a foot through4 ,the 
uses of this wood are the same as of    
dwarf sumach1 including tanning4 ,it is 
more abundant east than west of the     
,alleghanies4 ,poisonwood 7,rhus        
metopium7 belongs to the same family4   
,it is known in ,florida as doctor gum1 
hog plum1 coral sumach1 bumwood1 and    
mountain manchineel4 ,the juice is      
exceedingly poisonous1 and gum produced 
by wounding the bark is reported to have
 medicinal value4 ,trees are sometimes  
forty feet high and two feet in         

diameter4 ,the ,american smoke tree     
7,cotinus cotinoides7 is another member 
of the sumach family4 ,it is found in   
the southern states from eastern        
,tennessee to ,texas4 ,it is nowhere    
common1 and its only reported use is as 
fence posts4 ,trees may be a foot in    
diameter and thirty feet high4 ,the wood
 is a bright clear orange color1 and a  
yellow dye has been manufactured from   
it4 ,poison sumach 7,rhus vernix7 is not
 the same as poisonwood1 though         
sometimes the two are confounded4 ,it is
 usually a shrub1 and rarely twenty feet
 high4 ,it is overloaded with names1 as 
might be expected of a plant considered 
as dangerous as this4 ,among its names  
are poison elder1 poison dogwood1 swamp 
sumach1 poison oak1 poisonwood1         
poisontree1 and thunderwood4 ,it grows  
from ,new ,england to ,georgia1 and west
 to ,minnesota and ,louisiana4 ,it is   
apt to occur in wet swamps1 and ,sargent
 pronounces it 8one of the most         
dangerous plants of the ,north ,american

 flora40 ,a black1 lustrous varnish can 
be made of the acrid poisonous juice1   
and this may sometime give the species a
 commercial value4 ,when the skin is    
poisoned by contact with this tree1 an  
effective remedy may be found in a      
saturated alcoholic solution of acetate 
of lead1 if applied as a wash within an 
hour or two after the poisoning occurs4 
,a wash with pure alcohol is also       
effective if applied within an hour4    
,following either treatment the skin    
should be thoroughly washed with soap   
and water4 ,western sumach 7,rhus       
integrifolia71 a closely related        
,california species1 is a small         
evergreen1 seldom more than twenty feet 
high and a foot in diameter4 ,the wood  
is heavy1 hard1 and red1 is used as     
fuel1 and occasionally in small turnery4
 ,the fruit is a berry half an inch     
long4  ,,cascara ,,buckthorn 7,rhamnus  
purshiana7 is of the buckthorn family1  
and is known by many names on the       
,pacific coast where the species is best

 developed4 ,it grows as far east as    
,colorado and ,texas4 ,cascara sagrada1 
its ,mexican name1 is often used for    
this tree4 ,it is known also as         
bearberry1 bearwood1 yellow-wood1       
pigeonberry1 coffeeberry1 bayberry1 and 
,california coffee4 ,the tree's usual   
size is from ten to thirty feet high and
 twelve to twenty inches in diameter4   
,it is often shrubby1 and is more       
valuable for its bark than its wood4    
,large quantities are peeled for        
medicinal uses1 and many trees are thus 
destroyed4 ,a little of the wood is     
burned as fuel1 and some is made into   
handles4 ,yellow buckthorn 7,rhamnus    
caroliniana71 with a range from ,new    
,york to ,texas1 and evergreen buckthorn
 7,rhamnus crocea71 a ,california       
species1 are closely related to cascara 
buckthorn1 but are of comparatively     
little importance4 ,blue myrtle         
7,ceanothus thyrsiflorus7 is a          
,california species1 sometimes called   
wild lilac or blue blossoms4 ,it ranges 

in height from thirty-five feet1 among  
the redwoods on the ,santa ,cruz        
mountains1 to only one foot high on some
 of the wind-swept coasts4 ,the wood is 
pale yellowish-brown1 and is somewhat   
used for novelties4 ,tree myrtle        
7,ceanothus arboreus71 often known as   
lilac1 is also a ,california tree1      
closely related to blue myrtle1 but is  
of smaller size and of very restricted  
range4 ,its prospective value lies more 
in its bloom than in its wood4          
,naked-wood 7,colubrina reclinata71 a   
,florida species1 is of a kindred genus4
 ,trees are sometimes fifty feet high   
and three in diameter4 ,the wood is     
hard1 very strong1 and is dark brown    
tinged with yellow4  ,,lignum-,,vit     
7,guajacum sanctum7 grows in ,florida1  
and a species which is probably the same
 is found in south ,texas along the ,rio
 ,grande4 ,in ,texas the tree is known  
as guayacon1 which name has come down   
from the times when the ,carib ,indians 
ruled the ,west ,indies4 ,that was their

 name for the tree4 ,the annual rings   
are usually too vague and too involved  
to be counted1 but the tree is known to 
be of slow growth4 ,the wood is pitted  
and it contains cavities and creases2   
but the clear wood is very hard and of  
fine and various colors4 ,it is dark    
green1 brown1 black1 yellow and of mixed
 colors1 and clouded effects1 all in the
 same block4 ,small pieces of furniture1
 like bureau cabinets1 present          
attractive combinations of colors4 ,the 
wood is of such exceeding hardness that 
it turns1 breaks1 or batters the        
carpenter's tools4 ,candlesticks1 egg   
cups1 goblets1 vases1 checker pieces1   
dominos1 boxes1 trays1 canes1 paper     
knives1 and souvenirs are manufactured  
in a small way4 ,trees attain a height  
of thirty feet and a diameter of two or 
more4 ,the compound leaves adhere to the
 branches until those of the following  
season appear4 ,the fruit is an         
orange-colored pod three-fourths of an  
inch long4  ,,prickly ,,ash             

7,xanthoxylum clava-herculis74 ,some    
know this species as toothache tree1    
tear-blanket1 sting-tongue1 and         
,hercules' club4 ,the wood shows little 
difference in color between heartwood   
and sap1 and bears some resemblance to  
buckeye4 ,it takes good polish and some 
of it looks like birdseye maple1 but the
 figure does not seem to be due to      
adventitious buds4 ,it has been made    
into picture frames and looks well4 ,it 
is a rapid grower1 and since its color  
fits it for the stencil1 it might be    
worthy of consideration for box         
material4 ,trees reach a height of      
twenty-five or thirty feet1 and a       
diameter of a foot or more4 ,its range  
extends from ,virginia to ,texas4       
,satinwood 7,xanthoxylum cribrosum7 is  
of the same genus1 but it does not grow 
north of ,florida where it is sometimes 
called yellow-wood4 ,mature trees are a 
foot or more in diameter and twenty-five
 or thirty-five feet high2 wood heavy1  
exceedingly hard and brittle1 but not   

strong2 color light orange4 ,it has some
 use as furniture material1 and for     
certain classes of handles which need   
not be strong4 ,wild lime 7,xanthoxylum 
fagara7 is a similar tree1 growing in   
both ,florida and ,texas1 but it is of  
small size4 ,hoptree 7,ptelea           
trifoliata7 is another member of the    
family4 ,its fruit is sometimes         
substituted for hops for brewing beer4  
,it is known also as wafer ash1 wahoo1  
and quinine tree2 the last name being   
due to its bitter bark4 ,it grows from  
,canada to ,florida1 and west to ,new   
,mexico1 and seldom exceeds twenty feet 
in height4 ,baretta 7,helietta          
parvifolia7 which occurs as a small tree
 in southern ,texas1 is a near relative4
 ,torchwood 7,amyris maritima71 so named
 because of its fine properties as fuel1
 grows in southern ,florida1 sometimes  
reaching a height of forty feet and a   
diameter of one4 ,canotia 7,canotia     
holacantha7 is a small1 scarce tree of  
,arizona and ,california and has        

fine-grained1 rich brown wood4          
,,nannyberry 7,viburnum prunifolium71   
known as black haw1 sloe1 sheepberry1   
and stagbush1 grows from ,connecticut to
 ,oklahoma and is usually a shrub which 
springs up along highways and hedges1   
but it sometimes reaches a height of    
twenty feet and a diameter of eight     
inches4 ,it is valuable in some         
localities in the manufacture of canes  
and umbrella sticks4 ,rusty nannyberry  
7,viburnum rufotomentosum7 is a similar 
species1 but attains a larger size1 and 
grows from ,virginia to ,texas4 ,the    
wood may be known by its disagreeable   
odor4 ,sheepberry 7,vibernum lentago7   
has a more northern range1 from ,quebec 
to ,saskatchewan1 and south along the   
mountains to ,georgia4  ,,blue ,,elder  
7,sambucus glauca7 is one of three tree 
elders in the ,united ,states1 the      
others being ,mexican elder 7,sambucus  
mexicana7 and red-berried elder         
7,sambucus callicarpa74 ,they are       
ornamental rather than useful4 ,the     

three species occur on the ,pacific     
coast4 ,the largest recorded size of an 
elder was forty feet high and           
twenty-eight inches in diameter4 ,its   
age was about fifty years4  ,,fringe    
,,tree 7,chionanthus virginica7 is known
 also as white fringe1 ,american fringe1
 white ash1 old man's beard1 flowering  
ash1 and sunflower tree4 ,its natural   
range extends from ,pennsylvania to     
,florida and west to ,texas1 but it has 
been widely planted in this country and 
,europe4 ,it is seldom more than twenty 
feet high and eight inches in diameter4 
,the bark possesses medicinal value4    
,devilwood 7,osmanthus americanus7      
belongs to the same family1 but to a    
different genus4 ,it grows from ,north  
,carolina to ,florida and west to       
,louisiana4 ,the largest trunks are a   
foot in diameter and forty feet high4   
,the wood is strong1 heavy1 hard1 dark  
brown1 and difficult to work4  ,,black  
,,ironwood 7,rhamnidium ferreum7 of     
,florida is among the heaviest1 probably

 is the heaviest1 wood of the ,united   
,states4 ,it weighs #ha4ad pounds per   
cubic foot1 and when a hundred pounds of
 the wood is burned1 it leaves eight    
pounds of ashes--the highest in ash of  
all woods of the ,united ,states4 ,its  
fuel value is very high4 ,trees are     
small1 seldom more than thirty feet high
 and six inches in diameter4 ,bluewood  
7,condalia obovata7 is a related ,texas 
species1 called also logwood and purple 
haw4 ,it produces heavy1 hard1          
close-grained wood1 light red in color4 
,trees six inches in diameter and       
twenty-five feet high are fully up to   
the average4 ,along the lower ,rio      
,grande it forms dense1 tangled         
thickets4 ,red ironwood 7,reynosia      
latifolia7 of southern ,florida belongs 
to a related species1 and is sometimes  
called darling plum1 because its purple 
fruit is edible4 ,the tree is small1 the
 wood heavy1 hard1 strong1 and of rich  
brown color4 ,white ironwood 7,hypelate 
trifoliata7 belongs to a different      

family4 ,it occurs in ,florida where    
trees are sometimes thirty-five feet    
high and eighteen inches in diameter4   
,the heavy1 hard1 rich brown wood is    
durable in contact with the ground1 and 
is used for fence posts1 handles1 and   
boats4 ,inkwood 7,exothea paniculata7 is
 of the same family as white ironwood   
but of a different genus4 ,it is also a 
,florida species and is known in some   
localities as ironwood4 ,the tree is    
occasionally a foot in diameter and     
forty feet high1 wood very hard1 heavy1 
and strong1 and bright red in color4 ,it
 is used by boat builders1 for wharfs1  
and as handle wood4  ,,cinnamon ,,bark  
7,canella winterana71 also called       
whitewood and wild cinnamon1 is a south 
,florida species seldom more than       
twenty-five feet high and ten inches in 
diameter4 ,the wood is exceedingly      
heavy1 hard1 and strong1 and of dark    
reddish-brown color4 ,the wild cinnamon 
bark of commerce comes from this tree4  
,,joewood 7,jaquinia armillaris7 grows  

in the ,florida everglades4 ,the dark   
and beautiful medullary rays of this    
wood may sometime make it valuable for  
turnery and small novelties4 ,trunks    
seldom exceed six or seven inches in    
diameter4 ,marlberry 7,icacorea         
paniculata7 belongs in the same family  
with joewood4 ,trunks are small1 but the
 hard1 rich brown wood is beautifully   
marked with dark medullary rays4        
,,crabwood 7,gymnanthes lucida7 is known
 chiefly by the fine canes made of it4  
,the tree occurs in southern ,florida   
where it is sometimes known as          
poisonwood4 ,it is dark brown1 streaked 
with yellow4 ,trunks more than eight    
inches in diameter are unusual4         
,manchineel 7,hippomane mancinella7 is  
of the same family1 and occurs in       
,florida4 ,the wood is light and soft4  
,,singleleaf ,,pinon 7,pinus            
monophylla74 ,this is the only pine in  
this country with single needles4 ,they 
are one and one-half inches long1 and   
are curved like the old fashioned sewing

 awl used by shoemakers4 ,the needles   
fall during the fourth and fifth years4 
,the cones are one and one-half or two  
and one-half inches long4 ,the trees are
 small1 averaging fifteen or twenty feet
 high and eight or twelve inches in     
diameter4 ,its range covers portions of 
,utah1 ,arizona1 ,nevada1 and           
,california1 but it occupies dry1       
sterile regions as nearly under desert  
conditions as can be found in this      
country4 ,the tree maintains a foothold 
on the eastern slope of the ,sierra     
,nevada mountains at an altitude of     
#i1jjj feet and it descends into the    
,colorado desert in ,california at an   
elevation of #b1jjj feet4 ,it endures   
winter cold below zero on the mountains1
 and summer temperature of #abb in the  
,mojave desert4 ,it is fitted to live in
 a dry1 sterile region4 ,the leaves are 
small and the branches bear few of them4
 ,the thin foliage uses little water1   
which is a fortunate circumstance1 for  
there is little to use4 ,slow growth is 

the result4 ,the trunk often adds less  
than an inch to its diameter in twenty  
years4 ,the trees form very open forest1
 resembling old orchards1 and the       
greenness usually associated with pine  
landscapes is generally wanting4 ,the   
singleleaf pine has filled an important 
place in the development of the region1 
and furnishes an example of the great   
service which a small1 crooked tree can 
give when it is the only one to be had4 
,mines worth many millions of dollars   
have been worked with little of any     
other wood4 ,this has been the fuel for 
the kitchen1 the engine house1 the      
blacksmith shop4 ,it has supplied the   
props1 posts1 stulls1 and lagging for   
the underground operations4 ,fences for 
stock corrals1 sheds1 stables1 cabins1  
and bridges have been constructed of the
 small1 crooked trunks and the distorted
 limbs1 when no other wood could be had 
in fifty or a hundred miles4 ,extensive 
tracts have been cut clean in the       
vicinity of mines4 ,the product of the  

singleleaf pine forest cannot be        
measured in board or log feet1 because  
of the smallness of the trunks and      
branches1 but by the cord4 ,the wood is 
medium heavy1 rather high in fuel value1
 very weak1 brittle1 and soft4 ,the     
resin passages are few and small1 color 
yellow or light brown1 the sapwood      
nearly white4 ,in contact with the soil 
the wood is not durable1 but its        
principal use has been in a very dry    
climate1 and it lasts well there4 ,it is
 the most important of the nut pines4   
,it produces enormous crops which are   
larger some years than others4 ,john    
,muir believed that the singleleaf      
pinon's annual nut yield surpassed      
,california's yield of wheat4 ,only a   
small part of the nut crop is ever put  
to use by man4 ,scattered over          
mountains1 mesas1 and deserts1 #ajj1jjj 
square miles in extent1 most of the nuts
 fall and decay1 though the animals of  
the rocks and sands1 and the birds of   
the air live on them while they last4   

,the ,indians of the region long looked 
upon the nut crop1 as the ,egyptians    
upon the overflow of the ,nile--a       
guarantee against famine4 ,the ,indians 
are not so dependent on the nuts now as 
formerly because scattered settlements  
throughout the region supply other      
sources of food4 ,many nuts are still   
gathered1 and are sold in stores from   
,san ,francisco to ,denver4 ,they look  
like peanuts1 but are richer in oil1 and
 if eaten raw they speedily cloy the    
appetite4 ,the ,indians usually roast   
them1 and frequently crush them into    
meal4 ,when the harvest is ripe the     
,indians gather from all sides and camp 
during a month or more1 thrash the cones
 from the trees with poles1 extract the 
nuts1 and keep up the operation until   
all present needs are supplied1 and     
every available basket is filled for    
future use4 ,the packhorses and burros  
of the mining country in ,nevada where  
this pine grows1 acquire a liking for   
the nuts4 ,they are as nourishing as    

oats1 and the pack animals like them    
better4 ,indians do considerable        
business collecting the nuts and selling
 them by the gunny sack to pack trains1 
for horse feed4 ,a single ,indian will  
sometimes gather thirty or forty        
bushels1 for which he can get a dollar a
 bushel when he has carried them to     
market4  ,the singleleaf pine's future  
will be about as its past has been1 as  
far as can now be foreseen4 ,little     
planting will ever be done1 nor is it   
necessary4 ,nature plants all that the  
sterile soil will support4 ,it is of too
 slow growth to tempt the forester4 ,a  
century is required to produce a fence  
post1 and #bjj years for a crosstie4    
,forest fires do little injury1 for the 
ground is generally so bare that fire   
dies out of its own accord in a short   
distance4 ,the tree can never be planted
 much for ornament4 ,even if it would   
grow outside of its dry habitat1 it     
possesses no more beauty than a         
half-dead apple tree in a neglected     

orchard4 ,the trunks resemble mesquite  
in ,texas2 but the ,texas tree is       
redeemed by the beauty of its foliage in
 summer1 while the foliage of the       
singleleaf pine is so pale and thin that
 it attracts no attention4  ,,carolina  
,,hemlock 7,tsuga caroliniana7 is of far
 less importance than its northern      
neighbor which goes south along the     
,appalachian mountains to meet it4 ,the 
two species mingle on the mountain tops 
from southwestern ,virginia to northern 
,georgia4 ,the ,carolina hemlock is     
usually confined to altitudes #b1ejj or 
#c1jjj feet above sea level1 and prefers
 rocky banks of streams4 ,it does not   
usually occur in dense stands of even   
moderate size1 as the northern hemlock  
does4 ,a few trees in clumps or         
scattered solitary represent its habit  
of growth4 ,typical development of the  
species occurs on the headwaters of the 
,savannah river in ,south ,carolina4    
,for a long time this hemlock and its   
northern relative were supposed to be   

the same4 ,botanists did not formerly   
separate them1 and the mountaineers do  
not generally do so now4 ,there are     
several differences1 however1 which may 
be observed upon close examination1 and 
by comparing the two species4 ,the      
,carolina hemlock's leaves have more    
rows of stomata and therefore are a     
little whiter on the under side4 ,the   
leaves are also longer1 and the cones   
are larger4 ,the tree does not attain   
the dimensions of the northern species1 
its average size being forty or fifty   
feet in height1 and two or less in      
diameter4 ,it is not abundant1 and has  
never been and never can be much used   
for commercial purposes4 ,it is an      
attractive park tree and has been widely
 planted4  ,,limber ,,pine 7,pinus      
flexilis7 owes its name to its long1    
drooping branches4 ,it is often called  
white pine1 ,rocky ,mountain white pine1
 western white pine1 and limber twig    
pine4 ,it is not the tree usually called
 western white pine 7,pinus monticola71 

but is a high mountain species1 ranging 
from the ,rocky ,mountains of ,montana  
to western ,texas2 it grows also on the 
mountains of ,arizona1 ,utah1 ,nevada1  
and ,california4 ,the upper limit of its
 range in the ,sierra ,nevadas is       
#ab1jjj feet4 ,it descends to an        
altitude of only #d1jjj feet in the     
,rocky ,mountains1 and forms open1      
scattered stands of round-topped trees  
of little commercial value1 and is      
usually associated with western yellow  
pine or ,rocky ,mountain cedar4 ,at     
altitudes of #h1ejj or #aj1jjj feet it  
is more stunted1 and associates with    
,lyall larch and other high mountain    
species4 ,intermediate between its lower
 and its higher belts it produces a     
little merchantable lumber4 ,the wood is
 light1 soft1 medium brittle1 of slow   
growth and with narrow bands of         
summerwood4 ,the resin passages are     
large and numerous4 ,the wood1 when a   
choice trunk is found1 resembles that of
 eastern white pine2 but generally the  

trunks are inferior in size and form4   
,the heartwood is light1 clear yellow1  
the sapwood nearly white4 ,trees range  
in height from thirty to fifty feet1 and
 one to three in diameter4 ,a sawlog ten
 feet long is about as much as can be   
had from a trunk1 and of course1 when   
compared with commercial trees1 it holds
 a low place2 but in some remote        
mountain regions it is the principal    
wood available1 and to that extent it is
 of importance4 ,when green1 the wood is
 very heavy1 and sometimes will sink4   
,it is used for posts and in the mines4 
,the farmer seasons posts on the stump4 
,he peels the trees six months before   
cutting them4 ,they immediately exude   
resin over the whole peeled surface1 and
 the tree quickly dies4 ,at the end of  
six months the trunk is seasoned1 and is
 cut for posts4 ,the ends are smeared   
with resin4 ,such posts have lasted     
twenty years with little decay4         
,railroads make ties of fire-killed     
limber pine4 ,charcoal burners use it   

also4 ,the growing trees resist the     
fumes of copper smelters better than any
 other species associated with it4      
,,parry ,,pinon 7,pinus quadrifolia74   
,the names by which this tree is        
known in the region where it grows      
indicate one of its leading             
features1 a bearer of nuts4 ,it is      
called nut pine1 ,parry's nut pine1     
pinon1 and ,mexican pinon4 ,the nuts    
exceed half an inch in length1     are  
reddish-brown1 and the wings narrow and 
small4 ,they cannot carry     the nuts  
far1 and the species is not spreading4  
,reproduction takes     place beneath   
the parent tree1 and frequently the old 
trunk dies     without having succeeded 
in planting a single seed to perpetuate 
the     species4 ,the nuts are          
nutritious1 and are eagerly sought by   
birds1     rodents1 and larger animals1 
including human beings4 ,the cones are  
seldom two inches long1 and the leaves  
are little more than an inch4     ,they 
are usually in clusters of four1 and    

fall the third year4 ,the     tree's    
characteristics betray its environment4 
,it is fitted for dry1     sterile      
situations4 ,its abnormally large seeds 
provide food for the     seedling until 
it can get its rootlets deep enough in  
the poor soil     to get a start4 ,the  
,parry pinon's range is confined to the 
extreme     southern part of ,california
 and to ,lower ,california where it     
occupies arid mesas and low mountain    
slopes4 ,it is common on ,santa         
,rosa mountains1 ,california1 at an     
elevation of #e1jjj feet4 ,it is too    
small to be worth much for lumber1 the  
usual height being less than     thirty 
feet1 the trunk diameter from ten to    
sixteen inches4 ,the wood     is medium 
heavy1 weak1 low in elasticity1 but     
rather high in fuel     value4 ,the     
annual rings are very narrow1 and the   
thin bands of     summerwood are not    
conspicuous4 ,it is one of the          
slowest-growing of     the pines1 and   
probably it is surpassed in that respect

 by lodgepole     pine alone4 ,its only 
uses are fuel1 a few fence posts1 and   
small     ranch timbers4      ,,knobcone
 ,,pine 7,pinus attenuata74 ,this pine  
is known as     prickly-cone pine1      
sun-loving pine1 sunny-slope pine1      
narrow-cone     pine1 and knobcone pine4
 ,its leaves are in clusters of three1  
and     are four and five inches long4  
,the cones are from three to six        
inches long4 ,they often adhere to the  
branches thirty or forty     years1 and 
may become entirely overgrown and hidden
 by bark and     wood--hence the name   
knobcone4 ,the wood is light1 soft1     
weak1     brittle2 the growth is slow   
and the annual rings are narrow4 ,the   
resin passages are large and numerous4  
,the average height of the     mature   
knobcone pine is from twenty-five to    
forty feet1 and the     trunk diameter  
eight to twelve inches4 ,it grows on dry
 mountain     regions of ,california and
 ,oregon1 and is not a valuable timber  
tree4     ,a little is occasionally     

sawed in small dimensions1 but the      
principal use is for mine props4 ,it is 
short lived1 even when it     does not  
fall a victim to accidents4 ,in         
accordance with the     provisions of   
nature1 it prepares for early death by  
bearing seeds     when only five or six 
feet high4 ,the cones act as storing    
places for     seed1 sometimes during   
the whole life of the tree4 ,thus a     
knobcone     pine may hold in its       
tightly closed cones the seeds produced 
during     the tree's whole life4 ,when 
death overtakes it1 the cones open and  
scatter the seeds4 ,the accumulated     
crops may total three or four     pounds
 of seeds4 ,fire usually kills the      
trees1 but the heat is     generally not
 sufficient to burn the cones4 ,when    
they open soon     after the fire has   
passed1 they find a bared mineral soil  
ready to     receive them4 ,the knobcone
 pine lives in adversity and usually    
dies     by violence4      ,,arizona    
,,pine 7,pinus arizonica74 ,this tree is

 confined to the     mountains of       
southern ,arizona at from #f1jjj to     
#h1jjj feet above sea     level4 ,it is 
the prevailing pine near the summit of  
the ,santa     ,catalina mountains4     
,much of the timber is of small size and
 yields     only inferior lumber2 but   
when larger trunks are obtainable1 the  
lumber grades with western yellow pine1 
and goes to market with it4     ,arizona
 pine is medium light1 soft1 not strong1
 rather brittle1 of     slow growth1    
with the summerwood comparatively broad 
and very     resinous2 color1 light red 
or often yellow1 the sapwood lighter    
yellow or white4 ,the leaves are in     
clusters of five and are tufted     at  
the ends of the branches4 ,they are from
 five to seven inches     long1 and are 
deciduous the third year4      ,,dwarf  
,,juniper 7,juniperus communis7 is an   
interesting tree because     its range  
practically runs round the world in the 
north temperate     and frigid zones1   
but in the ,united ,states the only     

reported use of     the wood is in      
southern ,illinois where it grows on the
 limestone     hills and is occasionally
 cut for fence posts4 ,in nearly all    
other     parts of its range in this    
country it is little more than a shrub4 
,some trees with a spread of limbs      
twenty feet across are only three     or
 four feet high4 ,the seeds mature      
slowly1 not ripening until the     third
 year2 and they often hang a year or two
 after ripening4 ,the     wood is       
narrow-ringed1 hard1 very durable in    
contact with the soil1     of light     
brown color1 with pale sapwood4 ,in     
,europe the aromatic     fruit of this  
tree is used in large quantities to     
flavor gin1 but     there is no report  
that it has been so employed in this    
country4 ,in     the ,united ,states it 
occurs in ,pennsylvania and northward1  
and     northward from ,illinois1 and   
throughout the ,rocky ,mountains north  
of     ,texas4 ,it occurs on the        
,pacific coast north of ,california4 ,it

 grows     from ,greenland to ,alaska1  
and through ,siberia1 and northern      
,europe4      ,,drooping ,,juniper      
7,juniperus flaccida7 is confined in the
 ,united     ,states to the ,chisos     
mountains in western ,texas1 but grows  
in     ,mexico4 ,the tree attains a     
height of thirty feet and a diameter of 
one4 ,its name refers to its graceful   
branches4 ,it has been planted     in   
this country less than in southern      
,europe and northern ,africa4     ,the  
bark is light cinnamon-brown1 and easily
 separates in loose1     papery scales4 
,the lumberman will never go far to     
procure drooping     juniper logs4 ,they
 are too small1 scarce1 and of form too 
poor4 ,the     wood has the usual       
characteristics of the junipers which   
grow in     western mountains4 ,it looks
 more like alligator juniper than any   
other4 ,in ,texas it goes to the lathe  
to be manufactured into                 
candlesticks1 pin boxes1 picture        
molding1 and other articles of          

turnery4      ,,utah ,,juniper          
7,juniperus utahensis7 is known also as 
juniper1     desert juniper1 and western
 red cedar4 ,the last name is properly  
applied to a different tree in          
,washington and ,oregon4 ,the ,utah     
juniper occupies the great basin between
 the ,rocky ,mountains and the          
,sierra ,nevadas1 particularly in ,utah1
 ,nevada1 ,california1 ,arizona1     and
 ,colorado4 ,it thrives best about      
#h1jjj feet above the sea1 but          
descends to #e1jjj feet or less4 ,it is 
a desert tree1 usually small1     often 
a mere shrub1 but occasionally attaining
 a height of twenty     feet or more and
 a diameter of one or two4 ,the trunk is
 irregular in     shape1 and is         
generally deeply fluted4 ,the wood is   
light brown in     color1 though it     
varies greatly in different specimens1  
and even in     the same tree4 ,the     
sapwood is thick and nearly white4 ,the 
tree has     not been much used except  
for fence posts and fuel4 ,the ,indians 

of     the region eat the berries raw or
 bake them in cakes4     ,,index ,,to   
,,common ,,names     ,acacia1 #ece      
,african mahogany1 #dfc   ,ailanthus1   
#fgf   ,alaska cypress1 #aba   ,alaska  
pine1 #aic   ,alder1 #ehi   ,algaroba1  
#eei   ,alleghany sloe1 #fbb            
,alligator juniper1 #aaa   ,alligator   
wood1 #cbe   ,almondleaf willow1 #dga   
,aloe-leaf yucca1 #fic   ,alpine fir1   
#aff   ,alpine larch1 #hh   ,alpine     
spruce1 #aie   ,alpine western spruce1  
#aif   ,alpine whitebark pine1 #cg      
,alternate-leaved dogwood1 #ebf         
,alvord oak1 #bbj   ,amabilis fir1 #afe 
,american apple1 #eec   ,american       
arborvit1 #ig   ,american ash1 #dji     
,american crab1 #dec   ,american fringe1
 #gjj   ,american holly1 #fdc           
,american larch1 #hj   ,american linden1
 #fcg   ,american planertree1 #cig      
,american smoke-tree1 #fig   ,andromeda1
 #ebf   ,angelica-tree1 #fgf   ,ant's   
wood1 #fif   ,apple haw1 #dei           
,arborvit1 #ig   ,arizona cork fir1 #aed

   ,arizona cypress1 #adb   ,arizona    
madrona1 #ffc   ,arizona palm1 #fic     
,arizona pine1 #gje   ,arizona spruce1  
#ace   ,arizona sycamore1 #faj          
,arizona white oak1 #bah   ,arrow-wood1 
#ejg   ,ash-leaved maple1 #dde   ,aspen1
 #ffg1 #fge   ,aspen-leaf1 #fge         
,august plum1 #fba    ,bald cypress1    
#aci   ,balm of ,gilead1 #ade1 #ffg1    
#fgc   ,balm of ,gilead fir1 #ade       
,balsam1 #ace1 #acf1 #aea1 #aff1 #fgc   
,balsam fir1 #ade1 #aea1 #aei   ,balsam 
poplar1 #fgc   ,baltimore oak1 #bje     
,banana1 #fdj   ,baretta1 #fii   ,barren
 oak1 #caf   ,barren scrub oak1 #bhc    
,bartram oak1 #cbb   ,basket elm1 #cic  
,basket oak1 #bjh1 #bbi   ,basket       
willow1 #dgb   ,basswood1 #fcg          
,bat-tree1 #did   ,bayberry1 #fih   ,bay
 poplar1 #ccg   ,bay tree1 #ebi         
,beaded locust1 #eee   ,bearberry1 #fdf1
 #fih   ,bear oak1 #cae   ,bearwood1    
#fih   ,beaver-tree1 #die   ,bebb       
willow1 #dga   ,beech1 #fbe   ,beetree1 
#fcg   ,bell-tree1 #fja   ,bellwood1    

#fjb   ,berlandier ash1 #dah   ,big     
buckeye1 #fdi   ,big-bud1 #cfc          
,big-bud hickory1 #cfc   ,bigcone pine1 
#fh   ,bigcone spruce1 #agb   ,big      
cottonwood1 #ffg   ,bigelow willow1 #dgb
   ,big hickory nut1 #cfc   ,big laurel1
 #did   ,bigleaf laurel1 #ejg   ,bigleaf
 maple1 #dci   ,big pine1 #ca   ,big    
shellbark1 #cfi   ,bigtree1 #age   ,big 
white birch1 #ehc   ,biltmore ash1 #dbd 
,birch1 #efe   ,bird cherry1 #fai       
,bishop's pine1 #fi   ,bitter cherry1   
#faf   ,bitter hickory1 #cfa            
,bitternut1 #cfg   ,bitternut hickory1  
#cfa   ,bitter pecan1 #cfa1 #cge        
,bitter walnut1 #cfa   ,bitter waternut1
 #cgd   ,bitterwood1 #fgf   ,black ash1 
#dae1 #daf1 #dbc1 #dde   ,blackbark     
pine1 #ge   ,black birch1 #efe1 #egg1   
#ehj   ,black calabash1 #dge   ,black   
cherry1 #fac   ,black cottonwood1 #ffg1 
#ffi1 #fgi   ,black gum1 #aei1 #cca     
,black haw1 #dfj   ,black hickory1 #cfd1
 #cfg1 #fif1 #fii   ,black ironwood1    
#gjj   ,black jack1 #bhc   ,black jack  

oak1 #bia   ,black larch1 #hj   ,black  
limetree1 #fcg   ,black locust1 #ece1   
#eda   ,black mangrove1 #fhh   ,black   
maple1 #ddg   ,black mulberry1 #eac     
,black oak1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bga1 #bgg      
,black olivetree1 #fhh   ,black pine1   
#fc1 #fg1 #gj1 #ge   ,black poplar1 #fha
   ,black slash pine1 #ee   ,black sloe1
 #fba   ,black spruce1 #abi   ,black    
thorn1 #dei   ,blacktree1 #fhh   ,black 
walnut1 #cdc   ,black willow1 #dfi      
,black wood1 #fhh   ,bleeding-heart     
tree1 #ejj   ,blister pine1 #ade1 #aea  
,blue ash1 #dag1 #dbb   ,blue beech1    
#fbg   ,blue birch1 #efe1 #egg1 #ehe    
,blue blossoms1 #fih   ,blue dogwood1   
#ebf   ,blue elder1 #gjj   ,blue jack   
oak1 #bhe   ,blue myrtle1 #fih   ,blue  
oak1 #bje1 #bac1 #bbf   ,blue spruce1   
#acf   ,bluet1 #ejh   ,bluewood1 #gjj   
,bodark1 #eaa   ,bodock1 #eaa   ,bog    
spruce1 #acj   ,bois d'arc1 #eaa   ,bois
 inconnu1 #dje   ,bottom shellbark1 #cfi
   ,bow-wood1 #eaa   ,box elder1 #dde1  
#fja   ,box oak1 #bbc   ,box white oak1 

#bbc   ,boxwood1 #ebc   ,bracted fir1   
#aeg   ,brash oak1 #bbc   ,brewer oak1  
#bbj   ,bristlecone fir1 #aga           
,bristlecone pine1 #ai1 #ch             
,broadfruit yucca1 #fic   ,broadleaf    
maple1 #dci   ,broadleaf willow1 #dgb   
,broom hickory1 #cfg   ,brown ash1 #dbc 
,brown hickory1 #cfg   ,brown pine1 #dc 
,buckeye1 #fdi   ,buckthorn bumelia1    
#fif   ,buckwheat-tree1 #ejb   ,bullace 
plum1 #fba   ,bull bay1 #did   ,bull    
pine1 #di1 #ge   ,bumwood1 #fig         
,burning bush1 #dii   ,burnwood1 #ejb   
,bur oak1 #baa   ,bustic1 #fif          
,butternut1 #cdi   ,buttonball1 #fjg    
,buttonwood1 #fjg    ,cabbage palmetto1 
#fia   ,cabbage-tree1 #fia   ,cactus1   
#fic   ,cajeput1 #ebi   ,calico-bush1   
#eje   ,calicowood1 #fja   ,california  
bay tree1 #ebi   ,california black oak1 
#bhe   ,california blue oak1 #bbi       
,california box elder1 #ddg             
,california buckeye1 #fdi1 #fea         
,california chestnut oak1 #cac          
,california coffee1 #fih   ,california  

fan palm1 #fic   ,california hemlock    
spruce1 #aic   ,california holly1 #fde  
,california juniper1 #aab   ,california 
laurel1 #ebi1 #fee   ,california live   
oak1 #cjg   ,california nutmeg1 #bja    
,california olive1 #ebi   ,california   
post cedar1 #aji   ,california red bud1 
#edi   ,california red fir1 #afd        
,california sassafras1 #ebi             
,california scrub oak1 #bcg             
,california swamp pine1 #fi             
,california sycamore1 #fji   ,california
 tanbark oak1 #cac   ,california walnut1
 #cea   ,california white oak1 #bdi     
,california white pine1 #fg   ,canada   
plum1 #fba   ,canadian ,judas tree1 #edh
   ,canadian red pine1 #fa   ,canoe     
birch1 #ehc   ,canoe cedar1 #aae        
,canoewood1 #dhg   ,canotia1 #fii       
,canyon birch1 #ehj   ,canyon live oak1 
#cjh   ,carolina cherry1 #fbj           
,carolina hemlock1 #gjc   ,carolina     
pine1 #di   ,carolina poplar1 #ffg      
,cascara buckthorn1 #fih   ,cascara     
sagrada1 #fih   ,catalpa1 #dge          

,catawba1 #dge   ,catawba rhododendron1 
#ejg   ,cat spruce1 #acj   ,cedar1 #ia1 
#ig1 #aji1 #aah   ,cedar elm1 #chj1 #cib
   ,cedar pine1 #eg   ,cereuses1 #fic   
,chalky leucna1 #efb   ,chapman oak1    
#bjh   ,chattahoochee pine1 #bjb        
,check pine1 #gj   ,checkered-barked    
juniper1 #aaa   ,cherry birch1 #efe1    
#ehj   ,chestnut1 #fca   ,chestnut oak1 
#bda1 #cac   ,chickasaw plum1 #fbb      
,chihuahua pine1 #gf   ,chinaberry1 #ffe
   ,china-tree1 #ffd   ,chinquapin1 #fcd
   ,chinquapin oak1 #bdg   ,chittamwood1
 #fjb   ,cholla1 #fia   ,cigartree1 #dgf
   ,cinnamon bark1 #gja   ,cinnamon oak1
 #bhf   ,clammy locust1 #ecg   ,cliff   
elm1 #che   ,cockspur1 #dei   ,cocoa    
plum1 #fbb   ,coffeebean1 #edg          
,coffee-berry1 #fih   ,coffeenut1 #edg  
,coffeetree1 #edg   ,colorado blue      
spruce1 #acf   ,common catalpa1 #dge1   
#dgg   ,common thorn1 #dei   ,cornel1   
#ebc   ,coral bean1 #eed   ,coral       
sumach1 #fig   ,cork-barked ,douglas    
spruce1 #afi   ,cork elm1 #chj1 #che1   

#cii   ,cork pine1 #ai   ,corkwood1 #dbc
   ,corky elm1 #cii   ,cotton gum1 #ccg 
,cottonwood1 #ffg1 #fgc   ,cotton-tree1 
#ffg   ,coulter pine1 #fh   ,cowlicks1  
#fjd   ,cow oak1 #bbi   ,crab1 #dec     
,crab apple1 #dec   ,crabwood1 #gja     
,crack willow1 #dgb   ,creeping pine1   
#cg   ,cuban pine1 #de   ,cucumber1 #dha
   ,cucumber tree1 #dhg   ,currant-tree1
 #dea   ,custard apple1 #fdj            
,cut-leaved maple1 #dde   ,cypress1 #gj1
 #aci    ,dahoon holly1 #fde   ,darling 
plum1 #gjj   ,darlington oak1 #bie      
,date plum1 #eag   ,deciduous holly1    
#fdf   ,deer tongue1 #ejg   ,delmar     
pine1 #fd   ,desert juniper1 #gje       
,desert willow1 #dgg   ,devil's claw1   
#edd   ,devil's tongue cactus1 #fid     
,devilwood1 #gjj   ,digger pine1 #ge    
,dilly1 #fif   ,doctor gum1 #fig        
,dogwood1 #ebc   ,double fir1 #aea      
,double spruce1 #acj   ,douglas fir1    
#afi   ,douglas spruce1 #afi            
,douglas-tree1 #afi   ,down-cone1 #aff  
,downy basswood1 #fci   ,downy-cone     

subalpine fir1 #aff   ,downy poplar1    
#ffi   ,drooping juniper1 #gje          
,drummond maple1 #dcf   ,duck oak1 #cbj 
,durand oak1 #bjh   ,dwarf ash1 #dab    
,dwarf chestnut oak1 #bdg   ,dwarf      
cypress1 #ahd   ,dwarf juniper1 #gje    
,dwarf maple1 #ddb1 #ddf   ,dwarf marine
 pine1 #fi   ,dwarf rose bay1 #ejg      
,dwarf sumach1 #fif   ,dwarf walnut1    
#cea   ,dyer's oak1 #bga    ,ebony1 #eag
   ,elder1 #gjj   ,elderleaf ash1 #daf  
,emory oak1 #bch   ,engelmann oak1 #bca 
,engelmann spruce1 #ace   ,english      
cornel1 #ebf   ,english dogwood1 #ebf   
,english hawthorn1 #dfj   ,european     
alder1 #eib   ,evergreen buckthorn1 #fih
   ,evergreen cherry1 #fbj   ,evergreen 
magnolia1 #dha1 #dic   ,eysenhardtia1   
#ebf    ,false acacia1 #ece   ,false    
box-dogwood1 #ebc   ,false mahogany1    
#eca   ,false shagbark1 #cdf   ,fanleaf 
palm1 #fic   ,farkleberry1 #ejh   ,fat  
pine1 #dc   ,feather-cone red fir1 #aeg 
,feather-leaf1 #ig   ,fetid buckeye1    
#fea   ,fetid yew1 #bjb   ,fighting     

wood1 #aii   ,finger-cone pine1 #be     
,fir balsam1 #aea   ,fire cherry1 #fai  
,firewood1 #ejb   ,fir pine1 #ade       
,florida ash1 #dab   ,florida basswood1 
#fci   ,florida boxwood1 #eja   ,florida
 buttonwood1 #fhh   ,florida cat's claw1
 #ech   ,florida mahogany1 #eca         
,florida maple1 #dce   ,florida pine1   
#dc   ,florida torreya1 #bjb   ,florida 
yew1 #bja   ,flowering ash1 #gjj        
,flowering cornel1 #ebc   ,flowering    
dogwood1 #ebc   ,flowering willow1 #dgg 
,forked-leaf black jack1 #bhc           
,forked-leaf oak1 #bag1 #bhc            
,forked-leaf white oak1 #bag            
,four-winged halesia1 #fja   ,foxtail   
pine1 #ai1 #ch1 #ci   ,fragrant crab1   
#dec   ,fraser fir1 #aea   ,fraser      
umbrella1 #dha1 #die   ,fremont         
cottonwood1 #ffg1 #fgj   ,fremontia1    
#djj   ,frijolito1 #eed   ,fringe ash1  
#dab   ,fringetree1 #gjj    ,gambel oak1
 #bad   ,garden wild plum1 #fbb         
,georgia oak1 #bfg   ,georgia pine1 #dc 
,giant arborvit1 #aae   ,giant cactus1  

#fic   ,gigantic cedar1 #aae   ,glaucous
 willow1 #dgb   ,glossyleaf willow1 #dif
   ,golden cup oak1 #cjh   ,golden fir1 
#afd   ,goldenleaf chinquapin1 #fcc     
,gooseberry1 #ejh   ,goose plum1 #fba1  
#fbb   ,gopherwood1 #eec   ,gowen       
cypress1 #ahd   ,grand fir1 #afc   ,gray
 birch1 #ehe   ,gray elm1 #chj   ,gray  
pine1 #ge   ,great ,california fir1 #afc
   ,great laurel1 #did1 #eje   ,great   
western larch1 #hf   ,green ash1 #dbb   
,greenbark acacia1 #eee   ,green osier1 
#ebf   ,gregg ash1 #daa   ,guayacon1    
#fih   ,gum1 #cbe   ,gumbo limbo1 #fgf  
,gum elastic1 #fif   ,gum stretch it1   
#fif   ,gum-tree1 #cbe   ,gyminda1 #di  
,hackberry1 #djc   ,hackmatack1 #hj1 #hf
   ,hack-tree1 #djc   ,hairy balm of    
,gilead1 #fgd   ,hardbark hickory1 #cfc 
,hardhack1 #eie   ,hard maple1 #dbg     
,hard pine1 #dc1 #fa1 #fc   ,hardshell1 
#cfc   ,hardwoods1 #d   ,hardy catalpa1 
#dge   ,haw1 #dei   ,hawthorn1 #dei     
,healing balsam1 #aea   ,heart-leaved   
thorn1 #dfj   ,heart pine1 #dc          

,heartwood1 #e   ,heavy pine1 #fg       
,heavy-wooded pine1 #fg   ,hedge1 #eaa  
,hedge-tree1 #eaa   ,hemlock1 #ahg      
,hemlock spruce1 #ahg1 #aic1 #aie       
,hercules' club1 #fgf1 #fii   ,hickory1 
#ceg   ,hickory elm1 #che   ,hickory    
oak1 #cjh   ,hickory pine1 #ch1 #eb     
,hickory poplar1 #dhg   ,high-ground    
willow oak1 #bhf   ,highland oak1 #bif  
,hog haw1 #dei   ,hog plum1 #fba1 #fig  
,holly1 #fdc   ,hollyleaf cherry1 #faf  
,honey locust1 #ece1 #eda1 #eei         
,honey-shucks locust1 #eda   ,honey pod1
 #eei   ,hooker's oak1 #bdi   ,hooker   
willow1 #dgb   ,hoop ash1 #djc1 #dae    
,hooptree1 #dae   ,hop hornbeam1 #eie   
,hoptree1 #fii   ,hornbeam1 #eie1 #fbg  
,horsebean1 #edi   ,horse chestnut1 #fea
   ,horse plum1 #fba   ,huajillo1 #ech  
,huckleberry1 #ejh   ,huckleberry oak1  
#cji    ,incense cedar1 #aji   ,indian  
bean1 #dgf   ,indian cherry1 #dea       
,indian pear1 #dea   ,indigo thorn1 #eef
   ,inkwood1 #gjj   ,iowa crab1 #ded    
,iron oak1 #bbc1 #cjh   ,ironwood1 #eja1

 #ejb1 #eei1 #eie1 #fbg1 #fif   ,ivy1   
#eje    ,jack oak1 #cai   ,jack pine1   
#fi   ,jamaica dogwood1 #ebf1 #eej      
,jeffrey pine1 #ge   ,jersey pine1 #eg  
,joewood1 #gja   ,joshua-tree1 #fic     
,judas tree1 #edh   ,june berry1 #dea   
,juniper1 #gj1 #ia1 #ii1 #aji1 #aah1    
#gjf   ,juniper-bush1 #ia   ,juniper    
cedar1 #ii   ,juniper tree1 #djc        
,kalmia1 #eje   ,kenai birch1 #efe1 #ehe
   ,kingnut1 #cfi   ,kingstree1 #ea     
,knobcone pine1 #gjd   ,knowlton        
hornbeam1 #eih   ,kberlinia1 #fig       
,lanceleaf alder1 #eib   ,lanceleaf     
cottonwood1 #ffg1 #fgj   ,lancewood1    
#feg   ,larch1 #gi1 #afe   ,large       
buckeye1 #fdi   ,largeleaf umbrella1    
#dha1 #dhc   ,large poplar1 #fge        
,largetooth aspen1 #ffg1 #fge   ,laurel1
 #did1 #eje1 #ejg1 #ebi   ,laurel bay1  
#did   ,laurel cherry1 #fbj             
,laurel-leaved magnolia1 #did   ,laurel 
oak1 #bie1 #cai   ,laurel tree1 #eca    
,lea oak1 #bib   ,leatherleaf ash1 #dah 
,leatherwood1 #djj1 #ejb   ,leucna1 #efb

   ,leverwood1 #eie   ,lignum-vit1 #fih 
,lilac1 #fih   ,limber pine1 #ai1 #gjc  
,limber-twig pine1 #gjc   ,linn1 #fcg   
,liquid-amber1 #cbe   ,little shagbark1 
#cdf   ,little sugar pine1 #be   ,little
 walnut1 #cea   ,live oak1 #bec1 #cac   
,loblolly pine1 #ee   ,locust1 #ece     
,lodgepole pine1 #gc   ,logwood1 #gjj   
,lombardy poplar1 #fhb   ,longcone pine1
 #fh   ,longleaf pine1 #dc   ,longleaf  
service1 #deb   ,longleaf willow1 #dif  
,longleaved pine1 #fc   ,longschat1 #fc 
,longshucks pine1 #ee   ,longstalk      
willow1 #dga   ,longstraw pine1 #ee     
,lovely fir1 #afe   ,lovely red fir1    
#afe   ,lowland spruce pine1 #ea   ,low 
maple1 #dce   ,lyall willow1 #dif       
,lynn1 #fcg    ,mackenzie willow1 #dgb  
,macnab cypress1 #agh   ,madrona1 #ffa  
,magnificent fir1 #afd   ,magnolia1 #did
   ,mahogany1 #dfc1 #edg   ,mahogany    
birch1 #efe   ,manchineel1 #gja         
,mangrove1 #fhe   ,manzanita1 #ffc      
,maple1 #dci   ,marlberry1 #gja         
,mastic1 #fif   ,maul oak1 #cjh   ,may  

cherry1 #dea   ,may haw1 #dei   ,meadow 
pine1 #de1 #ee   ,menzies' spruce1 #acc 
,mesquite1 #eei1 #efb   ,mexican        
cottonwood1 #ffg1 #ffi   ,mexican elder1
 #gjj   ,mexican madrona1 #ffc          
,mexican mulberry1 #ead   ,mexican      
palmetto1 #fib   ,mexican persimmon1    
#eag   ,mexican pinon1 #ai1 #cc1 #gjd   
,mexican walnut1 #cea   ,mexican white  
pine1 #ai   ,michaux basswood1 #fci     
,mimosa1 #efb   ,minor species1 #fie    
,missouri willow1 #dgc   ,mocker nut1   
#cef1 #cfc   ,mocker nut hickory1 #cfc  
,mock olive1 #fbj   ,mock orange1 #eaa1 
#fbj   ,mohave yucca1 #fic   ,monterey  
cypress1 #ada   ,monterey pine1 #fi     
,moose elm1 #cia   ,moose maple1 #dce   
,morehus oak1 #big   ,mountain alder1   
#eib   ,mountain ash1 #daa1 #ded1 #fge  
,mountain balsam1 #aea1 #aff   ,mountain
 birch1 #ehj   ,mountain cedar1 #aaa    
,mountain elm1 #cii   ,mountain hemlock1
 #aie   ,mountain holly1 #fde           
,mountain ivy1 #eje   ,mountain juniper1
 #ii   ,mountain laurel1 #eje1 #ebi     

,mountain mahogany1 #aii1 #dfe          
,mountain manchineel1 #fig   ,mountain  
maple1 #dce1 #dda   ,mountain pine1 #be 
,mountain spruce1 #ace   ,mountain white
 oak1 #bac   ,mulberry1 #eac            
,myrtleberry1 #ejh   ,myrtle-tree1 #ebi 
,myrtle oak1 #big    ,naked-wood1 #fih  
,narrowberry1 #fii   ,narrowcone pine1  
#gjd   ,narrowleaf cottonwood1 #ffg1    
#ffi   ,narrowleaf crab1 #dec           
,narrowleaf willow1 #dif   ,native plum1
 #fba   ,necklace poplar1 #ffg          
,netleaf oak1 #bai   ,nettle-tree1 #djc 
,new ,england boxwood1 #ebc   ,newcastle
 thorn1 #dei   ,new ,mexican locust1    
#ecg   ,new ,mexican pinon1 #bh   ,noble
 fir1 #aeg   ,nootka cypress1 #aba      
,north ,american red spruce1 #abg       
,north ,carolina pine1 #di   ,north     
,carolina shagbark hickory1 #cgf        
,northern cork elm1 #che   ,northern    
spruce pine1 #ai   ,northern white      
cedar1 #ig   ,norway pine1 #fa   ,nutmeg
 hickory1 #cgd   ,nutpine1 #bh1 #cc1    
#fh1 #gjd   ,nuttall willow1 #dgb       

,oak-barked cedar1 #aaa   ,obispo pine1 
#fi   ,ohio buckeye1 #fdi1 #fea         
,old-field birch1 #ehe   ,old-field     
pine1 #di   ,old man's beard1 #gjj      
,olivetree1 #ccg   ,one-berry1 #djc     
,one-seed juniper1 #ii   ,opossum wood1 
#fja   ,opuntias1 #fid   ,oregon ash1   
#dba   ,oregon balsam1 #aff   ,oregon   
crabapple1 #ded   ,oregon fir1 #afc     
,oregon maple1 #dci   ,oregon oak1 #bce 
,oregon pine1 #afi   ,oregon white oak1 
#bce   ,oreodaphne1 #ebi   ,osage apple 
tree1 #eaa   ,osage orange1 #eaa        
,osier willow1 #dif   ,overcup oak1     
#bag1 #bbc    ,pacific post oak1 #bce   
,pacific yew1 #aii   ,pale-leaf hickory1
 #cde   ,palmer oak1 #caj   ,palms1 #fia
   ,palmetto1 #fia   ,palo blanco1 #djf 
,palo verde1 #eef   ,paper birch1 #efe1 
#ehc   ,paper mulberry1 #ead            
,paradise-tree1 #fgf   ,parry nut pine1 
#ai1 #gjd   ,parry pinon1 #gjc          
,parry's spruce1 #acf   ,patton's       
spruce1 #aif   ,peach oak1 #cac         
,pea-flower locust1 #ece   ,peawood1    

#fjb   ,pear haw1 #dei   ,pear thorn1   
#dei   ,pecan1 #ceg1 #cgc   ,pecan nut1 
#cgc   ,pecan tree1 #cgc   ,persimmon1  
#eag   ,pessimin1 #eag   ,pigeonberry1  
#deb1 #ebf   ,pigeon cherry1 #fai       
,pignut1 #cef1 #cfa1 #cfg   ,pignut     
hickory1 #cfg   ,pig walnut1 #cfa   ,pin
 cherry1 #fai   ,pine1 #ai   ,pink      
locust1 #eee   ,pin oak1 #bjh1 #bdg1    
#cja   ,pinon1 #ai1 #bh   ,pinon pine1  
#bh1 #cc   ,pin thorn1 #dei   ,pitch    
pine1 #dc1 #de1 #di1 #fc   ,planertree1 
#cig   ,plane-tree1 #fjg   ,plum1 #fba1 
#fbb   ,poison dogwood1 #fig   ,poison  
elder1 #fig   ,poison ivy1 #eje         
,poison laurel1 #eje   ,poison oak1 #fig
   ,poison sumach1 #fig   ,poisontree1  
#fig   ,poisonwood1 #fig1 #gja   ,pond  
apple1 #fdj   ,pond cypress1 #ada       
,pond pine1 #eg   ,poorfield pine1 #di  
,poor pine1 #ea   ,poplar1 #dhg1 #fgc   
,poplar-leaved birch1 #ehe   ,popple1   
#dhg1 #fge   ,poppy ash1 #dbd   ,possum 
haw1 #fdf   ,possum oak1 #cbj           
,possumwood1 #eag   ,port ,orford cedar1

 #abc   ,post cedar1 #ajc1 #aji   ,post 
locust1 #ece   ,post oak1 #bbc          
,poverty birch1 #ehe   ,powcohiscora1   
#cee   ,price oak1 #cae   ,pricklecone  
pine1 #fi1 #gjd   ,prickly ash1 #fii    
,prickly pine1 #eb   ,prickly spruce1   
#acf   ,prince's pine1 #gj   ,puget     
sound pine1 #afi   ,pumpkin ash1 #dbc   
,pumpkin pine1 #ai   ,pumpkin-tree1 #aff
   ,punk oak1 #cbj   ,purple buckeye1   
#fdi1 #feb   ,purple dogwood1 #ebf      
,purple haw1 #gjj   ,pyramidal magnolia1
 #dha1 #dif    ,quaking asp1 #fge       
,quinine-tree1 #fii    ,rattlebox1 #fja 
,red alder1 #ehi   ,red ash1 #dbc       
,redbark fir1 #afd   ,redbark pine1 #ge 
,red bay1 #eca   ,red-berried elder1    
#gjj   ,red birch1 #egg   ,red-bract    
dogwood1 #ebf   ,redbud1 #edh   ,red    
cedar1 #ia1 #aji   ,red elm1 #cic1 #cii 
,red fir1 #aeg1 #afd1 #afi   ,red gum1  
#cbe   ,red haw1 #deg1 #dei1 #dfj       
,redheart hickory1 #ceg   ,red hickory1 
#cfc   ,red ironwood1 #gjj   ,red larch1
 #hj   ,red locust1 #ece   ,red maple1  

#dcc   ,red mulberry1 #eac   ,red oak1  
#bei1 #bfe1 #bgg1 #bhj1 #bhi   ,red     
pine1 #fa1 #afi   ,red plum1 #fba   ,red
 silver fir1 #afe   ,red spruce1 #abg   
,red thorn1 #deh   ,red titi1 #ejb      
,red willow1 #dif   ,redwood1 #aha      
,retama1 #edi   ,rhododendron1 #ejg     
,river ash1 #dbc   ,river birch1 #efe1  
#egg   ,river cottonwood1 #ffg   ,rock  
chestnut oak1 #bda   ,rock elm1 #chj1   
#che   ,rock maple1 #dbg   ,rock oak1   
#bda   ,rocky ,mountain juniper1 #abd   
,rocky ,mountain oak1 #bai1 #bbf        
,rocky ,mountain white pine1 #gjc       
,rose bay1 #ejg   ,rosemary pine1 #di1  
#ee   ,royal palm1 #fib   ,rum cherry1  
#fjc   ,rusty nannyberry1 #gjj          
,sadler oak1 #bbj   ,saffron plum1 #fif 
,salad-tree1 #edh   ,sandbar willow1    
#dif   ,sand jack1 #bhf   ,sand pine1   
#df   ,sapwood pine1 #ge   ,sargent     
palm1 #fib   ,sarvice1 #dea   ,sassafac1
 #fee   ,sassafas1 #fee   ,sassafrac1   
#fee   ,sassafras1 #fee   ,satinleaf1   
#fif   ,satin walnut1 #cbe   ,satinwood1

 #fii   ,savice1 #dea1 #deb   ,savin1   
#ia   ,saxifrax1 #fee   ,scaly bark     
hickory1 #ceg   ,scarlet haw1 #deg      
,scarlet maple1 #dcc   ,scarlet oak1    
#bgg   ,schott cactus1 #fid   ,schott   
yucca1 #fic   ,screwbean1 #efb          
,screw-pod1 #efb   ,scrub oak1 #bbj1    
#bdg1 #bhc   ,scrub pine1 #cg1 #eg1 #gj 
,seaside alder1 #eib   ,second growth1  
#ceg   ,serviceberry1 #dea              
,service-tree1 #dea   ,shadberry1 #dea  
,shagbark hickory1 #cee1 #ceg   ,shasta 
red fir1 #afe   ,shawneewood1 #dgf      
,she balsam1 #aea   ,sheepberry1 #fii1  
#gjj   ,sheepbush1 #eed   ,sheep laurel1
 #eje   ,shellbark1 #cef1 #ceg          
,shellbark hickory1 #cfi   ,shingle     
cedar1 #aae   ,shingle oak1 #cja1 #cai  
,shin oak1 #bjh1 #bhf   ,shoepeg maple1 
#dcc   ,short-flower mahogany1 #dff     
,shortleaf pine1 #di   ,shortleaved     
pine1 #eg   ,shortshat1 #di   ,shrub    
willow1 #dif   ,sierra brownbark pine1  
#fg   ,silktop palmetto1 #fib   ,silky  
willow1 #dgb   ,silverbell tree1 #fja1  

#fjd   ,silver fir1 #aei1 #afc1 #afe    
,silverleaf willow1 #dga                
,silver-leaved maple1 #dbi   ,silver    
maple1 #dbi   ,silver pine1 #ade        
,silver spruce1 #acf1 #ade   ,silvertop 
palmetto1 #fib   ,singleleaf pinon1 #ai1
 #gja   ,single spruce1 #acj   ,sir     
,joseph ,banks' pine1 #gj   ,slash pine1
 #de1 #di1 #ee   ,sitka alder1 #eib     
,sitka spruce1 #acc   ,skunk spruce1    
#acj   ,slippery elm1 #chj1 #cia1 #djj  
,sloe1 #fii   ,small buckeye1 #fdi1 #feb
   ,small fruit mountain ash1 #ded      
,small-leaf elm1 #cii   ,small-leaf     
horsebean1 #edi   ,small laurel1 #eje   
,small pignut1 #cdf   ,small pignut     
hickory1 #cdf   ,small white birch1 #ehe
   ,smooth cypress1 #adb   ,smoothleaf  
willow1 #dga   ,snowdrop-tree1 #fja1    
#fjc   ,soapberry1 #dfe   ,soap-tree1   
#dfe   ,soft maple1 #dbi   ,soft pine1  
#ai1 #be   ,softwoods1 #d   ,soledad    
pine1 #fd   ,sonora ironwood1 #efh      
,sophora1 #eee   ,sorrel-tree1 #ejg     
,soulard crab1 #ded   ,sour gum1 #ccg1  

#cci1 #ejg   ,sour gum bush1 #ejg       
,sour tupelo1 #cci   ,sourwood1 #ejg    
,southern basswood1 #fci   ,southern    
mountain pine1 #eb   ,southern red      
juniper1 #id   ,southern red oak1 #bfe  
,southern white cedar1 #ajc   ,southern 
yellow pine1 #dc   ,spanish bayonet1    
#fic   ,spanish dagger1 #fic   ,spanish 
moss1 #bef   ,spanish oak1 #bjj1 #bgg1  
#bhi   ,spanish red oak1 #bhi           
,sparkleberry1 #ejh   ,spice-tree1 #ebi 
,spoon-hutch1 #ejg   ,spoonwood1 #eje   
,springwood1 #g   ,spotted oak1 #bff1   
#bga1 #cbj   ,spruce1 #abg1 #afi        
,spruce pine1 #de1 #di1 #ea1 #eg1 #ahg  
,spruce-tree1 #ahg   ,stackpole pine1   
#aea   ,stagbush1 #fii   ,staghorn      
sumach1 #fig   ,star-leaved gum1 #cbe   
,stave oak1 #bje   ,stiffness of wood1  
#aa   ,sting-tongue1 #fii   ,stinking   
ash1 #dde   ,stinking buckeye1 #fea     
,stinking cedar1 #bja1 #bjb   ,stinking 
savin1 #bjb   ,strength of wood1 #aa    
,striped maple1 #ddg   ,stone-seed      
,mexican pinon1 #cc   ,stump tree1 #edg 

,sugar ash1 #dde   ,sugarberry1 #djc1   
#dje1 #djf   ,sugar maple1 #dbg   ,sugar
 pine1 #ai1 #ca   ,sugar-tree1 #dbg     
,sumach1 #fif   ,summer haw1 #deh       
,summerwood1 #g   ,sunflower-tree1 #gjj 
,sun-loving pine1 #gjd   ,sunny-slope   
pine1 #gjd   ,swamp ash1 #daf1 #dbb     
,swamp bay1 #eca   ,swamp cedar1 #ajc   
,swamp chestnut oak1 #bbi   ,swamp      
cottonwood1 #ffg1 #ffi   ,swamp hickory1
 #cfa1 #cge   ,swamp holly1 #fdf        
,swamp laurel1 #die   ,swamp magnolia1  
#die   ,swamp maple1 #dbi1 #dcc   ,swamp
 oak1 #bbe1 #bdi1 #cja   ,swamp poplar1 
#ffi   ,swamp sassafras1 #die   ,swamp  
,spanish oak1 #cja   ,swamp tupelo1 #ccg
   ,swamp white oak1 #bag1 #bbi         
,swampy chestnut oak1 #bda   ,sweet bay1
 #eca   ,sweet birch1 #efe1 #ehj        
,sweet crab1 #dec   ,sweet gum1 #cbe    
,sweet locust1 #eda   ,sweet magnolia1  
#dha1 #die   ,sweet scented crab1 #dec  
,switch-bud hickory1 #cfg   ,sycamore1  
#cig1 #fjg    ,table mountain pine1 #eb 
,tacamahac1 #fgc   ,tamarack1 #gi1 #hf  

,tanbark oak1 #bda1 #bga   ,tassajo1    
#fid   ,tear-blanket1 #fii   ,texan     
ebony1 #ech   ,texan red oak1 #bfe      
,texas ash1 #daa   ,texas buckeye1 #fdi 
,texas cottonwood1 #ffg1 #ffi   ,texas  
flowering willow1 #dgg   ,texas redbud1 
#edi   ,texas umbrella-tree1 #dfe       
,thick shellbark1 #cfi   ,thomas elm1   
#che   ,thorn apple1 #dei   ,thorn bush1
 #dei   ,thorn locust1 #eda   ,thorn    
plum1 #dei   ,thorn-tree1 #eda   ,thorny
 acacia1 #eda   ,thorny locust1 #eda    
,three-leaved maple1 #dde               
,three-thorned acacia1 #eda             
,thunderwood1 #fig   ,thurber cactus1   
#fid   ,tideland spruce1 #acc           
,tisswood1 #fjb   ,titi1 #ejb1 #ebf     
,toothache-tree1 #fii   ,torch pine1 #ee
   ,torchwood1 #fii   ,tornillo1 #efb   
,torrey pine1 #fd   ,tough bumelia1 #fif
   ,tourney oak1 #cae   ,trask mahogany1
 #dff   ,tree huckleberry1 #ejh   ,tree 
myrtle1 #fih   ,tree palmetto1 #fia     
,tree yucca1 #fic   ,trident oak1 #bib  
,tuck-tuck1 #aeg   ,tulip poplar1 #dhg  

,tulip-tree1 #dhg   ,tupelo1 #ccg       
,turkey oak1 #bhc1 #bhf    ,umbrella    
tree1 #dha1 #dhd1 #ebf   ,upland        
hickory1 #ceg   ,upland willow1 #bhe    
,utah juniper1 #gjf    ,valley mahogany1
 #dff   ,valley oak1 #bdi   ,valparaiso 
oak1 #cjh   ,vauquelinia1 #dff   ,vine  
maple1 #dda   ,virgilia1 #edg           
,virginia pine1 #ee   ,virginia thorn1  
#dfj    ,wadsworth oak1 #bbe   ,wafer   
ash1 #fii   ,wahoo1 #che1 #cii1 #dib1   
#dii1 #fii   ,wahoo elm1 #cii   ,walnut1
 #cdc   ,walnut-tree1 #cdc   ,washington
 haw1 #dfj   ,washington palm1 #fic     
,washington pine1 #aic   ,washington    
thorn1 #dfj   ,water ash1 #dbb1 #dbd1   
#dde   ,water beech1 #fjg   ,water      
birch1 #egg1 #ehj   ,water bitternut1   
#cge   ,water elm1 #chj   ,water        
hickory1 #cge   ,water maple1 #dbi1     
#dcc1 #dce   ,water oak1 #bie1 #cai1    
#cbj   ,water ,spanish oak1 #cja        
,water white oak1 #bag   ,weeping       
dogwood1 #ebf   ,weeping oak1 #bdi      
,weeping spruce1 #acf1 #aie   ,weeping  

willow1 #dgb   ,western birch1 #efe1    
#egi   ,western black willow1 #dif      
,western catalpa1 #dgf   ,western cedar1
 #aae1 #aah   ,western choke cherry1    
#faf   ,western dogwood1 #ebe   ,western
 hemlock1 #aic   ,western hemlock fir1  
#aic   ,western hemlock spruce1 #aic    
,western juniper1 #aah   ,western larch1
 #he   ,western plum1 #fba   ,western   
red cedar1 #aae1 #aah1 #gjf   ,western  
serviceberry1 #deb   ,western shellbark1
 #cfi   ,western spruce1 #acc   ,western
 sumach1 #fih   ,western walnut1 #cea   
,western white fir1 #afc   ,western     
white oak1 #bce   ,western white pine1  
#ai1 #be1 #gjc   ,western yellow pine1  
#fg   ,western yew1 #aii   ,west ,indian
 birch1 #fgf   ,west ,indian cherry1    
#fbj   ,weymouth pine1 #ai   ,whiskey   
cherry1 #fac   ,whistlewood1 #fcg       
,white alder1 #eia   ,white ,alaska     
birch1 #efe1 #egi   ,white ash1 #dji1   
#dbb1 #gjj   ,white balsam1 #aei1 #aff  
,white bark1 #cg   ,whitebark maple1    
#dcf   ,whitebark pine1 #ai1 #cg        

,white basswood1 #fci   ,white bay1 #die
   ,white birch1 #efe1 #egi1 #ehe       
,white buttonwood1 #fhh   ,white cedar1 
#ig1 #ajc1 #aji   ,white cottonwood1    
#fgj   ,white elm1 #cgi1 #che1 #cig     
,whiteheart hickory1 #cfc   ,white      
hickory1 #ceg1 #cfa1 #cfg   ,white fir1 
#aei1 #afc1 #aff   ,white ironwood1 #gjj
   ,white laurel1 #die   ,whiteleaf oak1
 #bgc   ,white locust1 #ece   ,white    
mangrove1 #fhh   ,white maple1 #dcc1    
#dci   ,white mulberry1 #ead   ,white   
oak1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bac1 #bbc1 #bce       
,white pine1 #ai1 #ea1 #gjc   ,white    
poplar1 #fge1 #fhb   ,white spruce1     
#acj1 #ace1 #acf   ,white stem pine1 #cg
   ,white thorn1 #dei   ,white titi1    
#ejb   ,white walnut1 #cee1 #ceg        
,white willow1 #dgb   ,whitewood1 #dhg1 
#ffg1 #gja   ,wickup1 #fcg   ,wild      
apple1 #ded   ,wild black cherry1 #fac  
,wild cherry1 #fac1 #fai   ,wild ,china1
 #dfe   ,wild cinnamon1 #gja   ,wild    
crab1 #dec   ,wild date1 #fic   ,wild   
lilac1 #fih   ,wild lime1 #fii   ,wild  

olive-tree1 #ccg1 #fja   ,wild orange1  
#fbj   ,wild peach1 #fbj   ,wild plum1  
#fba   ,wild red cherry1 #fai   ,wild   
rose bay1 #ejg   ,wild sapodilla1 #fif  
,wild tamarind1 #efh   ,wild thorn1 #dei
   ,williamson's spruce1 #aie   ,willow1
 #dfi   ,willow-leaf cherry1 #fbj       
,willow oak1 #bgi1 #bie   ,wing elm1    
#cii   ,witch elm1 #cii   ,witch hazel1 
#cbh   ,wood laurel1 #eje   ,woolly oak1
 #cae    ,yaupon1 #fde   ,yaupon holly1 
#fde   ,yellow ash1 #eec   ,yellow bark 
oak1 #bga   ,yellow basswood1 #fcg      
,yellow birch1 #efe1 #ega   ,yellow     
buckeye1 #fdi   ,yellow buckthorn1 #fih 
,yellow-butt oak1 #bga   ,yellow cedar1 
#aah1 #aba   ,yellow chestnut oak1 #bdg 
,yellow cottonwood1 #ffg   ,yellow      
cypress1 #aba   ,yellow fir1 #afc1 #afi 
,yellow-leaf willow1 #dga               
,yellow-flowered cucumber tree1 #dhd    
,yellow locust1 #ece1 #eec   ,yellow    
oak1 #bdg1 #bga   ,yellow pine1 #dc1 #fc
   ,yellow plum1 #fba   ,yellow poplar1 
#dha1 #dhg   ,yellow spruce1 #abg       

,yellow-wood1 #eaa1 #eec1 #fih1 #fii    
,yew1 #aii1 #bja   ,yucca1 #fic         
,,index ,,to ,,latin ,,names     ,abies 
amabilis1 #afe   ,abies arizonica1 #aed 
,abies balsamea1 #ade   ,abies concolor1
 #aei   ,abies fraseri1 #aea   ,abies   
grandis1 #afc   ,abies lasiocarpa1 #aff 
,abies magnifica1 #afd   ,abies nobilis1
 #gi1 #aeg   ,abies shastensis1 #afe    
,abies venusta1 #aga   ,acacia          
farnesiana1 #edc   ,acacia greggii1 #edd
   ,acacia wrightii1 #edd   ,acer       
circinatum1 #dda   ,acer floridanum1    
#dce   ,acer glabrum1 #ddb1 #ddf   ,acer
 leucoderme1 #dcf   ,acer macrophyllum1 
#dci   ,acer negundo1 #dde   ,acer      
negundo californicum1 #ddg   ,acer      
nigrum1 #ddg   ,acer pennsylvanicum1    
#ddg   ,acer rubrum1 #dcc   ,acer rubrum
 drummondii1 #dcf   ,acer saccharinum1  
#dbi   ,acer saccharum1 #dbg   ,acer    
spicatum1 #dce   sculus austrina1 #feb  
sculus californica1 #fea   sculus       
glabra1 #fea   sculus octandra1 #fdi    
sculus octandra hybrida1 #feb           

,ailanthus glandulosa1 #fgf   ,alnus    
acuminata1#eib   ,alnus glutinosa1 #eib 
,alnus maritima1 #eib   ,alnus oregona1 
#ehi   ,alnus rhombifolia1 #eia   ,alnus
 rugosa1 #eib   ,alnus sitchensis1 #eib 
,alnus tenuifolia1 #eif   ,amelanchier  
alnifolia1 #deb   ,amelanchier          
canadensis1 #dea   ,amelanchier         
obovalis1 #deb   ,amyris maritima1 #fii 
,andromeda ferruginea1 #ebf   ,annona   
glabra1 #fdj   ,aralia spinosa1 #fge    
,arbutus arizonica1 #ffc   ,arbutus     
menziesii1 #ffa   ,arbutus xalapensis1  
#ffc   ,arctostaphylos manzanita1 #ffc  
,asimina triloba1 #fdj   ,avicennia     
nitida1 #fhh    ,betula alaskana1 #egi  
,betula crulea1 #efe1 #ehe   ,betula    
fontinalis1 #efe1 #ehj   ,betula        
kenaica1 #efe1 #ehe   ,betula lenta1    
#efe   ,betula lutea1 #efe1 #ega        
,betula nigra1 #efe1 #egg   ,betula     
occidentalis1 #efe1 #egi   ,betula      
papyrifera1 #efe1 #ehc   ,betula        
pendula1 #ehf   ,betula populifolia1    
#efe1 #ehe   ,broussonetia papyrifera1  

#ead   ,bumelia angustifolia1 #fif      
,bumelia lanuginosa1 #fif   ,bumelia    
lycioides1 #fif   ,bumelia tenax1 #fif  
,bursera simaruba1 #fgg    ,camcyparis  
lawsoniana1 #abc   ,camcyparis          
nootkatensis1 #aba   ,camcyparis        
thyoides1 #ajc   ,canella winterana1    
#gja   ,canotia holacantha1 #fii        
,carpinus caroliniana1 #fbg   ,castanea 
dentata1 #fca   ,castanea pumila1 #fcd  
,castanopsis chrysophylla1 #fcc         
,catalpa catalpa1 #dge1 #dgg   ,catalpa 
speciosa1 #dge   ,celastrace1 #dii      
,celtis mississippiensis1 #djc1 #dje    
,celtis occidentalis1 #djc   ,celtis    
reticulata1 #djf   ,cercidium floridum1 
#eee   ,cercidium torreyanum1 #eef      
,cercis canadensis1 #edh   ,cercis      
occidentalis1 #edi   ,cercis reniformis1
 #edi   ,cercocarpus ledifolius1 #dff   
,cercocarpus parvifolius1 #dff          
,cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus1   
#dff   ,cercocarpus traski1 #dff        
,cereus giganteus1 #fic   ,cereus       
schottii1 #fid   ,cereus thurberi1 #fid 

,chilopsis linearis1 #dgg   ,chionanthus
 virginica1 #gjj   ,chrysobalanus icaco1
 #fbb   ,chrysophyllum monopyrenum1 #fif
   ,cladrastis lutea1 #eec   ,cleanothus
 arboreus1 #fih   ,cleanothus           
thyrsiflorus1 #fih   ,cliftonia         
monophylla1 #ejb   ,colubrina reclinata1
 #fih   ,condalia obovata1 #gjj         
,conocarpus erecta1 #fhh   ,cornus      
alternifolia1 #ebf   ,cornus florida1   
#ebc   ,cornus florida pendula1 #ebf    
,cornus florida rubra1 #ebf   ,cornus   
nuttallii1 #ebe   ,cotinus cotinoides1  
#fig   ,cratgus1 #deg   ,cratgus        
stivalis1 #deh   ,cratgus brachyacantha1
 #dei   ,cratgus coccinea1 #deg         
,cratgus cordata1 #dfj   ,cratgus       
crus-galli1 #dei   ,cratgus douglasii1  
#dfj   ,cratgus oxyacantha1 #dfj        
,cratgus tomentosa1 #dei   ,cupressus   
arizonica1 #aci1 #adb   ,cupressus      
glabra1 #aci1 #adb   ,cupressus         
goveniana1 #aci1 #ahd   ,cupressus      
macnabiana1 #aci1 #agh   ,cupressus     
macrocarpa1 #aci1 #ada   ,cupressus     

pygma1 #aci1 #ahd   ,cyrilla            
racemiflora1 #eja    ,dalea spinosa1    
#eef   ,dendropogon usenoides1 #bef     
,diospyros texana1 #ebj   ,diospyros    
virginiana1 #eag   ,dipholis            
salicifolia1 #fif    ,evonymus          
atropurpureus1 #dii   ,exothea          
paniculata1 #gjj   ,eysenhardtia        
orthocarpa1 #eef    ,fagus atropunicea1 
#fbe   ,fraxinus americana1 #dji        
,fraxinus anomala1 #dab   ,fraxinus     
berlandieriana1 #dah   ,fraxinus        
biltmoreana1 #dbd   ,fraxinus           
caroliniana1 #dbd   ,fraxinus cuspidata1
 #dab   ,fraxinus floridana1 #dbd       
,fraxinus greggii1 #daa   ,fraxinus     
lanceolata1 #dbb   ,fraxinus nigra1 #dae
   ,fraxinus oregona1 #dba   ,fraxinus  
pennsylvanica1 #dbc   ,fraxinus         
profunda1 #dbc   ,fraxinus              
quadrangulata1 #dag   ,fraxinus         
texensis1 #daa   ,fraxinus velutina1    
#dah   ,fremontodendron californicum1   
#djj    ,gaultheria procumbens1 #eff    
,gleditsia aquatica1 #edc   ,gleditsia  

texana1 #edc   ,gleditsia triacanthos1  
#eda   ,guajacum sanctum1 #fih          
,gyminda grisebachii1 #dij   ,gymnanthes
 lucida1 #gja   ,gymnocladus dioicus1   
#edg    ,hamamelis virginiana1 #cbh     
,helietta parvifolia1 #fii              
,heteromeles arbutifolia1 #fde          
,hicoria alba1 #cef1 #cfc1 #cfd         
,hicoria aquatica1 #cge   ,hicoria      
carolin-septentrionalis1 #cgf   ,hicoria
 glabra1 #cef1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cfg         
,hicoria laciniosa1 #cfi   ,hicoria     
minima1 #cfa1 #cfd   ,hicoria           
myristicformis1 #cgd   ,hicoria odorata1
 #cdf   ,hicoria ovata1 #cee1 #cef      
,hicoria texana1 #cge   ,hicoria        
villosa1 #cde   ,hippomane mancinella1  
#gja   ,hypelate trifoliata1 #gjj       
,icacorea paniculata1 #gja              
,ichthyomethia piscipula1 #eej   ,ilex  
cassine1 #fde   ,ilex cassine           
angustifolia1 #fde   ,ilex decidua1 #fdf
   ,ilex monticola1 #fde   ,ilex        
myrtifolia1 #fde   ,ilex opaca1 #fdc    
,ilex vomitoria1 #fde    ,jaquinia      

armillaris1 #gja   ,juglans californica1
 #cea   ,juglans cinerea1 #cei          
,juglans nigra1 #bdc   ,juglans         
rupestris1 #cea   ,juniperus            
barbadensis1 #id   ,juniperus           
californica1 #aab   ,juniperus communis1
 #gje   ,juniperus flaccida1 #gje       
,juniperus monosperma1 #ii   ,juniperus 
occidentalis1 #aah   ,juniperus         
pachyphla1 #aaa   ,juniperus sabinoides1
 #ii   ,juniperus scopulorum1 #abd      
,juniperus utahensis1 #gjf   ,juniperus 
virginiana1 #ia    ,kalmia latifolia1   
#eje1 #fee   ,khaya senegalensis1 #dfc  
,kberlinia spinosa1 #fie                
,laguncularia racemosa1 #fhh   ,larix   
americana1 #hj   ,larix laricina1 #gi   
,larix lyallii1 #hh   ,larix            
occidentalis1 #he   ,leitneria          
floridana1 #dbc   ,leucna glauca1 #efb  
,leucna pulverulenta1 #efb   ,libocedrus
 decurrens1 #aji   ,liquidambar         
styraciflua1 #cbe   ,liriodendron       
tulipifera1 #dha   ,lysiloma            
latisiliqua1 #efh    ,magnolia          

acuminata1 #dha   ,magnolia acuminata   
cordata1 #dhd   ,magnolia ftida1 #dha1  
#dic   ,magnolia fraseri1 #dha          
,magnolia glauca1 #dha1 #die   ,magnolia
 macrophylla1 #dha1 #dhc   ,magnolia    
pyramidata1 #dha1 #dif   ,magnolia      
tripetala1 #dha1 #dhd   ,malus          
angustifolia1 #dec   ,malus coronaria1  
#dec   ,malus ioensis1 #ded   ,malus    
malus1 #ded   ,malus rivularis1 #ded    
,malus soulardi1 #ded   ,meliace1 #dfc  
,melia azedarach1 #dfd   ,melia         
azedarach umbraculifera1 #afe           
,mimusops sieberi1 #fif   ,mohrodendron 
carolinum1 #fja   ,mohrodendron         
dipterum1 #fja   ,morus alba1 #ead      
,morus celtidifolia1 #ead   ,morus      
rubra1 #eac    ,neowashingtonia         
filamentosa1 #fic   ,nyssa aquatica1    
#ccg   ,nyssa biflora1 #cdj   ,nyssa    
ogeche1 #ccg1 #cci   ,nyssa sylvatica1  
#ccg    ,ocotea catesbyana1 #feg        
,olneya tesota1 #efh   ,opuntia fulgida1
 #fid   ,opuntia sponsior1 #fid         
,opuntia versicolor1 #fid   ,oreodoxa   

regia1 #fib   ,osmanthus americanus1    
#gjj   ,ostrya knowltoni1 #eih   ,ostrya
 virginiana1 #eie   ,oxydendrum         
arboreum1 #ejg    ,persea borbonia1 #eca
   ,persea pubescens1 #ecb   ,picea     
breweriana1 #acf   ,picea canadensis1   
#acj   ,picea engelmanni1 #ace   ,picea 
mariana1 #abi   ,picea parryana1 #acf   
,picea rubens1 #abg   ,picea sitchensis1
 #acc   ,pinus albicaulis1 #ai1 #cg     
,pinus aristata1 #ai1 #ch1 #dc   ,pinus 
arizonica1 #dc1 #gje   ,pinus attenuata1
 #gjd   ,pinus balfouriana1 #ai1 #ch    
,pinus cembroides1 #ai1 #cc   ,pinus    
chihuahuana1 #dc1 #gf   ,pinus clausa1  
#dc1 #df   ,pinus contorta1 #dc1 #gc    
,pinus coulteri1 #dc1 #fh   ,pinus      
divaricata1 #dc1 #fi   ,pinus echinata1 
#dc1 #di   ,pinus edulis1 #ai1 #bh      
,pinus flexilis1 #ai1 #gjc   ,pinus     
glabra1 #dc1 #ea   ,pinus heterophylla1 
#dc1 #de   ,pinus jeffreyi1 #ge   ,pinus
 lambertiana1 #ai1 #be1 #ca   ,pinus    
monophylla1 #ai1 #gja   ,pinus          
monticola1 #ai1 #be   ,pinus muricata1  

#dc1 #fi   ,pinus palustris1 #dc        
,pinus ponderosa1 #dc1 #fg   ,pinus     
pungens1 #dc1 #eb   ,pinus quadrifolia1 
#ai1 #gjd   ,pinus radiata1 #dc1 #fi    
,pinus resinosa1 #dc1 #fa   ,pinus      
rigida1 #dc1 #fc   ,pinus sabiniana1    
#dc1 #ge   ,pinus serotina1 #dc1 #eg    
,pinus strobiformis1 #ai1 #bg   ,pinus  
strobus1 #ai1 #be   ,pinus tda1 #dc1 #ee
   ,pinus torreyana1 #dc1 #fd   ,pinus  
virginiana1 #dc1 #eg   ,planera         
aquatica1 #cig   ,platanus occidentalis1
 #fjg   ,platanus racemosa1 #fji        
,platanus wrightii1 #faj   ,populus     
acuminata1 #ffg1 #fgj   ,populus alba1  
#fhb   ,populus angustifolia1 #ffg1 #ffi
   ,populus balsamifera1 #ffg1 #fgc     
,populus balsamifera candicans1 #fgc    
,populus deltoides1 #ffg   ,populus     
fremontii1 #ffg1 #fgj   ,populus        
grandidentata1 #ffg1 #fge   ,populus    
heterophylla1 #ffg1 #ffi   ,populus     
mexicana1 #ffg1 #ffi   ,populus nigra1  
#fha   ,populus nigra italica1 #fhb     
,populus tremuloides1 #ffg1 #fgf        

,populus trichocarpa1 #ffg1 #ffi        
,populus wislizeni1 #ffg1 #ffi          
,parkinsonia aculeata1 #edi             
,parkinsonia microphylla1 #edi          
,prosopis juliflora1 #eei   ,prosopis   
juliflora glandulosa1 #efb   ,prosopis  
juliflora velutina1 #efb   ,prosopis    
odorata1 #efb   ,prunus allegheniensis1 
#fbb   ,prunus americana1 #fba   ,prunus
 angustifolia1 #fbb   ,prunus           
caroliniana1 #fbj   ,prunus demissa1    
#faf   ,prunus emarginata1 #faf         
,prunus hortulana1 #fbb   ,prunus       
ilicifolia1 #faf   ,prunus nigra1 #fba  
,prunus pennsylvanica1 #fai   ,prunus   
salicifolia1 #fbj   ,prunus serotina1   
#fac   ,prunus sphrocarpa1 #fbj         
,prunus subcordata1 #fba   ,prunus      
umbellata1 #fba   ,prunus virginiana1   
#fae   ,pseudophnix sargentii1 #fib     
,pseudotsuga macrocarpa1 #agb           
,pseudotsuga taxifolia1 #afi   ,ptelea  
trifoliata1 #fii   ,pyrus americana1    
#ded   ,pyrus microcarpa1 #ded          
,quercus acuminata1 #bdg   ,quercus     

agrifolia1 #cjg   ,quercus alba1 #bje   
,quercus alvordiana1 #bbj   ,quercus    
arizonica1 #bje1 #bah   ,quercus        
brevifolia1 #bhe   ,quercus breviloba1  
#bjh   ,quercus breweri1 #bje1 #bbj     
,quercus californica1 #bhe   ,quercus   
catesbi1 #bei1 #bhc   ,quercus chapmani1
 #bjh   ,quercus chrysolepis1 #cjh      
,quercus chrysolepis palmeri1 #cja      
,quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia1 #cji 
,quercus coccinea1 #bgg   ,quercus      
densiflora1 #cac   ,quercus digitata1   
#bei1 #bhi   ,quercus douglasii1 #bac   
,quercus dumosa1 #bje1 #bcg   ,quercus  
emoryi1 #bje1 #bch   ,quercus           
engelmanni1 #bje1 #bca   ,quercus       
gambelii1 #bje1 #bad   ,quercus         
garryana1 #bje1 #bce   ,quercus         
georgiana1 #bei1 #bfg   ,quercus        
heterophylla1 #cbb   ,quercus hypoleuca1
 #bei1 #bgc   ,quercus imbricaria1 #bei1
 #cai   ,quercus laurifolia1 #bei1 #cai 
,quercus leana1 #bib   ,quercus lobata1 
#bje1 #bdi   ,quercus lyrata1 #bje1 #bag
   ,quercus macrocarpa1 #bje1 #baa      

,quercus marilandica1 #bei1 #bia        
,quercus michauxii1 #bje1 #bbi          
,quercus minor1 #bbc1 #bda   ,quercus   
morehus1 #bei1 #big   ,quercus          
myrtifolia1 #bei1 #big   ,quercus nigra1
 #bei1 #cbj   ,quercus oblongifolia1    
#bje1 #bbf   ,quercus palustris1 #bei1  
#cja   ,quercus phellos1 #bei1 #bgi     
,quercus platanoides1 #bje1 #bbe        
,quercus pricei1 #bei1 #cae   ,quercus  
prinoides1 #bje   ,quercus prinus1 #bje1
 #bda   ,quercus pumila1 #bei1 #cae     
,quercus reticulata1 #bje1 #bai         
,quercus rubra1 #bei   ,quercus sadleri1
 #bje1 #bbj   ,quercus texana1 #bei1    
#bfe   ,quercus tomentella1 #cae        
,quercus toumeyi1 #bje1 #cae   ,quercus 
tridentata1 #bib   ,quercus undulata1   
#bje1 #bai   ,quercus velutina1 #bei1   
#bga   ,quercus virginiana1 #bje1 #bec  
,quercus wislizeni1 #bei1 #bif          
,reynosia latifolia1 #gjj   ,rhamnidium 
ferreum1 #gjj   ,rhamnus caroliniana1   
#fih   ,rhamnus crocea1 #fih   ,rhamnus 
purshiana1 #fih   ,rhizophora mangle1   

#fhe   ,rhododendron catawbiense1 #ejg  
,rhododendron maximum1 #ejf   ,rhus     
copallina1 #fif   ,rhus hirta1 #fig     
,rhus integrifolia1 #fih   ,rhus        
metopium1 #fig   ,rhus vernix1 #fig     
,robinia neo-mexicana1 #ecg   ,robinia  
pseudacacia1 #ece   ,robinia viscosa1   
#ecg    ,sabal mexicana1 #fib   ,sabal  
palmetto1 #fia   ,salix alba1 #dgb      
,salix amplifolia1 #dgb   ,salix        
amygdaloides1 #dga   ,salix babylonica1 
#dgb   ,salix bebbiana1 #dga   ,salix   
cordata mackenzieana1 #dgb   ,salix     
discolor1 #dgb   ,salix fluviatilis1    
#dif   ,salix hookeriana1 #dgb   ,salix 
lvigata1 #dga   ,salix lasiandra1 #dif  
,salix lasiandra lyalli1 #dif   ,salix  
lasiolepis1 #dgb   ,salix longipes1 #dga
   ,salix lucida1 #dif   ,salix         
missouriensis1 #dgb   ,salix nigra1 #dif
   ,salix nuttallii1 #dgb   ,salix      
sessilifolia1 #dga   ,salix sitchensis1 
#dgb   ,salix taxifolia1 #dga           
,sambucus callicarpa1 #gjj   ,sambucus  
glauca1 #gjj   ,sambucus mexicana1 #gjj 

,sapindus drummondi1 #dfe   ,sapindus   
marginatus1 #dfe   ,sapindus saponaria1 
#dfe   ,sassafras sassafras1 #fee       
,schfferia frutescens1 #eja   ,sequoia  
sempervirens1 #aha   ,sequoia           
washingtoniana1 #age   ,sideroxylon     
mastichodendron1 #fib   ,simarouba      
glauca1 #fgf   ,sophora affinis1 #eee   
,sophora secundiflora1 #eed   ,swietenia
 mahagoni1 #dfc    ,taxodium distichum1 
#aci   ,taxodium imbricarium1 #aci1 #ada
   ,taxus brevifolia1 #aii   ,taxus     
floridana1 #bja   ,terminalia buceras1  
#fhh   ,thrinax microcarpa1 #fib        
,thrinax parviflora1 #fib   ,thuja      
occidentalis1 #ig   ,thuja plicata1 #aae
   ,tilia americana1 #fcg   ,tilia      
australis1 #fci   ,tilia floridana1 #fci
   ,tilia heterophylla1 #fcg1 #fci      
,tilia michauxii1 #fci   ,tilia         
pubescens1 #fci   ,toxylon pomiferum1   
#eaa   ,tsuga canadensis1 #ahg   ,tsuga 
caroliniana1 #ahg1 #gjc   ,tsuga        
heterophylla1 #ahg1 #aic   ,tsuga       
mertensiana1 #ahg1 #aie   ,tumion       

californicum1 #bja   ,tumion taxifolium1
 #bjb    ,ulmus alata1 #cgi1 #cii       
,ulmus americana1 #cgi   ,ulmus         
crassifolia1 #cgi1 #cib   ,ulmus        
pubescens1 #cgi1 #cia   ,ulmus racemosa1
 #cgi1 #che   ,ulmus serotina1 #cgi1    
#cic   ,umbellularia californica1 #ebi1 
#fee    ,vaccinium arboreum1 #ejh       
,vauquelinia californica1 #dff          
,viburnum lentago1 #gjj   ,viburnum     
prunifolium1 #fii   ,viburnum           
rufotomentosum1 #gjj    ,xanthoxylum    
clava-herculis1 #fii   ,xanthoxylum     
cribrosum1 #fii   ,xanthoxylum fagara1  
#fii    ,yucca aloifolia1 #fic   ,yucca 
arborescens1 #fic   ,yucca brevifolia1  
#fic   ,yucca gloriosa1 #fic   ,yucca   
macrocarpa1 #fic   ,yucca mohavensis1   
#fic   ,yucca treculeana1 #fic    ,zygia
 brevifolia1 #ech   ,zygia flexicaulis1 
#ech   ,zygia unguis-cati1 #ech         
99      99      99      99      99      
99     ,transcriber's note3  ,this text 
follows the text of the original        
publication2 inconsistent hyphenation1  

spacing1 capitalisation1 punctuation    
etc4 have been retained except as       
mentioned below4  ,non-,english words   
have not been corrected1 except as      
mentioned below4  ,some entries in the  
indexes have been moved to their proper 
alphabetical order4  ,remarks on the    
text3  ,page #aaa1 ,juniperus           
pachyphla_/pachyphla3 both spellings    
seem to be used1 the original gives     
pachyphla2 this has been retained4      
,page #ahg3 444 in ,england it is called
 444 should possibly read 444 in ,new   
,england it is called 4444  ,page #dbc3 
,new ,madrid country3 should possibly   
read ,new ,madrid ,county4  ,page #dcc3 
444 and the random of their flight 4443 
probably there is a word missing from   
this sentence4  ,page #fbg3 444 and more
 than that much more by manufacturers of
 444 should possibly read 444 and much  
more than that by manufacturers of 4444 
,changes made3  ,the pages with         
photographs of the ,tamarack and the    
,western ,larch have been interchanged4 

,some obvious punctuation errors and    
missing punctuation have been corrected 
silently4  ,page #g3 ,spring and        
summerwood changed to ,spring- and      
summerwood  ,page #ac3 possess then     
changed to possess them  ,page #cb3     
wastful changed to wasteful  ,page #fc3 
,norway pine has past changed to ,norway
 pine has passed  ,page #ia3 oldfield   
changed to old-field  ,page #ajd3       
,gottleib ,mittelberger changed to      
,gottlieb ,mittelberger  ,page #aje3    
stagnant logoons changed to stagnant    
lagoons  ,page #aaa3 separating into    
forkes changed to separating into forks 
,page #aah3 juniper1 cedar changed to   
juniper cedar  ,page #abd3 interoir     
changed to interior  ,page #abh3 careful
 culling changed to careful cutting     
,page #acj3 ,eruope changed to ,europe  
,page #aci3 pygmaea changed to pygma as 
elsewhere2 ninty-nine changed to        
ninety-nine  ,page #adf3 are quit       
distinct changed to are quite distinct  
,page #aga3 ,cupressus macrocorpa       

changed to ,cupressus macrocarpa  ,page 
#ahh3 which carriers on changed to which
 carries on  ,page #bdh3 ,guadaloupe    
river changed to ,guadalupe river  ,page
 #bee3 lignum-vitae changed to          
lignum-vit  ,page #bgc3 sappling changed
 to sapling  ,page #bhi3 anyone changed 
to any one  ,page #cja3 pubescense      
changed to pubescence  ,page #cbe3      
liquid-amber1 gum changed to            
liquid-amber gum  ,page #cfc3 hogshead  
changed to hogsheads  ,page #cfd3       
ferquently changed to frequently2       
,sargents' changed to ,sargent's  ,page 
#che3 the woods toughness changed to the
 wood's toughness  ,page #cii3          
,vriginians changed to ,virginians      
,page #djc3 new ,jersey name changed to 
,new ,jersey name  ,page #djd3 doubltess
 changed to doubtless  ,page #daj3      
traveller changed to traveler as        
elsewhere  ,page #dab3 drawing rotated  
#ij  ,page #dae3 in other woods changed 
to in other words  ,page #dbb3 concensus
 changed to consensus  ,page #dbi3      

sinuouses changed to sinuses2 unkept1   
neglected appearance changed to unkempt1
 neglected appearance  ,page #dcc3 ,new 
,york ,indianas changed to ,new ,york   
,indians  ,page #dcf3 drawing rotated   
#ij  ,page #dfc3 ,swientenia changed to 
,swietenia  ,page #dfe3 ,soapbeery      
changed to ,soapberry  ,page #dge3 ,abbe
 ,bignon changed to ,abb ,bignon  ,page 
#ejb3 ,domenico ,civillo changed to     
,domenoci ,cirillo  ,page #eah3 specie  
changed to species  ,page #ebi3 pugent  
changed to pungent  ,page #ecg3 as for  
north changed to as far north  ,page    
#edd3 clowded changed to clouded  ,page 
#eee3 mammels changed to mammals  ,page 
#eff3 ,gualtheria procumbens changed to 
,gaultheria procumbens  ,page #egc3     
manufactures changed to manufacturers   
,page #ehj3 ,betula fontanalis changed  
to ,betula fontinalis  ,page #ehi3      
raddish changed to radish  ,page #eib3  
aborescent changed to arborescent  ,page
 #eie3 ,trintiy river changed to        
,trinity river  ,page #fai3 it a        

prolific seeder changed to it is a      
prolific seeder  ,page #fbb3 ,chikasaw  
,plum changed to ,chickasaw ,plum  ,page
 #fcc3 course-grained changed to        
coarse-grained  ,page #fef3 losses its  
name changed to loses its name  ,page   
#fge3 ,simaruba glauca changed to       
,simarouba glauca  ,page #fic3 ,mahave  
desert changed to ,mohave desert  ,page 
#fid3 opunitas changed to opuntias4  ,in
 the indexes the folowing changes have  
been made so that the indexes use the   
same spelling as the text3  ,page i3    
,alligator-wood to ,alligator wood1     
,bay-tree to ,bay tree  ,page ii3       
,california bay-tree to ,california bay 
tree1 ,calico-bush to ,calico bush      
,page iii3 ,cucumber-tree to ,cucumber  
tree  ,page iv3 ,glaucus willow to      
,glaucous willow1 ,holly-leaf cherry to 
,hollyleaf cherry1 ,forked-leaf         
blackjack to ,forked-leaf black jack    
,page v3 ,juneberry to ,june berry1     
,kingtree to ,kingstree1 ,longchat to   
,longschat1 ,judas-tree to ,judas tree1 

,juniper-tree to ,juniper tree1         
,liquidamber to ,liquid-amber  ,page vi3
 ,oldfield to ,old-field 7#bx71         
,nakedwood to ,naked-wood1 ,osage       
appletree to ,osage apple tree  ,page   
vii3 ,scalybark hickory to ,scaly bark  
hickory1 ,single-leaf pinon to          
,signleleaf pinon1 ,smooth-leaf willow  
to ,smoothleaf willow  ,page ix3 ,wild  
china to ,wild ,china  ,page x3         
cucumber-tree to cucumber tree  ,page   
xi3 ,andromida ferruginea to ,andromeda 
ferruginea1 ,cledrastris lutea to       
,cladrastris lutea1 ,columbrina         
reclinata to ,colubrina reclinata1      
,candalia obovata to ,condalia obovata1 
,canotia holocantha to ,canotia         
holacantha1 ,acer leucoderma to ,acer   
leucoderme1 ,bumelia lycoides to        
,bumelia lycioides1 ,alnus tennuifolia  
to ,alnus tenuifolia  ,page xii3        
,juglans cinera to ,juglans cinerea1    
,delea spinosa to ,dalea spinosa1       
,cratgus oxacantha to ,cratgus          
oxyacantha  ,page xiii3 ,pinus jefferi  

to ,pinus jeffreyi1 ,neowashingtoniana  
filamentosa to ,neowashingtonia         
filamentosa1 ,oxydendron arboreum to    
,oxydendrum arboreum  ,page xiv3 ,tilia 
amerciana to ,tilia americana1 ,robinia 
neomexicana to ,robinia neo-mexicana1   
,salix sessifolia to ,salix             
sessilifolia4