,,windows a book about ,,stained ,,painted ,,glass by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day author of ,nature in ,ornament other ,text-books of ,design4 #ahig ,,london ,b,t,,batsford #id ,high ,holborn1 ,w4,c4 ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,,ld41 ,,printers1 ,,london ,,and ,,tonbridge4 ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,know ,,nothing ,,of ,,stained ,,glass2 ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,know ,,something1 ,,and ,,want ,,to ,,know ,,more2 ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,know ,,all ,,about ,,it1 ,,and ,,yet ,,care ,,to ,,know ,,what ,,another ,,may ,,have ,,to ,,say ,,upon ,,the ,,subject2--,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,book4 ,,preface4 ,a stained glass window is itself the best possible illustration of the difference it makes whether we look at a thing from this side or from that4 ,goethe used this particular image in one of his little parables1 comparing poems to painted windows1 dark and dull from the market-place1 bright with colour and alive with meaning only when we have crossed the threshold of the church4 ,i may claim to have entered the sanctuary1 and not irreverently4 ,my earliest training in design was in the workshops of artists in stained glass4 ,for many years ,i worked exclusively at glass design1 and for over a quarter of a century ,i have spent great part of my leisure in hunting glass all ,europe over4 ,this book has grown out of my experience4 ,it makes no claim to learnedness4 ,it tells only what the windows have told me1 or what ,i understood them to say4 ,i have gone to glass to get pleasure out of it1 to learn something from it1 to find out the way it was done1 and why it was done so1 and what might yet perhaps be done4 ,anything apart from that did not so much interest me4 ,those1 therefore1 who desire minuter and more precise historic information must consult the works of ,winston1 ,mr4 ,westlake1 and the many continental authorities1 with whose learned writings this more practical1 and1 in a sense1 popular1 volume does not enter into any sort of competition4 ,my point of view is that of art and workmanship1 or1 more precisely speaking1 workmanship and art1 workmanship being naturally the beginning and root of art4 ,we are workmen first and artists afterwards--perhaps4 ,what ,i have tried to do is this3 ,in the first place 7,book ,i471 ,i set out to trace the course of workmanship1 to follow the technique of the workman from the twelfth century to the seventeenth1 from mosaic to painting1 from archaism to pictorial accomplishment2 and to indicate at what cost of perhaps more decorative qualities the later masterpieces of glass painting were bought4 ,in the second place 7,book ,,ii471 ,i have endeavoured to show the course of design in glass1 from the earliest ,medival window to the latest glass picture of the ,renaissance4 ,finally 7,book ,,iii471 ,i have set apart for separate discussion questions not in the direct line either of design or workmanship1 or which1 if taken by the way1 would have hindered the narrative and confused the issue4 ,the rather lengthy chapter on ,style is addressed to that large number of persons who1 knowing as yet nothing about the subject1 may want data by which to form some idea as to the period of a window when they see it3 the postscript more nearly concerns the designer and the worker in glass4 ,in all this ,i have tried to put personality as much as possible aside1 and to tell my story faithfully and without conscious bias4 ,but ,i make no claim to impartiality1 as the judge upon the bench understands it4 ,we take up art or law according to our temperament4 ,i can pretend to judge only as one interested1 to be impartial only as an artist may4 ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day4 #ac1 ,,mecklenburgh ,,square1 ,,london4 ,january #bith1 #ahig4 ,,note ,,in ,,reference ,,to ,,illustrations4 ,theoretically the illustrations to a book about windows should be in colour4 ,practically coloured illustrations of stained glass are out of the question1 as all who appreciate its quality well know4 ,it may be possible1 although it has hardly proved so as yet1 to print adequate representations of coloured windows1 but only at a cost which would defeat the end here in view4 ,the ,,effect of glass is best suggested by process renderings of photographs from actual windows or from very careful water-colour drawings1 such as those very kindly placed at my disposal by ,mr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,rooke 7pages #abh1 #aei1 #ccg7 and ,mr4 ,john ,r4 ,clayton 7pages #ea1 #gd1 #ih1 #ahf1 #bjg1 #beb1 #bhf1 #cjd1 #cdb71 an artist whose studio has been the nursery of a whole generation of glass designers4 ,details of ,,design are often better seen in the reproductions of tracings or slight pen-drawings1 little more than diagrams it may be1 but done to illustrate a point4 ,that is the intention throughout1 to illustrate what is said1 not simply to beautify the book4 ,the direction of the pen-lines gives1 wherever it was possible1 a key to the colour scheme4 ,red1 that is to say1 is represented by vertical lines1 blue by horizontal1 yellow by dots1 and so on1 according to heraldic custom4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,craftsmanship4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,glass #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,window #e ,,iii4 ,,glazing #ae ,,iv4 ,,early ,,mosaic ,,windows #cb ,v4 ,,painted ,,mosaic #dc ,,vi4 ,,glass ,,painting 7,,medi,,val7 #ei ,,vii4 ,,glass ,,painting 7,,renaissance7 #fg ,,viii4 ,,enamel ,,painting #gg ,,ix4 ,,the ,,needle-,,point ,,in ,,glass ,,painting #hg ,x4 ,,the ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,glass ,,worker 7,a ,,recapitulation7 #ie ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,design4 ,,xi4 ,,the ,,design ,,of ,,early ,,glass #aaa ,,xii4 ,,medallion ,,windows #abc ,,xiii4 ,,early ,,grisaille #acg ,,xiv4 ,,windows ,,of ,,many ,,lights #aea ,,xv4 ,,middle ,,gothic ,,detail #afb ,,xvi4 ,,late ,,gothic ,,windows #agh ,,xvii4 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,windows #bja ,,xviii4 ,,later ,,renaissance ,,windows #bbj ,,xix4 ,,picture ,,windows #bcf ,,xx4 ,,landscape ,,in ,,glass #bea ,,xxi4 ,,italian ,,glass #bfj ,,xxii4 ,,tracery ,,lights ,,and ,,rose ,,windows #bgb ,,xxiii4 ,,quarry ,,windows #bhc ,,xxiv4 ,,domestic ,,glass #bif ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,canopy #caa ,,xxvi4 ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,ornament #cag ,,book ,,iii4 ,,by ,,the ,,way4 ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,characteristics ,,of ,,style #cbb ,,xxviii4 ,,style ,,in ,,modern ,,glass 7,a ,,postscript7 #ced ,,xxix4 ,,jesse ,,windows1 ,,and ,,other ,,exceptions ,,in ,,design #cfj ,,xxx4 ,,story ,,windows #cga ,,xxxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,see ,,windows #chj ,,xxxii4 ,,windows ,,worth ,,seeing #che ,,xxxiii4 ,a ,,word ,,on ,,restoration #djd ,,windows1 ,a ,,book ,,about ,,stained ,,glass ,,book ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,glass4 ,the point of view from which the subject of stained glass is approached in these chapters relieves me1 happily1 from the very difficult task of determining the date or the whereabouts of the remote origin of coloured windows1 and the still remoter beginnings of glass itself4 ,the briefest summary of scarcely disputable facts bearing upon the evolution of the art of window making1 is here enough4 ,we need not vex our minds with speculation4 ,white glass 7and that of extreme purity7 would seem to have been known to the ,chinese as long ago as #bcjj ,b4,c41 for they were then already using astronomical instruments1 of which the lenses were presumably of glass4 ,of coloured glass there is yet earlier record4 ,egyptologists tell us that at least five if not six thousand years ago the ,egyptians made jewels of glass4 ,indeed1 it is more than probable that this was the earliest use to which stained glass was put1 and that the very raison d'tre of glass making was a species of forgery4 ,in some of the most ancient tombs have been found scarabs of glass in deliberate imitation of rubies and emeralds1 sapphires and other precious stones4 ,the glass beads found broadcast in three quarters of the globe were quite possibly passed off by ,phoenician traders upon the confiding barbarian as jewels of great price4 ,at all events1 glass beads1 according to ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 were in use in the bronze age2 and1 if we may trust the evidence of etymology1 bedes are perhaps as ancient as praying4 ,apart from trickery and fraud1 to imitate seems to be a foible of humanity4 ,the ,greeks and their ,roman successors made glass in imitation of agate and onyx and all kinds of precious marbles4 ,they devised also coloured glass coated with white glass1 which could be cut cameo-fashion--a kind of glass much used1 though in a different way1 in later ,medival windows4 ,the ,venetians carried further the pretty ,greek invention of embedding vitreous threads of milky white or colour in clear glass1 the most beautiful form of which is that known as latticelli1 or reticelli 7reticulated or lace glass71 from the elaborate twisting and interlacing of the threads2 but nothing certain seems to be known about ,venetian glass until the end of the eleventh century1 although by the thirteenth the neighbouring island of ,murano was famous for its production4 ,the ,venetians found a new stone to imitate1 aventurine1 and they imitated it marvellously4 ,so far1 however1 glass was used in the first instance for jewellery1 and in the second for vessels of various kinds4 ,its use in architecture was confined mainly to mosaic1 originally1 no doubt1 to supply the place of brighter tints not forthcoming in marble4 ,of the use of glass in windows there is not very ancient mention4 ,the climate of ,greece or ,egypt1 and the way of life there1 gave scant occasion for it4 ,but at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 there have been found fair sized slabs of window glass1 not of very perfect manufacture1 apparently cast1 and probably at no time very translucent4 ,remains also of what was presumably window glass have been found among the ruins of ,roman villas in ,england4 ,in the basilicas of ,christian ,rome the arched window openings were sometimes filled with slabs of marble1 in which were piercings to receive glass 7which may or may not have been coloured71 foreshadowing1 so to speak1 the plate tracery of ,early ,gothic builders4 ,according to ,m4 ,lvy1 the windows of ,early ,medival ,flemish churches were often filled in this ,roman way with plaques of stone pierced with circular openings to receive glass4 ,another ,roman practice was to set panes of glass in bronze or copper framing1 and even in lead4 ,here we have the beginning of the practice identified with ,medival glaziers4 ,there is no reason to suppose that the ancients practised glass painting as we understand it4 ,discs of ,greek glass have been found which are indeed painted1 but not 7,i imagine7 with colour fused with the material2 and certainly these were not used for windows4 ,the very early ,christians were not in a position to indulge in1 or even to desire1 luxuries such as stained glass windows1 but ,st4 ,jerome and ,st4 ,chrysostom make allusion to them4 ,it is pretty certain that these must have been simple mosaics in stained glass1 unpainted3 one reads that between the lines of the records that have come down to us4 ,stained and painted glass1 such as we find in the earliest existing ,medival windows1 may possibly date back to the reign of ,charlemagne 7#hjj71 but it may safely be said not to occur earlier than the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,a couple of hundred years later mention of it begins to occur rather frequently in ,church records2 and there is one particular account of the furnishing of the chapel of the first ,benedictine ,monastery at ,monte ,cassino with a whole series of windows in #ajff--which fixes the date of the ,norman ,conquest as a period at which stained glass windows can no longer have been uncommon4 ,the ,cistercian interdict1 restricting the order to the use of white glass 7#aacd71 argues something like ecclesiastical over-indulgence in rich windows before the middle of the next century4 ,fragments1 more or less plentiful1 of the very earliest glass may still remain embedded in windows of a later period 7the material was too precious not to have been carefully preserved72 but archologists appear to be agreed that no complete window of the ninth or tenth century has been preserved1 and that even of the eleventh there is nothing that can quite certainly be identified4 ,after that doctors begin to differ4 ,but the general consensus of opinion is1 that there is comparatively little that can be incontrovertibly set down even to the twelfth century4 ,the great mass of ,early ,gothic ,glass belongs indubitably to the thirteenth century2 and when one speaks of ,early ,glass it is usually thirteenth century work which is meant4 ,the remote origin of glass1 then1 remains for ever lost in the mist of legendary days4 ,there is even a fable to the effect that it dates from the building of the ,tower of ,babel1 when ,god's fire from heaven vitrified the bricks employed by its too presumptuous builders4 ,coloured glass comes to us from the ,east2 that much it is safe to conclude4 ,from ancient ,egypt1 probably1 the art of the glass-worker found its way to ,phoenicia1 thence to ,greece and ,rome1 and so to ,byzantium1 ,venice1 and eventually ,france1 where stained glass windows1 as we know them1 first occur4 ,it is probably to the ,french that ,europe owes the introduction of coloured windows1 a colony of ,venetian glass-workers having1 they say1 settled at ,limoges in the year #igi4 ,some of the earliest ,french glass is to be found at ,chartres1 ,le ,mans1 ,angers1 ,reims1 and ,chlons-sr-,marne2 and at the ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs1 at ,paris1 there are some fragments of twelfth century work which may be more conveniently examined than the work in sit4 ,the oldest to which one can assign a definite date is that at ,st4 ,denis 7#aajh7 but its value is almost nullified by expert restoration4 ,in ,germany the oldest date is ascribed to some small windows at ,augsburg1 executed1 it is said1 by the monks of ,tegernsee about the year #ajjj4 ,there is also a certain amount of twelfth century work incorporated in the later windows at ,strasbourg4 ,the oldest remains of glass in ,england are1 in all probability1 certain fragments in the nave of ,york ,minster4 ,the more important windows at ,canterbury1 ,salisbury1 and ,lincoln are of the thirteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,window4 ,since it is proposed to approach the subject of stained glass in the first place from the workmanlike and artistic1 rather than the historical or antiquarian1 point of view1 it may be as well to begin by explaining precisely what a stained glass window is4 ,it is usual to confound stained with painted glass4 ,literally speaking1 these are two quite distinct things4 ,stained glass is glass which is coloured1 as the phrase goes1 in the pot2 that is to say1 there is mixed with the molten white glass a metallic oxide which stains it green1 yellow1 blue1 purple1 and so on1 as the case may be2 for which reason this self-tinted glass is called pot-metal4 ,this is a term which will recur again and again4 ,once for all1 pot-metal is glass in which the colour is in the glass and not painted upon it4 ,it goes without explanation that1 each separate sheet of pot-metal glass being all of one colour1 a varicoloured window can only be produced in it by breaking up the sheets and putting them together in the form of a mosaic3 in fact1 that is how the earliest windows were executed1 and they go by the name of mosaic glass4 ,the glass is1 however1 not broken up into tesser1 but shaped according to the forms of the design4 ,in short1 those portions of it which are white have to be cut out of a sheet of white glass1 those which are blue out of a sheet of blue glass1 those which are yellow out of a sheet of yellow1 and so on2 and it is these pieces of variously tinted glass1 bound together by strips of lead1 just as the tesser of a pavement or wall picture are held in place by cement1 which constitute a stained glass window4 ,the artist is as yet not concerned in painting1 but in glazing--that is to say1 putting together little bits of glass1 just as an inlayer does1 or as a mosaic worker puts together pieces of wood1 or marble1 or burnt clay1 or even opaque glass4 ,there is illustrated opposite a piece of ,old ,burmese incrusted decoration1 a mosaic of white and coloured glass bound together by strips of metal1 which1 were it but clear instead of silvered at the back1 would be precisely the same thing as an early mosaic window1 even to the completion of the face by means of paint--of which more presently4 ,in painted glass1 on the other hand1 the colour is not in the glass but upon it1 more or less firmly attached to it by the action of the fire4 ,a metallic colour which has some affinity with glass1 or which is ground up with finely powdered glass1 is used as a pigment1 precisely as ceramic colours are used in pottery painting4 ,the painted glass is then put into a kiln and heated to the temperature at which it is on the point of melting1 whilst the colour actually does melt into it4 ,by this means it is possible to paint a coloured picture upon a single sheet of white glass1 as has been proved at ,svres4 ,strictly speaking1 then1 stained and painted glass are the very opposite one to the other4 ,but in practice the two processes of glazing and painting were never kept apart4 ,the very earliest glass was no doubt pure mosaic4 ,it was only in our own day that the achievement 7scientific rather than artistic7 of a painted window of any size1 independent of glazier's work1 was possible4 ,painting was at first always subsidiary to glazier's work2 after that1 for a time1 glazier and painter worked hand in hand upon equal terms2 eventually the painter took precedence1 and the glazier became ever more and more subservient to him4 ,but from the twelfth to the seventeenth century there is little of what we call1 rather loosely1 sometimes stained and sometimes painted glass1 in which there is not both staining and painting--that is to say1 stained glass is used1 and there is painting upon it4 ,the difference is that in the earlier work the painting is only used to help out the stained glass1 and in the later the stained glass is introduced to help the painting4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,incrusted ,,glass ,,mosaic1 ,,burmese 7,b4 ,m474 ,that amounts1 it may be thought1 to much the same thing2 and there does come a point where staining and painting fulfil each such an important part in the window that it is difficult to say which is the predominating partner in the concern4 ,for the most part1 however1 there is no manner of doubt as to which practice was uppermost in the designer's mind1 as to the idea with which he set out1 painting or glazing2 and it makes all the difference in the work--the difference1 for example1 between a window of the thirteenth century and one of the sixteenth1 a difference about which a child could scarcely make a mistake1 once it had been pointed out to him4 ,here perhaps it will be as well to describe1 once for all1 the making of a mosaic window1 and the part taken in it by the glazier and the painter respectively4 ,it will be easier then to discriminate between the two processes employed1 and to discuss them each in relation to the other4 ,the actual construction of an early window is very much like the putting together of a puzzle4 ,the puzzle of our childhood usually took the form of a map4 ,it has occurred to me1 therefore1 to show how an artist working strictly after the manner of the thirteenth century--the period1 that is to say1 when painting was subsidiary to glazing--would set about putting into glass a map of modern ,italy4 ,in the first place1 he would draw his map to the size required4 ,this he would do with the utmost precision1 firmly marking upon the paper 7the medival artist would have drawn directly on his wooden bench7 the boundary line of each separate patch of colour in his design4 ,then1 according to the colour each separate province or division was to be1 he would take a separate sheet of pot-metal and lay it over the drawing1 so as to be able to trace upon the glass itself the outline of such province or division4 ,that done1 he would proceed to cut out or shape the various pieces of glass to the given forms4 ,in the case of a simple and compact province1 such as ,rome1 ,tuscany1 ,umbria 7overleaf71 that would be easy enough4 ,on the other hand1 a more irregular shape1 say the province of ,naples1 with its promontories1 would present considerable difficulties--difficulties practically insuperable by the early glazier1 to whom the diamond as a cutting instrument was unknown1 and whose appliances for shaping were of the rudest and most rudimentary4 ,if with the point of a red-hot iron you describe upon a sheet of glass a line1 and then1 taking the material between your two hands1 proceed to snap it across1 the fracture will take approximately the direction of the line thus drawn4 ,that is how the thirteenth century glazier went to work1 subsequently with a notched iron instrument1 or grozing iron as it was called1 laboriously chipping away the edges until he had reduced each piece of glass to the precise shape he wanted4 ,it will be seen at once that the simpler the line and the easier its sweep the more likely the glass would be to break clean to the line1 whereas in the case of a jagged or irregular line there would always be great danger that at any one sharp turn in it the fracture would take that convenient opportunity of going in the way it should not4 ,for example1 the south coast of ,italy would be dangerous4 ,you might draw the line of the sole of the foot1 but when it came to breaking the glass the high heel would be sure to snap off 7there is a little nick there designed as if for the purpose of bringing about that catastrophe71 and similarly that over-delicate instep would certainly not bear the strain put upon it1 and would be bound to give way4 ,it should be mentioned that even were such pieces once safely cut 7which would nowadays be possible7 the glass would surely crack at those points the first time there was any pressure of wind upon the window1 and so the prudent man would still forestall that event by designing his glass as it could conveniently be cut1 without attempting any tour de force1 and strengthening it at the weak points with a line of lead1 as has been done in the glass map opposite4 ,there is a jutting promontory on the coast of ,africa1 which1 even if safely cut1 would be sure to break sooner or later at the point indicated by the dotted line4 ,the scale of execution would determine whether each or any province could be cut out of a single sheet of glass1 but the lines of latitude and longitude would give an opportunity of using often three or four pieces of glass to a province without introducing lines which formed no part of the design4 ,that1 however1 would be contrary to early usage1 which was never to make use of the leads as independent lines1 but only as boundaries between two colours4 ,there is a reason for this reticence4 ,you will see that in the surface of the sea1 where the latitudinal and longitudinal lines come in most usefully1 it is necessary to use also other leads1 which mean nothing but that a joint is there desirable4 ,these constructional leads1 when they merely break up a background1 are quite unobjectionable--they even give an opportunity of getting variety in the colour of the ground--but when some of the leads are meant to assert themselves as drawing lines and some are not1 the result is inevitably confused4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,the ,,way ,a ,,window ,,is ,,glazed4 ,all that the glass gives us in our mosaic map is the local colour of sea and land--the sea1 let us say1 dark blue1 the countries1 provinces1 and islands each of its own distinctive tint4 ,when it comes to giving their names1 it would be possible indeed on a very large scale to cut the letters out of glass of darker colour1 and glaze them in as shown in the title word ,italy4 ,that would involve1 as will be seen1 a network of connecting lead lines4 ,on a much smaller scale there would be nothing for it but to have recourse to the supplementary process1 and paint them4 ,the words ,germany1 ,austria1 ,turkey1 ,naples1 ,sicily1 and the rest would have to be simply painted in opaque colour upon the translucent glass4 ,but1 once we have begun to use paint1 there are intermediate ways between these two methods of inscription1 either of which would be adopted according to the scale of the lettering4 ,these are shown in the names of the seas4 ,in the word ,mediterranean each separate letter would be cut out of a piece of glass1 corresponding as nearly as possible to its general outline or circumference1 and its shape would be made perfect by painting out--that is to say1 by obscuring with solid pigment that part of the glass 7indicated by dots in the drawing7 which was meant to retire into the background4 ,presuming this wording to be in a light colour and the background darkish1 this amount of painting would1 as a matter of fact1 be quite lost in the dark colour4 ,in the lesser descriptions ,tyrrhenian and ,adriatic ,sea1 each separate word1 instead of each letter1 would be cut out of one piece of glass 7or perhaps two in the longer words71 and the background would be painted out as already described4 ,paint would further be used to indicate the rivers1 the mountains1 the towns1 or any other detail it was necessary to give1 as well as to mark such indentations in the coastline as were too minute to be followed by the thick lead4 ,as a matter of practice1 it is usual to paint a marginal line of opaque colour round the glass representing just a little more than that portion eventually to be covered by the flange of the lead1 so as to make sure that that will not by any chance cut off from view what may be an important feature in the design4 ,for example1 the mere projection of a lead which too nearly approached the delicate profile of a small face might easily destroy its outline4 ,the glazier's lead1 it should be explained1 is a wire of about a quarter of an inch diameter1 deeply grooved on two sides for the insertion of the glass4 ,imagine the surfaces exposed to view on each face of the window to be flattened1 and you have a section very much like the letter ,h1 the uprights representing the flanges1 and the cross-bar the core1 which holds them together and supports the glass mosaic4 ,the process of painting employed so far is of the simplest2 it consists merely in obscuring the glass with solid paint4 ,this is laid on with a long-haired pencil or tracing brush4 ,the paint itself may be mixed with oil or gum and water1 or any medium which will temporarily attach it to the glass and disappear in the kiln2 for the real fixing of the paint is done solely by the action of the fire4 ,the pigment employed consists1 that is to say1 of per-oxides of iron and manganese ground up with a sufficient amount of powdered flint-glass or some equivalent silicate1 which by the action of the fire is fused with the glass 7reduced to very nearly red heat71 and becomes practically part and parcel of it4 ,whenever a glass painter speaks of painted glass that is what he means--viz41 that the colour is thus indelibly burnt in4 ,after the middle of the sixteenth century various metallic oxides were used to produce various more or less transparent pigments 7enamel colours as they are called to distinguish them from the pot-metal colours71 but in the thirteenth century transparent enamel colours were as yet unknown to the glass painter1 and he confined himself to the solid deep brown pigment already spoken of--an enamel also1 strictly speaking1 but by no means to be confounded with the enamel colours of later centuries4 ,those were colours used for colour's sake2 this is simply an opaque substance used solely on account of its capacity to stop out so much of the colour of pot-metal glass as may be necessary in order to define form and give the drawing of detail2 and in effect the brown1 when seen against the light1 does not tell as colour at all but merely as so much blackness4 ,the only colour in the window is the colour of the various component pieces of glass4 ,thus in the case of an early figure 7page #cc7 the face would be cut out of a sheet of pinkish glass and the features painted upon it in brown lines2 each garment would be cut out of the tint it was meant to be1 and the folds of the drapery outlined upon the pot-metal4 ,in like manner a tree would be cut out of green glass1 its stem perhaps out of brown1 and only the forms of the leaves1 and their veining1 if any1 would be traced in paint4 ,in the execution of the map there is no occasion for further painting than this simplest and fittest kind of work1 little more than the glazier would himself have done had his means allowed him4 ,and in the very earliest glass the painter was almost as sparing of paint as this3 he did1 however--it was inevitable that he should--use lines1 whether in drawing the features of a face or the folds of drapery1 which were not quite solid1 and which consequently only deepened the colour of the pot-metal1 and did not quite obscure it3 he went so far even as to pass a smear of still thinner colour1 a half tint or less1 over portions of the glass which he wished to lower in tone4 ,he began1 in fact1 however tentatively1 to introduce shading4 ,happily he was careful always to use it only as a softening influence in his design1 and never to sacrifice to it anything of the intrinsic beauty and brilliancy of his glass4 ,the glass duly painted and burnt1 the puzzle would be put together again on the bench1 and bands of lead1 grooved at each side to admit and hold the glass1 would be inserted between the two pieces4 ,these would be soldered together at the joints where two leads met2 a putty-like composition or cement would be rubbed into the interstices between lead and glass to stiffen it1 and make it air-and water-tight2 and1 that done1 the window was finished4 ,it would only remain 7what would in practice have been done before cementing7 to solder to the leads at intervals sundry loose ends of copper-wire1 eventually to be twisted round the iron saddle bars let into the stone framework of the window to support it2 it would then be ready to be fixed in its place4 ,in contradistinction to the mosaic method of execution adopted by the thirteenth century glazier1 a glass painter of the eighteenth century1 and perhaps of the seventeenth1 would1 even though there were no necessity for longitudinal and latitudinal lines1 cut up his window into oblong pieces of convenient size1 only1 of course1 parallel and at right angles to one another4 ,the sea he might or might not glaze in blue glass2 here and there perhaps1 but not necessarily at all1 an occasional province might be leaded in with a piece of pot-metal2 but for the most part he would use panes of white glass1 and rely for the colour of the provinces upon enamel4 ,he would have no need to separate his enamel colours by a line of lead1 and where he wanted a dividing line he would just paint it in opaque brown4 ,this method of glass painting forms an altogether separate division of the subject1 not yet under discussion4 ,it is referred to here only by way of contrast1 and to emphasise the fact that1 though we are in the habit of using the term stained glass rather loosely--though a stained glass window is almost invariably helped out to some extent by painting 7unless it be what is technically known as leaded glass or plain glazing71 and though a painted window is seldom altogether innocent of glass that is stained--there are1 as a matter of fact1 two methods of producing coloured windows1 the mosaic and the enamelled2 and that however customary it may be to eke out either method by the other more or less1 windows divide themselves into two broad divisions1 according as it is pot-metal or enamel upon which the artist relies for his effect4 ,between these two widely different ideals there are all manners and all degrees of compromise1 and methods were employed which1 to describe at this point1 would only complicate matters4 ,it will be my purpose presently to describe in detail the steps by which mere glazing developed into painted glass1 and how painting came to supersede glazing2 to show in how far painting was a help to the glazier1 and in how far it was to his hurt2 to describe1 in short1 the progress of the glass painter's art1 to better and to worse2 and to distinguish1 as far as may be1 the principles which govern or should govern it4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,ancient ,,arab ,,window4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,glazing4 ,the art of the glass painter was at first only the art of the glazier4 ,to say that may seem like self-contradiction4 ,but it is not so4 ,on the contrary1 it is almost literally the truth2 and it is difficult to find words which would more vividly express the actual fact4 ,we are accustomed to think of a painter as using pigment always in some liquid form1 and applying it to wood or plaster1 canvas or paper1 with a brush4 ,should he lay it on with a palette knife1 as he sometimes does1 it is painting still4 ,if he could by any possibility put together his colours in mid-air without the aid of paper1 canvas1 or other solid substance1 it would still be painting4 ,this is very much what the worker in stained glass1 by the help of strips of intervening lead1 practically succeeded in doing4 ,as a painter places side by side dabs of paint1 so the glazier put side by side little pieces of coloured glass4 7,glass1 you see1 was the medium in which his colour was fixed1 just as oil1 varnish1 wax1 or gum is the vehicle in which the painter's pigment is ordinarily held in suspension47 ,he could execute in this way upon the bench or the sloped easel quite an elaborate pattern in coloured glass2 and although1 in order to hold the parts together in a window frame1 he had perforce to resort to some sort of binding1 in lead or what not1 he may still reasonably be said1 if not actually to have painted in glass1 at all events to have worked in it4 ,in fact1 until about the twelfth century1 there were no glass painters1 but only glaziers4 ,nay1 more1 it is to glaziers that we owe the glory of the thirteenth century windows1 in which1 be it remembered1 each separate touch of colour is represented by a separate piece of glass1 and each separate piece of glass is bounded by a framework of lead connecting it with the neighbouring pieces1 whilst the detail added by the painter goes for not very much4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,arab ,,window ,,lattice1 ,,geometric4 ,no strictly defined1 nor indeed any approximate1 date can safely be given at which the art of the glass-worker sprang into existence4 ,arts do not spring into existence2 they grow1 developing themselves in most cases very slowly4 ,the art of working in stained glass can only have been the result of a species of evolution4 ,the germ of it lay in the circumstance that glass was originally made in comparatively small pieces 7there were no large sheets of glass a thousand years or more ago71 and so it was necessary1 in order to glaze any but the smallest window opening1 that these small pieces should be in some way cemented together4 ,it followed naturally1 in days when art was a matter of every-day concern1 the common flower of wayside craftsmanship1 that the idea of putting these pieces together in more or less ornamental fashion1 should occur to the workman1 since they must be put together somehow2 and so1 almost as a matter of course1 would be developed the mosaic of transparent glass1 which was undoubtedly the form stained glass windows first took4 ,it has been suggested that in some of the earliest windows the glazing is meant to take the form of tesser2 but the examples instanced in support of that idea afford very little ground for supposing any such intention on the part of the first glass-workers4 ,it may more reasonably be presumed that any resemblance there may be between early glass and earlier wall mosaic comes of working in the same way2 like methods inevitably lead to like results4 ,it is by no means certain1 even1 that the first glaziers were directly inspired by mosaic1 whether of marble or of opaque glass4 ,they were probably much more immediately influenced by the work of the enameller4 ,that may appear at the first mention strange1 considering what has been said about the absolute divergence between mosaic and enamelled glass4 ,but it must be remembered that enamelling itself among the ,lombard ,franks1 the ,merovingians1 and the ,anglo-,saxons1 was a very different thing from what the ,limousin made it in the sixteenth century4 ,it was1 in fact1 a quite different operation1 the only point in common between the two being that they were executed in vitreous colour upon a metal ground4 ,the enamel referred to as having probably influenced the early glazier is of the severer kinds familiar in ,byzantine work1 and known as champlev and cloisonn4 ,in the one1 you know1 the design is scooped out of the metal ground1 in the other its outline is bent in flat wire and soldered to the ground4 ,in either case the resulting cells are filled with coloured paste1 which1 under the action of the fire1 vitrifies and becomes embodied with the metal4 ,in champlev enamel naturally the metal ground is usually a distinguishing feature4 ,in cloisonn the ground as well as the pattern is1 of course1 in enamel2 but in either case the outlines1 and1 indeed1 all drawing lines1 are in metal4 ,in cloisonn enamel the metal cloisons1 as they are called1 fulfil precisely the function of the leads in glass windows2 and it would have been more convenient to have left altogether out of account the sister process1 were it not that1 in the painting of quite early glass1 the strokes with which the lines of the drapery and suchlike are rendered1 bear quite unmistakable likeness to the convention of the ,byzantine worker in champlev4 ,for that matter1 one sees also in very early altar-pieces painted on wood1 where gold is used for marking the folds of drapery1 the very obvious inspiration of ,byzantine enamel--but that is rather by the way4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,,arab ,,lattice1 ,,geometric4 ,the popular idea of an early window is that of a picture1 or series of pictures1 very imperfectly rendered4 ,it may much more justly be likened to a magnified plaque of ,byzantine enamel with the light shining through it4 ,the ,byzantine craftsman1 or his descendants1 at all events1 did produce1 in addition to the ordinary opaque enamel1 a translucent kind1 in imitation presumably of precious stones2 and it might very well be that it was from thence the glazier first derived the idea of coloured windows4 ,quite certainly that was nearer to his thoughts than any form of painting1 as we understand painting nowadays2 and1 what is more1 had he aimed deliberately at the effect of enamel 7as practised in his day71 he could not have got much nearer to it4 ,his proceeding was almost identical with that of the enamel worker4 ,in place of vitreous pastes he used glass itself2 in place of brass1 lead2 and1 for supplementary detail1 in place of engraved lines1 lines traced in paint4 ,side by side with the early ,european window glazing1 and most likely before it1 there was practised in the ,east a form of stained glass window building of which no mention has yet been made4 ,in the ,east1 also1 windows were from an early date built up of little pieces of coloured glass2 but the ,mohammedan law forbidding all attempt at pictorial representation of animate things1 there was no temptation to employ painting2 the glazier could do all he wanted without it4 ,his plan was to pierce small openings in large slabs of stone1 and in the piercings to set numerous little jewels of coloured glass4 ,the ,romans1 by the way1 appear also to have sometimes filled window spaces with slabs of marble framing discs of coloured glass1 but these were comparatively wide apart1 more like separate window-lets1 each glazed with its small sheet of coloured glass4 ,the ,oriental windows1 on the contrary1 were most elaborately designed1 the piercings taking the form of intricate patterns1 geometric or floral4 ,sometimes the design would include an inscription ingeniously turned to ornamental use after the manner of the ,moorish decorators of the ,alhambra 7page #ae74 ,a further development of the ,oriental idea was to imbed the glass in plaster1 a process easy enough before the plaster had set hard4 ,this kind of thing is common enough in ,cairo to this day1 and specimens of it are to be found at the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,m4 ,vogu illustrates in his book1 ,la ,syrie ,centrale1 an important series of windows in the ,mosque of ,omar 7,temple of ,jerusalem71 erected in #aebh1 by ,sultan ,soliman4 ,the plaster1 says ,m4 ,vogu1 was strengthened by ribs of iron and rods of cane imbedded in the stouter divisions of the framework1 a precaution not necessary in the smaller ,cairene lattices 7measuring as a rule about four superficial feet71 in which the pattern is simply scooped out of the half-dry plaster4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,,arab ,,lattice1 ,,floral4 ,the piercings in these ,oriental windows and window lattices are not made at right angles to the slab of stone or plaster1 but are cut through at an angle1 varying according to the position and height of the window1 with a view to as little interference as possible with the coloured light4 ,the glass1 however1 being fixed nearest the outside of the window1 there is always both shadow and reflection from the deep sides of the openings1 much to the enhancement of the mellowness and mystery of colour4 ,in the ,temple windows referred to1 still further subtlety of effect is arrived at by an outer screen or lattice of faence4 ,thus subdued and tempered1 even crude glass may be turned to beautiful account4 ,whence the medival ,arabs got their glass1 and the quality of the material1 are matters of conjecture4 ,if we may judge by the not very ancient specimens which reach us in this country1 the glass used in ,cairene lattices is generally thin and raw2 but set1 as above described1 in jewels as it were1 isolated each in its separate shadow cell1 the poorest material looks rich4 ,the lattices here illustrated are none of them of very early period2 but1 where the character of design is so traditional and changes so slowly1 the actual date of the work1 always difficult to determine1 matters little4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,arab ,,glazing ,,in ,,plaster4 ,it is more than probable1 it is almost certain1 that the ,venetian glass-workers1 who in the tenth century brought their art to ,france1 were familiar with the coloured lattices of the ,levant2 for1 as we know1 in the middle-ages ,venice was the great trading port of ,italy1 in constant communication with the ,east4 ,if that was so1 the ,italians1 always prone to imitate1 would be sure to found their practice1 as they did in other crafts1 more or less upon ,persian and ,arabian models4 ,at all events1 there is every reason to suppose that at first they1 practically speaking1 only did in lead what the ,eastern artificer did in stone or plaster1 and that the windows which1 according to various trustworthy but vague accounts1 adorned the early ,christian basilicas as early as the sixth century1 bore strong likeness to ,mohammedan glass--,christianised1 so to speak4 ,this is not to unsay what was before said about the affinity of early glass to enamel4 ,a river has not of necessity one only and unmistakable source2 and though we may not be able to trace back through the distant years the very fountain of this craft1 we may quite certainly affirm that its current was swollen by more than one side-stream1 and that its course was shaped by all manner of obstinate circumstances and conditions of the time1 before it went to join the broad and brimming stream of early medival art4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,,arab ,,glazing ,,in ,,plaster4 ,one more source1 at least1 there was at which the early glazier drew inspiration--namely1 the art of jewel setting4 ,coloured glass1 as was said a while ago1 was itself probably first made only in imitation of precious stones1 and1 being made in small pieces1 it had to be set somewhat in the manner of jewellery4 ,in all probability the enameller himself wrought at first only in imitation of jewellery1 and afterwards in emulation with it4 ,just as white glass was called crystal1 and no doubt passed for it1 so coloured glass actually went by the name of ruby1 sapphire1 emerald1 and so on4 ,it is recorded even 7falsely1 of course7 how sapphires were ground to powder and mixed with glass to give it its deep blue colour2 indeed1 this wilful confusion of terms goes far to explain the mystery of the monster jewels of which we read in history or the fable which not so very long ago passed for it4 ,stories of diamond thrones and emerald tables seem to lead straight into fairyland2 but the glass-worker explains such fancies1 and brings us back again to reality4 ,bearing in mind1 then1 the preciousness of glass1 and the well-kept secrecy with regard to its composition1 it is not beyond the bounds of supposition that the glazier of the dark ages not only intended deliberately to imitate jewellery1 but meant that his glass should pass with the ignorant 7we forget how very ignorant the masses were7 for veritably precious stones4 ,even though we exempt glaziers from all charge of trickery1 it was inevitable that they should attempt to rival the work of the jeweller1 and to do in large what he had done only in small4 ,that certainly they did1 and with such success that1 even when it comes to glass of the twelfth1 and1 indeed1 of the thirteenth century1 when already pictorial considerations begin to enter the mind of the artist1 the resemblance is unmistakable4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,,arab ,,glazing ,,in ,,plaster4 ,try to describe the effect of an early mosaic window1 and you are compelled to liken it to jewellery4 ,jewelled is the only term which expresses it4 ,and the earlier it is the more jewel-like it is in effect4 ,so long as the workman looked upon his glass as a species of jewellery1 it followed1 as a matter of course1 from the very estimation in which he held his material1 that he did not think of obscuring it by paint--defiling it1 as he would have held4 ,it is not so much that he would have been ashamed to depend on the painter to put his colour right1 as that the thought of such a thing never entered his mind2 he was a glazier4 ,it was the painter first thought of that1 and his time had not yet come4 ,possibly it may have occurred to the reader1 apropos of the diagram on page #aj1 in which it was shown how far the glazier could go towards the production of a map in glass1 that that was not far4 ,certainly he does not go very far towards making a chart of any geographical value1 but he does go a long way towards making a window2 for the first and foremost qualities in coloured glass are colour and translucency--and for translucent colour the glazier1 after the glass-maker1 is alone responsible4 ,it is in some respects very much to be deplored that the ,gothic craftsman so early took to the use of supplementary painting1 which in the end diverted his attention from a possible development of his craft in a direction not only natural to it but big with possibilities never to this day realised4 ,of richly jewelled ,gothic glass all innocent of paint1 no single window remains to us2 but there are fairly numerous examples extant of pattern windows glazed in white glass1 whether in obedience to the ,cistercian rule which forbade colour1 or with a view to letting light into the churches--and it is to churches1 prevalent as domestic glass may once have been1 we must now go for our ,gothic windows4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,glazing ,,in ,,plaster1 ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ,some of this white pattern work is ascribed to a period almost as early as that of any glass we know2 but it is almost impossible to speak positively as to the date of anything so extremely simple in its execution2 in which there is no technique of painting to tell tales2 and which1 when once storied windows came into fashion1 was probably left to the tender mercies of lesser craftsmen1 who may not have disdained to save themselves the trouble of design1 and to repeat the old1 old patterns4 ,the earlier glazier1 it was said1 painted1 figuratively speaking1 in glass4 ,it is scarcely a figure of speech to say that he drew in leadwork4 ,this mode of draughtsmanship was employed in all strictly mosaic glass2 but it is in the white windows 7or the pale green windows1 which were the nearest he could get to white1 and which it is convenient to call white7 that this drawing with the leads is most apparent--in patterns1 that is to say1 in which the design is formed entirely by the leadwork4 ,you have only to look at such patterns as ,nos4 #aa to #ag1 to see how this was so2 they are all designed in outline1 and the outline is given in lead4 ,it is perfectly plain there how every separate line the glazier laid down in charcoal upon his bench stood for a strip of lead4 ,and1 looking at the glass1 we see that it is the lead which makes the pattern4 ,it is no straining of terms to call this designing in the lead4 ,the ingenuity in designing such patterns as those below and opposite1 which is very considerable1 consists in so scheming them that every lead line shall fulfil alike a constructive and an artistic function2 that is to say1 that every line in the design shall be necessary to its artistic effect1 that there shall be no lead line which is not an outline1 no outline which is not a lead4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,,plain ,,glazing1 ,,bonlieu4 ,it is not always that the glazier was so conscientious as this4 ,m4 ,viollet le ,duc pointed out1 in the most helpful article in his famous ,dictionary of ,architecture1 under the head of ,vitrail1 how in the little window from ,bonlieu1 here illustrated1 the medival craftsman resorted to a dodge1 more ingenious than ingenuous1 by which he managed to economise labour4 ,each separate lead line there does not enclose a separate piece of glass4 ,the lines are all of lead2 but some of them are mere dummies1 strips of metal1 holding nothing1 carried across the face of the glass only1 and soldered on to the more businesslike leads at each end4 ,the extent of bon fide glazing is indicated in the right-hand corner of the drawing4 ,i confess ,i was inclined at first to think that ,viollet le ,duc might1 in ascribing this glass to the twelfth century1 very possibly have dated it too far back2 for this is the kind of trick one would more naturally expect from the later and more sophisticated workman2 but ,i have since come upon the same device myself1 both at ,reims and ,chlons1 in work certainly as old as the thirteenth century4 ,you see1 cutting the glass was the difficulty in those days1 and sometimes it was shirked4 ,it should be noted that the subterfuge employed at ,bonlieu and in the specimens from ,chlons1 opposite1 was not in order to evade any difficulty in glazing--the designs present none--but merely to save trouble4 ,there would have been more occasion for evasion in executing the design from ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#ad71 where the sharp points of the fleur-de-lys give background shapes difficult for the glazier to cut4 ,it will be noticed that to the left of the panel one of the points joins the necking-piece1 which holds the fleur-de-lys together4 ,that is a much more practical piece of glazing than the free point1 which presents a difficulty in cutting the background1 indicative of the late period to which the glass belongs4 ,the earlier medival glazier worked with primitive tools1 which kept him perforce within the bounds of simplicity and dignified restraint4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,in white windows1 so called1 he did not by any means confine himself wholly to the use of what it is convenient to call white glass4 ,from a very early date1 perhaps from the very first1 he would enrich it with some slight amount of colour4 ,having devised1 as it were1 a lattice of white lines1 as in the left-hand pattern from ,salisbury 7overleaf71 it was a very simple thing to fill here and there a division of his design with a piece of coloured instead of white glass1 as in the pattern next to it in order4 ,the third pattern1 to the right1 shows how he would even introduce a separate jewel of colour1 perhaps painted1 which had to be connected with the design by leads forming no part of the pattern4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,colour spots are more ingeniously introduced in the example from ,brabourne ,church1 ,kent1 7said to be ,norman7 where the darker tints are ingeniously thrown into the background4 ,but here again1 although this is perhaps as early a specimen of glazing as we have in this country1 the glazier resorts in his central rosettes to the aid of paint4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,,aix-,,la-,,chapelle4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,,south ,,transept1 ,,salisbury4 ,it will be observed that in the marginal lines which frame this window1 and again in the white bands in two out of the three patterns from ,salisbury1 leads are introduced which have only a constructional use1 and rather confuse the design4 ,that they do not absolutely destroy it is due to its marked simplicity1 and to the proportion of the narrow bands to the broad spaces4 ,this is yet more clearly marked in the very satisfactory glazing designs from ,s4 ,serge at ,angers4 ,the fact is1 there is a limit to the possibilities of design1 such as that from ,sens 7page #if71 in which literally only four leads 7viz41 those from the points of the central diamond shape7 are introduced wholly and solely for strength2 and when it comes to windows of any considerable size1 such as clerestory windows1 to which plain glazing is peculiarly suited1 leads which merely strengthen become absolutely necessary4 ,the art of the designer consists in so scheming them that they shall not seriously interfere with the pattern4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,,brabourne ,,church ,,kent4 ,were the pattern in lines of colour upon white1 the crosslines strengthening them would of course be lost in the darker tint2 but1 as it happens1 we do not find in the earliest glazing lines of interlacing colour1 though they occur by way of border lines1 as at ,s4 ,serge 7below71 where a marginal line of yellow is enclosed between strips of white4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,s4 ,,serge1 ,,angers4 ,the interlacing character of several of the white glazing patterns illustrated betrays of course ,romanesque influence2 but there would not have been so many designs consisting of interlacing bands of white upon a white ground1 enclosing1 at intervals more or less rare1 what had best be called jewels of colour1 had it not been that the forms of interlacing strapwork lend themselves kindly to glazing4 ,every time a strap disappears1 as it were1 behind another1 you have just the break in its continuity which the glazier desires1 and if only the interlacings are frequent enough 7as on page #if7 they give him all he wants4 ,so far the examples illustrated are1 for the most part1 in outline2 that is to say1 on a ground of white the pattern appears as a network of leads1 flowing or geometric as the case may be1 emphasised here and there by a touch of dark colour1 focussing them as it were4 ,without such points of colour a design looks sometimes too much like a mere outline1 meant to be filled in with colour1 and1 in short1 unfinished2 but as yet the darker and lighter tints of white are not used to emphasise the pattern1 as they would have done if1 for example1 the interlacing straps had been glazed in a slightly purer white than the ground4 ,on the contrary1 notwithstanding the very great variety in the tints of greenish-white1 which resulted from the chemically imperfect manufacture of the glass1 they were employed very much at haphazard1 and so far from ever defining the design1 go to obviate anything harsh or mechanical there may be in it4 ,there is else1 of course1 a tendency in geometric pattern to look too merely geometric4 ,one wants always to feel it is a window that is there1 and not just so many feet of diaper4 ,another practical form of design is that in which it is not the network of leads1 but the spaces they inclose1 which constitutes the pattern2 where lines are not so much thought of as masses2 where the main consideration is colour1 and contour is of quite secondary account4 ,the leads fulfil still their artistic function of marking the division of the colours1 as they fulfil the practical one of binding the bits of coloured glass together2 the glazier still draws in lead lines2 but attention is not called to them especially2 indeed1 with identically the same lead lines one could produce two or three quite different effects1 according as one emphasised by stronger colour one series of shapes or another4 ,in the case of a framework of strictly geometric lines1 straight or curved1 one gets patterns such as we see in marble inlay4 ,the slab of marble mosaic and the stained glass border opposite are more than alike2 the one is simply a carrying further of the other4 ,the glass design might just as well have been executed in marble1 or the marble design in glass4 ,in the upper church at ,assisi are some borders of geometric inlay1 one of which is given on page #if1 identical in character with the minute geometric inlay 7which1 by the way1 was also in glass1 though opaque71 with which the ,cosmati illuminated1 so to speak1 their marble shrines and monuments4 ,this species of pattern work1 appropriate as it is to glass mosaic1 transparent as well as opaque1 does not seem to have been much used in glass1 even in ,italy2 where it does occur it is in association1 as at ,assisi and ,orvieto1 with painted work of the thirteenth or fourteenth century1 though from its ,byzantine character it might as well be centuries earlier4 ,it appears that this1 which was1 theoretically1 the simplest and most obvious form of leaded pattern work1 and might1 therefore1 well have been the earliest1 was never adopted to anything like the extent to which interlacing ornament was carried4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,,marble ,,mosaic1 ,,roman4 ,illustration3 #ai4 ,,glass1 ,,orvieto4 ,medival glaziers did not attempt anything like foliated ornament in leaded glass1 and for good reason4 ,in such work the difficulty of doing without lines detrimental to the design is greatly increased1 whereas abstract forms you can bend to your will1 as you can bend your strip of lead4 ,the more natural the forms employed the more nature has to be considered in rendering them1 and nature declines to go always in the direction of simple glazing4 ,it might seem easy enough 7to those who do not know the difficulty7 to glaze together bits of heart-shaped green glass for leaves1 and red for petals1 with a dot of yellow for the eye of the flower1 and to make use of the lead not only for outlines but for the stalks of the leaves and so on1 all on a paler ground2 but it is not so easy as that4 ,the designer cannot go far without wanting other connecting leads 7besides those used for the stalk72 and when some leads are meant very emphatically to be seen and some to be ignored1 there is no knowing what the actual effect may be3 the drawing lines may be quite lost in a network of connecting leads4 ,again1 the medival glazier did not1 so far as we have any knowledge1 build up in lead glazing a boldly pronounced pattern1 light on dark or dark on light4 ,this he might easily have done4 ,on a small scale plain glazing must perforce be modest2 but1 given a scale large enough1 almost any design in silhouette can be expressed in plain glazing4 ,you may want in that case plenty of purely constructional leads1 not meant to be seen1 or in any case meant to be ignored2 but if the contrast between design and background be only strong enough 7say colour on white or white on colour71 they do not in the least hurt the general effect4 ,on the contrary1 they are of the utmost use to the workman who knows his materials1 enabling him to get that infinite variety of colour which is the crowning charm of glass4 ,what the designer of leaded glass had to consider was1 in the first place1 the difficulty of shaping the pieces4 ,that is now no longer very great1 thanks to the diamond1 which makes cutting so easy that there is even a danger lest the workman's skill of hand may outrun his judgment1 and tempt him to indulge in useless tours de force4 ,the absurdity of taking the greatest possible pains to the least possible purpose is obvious4 ,the more important consideration is now1 therefore1 the substantiality of the window once made4 ,think of the force of a gale of wind and its pressure upon the window3 it is tremendous2 and glazing does not long keep a smooth face before it4 ,except there is a solid iron bar to keep it in place1 it soon bulges inwards1 and presents a surface as undulous1 on a smaller scale1 as the pavement of ,st4 ,mark's2 and1 as it begins to yield1 snap go the awkwardly shaped pieces of glass which the glazier has been at such pains to cut4 ,the medival artist1 therefore1 exercised no more than common sense1 when he shaped the pieces of glass he employed with a view to security1 avoiding sharp turns or elbows in the glass1 or very long and narrow strips1 or even very acutely pointed wedge-shaped pieces4 ,no doubt the difficulty of cutting helped to keep him in the way he should go2 probably1 also1 he was under no temptation to indulge in pieces of glass so large that1 incapable of yielding1 they were bound to break under pressure of the wind4 ,that he sometimes used pieces so small as in time to get clogged with dust and dirt1 was owing to the natural desire to use up the precious fragments which1 under his clumsy system of cutting1 must have accumulated in great quantity4 ,where most he showed his mastery was1 in foreseeing where the strain would come1 and introducing always a lead joint where the crack might occur1 anticipating and warding off the danger to come4 ,he was workman enough frankly to accept the limitations of his trade4 ,occasionally 7as at ,bonlieu7 he may have shirked work2 but he accommodated himself to the nature of his materials4 ,never pretending to do what he could not1 he betrayed neither its weakness nor his own4 ,mere glazing has here been discussed at a length which perhaps neither existing work of the kind nor the modern practice of the craft 7more is the pity7 might seem to demand4 ,it is the most modest1 the rudest even1 of stained glass2 but it is the beginning and the foundation of glass window making1 and it affects most deeply even the fully developed art of the sixteenth century4 ,the leading of a window is the framework of its design1 the skeleton to be filled out presently and clothed in colour2 and1 if the anatomy is wrong1 nothing will ever make the picture right4 ,the leads are the bones1 which it is necessary to study1 even though they were intrinsically without interest1 for on them depends the form which shall eventually charm us4 ,beauty is not skin deep3 it is the philosophy of the poet which is shallow4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,early ,,mosaic ,,windows4 ,it has been explained already at how very early a period stained glass begins also to be painted glass more or less4 ,but for the fond desire to be something more than an artist--to teach1 to preach1 to tell a story--the glazier would possibly have been quite content with the mere jewellery of glass1 and might have gone on for years1 and for generations1 using his pot-metal as it left the pot4 ,as it was1 working always in the service of the ,church1 in whose eyes it was of much more importance that a window should be storied than that it should be richly dight1 he found it necessary from the first to adopt the use of paint--not1 as already explained1 for the purpose of giving colour1 but of shutting it out1 or at most modifying it4 ,his work was still essentially1 and in the first place1 mosaic4 ,he conceived his window1 that is to say1 as made up of a multiplicity of little pieces of coloured glass1 the outlines supplied1 for the most part1 by the strong lines of connecting leadwork1 and the details traced in lines of opaque pigment4 ,he still designed with the leads1 as ,i have expressed it1 and throughout the thirteenth century 7though less emphatically than in the twelfth7 his design is commonly quite legible at a distance at which the painted detail is altogether lost2 but in designing his leads he had always in view1 of course1 that they were to be helped out by paint4 ,in the late thirteenth century or early fourteenth century figure from ,troyes1 on page #ccf1 which depends very little indeed upon any painted detail to be deciphered1 the lighter figure glazed upon a ground of dark trellis-work is not only readable1 but suggestive of considerable feeling2 and in the undoubtedly fourteenth century figure on page #bda1 where1 with the exception of the hands and face1 there is absolutely no indication of the paint with which the artist eventually completed his drawing1 there is no mistaking the recumbent figure of ,jesse1 even without any help of colour4 ,but the earlier the glass1 the less was there of painting1 and the more the burden of design fell upon the glazier4 ,the two figures from ,le ,mans1 here given 7generally allowed to belong to about the year #aajj7 show very plainly both the amount and the character of the painting used1 and the extent to which the design depends upon it4 ,there is no mistake about the value of the lead lines there1 or the extreme simplicity of the painted detail4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,,figures ,,from ,,ascension1 ,,le ,,mans4 ,it will be seen that paint is there used for three purposes3 to paint out the ground round about the feet1 hands1 and faces2 to mark the folds of the drapery1 and just an indication of shading upon it2 and to blacken the hair4 ,it was only in thus rendering the human hair that the earliest craftsman ever used paint as local colour4 ,in that case he had a way of scraping out of it lines of light to indicate detail4 ,if such lines showed too bright1 it was easy to tone them down with a film of thinner paint4 ,in these particular figures from ,le ,mans the artist had not yet arrived at that process2 but from the very first it was a quite common custom1 instead of painting very small ornamental detail1 to obscure the glass with solid pigment1 and then scrape out the ornament4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,,hitchin ,,church4 ,the fact is1 that in early windows a much larger proportion of the glass is obscured1 and had need to be obscured1 than would be supposed4 ,it will be seen what a considerable area of paint surrounds the feet of the two apostles on page #cc4 ,this is partly owing to the then difficulty of exactly shaping the pieces of glass employed2 but it is largely due to the actual necessity of sufficient area of dark to counteract the tendency of the lighter shades of glass1 such as the brownish-pink employed for flesh tints1 to spread their rays and obliterate the drawing4 ,not only would the extremely attenuated fingers1 shown in the scraps from ,hitchin ,church above look quite well fleshed in the glass1 but it was essential that they should be so painted in order to come out satisfactorily--that is1 without the aid of shading1 to which painters did not yet much resort4 ,on the contrary1 they were at first very chary of half tint--employing it1 indeed1 for the rounding of flesh and so on1 but not to degrade the colour of the glass1 small though their palette was4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,s4 ,,remi1 ,,reims4 ,something1 however1 had to be done to prevent especially the whites1 yellows1 and pale blues1 and in some degree all but the dark colours1 from taking more than their due part in the general effect4 ,it was not always possible to reduce the area of the glass of an aggressive tint to the dimensions required4 ,to have reduced a line of white1 for example1 to the narrowness at which it would tell for what was wanted1 would have been to make it so narrow that the accumulation of dust and dirt between the leads would soon have clogged it and blotted it out altogether4 ,what they did was to paint it heavily with pattern4 ,for example1 they would paint out great part of a white line and leave only a row of beads1 with so much paint between and around them that certainly not more than one-third of the area of the glass was left clear1 and the effect at the right distance 7as at ,angers1 page #aaf7 would be that of a continuous string of pearls4 ,they would in the same way paint a strip of glass solid1 and merely pick out a zig-zag or some such pattern upon it1 with or without a marginal thread of light on each side 7,le ,mans74 ,rather than lower the brightness of the glass by a tint of pigment they would coat it with solid brown1 and pick out upon it a minute diaper of cross-hatched lines and dots1 by that means reducing the volume of transmitted light without much interfering with its purity 7,s4 ,remi1 ,reims1 below74 ,diaper of more interesting kind afforded a ready means of lowering shades of glass which were too light or too bright for the purpose required1 and for supplying in effect the deficiencies of the pot-metal palette4 ,overleaf are some fragments of diaper pattern so picked out1 from ,canterbury1 which would possibly never have been devised if the designer had had to his hand just the shade of blue glass he wanted4 ,something certainly of the elaboration of pattern which distinguishes the earliest glass comes of the desire to qualify its colour4 ,viollet le ,duc endeavours to explain with scientific precision which are the colours which spread most1 and how they spread4 ,his analysis is useful as well as interesting2 but absolute definition of the effect of radiation is possible only with regard to a rigidly fixed range of colours to which no colourist would ever confine himself4 ,a man gets by experience to know the value of his colours in their place1 and thinks out his scheme accordingly4 ,he puts1 as a matter of course1 more painting into pale draperies than into dark1 and so on2 but to a great extent he acts upon that subtle sort of reasoning which we call feeling4 ,intuition it may be1 but it is the intuition of a man who knows4 ,the simple method of early execution went hand in hand with equal simplicity of design--the one almost necessitated the other--and the earlier the window the more plainly is its pattern pronounced1 light against dark1 or1 less usually1 7as in some most interesting remains of very early glass from ,chlons now at the ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs at ,paris7 in full1 strong colour upon white4 ,in twelfth century work especially1 figures and ornament alike are always frankly shown en silhouette4 ,witness the design on pages #cc and #aae4 ,similar relief or isolation of the figure against the background is shown in the thirteenth century bishops1 occupying two divisions of a rose window at ,salisbury1 on page #bge2 and again in the little subject from ,lyons1 where ,s4 ,peter is being led off by the gaoler to prison4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,,canterbury ,,cathedral4 ,in proportion as the aim of the artist becomes more pictorial he groups his figures more in clumps 7you see indications of that at ,canterbury71 whence comes much of the confusion of effect characteristic of the thirteenth century as it advances1 not in this respect in the direction of improvement4 ,in his haste to tell a story he tells it less effectively4 ,where an early subject is unintelligible 7supposing it to be in good preservation7 it is almost invariably owing to the figures not being clearly enough cut out against the background4 ,isolation of the design seems to be a necessary condition of success in glass of the simple1 scarcely painted1 kind4 ,in ornament1 where the artist had nothing to think of but artistic effect1 he invariably and to a much later period defined it unmistakably against contrasting colour4 ,that is illustrated on page #aag1 part of a thirteenth century window at ,salisbury1 and in the border below1 as well as various others of the period1 pages #abi1 #acj1 and elsewhere4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,,poitiers ,,cathedral4 7,compare with #ei47 ,it is the almost unanimous verdict of the inexpert that the lead lines very seriously detract from the beauty of early windows4 ,how much more beautiful they would be1 it is said1 without those ugly black lines6 ,possibly the expert and the lover of old glass have unconsciously brought themselves not to see what they do not want to see2 and the leads may1 soberly and judiciously speaking1 seriously interfere with the form of the design4 ,but1 in the first place1 the beauty of early glass is in its colour1 not in its form4 ,that is very clearly shown in the illustrations to this chapter and the next2 which give1 unfortunately1 nothing of the beauty and real glory of the glass1 but only its design and execution2 they appear perhaps in black and white so merely grotesque1 that it may be difficult to any one not familiar with the glass itself to understand why so much should be said in its praise4 ,in reality the lack of beauty1 especially apparent in the figure drawing of the early glass painters when reduced to monochrome1 taken in conjunction with the magnificent effect of many of the earliest windows 7which no colourist has ever yet been known to deny7 is proof in itself how entirely their art depended upon colour--colour1 it should be added1 of a quality quite unapproachable by any other medium than that of translucent glass or actual jewellery4 ,no one who appreciates at anything like its full value the magnificence of that colour will think the interference of occasional lead lines a heavy price to pay for it4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,s4 ,,kunibert1 ,,cologne4 ,for--and this is the second point to be explained in reference to leading--the leads1 were they never so objectionable1 are actually the price we pay for the glory of early glass4 ,it is by their aid we get those mosaics of pot-metal1 the depth and richness of which to this day1 with all our science of chemistry1 we cannot approach by any process of enamelling4 ,moreover1 though merely constructional leads1 taking a direction contrary to the design1 may at times disturb the eye1 7they scarcely ever disturb the effect7 they add to the richness of the glass in a way its unlearned admirers little dream4 ,not only is the depth and intensity of the colour very greatly enhanced by the deep black setting of lead1 a veritable network of shade in which jewels of bright colour are caught1 but it is by the use of a multiplicity of small pieces of glass 7instead of a single sheet1 out of which the drapery of a figure could be cut all in one piece--the ideal of the ignorant671 that the supreme beauty of colour is reached4 ,examine the bloom of a peach or of a child's complexion1 and see how it is made up of specks of blue and grey and purple and yellow amongst the pink and white of which it is supposed to consist4 ,every artist1 of course1 knows that a colour is beautiful according to the variety in it2 and a ,ruby background 7as it is usually called71 which is made up of little bits of glass of various shades of red1 not only crimson1 scarlet1 and orange1 but purple and wine-colour of all shades from deepest claret to tawny port1 is as far beyond what is possible in a sheet of even red glass as the colour of a lady's hand is beyond the possible competition of pearl powder or a pink kid glove4 ,not only1 therefore1 were the small pieces of glass in early windows1 and the consequent leads1 inevitable1 but they are actually at the very root of its beauty2 and the artificer of the dark ages was wiser in his generation than the children of this era of enlightenment4 ,he did not butt his head against immovable obstacles1 but built upon them as a foundation4 ,hence his success1 and in it a lesson to the glazier for all time--which was taken to heart 7as will be shown presently7 by craftsmen even of a period too readily supposed to have been given over entirely to painting upon glass4 ,let there be no misunderstanding about what is claimed for the earliest windows4 ,the method of mosaic1 eked out with a minimum of tracing in opaque pigment1 does not lend itself very kindly to picture2 and it is in ornament that the thirteenth century glazier is pre-eminent4 ,there is even something barbaric about the splendour of his achievement4 ,might it not be said that in all absolutely ornamental decoration there is something of the barbaric8--which may go to account for the rarity of real ornament1 or any true appreciation of it1 among modern people4 ,we might not have to scratch the civilised man very deep to reach the savage in him1 but he is1 at all events1 sophisticated enough to have lost his unaffected delight in strong bright colours and meaningless twistings of ornament4 ,be that as it may1 the figure work of the thirteenth century window designer is distinctly less perfect than his scrolls and suchlike1 partly1 it is true1 because of his inadequate figure drawing1 but partly also because his materials were not well adapted to anything remotely like pictorial representation4 ,the figures in his subjects have1 as before said1 to be cut out against the background in order to be intelligible4 ,hence a stiff and ultra-formal scheme of design1 and also a certain exaggeration of attitude1 which in the hands of a nave and sometimes almost childish draughtsman becomes absolutely grotesque4 ,this is most strikingly the case in the larger figures1 sometimes considerably over lifesize1 standing all in a row in the clerestory lights of some of the great ,french cathedrals4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,,lyons4 ,the scale of these figures gave opportunity 7heads all-of-a-piece show that it did not actually make it a necessity7 for glazing the faces in several pieces of glass2 and it was quite the usual thing1 as at ,lyons 7opposite7 to glaze the flesh in pinkish-brown1 the beard in white or grey or yellow or some dark colour--not seldom blue1 which had at a distance very much the value of black--and the eyes in white4 ,sometimes even1 as at ,reims1 the iris of the eye was not represented by a blot of paint but was itself glazed in blue4 ,the effect of this might have been happier if the lines of the painting had been more of the same strength as the leads1 and so strong enough to support them4 ,as it is1 the great white eyes start out of the picture and spoil it4 ,they have a way of glaring at you fixedly2 there is no speculation in their stare2 they look more like huge goggles than live eyes4 ,and it is not these only which are grotesque2 the smaller figures in subject windows are1 for the most part1 rude and crude1 to a degree which precludes one1 or any one but an archologist pur sang1 from taking them seriously as figure design4 ,they are often really not so much like human figures as bogies1 ugly enough to frighten a child4 ,what is more to be deplored is that they are so ugly as actually to have frightened away many a would-be artist in glass from the study of them--a study really essential to the proper understanding of his mtier2 for repellant as those bogey figures may be1 they show more effectually than later1 more attractive1 and much more accomplished painting1 the direction in which the glass painter should go1 and must go1 if he wants to make figures tell1 say1 in the clerestory of a great church4 ,apart from the halo of sentiment about the earliest work--and who shall say how much of that sentiment we bring to it ourselves8--apart from the actual picturesqueness--and how much of that is due to age and accident8--there is in the earliest glass a feeling for the material and a sense of treatment seldom found in the work of more accomplished glass painters4 ,if there is not actually more to be learnt from it than from later and more consummate workmanship1 there is at least no danger of its teaching a false gospel1 as that may do4 ,from the grossest and most archaic figures1 ungainly in form and fantastic in feature1 stiff in pose and extravagant in action1 out of all proportion to their place in the window1 there are at least two invaluable lessons to be learnt--the value of broad patches of unexpected colour1 interrupting that monotony of effect to which the best-considered schemes of ornament incline1 and the value of simplicity1 directness1 and downright rigidity of design4 ,severity of design is essential to largeness of style2 it brings the glass into keeping with the grandeur of a noble church1 into tune with the solemn chords of the organ4 ,modern windows may sometimes astound us by their aggressive cleverness1 the old soothe and satisfy at the same time that they humble the devout admirer4 ,the confused effect of ,early glass 7except when the figures are on a very large scale7 is commonly described as kaleidoscopic4 ,that is not a very clever description1 and it is rather a misleading one4 ,for1 except in the case of the rose or wheel windows1 common in ,france1 ,early glass is not designed on the radiating lines which the kaleidoscope inevitably gives4 ,it is enough for the casual observer that the effect is made up of broken bits of bright colour2 and if they happen to occupy a circular space the likeness is complete to him4 ,but to know the lines on which an ,early ,gothic window was built1 is to see1 through all confusion of effect1 the evidence of design1 and to resent the implication of thoughtless mechanism implied in the word kaleidoscopic4 ,nevertheless1 little as the medival glaziers meant it--they were lavish of the thought they put into their art--their glass does often delight us1 something as the toy amuses children1 because the first impression it produces upon us is a sense of colour1 in which there is no too definite form to break the charm4 ,there comes a point in our satisfaction in mere beauty 7to some it comes sooner than to others--too soon1 perhaps7 at which we feel the want of a meaning in it--must find one1 or our pleasure in it is spoilt2 we even go so far as to put a meaning into it if it is not there2 but at first it is the mysterious which most attracts the imagination4 ,and even afterwards1 when the mystery is solved1 we are not sorry to forget its meaning for a while1 to be free to put our own interpretation upon beauty1 or to let it sway us without asking why1 just as we are moved by music which carries us we know not where1 we care not4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,painted ,,mosaic ,,glass4 ,the glass so far vaguely spoken of as ,early belongs to the period when the glazier designed his leads without thinking too much about painting4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,,chartres4 ,there followed a period when the workman gave about equal thought to the glazing and the painting of his window4 ,then came a time when he thought first of painting1 and glazing was a secondary consideration with him4 ,illustration3 #bh4 ,s4 ,,kunibert1 ,,cologne4 ,according as we contemplate glass painting from the earlier or the later standpoint1 from the point of view of glass or of painting1 we are sure to prefer one period to the other1 to glory perhaps in the advance of painting1 or to regret the lesser part that coloured glass eventually plays in the making of a window4 ,to claim for one or the other manner that it is the true and only way1 were to betray the prejudice of the partizan4 ,each justifies itself by the masterly work done in it1 each is admirable in its way4 ,it is not until the painter began1 as he eventually did1 to take no thought of the glass he was using1 and the way it was going to be glazed1 that he can be said with certainty to have taken the downward road in craftsmanship4 ,we shall come to that soon enough2 meanwhile1 throughout the ,gothic period at least1 he kept true to a craftsmanlike ideal1 and never quite forsook the traditions of earlier workmanship2 and until well into the fourteenth century he began1 we may say1 with glazing4 ,in the fourteenth century borders overleaf and in the figure on page #dg1 no less than in the earlier examples on pages #dc and #df1 the glazing lines fulfil a very important part in the design1 emphasising the outlines of the forms1 if they do not of themselves form an actual pattern4 ,naturally1 once the glazier resorted to the use of paint1 he schemed his leads with a view to supplementary painting1 and had always a shrewd idea as to the details he meant to add2 but it will be clear to any one with the least experience in design that a man might map out the leadwork of such borders as those shown below with only the vaguest idea as to how he was going to fill them in with paint1 and yet be sure of fitting them with effective foliage4 ,so the architectural canopies on pages #acd1 #ace1 #aed1 were pretty surely first blocked out according to their lead lines2 and not till the design was thus mapped out in colour did the designer begin to draw the detail of his pinnacles and crockets4 ,the invariable adherence to a traditional type of design made it the easier for him to keep in mind the detail to come4 ,for he had not so much to imagine as to remember4 ,he was free1 however1 always to follow any spontaneous impulse of design4 ,illustration3 #bi4 ,s4 ,,ouen1 ,,rouen4 ,it was told in ,chapter ,,iv4 how1 in the beginning1 pigment was used only to paint out the light1 to emphasise drawing1 and to give detail--such as the features of the face1 the curls of the hair1 and so on4 ,that was the ruling idea of procedure4 ,in practice1 however1 it is not very easy to paint perfectly solid lines on glass4 ,at the end of a stroke always1 and whenever the brush is not charged full of colour1 the lines insensibly get thin1 not perfectly opaque1 that is to say2 and so1 in spite of himself1 the painter would continually be obtaining something like translucency--a tint1 in fact1 and not a solid brown4 ,not to have taken advantage of this half tint1 would have been to prove himself something less than a good workman1 less than a reasonable one2 and he did from the first help out his drawing by a smear of paint1 more or less in the nature of shading4 ,in flesh painting of the twelfth century 7or attributed to that early date7 there are indications of such shading1 used1 however1 with great moderation1 and only to supplement the strong lines of solid brown in which the face was mainly drawn4 ,the features were first very determinedly drawn in line 7traced is the technical term71 and then1 by way of shade1 a slight scum of paint was added4 ,still1 in thirteenth century work1 there is frequently no evidence of such shading2 the painter has been quite content with the traced line4 ,in the fourteenth century a looser kind of handling is observed4 ,the painter would trace a head in not quite solid lines of brown1 and then strengthen them here and there with perfectly opaque colour1 producing by that means a much softer quality of line4 ,in any case1 the painting until well into the century was at the best rude1 and the half tint1 such as it was1 used1 one may say1 to be smeared on4 ,here again practice followed the line of least resistance4 ,it was difficult with the appliances then in use to paint a gradated tint which would give the effect of modelling2 and accordingly very little of the kind was attempted4 ,eventually1 however1 the painter began to stipple his smear of shadow1 at once softening it and letting light into it4 ,towards the end of the century this stippling process was carried a step further4 ,it occurred to the workman to coat his glass all over 7or all of it except what was meant to remain quite clear7 with thin brown1 and then1 with a big dry brush1 dab it until it assumed a granular or stippled surface 7darker or lighter1 according to the amount of stippling74 ,this was not only more translucent than the smeared colour but more easily graduated1 and capable of being so manipulated1 and so softened at the edges1 as readily to give a very fair amount of modelling4 ,this shading was often supplemented by dark lines or hatchings put in with a brush1 as well as by lines scraped out of the tint to lighten it4 ,but in any case there was for a while nothing like heavy shading4 ,even in work belonging to the fifteenth century1 and especially in ,english glass1 as at ,york1 ,cirencester1 ,ross1 c41 it is quite a common thing to find that the drawing is mainly in line1 very delicately done1 helped out by the merest hint of shading in tint4 ,this glass is sometimes a little flat in effect1 and it is not equal in force to contemporary foreign work2 but it is peculiarly refined in execution1 and it has qualities of glass-like sparkle and translucency which more than make amends for any lack of solidity in painting4 ,solidity is just the one thing we can best dispense with in glass4 ,illustration3 #cj4 ,,salisbury4 ,a comparison of the two borders on pages #ch and #age1 both ,german work1 will show how little difference of principle there was between the thirteenth century craftsman and his immediate successor4 ,the difference in style between the two is strikingly marked--the one is quite ,romanesque in character1 the detail of the other is comparatively naturalistic2 but when you come to look at the way they are executed1 the way the glazing is mapped out1 the way the leads emphasise the outlines1 whilst paint is only used to make out details which lead could not give--you will see that the new man has altered his mind more with regard to what he wants to do in glass than as to how he wants to do it4 ,very much might be said with regard to the two figures on this page and the opposite4 ,the ,french designer has departed from the archaic composition of the earlier ,englishman1 and put more life and action into his figure1 but there is very little difference in the technique of the two men1 less than appears in the illustrations2 for1 as it happens1 one drawing aims at giving the lines of the glass1 the other at showing its effect4 ,the fourteenth century figure on page #ea relies more than these last upon painting4 ,the folds of the saint's tunic1 for example1 are not merely traced in outline1 but there is some effect of modelling in them4 ,it will be instructive also to compare the fourteenth century hop pattern on page #agc with the fourteenth century vine on page #cfd1 and the fifteenth century example on page #cde4 ,in the first the method of proceeding is almost as strictly mosaic as though it had been a scroll of the preceding century4 ,leaves1 stalks1 and fruits are glazed in light colour upon dark1 and bounded by the constructional lines of lead4 ,in the second1 though the main forms are still outlined by the leads1 much greater use is made of paint3 the topmost leaf is in one piece of glass with the stalk of the tree1 and all the leaves are relieved by means of shading4 ,in the third the artist has practically drawn his vine scroll1 and then thought how best he could glaze it2 and the leads come very much as they may4 ,this last-mentioned proceeding is typical of a period not yet under discussion1 but the second illustrates very fairly the supplementary use of paint made in the fourteenth century4 ,illustration3 #ca4 ,s4 ,,urbain1 ,,troyes4 ,a rather unusual but suggestive form of fourteenth century glazing is shown on page #agf4 ,it was the almost invariable practice at this period1 as in the preceding centuries1 to distinguish the pattern1 whether of scroll or border1 by relieving it against a background of contrasting colour1 usually light against dark2 but here the border is varicoloured1 without other ground than the opaque pigment used for painting out the forms of the leaves1 etc41 and filling in between them4 ,the method lends itself only to design in which the forms are so closely packed as to leave not too much ground to be filled in4 ,a fair amount of solid paint about the leaves and stalks does no harm4 ,a good deal was used in ,early work1 and it results in happier effects than when minute bits of background are laboriously leaded in4 ,the main point is--and it is one the early glaziers very carefully observed--that the glass through which the light is allowed to come should not be made dirty with paint4 ,it was mentioned before 7page #ce7 how1 from the first1 a background would be painted solid and a diaper picked out of it4 ,further examples of that are shown overleaf and on pages #hh and #ajc1 though1 as will be seen1 a considerable portion of the glass is by this means obscured1 the effect is still brilliant2 and in proportion as lighter and brighter tints of glass came into use1 it became more and more necessary2 in fact1 it never died out4 ,the diaper opposite belongs to the fifteenth century1 and the minuter of the three diapers above1 as well as those on pages #hh and #ajc1 belong to the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,,diapers ,,scratched ,,out4 ,now that the reader may be presumed to have a perfectly clear idea of the process of the early glazier1 and to realise the distinctly mosaic character of old glass1 it is time mention should be made of two important intermediate methods of glass staining which presently began to affect the character of stained glass windows4 ,allusion has been made 7page #b7 to the ,roman practice of making glass in strata of two colours1 which they carved cameo-fashion in imitation of onyx and the like2 at least1 one tour de force of this kind is familiar to every one in the famous ,portland vase1 in which the outer layer of white glass is in great part ground away1 leaving the design in cameo upon dark blue4 ,the medival glass-blower seems from the first to have been acquainted with this method of coating a sheet of glass with glass of a different colour4 ,as the ,roman coated his dull blue with opaque white glass1 so he coated translucent white with rich pot-metal colour4 ,it was not a very difficult operation4 ,he had only to dip his lump of molten white into a pot of coloured glass1 and1 according to the quantity of coloured material adhering to it1 so his bubble of glass 7and consequently the sheet into which it was opened out7 was spread with a thinner or thicker skin of colour4 ,the ,gothic craftsman took advantage of this facility1 in so far as he had any occasion for its use4 ,the occasion arose owing to the density of the red glass he employed1 which was such that1 if he had made it of the thickness of the rest of his glass1 it would have been practically opaque4 ,to have made it very much thinner would have been to make it more fragile2 and in any case1 it was easier to make a good job of the glazing when the glass was all pretty much of a thickness4 ,a layer of red upon white offered a simple and practical way out of the difficulty4 ,what is called ruby glass1 therefore1 is not red all through1 but only throughout one half or a third of its thickness4 ,the colour is only1 so to speak1 the jam upon the bread2 but the red and the white glass are amalgamated at such a temperature as to be all but indivisible1 to all intents and purposes as thoroughly one as ordinary pot-metal glass4 ,illustration3 #cc4 ,,diaper ,,scratched ,,out4 ,for a long while glass painters used this ruby glass and a blue glass made in the same way precisely as though it had been self-coloured4 ,but in shaping a piece of ruby glass1 especially with their inadequate appliances1 they would be bound sometimes to chip off at the edges little flakes of red1 revealing as many little flaws of white4 ,this would be sure to suggest1 sooner or later1 the deliberate grinding away of the ruby stratum in places where a spot of white was needed smaller than could conveniently be leaded in4 ,as to the precise date at which some ingenious artist may first have used this device1 it may be left to archology to speculate4 ,it must have been a very laborious process2 and the early medival ideal of design was not one that offered any great temptation to resort to it during the thirteenth or even the fourteenth century4 ,it was not1 in fact1 until the painting of windows was carried to a point at which there was some difficulty in so scheming the lines of the lead that they should not in any way mar its delicacy1 that the practice of flashing glass1 as it is termed1 became common4 ,that is why no mention of it has been made till now4 ,it will be seen that it is a perfectly practical and workmanlike process1 rendering possible effects not otherwise to be got in glass1 but lending itself rather to minuteness of execution and elaboration of detail than to splendour of colour or breadth of effect4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba1 ,,fairford4 ,the second intermediate method of staining glass began earlier to affect the design and execution of windows2 and the character of fourteenth century glass is distinctly modified by it2 and1 curiously enough1 whilst flashing applied to red and blue glass1 this applies to yellow4 ,it was discovered about the beginning of the fourteenth century that white glass painted with a solution of silver would take in the kiln a pure transparent stain of yellow1 varying1 according to its strength and the heat of the furnace1 from palest lemon to deepest orange4 ,observe that this yellow stain is neither an enamel nor a pot-metal colour1 but literally a stain1 the only stain used upon glass4 ,in pot-metal the stain 7if it may be so called7 is in the glass1 this is upon it4 ,but it is absolutely indelible2 it can only be removed with the surface of the glass itself2 time has no more effect upon it than if the glass were coated with yellow pot-metal4 ,this silver stain was not only of a singularly pure and delicate colour1 compared to which pot-metal yellows were hot and harsh1 but it had all the variety of a wash of water-colour1 shading off by imperceptible degrees from dark to light1 and that so easily that the difficulty would have been in getting a perfectly flat tint4 ,illustration3 #ce4 ,s4 ,,gregory1 ,,all ,,souls' ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,moreover1 it could be as readily traced in lines or little touches of colour as it could be floated on in broad surfaces4 ,by its aid it was as easy to render the white pearls on a bishop's golden mitre as to give the golden hair of a white-faced angel1 or to relieve a white figure against a yellow ground--and all without the use of intervening lead4 ,illustration3 #cf4 ,,diaper ,,in ,,white ,,and ,,stain1 ,,all ,,saints' ,,church1 ,,york4 ,it is not surprising that such a discovery had a very important effect upon the development of the glass painter's practice4 ,by means of it were produced extraordinarily beautiful effects1 as of gold and silver1 peculiarly characteristic of later ,gothic work4 ,the crockets and finials of white canopies would be touched with it as with gold1 the hair of angels and the crowns of kings2 or the nimbus itself would be stained1 the head now being habitually painted on one piece of white glass with the nimbus4 ,the crown and the pearl-edged head-band of the ,queen of ,sheba1 from ,fairford1 7page #ej71 are stained upon the white glass out of which the head is cut4 ,in the figure of ,s4 ,gregory on page #ea the triple crown is stained yellow1 and so is the nimbus of the bull1 whose wings also are shaded in stain varying from light to dark4 ,of the elaborate diapering of white drapery1 with patterns in rich stain1 more and more resorted to as the fifteenth century advanced1 a specimen is here given1 in which the design is figured in white upon a yellow ground1 outlined with a delicately traced line of brown4 ,stain was seldom used on white without such outline4 ,in the end white and stain predominated4 ,early glass was likened to jewellery2 now the jewels seem to be set in gold and silver4 ,there was a loss in dignity and grandeur1 but there was a gain in gaiety and brightness4 ,how far stain encouraged the more abundant use of white glass which prevailed in the fifteenth century it might be rash to say2 at any rate1 it fitted in to perfection with the tendency of the times1 which was ever more and more in the direction of light1 until the later ,gothic windows became1 in many instances1 not so much coloured windows as windows of white and stain enclosing panels or pictures in colour4 ,even in these pictures very often not more than about one-third of the glass was in rich colour4 ,and not only was more white glass used1 but the white itself was purer and more silvery1 lighter1 and at the same time thinner1 giving occasion and excuse for that more delicate painting which perhaps was one great reason for the change in its quality4 ,at all events1 the more transparent character of the material necessitated more painting than was desirable in the case of the hornier texture of the older make4 ,hence the prevalence of diaper already referred to4 ,by the latter half of the fifteenth century painting plays a very important part in stained glass windows4 ,we have arrived at a period when it is no longer subsidiary to mosaic2 still it has not yet begun to take precedence of it4 ,the artist is now a painter1 and he relies for much of his effect upon painting2 but he is a glazier1 too1 and careful to make the most of what glass can do4 ,he designs invariably with a view to the glazing of his design1 and with full knowledge of what that means4 ,he knows perfectly well what can be done in glass1 and what cannot4 ,he has not yet carried painting to the perfection to which it came eventually to be carried1 but neither has he begun to rely upon it for what can best be done in mosaic4 ,he can scarcely be said to prefer one medium to another2 he uses both to equally workmanlike purpose4 ,he does not1 like the early glazier1 design in lead any longer1 but neither does he leave the consideration of leading till after he has designed his picture1 as painters came subsequently to do4 ,it amounts1 it might be thought1 to much the same thing whether the artist begins with his lead lines and works up to his painting1 as at first he did1 or begins with his painting and works up to the leads1 as became the practice1--so long as in either case he has always in mind the after-process1 and works with a view to it4 ,but the truth seems to be that few men have ever a thing quite so clearly in their minds as when they have it in concrete form before their eyes4 ,the glazier may reckon upon the paint to come1 but he does not rely upon it quite so much as the painter who starts with the idea of painting4 ,illustration3 #cg4 ,,nativity1 ,,great ,,malvern4 ,the later ,gothic artists gradually got into the way of thinking more and more of the painting upon their glass4 ,in the end1 they thought of it first1 and there resulted from their doing so quite a different kind of design1 apart from change due to modifications of architectural style2 but so long as the ,gothic tradition lasted--and it survived until well into the sixteenth century1 in work even which bears the brand of typical ,renaissance ornament--so long the glazing of a window was in no degree an after-thought1 something not arranged for1 which had to be done as best it might4 ,it is apparent always to the eye at all trained in glass design that the composition even of the most pictorial subjects was very much modified1 where it was not actually suggested1 by considerations of glazing4 ,as more and more white glass came to be used1 it was more and more a tax upon the ingenuity of the designer so to compose his figures that his white should be conveniently broken up1 and the patches of colour he wanted should be held in place by leads which in no way interfered with his white glass2 for it is clear that1 in proportion as the white was delicately painted1 there would be brutality in crossing it haphazard by strong lines of lead not forming part of the design2 and to the last one of the most interesting things in medival design is to observe the foresight with which the glass-worker plans his colour for the convenience of glazing4 ,there is very skilful engineering in the subject from ,ross on page #cci4 ,it is not by accident that the hands of the hooded figure rest upon the shoulders of ,s4 ,edward1 or that1 together with his gold-brocaded surcoat and its ermine trimming1 his hands1 and the gilt-edged book he holds in them1 they fall into a shape so easy to cut in one piece4 ,scarcely less artful is the arrangement of the head of the bishop with his crosier and the collar of his robe all in one4 ,the glass painter has only to glance at such subjects as the ,nativity from ,great ,malvern 7page #ed71 or the ,day of ,creation from the same rich abbey church 7page #beb71 or at the figure of ,s4 ,gregory from ,all ,souls'1 ,oxford 7page #ea71 to see how the colour is planned from the beginning1 and planned with a view to the disposition of the lead lines4 ,in the ,nativity1 which is reproduced from a faithful tracing of the glass1 and is in the nature of a diagram1 the actual map of the glazing is very clear1 in spite of its disfigurement by leads which merely represent mending1 and form no part of the design4 ,there1 too1 may clearly be seen how the yellow radiance from the ,infant ,saviour is on the same piece of whitish glass on which the figure is painted4 ,in the ,creation and ,s4 ,gregory1 which are taken from careful water-drawings1 the effect of the glass is given1 and it is perceived how little the leads obtrude themselves upon the observation in the actual windows4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,these1 together with illustrations #ce1 #dd1 #ed1 #adb1 #aef1 #agd1 #aia1 #bjg1 #bcd1 are from the admirable collection of studies from old glass very kindly placed at my disposal by ,mr4 ,john ,r4 ,clayton1 himself a master of design in glass4 ,the ,preaching of ,s4 ,bernard from ,s4 ,mary's1 ,shrewsbury1 opposite1 is again disfigured by accidental leads1 where the glass has been repaired2 but it will serve to show how1 even when lead lines are as much as possible avoided1 they are always allowed for1 and even skilfully schemed4 ,many of the heads1 it will be noticed1 are painted upon the same pieces of white which does duty also for architectural background2 or white draperies are glazed in one piece with the white-and-yellow flooring2 yet the lead lines1 as originally designed1 seem to fall quite naturally into the outlines of the figures4 ,illustration3 #ch4 ,s4 ,,bernard ,,preaching1 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,a very characteristic piece of glazing occurs in the foreground figure1 forming a note of strong colour in the centre of the composition4 ,the way the man's face is included in the same piece of glass with the yellow groining of the arch1 while his coloured cap connects it with his body1 bespeaks a designer most expert in glazing1 and intent upon it always4 ,the danger in connection with a device of this kind1 very common in work of about the beginning of the sixteenth century--as1 for example1 in the very fine ,flemish glass at ,lichfield--is that1 being merely painted upon a white background1 and insufficiently supported by leads1 the head may seem not to belong to the strongly defined1 richly draped figure4 ,it is1 of course1 very much a question of making the outline strong enough to keep the leads in countenance4 ,the artist of the ,shrewsbury glass adopts another expedient at once to support the lead lines1 to connect his white and colour1 and to get the emphasis of dark touches just where he feels the want of them4 ,he makes occasional use of solid black by way of local colour1 as may be seen in the hood of the abbess and the shoes of the men to the right4 ,illustration3 #ci4 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,in another subject from ,shrewsbury 7here given71 in the bodice of the harpist1 and the head gear of the figures on page #ajd1 effective use is made of these points of black4 ,so long as they remain mere points1 the end justifies the means1 and there is nothing to be said against their introduction2 they are entirely to the good2 but such use of solid pigment is valuable mainly in subjects of quite small size1 such as these are4 ,it would be obviously objectionable if any considerable area of white glass were thus obscured4 ,the glass referred to at ,shrewsbury1 ,malvern1 and ,oxford is of later date than much work in which painting was carried further2 but there is here no question of style or period2 that is reserved for future consideration 7,book ,,ii474 ,the fact it is here desired to emphasise is1 that there was a time when glazier and painter took something like equal part in a window1 or1 to speak more precisely1 there were for a while windows in which the two took such equal part that each seemed to rely upon the other2 when1 if the artist was a painter he was a glazier too4 ,very likely they were two men4 ,if so1 they must have worked together on equal terms1 and without rivalry1 neither attempting to push his cleverness to the front1 each regardful of the other1 both working to one end--which was not a mosaic1 nor a painting1 nor a picture1 but a window4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,glass ,,painting 7,,medi,,val74 ,the end of the fifteenth century brings us to the point at which painting and glazing are most evenly matched1 and1 in so far1 to the perfection of stained-and-painted glass1 but not yet to the perfection of glass painting4 ,that was reserved for the sixteenth century1 when art was under the influence of the ,renaissance4 ,glass painting followed always the current of more modern thought1 and drifted picturewards4 ,even in the fourteenth century it was seen that there was a fashion of naturalism in design1 in the fifteenth there was an ever-increasing endeavour to realise natural form1 and not natural form alone2 for1 in order to make the figure stand out in its niche1 it became necessary to show the vault in perspective4 ,it was obviously easier to get something like pictorial relief by means of painting than in mosaic1 which accordingly fell by degrees into subordination1 and the reign of the glass painter began4 ,it must be admitted that at the beginning of the sixteenth century there was still room for improvement in painting1 and that to the realisation of the then pictorial ideal stronger painting was actually necessary4 ,perhaps the ideal was to blame2 but even in ,gothic glass1 still severely architecturesque in design1 more painting became1 as before said1 necessary1 as greater use was made of white1 and that painting stronger1 in proportion as the material used became thinner and clearer4 ,but though the aim of the glass painter was pictorial1 the pictorial ideal was not so easily to be attained in glass2 and so1 though the painter reigned supreme1 his dominion was not absolute4 ,the glazier was in the background1 it is true1 but he was always there1 and his influence is very strongly felt4 ,the pictures of the glass painter are1 consequently1 still pictures in glass1 for the painter was still dependent upon pot-metal for the greater part of his colour2 and he knew it1 and was wise enough to accept the situation1 and1 if he did not actually paint his own glass1 to design only what could1 at all events1 be translated into glass4 ,he not only continued to use pot-metal for his colour1 but he made every possible use of it to his end1 finding in it resources which his predecessors had not developed4 ,his range of colours was extended almost indefinitely1 and he used his glass with more discretion4 ,he took every advantage of the accidental variety in the glass itself4 ,no sheet of pot-metal was equal in tint from end to end2 it deepened towards the selvedge1 and was often much darker at one end than the other4 ,it ranged perhaps from ruby to pale pink1 from sea-green to smoky-black4 ,this gradation of tint wisely used was of great service in giving something like shadow without the aid of paint1 and it was used with great effect--in the dragons1 for example1 which the medival artist delighted to depict--as a means of rendering the lighter tones of the creature's belly4 ,supposing the beast were red1 the glass painter would perhaps assist the natural inequality of the glass by abrading the ruby1 by which means he could almost model the form in red4 ,if it were a blue dragon he might adopt the same plan2 or1 if it were green1 by staining his blue glass at the same time yellow1 he could get every variety of shade from yellow to blue-green4 ,every casual variety of colour would be employed to equal purpose4 ,even the glass-blower's flukes came in most usefully1 not merely1 as before1 to break the colour of a background accidentally1 but as local colour4 ,sheets of glass1 for example1 which came out1 instead of blue or ruby1 of some indescribable tint1 streaked and flecked with brighter and darker colour1 until they were like nothing so much as marble1 were introduced with magnificent effect into the pillars of the architecture which now formed so prominent a feature in window design4 ,the beauty and fitness of this marble colour is eventually such as to suggest that the glass-blower must in the end deliberately have fired at this kind of fluke4 ,beautiful as were the effects of white and stain produced in the middle of the fourteenth century1 it was put now to fuller and more gorgeous use4 ,draperies were diapered in the most elaborate fashion2 a bishop's cope would be as rich as the gold brocade it imitated2 patterns were designed in two or even three shades of stain1 which1 in combination with white and judicious touches of opaque-brown1 were really magnificent4 ,occasionally1 as at ,montmorency--but this is rarer--the painter did not merely introduce his varied stain in two or three separate shades1 nor yet float it on so as to get accidental variety1 but he actually painted in it1 modelling his armour in it1 until it had very much the effect of embossed gold4 ,in some ornamental arabesque1 which does duty for canopy work at ,conches1 in ,normandy1 this painting in stain is carried still further1 the high lights being scraped out so as to give glittering points of white among the yellow4 ,the result of this is not always very successful2 but where it is skilfully and delicately done nothing could be more brilliantly golden in effect4 ,it is curious that this silver came to be used in glass just as goldleaf was used in other decorative painting2 in fact1 its appearance is more accurately described as golden than as yellow1 just as the white glass of the sixteenth century has a quality which inevitably suggests silver4 ,it was stated just now that blue glass could be stained green4 ,it is not every kind of glass which takes kindly to the yellow stain4 ,a glass with much soda in its composition1 for example1 seems to resist the action of the silver2 but such resistance is entirely a question of its chemical ingredients1 and has only to do with its colour in so far as that may depend upon them4 ,apart from glass of such antipathetic constitution1 it is quite as easy to stain upon coloured glass as upon white2 and1 if the coloured glass be not too dark in colour to be affected by it1 precisely the same effect is produced as by a glaze or wash of yellow in oil or water-colour4 ,thus we get blue draperies diapered with green1 blue-green diapered with yellow-green1 and purple with olive1 in addition to quite a new development of landscape treatment4 ,a subject was no longer represented on a background of ruby or dense blue1 but against a pale grey-blue glass1 which stood for sky1 and upon it was often a delicately painted landscape1 the trees and distant hills stained to green4 ,stain was no less useful in the foreground4 ,by the use of blue glass stained1 instead of pot-metal green1 it was easy to sprinkle the green grass with blue flowers1 all without lead4 ,it was by the combination of stain with abrasion that the most elaborately varied effects were produced4 ,the painter could now not only stain his blue glass green 7and just so much of it as he wanted green71 but he could abrade the blue1 so as to get both yellow1 where the glass was stained1 and white where it was not4 ,thus on the same piece of glass he could depict among the grass white daisies and yellow buttercups and bluebells blue as nature1 he could give even the yellow eye of the daisy and its green calyx2 and1 by judicious modification of his stain1 he could make the leaves of the flowers a different shade of green from the grass about them4 ,the drawing of the flowers and leaves and blades of grass1 it need hardly be said1 he would get in the usual way1 tracing the outline with brown1 slightly shading with half tint1 and painting out only just enough of the ground to give value to his detail4 ,in spite of the tediousness of the process1 abrasion was now largely used--not only for the purpose of getting here and there a spot of white1 as in the eyes of some fiery devil in the representation of the ,last ,judgment1 but extensively in the form of diaper work1 oftenest in the forms of dots and spots 7the spotted petticoat of the woman taken in adultery in one of the windows at ,arezzo seems happily chosen to show that she is a woman of the people71 but also very frequently in the form of scroll or arabesque1 stained to look like a gold tissue1 or even to represent a garment stiff with embroidery and pearls4 ,often the pattern is in gold-and-white upon ruby or deep golden-brown1 or in white-and-gold and green upon blue1 and so on4 ,in heraldry it is no uncommon thing to see the ground abraded and the charge left in ruby upon white4 ,sometimes a small head would be painted upon ruby glass1 all of the colour being abraded except just one jewel in a man's cap4 ,stain and abrasion1 by means of which either of the three primaries can be got upon white1 afford1 it will be seen1 a workmanlike way of avoiding leadwork4 ,but there are other ways4 ,there is a window at ,montmorency in which the stigmata in the hands and foot of ,s4 ,francis are represented by spots of ruby glass inlaid or let into the white flesh1 with only a ring of lead to hold them in place4 ,it would never have occurred to a fourteenth century glazier to do that4 ,he would have felt bound to connect that ring of lead with the nearest glazing lines1 at whatever risk of marring his flesh painting2 but then1 his painting would not have been so delicate1 and would not in any case have suffered so much4 ,indeed1 the more delicate painting implies a certain avoidance of lead lines crossing it1 and hence some very difficult feats of glazing4 ,this kind of inlaying was never very largely used1 but on occasion not only a spot but even a ring of glass round it would be let in in this way4 ,there is a window at ,bourges in which the glories of the saints are inlaid with jewels of red1 blue1 green1 and violet1 which have more the effect of jewellery than if they had been glazed in the usual way4 ,whether it was worth the pains is another question4 ,a more usual1 and less excusable1 way of getting jewels of colour upon white glass was actually to anneal them to it4 ,by abrading the ground it was possible to represent rubies or sapphires1 surrounded by pearls1 in a setting of gold1 but not both rubies and sapphires4 ,in order to get this combination they would cut out little jewels of red and blue1 fix them temporarily in their place1 and fire the glass until these smaller 7and thinner7 pieces melted on to and almost into it2 the fusion1 however1 was seldom complete4 ,at this date some of the jewels--as1 for example1 at ,s4 ,michael's1 ,spurrier ,gate1 ,york--are usually missing--but for which accident one would have been puzzled to know for certain how this effect was produced4 ,the insecurity of this process of annealing is inevitable4 ,glass is in a perpetual state of contraction and expansion1 according to the variation of our changeable climate4 ,the white glass and the coloured cannot be relied upon to contract and expand in equal degree2 they are seldom1 in fact1 truly married4 ,the wedding ring of lead was safer4 ,sooner or later incompatibility of temper asserts itself1 and in the course of time they fidget themselves asunder4 ,all these contrivances to get rid of leads are evidence that the painter is coming more and more to the front in glass1 and that the glazier is retiring more and more into the background4 ,the avoidance of glazing follows1 as was said1 upon ultra-delicacy of painting1 and dependence upon paint follows from the doing away with leads4 ,we have thus not two new systems of work1 but two manifestations of one idea--pictorial glass4 ,the pictorial ideal inspired some of the finest glass painting--the windows of ,william of ,marseilles1 at ,arezzo1 to mention only one instance among many4 ,with the early ,renaissance glass we arrive at masterly drawing1 perfection of painting1 and pictorial design1 which is yet not incompatible with glass4 ,one may prefer to it1 personally1 a more downright kind of work2 but to deny such work its place1 and a very high place1 in art is to write oneself down a bigot at the least1 if not an ass4 ,it is not until the painter took to depending upon paint for strength as well as delicacy of effect1 trusting to it for the relief of his design1 that it is quite safe to say he was on the wrong tack4 ,towards the sixteenth century much more pronounced effects of modelling are aimed at1 and reached1 by the painter4 ,even in distinctly ,gothic work the flesh is strongly painted1 but not heavily4 ,in flesh painting1 at all events1 the necessity of keeping the tone of the glass comparatively light was a safeguard1 as yet1 against overpainting4 ,the actual method of workmanship became less and less like ordinary oil or water-colour painting4 ,it developed into a process of rubbing out rather than of laying on pigment4 ,it was told how the glass painter in place of smear shadow began to use a stippled tint4 ,the later glass painters made most characteristic use of matt1 as it was called4 ,having traced the outlines of a face1 and fixed it in the fire1 they would cover the glass with a uniform matt tint2 and1 when it was dry1 with a stiff hoghair brush scrub out the lights4 ,the high lights they would entirely wipe out1 the half tints they would brush partly away1 and so get their modelling1 always by a process of eliminating shadow4 ,the conscientious painter who meant to make sure his delicate tints would stand would submit this to a rather fierce fire1 out of which would come1 perhaps1 only the ghost of the face4 ,this he would strengthen by another matt brushed out in the same way as before1 and fire it again4 ,possibly it would require a third painting and a third fire2 that would depend upon the combined strength and delicacy at which he was aiming1 and upon the method of the man4 ,for1 though one may indicate the technique in vogue at a given time1 no one will suppose that painters at any time worked all in the same way4 ,some men no doubt could get more out of a single painting than others out of two2 some were daring in their method1 some timid2 some made more use than others of the stick for scraping out lines of light2 some depended more upon crisp touches with the sable tracer1 necessary1 in any case1 for the more delicate pencilling of the features2 some would venture upon the ticklish operation of passing a thin wash of colour over matt or stippling before it was fired1 at the risk of undoing all they had done--and so on1 each man according to his skill and according to his temperament4 ,but with whatever aid of scratching out lights1 or touching in darks1 or floating on tints1 the practice in the sixteenth century was mainly1 by a process of scrubbing lights out of matted or washed tints of brown1 to get very considerable modelling1 especially in flesh painting and in white draperies4 ,it is impossible in illustrations of the size here given to exemplify in any adequate manner the technique of the ,early ,renaissance glass painters1 but it is clear that the man who painted the small subject from the life of ,s4 ,bonnet1 in the church dedicated to that saint at ,bourges1 7page #baj7 was a painter of marked power4 ,a still finer example of painting is to be found in the head of ,william de ,montmorency 7opposite7 from the church of ,s4 ,martin at ,montmorency near ,paris1 really a masterpiece of portraiture1 full of character1 and strikingly distinguished in treatment4 ,there is at the ,louvre a painting of the same head which might well be the original of the glass4 ,if the glass painter painted the picture he was worthy to rank with the best painters of his day4 ,if the glass painter only copied it1 he was not far short of that1 for his skill is quite remarkable2 and the simple means by which he has rendered such details as the chain armour and the collar1 and the ,order of ,s4 ,michael1 supplementing the most delicate painting with touches of opaque colour1 which in less skilful hands would have been brutal1 show the master artist in glass painting4 ,here1 towards the end of the first quarter of the sixteenth century1 we have glass painting carried about as far as it can go1 and yet not straying beyond the limits of what can best be done in glass4 ,the apologists for the ,renaissance would attribute all such work as this to the new revival4 ,that would be as far wide of the mark as to claim for it that it was ,gothic4 ,the truth is1 there is no marked dividing line between ,gothic and ,renaissance4 ,it is only by the character of some perhaps quite slight monumental or architectural detail that we can safely classify a window of the early sixteenth century as belonging to one or the other style4 ,it belongs1 in fact1 to neither4 ,it is work of the transition period between the two4 ,gothic traditions lingered in the glass painter's shop almost as long as good work continued to be done there2 so much so1 that we may almost say that with those ,gothic traditions died the art itself4 ,for all that1 it is not to be disputed that the most brilliant achievements in glass painting were certainly in the new style and inspired by the new enthusiasm for art4 ,illustration3 #dj4 ,,guillaume ,,de ,,montmorency1 ,,montmorency4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,glass ,,painting 7,,renaissance74 ,the quality par excellence of ,renaissance glass was its painting2 its dependence upon paint was its defect4 ,until about the middle of the sixteenth century the painter goes on perfecting himself in his special direction1 neglecting1 to some extent1 considerations of construction on the one hand1 and of colour upon the other1 which cannot with impunity be ignored in glass1 but achieving pictorially such conspicuous success that there may be question1 among all but ardent admirers of glass that is essentially glass-like1 as to whether the loss1 alike in depth and in translucency of colour1 as well as of constructional fitness1 may not be fully compensated for by the gain in fulness of pictorial expression4 ,according as we value most the qualities of glass in glass1 or the qualities of a picture in no matter what material1 will our verdict be4 ,but there comes a point when the painter so far oversteps the limit of consistency1 so clearly attempts to do in glass what cannot be done in it1 so plainly sacrifices to qualities which he cannot get the qualities which stained glass offers him1 that he ceases to be any longer working in glass1 and is only attempting upon glass what had very much better have been done in some other and more congenial medium4 ,the event goes to prove the seductiveness of the pictorial idea1 and illustrates once more the danger of calling to your assistance a rival craft1 which1 by-and-by1 may oust you from your own workshop4 ,the consideration of the possibilities in the way of pictorial glass is reserved for a chapter by itself4 ,it concerns us for the moment only in so far as the pictorial intention affected1 as it very seriously did1 the technique of glass painting4 ,in pursuit of the pictorial the painter strayed from his allegiance to glass4 ,he learnt to depend upon his manipulation instead of upon his material2 and that facility of his in painting led him astray4 ,he not only began to use paint where before he would1 as a matter of course1 have glazed-in coloured glass1 but to lay it on so heavily as seriously to detract from that translucency which is the glory of glass4 ,it is rash to say1 at a glance1 whether glass has been too heavily painted or not4 ,i once made a careful note1 in writing1 that certain windows in the church of ,s4 ,alpin1 at ,chlons1 were over-painted4 ,after a lapse of two or three years ,i made another equally careful note to the effect that they were thin1 and wanted stronger painting4 ,it was not until1 determined to solve the mystery of these contradictory memoranda1 ,i went a third time to ,chlons1 that ,i discovered1 that with the light shining full upon them the windows were thin1 that by a dull light they were heavy1 and that by a certain just sufficiently subdued light they were all that could be desired4 ,there is indiscretion1 at least1 in painting in such a key that only one particular light does justice to your work2 but the artist in glass is always very much at the mercy of chance in this respect4 ,he cannot choose the light in which his work shall be seen1 and the painter of ,chlons may have been more unfortunate than in any way to blame4 ,there comes1 however1 a degree of heaviness in painted glass about which there can be no discussion4 ,when the paint is laid on so thick that under ordinary conditions of light the glass is obscure1 or when it is so heavy that the light necessary to illuminate it is more than is good for the rest of the window1 the bounds of moderation have surely been passed4 ,and in the latter half of the sixteenth century it was less and less the custom to take heed of considerations other than pictorial2 so that by degrees the translucency of glass was sacrificed habitually to strength of effect depending not so much upon colour1 which is the strength of glass1 as upon the relief obtained by shadow--just the one quality not to be obtained in glass painting4 ,for the quality of shadow depends upon its transparency2 and shadow painted upon glass1 through which the light is to come1 must needs be obscure1 must lack1 in proportion as it is dark1 the mysterious quality of light in darkness1 which is the charm of shadow4 ,the misuse of shading which eventually prevailed may best be explained by reference to its beginnings1 already in the first half of the century1 when most consummate work was yet being done4 ,for example1 in the masterpieces of ,bernard van ,orley1 at ,s4 ,gudule1 ,brussels--one of which is illustrated overleaf2 it is a mere diagram1 giving no idea of the splendour of the glass1 but it is enough to serve our purpose4 ,the execution of the window is1 in its kind1 equal to the breadth and dignity of the design4 ,the painter has done1 if not quite all that he proposed to do1 all that was possible in paint upon glass4 ,any fault to find in him1 then1 must be with what he meant to do1 not what he did4 ,to speak justly1 there is no fault to find with any one1 but only with the condition of things4 ,we have here1 associated with the glass painter1 a more famous artist1 the greatest of his time in ,flanders1 pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 court painter1 and otherwise distinguished4 ,it was not to be expected that he should be learned in all the wisdom of the glass painter1 nor yet1 human nature being what it is1 that he should submit himself1 lowly and reverently1 to the man better acquainted with the capacities of glass4 ,all that the glass painter could do was to translate the design of the master into glass as best he might1 not perhaps as best he could have done had there been no great master to consult in the matter4 ,this was not the first time1 by any means1 that the designer and painter of a window were two men4 ,there is no saying how soon that much subdivision of labour entered the glass worker's shop2 but so long as they were both practical men1 versed each in his art1 and1 to some extent1 each in the technique of the other1 it did not so much matter4 ,when the painter from outside was called in to design1 it mattered everything4 ,what could he be expected to care for technique other than his own8 ,what did he know about it8 ,he was only an amateur so far as glass was concerned2 and his influence made against workmanlikeness4 ,he may have done marvels2 he did marvels2 but his very mastery made things worse4 ,he bore himself so superbly that it was not seen what dangerous ground he trod on4 ,lesser men must needs all stumble along in his footsteps1 until they fell2 and in their fall they dragged their art with them4 ,illustration3 #da4 ,,mosaic ,,glass1 ,,arezzo4 ,the fault inherent in such work as the ,brussels windows is neither ,van ,orley's nor the glass painter's2 it is in the mistaken aim of the designer striving less for colour in his windows than for relief4 ,he succeeds in getting quite extraordinary relief1 but at the expense of colour1 which in glass is the most important thing4 ,the figures in the window illustrated are so strongly painted that even the white portions of their drapery stand out in dark relief against the pale grey sky4 ,that is not done1 you may be sure1 without considerable sacrifice of the light-giving quality of the glass4 ,it is at a similar cost that the white-and-gold architecture stands out in almost the solidity of actual stone against the plain white diamond panes above1 giving very much the false impression that it is placed in the window1 and that you see through its arches and behind it into space4 ,another very striking thing in the composition is the telling mass of shadow on the soffit of the central arch4 ,it produces its effect1 and a very strong one4 ,the festoons of yellow arabesque hanging in front of it tell out against it like beaten gold1 and the rather poorish grey-blue background to the figures beneath it has by comparison an almost atmospheric quality4 ,it is all very skilfully planned as light and dark2 but there is absolutely no reason why that shadow should have been produced by heavy paint4 ,under certain conditions of light there are1 it is true1 gleams of light amidst this shadow4 ,you can make out that the roof is coffered1 and can perceive just a glow of warm colour2 but most days and most of the day it is dead1 dull1 lifeless1 colourless4 ,the points to note are3 7#a7 that this painted shadow must of necessity be dull2 and 7#b7 that on work of this scale at all events 7the figures here are very much over lifesize71 this abandonment of the mosaic method was not in the slightest degree called for4 ,on the contrary1 the simpler1 easier1 and more workmanlike thing to do would have been to glaze-in the shadow with deep rich pot-metal glass4 ,that was done in earlier glass1 and in glass of about the same period as this4 ,illustration3 #db4 ,,renaissance ,,window1 ,s4 ,,gudule1 ,,brussels4 ,for example1 at ,lige1 where there are beautiful windows of about the same period1 very similar in design1 the glass is altogether lighter and more brilliant1 partly owing to the use of paint with a much lighter hand1 but yet more to greater reliance upon pot-metal4 ,in the ,church of ,s4 ,jacques1 as at ,s4 ,gudule1 there are arched canopies with festoons in bright relief against a background of shadowed soffit2 but there the shadow is obtained by glazing-in pot-metal1 which has all the necessary depth1 and is yet luminous and full of colour4 ,so also the deeply shadowed architectural background to the representation of the ,daughter of ,herodias dancing before ,herod1 in the ,church of ,s4 ,vincent1 at ,rouen 7overleaf71 is leaded up in deep purple glass1 through which you get peeps of distant atmospheric blue beyond4 ,and this was quite a common practice among ,french glass painters of the early half of the sixteenth century--as at ,auch1 at ,ecouen1 at ,beauvais1 at ,conches1 where the architecture in shadow is leaded in shades of purple or purplish glass1 which leave little for the painter to do upon the pot-metal4 ,at ,freiburg1 in ,germany1 there is a window designed on lines very similar indeed to ,van ,orley's work1 in which the shadowed parts are glazed in shades of deep blue and purple4 ,in ,italy it was the custom1 already in the fifteenth century1 to lead-in deep shadows in pot-metal2 and they did not readily depart from it4 ,surely that is the way to get strong effects1 and not by paint4 ,you may take it as a test of workmanlike treatment1 that the darks have been glazed-in1 where it was possible1 and not merely painted upon the glass4 ,there is some misconception about what is called ,renaissance glass4 ,glass painting was not native to ,italy1 and was never thoroughly acclimatised there1 any more than ,gothic architecture1 to which it was--the handmaid ,i was going to say1 but better say the standard-bearer4 ,much glass was accordingly executed in ,italy in defiance1 not only of all tradition1 but of all consistency and self-restraint4 ,but even in ,italy you will find sixteenth century glass as workmanlike as can be4 ,the details from ,arezzo and ,bologna1 above1 overleaf1 and on page #bff1 are pronouncedly ,renaissance in type1 but the method employed by the glass painter is as thoroughly mosaic as though he had worked in the thirteenth century4 ,not less glazier-like in treatment are the ,french ,renaissance details from ,rouen1 on pages #ge and #cdg1 from which it may be seen that a workmanlike treatment of glass was not confined to ,gothic glaziers4 ,it was less a question of style1 in the historic sense1 than of the men's acquaintance with the traditions of good work1 and their readiness to accept the situation4 ,illustration3 #dc4 ,,mosaic ,,glass1 ,,arezzo4 ,possibly the ,netherlandish love of light and shade--and especially of shade--may account for the character of the ,brussels glass4 ,against that it should be said that1 elsewhere in ,flanders1 splendid glass was being done about the same time1 less open to the charge of being too heavily painted--at ,lige1 for example4 ,but everywhere1 and perhaps more than anywhere in the ,netherlands1 which became presently a great centre of glass painting1 the tendency1 towards the latter part of the century1 was in the direction of undue reliance upon paint2 of which came inevitably one of two things--either the shaded parts were heavy1 dirty1 and opaque1 or they were weak and washy in effect4 ,if1 by means of painting1 an artist can get 7as he can7 something worth getting not otherwise to be got1 though we may differ as to the relative value of what he gains and what he sacrifices1 it would be hard to deny him his preference1 and his right to follow it2 but if by painting on glass he attempts to get what could better be expressed by working in it1 then clearly he has strayed 7as ,van ,orley did7 from the straight path1 as glass-workers read the map4 ,illustration3 #dd4 ,,salome1 ,s4 ,,vincent1 ,,rouen4 ,it is rather a curious thing that the avoidance of leading1 the dependence upon glazing and paint1 should manifest itself especially in windows designed on such a scale that it would have been quite easy to get all that was got in paint1 and more1 by the introduction of coloured glass2 in windows1 for example1 on the scale of those at ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 with figures much over lifesize1 where the artist1 you can see1 has been afraid of leading1 and has shirked it4 ,evidently he did not realise for how little the leads would count in the glass4 ,he does not in that case fall into the error of painting with too heavy a hand1 but he trusts too much to paint--a trust so little founded that the paint has oftentimes perished1 much to the disfigurement of his picture4 ,illustration3 #de4 ,,renaissance ,,mosaic ,,glass4 ,the ,french glass painters of about the same period1 though working upon a smaller scale1 did not depart in the same way from the use of glazing2 and where they did resort to painting1 it was often with a view to a refinement of detail not otherwise to be obtained1 as in the case of the delicate landscape backgrounds painted upon pale blue1 which have a beauty all their own4 ,there is here no intention whatever of disparaging such work as that at ,s4 ,gudule4 ,any one capable of appreciating what is strongest and most delicate in glass must have had such keen delight in them that there is something almost like ingratitude in saying anything of them but what is in their praise4 ,but the truth remains4 ,here is a branching off from old use2 here the painter begins to wander from the path1 and to lead after him generations of glass painters to come4 ,it takes1 perhaps1 genius to lead men hopelessly astray6 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,enamel ,,painting4 ,the excessive use of opaque paint was not so much a new departure as the exaggeration of a tendency which had grown with the growth of glass painting itself4 ,the really new thing in glass painting about this time was the introduction of enamel4 ,when glass painters were resorting1 not only to opaque painting1 but to abrasion1 annealing1 or whatever would relieve them from the difficulty of getting in mosaic glass the pictorial effect which was more and more their ruling thought1 when glazing had become to them a difficulty 7to the early glass-workers it was a resource71 it was inevitable that they should think about painting on glass in colour4 ,accordingly towards the middle of the sixteenth century they began to use enamel4 ,this was the decisive turning-point of the art4 ,in theory the process of painting in enamel is simple enough4 ,you have only to grind coloured glass to impalpable dust1 mix it with fat oil1 or gum-and-water1 and paint with it upon white or tinted glass2 in the furnace the medium will be fired away1 and the particles of coloured glass will melt and adhere1 more or less firmly1 to the heated sheet of glass to which they have been applied4 ,this theory glass painters began to put into practice4 ,in the beginning they used enamel only tentatively1 first of all in the flesh tints4 ,it had been the custom since the fourteenth century to paint flesh always upon white or whitish glass in the ordinary brown pigment2 and something of the simple dignity and monumental character of old glass is due1 no doubt1 to that and similar removedness from nature4 ,gradually the fashion was introduced of painting the flesh in red instead of brown4 ,in one sense this was no such very new thing to do4 ,the ordinary brown pigment spoken of all along is itself enamel1 although it has been thought better not to speak of it by that name for fear of confusion4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as this was the use of a pigment to get not merely flesh painting but flesh tint--that is to say1 colour--it was a step in quite a new direction4 ,pictorially it offered considerable advantages to the painter4 ,he could not only get1 without lead1 contrast of colour between a head and the white ground upon which it was painted1 or the white drapery about it1 but he could very readily give the effect of white hair or beard in contrast to ruddy flesh1 and so on4 ,there is a fragment at the ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs at ,paris1 attributed to ,jean ,cousin1 #aeca1 in which a turbaned head appears to have been cut out of a piece of purplish-blue glass1 the flesh abraded1 and then painted in red1 the lips still redder1 whilst the beard is painted on the blue1 which shades off into the cheeks in the most realistic manner4 ,very clever things were done in this way1 always in the realistic direction2 but down to the middle of the century1 and even later1 there were always some painters who remained faithful to the traditional cool brown colour4 ,a rather happy mean between warm and cold flesh is found at ,auch 7#aeac71 where warmish enamel upon grey-blue or greenish glass gives modelling and variety of colour in the flesh1 which is yet never hot4 ,well-chosen pieces of glass are made use of1 in which the darker half comes in happily for the bearded part of a man's face4 ,so1 also1 the head of the ,virgin at the foot of the cross is painted upon grey1 which tells as such in her coif1 shaded with a cooler brown1 but only deepens and saddens her face1 and intensifies the contrast with the ,magdalen4 ,occasionally one of these heads comes out too blue1 but at the worst it is better than the hot1 foxy flesh painting which became the rule4 ,painting in colour upon glass could naturally not stop at flesh red4 ,it was used for pale blue skies1 at first only to get a more delicate gradation from pale pot-metal colour to white1 but eventually for the sky throughout the picture4 ,in connection with yellow stain it gave a green for distant landscape4 ,enamel was used in ornament to give the colour of fruits and flowers in garlands and the like1 and generally for elaboration of detail1 which1 if not trivial1 was of small account in serious decoration4 ,for a while there were glass painters who remained proof against its seduction4 ,it was not till the latter half of the sixteenth century that glass painters generally began seriously to substitute enamel for pot-metal1 and to rely upon paint1 translucent as well as opaque4 ,even then they could not do without pot-metal1 avoid it as they might4 ,the really strong men1 such as the ,crabeth ,brothers1 at ,gouda1 by no means abandoned the old method1 but they relied so much upon paint as to greatly obscure the glory of their glass4 ,the ,gouda windows1 which bring us to the seventeenth century1 contain among them the most daring things in glass extant4 ,they prove that a subject can be rendered more pictorially than one would have conceived to be possible in glass1 but they show also what cannot be done in it2 in fact1 they may be said to indicate1 as nearly as can be1 the limits of the practicable4 ,what artists of this calibre could not do we may safely pronounce to be beyond the scope of glass painting1 even with the aid of enamel4 ,illustration3 #df4 ,,the ,,baptism1 ,,gouda4 ,no skill of painting could make otherwise than dull the masses of heavily painted white glass employed to represent the deep shade of the receding architecture in the upper part of the window on page #bdb2 so1 the mass of masonry which serves in the lower half of the window on this page as a background to the ,donor and his patron saint and some shields of arms1 represented as it is by a thick scum of brown paint1 could not but lack lustre4 ,think of the extent of all that uninteresting paint2 what a sacrifice it means of colour and translucency6 ,enamel painting did not lead to much4 ,the colours obtained by that means had neither the purity nor the richness and volume of pot-metal4 ,they had to be strengthened with brown1 which still further dulled them2 and1 the taste for light and shade predominating as it did in the seventeenth century1 the glass painter was eventually lured to the destruction of all glass-like quality in his glass4 ,there are some windows in the cathedral at ,brussels1 in the chapel opposite that of the ,holy ,sacrament1 where are ,van ,orley's windows1 which bear witness to the terrible decline that had taken place during something like a century--not that they are badly executed in their way4 ,the texture of silk1 for example1 is given by the glass painter perfectly2 but1 in the struggle for picturesque effects of light and shade1 all consistency of treatment is abandoned4 ,the painter is here let loose2 and he can no more withstand the attractions of paint than a boy can resist the temptation of fresh fallen snow4 ,the one must throw snowballs at somebody1 the other must lay about him with pigment4 ,here he lays about him with it recklessly4 ,he is reckless1 that is1 of the obscurity of the glass he covers with it4 ,at moments1 when the sun shines fiercely upon it1 you dimly see what he was aiming at2 nine-tenths of the time all is blackness4 ,slabs of white glass are coated literally by the yard with dense brown pigment through which the light rarely shines4 ,it had become the practice now to glaze a window mainly in rectangular panes of considerable size4 ,where pot-metal colour was used at all1 it had of necessity to be surrounded with a leaden line2 but within the area of the coloured mass the leading was usually in these upright and horizontal lines1 and not at all according to the folds of the drapery or what not4 ,if the glazier went out of his way to take a lead line round a face1 instead of across it1 that was as much as he would do2 if it was merely the face of a cherub1 however delicately painted1 he would1 perhaps1 as at ,s4 ,jacques1 ,antwerp1 cut brutally across it2 and even where structural lead lines compelled him to use separate pieces of material1 he by no means always took advantage of the opportunity of getting colour in his glass1 but1 as at ,antwerp1 contentedly accepted his rectangular panes of white1 as something to paint on--to the exclusion of no matter how much light4 ,it simplified matters1 no doubt1 for the painter thus to throw away opportunities1 and just depend upon his brush2 but it resulted at the best only in an imitation of oil painting1 lacking the qualities of oil paint4 ,illustration3 #dg4 ,s4 ,,martin ,s ,,vignes1 ,,troyes4 ,the ,french glass painters were less reckless4 ,at ,troyes1 indeed1 there is plenty of seventeenth century glass in which a workman can still find considerable interest4 ,that of ,linard ,gontier1 in particular1 has deservedly a great reputation4 ,he was a painter who could get with a wash of colour1 and seemingly with ease1 effects which most glass painters could only get at by stippling1 hatching1 and picking out2 and he managed his enamel very cleverly1 floating it on with great dexterity4 ,but it is rarely that he gets what artists would call colour out of it4 ,even in the hands of a man of his prodigious skill the method proclaims its inherent weakness4 ,the work is thinner1 duller1 altogether poorer1 than the earlier glass of much less consummate workmen1 who worked upon sounder and severer principles4 ,the strength and the weakness of the painter are exemplified in the group of ,donors above4 ,the painting is admirable1 not only in the heads1 but in the texture of the men's cloaks2 those cloaks1 however1 are painted in black paint4 ,when the light is quite favourable they look like velvet2 they never look like glass4 ,there is here the excuse1 for what it may be worth1 of texture and perhaps other pictorial qualities4 ,even that is often wanting in seventeenth century work1 as when1 at ,s4 ,jacques1 ,antwerp1 the background to a design in white and stain is glazed in panes of white glass solidly coated with brown paint4 ,this is obscuration out of pure wilfulness4 ,it was not only when the artist sought to get strong effects in enamel painting that the method fell short of success4 ,the delicacy that might be got by means of it was neutralised by the necessity of some sort of glazing1 and matters were not mended by glazing the windows in panes4 ,it is impossible to take much satisfaction in the most delicately painted glass picture when it is so scored over with coarse black lines of lead or iron that it is as if you were looking at it through a grill4 ,that is very much the effect seen in ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds' famous window in the ante-chapel at ,new ,college1 ,oxford 7two lights of which are shown opposite71 where the ,virtues are seen imprisoned1 you may say1 within iron bars4 ,they look very much better there than in the glass1 which1 for all the graceful draughtsmanship of the artist and the delicate workmanship of the painter1 is ineffective to the last degree4 ,it has no more brilliancy or sparkle than a huge engraving seen against the light2 square feet of white glass are muddied over with paint4 ,it was not ,sir ,joshua's fault1 of course1 that the traditions of the glazier's craft were in his day well-nigh extinct2 but ,sir ,horace ,walpole was quite right when he described these vaunted ,virtues as washy4 ,to say that they are infinitely more pleasing in the artist's designs is the strongest condemnation of the glass4 ,illustration3 #dh4 ,,virtues1 ,,by ,,sir ,j4 ,,reynolds1 ,,new ,,coll41 ,,oxford4 ,there was one use made of enamel which promised to be of real help to the glazier--that of painting the necessary shadows on pot-metal in shades of the same colour as the glass4 ,since enamel of some kind had to be used1 why not employ a colour more akin to the glass itself than mere brown8 ,it would seem as if by so doing one might get depth of colour with less danger of heaviness than by the use of brown2 but the glass painted in that way 7by the ,van ,lingen1 for example1 a family of ,flemings established in ,england1 whose work may be seen at ,wadham and ,balliol ,colleges1 ,oxford7 was by no means free from heaviness4 ,enamel then1 it will be seen1 was never really of any great use in glass painting1 and it led to the degradation of the art to something very much like the painting of transparencies1 as they are called1 on linen blinds4 ,let us note categorically the objections to it4 ,a glazier objects to it1 that it is an evasion of the difficulty of working in glass1 and not a frank solution of it4 ,that may be sentimental more or less4 ,a colourist objects to it1 because it is impossible to get in it the depth and richness of strong pot-metal1 or the brilliancy of the more delicate shades of self-coloured material4 ,that1 it may be urged1 remains to be proved1 but the enamel painter practically undertook to prove the contrary1 and failed4 ,admirers of consistency object to it1 that it succeeds so ill in reconciling the delicacy of painting aimed at with the brutality of the glazing employed4 ,that1 again1 is a question of artistic appreciation1 not so easily proved to those who do not feel the discord4 ,lovers of good work1 of work that will stand1 object to it that it is not lasting4 ,this is a point that can be easily proved4 ,the process of enamel painting has been explained above 7page #gg74 ,the one thing necessary to the safe performance of the operation is that the various glass pigments shall be of such consistency as to melt at a lower temperature than the glass on which they are painted4 ,that1 of course1 must keep its shape in the kiln1 or all would be spoilt4 ,the melting of the pigment is1 as a matter of fact1 made easier by the admixture of some substance less unyielding than glass itself--such as borax--to make it flow4 ,this flux1 as it is called1 makes the glass with which it is mixed appreciably softer than the glass to which it is apparently quite safely fixed by the fire4 ,it is thus more susceptible to the action of the atmosphere2 it does not contract and expand equally with that2 and in the course of time1 perhaps no very long time1 it scales off4 ,excepting in ,swiss work 7to which reference is made in ,chapter ,,ix47 this is so commonly so1 that you may usually detect the use of enamel by the specks of white among the colour1 where the pigment has worked itself free1 altogether to the destruction of pictorial illusion4 ,and it is not only with transparent enamel that this happens1 but also with the brown used by the later painters for shading4 ,the brown tracing and painting colour was originally a hard metallic colour which required intense heat to make it flow4 ,the glass had to be made almost red-hot1 at which great heat there was always a possibility that the pigment might be fired away altogether1 and the painter's labour lost4 ,in the case of the thirteenth century painter's work the danger was not very serious4 ,thanks to the downright and sometimes even brutal way in which he was accustomed to lay on the paint1 solidly and without subtlety of shade1 his work was pretty well able to take care of itself in the kiln4 ,it was the more delicate painting which was most in danger of being burnt away2 and in proportion as men learnt to carry their painting further1 and to get delicate modelling1 they became increasingly anxious to avoid all possibility of any such catastrophe4 ,the easiest way of doing this was 7as in the case of transparent enamel7 to soften this colour with flux4 ,that enabled them to fire their glass at a much lower heat1 at which there was no risk of losing the painting1 and they were able so to make sure of getting the soft gradations of shade they wanted2 and the more the painter strove to get pictorial effects the more he was tempted to soften his pigment2 but1 according as the flux made the colour easier to manage in the fire1 it made it less to be depended upon afterwards2 and the later the work1 and the more pictorial its character1 the more surely the painting proves at this date to have lost its hold upon the glass4 ,in many a seventeenth century window the ,donors were depicted in their ,sunday suits of black velvet and fur1 the texture quite wonderfully given2 now their garments are very much the worse for wear1 more than threadbare4 ,the black or brown is rich no longer1 it is pitted with specks of raw white light2 sometimes the colour has peeled off en masse4 ,time has dealt comparatively kindly with the gentlemen on page #ha1 but in the glass there is an air of decay about their sable cloaks which takes considerably away from their dignity4 ,it is one characteristic of enamelled windows that they do not mellow with age1 like mosaic glass1 but only get shabby4 ,any one altogether unacquainted with the characteristics of style is apt to be very much at fault as to the date of a window4 ,the later windows are in so much more dilapidated a condition than the earlier that they are quite commonly mistaken for the older4 ,it has to be borne in mind that most of the devices adopted by the glass painters--the use1 namely1 of large sheets of fragile glass1 and the avoidance of strengthening leads1 no less than the resort to soft enamel1 whether for colour or for shading--all go to make it more perishable4 ,it may be said that the decay of the later painting is due not so much to the use of enamel as to the employment of soft flux4 ,that is true4 ,but when it comes to the painting of texture and the like1 the temptation to use soft colour has generally proved to be irresistible4 ,one is forced to the conclusion that the aim of the later glass painter was entirely wrong2 that for the sake of pictorial advantages--which went for very little in a scheme of effective church decoration1 even if they did not always detract from the breadth of the work--he gave up the qualities which go at once to make glass glorious1 and to give it permanence4 ,whatever the merits of seventeenth century glass painting they are not the merits of glass2 there is little about it that counts for glass1 little that is suggestive of glass--except the breakages it has suffered4 ,what is said of seventeenth century glass applies also to that of the eighteenth century1 only with more force4 ,sir ,joshua and ,benjamin ,west were quite helpless to raise the art out of the slough into which it had fallen1 for they were themselves ignorant of its technique1 and did not know what could be done in glass4 ,it was not until the ,gothic revival in our own century1 and a return to mosaic principles1 that stained glass awoke to new life4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,needle ,,point ,,in ,,glass ,,painting4 ,allusion has been made to the glass painter's use of the point for scraping out lights1 and especially diapers upon glass coated with pigment4 ,these are often quite lace-like in their delicacy4 ,that would be a poor compliment if it meant that the glass painter had had no more wit than to imitate the effects produced in a material absolutely unlike glass4 ,but it is not merely for want of a better word that the term lace-like is used4 ,it is strictly appropriate1 and for a very good reason4 ,it was explained how from the first the glass painter would use the stick end of his brush to scrape out sharp lights in his painting1 or even diaper patterns out of a tint4 ,the latest glass painters made more and more use of the point1 and of a finer point than the brush end1 until1 in ,swiss work1 they adopted the pen and the needle itself4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that point-work should resemble point-work1 though the one be in thread and the other on glass4 ,the strange thing would have been if it were not so4 ,thus it comes about that much of the ,swiss diaper work is most aptly described as lace-like in effect4 ,the field of a small shield is frequently diapered with a pattern so fine that it could only have been produced with a fine point4 ,some of the diapers opposite may be identified as portions of heraldic shields4 ,on a shield it may be taken to represent the engraving of the metal surface of the thing itself2 and1 indeed1 here again is a significant resemblance between two technical processes4 ,to scratch with a needle or with a graver is much the same thing2 and thus many a ,swiss diaper suggests damascening1 and might just as well have been executed in bright lines of gold or silver filigree1 beaten into lines graven in steel or iron1 as scraped out of a tint on glass4 ,illustration3 #di4 ,,examples ,,of ,,scratching ,,out4 ,but the use of the point was by no means reserved for ornamental detail4 ,it became the main resource of the painter1 and so much so1 that this technique1 or this development of technique1 is the most striking characteristic of ,swiss glass painting--if that should be called painting which has really more affinity with etching4 ,for the laying on of the paint in the form of solid colour1 or of matted tint1 or of skilfully floated wash1 is only the groundwork of the ,swiss glass painter's method4 ,it scarcely needs to be explained how admirably the point adapted itself to the representation of hair1 fur1 feathers1 and the like4 ,the familiar bears1 for example1 the device of the city of ,berne1 which occur very frequently in ,swiss heraldic work1 are rendered at ,lucerne in the most marvellously skilful manner4 ,first a juicy wash of colour is floated all over the body of the beast1 more or less translucent1 but judiciously varied so as to give peu prs the modelling of the creature4 ,then with a fine point the lines of the fur are scraped out1 always with an eye to the further development of the modelling4 ,finally1 the sharp lights are softened1 where necessary1 with delicate tint1 and a few fine hair-lines are put in with a brush in dark brown4 ,by no conceivable method of execution could certain textures be better rendered than this4 ,a similar process is adopted in rendering the damascened surface of slightly rounded shields2 but in that case the modelling of the ground is first obtained by means of matt1 not wash4 ,black as a local colour1 whether by way of heraldic tincture or to represent velvet in costume1 was very generally used2 but in such small quantities always as entirely to justify its use4 ,the practice1 that is to say1 referred to on page #eg1 with reference to the ,german work at ,shrewsbury1 was carried further4 ,this was quite a different thing from what occurs1 for example1 in a late window at ,montmorency1 where four brown ,benedictine monks are frocked in muddy paint3 that is a fault of judgment no skill in execution could make good4 ,in the case of black used by way of local colour the drawing lines were of course scraped out in clear glass1 and toned1 if need were1 with tint4 ,the hair1 cap1 and feathers of the figure opposite illustrate the processes of execution above described2 the chain armour about the man's neck is also very deftly suggested4 ,illustration3 #ej4 ,,needle ,,point ,,work1 ,,swiss4 ,the use of the point went further than rendering the texture of hair1 and so on4 ,it was used for the rendering of all texture and the completion of modelling everywhere4 ,the ,swiss glass painter did very much what is done in large when one draws on brown or grey paper in white and black2 only instead of black chalk he used brown paint1 and instead of putting on white chalk he scraped away a half tint with which he had begun by coating the glass2 and of course he worked in small4 ,one knows by experience how much more telling the white crayon is than the black1 how much more modelling you seem to get with very little drawing2 and so it is in glass2 and so it was that the glass painter depended so much more upon taking out lights than upon putting in darks4 ,the difference between the ,swiss manner and the process already described in reference to ,renaissance church glass was mainly that1 working upon so much smaller a scale1 the artist depended so much more upon the point4 ,his work is1 in fact1 a kind of etching4 ,it is the exact reverse of drawing in pen and ink1 where the draughtsman works line by line up to his darkest shadow4 ,here he works line by line to clearest light1 precisely as the etcher draws his negative upon copper1 only on glass it is the positive picture which is produced4 ,so far as manipulation is concerned the two processes are identical4 ,it is indeed quite within the bounds of possibility that the method of the glass painter 7and not that of the damascener1 as generally supposed7 may first have put the etcher upon the track of his technique4 ,the method of workmanship employed by the painter is shown pretty clearly on page #ij4 ,in spite of a certain granular surface given by the stone employed by the lithographer in reproducing the design1 it is quite clearly seen how the man's armour and the texture of the silk in his sleeves is all obtained by the point4 ,the trace of the needle is not clearly shown in the flesh1 except in the hand upon his hip2 but on page #ic it is everywhere apparent--in the shading of the architecture1 at the top of the page1 in the damascening of the tops of shields below1 in the drawing of the pastoral staff1 in the modelling of the mitre and the representation of the jewels upon it1 no less than in the rendering of the texture of the silk4 ,this ultra-delicacy of workmanship was naturally carried to its furthest extent upon white glass or upon white and stain1 but the same method was employed with pot-metal colour2 and1 during the early part of the sixteenth century at least1 pot-metal colour was used when it conveniently could be1 and the leading was sometimes cleverly schemed1 though the glass employed was often crude in colour4 ,eventually1 in ,switzerland as everywhere1 enamel colour succeeded pot-metal1 by which1 of course1 it would have been impossible correctly to render the tinctures of elaborately quartered shields on the minute scale to which they were customarily drawn4 ,at ,lucerne1 for example1 there are some small circular medallions with coats of arms not much bigger than occur on the back of an old-fashioned watchcase4 ,needless to say that there the drawing is done entirely with a point4 ,this kind of thing is1 of course1 glass painting in miniature2 it is not meant to say that it is effective2 but it is none the less marvellously done4 ,it was at its best1 roughly speaking1 from #aecj to a little later than #afjj4 ,some of the very best that was ever done1 now at the ,rath-haus at ,lucerne1 bears date from #afjf-afji2 there is some also at the ,hof-kirche there2 but that is out of the reach of ordinary sight1 and this is placed where it can conveniently be studied4 ,the point-work1 it should be understood1 is still always scraped out of brown1 or it may be black4 ,the enamel that may be used with it is floated on independently of this2 and as time went on enamel was of course very largely used1 especially in the seventeenth century4 ,to the credit of the ,swiss it should be said that1 alone among later glass painters1 they were at once conscientious and expert in the chemistry of their art1 and used enamel which has been proof against time4 ,they knew their trade1 and practised it devotedly4 ,possibly it was the small scale upon which they worked which enabled them to fuse the enamel thoroughly with the glass4 ,it is due to them also to say that1 though their style may have been finikin1 there was nothing feeble about their workmanship2 that was masterly4 ,and they remain the masters of delicate manipulation and finish in glass painting4 ,although the needle point was used to most effective purpose in ,swiss glass it did not of course entirely supersede other methods4 ,at the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg 7where there is a fair amount of good work1 #aejb-afgb7 there is some matted tint which is shaded and then lined in brown1 much after the manner of one of ,drer's woodcuts4 ,it has very much the appearance of a pen drawing shaded1 as many of the old masters' drawings were1 in brown wash4 ,illustration3 #ea4 ,,needle-,,point ,,work1 ,,swiss4 ,a fair amount of simple figure work in white and stain continued to be done1 in which outline went for a good deal1 and matted shadow was only here and there helped out with the point4 ,in landscape backgrounds shade tint was sometimes broadly and directly floated on4 ,but as often as not shading was executed to a great extent with the needle1 whilst local colour was painted with enamel4 ,even in association with admirable heraldry and figure work1 one finds distant figure groups and landscapes painted in this way4 ,they look more like coloured magic-lantern slides than painted window glass4 ,sometimes subtlety of workmanship was carried rather beyond the bounds of discretion1 as when at ,nuremberg 7#aecj7 faces were painted in tint against clear glass1 without outline1 the mere shading1 delicate as it is1 being depended upon to relieve them from the ground4 ,it must be confessed that1 near to the eye1 it does that2 but the practice does not recommend itself4 ,it is remarkable how very faint a matt of colour on the surface of transparent glass gives a sort of opacity to it which distinguishes it from the clear ground4 ,sometimes white enamel is used1 sometimes perhaps a mere coat of flux3 it is difficult to say what it is1 but there is often on the lightest portions of the painted glass no more than the veriest film1 to show that it has been painted4 ,it is obvious that glass of the most delicate character described must be the work of the designer2 and it seems clear1 from numerous drawings extant1 which are evidently the cartoons for ,swiss window panes1 that the draughtsman contemplated carrying out his design himself4 ,at all events1 he frequently left so much out of these drawings1 that1 if he trusted to the painting of another1 no little of the credit of the draughtsmanship was due to that other1 and he was at least part designer of the window4 ,in glass where painting is carried to a high state of perfection it goes without saying that the painter must be an artist second only to the designer4 ,invention and technical power do not always go together4 ,but if the designer can paint his own glass1 and will1 so much the better4 ,it is more than probable that the best glass is the autograph work of the designer4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,glass ,,painter--,a ,,recapitulation4 ,having followed the course of technique thus far1 it may be as well to survey the situation and see where we now stand4 ,suppose an artist altogether without experience in glass had occasion to design a window4 ,the first thing he would want to know would be the means at his command at this present moment1 and what dependence he could place upon them4 ,that is what it is intended briefly to set forth in this chapter1 quite without reference to date or style or anything but the capacities of the material4 ,the question is1 what can be done with it8 ,not until a man knows that is he in a position to make up his mind as to what he will do4 ,if he ask1 as artists will1 why cannot he do just what he likes1 and as he likes1 the answer is3 because glass was not made for him1 and will only do what he wants on condition of his demands upon it being reasonable4 ,he might find it pleasanter if the world revolved round him2 but it does not4 ,if he would make a window he must go the way of glass2 and the way of glass is this3-- ,in the first place1 it is mosaic4 ,it may be a mosaic of white glass or of the pearly tints which go to make what is termed grisaille1 in which case the leads which bind the glass together form the pattern1 or1 at all events1 a feature in it4 ,or it may be of coloured glass1 or of white and colour1 in which case the glass forms the pattern1 and the lead joints are more or less lost in the outline of the design4 ,if the pattern is in white upon a deep-coloured ground the lead joints crossing the pattern and not forming part of it are1 as it were1 eaten up by the spreading rays of white light1 and1 supposing them to be judiciously contrived1 do not count for much4 ,on the other hand1 the lead joints crossing the coloured ground are lost in its depth4 ,advantage is taken of this to break up the ground more than would be necessary for convenience of glazing1 or of strength when glazed1 and so to get that variety of pot-metal upon which so much of the beauty of glass colour depends4 ,illustration3 #eb4 ,,plain ,,glazing1 ,,early ,,french4 ,to give satisfactory colour the best of pot-metal glass is essential4 ,structural conditions which a man is bound to take into account in his design are--that the shapes he draws must be such as can readily be cut by the glazier2 that his lead joints must be so schemed as1 where not lost in the glass1 to form part of the design1 strengthening1 for example1 the outlines2 that his plan must at intervals include provision for substantial iron bars which shall not interfere with the drawing4 ,he must understand that each separate colour in his composition is represented by a separate piece of glass1 cut out of a sheet of the required colour4 ,there may1 and should1 however1 be variety in it4 ,a sheet of glass varies in depth of tone according to its thickness1 which in the best glass is never even2 moreover1 it may be streaked or otherwise accidentally varied2 and so considerable play of tint may be got in a well-selected piece of pot-metal4 ,should a tint be required which the palette of the glazier does not supply it may sometimes be obtained by leading up two thicknesses of glass together4 ,this expedient is called plating4 ,illustration3 #ec4 ,,mosaic ,,glass1 ,,assisi4 ,there are two very workmanlike ways in which white and colour may be obtained in one piece of glass4 ,if the glass is not coloured throughout its thickness1 but only a part of the way through1 the coloured part may be eaten away in places by acid 7it used formerly to be tediously abraded72 and so a pattern of white may be traced upon a ground of blue1 for example1 or1 as is more common1 ruby4 ,a piece of white or pale coloured glass may further be stained1 but only1 so far1 of one colour1 yellow4 ,the window opposite is all in white and golden-yellow4 ,this result is produced by the action of silver upon it1 which1 at a sufficient temperature1 develops a tint varying from lemon to orange of beautiful quality1 and as imperishable as the glass2 but one cannot be quite certain always as to the precise shade it will take in the fire4 ,on blue it gives green1 and so on4 ,by the combination of these two processes three tints may be obtained1 or even four upon the same piece of glass--say white1 green1 and yellow all upon a blue ground4 ,there is a third method of avoiding lead glazing4 ,if little jewels of coloured glass be cut out of various sheets and placed upon white glass they become fused at a sufficient heat in the kiln1 and adhere more or less firmly to the glass on which they are laid2 but this process of annealing is not very safe4 ,still less to be depended upon is the fourth process of enamelling4 ,in that case the coloured glass is applied in the form of a paint upon a sheet of white4 ,fusing at a comparatively low temperature1 it rarely gets quite firmly fixed4 ,nor has it the depth of pot-metal colour4 ,the three processes of staining1 annealing1 and enamelling1 entail1 it will be seen1 the burning of the glass4 ,literally this is the limit of what can be done in stained glass4 ,illustration3 #ed4 ,,window ,,in ,,white ,,and ,,stain1 ,,warwick ,,castle4 ,the term stained glass1 however1 is generally used to include painting1 which from the first has been associated with it4 ,this painting 7not to be confounded with the above mentioned enamelling7 is a second process1 which the glass undergoes after it is cut and before it is fired4 ,it is not in the least what a painter understands by painting4 ,it is1 in the first place1 a means of giving in solid brown pigment1 which effectually stops out the light1 detail smaller than mere glazing would permit1 such as the features of a face or the veining of a leaf3 it gives the foils of the foliage1 and marks the individual berries in the border overleaf4 ,in the next it is used partially to obscure the glass1 so as to give shading4 ,the pigment is not used as colour1 but for drawing and shading only4 ,local colour is represented by the pieces of pot-metal glass employed2 the painting fulfils precisely the part of the engraving in a print coloured by hand4 ,the various methods of painting are explained on pages #de1 #fd1 #hi4 ,in some respects they have more affinity with line drawing1 mezzotint1 and etching than with oil or water-colour painting4 ,illustration3 #ee4 ,,auxerre4 ,it is extremely difficult to get delicacy of modelling or high finish at one painting--to all but a consummate glass painter impossible4 ,many a time the work has to be painted several times over1 each painting being separately burnt in1 always at some risk4 ,painting that is not sufficiently fired peels off in time4 ,if it is fired too much it may be burnt quite away4 ,the effect of paint in the form of shading is naturally to obscure the glass4 ,up to a certain point there is not much harm in that2 it counts for nothing as compared with the facilities of expression it affords4 ,but that point is soon reached4 ,then it becomes a question of the relative value of1 on the one hand1 purity and translucency of glass colour1 and1 on the other1 of pictorial qualities4 ,the problem is to get the utmost of modelling or expression with the minimum of obscuration4 ,much depends upon the method of painting adopted4 ,so long as the light is allowed to get through it1 one may indulge in a fair amount of shading1 but a deep even tint1 leaving none of the glass clear1 is inevitably heavy4 ,the more one can represent shadows by deeper tinted glass the more brilliant the result will be4 ,this painting1 although1 strictly speaking1 in brown enamel1 is not1 as was said1 what is usually meant by enamel painting3 that is described on page #gg4 ,a window may be painted altogether in enamel2 and1 when the mosaic method went out1 designs were painted in enamel upon panes of plain white glass2 but1 for the most part1 since the pieces had to be connected by lead1 it was found convenient to use pot-metal for some of the stronger colours4 ,in recent times1 however1 owing to the introduction of large sheets of thicker glass1 to improved glass kilns1 and also to more accurate knowledge of the chemistry of enamel colours1 it is possible to paint a picture-window on one sheet of glass4 ,that has been done with extraordinary skill at ,svres4 ,you may see really marvellous results in this kind in the ,chapel of the ,bourbons at ,dreux4 ,if you want neither more nor less than a picture upon glass1 and are content with a picture in which the shadows are opaque and the lights transparent1 that is the way to get it4 ,you will not get the qualities of glass4 ,within the last two or three years there seems to have been very considerable improvement in the purity1 translucency1 and depth of enamel colours4 ,how far they are lasting remains to be proved4 ,anyway1 brilliant as they are1 they have not by any means the intensity of pot-metal glass1 and it does not seem1 humanly speaking1 possible that a film of coloured glass upon a sheet of white can ever compete in strength and volume with colour in the body of the glass itself4 ,if1 therefore1 we want the qualities of deep1 rich1 luminous and translucent colour1 which glass better than any other medium can give1 we must resort to the use of pot-metal--that is to say1 to glazing--assisted more or less by brown paint1 used1 not to get colour1 but to stop it out1 or to tone it down4 ,according to the more or less of your dependence upon paint your method may be described as mosaic or pictorial4 ,starting upon the mosaic system1 you rough out your design in coloured glass 7or what stands for it upon paper71 and then consider how1 by use of paint1 as above mentioned1 you may get further detail1 shading1 harmony of tone4 ,starting upon the pictorial system you sketch in your design1 shade it1 and colour it1 and then bethink you how you can get the glass to take those lines4 ,in either case you have1 of course1 from the first1 a very distinct idea as to the assistance you will get from the supplementary process2 but it makes all the difference whether you think first of the glass or of the painting4 ,upon that will depend the character of your window4 ,if you want all that glass can give in the way of colour1 begin with the mosaic4 ,if you want pictorial effect1 think first of your painting4 ,if you want to get both1 balance the two considerations equally in your mind from the first4 ,only1 to do that1 you must be a master of your trade4 ,a first consideration in the design of a window are the bars which are to support it4 ,the skilled designer begins by setting these out upon his paper1 nearer or closer together1 according to the width of the opening1 from nine to eighteen inches asunder4 ,in a wide window it may be as well to make every second or third bar extra strong4 ,upright stanchions may also be introduced4 ,exigencies of design may make it necessary to alter the arrangement of bars with which you set out4 ,you may have occasionally to bend one of them to escape a face1 or other important feature2 but1 if you begin with them1 this will not often be necessary4 ,bars may be shaped to follow the lines of the design4 ,there is nothing against that1 except that it is rather costly to do2 and1 on the whole1 it is hardly worth doing4 ,in big windows1 such as those at ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 raised some feet above the level of the eye1 stout bars have1 in effect1 only about the value of strong lead lines1 whilst lead lines disappear4 ,the points to be observed with regard to glazing are these3 ,since leads must form lines1 it is as well to throw them as much as possible into outlines4 ,in a cleverly glazed window the design will tell even when the paint has perished4 ,to glaze a picture in squares1 regardless of the drawing1 is mere brutality4 ,because by aid of the diamond glass may actually be cut to almost any shape1 it is not advisable1 therefore1 to design shapes awkward to cut1 but rather to design the lead lines of a window with a view to simplicity of cutting and strength of glazing4 ,pieces of glass difficult to cut are the first to break4 ,it is the business of the designer to anticipate breakage by introducing a lead just where it would occur4 ,tours de force in glazing are not worth doing4 ,it is a mistake to be afraid of leads4 ,skilfully introduced1 they help the effect2 and1 except in work which comes very near the eye1 they are lost in the glass4 ,the quality of pot-metal glass is all important4 ,it should never be mechanically flat and even4 ,the mechanically imperfect material made in the ,middle ,ages is so infinitely superior to the perfect manufacture of our day1 that we have had deliberately to aim at the accidents of colour and surface which followed naturally from the ruder appliances and less accurate science of those days4 ,there are legends about lost secrets of glass making1 to which much modern produce gives an appearance of truth4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 though old glass undoubtedly owes something of its charm to weathering1 better and more beautiful glass was never made than is now produced2 but it is not of the cheapest1 and it wants choosing4 ,the choice of glass is a very serious matter4 ,what are called spoilt sheets are invaluable4 ,it takes an artist to pick the pieces4 ,but without experience in glass the judgment even of a colourist will often be at fault4 ,some colours spread unduly1 so that the effect of the juxtaposition of any two is not by any means the same as it would be in painting4 ,it is only by practical experiment that a man learns1 for example1 how much red will1 in conjunction with blue1 run into purple1 and which shade of either colour best holds its own4 ,effects of this kind have been more or less scientifically explained--by ,m4 ,viollet le ,duc for one--but1 in order to profit by any such explanation1 a man must have experience also4 ,referring to flashed glass1 all kinds of double-glass are now made3 red and blue purple1 yellow and blue green1 and so on2 but there is not1 except1 perhaps1 in work on quite a small scale1 much to be gained by this4 ,in fact1 it is not well in work on a fairly large scale to depend too much upon etching pattern out of coated glass4 ,in a window breadth of effect is of more account than minuteness of detail4 ,damask or other patterns in draperies might1 more often than they are1 be leaded up in pot-metal4 ,it would compel simplicity on the part of the designer1 and the effect of the glass would be richer4 ,with the increasing variety of coloured glass now made1 plating becomes less necessary than once it was4 ,the drawback to the practice is that dust and dirt may insinuate themselves between the two pieces of glass1 and deaden the colour4 ,the safe plan is to fuse the two pieces of glass together4 ,good glass is more than half the battle4 ,raw glass may be toned down by paint1 but poor glass cannot be made rich by it4 ,the ,italian glass painters often used crude greens and purples1 and softened them with brown4 ,they might do that with comparative safety under an ,italian sky2 but the deeper tones produced that way have not the purity and lusciousness of juicy pot-metal1 and the paint is liable to peel off and betray the poverty of the cheap material4 ,it is the fundamental mistake of the painter1 because by means of paint he can do so much1 to depend upon it for more than it can do4 ,the toning of local colour with brown paint is only a makeshift for more thoroughly mosaic work2 but it is an ever-present temptation to the painter1 and one against which he should be on his guard4 ,the actual technique of glass painting1 it has been explained already1 is quite different from painting as the painter understands it2 often it is not so much painting as scraping out paint4 ,the artist may1 nay must1 choose his own technique4 ,he will get his effect in the way most sympathetic to him4 ,what he has to remember is1 that1 except where he wants actually to stop out light1 he must get light into his shadows--whether by stippling the wet colour1 or by scrubbing it when dry with a hog tool1 or by scraping with a point1 is his affair4 ,for example1 if he wants to lower the tint of a piece of glass1 the worst thing he could do would be to coat it with an even film of paint4 ,it would be better to stipple it so that in parts more light came through4 ,but the best way of preserving the brilliancy of the glass would be either to paint the glass with cross-hatched lines1 or to scrape bright lines out of a coat of paint4 ,in draperies1 backgrounds1 and so on1 this is most effectively done in the form of a diaper1 often as minute as damascening1 which scarcely counts much as pattern4 ,bold or delicate1 a diaper is quite the most effective means of lowering colour2 even hard lines seldom appear hard in glass1 owing to the spreading of the light as it comes through2 but the inevitable hardness of lines scraped out may be mitigated by dabbing the wet paint so as to make it uneven1 or by rubbing off part of the paint after the lines have been scraped out4 ,another and yet another delicate film of paint may be passed over the painted diaper by a skilful hand1 but out of each film lights should be scraped if the full value of the glass is to be preserved4 ,illustration3 #ef4 ,,scratched ,,diaper4 ,solid pigment as local colour is a thing to indulge in only with extreme moderation4 ,the strong black lead lines often want lines or touches of black strong enough to keep them in countenance 7that is not sufficiently remembered1 and it is when it is forgotten that the leads assert their harshness in white glass71 and here and there1 in work on a small scale1 a point of black 7a velvet cap1 a bag1 a shoe1 as shown overleaf17 is very valuable as local colour2 but1 when the scale allows1 it is better always to get this mass in dark-toned glass1 which gives the necessary depth of colour most easily1 most safely1 and with most luminous effect4 ,the thing not to do1 is to paint the robes of black-draped figures in black1 a common practice in the seventeenth century4 ,on the other hand1 a robe of black richly embroidered with gold and pearls may quite well be rendered1 as it was in late ,gothic work1 by solid paint1 because the pearls being only delicately painted1 and the gold being in great part perfectly clear yellow stain1 plenty of light shines through4 ,as to the means of getting delicate painting in glass1 the utmost delicacy can be got1 but it costs patient labour1 and there is risk of its going for nothing4 ,the only quite safe way of getting very delicate effects of painting is to paint much stronger than it is meant to appear4 ,a very fierce fire will then reduce that to a mere ghost of what it was2 possibly it will burn it away altogether4 ,upon this ghost of your first painting you may paint once again1 strengthening it 7and indeed exaggerating it7 in all but quite the most delicate parts4 ,a strong fire will1 as before1 reduce this without affecting the first painting4 ,possibly a third or even a fourth painting may be necessary to an effect of high finish4 ,when you have it1 it is as lasting as the glass itself4 ,illustration3 #eg4 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,this painstaking process1 however1 is found to be tedious4 ,a much easier plan is to add to the pigment a quantity of borax1 or other substance which will make it flow easily in the kiln4 ,that necessitates only a gentle fire1 in which there is no risk of burning away the work done1 and enables you to do in one or two operations what would have taken three or four4 ,but the gentle fire required to fix soft flux only fixes it gently4 ,securely to fix the pigment1 the glass should have been raised to almost red heat1 to the point1 in fact1 at which it just begins to melt1 and the colour actually sinks into it1 and becomes one with it4 ,a heat anything like that would have wiped out soft colour altogether4 ,moreover1 the borax flux itself is very readily decomposed by the moisture of a climate like ours4 ,accordingly the more easily executed work cannot possibly be fast4 ,it fades1 they say4 ,that is not the case4 ,it simply crumbles off1 sooner or later2 but eventually the atmosphere has its way with it4 ,that is how we see in modern windows faces in which the features grow dim and disappear4 ,we have got to reckon with this certainty1 that if we want our painting to last we must fire it very severely4 ,what will not stand a fierce oven will not stand the weather4 ,in view of the labour and risk involved in very delicate painting it becomes a question how far it is worth while4 ,that will depend upon the artist's purpose4 ,but the moral seems to be that1 for purposes of decoration generally1 it would be better not to aim at too great delicacy of effect1 which is after all not the quality most valuable1 any more than it is most readily attainable1 in glass4 ,only those who have had actual experience in glass appreciate the value of silver stain4 ,it gives the purest and most beautiful quality of yellow1 from lemon to orange1 brilliant as gold4 ,there is some risk with it4 ,one kind of glass will take it kindly1 another will reject it2 you have to choose your glass with reference to it4 ,the fire may bring it to a deeper colour than is wanted4 ,it may even come out so heavy and obscure that it has to be removed with acid1 and renewed4 ,some all but inevitable uncertainty as to its tint1 renders this peculiar yellow more suitable for use where absolute certainty of tint is not essential4 ,nevertheless1 the skilled glass painter makes no difficulty of doubling the process1 and staining a dark yellow upon a lighter1 with very beautiful results4 ,occasionally a master of his craft has gone so far as literally to paint in stain1 scraping out his high lights in white1 and giving1 for example1 the very picture of embossed goldsmith's work4 ,in the diapering of draperies and the like stain is of great service1 and again in landscape upon blue4 ,but it has not been used for all it is worth as a means of qualifying colour which is not precisely right1 apart altogether from pattern4 ,many a time where a scum of paint has been employed to reduce a tint1 a judicious blur of stain1 not appreciable as such1 would have done it more satisfactorily1 without in the least obscuring the glass4 ,nowhere is silver stain more invaluable than in windows of white glass or grisaille1 the quality of which is not sufficiently appreciated4 ,the mother-of-pearl-like tints of what is called white glass lend themselves1 in experienced hands1 to effects of opalescent colour as beautiful in their way as the deeper pot-metal tones4 ,there is no great difficulty in combining grisaille and colour1 provided the white be not too thin nor the colour too deep2 but the happiest combinations are where one or the other is distinctly predominant4 ,with very deep rich glass1 such as that used in the thirteenth century1 it is most difficult to use white in anything like a patch 7for the flesh1 for example1 in figure work74 ,unless very heavily painted it asserts itself too much1 and heavy paint destroys its quality4 ,practically the only thing to do is to use glass of really rather strong tint1 which in its place has very much the value of white4 ,the whites in ,early windows are a long way from purity4 ,they are greenish1 bone colour1 horny2 but they have much more the effect of white than has1 for example1 pure white glass reduced by paint to a granular tint of umber4 ,flesh tints present a difficulty always1 unless you are content to accept a quite conventional rendering of it4 ,in connection with strong colour you may use flesh-tinted glass2 but that is just the one tint which it is most difficult to get in glass4 ,it is usually too pink4 ,painting on white glass in brown produces the most invariably happy results1 and in windows into which white largely enters that is quite the best expedient to adopt4 ,in practice it proves ordinarily a mistake to adopt a warmer brown for flesh tint1 or to paint it in brown and red1 as was done in the sixteenth century and after that4 ,it looks always unpleasantly hot4 ,when flesh wants relieving against white it is better to use a colder white glass for the background4 ,the only condition under which warm-tinted flesh is quite acceptable is when it is in the midst of strong red and yellow4 ,the use of red enamel for flesh seems to be a weak1 unnecessary1 and unavailing concession to the pictorial4 ,it does not give the effect of actual flesh1 and it does not help the effect of the window4 ,since you cannot get actual flesh tones it is as well to accept the convention of white flesh1 which gives breadth and dignity to the glass4 ,there is a sort of frivolity about enamelled flesh-pink4 ,it is1 in a way1 pretty1 but out of key with the monumental character of a window4 ,glass lends itself best to strong1 large work4 ,the quality of pot-metal gives the colour chord4 ,the leads give the key to the scale of design--the pitch1 as it were1 of the artist's voice4 ,that these are strong 7it is seldom worth while resorting to extra thin leads7 does not argue that design must be coarse4 ,you have to balance them with strong work1 with patches1 perhaps1 as well as strong lines1 of dark paint1 to carry off any appearance of brutality in them4 ,this done1 much delicate detail may be introduced4 ,a strong design need not shout any more than a speaker need1 who knows how to manage his voice4 ,that is the condition3 you must know your instrument1 and have it under control4 ,experience seems to show that a certain formality of design befits stained glass4 ,formality of colour arrangement soon becomes tedious2 but it is seldom1 if ever1 that the design of glass strikes one as unduly formal4 ,mosaic glass is designed1 it was said above1 with a view to glazing4 ,the skilled artist designs1 so to speak1 in leads2 but they are not the design2 in fact1 they count only as contours1 and1 except in mere glazing1 they should not be expected to give lines4 ,it is a common fault to make leads take a part in the design which they will not play in the glass4 ,in drawing1 strong1 firm1 even angular lines are valuable1 if not imperative4 ,the radiating light softens them4 ,drawing which is already suave is likely to be too soft in the glass1 to want accent4 ,only experience will tell you how much you must attenuate fingers and the like in your drawing in order that the light shall fill them out1 and give them just their normal plumpness4 ,the beginner never allows enough for the spreading of light4 ,glass painters who know what they are about use plenty of solid painting out2 but it takes experience to do it cunningly4 ,an artist whose mtier is really glass is not careful of the appearance of his drawings4 ,cartoons are nothing but plans of glass1 not intrinsically of any account4 ,really good glass is better than the drawings for it--necessary as good sketches may be to please the ignorant patron4 ,new departures in technique will suggest themselves to every inventive mind4 ,they may even be forced upon a man--as1 by his own confession1 they were forced upon ,mr4 ,lafarge--by the inadequacy of the materials within his reach1 or the incompetence of the workmen on whom he has to depend4 ,mr4 ,lafarge's glass is sometimes very beautiful in colour1 and is strikingly unlike modern ,european manufacture2 but it is not so absolutely original in method as ,americans appear to think4 ,he seems to have discovered for himself some practices which he might have learnt from old or even modern work1 and to have carried others a step further than was done before4 ,the basis of his first idea1 he explains1 was in a large way to recall the inlay of precious stones that are set in jade by ,eastern artists4 ,that was practically the notion of the earliest ,byzantine workers in glass4 ,his use of other materials than glass in windows he might have learnt from ,china1 ,java1 or ,japan1 where they use oyster1 tortoise1 and crocodile shell2 or from ancient ,rome1 where mica1 shells1 and alabaster were employed4 ,there is nothing very new in blended1 streaked1 or even wrinkled glass1 except that moderns do by deliberate intention what the medival glass-maker could not help but do1 and carry it farther than they4 ,in chipping flakes or chunks out of a solid lump of glass1 ,mr4 ,lafarge certainly struck out an idea which had probably occurred to no one since1 in prehistoric ages1 man shaped his arrow heads and so on out of flint4 ,he has produced very beautiful and jewel-like effects by means of this chipping1 though the material lends itself best to a more barbaric style of design than the artist has usually been content to adopt4 ,he has appreciated1 no one better1 the quality of glass1 but not the fact that so characteristic a material as he adopts must rule the design4 ,the attempt to get pictorial1 atmospheric1 or other naturalistic effects by means of it1 soon brings you to its limitations4 ,at the rendering of flesh it comes to a full stop4 ,the experiment has been tried by ,mr4 ,lafarge of a minute mosaic of little pieces of glass between two sheets of white1 all fused into one2 but it appears to be too costly1 if not too uncertain an expedient1 to be really practical as a means of rendering the human face1 more especially if you want to get expression1 which is there of more importance than natural colour4 ,another new departure1 the device of blowing glass into shapes1 so as to get modelling in them1 results so far in rather dumb and indeterminate form4 ,it is quite possible to melt together a mosaic of glass without the use of lead4 ,that practice may yet come into use in window panes1 but they will be as costly as they are fragile4 ,in larger work there is no real artistic reason why lead or its equivalent should be avoided4 ,how much old glass would have remained to us if it had been executed in huge sheets8 ,here and there perhaps a broken scrap in a museum4 ,it is not meant to suggest that we should do in the nineteenth century only what was done in times gone by4 ,our means are ampler now1 our wants are more4 ,we can follow tradition only so far as it suits our wants2 and1 in carrying it further1 we are sure to arrive at something so different that it may be called a new thing4 ,if old methods do not meet new conditions we must invent others4 ,the problem of our day is how to reconcile manufacture with anything like art2 or failing that1 whether there is a livelihood for the independent artist-craftsman8 ,whoever it may be that is to make our stained glass windows in the future1 he will have to make them fit the times4 ,he may discover new materials4 ,meanwhile it is of no use quarrelling with those he has4 ,he must know them and humour them4 ,bars have to be accepted as needful supports1 leads to be acknowledged as convenient joints2 glass must be allowed its translucency1 and painting kept to what it can best do4 ,a window should own itself a window4 ,and what is the aim and use of a stained glass window8 ,to exclude the light1 said the poet1 sarcastically4 ,yes1 to subdue its garishness1 soften its glare1 tinge it with colour1 animate it with form perhaps4 ,the man who means to do good work in windows will devote as serious study to old glass as a painter to the old masters4 ,he will not rest satisfied without knowing what has been done1 how it was done1 and why it was done so2 but he will not blind himself to new possibilities because they have never yet been tried4 ,the pity is that often the antiquary is so bigoted1 the glass painter so mechanical1 the artist so ignorant of glass4 ,the three men want fusing into one4 ,the ideal craftsman is a man familiar with good work1 old and new1 a master of his trade1 and an artist all the while2 a man too appreciative of the best to be easily satisfied with his own work1 too confident in himself to accept what has been done as final2 a man experimenting always1 but basing his experiments upon experience1 and proving his reverence for the great men who light the way for him by daring1 as a man has always dared1 to be himself4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,design ,,of ,,early ,,glass4 ,design in glass developed itself on lines almost parallel to the progress of technique4 ,each1 of course1 affected the other--how and why it is now proposed to show4 ,it is not intended at present to say more than is absolutely necessary about ,style1 in the historic sense--that is reserved for a chapter by itself--but1 as it is convenient to refer to a period of design by its name1 it will be as well at this stage briefly to enumerate the historic ,periods4 ,glass follows1 inevitably1 the style of architecture of the period4 ,accordingly it is divided broadly into ,gothic and ,renaissance4 ,gothic1 in its turn1 is divided by ,rickman 7who first attempted to discriminate between the styles of architecture in ,england7 into three periods4 ,winston1 who did for ,english glass what ,rickman did for ,english architecture1 adopts his classification as follows3--,early ,gothic--to about #abhj4 ,decorated ,gothic--to about #achj4 ,perpendicular ,gothic--to about #aecj4 ,renaissance art has been classified in ,italy according to the century1 and in ,france has been named after the reigning sovereign--,franois ,premier1 ,henri ,deux1 and so on4 ,in ,england also we make use of the terms ,tudor1 ,elizabethan1 ,jacobean1 and the like4 ,no one1 however1 has attempted to draw subtle distinctions between the periods of ,renaissance glass1 for the obvious reason that the best of it was done within a comparatively short period1 and the rest is not of much account4 ,it is enough1 therefore1 to mark off two divisions of ,renaissance glass4 ,the first 7which overlaps the latest ,gothic7 may be called ,sixteenth ,century1 or by the ,italian name ,cinque-,cento1 or simply ,renaissance2 whilst the second1 which includes seventeenth century and later work1 is sufficiently described as ,late glass4 ,the development of style in other countries was not quite parallel with its march on this side of the water4 ,the ,french were always in advance of us1 whether in ,gothic or ,renaissance2 the ,germans lagged behind1 at all events in ,gothic2 but the pace is equal enough for us to group windows generally into three ,gothic and two ,renaissance periods--,early1 ,middle1 and ,late ,gothic2 ,early and ,late ,renaissance4 ,if we do that it will concern us less1 that ,early ,german work is more ,romanesque than ,gothic1 that ,late ,french work is not ,perpendicular but ,flamboyant1 and so on4 ,the accepted classification is determined mainly by the character of the architectural or ornamental detail of the design4 ,such architectural or other detail--that of costume1 for example--is of the very greatest use as a clue to the date of glass4 ,that is a question of archology2 but it is not so much the dates that artists or workmen have to do with as with the course of craftsmanship1 the development of art4 ,it is convenient for us to mark here and there a point where art or workmanship has clearly reached a new stage2 it gives us breathing time1 a starting-point on some fresh voyage of discovery2 but such points need be few4 ,the less we bother ourselves by arbitrary subdivisions of style the better2 and ,winston himself allows that his divisions are arbitrary4 ,the student need not very seriously concern himself about dates or names4 ,people are much too anxious to get a term for everything1 and when they can use the term glibly they fancy they know all about the thing4 ,it is no doubt easier to commit to memory a few names and a few dates than to know anything about a craft2 but the one accomplishment will not do in place of the other4 ,a very little real knowledge of art or practical workmanship will lead you to suspect1 what is the truth1 that there is a good deal of fee-fi-fo-fum about the jargon of styles4 ,it is handy to talk of old work as belonging to this or that broadly marked historic period2 and it is well worth the while of any one interested in the course of art to master the characteristics of style4 ,the student should master them as a matter of course2 but he must not take the consideration of period for more than it is worth4 ,really we give far too much attention to these fashions of bygone days--fashions1 it must be allowed1 on a more or less colossal scale1 compared to ours1 but still only fashions4 ,it is proposed then to allude here only so far to the styles as may be necessary to explain the progress of design1 and especially the design of stained glass windows4 ,in dividing ,gothic into ,early1 ,middle1 and ,late ,gothic1 corresponding roughly with the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries1 it is not forgotten that there is an earlier ,gothic of the twelfth and perhaps eleventh centuries1 more or less reminiscent of the ,romanesque period preceding it2 but ,english glass begins1 to all intents and purposes1 with the thirteenth century1 and even in ,france there is not a very great quantity of characteristically earlier glass4 ,what there is differs from thirteenth century work mainly in the ,romanesque character of the figure drawing and ornamental detail1 in its deliberately simple composition1 and in the spontaneity of its design4 ,the glazier was still feeling his way4 ,any composition to be found in a ,byzantine ivory-carving1 enamel1 illuminated manuscript1 or what not1 might just as well occur in glass4 ,the more familiar types of early ,gothic window design had not yet settled down into orthodoxy4 ,the lines on which the oldest windows extant were set out are in the main those of the thirteenth century also4 ,they were more or less suggested by the shape of the window opening1 which1 it will be seen1 had always had a good deal to say as to the direction glass design should take4 ,illustration3 #eh4 ,,poitiers4 ,the window openings in ,romanesque or ,norman-,french churches were single lights1 round or pointed arched1 rather broad in proportion to their width4 ,stained glass1 it has been explained1 has to be held in its place by copper wires1 soldered to the leadwork1 and attached to iron bars let into the masonry for that purpose4 ,in the case of a very narrow lancet1 such bars would naturally be placed at convenient intervals across the opening4 ,but for the most part windows were the reverse of narrow1 and the horizontal bars had to be supplemented by vertical stanchions1 so that the window space was divided into rectangular divisions4 ,as a matter of construction the glass was made in panels1 corresponding to these1 and attached to them4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that these divisions should often have been accepted as part of the design1 or that the design of the glass should to some extent have followed them4 ,on page #aac is the skeleton of the upper part of a twelfth century window4 ,the strong black lines in the diagram show the bars1 the finer ones indicate the main divisions of the design of the glass4 ,it will be seen that the four strips into which the upright bars divide the window are not equal1 but that the outer divisions are narrower than the inner1 so as to accommodate themselves to the width of the border4 ,naturally that was determined always by the proportion of the window2 such borders measured often one-sixth part1 or more1 of the entire width4 ,the way in which the central circular shape in the glass breaks across in front of the border is an instance of the spontaneity and unexpectedness of design characteristic of the earliest existing work2 later one series of forms would repeat themselves without interruption throughout the length of the window4 ,when1 as above1 the centre of a window is occupied by a great crucifix1 or1 as below1 other such irregularity occurs1 it is safe to conclude that the glass1 if not prior to the thirteenth century1 belongs to its first years4 ,it is characteristic of the very early date of the glass that the bars in the diagrams given do not go out of their way to follow the outline of the circles1 vesicas1 quatrefoils1 and other shapes1 but on occasion cut relentlessly across them4 ,illustration3 #ei4 ,,poitiers ,,east ,,window4 7,compare with #bd47 ,illustration3 #fj4 ,,poitiers1 ,,north ,,transept4 ,the filling out of such a skeleton as those given would in many respects be much the same in the eleventh1 twelfth1 or thirteenth century2 and in each case it would be in direct pursuance of the traditions of ,early ,christian design4 ,you may see in ,byzantine ivories and enamels precisely the kind of thing that was done in glass2 and in the ,romanesque ,michaelis ,kirche at ,hildesheim1 is a painted roof1 the design of which might have been carried out1 just as it is1 in a giant window4 ,illustration3 #fa4 ,,border1 ,,angers4 ,illustration3 #fb4 ,,border1 ,,angers4 ,the main divisions of the centre part of such a window would each contain its little subject or glass picture2 the border and the interstices between the pictures would be occupied with foliated ornament2 only1 the earlier the work1 the more pronounced would be the ,romanesque character1 alike of the ornament and the figure work4 ,the broad borders from ,angers1 above1 and the narrower one from ,le ,mans 7page #cbg7 differ materially from the accepted thirteenth century type 7page #aag74 ,witness how in the ,angers glass the stalks of the foliage frame little panels in the border1 and how in the ,le ,mans work the stalks take the form of straps1 patterned with painted ornament4 ,this elaboration of the stalks with painted zig-zag1 pearlwork1 and so on1 is precisely the kind of thing one sees in ,byzantine carving and inlay4 ,the very early spandril from ,angers1 below1 if not markedly ,romanesque in character is yet not of the distinctively ,early ,gothic type4 ,illustration3 #fc4 ,,angers4 ,the shape of each medallion would be emphasised by a series of coloured lines or fillets framing it4 ,in quite early work the broader of these would be broken up into blocks of alternating colour2 they would be patterned probably 7which in the thirteenth century they would probably not be71 and altogether the effect of the ornament would be more jewelled4 ,one of these broken and patterned margins is shown in the vesica-shaped framing to the figure on page #cg--;belonging1 by the way1 to the window given in skeleton on page #aad4 ,the difference between twelfth and thirteenth century pictures is in the lingering of ,byzantine traditions of design in the earlier work1 and in the strictly simple disposition of the figures en silhouette against the background1 as well as in the way the drapery is wrapped closely round them1 so that the figure always explains itself4 ,there is an expression and a go about some of the earliest figures for which we look in vain later in the thirteenth century4 ,the figures of the ,apostles from the ,ascension at ,le ,mans on page #cc are altogether more alive than the thirteenth century bishops1 for example1 on page #bgf1 who seem by comparison tame and altogether respectable4 ,a certain exaggeration there is1 no doubt1 about the action of these earliest figures1 a certain brutality of rendering1 as there is also a certain barbaric quality in the ornament1 and1 indeed1 in the whole effect2 but of its superlative richness there is no manner of doubt4 ,one is even led to speculate1 when one compares it with later work1 whether a certain barbaric character of design does not go to that unrivalled brilliancy4 ,in the absolute glory of rich colour the very earliest glass has never been equalled4 ,the advance of glass painting was at the cost of this1 perhaps barbaric1 quality4 ,illustration3 #fd4 ,,early ,,ornament1 ,,salisbury4 ,in the earliest windows the subjects were not invariably enclosed in medallions2 sometimes the square lines of the bars would be accepted as division enough2 these would be framed with lines of colour1 and the design of the portion of the window within the border would consist 7as occasionally at ,chartres7 of a series of square subjects1 each with its marginal lines1 ranged one above the other4 ,for the most part1 however1 the design of the earliest richly coloured windows extant took the shape of little pictures in panels or medallions4 ,another favourite scheme was to delineate the ,tree of ,jesse4 ,the upper portion of such a window is given on page #aag2 but further consideration of ,jesse windows is reserved for a separate chapter4 ,illustration3 #fe4 ,s4 ,,remi1 ,,reims4 ,from the earliest period1 no doubt1 clerestory or other lights were often occupied each with a separate figure standing upright2 but such of these as may remain in their places are not readily distinguishable from thirteenth century work2 and the undoubtedly earlier figures--such1 for example1 as those in ,s4 ,remi at ,reims--have been re-set in framework more or less old1 but so as not to tell us anything very authentic about the setting out of the original windows4 ,again at ,augsburg1 where the figures in the clerestory are said to be the oldest in ,germany 7to belong1 in fact1 to about the year #ajjj71 the windows are bordered with modern glazing in white4 ,at ,reims we have very rudely drawn figures in rich colour against a deep background1 standing with splayed feet upon little rounds or half rings of colour1 representing the earth1 their names inscribed in bold lettering1 which forms a band of yellow behind their heads4 ,at ,augsburg the figures1 equally rude in drawing1 equally splay-footed1 are in white and colour upon a white ground4 ,they stand upon little hemispheres of ,byzantine ornament1 and their names are writ large in black letters upon the white glass around their heads4 ,presumably they were framed in a border of pattern work similar to that surrounding the medallion windows4 ,the ornamental work in the windows at ,s4 ,remi may not always have formed part of the same window with the figure work--it does not go very happily with it now--but it is probably of about the same date2 and it illustrates1 together with some similar work at ,s4 ,denis1 near ,paris 7so thoroughly restored as to have lost its historic value71 a kind of pattern work peculiar to the earliest glass4 ,as a rule1 early glass divides itself naturally into two classes3 work in rich colour1 which is what we have hitherto been discussing1 and work in grisaille1 as it is called2 that is to say1 in which the glass is chiefly white1 or whitish1 relieved only here and there by a line or a jewel of colour4 ,occasionally1 as at ,auxerre1 ,reims1 and ,poitiers1 rich figure work is found set in grisaille or framed by it2 and in some fragments from ,chlons1 now at the ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs at ,paris1 coloured figures are found on a white ground4 ,you find also in ,france rich colour-work surrounded by white glass--the work of a period when the powers that were became possessed of the idea that they must lighten the interior of their churches1 and accordingly removed so much of the coloured glass as seemed good to their ignorance1 and replaced it with plain glazing4 ,but1 as a rule1 and apart from the tinkering of the latter-day ecclesiastic1 rich colour and grisaille were kept apart in early medival churches2 that is to say1 a coloured window has not enough white in it perceptibly to affect the depth and richness of its colour1 nor a grisaille window enough colour to disturb the general impression of white light4 ,at ,reims and ,s4 ,denis1 however1 you find ornament in which white and colour are so evenly balanced that they belong to neither category4 ,the amount of colour introduced into grisaille was never at any time a fixed quantity2 one has to allow something for the predilection of the artist2 but here the amount of colour makes itself so distinctly felt that the term grisaille no longer serves to express it4 ,the design of these patterns was of a rather mechanical type 7pages #ce1 #aah1 #abj7 and not in any case very interesting2 but it would have been difficult under any circumstances to produce a very satisfactory effect by so equally balancing white and colour4 ,the designer falls between two stools4 ,the well-known gryphon medallions at ,s4 ,denis seem at first to promise something rather amusing in design1 but there is no variety in them3--and no wonder6 the greater number of them prove to be new1 and they have all been rearranged by ,viollet le ,duc4 ,that is as much as to say1 some of the gryphons are of ,abbot ,suger's time1 but the design of the window is ,viollet le ,duc's4 ,white and colour are again too evenly mixed in the heavy-looking ,english glass at ,lincoln shown on page #aba1 but that is of the thirteenth century4 ,it need hardly be said that the earlier the work1 the simpler was the character of the painting1 the more deliberately was pigment reserved for painting out the light1 the more strictly was the shading in lines4 ,but the painted detail was often small2 glass was used in small pieces2 subjects themselves were ordinarily small in scale4 ,the largeness of effect was due first to the actual simplicity of the main lines of the design1 and then to breadth of colour1 a breadth of colour all the more remarkable seeing the small pieces of glass of which the broad surfaces were of necessity made up4 ,of course1 too1 the earlier the work the more the design was influenced by the technique of glazing1 the more clearly it can be seen how the glazier designed 7as was explained on page #dd7 in lead lines1 and only made use of paint to fill them out4 ,illustration3 #ff4 ,s4 ,,remi1 ,,reims4 ,in twelfth century glass the white was greenish and rather horny in texture2 ruby was sometimes streaky1 and often tawny or inclined to orange2 blue varied from deep indigo to pale grey1 occasionally it was of the colour of turquoise2 yellow1 dark or pale1 was usually brassy2 green ranged from bluish to pale apple1 and from dull to emerald4 ,these colours1 with a rich brownish-purple1 the lighter shades of which served always as flesh tint1 made up the glazier's palette4 ,happily there was considerable inequality of colour in the material4 ,it deepened1 for example1 towards the selvage of the sheet where it was thickest2 it had streaks and bubbles in it2 no two batches ever came out of the pot quite alike2 and altogether the rudely made pot-metal was chemically most imperfect and artistically all that glass should be4 ,illustration3 #fg4 ,,lincoln4 ,it would be rash in the extreme to formulate any theory as to early schemes of colour2 probably the glazier's main thought was to get somehow a deep1 rich1 solemn effect of colour4 ,he secured this very often by not confusing his tints1 and by allowing a single colour so to predominate that the window impressed you at once as bluish or greenish or reddish in tone4 ,he was on the whole happiest when he kept his colour cool2 but he produced also red windows which are never to be forgotten4 ,in the cathedral at ,poitiers1 where many of the beautiful medallion windows belong to the very early part of the thirteenth century1 the scheme is usually to adopt a blue background1 alike for the medallions and for the spaces between1 relying upon a broad band of ruby1 edged with white pearling1 to mark the medallion shapes1 which it effectively does2 but these are not the most beautiful windows in the church4 ,one recognises their date rather by the individuality and spontaneity of the design than by any distinctly ,romanesque character in the detail4 ,it should be mentioned1 also1 that at ,poitiers1 even in windows which seem not so emphatically to belong to the very beginning of the century1 the early practice of using only straight upright and cross bars is adhered to4 ,there may be something of local conservatism in that4 ,illustration3 #fh4 ,,bars ,,in ,,early ,,medallion ,,windows4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,medallion ,,windows4 ,in the thirteenth century the practice of the earlier glaziers stiffened into something like a tradition1 and design took almost inevitably the form of 7#a7 the ,medallion window1 7#b7 the ,single ,figure window1 7#c7 ,ornamental ,grisaille4 ,the full-blown thirteenth century ,medallion window differed from what had gone before in that it was more orthodox4 ,the designer begins as before by marking off a broad border to his glass1 defined on the inner side by an iron bar1 and proceeds to fill the space within the border with medallion shapes4 ,but he now adapts the medallions more regularly to the spaces between the bars4 ,at most two alternating shapes occur throughout the length of the light1 without break or interruption1 such as occurs in earlier work1 and as a rule they keep strictly within the lines of the border4 ,in all the nine examples here given1 taken at random from ,chartres1 ,bourges1 ,canterbury1 and elsewhere1 only in one case does a medallion cut boldly across the border in the head of the light4 ,the slight overlapping of the quatrefoils in one case is not really an overlapping of the border but only of the marginal lines to it1 not shown in the diagram above1 but clearly enough explained on page #acb1 which shows the completion of a corner of the window1 less its side border4 ,in the window with large circular medallions divided into four1 there is no upright bar to define the border1 faintly indicated by a dotted line4 ,illustration3 #fi4 ,,bars ,,in ,,early ,,medallion ,,windows4 ,it will be seen from these diagrams1 which illustrate at once the main divisions of the glass and the position of the ironwork1 what a change came over the construction of windows in the thirteenth century4 ,the window is no longer ruled off by upright and horizontal bars into panels into which the design is fitted2 it is the bars which are made to follow the main lines of the design1 and to emphasise the forms of the medallions4 ,the rare exceptions to this rule 7as at ,bourges1 overleaf7 may generally be taken to betray either the beginning or the end of the period2 but at ,poitiers they seem to have passed through the early period without ever arriving at shaped bars4 ,the early glazier1 it was said1 first blocked out his design according to his leading2 here he begins with the bars4 ,the iron framework forms1 itself1 in many of these windows1 a quite satisfactory pattern1 and one which proudly asserts itself in the finished window4 ,the designs of the period are not of course all equally ingenious4 ,sometimes1 in order to strengthen a circle or quatrefoil of great size1 the glazier1 instead of breaking up the shape ornamentally as was the rule1 merely supports it by cross bars2 not only that1 but he accepts the awkward shapes given by them as separate picture spaces4 ,of this comes one of two evils3 either he frames his little pictures with sufficient border lines to keep them distinct1 and so draws attention to the shapes1 an attention they do not deserve2 or he has to accept the bars1 with perhaps a fillet of colour1 as sufficient frame1 which they are not1 and his pictures run together1 to the bewilderment of whoever would decipher them4 ,illustration3 #gj4 ,,spandrils ,,of ,,medallion ,,window1 ,,bourges4 ,it is matter for regret that the ,french did not accept the full shape of even the largest medallion1 and fill it with one bold subject2 over and over again one feels that the subjects in medallion windows are not only too small to be readable1 but so small that the figures are out of scale with the ornamental detail4 ,the scale of the church has1 of course1 to be taken into account2 but the ,french churches are big enough to warrant figures thrice the size of those which ordinarily occur in medallions4 ,in our narrower ,early ,english lancet windows the medallions naturally came small4 ,to divide a window into eccentric divisions 7halves or quarters of circles1 quatrefoils1 and the like7 and then to take these awkward shapes as separate picture frames1 is an archaic method of design much in need of excuse4 ,the more reasonable thing to do would have been to make use of such incomplete forms only in some secondary position1 and as framework for ornament1 or at least quite subsidiary figures4 ,apart from shapes which are really only segments of medallions1 the only awkward medallion shapes occurring in ,early glass are those which are broader than they are high1 such as occur1 for example1 at ,soissons4 ,these have always the uncomfortable appearance of having been crushed4 ,how the iron skeleton of a medallion window is filled out with leaded glass2 how the border and the medallion shapes are strengthened by bands of colour2 how the medallions themselves are occupied with little figure subjects1 and how the interspaces are filled in with ornament1 is indicated opposite and on pages #acb1 #cbe4 ,by way of variation upon the monotony of design1 the designer will sometimes reverse the order of things4 ,at ,bourges1 for example1 you will find the centre of a light devoted to insignificant and uninteresting ornament1 whilst the figure subjects are edged out into half quatrefoils at the sides of the window2 and1 again1 at ,chartres and ,le ,mans you may occasionally see the pictures similarly ousted from their natural position by rather mechanical ornament4 ,one can sympathise with an artist's impatience with the too1 too regular distribution of the stereotyped medallion window4 ,there is undoubtedly a monotony about it which the designer is tempted to get rid of at any price2 but consistency is a heavy price to pay for the slight relief afforded by the treatment just described4 ,this striving after strangeness results not only in very ugly picture shapes--no one would deliberately design such a shape as that which frames the picture of the ,dream of ,charlemagne 7overleaf7--but it produces a very uncomfortable impression of perversity4 ,it is quite conceivable that ornament may be better worth looking at than some pictures2 but a picture refuses to occupy the subordinate position2 it will not do as a frame to ornament4 ,there is no occasion to illustrate very fully the design of ,early figure medallions2 they are often of very great interest1 historical1 legendary and human1 but there is little variation in the system of design4 ,the picture is of the simplest1 perhaps the baldest1 kind4 ,the figures1 as before stated1 are clearly defined against a strong background1 usually blue or ruby2 a strip or two of coloured glass represents the earth upon which they stand2 a turret or a gable tells you that the scene is in a city2 a foliated sprig or two indicate that it is out of doors1 a forest1 perhaps2 a waving band of grey ornament upon the blue tells you that the blue background stands for sky1 for this is a cloud upon it4 ,the extremely ornamental form which conventional trees may assume is shown in ,mr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,rooke's sketch from a medallion at ,bourges1 opposite4 ,in the medallions from ,chartres 7page #cbe7 are instances of simpler and less interesting tree forms1 and in the upper part of the larger of the two1 a bank of conventional cloudwork4 ,explanatory inscriptions are sometimes introduced into the background1 as in the dream of ,charlemagne 7above71 or in the margin of the medallions1 as in the ,canterbury window on page #acb1 fulfilling in either case an ornamental as well as an elucidatory function4 ,illustration3 #ga4 ,,the ,,dream ,,of ,,charlemagne1 ,,chartres4 ,in the ,canterbury glass it will be seen the figures are more crowded than in the ,french work illustrated4 ,this is not a peculiarity of ,english glass1 but a mark of period2 as a rule the clump or compact group of personages proclaims a later date than figures isolated against the background4 ,there is no surer sign of very early work than the obvious display of the figures against the background1 light against dark or dark against light4 ,another indication of the date of the ,canterbury figures is that their draperies do not cling quite so closely about them as in figures 7page #cc7 in which the ,byzantine tradition is more plainly to be traced4 ,there is no mistaking a medallion window1 the type is fixed3 within a border of foliated ornament a series of circles1 quatrefoils1 or other medallion shapes1 for the most part occupied by figure subjects on a rather minute scale1 and between these ornament again4 ,the border might be wider or narrower1 according to the proportion of the window1 though a wide border was rather characteristic of quite early glass4 ,a twelfth century border 7,angers7 will sometimes measure more than a quarter of the entire width of the window4 ,the borders from ,canterbury1 ,beverley1 ,auxerre1 and ,chartres 7overleaf7 are of the thirteenth4 ,a border of sufficient dimensions will sometimes include medallion shapes as on pages #aae1 #cbe1 and even occasionally little subject medallions at intervals1 or it may be half-circles1 each containing a little figure2 but such interruption of the running border is rare4 ,in so far as it counts against monotony it is to the good4 ,illustration3 #gb4 ,,detail ,,from ,,an ,,early ,,medallion4 ,in narrower windows1 such as more frequently occur in this country1 where1 as the ,gothic style of architecture supplanted the ,norman1 lancet lights took a characteristically tall and slender shape1 the border was reduced to less imposing proportions1 as for example at ,beverley2--there was no room for a wide frame to the medallions1 nor any fear1 it may be added1 that these should be so large as to require breaking up into segments1 as in much ,french glass1 or at ,canterbury3 there the window openings1 as was to be expected of a ,french architect1 are more characteristically ,norman than ,english in proportion4 ,in a very narrow light in the one-time cathedral at ,carcassonne the medallions break in front of a not very wide border2 but then this1 though a medallion window1 belongs probably by date to the ,second ,gothic period4 ,illustration3 #gc4 ,,canterbury4 ,medallions themselves may be simple or fantastic in shape4 ,they may be devoted each to a single picture1 or subdivided into a series of four or five2 they may be closely packed1 and supported by segments of other medallions1 also devoted to figure work1 or they may be separated by considerable intervals of ornament4 ,the character of that ornament takes two distinct forms4 ,illustration3 #gd4 ,,beverley ,,minster4 ,in the examples given 7pages #acb1 #cbe7 it takes the form of foliated scrollwork1 very much of a piece with the ornament in the borders1 except that there is more scope for its growth4 ,in actual detail it varies1 according to its date and whereabouts1 from something very much like ,romanesque strapwork to the more or less trefoiled foliage typical of ,early ,gothic ornament1 whether ,french or ,english4 ,further examples of the last are shown in the borders from ,auxerre and ,chartres 7page #cbh74 ,the one from ,chartres illustrates the transition from the ,romanesque2 it is intermediate between the two4 ,the borders from ,s4 ,kunibert's1 ,cologne1 are quite ,romanesque in character1 though they are of the thirteenth century2 but then it has to be remembered that the ,romanesque style of architecture was flourishing on the ,rhine long after the ,gothic style had developed itself in ,france and ,england4 ,many of the details from ,canterbury--which1 by-the-bye1 are almost identical with contemporary ,french ornament--show a lingering influence of the pre-,gothic period1 but the scroll occupying the spandril on page #acb is pronouncedly of ,early ,gothic type4 ,of much the same character is the detail from ,salisbury on page #aag1 which forms no part of a medallion window1 but more likely of a tree of ,jesse4 ,illustration3 #ge4 ,,auxerre4 ,illustration3 #gf4 ,,chartres4 ,it was in this ornamental kind of design that the thirteenth century glaziers were most conspicuously successful4 ,one no longer feels here1 as one does with regard to their figure work1 that they mean much better than their powers enable them to do4 ,and it is with scrollery of this kind1 either growing free or springing from the margin of the medallion1 that the ,early ,english designers occupied the intervals between the medallions in their windows4 ,in ,france it became the commoner practice to substitute for it a diaper of geometric pattern4 ,other expedients were occasionally adopted4 ,there is a window at ,s4 ,denis in which there is foliated scrollwork on a background of geometric diaper1 although this last is so much restored that1 for all one can tell1 ,viollet le ,duc may be entirely responsible for it4 ,illustration3 #gg4 ,s4 ,,kunibert1 ,,cologne4 ,illustration3 #gh4 ,,french ,,mosaic ,,diapers4 ,at ,soissons is a window in which the interspaces between the medallions are filled with deep blue1 broken only here and there by a spot of ruby2 at ,poitiers also the ornament in spandrils is often just a quatrefoil or so1 barely foliated1 if at all2 at ,bourges there is an instance of spandrils 7page #abe7 occupied by bare curling stalks and rosette-like flowers2 at ,poitiers the bands which frame the medallions have a way of interlacing1 not in the simple fashion shown in the example from ,canterbury below1 but so as to form a kind of pattern in the spandrils in front of the geometric filling2 and there are other variations on the accustomed medallion tunes2 but as a rule the ornament consists either of the usual ,early ,gothic foliation1 closely akin to that in the borders1 such as is shown on pages #abi1 #acj1 #cbh1 #ccj1 or of geometric pattern1 such as is here given4 ,the rarity of the mosaic diaper in this country may be gathered from the fact that in the whole series of ,early medallion windows at ,canterbury it is found only once1 its frequency in ,france from the fact that in the choir alone of ,bourges ,cathedral it occurs in no less than twenty-two instances2 again at ,chartres1 out of twenty-seven great windows1 not more than four have scrollwork2 at ,poitiers1 on the other hand1 there is little geometric diaper1 but the ornament is of the simplest1 and barely foliated4 ,this device of geometric diaper-filling was possibly inspired by the idea of utilising the small chips of precious glass1 which1 with the then method of working1 must have accumulated in great quantity4 ,in any case1 it must have been encouraged by that consideration1 if not actually suggested by it4 ,apart from economy1 which is a condition of craftsmanlike work1 there does seem a sort of artistic logic in the use of merely geometric design for quite subordinate filling1 to act as a foil to figure work2 but there was no occasion to put the mosaic of fragments quite so regularly1 not to say mechanically1 together1 as was the custom to do4 ,illustration3 #gi4 ,,canterbury4 ,illustration3 #hj4 ,,french ,,mosaic ,,diapers4 ,illustration3 #ha4 ,,detail ,,of ,,medallion ,,window1 ,,canterbury4 ,illustration3 #hb4 ,,french ,,mosaic ,,diaper4 ,that is shown in a rather unusual instance in a window of the ,lower ,church at ,assisi2 there occurs there a diaper of circles with blue interstices1 where the circles1 though all alike painted with a star pattern1 vary in colour in a seemingly accidental way1 and are red1 yellow1 green1 brown1 just as it took the fancy of the glazier4 ,it follows inevitably from the small scale on which these patterns are set out1 and from the radiation of the coloured light1 that unless very great discretion is exercised the rays get mixed1 with a result which is often the reverse of pleasing4 ,and the worst of it was that the ,french glaziers particularly affectioned a combination of red and blue most difficult to manage4 ,a very favourite pattern consisted of cross bands of ruby 7as above71 enclosing squares or diamonds of blue1 with dots of white at the intersection of the ruby bands1 which persists always in running to purple4 ,instances of this unpleasant cast of colour are of continual occurrence1 but they are never otherwise than crude and plummy in effect4 ,the rather unusual combination of red and green mosaic diaper occurs1 however1 pretty frequently at ,carcassonne4 ,the diapers illustrated indicate the variety of geometric pattern to be found at ,bourges1 ,chartres1 ,le ,mans1 and ,notre ,dame at ,paris1 and elsewhere4 ,in proportion as there is in them a preponderance of blue and ruby the effect is that of an aggressive purple4 ,the safest plan seems to be in associating with the blue plenty of green1 or with the ruby plenty of yellow glass2 or a similar result may be obtained by the choice of a deep neutral blue and of an orange shade of red1 taking care always that the two contrasting colours shall not be of anything like equal strength4 ,at the best these diapers compare very unfavourably with scrollwork4 ,they are1 in the nature of things1 more monotonous and less interesting than a growth of foliage2 they are apt also to run to gaudy colour1 which by its mass overpowers the pictures set in it4 ,compare1 in any ,french church1 the windows in which there is geometric mosaic and those in which there is scrollwork2 and1 though they may be all of the same period1 and presumably the work of the same men1 you will almost certainly have to marvel how artists who at one moment hold you spellbound by the magic of their colour can in the next disturb your eyesight with a glare of purple produced by the parody of a ,scotch plaid4 ,many of these diapers are very minute in scale2 the smaller the scale on which they are designed the greater the certainty of the colours running together4 ,illustration3 #hc4 ,s4 ,,peter ,,delivered ,,from ,,prison1 ,,lyons4 ,it is to the very small scale of the figures1 also1 that the confusion of effect in medallion subjects1 in spite of their comparatively flat treatment1 is to be attributed4 ,at ,bourges1 at ,canterbury1 everywhere1 the medallion subjects are on far too minute a scale to be made out by mortals of ordinary patience1 or1 to speak accurately1 impatience4 ,often1 even in windows which come close enough to the eye for study1 it is only the more conventionally familiar pictures which explain themselves readily2 and those you recognise almost by anticipation4 ,you have no difficulty in deciphering the ,nativity1 the ,crucifixion1 the ,ascension1 and so on1 because you expect to find them4 ,a certain muddle of effect must be accepted as characteristic of medallion windows4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 that1 considering the difficulty of making out the ordinary medallion subjects in the lower windows1 where they are usually found1 some other scheme of composition should have been adopted for clerestory windows where those would have been more than ever unintelligible4 ,accordingly1 in that position1 the single figure treatment was adopted1 and carried further than in the preceding century4 ,the figure was now1 not for the first time1 but more invariably1 enclosed in something like an architectural niche--a practice borrowed from the sculptor1 who habitually protected the carved figures enriching the portals of great churches by a projecting canopy1 giving them at the same time a pedestal or base of some kind to stand upon4 ,in glass there was clearly no occasion for such architectural shelter or support2 but the pretended niche and base offered a means of occupying the whole length of the space within the border1 which1 without some additional ornament1 would often have been too long in proportion to the figure1 the mere band of inscription under its feet not being enough to fill out the length4 ,these very rudimentary canopies1 specimens of which are given here1 are usually very insignificant4 ,it takes sometimes an expert to realise that the broken colour about the head of the saint 7page #df7 stands for architecture4 ,the forms1 when you come to look at them closely1 may be ugly as well as childish1 but they go for so little that it seems hardly worth while to take exception to them4 ,it is only as indication of a practice 7later to be carried to absurd excess7 of making shift with sham architecture for the ornamental setting necessary to bring the figure into relation and into proportion with the window it is to occupy1 that the device of thus enshrining a figure as yet deserves attention4 ,as the beginning of canopy work in glass it marks a very eventful departure in design4 ,all that need here be said about the ,early ,gothic canopy is that it would have been easy to have devised decorative forms at once more frankly ornamental1 more interesting in themselves1 and more beautiful1 not to say less suggestive of a child's building with a box of bricks4 ,illustration3 #hd4 ,,lyons4 ,sometimes1 as at ,chartres and elsewhere1 the base of the canopy would itself take the form of a little subordinate niche enclosing a figure in small of the ,donor1 or perhaps only of his shield of arms4 ,sometimes it would take the form of a panel of inscription1 boldly leaded in yellow letters upon blue or ruby4 ,an alternative idea was to represent the ,saints1 or other holy personages1 sitting4 ,the figure on page #ace belongs actually to the beginning of the fourteenth century2 but1 except for a slightly more naturalistic character in the drawing of the drapery1 it might almost have belonged to the same period as the standing figure on page #df4 ,in longer lights two saints are often figured1 sitting one above the other4 ,this may be seen in the clerestory at ,canterbury2 but the effect is usually less satisfactory than that of the single figure on a larger scale4 ,the standing position is also much better suited to the foreshortened view which one necessarily gets of clerestory windows4 ,a curious variation upon the ordinary theme occurs in four of the huge lancets in the south transept at ,chartres1 where the ,major ,prophets are represented each bearing on his shoulders an ,evangelist4 ,the same idea recurs at ,notre ,dame1 ,paris1 under the south rose4 ,that is all very well in idea--iconographically it is only right that the ,old ,testament should uphold the ,new--but reduced to picture it is absurd1 especially as the ,evangelists are drawn to a smaller scale than the ,prophets1 and irresistibly suggest boys having a ride upon their fathers' shoulders4 ,dignity of effect there can be none4 ,not now for the first time1 seemingly1 is art sacrificed to what we call the literary idea4 ,it shakes one's faith somewhat in the sincerity of the early medival artist to find that in the serried ranks of ,kings1 ,prophets1 ,bishops1 and other holy men1 keeping guard over the church in the clerestory lights1 one figure often does duty for a variety of personages1 the colour only1 and perhaps the face1 being changed4 ,at ,reims there are as many as six in a row1 all precisely of the same pattern1 though the fraud may not be detected until one examines them from the triforium gallery4 ,at ,lyons1 again1 it looks as if the same thing occurred2 but one cannot get near enough to them to be quite certain4 ,none the less they are fine in colour4 ,thirteenth century glass was capable of great things in the way of colour2 and the rows of ,kings and ,prophets looking down upon you from the clerestory of a great church like ,bourges1 archaic though the drawing be1 are truly solemn and imposing4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,early ,,grisaille4 ,with grisaille glass begins a new chapter in the history of glass painting1 and a most important one--not only because of the beautiful work which was done from the first in white1 but also because coloured glass grew1 so to speak1 always towards the light4 ,illustration3 #he4 ,s4 ,,serge1 ,,angers4 ,the first coloured windows were intense in colour1 rich1 and even heavy4 ,the note they struck was deep1 solemn1 suited to the church and to the times4 ,neither priest nor parishioner was afraid to sacrifice a certain amount of light4 ,it was the business of a window to shut in those that worshipped from the outer world1 and wrap them in mysterious and beautiful gloom4 ,with other days1 however1 came other ideals4 ,as time went on1 and men emerged from the dark ages1 the problem of the glazier was how more and more to lighten his glass2 until at last white glass predominated1 and the question was how to introduce colour into it4 ,meanwhile the thirteenth century glaziers resorted1 where they wanted light1 to the use of windows in grisaille1 in absolute contrast to the rich picture-glass in the same church4 ,the model for grisaille design was readily found in the earlier pattern work in plain glazing4 ,illustration3 #hf4 ,s4 ,,serge1 ,,angers4 ,illustration3 #hg4 ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois4 ,this last never quite went out of use4 ,but already in the thirteenth century1 and probably in the twelfth1 it began to be supplemented1 for the most part1 by painting4 ,the exceptionally graceful work at ,s4 ,serge1 ,angers1 for example1 on this page and the last1 is probably not very much later than the year #abjj4 ,you can see at a glance how this is only a carrying further of the unpainted work in the same church 7page #bg7 attributed to the thirteenth century4 ,there may be found indeed amidst the plain glazing scraps of painted work2 but they never happen to fit1 and have pretty certainly found their way into the window in course of repairs4 ,the unpainted window seems to be of greener and more silvery glass than the painted1 to which perhaps the cross-hatching gives a rather horny look4 ,the one way of painting grisaille in the thirteenth century was to trace the design 7which of course followed the traditional lines7 boldly upon the white glass1 and then to cross-hatch the ground1 more or less delicately according to the scale of the work and its distance from the eye1 as here shown4 ,by this means the pattern was made to stand out clear and light against the background1 which had now the value of a tint1 only a much more brilliant one than could have been got by a film or wash of colour4 ,very occasionally a feature1 such as the group of four crowns which form the centre of the circle1 above1 might be emphasised by filling in the ground about them in solid pigment2 but that was never done to any large extent4 ,the rule was always to cross-hatch the ground4 ,illustration3 #hh4 ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois4 ,illustration3 #hi4 ,,soissons4 ,with the introduction of colour into grisaille comes always the question as to how much or how little of it there shall be4 ,there is a good deal of ,early ,french work1 which1 on the face of it1 was designed first as a sort of strapwork of interlacing bands in plain glazing1 and then further enriched with painted work1 not growing from it1 except by way of exception4 ,this is seen in the example here given4 ,the painter indulged in slight modifications of detail as he went on4 ,he had a model which he copied more or less throughout the window2 but he allowed himself the liberty of playing variations1 and he even departed from it at times4 ,by this means he adapted himself to the glass1 which did not always take just the same lines1 and at the same time he amused himself1 and us1 more than if he had multiplied one pattern with monotonous precision4 ,his painting was strong enough to keep the leads in countenance2 that is to say1 his main outlines would be as thick 7see opposite7 as lead lines4 ,illustration3 #ij4 ,,early ,,detail4 ,patterns such as those on pages #ach1 #aci1 and below1 from ,soissons1 ,reims1 ,s4 ,jean-aux-,bois1 would make good glazed windows apart from the painting on them4 ,indeed1 the painting is there comparatively insignificant in design4 ,in the ,soissons work1 in particular1 it consists of little more than cross-hatching upon the background1 to throw up the interlacing of the glazed bands2 for1 with the exception of just a touch of colour in the one opposite1 these designs are executed entirely in white glass4 ,the geometric glazing shapes so completely convey the design1 that the painted detail might almost be an after-thought4 ,illustration3 #ia4 ,,soissons4 ,illustration3 #ib4 ,,reims4 ,illustration3 #ic4 ,,lincoln4 ,illustration3 #id4 ,,water ,,perry1 ,,oxon4 ,in much of the earliest grisaille there is absolutely no colour but the greenish hue belonging to what we are agreed to call white glass1 and the effect of it is invariably so satisfactory as to show that colour is by no means indispensable4 ,and1 at all events in ,france1 the colour was at first very sparingly used1 except in those twelfth century patterns 7pages #ce1 #aah1 #abj7 which cannot fairly be called grisaille4 ,in the window on page #acg the colour is1 practically speaking1 enclosed in small spaces ingeniously contrived between the interlacing bands of white2 in that on page #ach it is introduced in half rings1 which form part of the marginal line1 and in spots or jewels2 but in either case there is little of it1 and it is most judiciously introduced4 ,the interlacing of bands of plain white upon a ground of cross-hatching1 itself enriched with scrollwork clear upon it1 is characteristically ,french4 ,similar bands of white occur1 though not interlacing1 in the comparatively clumsy panel from ,lincoln 7above71 but the more usual ,english way was to make the bands of white broader1 and to paint a pattern upon them1 as in the lancet from ,water ,perry1 ,oxfordshire 7opposite71 or in the much more satisfactory light from ,lincoln 7overleaf71 leaving only a margin of clear glass next the cross-hatched background4 ,a similar kind of thing occurs in the church of ,s4 ,pierre at ,chartres 7below74 ,a yet more usual plan with us was to make the strapwork in colour1 as at ,salisbury4 ,in the patterns on this page the straps do not interlace4 ,in that on page #adc they not only interlace one with the other1 but the painted ornament1 which now takes the form of more elaborate scrollwork than heretofore1 is intertwined with them4 ,this is an extremely good example of ,early ,english grisaille4 ,altogether ,salisbury ,cathedral is rich in white glass windows of this period 7pages #adc1 #adh1 #cbi1 #ccb74 ,illustration3 #ie4 ,,lincoln4 ,illustration3 #if4 ,s4 ,,pierre1 ,,chartres4 ,the grisaille in the clerestory at ,bourges is similar to the ,salisbury work1 but it is not possible to get near enough to it to make careful comparison4 ,the scrollwork on page #adc may be profitably compared with the very unusual white window at ,s4 ,jean-aux-,bois 7overleaf74 ,there the design consists altogether of scrolls in white upon a cross-hatched ground4 ,it is as if the designer had set out to glaze up a pattern in white upon a white ground1 cross-hatched4 ,but it is obvious that1 as there is no change of colour1 it was no longer necessary always to cut the ornament out of a separate piece of glass from the ground4 ,we find consequently that1 wherever it is convenient1 a painted line is used to save leading4 ,that1 it has been already explained 7page #bd71 was a practice from the first2 and it was resorted to more and more4 ,it came in very conveniently in the ,french windows1 in which the design consisted largely of white strapwork4 ,it was adopted in the example from ,chlons here given1 though it does not appear in the sketch1 any more than it does in the glass until you examine it very carefully4 ,however1 in the sketches from the great clerestory window from ,reims ,cathedral 7overleaf71 and in the smaller one from ,s4 ,jean-aux-,bois 7facing it71 the economy of glazing is easy to perceive2 whilst in that from ,coutances 7page #adg7 the glazier is already so sparing of his leads that they no longer always follow or define the main lines of the pattern4 ,illustration3 #ig4 ,,grisaille1 ,,salisbury ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 #ih4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,in a remarkable window in the choir of ,chartres ,cathedral 7page #aej7 the design includes interlacing bands both of white and colour1 the coloured ones flanked with strips of white2 but the white bands are not glazed separately4 ,they are throughout included in the same piece of glass as the cross-hatching1 which defines them4 ,this ingenious and very graceful pattern window is still of the thirteenth century1 though clearly of much later date than1 for example1 the windows of ,s4 ,jean-aux-,bois1 which might indeed almost belong to the twelfth4 ,illustration3 #ii4 ,,clerestory1 ,,reims4 ,in several of the ,salisbury windows 7pages #adh1 #chf7 thin straps of colour are bounded on the outer side by broader bands of white painted with pattern4 ,and here it should be noticed the bands no longer interlace at all2 on the contrary1 the ornamental forms are superposed one upon the other4 ,this is very markedly the case on page #adh4 ,in the centre of the light is a series of circular discs1 and at the sides of these a row of zig-zags1 which1 as it were1 disappear behind them1 whilst at the edges of the window1 again1 is an array of segments of smaller circles losing themselves behind these4 ,in such cases1 it will be seen1 the broad white bands fulfil the very useful purpose of keeping the coloured lines apart1 and separating one series of shapes from the other4 ,in this window1 as in the narrow light on page #chf1 where the vesica shape is occupied once more with flowing scrollwork1 and as in all but one of the windows on that page1 the background of cross-hatching is for the first time omitted1 and the pencilled pattern is by so much the less effective4 ,as a rule1 patterns traced in mere outline like this belong to a later date2 but these windows are certainly of the thirteenth century4 ,it is seldom safe to say that this or that practice belonged exclusively to any one period4 ,the white glass on page #cce1 almost entirely without paint1 might have been executed in the twelfth century1 but its border indicates more likely the latter part of the thirteenth4 ,quite the simplest form of glazing was to lead the glass together in squares or diamonds4 ,these quarries1 as they are called 7from the ,french carr7 are associated sometimes with rosettes and bands of other pattern work1 as at ,lincoln 7pages #bhd1 #bhg72 but more ordinarily the ornamental part of the window is made up entirely of them4 ,quarry is a term to be remembered4 ,it plays in the next century an important part in the design of windows4 ,illustration3 #ajj4 ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois4 ,the best-known grisaille windows in ,england are the famous group of long lancets1 ending the north transept of ,york ,minster1 which are known by the name of the ,five ,sisters4 ,you remember the legend about them4 ,the inimitable ,boz relates it at length in ,nicholas ,nickleby2 but it is nonsense1 all the same4 ,the story tells how in the reign of ,henry the ,fourth five maiden ladies worked the designs in embroidery1 and sent them abroad to be carried out in glass4 ,but1 as it happens1 they belong to the latter part of the thirteenth century2 they are unmistakably ,english work2 and1 what is more1 no woman1 maiden1 wife1 or widow1 ever had1 or could have had1 a hand in their design4 ,their authorship is written on the face of them4 ,every line in their composition shows them to be the work of a strong man1 and a practical glazier1 who worked according to the traditions that had come down to him4 ,a designer recognises in it a man who knew his trade1 and knew it thoroughly4 ,the notion that any glazier ever worked from an embroidered design is too absurd4 ,as well might the needlewoman go to the glazier to design her stitchery4 ,but such is the popular ignorance of workmanship1 and of its intimate connection with design1 that no doubt the vergers will go on repeating their apocryphal tale as long as vergers continue to fill the office of personal conductors4 ,illustration3 #aja4 ,,coutances4 ,the ,five ,sisters are rather looser and freer in design than the ,salisbury glass1 and have broad borders of white4 ,in detail they are certainly not superior to that1 nor in general design1 so far as one can make it out at all2 but1 from their very size and position1 they produce a much more imposing effect4 ,whoever is not impressed by the ,five ,sisters is not likely ever to be moved by grisaille4 ,they form one huge fivefold screen of silvery glass4 ,the patterns are only with great difficulty to be deciphered4 ,it is with these as with many others of the most fascinating windows in grisaille2 the glass is corroded on the surface1 black with the dirt and lichen of ages1 cracked and crossed with leads introduced by the repairing glazier1 until the design is about as intelligible as would be a conglomeration of huge spiders' webs4 ,but1 for all that1 nay1 partly because of it1 it is a thing of absolute beauty1 as beautiful as a spider's web1 beaded with dewdrops1 glistening in the sun on a frosty winter's morning4 ,it is a dream of silvery light3 who cares for details of design8 ,but it is all this1 because it was designed1 because it was planned by a glazier for glazing1 and has all that gives glass its charm4 ,illustration3 #ajb4 ,,grisaille1 ,,salisbury ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 #ajc4 ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,stained glass1 like the men who design it1 has always the defects of its qualities4 ,it is the first business of those who work in it to see that it has at least the qualities of its defects4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,windows ,,of ,,many ,,lights4 ,the merry life of the medallion window was a short one4 ,it reigned during the ,early ,gothic period supreme2 but after the end of the thirteenth century it soon went quite out of fashion1 and with it the practice of shaping the bars to suit the pattern of the window--a practice1 it will have been noticed1 not followed in grisaille windows1 though it might very well have been4 ,with the change which came over the spirit of later thirteenth century architecture some new departure in the design of glass became inevitable4 ,the windows spoken of till now were all single lights1 broader or narrower1 as the case might be1 but each so far off from the other that it had to be complete in itself1 and might just as well be designed with no more than general reference to its neighbours4 ,but in time it began to be felt in ,france that the broad ,norman window was too broad1 and so they divided it into two by a central shaft1 or mullion as it is called1 of stone4 ,in ,england equally it began to be felt that the long narrow lancet lights were too much in the nature of isolated piercings in the bare wall1 and so the builder brought them closer and closer together1 until they also were divided by narrow mullions4 ,in this way1 and in answer especially to the growing demand for more light in churches1 and consequently for more windows1 it became the custom to group them4 ,eventually the window group resolved itself into a single window of several1 sometimes of many1 lights1 divided only by narrow stone mullions4 ,or1 to account for it in another way1 windows of considerable size coming into vogue1 it became necessary1 for constructional no less than for artistic reasons1 to subdivide them by mullions into two or more lights4 ,the arched window head was broken up into smaller fancifully shaped tracery lights1 as they are called2 and so we arrive at the typical ,decorated ,gothic window4 ,the height of these windows being naturally in proportion to their width1 the separate lights into which they were divided were apt to be exceedingly long4 ,to have treated them after the ,early medallion manner1 each with its broad border1 would have been to draw attention to this1 and even to exaggerate their length4 ,the problem now to be solved in glass was1 how best to counteract the effect of insecurity likely to result from the thinness of the upright lines of the stone and the narrowness of the openings between them4 ,it is not meant to say that the medallion window expired without a spasm4 ,for a while ,decorated windows were treated very much after the fashion of the earlier medallion windows4 ,the medallions were necessarily smaller1 and usually long in proportion to their width1 although they extended now to the edge of the stonework1 the narrowish border to the lights passing1 as it were1 behind them4 ,this is very amply illustrated in the windows in the choir clerestory at ,tours4 ,occasionally there is no border but a line of white and colour1 and the whole interval between the elongated hexagonal or octagonal panels is given up to mosaic diaper4 ,the medallions naturally range themselves in horizontal order throughout the three or four lights of the window1 giving just the indication of a horizontal line across them4 ,by way of exception1 the subject of the ,last ,supper extends through all three lights of the ,east window1 the tablecloth forming a conspicuous band of light across it4 ,this glass at ,tours is deep and rich throughout1 as intense sometimes as in earlier work1 though warmer in colour1 owing to the greater amount of yellow glass employed4 ,that was not to last long4 ,illustration3 #ajd4 ,,decorated ,,medallion ,,window1 ,,german4 ,it lingered longest in ,germany4 ,there is a curious two-light window in ,cologne ,cathedral1 with queer rectangular medallions1 of considerable interest1 which is probably not very early in date4 ,a not very common type of ,decorated medallion window is illustrated above4 ,the cutting across the border by medallion or other subjects1 is a common thing in fourteenth century glass 7below and opposite71 just because such encroachment is obviously a most useful device in dealing with narrow spaces4 ,it occurs in some medallion windows 7also of the fourteenth century7 at the church of ,santa ,croce1 at ,florence4 ,but this was not enough4 ,the ,germans went a step further1 and carried the medallions boldly across two lights1 treating them as a single medallion window with a stone mullion instead of an iron bar up the centre4 ,there is an instance of this at ,s4 ,sebald's ,church1 ,nuremberg1 and another1 more curious than beautiful to see1 at ,strassburg4 ,they went further still1 and carried the medallions across a three-light window4 ,there is one such at ,augsburg1 where the medallions almost fill the window1 extending to the extreme edge of the outer lights4 ,indeed1 a broad outer border of angels surrounding the great circles is cut short by the side walls4 ,this is at least a means of getting rid of the littleness resulting sometimes from the small medallion treatment1 and it is in fact most effective4 ,the broad1 sweeping1 circular lines also have the appearance of holding the lights together and strengthening them4 ,illustration3 #aje4 ,,freiburg4 ,this was a thing most needful to be done in ,decorated glass4 ,it was needed sometimes already in ,early work4 ,at ,clermont-,ferrand the narrow lancets at the end of the ,south transept are filled1 except for a thin white beaded border1 with diaper work in rich colour1 interrupted at intervals by big rosettes of white1 which form two bands of light across the series1 and make them seem one group4 ,illustration3 #ajf4 ,,details ,,of ,,dec4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,the deliberate use of horizontal lines 7or features giving such lines7 in glass1 was clearly the most effective way of counteracting the too upright tendency of the masonry1 or rather of preventing it from appearing unduly drawn out2 and it became the custom4 ,even in a comparatively small ,decorated window1 for example1 the figures would usually form a band across it1 distinguished from the ornamental shrinework above and below it by a marked difference in colour4 ,in a taller window there would be two1 or possibly three1 such bands of figures1 in marked contrast to their framing4 ,in ,germany very often one big frame would cross the window1 or the figure subjects would be separated--as at ,strassburg1 for example--by bands of arcading1 out of which peeped little saints each with a descriptive label in his hand4 ,a typical ,english canopy of the period is given on this page4 ,it was commonly enclosed1 as here shown1 within a border1 wide enough to be some sort of acknowledgment of the subdivision of the window1 but not wide enough to prevent the colour of the canopy from forming a distinct band across the window4 ,the predominance of a powerful1 rather brassy1 yellow in the canopy work1 and a contrast in colour between its background and that of the figures1 carried the eye without fail across the window4 ,a notable exception to the usual brassiness of the ,decorated canopy occurs at ,toulouse1 where a number of high-pitched gables of the ordinary design1 stronger in colour than usual1 have crockets and finials of a fresh bright green4 ,illustration3 #ajg4 ,,typical ,,decorated ,,canopy4 ,the ,decorated canopy1 with its high-pitched gable and tall flying buttresses1 its hard lines1 and its brassy colour was a characteristic1 but never a very beautiful feature in design2 and it grew to quite absurd proportions4 ,it was in ,germany that it was carried to greatest excess1 extending to a height three or four times that of the figure and more2 but with us also it was commonly tall enough altogether to dwarf the poor little figure it pretended to protect4 ,even when it was not preposterously tall1 its detail was usually out of all proportion to the figure4 ,your fourteenth century draughtsman would have no hesitation in making the finial of his canopy bigger than the head 7nimbus and all7 of the saint under it4 ,clumsiness of this kind is so much the rule1 and disproportion is so characteristic of the middle of the fourteenth century1 that1 but for some distinctly good ornamental glass of the period1 one might dismiss it as merely transitional1 and not worthy of a chapter to itself in the history of glass design4 ,illustration3 #ajh4 ,s4 ,,urbain1 ,,troyes4 ,illustration3 #aji4 ,,new ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,our distinctions of style1 as was said1 are at the best arbitrary4 ,we may devise a classification which shall serve to distinguish one marked type from another1 but it is quite impossible to draw any hard-and-fast line between the later examples of one kind and the earlier of another one4 ,we may choose to divide ,gothic art into three classes1 as we may subdivide the spectrum into so many positive colours1 but the indeterminate shades by which they gradate each into the other defy classification or description4 ,certainly the best figure work of the middle period is that which might quite fairly be claimed as belonging1 on the one hand1 to the end of the ,early1 or on the other to the beginning of the ,late1 ,gothic period4 ,in the figures from ,troyes1 for example 7page #dg and opposite71 the ,early tradition lingers2 in those from ,new ,college 7also opposite7 the characteristics of ,late work begin to appear4 ,in the figure of the headsman on this page there is certainly no sense of proportion4 ,in all the wealth of ,decorated figure-and-canopy work at ,york ,minster there is nothing to rank for a moment with the best ,early or ,perpendicular glass4 ,nor in ,france1 though there is ,decorated work in most of the great churches1 is there anything conspicuously fine4 ,even at ,s4 ,ouen1 at ,rouen1 there is nothing particularly worthy of note4 ,it is true that the period of the ,english occupation and the troubles which followed it was not the time when we should expect the arts to flourish there4 ,illustration3 #aaj4 ,,executioner ,,of ,s4 ,,john ,,the ,,baptist1 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,a most characteristic thing in glass of this intermediate period was the way in which colour and grisaille were associated4 ,it has been already told how1 before then1 white and colour had been used together in the same light--at ,auxerre1 for example1 where1 within a broad border of colour1 you find an inner frame of grisaille1 enclosing a central figure panel of colour4 ,quite at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 if not already at the end of the thirteenth1 you find1 as at ,s4 ,radegonde1 ,poitiers1 upon a ground of grisaille1 coloured medallion subjects1 or more happily still1 little figures1 as it were1 inlaid1 breaking the white surface very pleasantly with patches of unevenly but judiciously dispersed colour--the whole enclosed in a coloured border4 ,but in the fourteenth century the more even combination of white and colour was quite a common thing4 ,naturally it was introduced in the form of the horizontal bands already mentioned4 ,and indeed it is in windows into which grisaille enters that this band-wise distribution of design is most apparent1 and most typical4 ,the designer very commonly conceived his window as in grisaille1 crossed by a band or bands of colour1 binding the lights together4 ,that may be seen in the chapter-house at ,york1 where you have several series of little subjects1 more or less in the shape of medallions1 forming so many belts of colour across the five-light grisaille windows1 which belts the eye insensibly follows right round the building4 ,illustration3 #aaa4 ,,decorated ,,borders4 ,that is the theory of design4 ,its practical construction may be better described otherwise4 ,the iron horizontal bars1 to the use of which the glaziers had by this time come back1 divide the lights each into a series of panels1 which panels are filled at ,york alternately with coloured subjects and ornamental grisaille4 ,elsewhere perhaps two panels are filled with colour to one of grisaille1 or three to one1 or vice vers4 ,in any case these alternate panels of white and colour1 occurring always on the same level throughout the lights composing the window 7and often through all the windows along the aisle of a church71 range themselves in pronounced horizontal strips or bands4 ,illustration3 #aab4 ,,grisaille ,,and ,,figure4 ,this acceptance of the bars as a starting-point in design1 and this deliberate counterchange of light and dark1 may appear to indicate a very rough-and-ready scheme of design4 ,but any brutality there might be in it is done away with by the introduction of a sufficient amount of white into the coloured bands and of a certain modicum of colour in the bands of white4 ,and that was habitually the plan adopted4 ,into the subjects it was easy to introduce just as much white as seemed necessary4 ,a little white might be there already in the flesh1 which was no longer always represented in flesh-coloured glass but more and more commonly in white4 ,the usual border at the sides of the grisaille--now reduced to quite modest proportions--perhaps a simple leaf border1 as on pages #dd1 #aeh1 perhaps a still simpler block border1 as above1 served to frame the white1 at the same time that it was an acknowledgment once more of the fact that each light forms a separate division of the window4 ,in most cases the introduction of a little colour into the grisaille panel1 very often in the form of a rosette1 went further to prevent any possible appearance of disconnection between the figures and their ornamental setting4 ,as a matter of fact1 so little obvious is the plan of such windows in the actual glass that it often takes one some time to perceive it4 ,illustration3 #aac4 ,,evreux4 ,in the nave at ,york ,minster the grisaille is crossed by two bands of coloured figure work4 ,elsewhere it is crossed by one2 but where the figures have canopies1 as they often have1 that makes again a horizontal subdivision in the coloured portion of the glass4 ,sometimes the topmost pinnacles of the coloured canopies will extend into the grisaille above1 breaking the harshness of the dividing line2 but it is seldom that it appears harsh in the glass4 ,the fact seems to be that the upward tendency of the long lights is so marked1 and the mullions make such a break in any cross line1 that there is no fear of horizontal forms pronouncing themselves too strongly2 the difficulty is rather to make them marked enough4 ,architects came eventually to feel the want of some more sternly horizontal feature than the glazier could contrive1 when they introduced the stone transom1 which was a feature of the later ,gothic period4 ,when it was a question of glazing a broad single light of earlier construction1 the fourteenth century artist designed his glass accordingly4 ,not that he then adopted the thirteenth century manner--it never entered his mind to work in any other style than that which was current in his day2 the affectation of bygone styles is a comparatively modern heresy--but he adapted his design equally to help1 if not to correct1 the shape of the window opening4 ,accustomed as he was to narrower lights1 the broad window of an earlier age appeared to him unduly broad1 and his first thought was to make it look narrower4 ,this he did by dividing it into vertical 7instead of horizontal7 strips of white and colour4 ,that is shown in the window from ,troyes 7page #aei71 in which the centre strip of the window1 occupied by figures and canopies in colour1 is flanked by broad strips of grisaille1 and that again by a coloured border4 ,there1 as usual1 you find some white in the figure work and some colour in the grisaille1 always the surest way of making the window look one4 ,the judicious treatment of a belated lancet window like this goes to show that it was of set purpose that the tall lights of a ,decorated window were bound together by ties of coloured glass4 ,so long as windows were built in many lights1 that plan of holding them together was never abandoned4 ,there is a very notable instance of this at ,berne1 where the four long lights of a ,late ,gothic window are crossed by lines of canopy work1 taking not horizontal but arched lines 7a device common enough in ,german glass71 effectually counteracting the lean and lanky look of the window4 ,still markedly horizontal lines of subdivision in glass design are more characteristic of the second ,gothic period than of any other4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,middle ,,gothic ,,glass4 ,towards the fourteenth century1 it seems1 a wave of realism swept over ,gothic art4 ,so much is this so that a relatively speaking naturalistic form of ornamental detail is the most marked feature of the ,decorated period1 giving it its name1 and1 indeed1 its claim to be a style4 ,illustration3 #aad4 ,,norbury1 ,,derbyshire4 ,no great stress has been laid in the foregoing chapters upon this new departure in naturalism1 because it did not so very vitally affect design4 ,when it is said that glass followed always the fashion of architecture1 that is as much as to say that1 as the sculptors took to natural instead of conventional foliage1 so did the glass painters2 and there is not much more to tell4 ,to trace the development of naturalistic design would lead us far astray4 ,enough to say that1 by the naturalistic turn of its ornamental foliage you may recognise the period called ,decorated4 ,how far that naturalism of ,decorated detail may be to the good is a question there is no need here to dispute4 ,it was a new departure4 ,the new work lacked something of the simple dignity and self-restraint which marked the earlier1 and it had not yet the style and character which came in the next century of more consistently workmanlike treatment4 ,in so far it was a kind of prelude to ,perpendicular work4 ,this is not to deny that excellent work was done in the ,decorated period1 especially perhaps in glass1 where naturalism1 at its crudest1 is less offensive than in wood or stone4 ,but there is no getting over the fact that the period was intermediate2 and ,decorated glass is in a state of transition 7#a7 between the archaism of the early and the accomplishment of the later ,gothic2 7#b7 between the conventional ornament which merely suggests nature and natural foliage conventionally treated2 7#c7 between strong rich colour and delicate silvery glass4 ,the transition of style is nowhere more plainly to be traced than in the grisaille of the period4 ,at first the character of fourteenth century grisaille did not greatly differ from earlier work1 except in the form of the painted detail4 ,that from ,s4 ,urbain1 ,troyes1 on page #ccc1 is a typical instance of ,early ,french ,transition foliage1 in which the scroll is only less strong and vigorous than before4 ,precisely the same kind of detail is shown again in the lower of the two instances1 likewise from ,troyes1 opposite2 but already natural leaves begin to mingle with it2 whilst in the illustration above it1 though the mosaic border is characteristically early1 the foliage in grisaille is deliberately naturalistic4 ,the grisaille at ,troyes1 by the way1 often reminds one of that at ,york ,minster4 ,it is mainly by the naturalistic character of the ivy scroll1 or perhaps it would be nearer the mark to say of the leaves upon it1 that the design from ,norbury1 ,derbyshire 7page #afb71 betrays its later date1 by that and the absence of cross-hatching on the background4 ,the glazing of the window is still thoroughly mosaic4 ,illustration3 #aae4 ,s4 ,,pierre1 ,,chartres4 ,illustration3 #aaf4 ,,dec4 ,,grisaille1 ,s4 ,,urbain1 ,,troyes4 ,illustration3 #aag4 ,,chartres4 ,illustration3 #aah4 ,,evreux4 ,illustration3 #aai4 ,,rouen ,,cathedral4 ,there is a different indication of transition in the little panel from ,s4 ,pierre at ,chartres1 almost entirely in white glass1 on page #afc4 ,the foliated ornament is here still early in character2 but1 it will be seen1 there is no longer any pretence of leading up the bands of clear glass in separate strips4 ,they are only bounded on one side by a lead line4 ,that is so again in the three designs from ,chartres ,cathedral above1 where1 further1 the background is clear of paint2 and in those from ,evreux1 on pages #afe1 #bhd4 ,there the background is cross-hatched2 but in one case the foliage is naturalistic4 ,the coloured strapwork in the grisaille from the ,lady ,chapel of ,rouen ,cathedral on page #afe is frankly mosaic2 but the foliated ends of the straps1 gathered together into a central quatrefoil in a quite unusual fashion1 indicates the new spirit4 ,the white glass is there painted with trailing foliage in outline upon a clear ground1 not shown in the sketch1 which is merely a diagram of the glazing4 ,the grisaille from ,stanton ,s4 ,john1 ,oxford1 here given1 still hesitates rather between two opinions4 ,the foliage is naturalistic1 but the background is cross-hatched2 the broad diagonal bands1 patterned with paint1 are glazed in colour2 the rings of white are not separately leaded4 ,that sort of thing has occurred1 as already pointed out1 before2 but it was not till the fourteenth century1 or thereabouts1 that the strapwork of white lines1 forming so characteristic a feature in ,decorated grisaille1 are systematically indicated by painted outlines and not glazed in if it could be helped4 ,illustration3 #abj4 ,,stanton ,s4 ,,john1 ,,oxford4 ,you have only to examine the crossing of the white lines in any of these last-mentioned patterns to see that1 now that they are not separately glazed1 they do not really interlace as before4 ,it is out of the question that they should4 ,it is easy enough to glaze up bands so that they shall interlace2 but1 when some of the drawing lines are lead and some paint1 it occurs continually that you want a leaded line to pass behind a line of clear glass--which1 of course1 is a physical impossibility4 ,it follows that the pretended interlacing comes to grief4 ,the pattern is confused 7it is worse when there is no hatched background7 by the occurrence of leads1 stronger than the painted lines1 which1 so far from playing any part in the design1 occur just at the points where they most interfere with it4 ,illustration3 #aba4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,that this did not deter them1 that they made a shift with interlacing which does not truly interlace1 marks a falling off in what may be called the conscientiousness of the ,gothic designers4 ,french and ,english ,decorated grisaille1 effective as it often is in the window1 is distinctly less satisfactory in design than the common run of earlier work4 ,its charm is never in its detail4 ,the patterns may be ingenious and not without grace1 but they are never altogether admirable1 any more than are the figures4 ,illustration3 #abb4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,what you most enjoy in it is the distribution of white and colour2 and you enjoy it most when you do not too curiously examine into the detail of the design1 when you are satisfied to enjoy the colour1 and do not look for form1 which after all is of less account in glass4 ,illustration3 #abc4 ,,regensburg4 ,illustration3 #abd4 ,,munich ,,museum4 ,so far as effect only is concerned1 quarry work1 the mere glazing in squares1 answers in many places 7such1 for example1 as the clerestories of narrow churches1 where you could not possibly enjoy any detail of design that might be there7 all the purpose of grisaille2 and it was commonly resorted to4 ,but the painting upon such quarries counts for very little2 it is far too small and fine in detail to have any effect further than to tone the glass a little1 which would have been unnecessary if the glass employed had been less clear4 ,in fact1 delicate paint on distant clerestory glass is much ado about very little2 and one cannot help thinking that plain glazing would there have answered all the purpose of the most delicately painted pattern work4 ,the fourteenth century glaziers seldom complicated their quarry work by the introduction of bands or straps of colour between the quarries1 or by the introduction of colour other than such as might occur in rosettes or shields and so on1 planted upon them1 rather than worked into the design4 ,occasionally1 however1 as at ,chlons-sur-,marne1 you come upon an ornamental window 7page #afg7 in which quarries are separated by bands of clear white1 a certain amount of colour being introduced in the form of yellow quarries substituted at regular intervals for the white4 ,on the same page is another coloured diaper window designed on quarry lines1 also at ,chlons4 ,in that quarries of white and yellow are separated by a trellis of blue4 ,something of the sort is to be seen also at ,s4 ,radegonde1 ,poitiers4 ,in these cases the painting1 as will be seen1 is strong enough to hold its own at a considerable distance from the eye1 but the effect is not very happy4 ,when1 by the way1 it was said that delicate painting on distant quarries was lost1 it was not meant to imply that strong painting on quarries would be a happy solution of the difficulty4 ,as a matter of experience1 it is seldom satisfactory4 ,on the other hand1 the common expedient of leading up the coloured backgrounds to figure work in small squares of ruby1 green1 and so on1 was generally the means of securing good broken colour4 ,it can hardly be said that geometric pattern windows in strong colour are ever very successful4 ,the ,germans1 who1 it should be remembered1 call their second ,gothic period the ,geometric1 often attempted it1 but without conspicuous success4 ,illustration3 #abe4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german4 ,in ,germany it was customary to use geometric diaper work long after it had gone out of use in ,france4 ,in fact1 it is there more likely a sign of the second period4 ,the crosslines in the diaper from ,regensburg 7opposite7 would have been in lead1 not paint1 if the work had been executed in the thirteenth century2 again1 the diaper below it would not at that period have been painted in the likeness of oak-leaves4 ,diaper of this kind was not used merely to fill up between medallions1 but as background1 for example1 to canopy work4 ,frequently it was very small in scale1 as well as elaborate in pattern4 ,it can hardly be said that it was always worth the pains spent upon it--often it was not2 but the ,germans avoided1 as a rule1 the dangerous red and blue combination1 and preferred1 as did also the ,italians1 less stereotyped arrangements of green and yellow1 or of red and green1 or of red and green and yellow2 if they ventured upon red and blue1 it was with a difference very much to their credit4 ,for example1 they would enclose diamonds of ruby in bands of purple-brown1 with just a point of blue at the interstices2 again1 they would make a diaper of purple1 purple-brown1 and grey2 and in many another way show that they deliberately aimed at colour in such work--whereas many of the ,early diapers suggest that the glazier was thinking more of pattern4 ,an instance of heraldic diaper is given on page #afi4 ,illustration3 #abf4 ,,freiburg4 ,in ,italy also you find sometimes1 as at ,florence and ,assisi1 medallion windows with mosaic diaper between1 or mosaic diaper used as background to figures which certainly cannot be described as ,early4 ,illustration3 #abg4 ,,freiburg4 ,the ,germans differed from the rest of us in their frank use of geometric pattern4 ,we habitually disguised it more or less1 clothing it most likely with foliation2 they used it quite nakedly1 and were not ashamed4 ,instances of this innocent use of geometric form are here given4 ,at ,freiburg are quite a number of windows entirely of geometric pattern work4 ,there is a good deal of white glass in them1 but they count rather for colour than for grisaille4 ,it would not be quite unfair to say they fall between the two stools4 ,these designs are much more pleasing in the glass than in black and white 7where they have rather too much the appearance of floor-cloth71 but they are by no means the happiest work of the ,germans of that day4 ,where they were really most successful1 more successful than their contemporaries1 was in foliated or floral pattern windows1 and those of a kind also standing dangerously near midway between colour and grisaille4 ,the method of execution employed in them was to a large extent strictly mosaic2 but there is quite a refreshing variety and novelty1 as well as very considerable ingenuity1 in their design4 ,illustration3 #abh4 ,,from ,,regensburg1 ,,munich ,,museum4 ,illustration3 #abi4 ,,ivy1 ,,munich ,,museum4 ,the window from ,regensburg on page #chi sets out very much as if it were going to be a grisaille window2 but it has1 in the first place1 more colour than is usual in grisaille1 and1 in the second1 it will be seen that the little triangular ground spaces next the border are filled with pot-metal4 ,the contrast of the set pattern and the four coloured leaves crossing each circle with the flowing undergrowth of grisaille is unusual1 and so is the cunning alternation of cross-hatching and plain white ground4 ,the designs from ,munich ,museum on pages #aga to #agd have nothing in common with grisaille4 ,the design consists of natural foliage chiefly in white1 growing tree-like upon a coloured ground up the centre of the light4 ,in the one the stem is waved1 in the other it takes a spiral form1 in the third it is more naturalistic4 ,but nature is not very consistently followed4 ,what appears like a vine on page #aga has husks or flowers which it is not easy to recognise2 and the ivy here is endowed with tendrils4 ,the border of convolvulus leaves and the hop scroll1 opposite1 are unmistakable1 though there is some inconsistency between the naturalness of the leaves and the stiffness of their growth4 ,the ivy pattern differs from the others inasmuch as the leaves show light against the yellow ground1 whilst the green stem and stalks tell dark upon it1 and there is a band of red within the outer border which holds the rather spiky leaves together4 ,the most interesting window of this kind illustrated is that on page #agd1 in which the stem is ingeniously twisted into quatrefoil medallion shapes1 so as to allow a change in the colour of the ground1 and the leaves are designed to go beyond the filling and form a pattern upon the border4 ,the rose is a hackneyed theme enough1 but this at least is a new way of working it out4 ,fourteenth century ,german windows are altogether more varied in design than contemporary ,french or ,english work4 ,the glass is not so much all of one pattern4 ,there are more surprises in it4 ,the ,germans treated grisaille in a way very much their own4 ,at the risk of a certain coarseness of execution1 they would paint out the background to their natural foliage in solid pigment1 or in brown just hatched with lines scratched through to the clear glass4 ,that is very effectively done1 for example1 at the ,church of ,s4 ,thomas at ,strassburg4 ,it is not contended that this is at all a better plan than that practised in ,france or ,england3 it is on the whole less happy2 but there are positions in which it is more to the purpose2 and it has at least the merit of being different2 it suggests something better than it accomplishes1 and it is a timely reminder that the best methods we know of cannot be accepted as final4 ,illustration3 #acj4 ,,german ,,ornamental ,,glass4 ,again at ,regensburg there is some distant ornamental work1 so simple in execution that it is little more than glazing in colours2 in fact just what distant work should be--effective in its place without any waste of labour4 ,illustration3 #aca4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,glass4 ,a word or two remains to be said about borders4 ,the narrower decorated light implied1 as was said1 a narrower border4 ,it was1 as a rule1 only when a wide ,early window had to be glazed that there was room for a broad one4 ,in that case it showed of course the new naturalism1 with perhaps the added interest of animal life1 as here illustrated2 but there lingers in ,german borders such as this and the one on page #cch1 something of early tradition4 ,it looks as if it would not be difficult to accept glazing lines like these and fill them in with painted detail la ,romanesque4 ,in one of the windows in ,york ,minster there is a border of alternate leaves and monkeys1 both much of a size1 which broadens out at the base1 affording space for the representation of a hunt1 men1 dogs1 grass and all complete4 ,illustration3 #acb4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german4 ,illustration3 #acc4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german4 ,there was another reason for the adoption of a narrower border4 ,not only were windows narrower now1 but their arched heads were cusped1 which made it exceedingly difficult to carry any but the narrowest possible border round them satisfactorily4 ,it will be seen how awkwardly the border fits 7or does not fit7 the window head on page #aee4 ,even the simplest border had to be very much distorted in order to make it follow the line of the masonry2 and1 in any case1 it gave a very ugly shape within the border1 and one again difficult to fill4 ,already1 at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 the designer found it convenient to run his border straight up into the cusped head of the light and let the stonework cut it abruptly short2 that occurs at ,carcassonne4 ,sometimes1 as at ,tewkesbury1 the inconvenient border is allowed to end just above the springing line of the arch1 against a pinnacle of the canopy1 beyond which point there is only a line or two of white or colour1 by way of frame or finish to the background4 ,an unusual but quite satisfactory way of getting over the difficulty of carrying the border round the window head is1 to accept the springing line of the arch as the end of the central design1 and to make the foliated border spread and fill the entire window head above4 ,some quarry lights in the triforium at ,evreux are effectively treated in that manner4 ,illustration3 #acd4 ,,strassburg4 ,types of ordinary ,decorated borders1 ,english1 ,french1 and ,german1 are shown in this and the preceding chapter4 ,the leafage springs from one side or the other or from a central stem1 or from either side of a waving stem1 or from two stems intertwined 7page #aeh74 ,sometimes the ground on one side is of a different colour from that on the other2 in any case the glazing is usually simple4 ,one of the leaf borders at ,rouen ,cathedral includes a series of little green birds2 another1 an oak pattern1 is inhabited at intervals by squirrels and wild men of the woods4 ,rather interesting variations upon the ordinary type of border are given on this and the preceding pages4 ,the broader one above is of distinctly unusual character1 inasmuch as it has no background except the painting out1 and the colour of the leafage varies quasi-accidentally4 ,illustration3 #ace4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german4 ,the use of the rosette borders on pages #aga1 #agb is sufficiently accounted for by the desire to get contrast to the foliated filling1 but it occurs at all periods more or less4 ,so does the block border2 but for all that it is almost as characteristic of ,decorated work as the leaf border4 ,it is seen in its simplest form on page #add4 ,on page #chi it is associated with foliage and rosettes4 ,a typical form of it is where the blocks are charged with heraldic devices1 which may serve to indicate the date1 or to confuse one4 ,in the design from ,evreux on page #afj there occur1 for example1 the ,fleurs-de-,lys of ,france alternating with the ,castle of ,castille4 ,these particular charges occur frequently in the windows of the ,s4 ,chapelle at ,paris1 and in the lights from that source now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum2 and they go perhaps to show that ,blanche of ,castille 7who married ,louis ,,viii47 gave them to the chapel1 or that they were in her memory4 ,she died in #abeb4 ,it is most improbable that the ,evreux glass should belong to so early a date as that4 ,were it so1 the occurrence of this kind of thing in such early work would only go to show that heraldic devices are as old as heraldry1 and that when the glazier had a narrow light to fill he treated it as a narrow light1 with a border in proportion to its width3 he certainly did that at the ,s4 ,chapelle4 ,the fact remains that this particular form of block border marks1 as a rule1 the approach of the fourteenth century4 ,it may be as well to remind the reader that dates and periods are only mentioned in order to save circumlocution4 ,when the thirteenth century is mentioned1 it is not meant to convey the year #abja1 nor yet #abii1 but the century in its prime4 ,and1 what is more1 it is not meant to say that the work ascribed to that period was quite certainly and indisputably done after the year #abjj or before the year #acjj1 but only that it bears the mark of the century--which1 from the present point of view1 is the important thing4 ,the precise and certain year in which this or that device was by exception for the first time employed1 or until which by chance a practically obsolete practice survived1 is interesting 7if it can be ascertained7 only as a question of archology4 ,anyway1 a workman would rather believe the evidence of his eyes1 which he can trust1 than of documents1 which1 even if authentic1 may not be trustworthy1 and which are perhaps open to misinterpretation4 ,typically ,decorated glass1 apart from the ornamental windows just referred to1 is the least interesting of ,gothic4 ,there is in it a straying from ,early tradition without reaching the later freedom and attainment4 ,in colour it has neither the strength of the ,early work nor the delicacy of the ,late4 ,it marks some progress in technique1 but little in design1 and none in taste4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,late ,,gothic ,,windows4 ,the subdivision of art into periods is in reality the veriest makeshift4 ,to be on quite safe ground we should have1 as a matter of fact1 to reduce our periods to not more than half their supposed duration1 and to class all the rest of the time as belonging to intervals of transition4 ,the truth is1 it is always a period of transition4 ,the stream moves perpetually on2 there are only moments in its course when it seems to move more slowly1 and we have time to fix its characteristics4 ,it follows that1 if we divide our periods according to time1 we have to include within them work of very various character2 and if we divide them according to style1 our dates get hopelessly confused4 ,some sort of classification is necessary in order to emphasise changes which actually took place only by degrees1 and are perceptible only to the expert4 ,but no sooner do we begin to classify1 than we find so many exceptions1 that we are inclined almost to wonder if they do not form the rule4 ,all that has been said1 therefore1 and may yet be said1 about the periods of design1 must be taken with more than a grain of suspicion4 ,for example1 what shall be said about the great ,east window at ,gloucester ,cathedral1 which ,winston instances as a typical example of ,decorated glass8 ,doubtless the technique is that of soon after the middle of the fourteenth century1 and the detail of the canopies1 when you come to examine them1 is more nearly ,decorated than anything else2 but the first impression of the glass is quite that of ,perpendicular work4 ,this may come partly of the circumstances that the masonry of the window follows already distinctly ,perpendicular lines2 but it comes much more from the colour of the glass and its distribution4 ,it is not merely that blue and ruby backgrounds are carried straight up through the long lengths of each alternate light1 or that the blue is lighter and greyer than in ,decorated glass1 but that the figures1 and especially the canopies1 are for the first time1 practically speaking1 altogether in white1 only very slightly relieved with yellow stain4 ,the student who accepted this as typical ,decorated work1 would be quite at sea when he came to ,perpendicular glass1 in which this paler colour1 this preponderance of white1 and especially this framing of the figures in white canopy work1 is a most distinctive1 if not the most distinctive1 feature4 ,after all1 the window is ,perpendicular2 and1 though the glass in it may have many characteristics of ,decorated work1 it cannot well be said that the glass is ,decorated1 true though it be that glass did1 as a rule1 follow rather in the wake of architectural progress4 ,many windows are almost equally difficult to classify4 ,in the ,decorated glass at ,wells there are both earlier and later features4 ,the heads glazed in pinkish glass1 with eyes and beards leaded up in white1 strike an ,early note1 whilst the broadly treated bases or pedestals of certain canopies in the ,lady ,chapel1 one of which is here shown 7the canopies themselves are strictly ,decorated71 prelude the coming style4 ,illustration3 #acf4 ,,pedestal1 ,,wells4 ,these bases remind one of those in the ante-chapel at ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 dating from the last quarter of the fourteenth century1 which1 though it is not difficult to trace in them the lingering influence of ,decorated tradition1 must undoubtedly be put down as early examples of the later style4 ,in these fine windows 7upon which the tourist turns his back whilst he admires the poor attempt of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds in the ,west window7 there is not yet the accomplishment of full-fledged ,perpendicular work4 ,the figures1 though full of fine feeling1 are not well drawn1 and the painting is not delicate2 but the design of the glass1 its setting out1 the balance and arrangement of colour1 the tone of the windows1 and the breadth of effect1 are admirable2 and it is precisely in these respects that it proclaims itself of the later school of ,gothic4 ,indeed1 we may assume that it was in order to include such work as this that the line was drawn at the year #achj4 ,to class it with ,decorated glass would have been too absurd4 ,compare the ,new ,college canopy on page #ahj with the ,decorated canopy on page #aee and the more orthodox ,perpendicular canopies below and on pages #ahe1 #cdj1 and there is no possible hesitation as to which it most resembles4 ,the only thing in which it shows any leaning towards ,decorated work is in the very occasional introduction of pot-metal colour2 and the main thing in which it differs from later ,perpendicular design is that its shafts are round instead of square1 and that it is more solidly built up1 larger1 more nobly conceived4 ,illustration3 #acg4 ,,canopy1 ,,new ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,a parallel ,french instance is at the ,s4 ,chapelle at ,riom1 in which canopies1 having at first sight all the appearance of typically ,late ,gothic work1 prove to have details which one would rather describe as ,decorated4 ,the ,german canopy work at ,shrewsbury 7pages #ahc1 #ahf7 is not very far removed from ,decorated4 ,the later ,perpendicular canopies run to finikin pinnacles4 ,illustration3 #ach4 ,,typical ,,perpendicular ,,canopy4 ,the ,new ,college canopies have none of the brassy yellow colour characteristic of ,decorated work1 but are absolutely silvery in effect4 ,the gradual dilution1 as one may say1 of the deep1 rich1 ,early colour is noticeable throughout the fourteenth century4 ,towards its close the glass painter halts no longer between two opinions1 between light and colour4 ,he has quite made up his mind in favour of white glass4 ,he has come pretty generally to conceive his window as a field of white1 into which to introduce a certain amount of rich colour1 not often a very large amount4 ,as a rule1 perhaps not more than one-fourth of the area of a fifteenth century window was colour2 for1 in addition to the white of the canopy1 there was commonly a fair amount of white in the draperies1 and the flesh was now always represented by white4 ,the typical ,perpendicular window1 then1 is filled with shrinework in white1 enclosing figures1 or figure subjects1 into which white enters largely 7the flesh and some of the drapery1 often a good deal1 is sure to be white71 upon a background of colour4 ,not much of this coloured background1 most often in blue or ruby1 and sometimes deep in colour1 was ordinarily shown1 so fully was the space occupied by figure work4 ,sometimes there would be represented1 behind the figure1 a screen of white1 so that only the head and shoulders would stand revealed against dark colour4 ,sometimes this screen would be in colour1 contrasting with the background1 richly diapered in imitation of damask 7page #cdb74 ,sometimes the background would be white1 leaded perhaps in quarries2 but in any case the prevalent scheme of design was to frame up pictures1 more or less in colour1 in architectural canopy work of white and stain4 ,yellow stain1 it should be said1 was freely used in connection with all this white2 and its invariable association therewith is one of the marked characteristics of ,later ,gothic glass2 but as a rule the yellow was not only delicate in tint but delicately introduced1 so that it did not much disturb the effect of white4 ,there were significant passages of yellow in it1 but the effect of the mass was cool and silvery4 ,in canopies yellow stain was used as gold might be in stonework1 which the canopies imitated2 crockets and pinnacles would be tipped with yellow1 as with gilding 7see opposite71 and the reveal of the arch1 shown in false perspective above the figure1 would be similarly stained1 so as to soften the transition from the dark colour of the background to the white of the canopy mass4 ,one comes upon windows1 probably of about the beginning of the end of the fourteenth century1 in which the colour scheme is practically limited to red1 white1 and blue1 the yellow being1 comparatively speaking1 lost in the white4 ,again1 one finds windows in which the colours are much lighter than in earlier glass4 ,but as a rule the lighter colours now introduced 7the glazier's palette was by this time quite extensive7 were used to support1 and not to the exclusion of1 the richer and deeper colour1 which is the glory of glass1 seldom to be dispensed with even in grisaille4 ,you may do without colour altogether1 but pale colours always have a poor effect4 ,illustration3 #aci4 ,,figure ,,and ,,canopy1 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,the typical ,perpendicular canopies illustrated and already referred to are quite favourable specimens of the kind of thing in vogue throughout the fifteenth century4 ,in ,france much the same forms were adopted 7page #cdb74 ,some exceptionally delicate figure-and-canopy windows 7or parts of them7 are to be found in the cathedral at ,toulouse--the figure in colour1 or in white and colour1 against a background of white1 richly diapered with damask pattern1 which quite sufficiently distinguishes it from the architecture only just touched with yellow4 ,an instance of later ,german work is given below4 ,the ,german designer indulged temperamentally in the interpenetration of shafting and other vagaries of the kind1 which we find in ,german stone carving4 ,sometimes in ,german work1 and occasionally also in ,french1 ,late ,gothic canopies were all in yellow1 framing the picture1 as it were1 in gold4 ,as a rule1 however1 they were1 as with us1 silvery in tone1 and framed the coloured glass in a way most absolutely satisfactory1 so far as effect is concerned4 ,illustration3 #adj4 ,,german ,,late ,,gothic ,,canopy4 ,in itself1 however1 this canopy work is rarely of any great interest2 occasionally1 as already in the preceding century1 the designer has enniched in the shafts little figures of saints or angels 7there is just the indication of such introduction of little statuettes in the very simple and restrained example of canopy work from ,cologne1 on page #aia71 redeeming it from dulness2 but as a rule it is trite and commonplace to a degree4 ,the white1 as frame1 is perfect4 ,it is none the more so that it simulates misplaced stonework4 ,what a strange thing it is in the history of ornament that the natural bias of the designer seems to be so irresistibly towards imitation6 ,the man's first thought seems to be to make the thing he is doing look like something it is not4 ,why1 having designed openings in the wall of his building1 he should proceed forthwith to fill them up with something in poor imitation of masonry1 is a mystery4 ,economy had then1 perhaps1 as now1 more to do with it than art1 for it is a very cheap expedient4 ,illustration3 #ada4 ,,all ,,souls' ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,not only in the matter of colour1 but in that of proportion1 the later ,gothic canopies were a great improvement upon what had gone before4 ,they were distributed still very much upon the horizontal principle so noticeable in ,decorated work2 but by this time the architect had come to the tardy conclusion that the long lights of his window wanted holding together1 and he tied them together1 if they were of any length1 by means of transoms1 in which case the glass-worker had to deal with lights of manageable length4 ,the light from ,all ,souls' ,college1 here given1 is an example of a very usual ,perpendicular arrangement4 ,about one half its entire length is occupied by a figure enshrined1 as it were1 in an architectural niche4 ,the base of the canopy is about equal in height to the width of the light4 ,the shafts are broad enough to emphasise the independence of the light4 ,the pinnacles of the canopy extend into the window head4 ,a point or two of background colour1 as though one could see through1 are ingeniously introduced into the canopy and its base4 ,it would be difficult to better such an arrangement of white and colour1 except that one feels the urgent want of a margin of white1 to separate the coloured background from the masonry round the window head4 ,illustration3 #adb4 ,,two ,,windows1 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,the idea is1 no doubt1 that the shrinework should appear to stand in the opening1 and the figure be sheltered under that4 ,the illusion aimed at1 it is scarcely necessary to say1 is not produced1 and in any case would not have been worth producing4 ,on the contrary1 the desirable thing to be done was1 to acknowledge the window opening1 which1 except for this pretence1 the colour of the design effectually does4 ,illustration3 #adc4 ,,fairford4 ,a frequent and equally typical arrangement was1 where the light was long enough1 to make the base itself take the form of a low canopy over a more or less square-proportioned subject1 possibly a scene in the life of the ,saint pourtrayed above4 ,this gave opportunity of introducing figures on two different scales1 without in any way endangering the significance of the more important figure1 which1 by its size and breadth of colour1 asserted itself at a distance from which the smaller subject appeared only a mass of broken colour4 ,the proportions and outline of such a subject are indicated by the ,nativity on page #ed1 the jagged line at the top of the picture marking the inner line of the canopy work4 ,in ,german work very commonly the base canopy encloses1 as1 for example1 at ,cologne ,cathedral1 a panel of heraldic blazonry4 ,the height of the canopy was1 with us1 more or less in accordance with the length of the window2 but sometimes more space was allowed for the figure than at ,all ,souls'1 and the vacant space about the head of the saint was occupied with a label in white and stain bearing an inscription4 ,there are some admirable figure-and-canopy windows of this description on the north side of the choir of ,york ,minster1 which seem to have inspired a great deal of our modern mock-,perpendicular figure-and-canopy glass4 ,the label occurs1 on a background of white architecture1 behind the ,prophets from ,fairford on pages #ahg1 #cia4 ,a more important example of it occurs round the figure of ,edward the ,confessor1 from ,s4 ,mary's1 ,ross 7opposite71 and again in the group from the same source on page #cci4 ,extremely clever ornamental use is made of the label--a typically ,perpendicular form of enrichment--in the ,german glass on page #ahf4 ,the extraordinary breadth of the phylacteries held by the ,prophets in the early fifteenth century windows in the ,s4 ,chapelle at ,riom1 gives them quite a character of their own1 and an admirable one4 ,illustration3 #add4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba ,,before ,,solomon1 ,,fairford4 ,at ,great ,malvern we find the lights above the transom of a window occupied each by a figure and its canopy1 whilst the lower lights contain each three tiers of small subjects1 separated only by bands of inscription4 ,in the four-light window at ,malvern illustrating the ,days of ,creation1 each light contains three little subjects1 one of which is given on page #beb4 ,sometimes1 as in the windows from ,fairford on pages #ahh1 #cgb1 subjects under a canopy are drawn to a scale as large as the size of the window will allow4 ,illustration3 #ade4 ,,king ,,edward1 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,ross4 ,in some shape or another the canopy almost invariably appears in connection with figure work2 it is the rarest thing to find1 in place of the familiar shafting1 a border1 such as that opposite4 ,illustration3 #adf4 ,,york ,,minster4 ,of the gradual improvement in drawing in the fifteenth century work it is not necessary to say much4 ,it belongs to the period rather than to glass painting1 and it is shown in the examples illustrated4 ,it is of no particular country1 though our ,english work was possibly more constrained than contemporary continental work4 ,particularly characteristic of ,english work was the delicate tracing of the faces1 which were pencilled1 in fine lines1 the treatment altogether rather flat1 and this at a period when foreign glass was much more solidly modelled4 ,it is not possible1 on the scale of illustration determined by a book of this size1 to illustrate this ,english peculiarity as clearly as one would wish1 but it will be apparent to the seeing eye even here4 ,it is within the bounds of possibility that the ,fairford glass may have been executed in ,england2 if so1 ,flemish or ,german painters certainly had a hand in it4 ,to compare it with the neighbouring ,perpendicular glass at ,cirencester1 with its delicate tracing and fine stain 7in which matter the ,fairford glass does not by any means excel71 is to see how very different it is from typical ,english work4 ,whether we look at the detail of the canopies1 or the drawing of the drapery1 or the painting of the glass1 we see little to connect this with ,english work1 though it falls at once into its place as excellent ,late ,gothic glass4 ,in the windows of the nave of ,cologne ,cathedral1 a figure from one of which is here given1 ,german ,gothic glass reaches its limit4 ,there is already a trace1 if only in the broad shaft of the canopy1 of ,renaissance influence in the design4 ,in others of these windows there are no single figures4 ,entire lights are filled with biblical or legendary scenes1 one above the other1 under dwarf canopies1 which do not very clearly define the horizontal divisions of the window2 for all that1 the horizontal divisions are for the most part there4 ,except where the canopies are so insignificant as not to count1 a ,perpendicular window presents1 as a rule1 a screen of silvery-white1 on which the pictures form so many panels of more or less jewelled colour4 ,illustration3 #adg4 ,,cologne ,,cathedral4 ,the enormous ,east window at ,york ,minster1 which belongs to the very early years of the fifteenth century1 contains1 apart from its tracery1 no less than a hundred and seventeen subjects in its twenty-seven lights2 but the canopies dividing them are so narrow that they scarcely answer the purpose of frames to the separate subjects4 ,the design is inextricably confused1 and the subjects are very difficult to read2 but the effect is still as of a mass of jewels caught in a network of white4 ,in fact1 the progress towards light is such that1 whereas in the last century the problem was how to get more and more white glass into a coloured window1 it seems now more often to be how to get colour into a white one4 ,white and stain enter so largely into ,late ,gothic glass that there remains little to be said about grisaille4 ,the glass of the period is1 for the most part1 in grisaille and colour1 the difference between it and earlier grisaille being1 that it consists so largely of figure-and-canopy work4 ,windows1 however1 do occur all in white or all in white and stain4 ,figures1 for example1 in white and stain1 occur1 as in the ,south transept at ,york1 on a ground of delicately painted quarries4 ,again1 a common arrangement is that of figures in white and colour against a background of quarry work1 a band of inscription separating the pavement upon which they stand from quarries below them4 ,such figures form a belt across many moderate-sized windows in parish churches4 ,mere quarry lights also occur1 with a border in which perhaps some colour occurs4 ,but the subject of quarries and quarry windows is reserved for consideration in a chapter by itself4 ,it must not be supposed that the drift of ,later ,gothic in the direction of white glass was uninterrupted4 ,that was by no means so4 ,at certain places1 and at certain periods1 and especially by certain artists1 there seems to have been a reaction against this tendency1 if ever there was any yielding to it4 ,for example1 notwithstanding all that has been said about the lighter tone of ,decorated glass1 some of the very finest fourteenth century ,german work1 at ,s4 ,sebald's ,church1 ,nuremberg1 is as intensely and beautifully rich as anything in ,early work4 ,there rows of small subjects are framed in little canopies as deep in colour as the pictures1 and white glass is conspicuous by its absence4 ,the nearest approach to it is an opaque-looking horn colour1 and that is used only very sparingly4 ,possibly1 however1 it is not quite fair to call these windows rich1 for the upper part of them is light4 ,so light is it1 and so little has it to do with the stained glass1 that one scarcely accepts it as part of the window1 and therefore speaks of it as if it ended with the colour4 ,the unfortunate plan has been adopted here1 as in the cathedral at ,munich and elsewhere in ,germany1 of filling only about half the window1 from the sill upwards1 with strong stained glass4 ,this ends abruptly at an arbitrary and very unsatisfactory canopy arch1 which1 in a way1 frames it2 and above it the window is filled with plain white rounds4 ,at ,freiburg there is yet a further band of plain rounds next the sill of the windows4 ,the object of this is1 doubtless1 to get light into the church2 but the effect is as if the builders had run short of coloured glass1 and had only finished off the window temporarily4 ,as a means of combining white and colour this ,german shift is not1 of course1 to be compared to the plan current elsewhere of distributing them in alternating bands4 ,it does not attempt to combine them1 but cuts the window deliberately in two4 ,not until you have shaded off from your eyes the distracting rays of white light1 can you properly appreciate or enjoy the coloured glass4 ,but1 if these windows must be considered1 as in a sense they must be1 as conforming to the demand for more light1 there are others in which strong colour is carried consistently through1 not only in the fourteenth but in the fifteenth century4 7,it is irritating and annoying to have to hark back in this way to periods supposed to have been long since left behind1 but any arbitrary line of division between the styles must1 as it were1 cut off points which project from one into the other1 sometimes very far indeed across the boundary line2 and hence the absolute necessity1 at times1 of seeming to retrace our steps1 if we would really trace the progress of design47 ,there are shown opposite four lights out of a large window in the clerestory of the cathedral at ,troyes1 in which the history of the ,prodigal ,son is pictured in little upright subjects1 framed in canopies of quite modest proportions and of colour which in no wise keeps them separate from the richly coloured figures underneath4 ,one of them1 for example1 is of green1 very much the colour of an emerald1 on an inky-purple ground4 ,the result is a very rich window1 full of quaintly dramatic interest when you come to examine it2 but there are no broadly marked divisions of colour in the glass to affect the architecture of the building one way or the other1 nor does it tell its tale very plainly4 ,it is more easily read on page #aid than from the floor of the church4 ,illustration3 #adh4 ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son1 ,,troyes4 ,in the windows so far discussed the figure subjects1 however small and however close together1 have always been marked off one from the other1 slightly as it might be1 at first by the marginal lines round the early subject medallions1 and then by canopies4 ,it is shown in another fifteenth century window from ,troyes 7opposite7 how even that amount of framework was now sometimes abandoned4 ,progress in glass design1 it was said1 was in the direction of light and of picture4 ,moved by the double impulse1 the designer of the ,later ,gothic period framed his coloured pictures in white4 ,but where he happened not to care so much about light1 or had not to consider it1 he omitted even the narrow shaft of white or colour 7which1 so long as he used a canopy1 usually divided the picture from the stonework7 and left it to the mullions to separate them vertically4 ,horizontally he divided them slightly by a band of ornament1 as at ,troyes1 of about the width of the mullions1 or more frequently1 and more plainly1 by lines of inscription on white or yellow bands4 ,if the subjects were arranged across the window in tiers alternately on ruby and blue grounds1 that1 of course1 separated each somewhat from the one next above and below it1 but it banded those on the same level together4 ,this helped the architectural effect1 but confused the story-telling4 ,if the pictures were arranged1 throughout the width as well as the length of the window1 alternately in panels on red and blue grounds1 that kept the pictures rather more apart1 but made the distribution of the colour all-overish4 ,that mere change of ground could not keep pictures effectively separate will be clear when it is seen 7opposite7 how little of the background extends to the mullion4 ,the greater part of the figures come quite up to the stonework1 and the subjects consequently run together4 ,it is difficult to realise1 except by experience1 how little the stonework can be depended upon to frame stained glass4 ,it seems when you see it all upon paper that the mullions1 with their strongly marked mouldings1 must effectually frame the glass between them4 ,they do nothing of the kind4 ,they go for so much shadow3 what you see is the glass4 ,this the glass painters realised at length1 and took to carrying their pictures across them4 ,and it has to be confessed that so long as they schemed them cleverly the interference of the mullion was not much felt4 ,illustration3 #adi4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,tobit1 ,,troyes4 ,the distinction drawn so far between single figures and subjects has answered its obvious purpose2 but that also is1 in a manner1 arbitrary4 ,figures standing separately1 each in a light by itself1 form very often a series--such as the four ,evangelists1 the twelve ,apostles1 the ,prophets1 the ,doctors of the ,church1 or a succession of kings1 bishops1 or other ecclesiastics4 ,more than that1 they form perhaps a group4 ,when we discover that facing the figure of the ,virgin ,mary is that of the ,angel ,gabriel1 we see at once that1 though each figure occupies a separate light of the window1 and each stands in its own separate niche1 we have in reality here a subject extending through two lights--the ,annunciation4 ,so in a four-light window--if in one light stands the ,virgin with the ,infant ,christ1 and in the others a series of richly garbed figures with crowns and gifts in their hands1 it is clear that this represents the ,adoration of the ,magi--a subject in four lights2 and the canopies over them may be taken to be one canopy with four niches4 ,a yet more familiar instance of continuity between the single figures in the lights of a window occurs where the central light contains the ,christ upon the cross1 and in the sidelights stand the ,virgin and ,s4 ,john4 ,we have in such cases the beginning of the subject extending through several lights4 ,it is only a short step from the ,annunciation1 or the ,adoration1 or the ,crucifixion described1 to the same subject1 under one canopy1 extending boldly across the window1 with shafts only to frame the picture at its sides4 ,that is what was done--especially in ,germany4 ,it occurs already in ,early ,decorated glass1 where the upper part of a big geometric window is sometimes occupied by brassy pinnacle work1 which asserts itself1 perhaps1 upon a ground of mosaic diaper1 in the most unpleasant way4 ,in the white glass of a later period the effect was happier4 ,at first the designer did not1 as a rule1 aspire to carry his subjects right across a big window4 ,accepting the transom as a natural division1 he would perhaps divide a four-light window vertically into two1 so as to get four subjects1 each under a canopy extending across two lights2 or1 in a five-light window1 he would probably separate these by other narrow subjects in the central lights4 ,divisions of this kind often occur already in the stonework of the window1 the lights being architecturally divided by stronger mullions into groups4 ,in that case all the glass painter does is to emphasise the grouping of the lights schemed by the architect4 ,where the architect has not provided for such grouping he does it1 perhaps1 for himself4 ,it enables him to design his figures on a larger scale1 and to get a much broader effect in his glass than he could do so long as he kept each picture rigorously within the limits of a single light4 ,consideration for his picture had probably more to do with his reticence than respect for its architectural framework2 and so soon as ever he realised how little even a strong mullion would really interfere with his work1 he made no scruple to take all the space he wanted for his purpose4 ,infinite variety of composition is the result4 ,the upper half of the window is perhaps devoted to a single subject1 or to two important pictures1 whilst below the transom the lights are broken up into quite little pictures2 or in place of these smaller pictures may be found little panels of heraldry1 as occurs often in ,flemish work4 ,these or the smaller pictures may be continued in the sidelights of a broad window1 flanking1 and in a way framing1 a large central picture4 ,sometimes1 as in the nave of ,cologne ,cathedral1 the upper half of the window may contain one imposing composition2 below that may be a series of important single figures1 each provided with its separate canopy2 and below that again1 at the base of the window1 may be a series1 or several series1 of small heraldic panels4 ,the canopy extending across a broad window 7page #bjj7 may be so schemed that there is obvious recognition of the lights into which it is divided1 or it may sprawl across the window space with as little regard to intervening mullions as possible4 ,there is now1 in short1 full scope for the fancy of the artist1 were he never so fanciful2 and it would be a hopeless task to try and catalogue the lines on which the design of a large window might now be set out4 ,we do not in the fifteenth century arrive yet at the most remarkable achievements in glass painting4 ,but you have only to compare such pictures as those on pages #aid1 #aif1 with that on page #abg to see what a complete revolution has come over the spirit of design4 ,it is not only that the draughtsman has learnt to draw1 and the painter to paint2 they work on quite a different system4 ,it was explained 7page #dd7 how in early days the glazier conceived his design as mosaic1 how he first thought it out in lead lines1 and only relied on paint to help him out in details which glazing could not give him4 ,now1 it is easy to see that the painter begins at the other end4 ,he thinks out his picture as a painting1 and relies upon glazing only for the colour which he cannot get without it4 ,in the beginning1 it was said1 the glazier might often have fixed his lead lines1 and trusted to his ingenuity to fill them in with painted detail4 ,now1 it would seem1 the painter might almost have sketched his picture1 and then bethought him how to glaze it4 ,but that is not yet really so4 ,he did not even conceive his design as a picture and then translate it into glass4 ,his work runs so smoothly it cannot be translation4 ,the ingenuity with which he leads up little bits of colour in the midst of white1 is no mere feat of engineering2 it is spontaneous4 ,it is clear that he had the thought of glazing in his mind all along--that he designed for it1 in fact4 ,the difference between the thirteenth century and the fifteenth century designer is1 that one thinks first of glazing1 is primarily a glazier1 the other thinks first of painting1 is primarily a painter4 ,illustration3 #aej4 ,,fairford4 ,illustration3 #aea4 ,,renaissance ,,window1 ,,troyes ,,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,windows4 ,the customary line between ,gothic and ,renaissance glass is drawn at about ,a4,d4 #aecj4 ,that is to say1 that there are to be found examples1 presumably of that date1 which are still undoubtedly ,gothic in character4 ,but he would be a bold man1 even for an archologist1 who dared to say precisely when the ,gothic era came to an end4 ,quite early in the sixteenth century the new ,italian movement began to make itself felt in ,france1 ,germany1 ,flanders2 in due course it spread to this country4 ,eventually it supplanted the older style2 but it was only by degrees that it insinuated itself into the affections of cis-alpine craftsmen4 ,and in stained glass1 even more plainly than in wood or stone carving1 is seen how gradually the new style was assimilated by the medival craftsmen--more quickly1 of course1 by the younger generation than the older--so that1 concurrently with design in the quasi-,italian manner1 ,gothic work was still being done4 ,much of the earlier ,renaissance work shows lingering ,gothic influence4 ,in the first quarter of the sixteenth century a great deal of glass was designed and executed by men hesitating between the old love and the new1 only partially emancipated from medival tradition1 or only imperfectly versed in the foreign style4 ,there is a window at ,s4 ,nizier1 at ,troyes1 for example1 in which the details are ,renaissance1 but the feeling is quite ,gothic4 ,the subjects are even explained by elaborate yellow scrolls or labels inscribed in black1 very much after the manner of those which form such a feature in the ,german ,gothic work at ,shrewsbury 7page #ahf74 ,renaissance forms are traced with a hand which betrays long training in the more rigid medival school2 and ,gothic and ,italian details are put together in the same composition with a navet which is sometimes quite charming4 ,you can see that the designer of the window on page #bjc was not untouched by ,renaissance influence4 ,possibly he thought the hybrid ornament in his canopy was quite up to date4 ,in the glass in the nave of ,cologne ,cathedral the suspicion aroused by the side columns of the otherwise quite ,gothic canopy on page #aia is confirmed by definitely ,renaissance forms in the ornament in the window head4 ,again1 at the ,church of ,s4 ,peter1 at ,cologne1 is a sort of pointed canopy with ornament which looks at first like ,gothic crockets1 but on nearer view it is just ,italian arabesque in white and stain4 ,apart from architectural accessories and detail of costume or ornament1 to justify the attribution of the work to this or that period1 it is very often difficult to give a name to early ,renaissance work2 the only safe refuge is in the convenient word transitional4 ,but for the nimbus in perspective1 and the shield of arms and its little amorino supporter1 it would have seemed safe to describe the ,charge to ,s4 ,peter from ,s4 ,vincent at ,rouen on page #bjg as ,gothic4 ,in ,french glass a lingering ,gothic element is noticeable at a period when ,italian forms had firmly established themselves in contemporary plastic art2 but1 then1 glass painting was not an ,italian art2 and1 whilst wood carvers and sculptors were imported from ,italy1 and directly influenced the ,frenchmen working with them1 glass painting remained in the hands of native artists4 ,before very long the ,renaissance did1 of course1 assert itself1 in glass painting as in all art1 and we arrive at windows absolutely different from anything that was done in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the change was in some places much more rapid than in others4 ,wherever there was a strong man his influence would make for or against it4 ,but meanwhile much intermediate work was done1 belonging more or less to the new school1 whilst retaining very much of the character of ,gothic glass4 ,that ,gothic character was something well worth keeping2 for it is the character which belongs inherently to the material4 ,the ,gothic glass painters did1 in fact1 so thoroughly develop the resources of the material1 that a ,renaissance window treated really like glass inevitably suggests the lingering of ,gothic tradition4 ,this is no slight praise of ,gothic work2 and1 by implication1 it tells against the later ,renaissance glass painters1 whose triumphs were in a direction somewhat apart from their craft4 ,the great windows at ,brussels1 for example 7page #ga71 illustrate a new departure4 ,they seem to have nothing in common with medival art4 ,on the other hand1 one traces the descent of such masterpieces of translucent glass painting as are to be found at ,arezzo 7page #cig71 through those same intermediate efforts1 directly to ,gothic sources4 ,illustration3 #aeb4 ,,st4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,to trace the steps by which the new encroached upon the old1 as one may do1 for example1 at ,rouen1 is almost to come to the conclusion that the short but brilliant period of ,renaissance glass painting is really the after-fruit of ,gothic tradition1 fertilised only by the great flood of ,renaissance feeling which swept over sixteenth century art4 ,nowhere is this more clearly argued than in the windows at ,auch1 completed1 according to all accounts1 as early as #aeac4 ,a strain of ,gothic is betrayed by the cusping which here and there fringes a semicircular canopy arch2 but no less mistakably medival is the technique throughout1 and equally so the setting out of the windows4 ,for the somewhat imposing canopies are not1 for once1 devised as frames to correspondingly important pictures2 but are simply shrines adorned with figures each confined to its separate light3 it is only the small subsidiary predella or other such pictures which extend beyond the mullions4 ,no doubt there is doctrinal intention in the juxtaposition of ,prophets1 ,sibyls1 and the rest--one of whom may even be supposed to be addressing the other--but to all intents and purposes decorative1 they are just a row of standing figures1 as distinct one from the other as the usual series of figures under quite separate canopies4 ,it is only the canopy which connects them4 ,this kind of composition 7which is seen again at ,troyes1 page #bjj7 would never have occurred to a man altogether cut off from ,gothic tradition4 ,illustration3 #aec4 ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,bourbons1 ,,lyons4 ,illustration3 #aed4 ,s4 ,,godard1 ,,rouen4 ,it is worth remarking that1 even when ,gothic and ,renaissance canopies alternate at ,auch in a single window1 or where ,gothic niches are built1 as it were1 into or on to larger ,renaissance structures1 there is no appearance of incongruity4 ,truth to tell1 the ,gothic is not so purely ,gothic1 nor the ,renaissance so purely ,renaissance1 as that they should clash one with the other4 ,both are seen through the temperament of the artist4 ,he mixed them in his mind2 and the result is quite one1 his style in short4 ,early ,renaissance glass submitted itself1 one can hardly say duly1 but almost as readily as late ,gothic design1 to the restraint of ,gothic mullions4 ,the windows in which1 as it happens1 some of the best ,early ,french ,renaissance work is found 7and it is in ,france that the best is to be found7 are often smaller than the great ,perpendicular windows referred to1 and do not lend themselves to such elaborate subdivision4 ,but the lines on which they are subdivided are very much as heretofore4 ,the canopy still extends through several lights1 and covers a single subject4 ,only now it is ,renaissance in design4 ,that does not mean to say merely that round arched architecture takes the place of pointed4 ,the round arch occurs indeed1 as in the windows in the ,chapel of the ,bourbons1 in ,lyons ,cathedral 7on pages #bjd and #cdi71 supplemented by amorini and festoons of fruit4 ,but more often the canopy takes the form of a frieze of ,renaissance ornament1 painted in white and stain1 as at ,s4 ,godard1 ,rouen 7opposite71 or glazed in white on colour1 as in the cathedral of the same city 7pages #ge1 #cej71 supported at each end by a pilaster4 ,not seldom it resolves itself into arabesque only very remotely connected with architecture at all4 ,indeed1 if it simulate anything1 it is goldsmith's work rather than masonry4 ,executed1 as at ,rouen 7pages #ge1 #bjf71 in brilliant yellow on a dark coloured ground1 it has very much the appearance and value of beaten gold4 ,that1 rather than sculpture1 must have been in the mind of the designer4 ,one form of imitation is not much better than another2 but here1 at all events1 there is nothing which in the least competes with the surrounding architecture2 and it will scarcely be denied by any one who takes the least interest in ornament1 that design of this kind is vastly more amusing than the dull array of misplaced pinnacles which often did duty for ornamental detail in ,gothic shrinework4 ,a ,german version of a canopy which ceases almost to be a canopy and becomes more like arabesque1 is given on page #cej4 ,that is supported by columns 7the caps are shown in the illustration7 rather out of keeping with the ornament they support1 which makes very little pretence of being architectural4 ,the canopies on pages #bjd1 #cej1 are supported only on little brackets at each side1 and have no shafts at all4 ,this marks a new departure4 ,the picture has now no frame at its sides1 only the stone mullion4 ,illustration3 #aee4 ,s4 ,,patrice1 ,,rouen4 ,illustration3 #aef4 ,,subject1 ,s4 ,,vincent1 ,,rouen1 #aebe4 ,it was explained1 in reference to glazing1 what confusion of detail resulted from the use of leads of which some were intended to form part of the design and some not4 ,similar confusion is inevitable when certain of the mullions are meant to be accepted as frame to the picture and others to be ignored4 ,the perhaps not very conspicuous canopy is often the only hint as to which of the stone divisions you are to accept as such1 and which not4 ,even that was not always there to serve as a guide4 ,already1 as early as #aebe1 the date given to the window illustrating the life of ,s4 ,peter 7page #bjg71 the canopy was sometimes annulled1 and the window given over entirely to picture1 either one complete subject or a series of smaller ones4 ,the window dedicated to ,s4 ,peter contains in its four lights eight equal subjects1 a plan adopted in several others of the windows at ,s4 ,vincent1 ,rouen4 ,in a series of unframed subjects1 such as these1 there is much less danger of confusion should some one prominent figure recur throughout always in the same costume4 ,that is the case here1 and again at ,chlons1 where the figure of ,our ,lord1 robed in purple1 is conspicuous throughout3 the mind grasps at a glance that this is not one picture but a series4 ,a change of period is indicated by the departure from the disc-shaped nimbus4 ,on pages #bjg1 #baj1 #bcd1 #cig1 the nimbus is shown in perspective2 an attempt is even made to make it hover above the head1 an effect not possible to produce in leaded glass2 even at ,arezzo it is not achieved4 ,neither is the use of a mere ring of light1 whether in flat or in perspective1 a happy substitution for the ,gothic colour disc1 as may be seen1 for example1 at ,cologne4 ,the idea of the nimbus only keeps within the border line which separates the sublime from the ridiculous1 so long as the thing is frankly accepted as a symbol1 not as an effect4 ,but1 were it otherwise1 the use of the strongly marked disc of colour about the head of prominent personages has an enormous value as a means of distinguishing them from the background or from surrounding figures4 ,its decorative importance is no less than its symbolic4 ,very especially is this so in glass2 and the glass painter who wantonly departs from its use1 reduces it to a mere ring 7which does not separate it at all from the background7 or poises it in the air1 is beginning to wander from the way1 narrow if you please1 which leads to success in glass4 ,this is said with some reluctance in face of the all but perfect little panel from ,s4 ,bonnet1 at ,bourges1 on page #baj4 ,it is true that there the nimbus of the boy saint1 though in perspective1 does by its dark tone separate the head from the light ground1 as the face is separated from the darker drapery of his teacher2 and1 in so far1 little of definition is sacrificed2 but1 after all1 admirably as the design is schemed1 the oval nimbus is not a whit less conventional than the round disc of medival times1 and it does lack something of distinction and dignity which that conveyed4 ,the date inscribed 7#aedd7 serves to remind us that we are nearing the middle of the century1 at which period glass painting may safely be said to have reached its zenith and to be nearing the verge of decline4 ,it will have been seen in the examples lately instanced how story is gradually more and more naturally set forth in glass4 ,there is now no vestige of flat treatment left4 ,even the standing figure 7page #aia7 stands forth from his niche1 and though he may be backed by a curtain of damask1 there is shown above that a background of receding architecture4 ,so in the ,s4 ,bernard windows at ,shrewsbury 7pages #ef1 #bjc7 there is architectural distance shown in perspective1 and again in the subjects from ,fairford1 whether it be the portcullised gate of ,jerusalem that is represented 7page #bea71 or the very inadequate palace of ,king ,solomon 7page #ahh71 or the ,garden of ,eden1 in which the scene of the ,temptation is primitively pourtrayed 7page #cgb71 there is some attempt to render the scene4 ,even in the fifteenth century work at ,troyes 7page #aid7 the ,prodigal is not merely shown among the swine1 joining them in a dinner of gigantic acorns1 but he leans against an oak tree1 and in the distance is a little forest of trees4 ,in ,renaissance glass the scene is much more naturally rendered1 and forms almost invariably an important part of the composition4 ,witness the palace of ,herod 7page #gd7 when ,salome dances before him1 which is a great advance upon the ,gothic throne-room of ,king ,solomon 7page #ahh74 ,illustration3 #aeg4 ,,subject1 ,s4 ,,bonnet1 ,,bourges4 ,the scene takes one of three forms3 either it is architectural1 or it is landscape1 or it is of architecture and landscape combined4 ,a very favourite plan of the ,french was to show distant architecture 7glazed in deep purple7 through which were seen glimpses of grey sky1 and perhaps a peep of landscape2 and it resulted invariably in a beautiful effect of colour4 ,in fact1 a scheme of colour which recurs again and again at ,rouen1 and in other ,french glass of the first part of the sixteenth century1 consists in the introduction of figures in rich colour and white upon a background where white1 green1 purple1 and pale blue predominate to such an extent as to give quite a distinctive character to the glass4 ,the more distant landscape was painted very delicately upon the pale grey-blue glass which served for sky1 as shown on page #bee1 and in the same way architecture was also painted upon it4 ,in the view through the arches above the screen in a window at ,montmorency 7page #bac71 both trees and buildings are represented in that way upon pale grey glass1 the green of the trees and hills stained upon it4 ,sometimes the distance is painted upon white1 as at ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge2 but in ,france the pale grey-blue background is so usual as to be quite characteristic of the period4 ,all this is a long way from the mere diaper of clouds which in the early fifteenth century sometimes took the place of damask pattern upon the blue which formed a background to the ,crucifixion1 or other scene out of doors4 ,it is now no longer a case of symbolising1 but of representing1 the sky1 and it is wonderful what atmospheric quality is obtained by the judicious use of pale blue painted with the requisite delicacy4 ,the beauty of this kind of work1 especially on a small scale1 is beyond dispute4 ,together with the rendering of the flesh1 it implies consummate skill in painting4 ,the painter comes quite to the front2 but he justifies himself inasmuch as he is able to hold the place4 ,he does what his ,gothic predecessors could not have done1 and does it perfectly4 ,could the ,gothic artist have painted like this1 he also might have been tempted so far in the pictorial direction as to have sacrificed some of the sterner qualities of his design4 ,the architectural environment of the figures on page #bac fulfils somewhat the function of the ,perpendicular canopy2 it forms a kind of setting of white for the colour2 but1 in the first place1 it does not pretend to frame them at the side1 and1 in the second1 the attempt at actual perspective necessitates an amount of shading upon the white glass which detracts at once from its purity and from its value as setting to the colour4 ,the idea is there that you see through the window into space2 and1 though that effect is never obtained1 it is wonderful how far some of the glass painters later in the century went towards illusion4 ,a certain false air of truth was sometimes given to the would-be deception by an acknowledgment of the window-shape--that is1 by making the foremost arch or arches follow the shape of the window head1 and form1 as it were1 a canopy losing itself in perspective4 ,architecture proper to the subject1 or not too inappropriate to it1 is sometimes schemed so far to accommodate itself to the window-shape as to form1 with the white pavement1 a more or less canopy-like setting for the figures4 ,it may be a sort of proscenium1 the sides of which recede into the picture1 and form what may be called the scenery4 ,at ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,esau is seen bargaining away his birthright at a table where stands the coveted pottage1 in the midst of spacious halls going back into distant vistas1 seen through a sort of canopy next the actual stonework4 ,that concession to the framework of the window does mend matters somewhat4 ,the base of the picture opposite1 for example1 is much more satisfactory than it would have been had it not acknowledged the window-sill2 but the architecture in the top part of the lights is not a frame to the picture at all1 nor yet a finish to the glass3 it is part of the picture1 which thus1 you may say1 occupies the window as a picture its canvas4 ,in reality that is not quite so4 ,there is some acknowledgment1 though inadequate1 of the spring of the arch by a horizontal cornice parallel with the bar2 and the arcading1 though interrupted by the mullion and by the marble columns1 steadies the design2 and altogether the architecture is planned with ingenuity1 though without frank enough acceptance of the window-shape4 ,one would be more tolerant to such misguided freedom of design were it not for the kind of thing it led to4 ,it must be admitted that both ,french and ,flemings1 until they began to force their perspective1 and to paint shadow heavily1 did very beautiful and effective work in this way4 ,a multitude of figures1 as1 for example1 in the ,judgment of ,solomon at ,s4 ,gervais1 ,paris1 more or less in rich colour1 could be held together by distant architecture and foreground pavement largely consisting of white glass1 in a way which left little to be desired1 except fuller acknowledgment of the stonework4 ,but it took a master of design to do it1 and one with a fine sense of breadth and architectural fitness4 ,when such architecture was kept so light as to have the full value of white1 and when the figures against it were also to a large extent in white1 and the colour was introduced only in little patches and jewels skilfully designed to form1 here the sleeves of a white-robed figure1 there a headdress1 there again the glimpse of an underskirt1 and so on--all ingeniously designed for the express purpose of introducing rich colour1 the whole shot through with golden stain--the effect is sometimes very beautiful4 ,illustration3 #aeh4 ,,saints1 ,,ch4 ,,of ,s4 ,,martin1 ,,montmorency4 ,admirable ,flemish work1 ,renaissance in detail1 but carrying on the traditions of ,gothic art1 is to be found in plenty at ,lige1 both in the cathedral 7#aecj to #aeeg7 and at ,s4 ,martin4 ,this is excellent in drawing and composition1 most highly finished in painting1 fine in colour1 and silvery as to its white glass1 which last is splendidly stained4 ,in the same city there is beautiful work also at ,s4 ,jacques1 with admirable treatment of the canopy on a large scale4 ,it differs from ,french work inasmuch as it is ,flemish1 just as the glass at the church of ,brou differs in that there is a characteristic ,burgundian flavour about it2 but those are details of locality1 which do not especially affect the course of glass painting1 and which it would be out of place here to discuss4 ,in ,england we are not rich in ,renaissance glass4 ,the best we have is ,flemish1 from ,herkenrode1 now in the cathedral at ,lichfield4 ,the greater part of this is collected in seven windows of the ,lady ,chapel--no need to explain which2 the miserable shields of arms in the remaining two convict themselves of modernity4 ,in the tracery1 too1 there is some old glass1 but it is lost in the glare of new glazing adjacent4 ,otherwise this glass is not much hurt by restoration4 ,four of the windows are treated much alike2 that is1 they have each three subjects1 extending each across the three lights of which they are composed1 some with enclosing canopy1 and some without4 ,a fifth three-light window is broken up into six tiers of subjects1 each of which appears at first sight as if it were confined to the limits of a single light1 but there is in fact connection between the figures2 for example1 of three figures the central one proves to be the ,patron ,saint of the ,donor1 himself occupying one of the sidelights1 and his wife the other4 ,if the ,saint is seated the ,donors stand4 ,if he is represented standing they kneel before him4 ,the two larger six-light windows at ,lichfield are divided each into four2 that is to say1 the four quarters of the window have each a separate subject which extends laterally through three lights1 and in depth occupies with its canopy about half the entire height of the window4 ,the ,lichfield glass has very much the character of that at ,lige4 ,so has the ,flemish glass now at the east end of ,s4 ,george's1 ,hanover ,square1 a church famous for its fashionable weddings4 ,this is some of the best glass in ,london1 well worthy the attention of the guests pending the arrival of the bride4 ,the design1 however1 is calculated to mystify the student1 until he becomes aware that the lights form part of a ,tree of ,jesse1 adapted1 not very intelligently1 to their present position1 and marred by hideous restoration1 such as the patch of excruciating blue in the robe of the ,virgin4 ,the vine1 executed in stain upon white1 with grapes in pot-metal purples1 is not nearly strong enough to support the figures2 this may be in part due to the decay of the paint1 which has proceeded apace4 ,again1 at ,chantilly 7page #bah7 may be seen how lead lines quarrel with delicate painting4 ,the more delicate the painting1 the greater the danger of that--a danger seldom altogether overcome4 ,illustration3 #aei4 ,s4 ,,george',s1 ,,hanover ,,square1 ,,london4 ,the most important series of ,renaissance windows in this country is in ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge4 ,indentures still remain to tell us that these were contracted for in #aeaf and #aebf4 ,apart from some strikingly ,english-looking figures in white and stain upon quarry backgrounds in a side chapel1 and other remains of similar character1 and from a very beautiful window almost opposite the door by which one enters--differing in type1 in scale1 in colour1 altogether from the other windows--the glass throughout the huge chapel was obviously planned at the time of the first contract1 and there is a certain symmetry of arrangement throughout which bespeaks the period of transition4 ,the windows consist each of two tiers of five lights4 ,a five-light window offers some difficulty to the designer if he desire 7as in the sixteenth century he naturally did7 to introduce subjects extending across more than one light4 ,a subject in two lights does not symmetrically balance with a subject in three4 ,he might carry his subject right across the window1 but that might give him very likely a larger space to fill than he wanted2 and besides1 the time was hardly come for him to think of that4 ,he might carry it across the central group of three2 but that would leave him a single light on each side to dispose of4 ,remains the idea of a subject in two lights at each side of the window1 and a central composition occupying only one light4 ,that was not a very usual plan1 although it was adopted1 at ,fairford for example1 where the side subjects in two lights under a canopy are effectually separated by a central subject which has none4 ,at ,king's the sidelights have no canopies further than such as may be accepted as part of the architecture proper to the subject1 schemed more or less to frame the picture 7as in the case of the window at ,montmorency1 page #bac72 it is only in the centre lights that the figures 7two in each light1 one above the other7 are enclosed in canopy work4 ,these figures 7described as messengers71 with elaborately flowing scrolls about them inscribed with texts of ,scripture1 are many of them quite ,gothic in character1 even though they have ,renaissance canopies over them4 ,the designs of these mostly do duty many times over1 as if this merely decorative or descriptive work were not of much account2 and the same figure occurs1 here well painted1 there ill done1 or painted perhaps in a late1 loose way1 quite out of keeping with the drawing3 there is no sort of sequence in them4 ,the notion of these intermediate figures1 at once distinguishing the subjects one from the other1 and throwing light upon their meaning1 is good4 ,but in effect it fails of its object1 thanks to the independent spirit of the later painters1 who thought more of their pictures than of architectural restraint4 ,the subjects on each side of the window are very large in scale1 very pictorially and very freely treated1 very finely designed at times1 and very splendid in effect2 but they are most unequal1 and they are all more or less of a tangle4 ,their confusion is the greater inasmuch as there is no attempt to balance one picture with another4 ,a landscape background on one side of the window answers to an architectural background on the other4 ,on one side the interest of the subject is towards the top of the lights1 on the other to the bottom1 and so on4 ,either subject or both may be so merged with the messengers that a casual observer would hardly be aware of the existence of such personages4 ,illustration3 #afj4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,psyche1 ,,chantilly4 ,all this makes it difficult to trace the subject2 and yet the windows are in a certain pictorial way the more effective4 ,in fact the unity of the window has been preserved3 the white landscape on one side1 and the white architecture on the other1 make equally a setting for the colour1 and form1 with the messengers and their little canopies1 one framing1 not several frames4 ,right or wrong1 the artist has done what he meant to do1 and done it oftentimes very cleverly1 though not with uniform success4 ,the inequality spoken of is not only in workmanship but in design4 ,some of these pictures have characteristics1 such as the needless evasion of leading1 which one associates rather with quite the end of the century than with anything like the date of the second contract3 possibly the execution of the work extended over a longer period of time than is generally supposed4 ,however that may be1 the windows generally1 remarkable as they are1 are not markedly enough of a period to serve as an object lesson in glass design4 ,they are neither quite late enough to illustrate the decline of art1 nor workmanlike enough to show the culmination of sixteenth century design--painter-like and pictorial1 but in which the designer knew how to make the most of the glass in which it was to be wrought4 ,that is best seen in some of the ,french and ,flemish work above referred to1 in the work1 for example1 at ,ecouen and ,montmorency1 so fully illustrated in ,monsieur ,magne's most admirable monograph4 ,the figure1 for example1 of ,william of ,montmorency 7page #ff71 the father of the great ,anne1 might serve for a votive picture of the period2 but it is designed1 nevertheless1 as only a man careful of the conditions under which glass painting was done could design4 ,careful of conditions6 ,that is just what the designers of the ,king's ,college glass were not1 or not enough4 ,and so begins the end4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,later ,,renaissance ,,windows4 ,the magnificent windows of ,van ,orley at ,s4 ,gudule1 ,brussels1 mark in a sense the summit of design1 as well as of painting1 in stained glass4 ,but it is design of a kind not strictly proper to the material1 for which reason the discussion of his work1 though it was done well within the first half of the sixteenth century1 has been reserved by way of introduction to the period which it inaugurated1 the period when the glass painter not merely put painting first of all1 but sacrificed to it qualities peculiar to glass4 ,the heavy painting of this work and much that followed it has already been discussed4 ,but something of that was perhaps implied in the very ideal of the painter2 the execution only follows out the scheme of the design4 ,the scope as well as the power of the designer is better illustrated in the two great transept windows1 than in those of the chapel of the ,holy ,sacrament4 ,even in the very inadequate rendering of the one of them on page #ga may be seen how large and dignified the man's conception was4 ,the effect is gorgeous2 but it is produced as simply1 for all the unsurpassed elaboration of ornamental detail1 as a ,goth could wish4 ,an unsophisticated designer of the thirteenth century could scarcely have gone more directly to work4 ,he would not have grouped his figures with such art1 but he would have separated each from the other and from the ground in much such a straightforward way4 ,yet the motif of the design1 the idea of making figures and architecture stand as it were in strong and round relief against the light1 went far to bring about excessive use of paint2 and the design is therefore in a measure at fault1 as was the later ,netherlandish work1 founded upon it1 of which it may be taken as the nobler type4 ,it is a far cry from the slender ,perpendicular canopy to this triumphal arch4 ,the architecture is here no frame to the picture1 but the backbone of the picture itself1 and it is disposed in the most masterly way4 ,it takes the place of a magnificent high altar4 ,sometimes in compositions of this kind the altar-like canopy enshrines a rich picture1 just as veritable stonework might frame a painted altar-piece1 whilst in the foreground kneel the ,donors4 ,in this case ,charles the ,fifth and his wife ,isabella and their attendant saints are the picture1 the object of their adoration1 the ,almighty1 being relegated to one of the side arches4 ,similarly in a three-light window 7of much more glassy character1 however7 at ,montmorency1 ,guy de ,laval has the central position1 and the crucifix before which he kneels is put on one side4 ,this is rather characteristic of the period4 ,in the sixteenth century windows were erected1 not so much to the glory of ,god1 as to the glorification of the ,donor1 who claimed a foremost1 if not the very central1 place for himself4 ,the donor was no doubt always1 as to this day1 an important person in connection with the putting up of a stained glass window4 ,but in early days he was content to efface himself1 or if he appeared upon the scene at all it was in miniature1 modestly presenting the little image of his gift in a lower corner of the window4 ,in the fourteenth century he is still content with the space of a small panel1 bearing his effigy or his arms1 at the base of the window4 ,even in the fifteenth he is content at times to be represented by his patron saint1 as in the beautiful window in the chapel of ,jacques ,coeur1 at ,bourges4 ,in the sixteenth he is very much in evidence4 ,no scruple of modesty1 or suspicion of unworthiness1 restrains him from putting in an appearance in the midst of the most serious and sacred scenes1 very much sometimes to the confusion of the story4 ,eventually the donor1 his wife1 and perhaps his family1 with their patron saints1 who literally back them up in their obtrusiveness1 claim1 if they do not absorb1 all our attention1 and the sacred subject takes quite a back place4 ,in the foreground of the scene of the ,last ,judgment which occupies the great west window at ,s4 ,gudule1 ,brussels1 kneels the donor1 with attendant angels1 on a scale much larger than the rest of the world1 competing in fact in importance with the figure of ,our ,lord in ,majesty above4 ,however1 the vain-glory of princes and seigneurs resulted in the production of works of such consummate art that1 as artists1 we can but be grateful to them4 ,in the presence of the splendid achievement of ,van ,orley1 who shall say that the artist does not justify himself8 ,nothing equal to it in its way was ever done4 ,illustration3 #afa4 ,,the ,,parable ,,of ,,the ,,pharisee ,,and ,,the ,,publican1 ,,gouda4 ,it may not be according to the strict rules of the game3 it is not2 but that it is magnificent1 no fair-minded artist can deny4 ,our just cause of quarrel is1 not with that1 but with what that led to1 what that became in less competent hands4 ,it is the price we pay for strong men that they induce weak ones to follow them in a direction where they are bound to fail4 ,van ,orley's triumphant answer to any carping of ours would be1 to point to the great west window of the cathedral1 designed on earlier and more orthodox lines1 and say3 ,compare6 ,we have no right to limit art to what small folk can do4 ,the further development of the ,netherlandish canopy is shown in the ,gouda glass above4 ,here is still considerable skill in the way in which the window is set out1 and the patches of colour are introduced 7for example1 in the two figures leaning on the balcony and the wreath of leaves and fruit above them7 amidst the predominant white1--if only the white glass had been whiter in effect4 ,but there is altogether too much of this architectural work1 even though it is used1 in the pictured parable at least1 to dramatic purpose4 ,the notion of the ,pharisee gesticulating away in the far distance1 whilst the ,publican modestly fills the foreground1 is cleverly conceived and skilfully carried out2 but the picture is overpowered by its ponderous frame4 ,illustration3 #afb4 ,,gouda1 #aeif4 ,it is in the wonderful series of late sixteenth century windows at ,gouda1 in ,holland1 that the fullest and furthest development of pictorial design is shown4 ,the period of their execution extends from #aeee to #afjc2 and1 as they are admittedly the finest works of their day1 they may be taken to represent the best work of the latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,they are1 in fact1 typical of the period1 only at its best2 it is not often that work of that date was designed with such power or painted with such skill4 ,the diagrams given here and on pages #gi1 #bdd1 #beh1 do no manner of justice to the glass2 but they will help the reader better to understand what is said concerning it4 ,they indicate at least the lines on which these daring designers planned their huge windows1 the main lines which pictorial design on a large scale is destined henceforth to take4 ,in the clerestory of ,s4 ,eustache1 ,paris1 are some large two-light windows which somewhat recall the ,gouda work2 but the design is rather original4 ,one vast architectural composition in white1 not very heavily painted1 fills the window1 against which stand a series of giant ,apostles in colour1 one in each light1 occupying about one-third of the height of the window4 ,this much recognition of the separate openings is something to be thankful for towards the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 #afc4 ,s4 ,,sebald',s1 ,,nuremberg4 ,a striking feature1 we have seen1 about the later ,renaissance canopy as shown at ,gouda1 and already at ,brussels1 is its vast dimensions4 ,it no longer frames the picture3 it is a prominent1 sometimes the most prominent1 feature in its design4 ,even earlier than that the canopy was already sometimes of very considerable extent4 ,at ,s4 ,sebald's1 ,nuremberg1 there is a great altar-like canopy ending in a pediment about two-thirds of the way up the window1 with plain white glass above1 in which the shafting at the side takes up practically the entire width of the two outer lights1 as here shown in the diagram of a portion of the glass4 ,yet this window is as early as the year #aeae1 and before the period when masses of deep shadow were represented by paint4 ,accordingly the canopy in this instance is glazed in pot-metal of steely grey-blue1 which1 with the little figures1 mainly in steely grey armour against a white ground1 and the heraldic shields at the side1 mainly in red and white1 all very slightly shaded1 has a singularly fresh1 bright1 and delicate effect4 ,another instance of preponderating architectural work occurs also at ,nuremberg in the choir of the church of ,s4 ,lorenz1 and though it belongs to the beginning of the seventeenth century1 that too is leaded up much as it might have been in the fifteenth4 ,but the great clumsy column1 opposite1 with its clumsier figure of ,fame1 against a ruby background extending right up to the stonework of the window1 is not a satisfactory filling to the outer light of a big window4 ,the last thing to expect of late ,renaissance work is modesty in the use of architectural accessories1 whether in the form of frame or background4 ,frame and background they are not2 they claim to be all or nothing4 ,just as ornamental design was gradually pushed out of use by figure work1 so the picture was in time overpowered by its frame4 ,and the frame was in the end such that1 when it came to be discarded1 it was not much loss4 ,illustration3 #afd4 ,s4 ,,lorenz1 ,,nuremberg4 ,in the latter half of the sixteenth century and thenceforward design continued to travel in the direction of what was meant for a sort of realism4 ,if the more or less altar-like canopy was retained1 it was meant to appear as if it stood bodily under the arch of the window2 if it was abandoned1 you were supposed to see more or less through the window1 perhaps into distant country1 perhaps into receding aisles of the church4 ,it formed part of the canopy scheme1 that the structure should end before it reached the top of the window1 so that you could see beyond it into space4 ,the designers would have been only too happy if they could have done away with the glass above that4 ,if they had had big sheets of plate glass1 they would certainly have used them to produce the effect of out of doors--there was already a plein air school in the eighteenth century--as they had not1 they were obliged to accept the inevitable1 and lead up their white glass2 but they went as far as they could to doing away with its effect1 using thin1 transparent material1 which was not meant to appear as though it formed part of the composition4 ,occasionally they would use pale blue glass1 or tint it in a blue enamel1 further to suggest the sky beyond4 ,this 7page #bbb7 would commonly be glazed in squares4 ,the pure white glass also was often glazed in square or1 as at ,brussels1 diamond quarries 7page #ga74 ,subjects themselves1 it has been explained1 came to be glazed as much as possible in rectangular panes2 but it marks1 it may here be mentioned1 a decline of design1 as well as of technique1 when these came to interfere in any way1 as they did1 with the drawing4 ,having made up his mind that his design is to be glazed in rigid square lines1 the artist should logically have designed accordingly4 ,he had only to mark off the glazing lines on his cartoon1 and scheme his composition so that it was not hurt by them4 ,towards the seventeenth century the plain glass1 the extra part beyond the canopy or beyond the picture1 would often be glazed in some simple pattern4 ,that1 you might imagine1 stood for the window behind the picture or the monument4 ,at the church of ,s4 ,jacques1 ,antwerp1 above a picture of the ,circumcision1 is a canopy leaded in squares and painted to look like falsehood1 beyond which clear glass is glazed in a pattern4 ,occasionally an attempt is made to merge the picture into the plain glazing above1 as at ,s4 ,paul's1 ,antwerp1 where the yellow sky1 against which is shown the distant city1 and so on1 is glazed in squares1 which further off become gradually white1 and then at their interstices have smaller diamond-shaped pieces of glass let in4 ,where a subject glazed in quarries is represented against a background of plain glazing of more elaborate design1 there is difficulty in joining the two1 except by means of a strong lead outline to the figures1 or whatever may come next to the plain glass1 which outline the seventeenth century designer was anxious before all things to avoid4 ,accordingly1 as the plain pattern work approached the margin of the painted work1 he replaced the leads by paint1 which sham leads1 of course1 could be made to disappear as seemed good to him4 ,but these little games of his1 to judge by results1 were hardly worth the candle4 ,it will be seen how1 in the ,french glass on page #bjj1 the canopy came to be backed and surrounded by unpainted glass1 quarries in that case4 ,there the canopy sufficiently occupies the window space not to strike one unpleasantly2 but that is sixteenth century work2 later1 and especially in ,flanders1 canopies are represented1 as in the cathedral at ,antwerp 7#afae71 adrift1 as it were1 in a sea of plain glazing4 ,even when the glass has some quality of glass the effect of that is not happy4 ,when the glass is thin and transparent it is disastrous4 ,at ,s4 ,jacques1 ,antwerp1 again1 coats of arms hover unsupported in mid-air1 the mere lines of the glazing being quite inadequate to their apparent support4 ,it is different1 of course1 where the heraldic device1 as opposite1 is itself little more than plain glazing4 ,that is a very mild form of art2 but1 in its way1 it is satisfactory enough4 ,perhaps least fortunate of all in effect are the landscapes at ,s4 ,jacques1 which float1 without even a canopy to frame them1 in an atmosphere of leaded glass4 ,antwerp is rich in glass1 much of it very cleverly executed1 which would serve very well to illustrate how not to design a window4 ,illustration3 #afe4 ,,gouda1 #afhh4 ,the place of the canopy was supplied sometimes1 especially in later ,netherlandish work1 by the cartouche so dear to the ,dutch4 ,it fulfilled very much the office of the canopy1 framing the design2 and1 had it been kept white1 it would have framed it well1 affording circular and other shapes which form a welcome variation upon the usual arched opening4 ,but it was not white at all2 very much the reverse4 ,indeed the idea of the ,dutch cartouche1 with its interpenetration of parts1 and curling and projecting straps and bolts1 tempts the painter to a heavy method of painting1 destructive of the very quality of white4 ,the device depends for its effect far too much upon force of shadow to be of any great use in white glass4 ,the comparatively early cartouche in the lower half of the window at ,gouda1 given on page #bbc1 is of the simplest kind1 and has none of that too-seductive bolt work2 but it is dull and heavy in effect1 being painted in heavy brown1 with the idea of giving atmospheric effect to the picture supposed to be seen through it4 ,illustration3 #aff4 ,,plain ,,glazing1 ,s4 ,,gervais1 ,,paris4 ,a great cartouche is often used as a kind of base to a canopy extending across the whole width of a wide window1 or the base of the canopy may include a very important cartouche1 occupied in either case by a long inscription4 ,here again the oblong patch of white or yellow may have value1 in proportion as it is allowed to preserve the quality of glass4 ,there is1 however1 something poor and mean about large areas of small lettering1 and it is a pity to see the opportunity which bold inscriptions give quite thrown away4 ,moreover1 the inscriptions are invariably too long4 ,the framers of inscriptions do not realise the multitude of readers they scare away by the volume of their wording4 ,the design of a window at ,s4 ,jacques1 ,antwerp1 consists merely of an inscription label1 with a helmet above and mantling in black and white 7the black1 of course1 paint7 set in plain glazing4 ,up to the very last whole windows were glazed very often in plain patterns1 usually all in clear white glass4 ,a couple of designs1 into which a little colour is introduced1 are given below and opposite4 ,in spite of the increased facility for cutting glass1 afforded from the beginning of the century by the use of the diamond1 patterns were seldom very elaborate2 but1 by way of illustrating what can be done by means of the diamond1 there is shown overleaf quite a conjuring feat of glazing4 ,the thick black lines in the drawing represent the leads2 the white spaces enclosed are plain white glass1 rather poor in quality2 the thinner lines stand for cracks1 possibly not1 or not all of them1 of the glazier's doing1 for it would be almost impossible to handle such work without breaking it4 ,it is well-nigh incredible that each of these fleurs-de-lys should have been cut out of a single piece of glass1 the marginal band to it out of a second1 and so with the background spaces4 ,glaziers may be inclined to question the possibility of such a tour de force1 even in poor thin glass4 ,certainly one would not have thought it possible2 but there it is1 in the museum at ,angers1 close to the eye1 where you can see and examine it4 ,this is glazing with a vengeance4 ,it is not the sort of thing that any one would undertake1 except as a trial piece1 to show his skill2 but if ever a glazier deserved his diploma of mastership here is the man4 ,illustration3 #afg4 ,,plain ,,glazing1 ,,lisieux4 ,illustration3 #afh4 ,a ,,tour ,,de ,,force ,,in ,,glazing1 ,,angers ,,museum4 ,the composition of some of the windows belonging to the first half of the seventeenth century at ,troyes does not follow the general tendency of the period4 ,the better part of this1 if not the greater1 is attributed to ,linard ,gontier 7#afjf-afdh74 ,but the design of these windows1 and the style of them1 is so varied1 and sometimes so little of the period1 that one is disposed to think1 either that he was a painter only and did not design them at all1 or that he borrowed his designs freely from ,italian and other sources4 ,the panel on page #djj1 the ,virgin girt with clouds and cherubs1 distinctly recalls the work of the ,della ,robbia ,school2 and again the figures opposite remind one of late sixteenth century paintings4 ,an unusual thing1 however1 about some of these windows is the way they are set out4 ,the disposition of the design of the three-light window from ,s4 ,martin s ,vignes is as simple and severe as though it had been ,gothic4 ,the glazing1 too1 is not in squares1 but follows the design4 ,except for the rather robustious drawing of the figures1 and the futile kind of detail which does duty for canopy work1 the glass might belong to the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 #afi4 ,,three ,,lights1 ,s4 ,,martin-,s-,,vignes1 ,,troyes4 ,again1 in the subject of the marriage of ,,ss4 ,joachim and ,anna on page #bcd1 it is rather by the types of feature and the cast of draperies1 than by the composition1 that the date of the work proclaims itself4 ,it is proclaimed1 of course1 unmistakably by the use of enamel1 not only in the warm-coloured flesh1 but throughout1 to support1 and sometimes to supply the place of1 pot-metal glass4 ,nevertheless1 the effect of much of this glass is brilliant to a degree almost unprecedented in the first half of the seventeenth century4 ,the painter had skill enough to get the maximum of modelling with the minimum of paint4 ,he could afford1 therefore1 to use paint sparingly1 leaving plenty of glass clear1 and seldom sacrificing its translucency1 as was done in the group of donors on page #ha1 whose black mantles are rendered in solid paint4 ,those heavily painted figures recall a couple of ,donors in a window at ,antwerp 7#afbf71 equally black robed1 against a nearly black screen1 all in paint3 they would have made a capital votive picture2 but they are about as unlike glass as anything one can conceive4 ,exceptionally good seventeenth century work is to be found also at ,auch4 ,it seems that it was proposed 7towards #afej7 to complete the windows in a way worthy of the splendid beginning in the choir2 but the art was not forthcoming2 and the ,chapter of that day was wise enough to fall back upon comparatively unimportant quarry windows1 with borders and tracery in white and stain and blue enamel1 which is at least brilliant in colour1 and pleasing in effect4 ,that may be said also of the ,western ,rose4 ,in the ,roses of the transepts1 the artist goes further1 and produces1 by means of arabesque in white and stain1 upon a ground mainly of blue and ruby1 occasionally varied by green1 each light defined by a simple border of white and stain1 a couple of flamboyant ,rose windows with glass which would do credit to the period of the stonework4 ,they might well 7at the distance they are placed from the eye7 be taken at first sight for ,early ,renaissance work4 ,in fact they are really mosaic glass--so rare a thing by this time that the windows are probably of their kind unique4 ,even at its best enamelled glass is less effective than the earlier work4 ,in proportion as the place of pot-metal is supplied by enamel1 the colour is inevitably diluted1 and at times it is quite thin4 ,indeed1 it is pretty well proved1 by the work of men who are masters in their way1 that1 in painted as distinguished from mosaic glass1 the choice lies between weak colour and opacity4 ,at ,auch and at ,troyes we have weak but still often pure and brilliant colour4 ,the opposite defect of opacity reaches probably its greatest depth in the four great ,rubens-like windows at ,s4 ,gudule in the chapel of ,our ,lady immediately opposite that of the ,holy ,sacrament1 where ,van ,orley's windows are4 ,the design is there absolutely regardless of any consideration of glass or architecture4 ,each window is treated as a vast oil picture1 without so much as a frame4 ,here is no vista of distant architecture1 nor any such relief of lighter colour as you find at ,gouda4 ,force of colour is sought by masses of deep shadow1 into which the figures merge4 ,this shadow being obtained by paint1 and the glazing being in the now usual squares1 there are literally yards of painted quarries1 which1 except when the sun is at its fiercest1 are all but black4 ,and withal the effect is not rich as compared with even the common ,gothic glass1 though it is not without a certain picturesqueness when perchance the sun struggles through4 ,a painter might find it an admirable background to his picture2 no architect would choose it for his building4 ,three of these windows were designed1 it seems1 by a pupil of ,rubens1 ,van ,thulden1 who worked under him at the ,luxembourg1 and they have all the character of his work--except that the colour is dull4 ,at ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 are some smaller windows with figures1 also recalling the manner of the master1 and said to be by pupils of his4 ,they1 too1 are dull and heavy in effect4 ,the canopies over the figures are terrible caricatures of the ,gothic shrines in the ante-chapel4 ,better seventeenth century glass is to be found at ,oxford in the work of the ,van ,lingen1 a family of ,dutchmen settled in ,england1 who executed windows in ,wadham and ,balliol ,colleges and elsewhere4 ,some of these are rich in colour4 ,apart from the rather interesting use of enamel made in them1 they are not of great value2 but they show as well as more important examples the kind of thing which did duty for design4 ,the windows in ,lincoln's ,inn ,chapel1 ,london1 illustrate not unfairly the dreary level of dulness as to colour and design to which seventeenth century glass declined4 ,that it could fall still lower was shown1 for example1 by ,peckitt1 of ,york1 who is responsible for the glass on the north side of ,new ,college ,chapel1 ,oxford1 facing the work of the ,dutchmen4 ,these date from #agfe to #aggd4 ,illustration3 #agj4 ,,st4 ,,martin ,s ,,vignes1 ,,troyes4 ,the history of eighteenth century windows may1 if one may plagiarise a famous bull1 be put into the fewest possible words3 there were none--worth looking at4 ,to find pleasure even in ,sir ,joshua's design at ,new ,college1 you must consider it as anything but glass4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,picture-,,windows4 ,the course of glass design was picture-ward4 ,picture design1 however1 did not stand still1 and hence arises some confusion in the use of the word pictorial4 ,it is time to try and clear that up4 ,stained glass1 it may be truly said1 has been from the very first pictorial4 ,the earliest glass1 therefore1 and the latest1 the best and the worst1 may alike be termed pictorial4 ,the difference is in the conception as to what constituted a picture1 say1 in the thirteenth century and the seventeenth4 ,it all depends upon the kind of picture attempted4 ,archaic art aims already at nature4 ,we probably do not give the early painter credit enough for his intention of rendering natural things naturally4 ,in part at least the stiffness of his design comes from lack of skill1 and often where we find him quaint he meant no doubt to be perfectly serious and matter-of-fact4 ,but it was not alone incompetence that held his hand4 ,he was restrained always by a decorative purpose in his work4 ,here again he was not conscious of sacrificing to any higher rule of art2 he bothered himself as little about that as a bee about the way it shall fashion its cell2 he worked in the way to which he was born2 but the idea had not yet developed itself that a picture could be painted quite apart from the decoration of something1 and it never entered his mind to do anything but adapt himself to the decorative situation4 ,a picture1 then1 in medival times was a work of decorative art1 designed to fit a place1 to fulfil part of a scheme of decoration1 in which it might more often than not take the first place1 but no more2 it had no claim to independence4 ,in glass the picture obeyed two conditions which more or less pulled together3 as art it subserved to decorative and architectural effect2 as craftsmanship it acknowledged and accepted the limitations of glass painting4 ,in the course of years the ideal of architectural fitness underwent successive changes1 and the limitations of the glass painter grew less2 his scope1 that is to say1 was widened1 and his art took what we call more pictorial shape4 ,still1 so long as the pictorial ideal itself was restrained within the limits of medival ambition1 glass painting might safely approach the pictorial4 ,it was not until painting broke loose from traditional decorative trammels and set up1 so to speak1 on its own account1 until pictorial came to mean something widely different from decorative1 that the term became in any way distinctive of one kind of art or another4 ,it is in that later sense that the word pictorial is here used4 ,artists still differ1 and will continue to differ1 as to the precise use of the term4 ,there are artists still who contend that1 since in old time art was decorative1 and since in their opinion all art should be decorative1 therefore the picture which is not decorative is not art4 ,arguing thus in a circle1 they would say 7the pictorial including in their estimation the perfection of decorative fitness1 and all art which overshot the mark ceasing to count with them7 that art was always at its best when it was most pictorial4 ,but that is a species of quibbling about words which not only leads us no further1 but hinders mutual understanding4 ,it is wiser to accept words in the sense in which they are generally understood1 and to try and see where the real difference of opinion is4 ,difficult it may be1 impossible even1 to draw the line between a picture which is decorative and decoration which is pictorial2 but there is no difficulty in drawing a band on one side of which is decoration and on the other picture4 ,you have only to draw it wide enough4 ,if we can succeed in defining a picture as distinguished from a work of decorative art1 and can then show how a stained glass window1 in attempting to conform to conditions which we have agreed to call pictorial1 fails of its decorative function1 it will then not be so difficult to see how1 in proportion as glass aims at the pictorial1 it falls short of making good windows4 ,granted1 then1 that a picture may fulfil all decorative conditions1 and that a decoration may sometimes rightly be pictorial1 that the two go1 as historically they did1 a long way hand in hand1 it is contended that there is a point at which decoration and picture part company and take distinctly different ways2 thenceforth1 if either is led away by the other1 it is at the cost of possible success in the direction more peculiarly its own4 ,now1 the first point at which picture definitely parts company with decoration is where the painter begins to consider his work apart from its surroundings4 ,the problems the artist may set himself to solve are two4 ,how shall ,i adorn this church1 this clerestory1 this chancel1 this window1 with stained glass8--that is distinctly a problem of the decorator2 ,how shall ,i realise1 on canvas or what not1 this thought of mine1 this fact in nature1 this effect seen or imagined8--that is distinctly a problem of the painter4 ,each1 it is granted1 may be swayed more or less by the other consideration also1 but according as a man starts with the one problem or the other1 and seeks primarily to solve that1 he is painter or decorator4 ,suppose him seriously to endeavour to combine pictorial and decorative qualities in his work1 there will come times when he has perforce to choose between the two4 ,upon the choice he makes will hang the final character of his work1 decorative or pictorial4 ,we are too much in the habit of laying down laws as to what a man may or may not do in art4 ,he may do what he can4 ,he may introduce as much decorative intention into his picture1 as much pictorial effect into his decoration1 as it will stand2 it is not till he overweights one with the other1 attempts more than his means or his power allow him1 and fails to do the thing that was to be done1 that we can say he has gone wrong4 ,when the two ideals of decoration and painting were more nearly one1 and in proportion as that was so1 success in the two directions was possible2 when painting aimed at effects1 of painting--in proportion1 that is1 as it became pictorial--it was impossible4 ,it is safe to say1 since masters attempted it and failed--since1 for example1 the finest work in glass which aims at the pictorial and depends upon painting ends always in being either thin or opaque in effect--that the happy medium was not found4 ,the fact is1 the time came when a painter1 in order to design successfully for glass1 was called upon to relinquish some of the effects he had come greatly to value in painting3 effects of light and shade1 atmosphere1 reflected light1 relief1 perspective1 violent foreshortening4 ,to seek these at the expense of qualities proper to decoration and to glass1 was to attempt picture2 to sacrifice such pictorial qualities to considerations of architectural fitness1 to the quality of the glass1 its translucency1 its colour1 its consistent treatment1 was to attempt decoration2 and in proportion as the sacrifice is not made1 the work of the glass painter may be characterised as pictorial4 ,there should now be no possible misunderstanding as to what is meant by the word4 ,it implies something of reproach1 but only as applied to glass4 ,let the pictorial flourish1 in its place--that is1 in picture4 ,all it is here meant to assert is that1 pictures being what they are1 what they were already by the end of the sixteenth century1 the pictorial element in stained glass is bound to spoil the window4 ,there are two respects in which a stained glass window differs from a picture3 first1 in that it is a window2 second1 in that it is glass4 ,suppose we take these two points separately4 ,it scarcely needs showing that the designing of a window is a very different thing from the painting of a picture4 ,in the first place1 the architectural frame of the window is there1 arbitrarily fixed1 whereas the painter chooses his frame to suit his picture4 ,the designer of a window has not only to accept the window-shape1 but to respect both it and the architecture of the building4 ,the scale of his work1 the main lines of its composition1 if not more1 are practically determined for him by architectural considerations1 just as the depth of colour in his scheme is determined by the position of his window and the amount of light he desires or is allowed to shut out4 ,moreover1 he has to accept the window plane1 to acknowledge it as part of the building1 to let you feel1 whatever he does1 that it is a window you see1 and not something through the window or standing in it4 ,that was tried1 as we have seen1 at ,gouda and ,s4 ,gudule2 but1 even if the illusion had been achieved1 it would have been destructive of architectural effect4 ,the idea of a picture seen through the mullions of a window is one of the will-o'-the-wisps which led glass painters astray4 ,they did not succeed2 and1 had they done so1 they would have given a very false1 and to some of us a very uncomfortable1 impression of not being protected from the outer air4 ,mullions are in any case a very serious consideration4 ,it has been shown already 7page #aig7 how the artist sought continuity of subject through the lights of his window1 and gradually extended his picture across them4 ,and if he is at liberty to occupy a four-light window with the ,virgin and ,child and the ,three ,kings1 and if it is lawful to introduce more than one figure into a light1 why may not each king be accompanied by an attendant1 holding his horse or bearing gifts2 why should not the ,kings kneel in adoration2 why should not ,joseph be there1 the manger1 and the cattle2 why should there not be one landscape stretching behind the ,magi1 binding the whole into one picture8 ,so with the ,crucifixion4 ,if the ,virgin and ,s4 ,john may occupy sidelights1 why not introduce as well in a larger window the two thieves1 the ,magdalene at the foot of the cross1 the good centurion1 the soldiers1 the crowd8 ,obviously there is no reason why the subject should not be carried across a window2 and from the time that windows were divided into lights it was done1 at all events in the case of certain subjects1 such as the ,tree of ,jesse1 which spread throughout the window1 or the ,last ,judgment1 for which the available space was yet never enough4 ,but there is a wide difference between designing a subject which extends through the whole width of a window and designing it so that it appears to be seen through the window4 ,in the one case the mullions are seriously taken into account2 in the other they are ignored4 ,if you were looking at a scene through a window1 of course the mullions would interfere4 ,why1 therefore1 consider them if you wish to produce the effect of something seen through8 ,naturally you would not allow the stonework to cut across the face of a principal personage1 or anything of that kind2 but1 apart from that1 its intervention would only add to the air of reality4 ,the problem of dealing with the mullions is thus rather shirked than solved4 ,its solution is not really so difficult as would seem4 ,mullions count for much less in the window than one would suppose4 ,the eye1 for example1 follows naturally the branches of a ,tree of ,jesse from one light into another1 and it is not felt that the stonework interferes with it at all seriously1 whilst the scheming of the figures1 each within a single light1 is a very distinct acknowledgment of its individuality4 ,so in the case of a subject4 ,if the design is so planned that the important figures are grouped in separate lights1 the landscape or other continuous background helps to hold the picture together1 and is not hurt by the mullions4 ,the important thing is that mullions should be considered2 only on that condition do they cease to interfere with the design4 ,there is no reason always to put a border round each light1 or even to keep every figure within the bounds of a single light4 ,a reclining figure1 such as that of ,jesse at the base of the window 7below71 ,jacob asleep and dreaming1 or the widow's son upon the bier1 may safely cross two or three lights1 if it be designed with reference to the intervening stonework4 ,further1 it seems desirable that the shape of each separate window opening should be acknowledged by at least a narrow fillet of white or pale colour next the masonry1 broken1 it may be1 here and there by some feature designed to hold the lights together1 but practically clearing the colour from the stonework1 and giving to the division of the window the slight emphasis it deserves4 ,it is not worth while dividing a window into lights and then effacing the divisions in the glass4 ,given a window of four or five lights1 the decorator has no choice but to design a four or five-light window4 ,he must render his subject so that the constructional divisions of the window keep their proper architectural place2 if his subject will not allow that1 he must abandon his subject1 or give very good reason why not4 ,the reason of mere pictorial ambition will not hold good4 ,the test of a good picture-window is1 how the mullions affect the design4 ,if to take them away would make it look foolish1 then it has probably been designed as a window1 decoratively2 if to take them away would improve it1 then it has been designed pictorially2 and1 however good a picture it might have been1 it is a bad window design4 ,illustration3 #aga4 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,shrewsbury4 ,it is quite possible1 nay1 probable1 that in connection with any given window1 or series of windows1 there will be architectural features which deserve to be emphasised4 ,it may be the springing of the arch which calls for accentuation2 it may be a string-course in the walls that asks for recognition2 it may be that the proportion of the window wants correction4 ,whatever it be1 it is the part of the decorator to feel the want and to meet it1 to grasp the situation and to accept it4 ,in not doing so1 he shows perhaps pictorial1 certainly not decorative1 instinct4 ,so with regard to the plane of a glass picture4 ,it is not necessary to restrict one's design to silhouette1 to make one's picture as flat as the first glass painters or the ,greek vase painters made theirs4 ,how much of distance and relief a man may indulge in is partly his own affair4 ,it depends upon what he can manage to do without destroying the surface of his window4 ,so long as he preserve that1 he may do as he pleases1 and yet not lay himself open to the charge of being unduly pictorial2 only it is as well to remember that on the simplest and severest lines grand work has been done1 and may still be done1 without falling into archaism2 whilst the ,crabeths1 and the rest of the astoundingly clever glass painters of ,gouda fail to reconcile us to the attempt to render the sky beyond 7page #beh7 or distant architectural vistas in glass4 ,it has sometimes been contended that all lines of perspective 7which in the sixteenth century begin to take a very important place in design7 are amiss in glass1 inasmuch as they destroy its flatness4 ,that is surely to go too far4 ,so long as no effect of relief is sought1 no effect of distance attempted1 no illusion aimed at1 one can hardly find fault with lines indicating the perspective necessary perhaps to the expression of the design--assuming1 of course1 that the lines of perspective take their place in the decorative scheme1 and help the composition of the window4 ,they do that very cleverly in ,crabeth's picture of ,christ ,purifying the ,temple 7page #bdd74 ,our complaint is rather with the strong relief attempted1 the abuse of shadow1 and especially of painted shadow4 ,the case is far worse where1 as at ,s4 ,eustache1 ,paris1 the architectural background is shown obliquely4 ,in that case1 no uncommon one in the seventeenth century1 when the painter would just as likely as not choose his point of view as best suited his picture1 without any reference whatever to its architectural setting1 the painter shows himself1 as glass painter1 at his most pictorial and worst4 ,so much for the window as an architectural feature1 now let us look at it as glass4 ,it becomes here very much a question of craftsmanship4 ,to a workman it seems so natural1 and so obvious1 that the material he is working in1 and the tools he is using1 must from beginning to end affect the treatment of his design1 that it appears almost unnecessary to insist upon such a truism4 ,experience1 however1 goes to show that only the workman and here and there a man who ought1 perhaps1 to have been one1 have any appreciation of what artists call treatment4 ,the rest of the world have heard tell that there is such a thing as technique1 to which they think far too much importance is attached4 ,that is so1 indeed1 when artists think technique is enough2 but not when they look upon it as indispensable1 the beginning of all performance1 not when they insist that a man shall know the grammar of his art before he breaks out into poetry4 ,now the ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of workmanship is to treat each material after its kind4 ,it is a truism1 therefore1 to say that glass should be treated as glass4 ,yet we find that a man may be enthusiastic to a degree about an art1 learned above most men in its history1 and yet end in entirely misconceiving its scope4 ,what is to be condemned on canvas1 said ,winston1 ought not to be admitted on glass4 ,as well might he have said1 that what would be condemned on glass should not be allowed on canvas1 or that language and behaviour which would be unbecoming in church should not be tolerated on the platform1 or at the dinner-table4 ,the fallacy that one rule applies to all forms of art is responsible alike for the muddiness of seventeenth and eighteenth century windows and for the thin transparent tinting of nineteenth century ,munich glass4 ,that art is one is a fine saying1 rightly understood4 ,so is humanity one1 and it is well to remind ourselves of the fact2 but race1 climate1 country1 count for something2 and to speak with effect we must speak the language of the land4 ,each separate craft included in the all-embracing title of art1 and making for its good and its glory1 works under conditions as definite as those of climate1 has characteristics as marked as those of nationality1 and speaks also a language of its own4 ,and1 to express itself to full purpose1 it must speak in its own tongue4 ,the only pictures1 then1 which prove satisfactory in glass are the pictures of the glass painter2 and by glass painter is not meant any one who may choose to try his hand at glass painting1 but the man who has learnt his trade and knows it from end to end1 to whom use has become second nature1 who thinks in glass1 as we say4 ,now and again1 perhaps1 where a draughtsman and a glass painter are in unusual sympathy1 it may be possible for the one to translate the design of the other into the language of his craft2 but good translators are rare1 and translation is at best second-hand4 ,success in glass is achieved mainly by the man to whom ideas come in the form of glass1 who sees them first in his mind's eye as windows4 ,even such a man may lack taste1 insight1 discretion2 he may be led away by a misplaced ambition--it is not merely on the stage that the low comedian aspires to play ,hamlet--but only the man who knows so well the dangers ahead that he insensibly avoids them1 who knows so surely what can be got out of his material that he makes straight for that1 who does1 in short1 the best that can be done in glass1 can dare to be pictorial without danger of being false to his trade4 ,a painter without experience of glass might1 of course1 be coached in the technique of the material2 but he would never get the most out of it4 ,conditions which to the glass painter would be as easy as an old coat1 would be a restraint to him1 and the greater his position the more impatient he would be of such restraint1 the more surely his will would override the better judgment of the subordinate who happened to know4 ,illustration3 #agb4 ,,christ ,,purging ,,the ,,temple1 ,,gouda4 ,it was unfortunate that at a critical period in the history of glass1 just when great painters from the outside began to be called in to design for it1 knowledge was in rather an uncertain state4 ,the use of enamel had been discovered2 it offered undoubted facilities to the painter2 it was believed in2 it was the fashion4 ,any one who had protested the superiority of the old method would possibly have been set down as an old fogey1 even by glass painters4 ,at that moment1 very likely1 a glass painter1 anxious of course to conciliate the great man1 but flushed also with faith in his new-found method1 would have said to ,van ,orley1 in reply to any question about technique3--,never you mind about glazing and all that2 give us a design1 and we will execute it in glass4 ,and he did execute it in a masterly and quite wonderful way4 ,still the success of it is less than it would have been had the designer known all about glass3 in that case his artistic instinct would have led him surely to trust more to qualities inherent in glass1 and less to painting upon it4 ,van ,orley's picture scheme depended too much upon relief to be really well adapted to glass1 but it was splendidly monumental in design1 and to that extent admirably decorative4 ,something of decorative restraint we find almost to the end in sixteenth century work2 the picture had not yet emancipated itself entirely1 and the pictorial ideal did not therefore necessarily go beyond what glass could do2 in any case1 it did not take quite a different direction4 ,it may be as well to define more precisely the ideal glass picture4 ,the ideal glass picture is1 the picture which gives full scope for the qualities of glass1 and does not depend in any way upon effects which cannot be obtained in glass1 or which are to be attained only at the sacrifice of qualities peculiar to it4 ,and what are those qualities8 ,the qualities of glass are light and colour1 a quality of light and a quality of colour to be obtained no other way than by the transmission of light through pot-metal glass4 ,compare these qualities with those of oil painting1 and see how far they are compatible4 ,something depends upon the conception of oil painting4 ,the qualities of glass are compatible enough with the pictorial ideal of the oil 7or more likely tempera7 painters whom we designate by the name of primitives2 and1 indeed1 fifteenth century ,italian windows often take the form of circular pictures which one of the masters might have designed4 ,a painting by ,botticelli1 ,filippo ,lippi1 ,mantegna1 or ,crivelli1 might almost be put into the hands of a glass painter to translate4 ,it is quite possible that some of the ,florentine windows were executed in ,germany from paintings by ,italian masters2 the odd thing is that they are attributed sometimes to sculptors4 ,ghiberti and ,donatello may1 for all one knows1 have been great colourists2 but it is so universal a foible to ascribe works of decorative art to famous painters or sculptors who could never by any possibility have had a hand in them1 that one never has much faith in such reputed authorship4 ,the severity of the primitive painters' design1 the firm outline1 the comparatively flat treatment1 the brilliant1 not yet degraded1 colour--all these were qualities which the glass painter could turn to account4 ,without firm and definite outline1 of course1 a design does not lend itself to mosaic4 ,but it is especially the early painter's ideal of colour which was so sympathetic to the glass painter4 ,a designer for glass must be a colourist2 but the colour he seeks is sui generis4 ,not every colourist would make a glass designer4 ,van ,thulden may not have been a colourist of his master's stamp1 but ,peter ,paul ,rubens himself could not have made a complete success of those windows in the ,chapel of ,our ,lady in ,s4 ,gudule4 ,reynolds was a colourist1 but he came conspicuously to grief in glass4 ,velasquez was a colourist1 but one fails to see how by any possibility the quality of his work could be expressed in glass4 ,on the other hand1 colour in which the simple artist delighted1 as in light and sunshine1 in the sparkle of the sea1 in the purity of the sky1 in the brilliancy of flowers1 in the flash of jewels1 in the deep verdure of moss1 in the lusciousness of fruit or wine1 colour as the early ,florentine painters saw it and sought it--this is what glass can give1 and gives better than oil1 tempera1 or fresco1 on an opaque surface4 ,how far these early painters deliberately sacrificed to pure bright colour qualities of light and shade1 aerial perspective1 and so on1 may be open to question4 ,the certain thing is that1 if we want the quality of glass in all its purity and translucency1 we have to sacrifice to it something of the light and shade1 the relief1 the atmospheric effect1 the subtlety of realistic colour1 which we are accustomed nowadays to look for in a picture4 ,happy the men who could contentedly pursue their work undisturbed by the thought that there were effects to be obtained in art beyond what it was possible for them to get4 ,even the ,italian painters soon travelled beyond the limits of what could possibly be done in glass4 ,flesh-painting1 as ,titian understood it1 or ,correggio1 or ,bonifacio1 is hopelessly beyond its range4 ,but it was the ,dutch who formed for themselves the idea most widely and hopelessly beyond realisation in glass4 ,the ,crabeths1 like good glass painters1 struggled more or less against it2 but they could not keep out of the current altogether2 and in proportion as their work aims at anything like chiaroscuro it loses its quality of glass4 ,rembrandt1 to have realised his ideal in glass1 would have had to paint out of it every quality which distinguishes it and gives it value4 ,in proportion1 as the painter's aim was light and shade rather than colour1 and especially as it was shade rather than light 7or perhaps it would be fairer to say1 as it was light intensified by obscuring light around it7 it was diametrically opposed to that of the glass painter4 ,his pursuit of it was a sort of artistic suicide4 ,it led by quick and sure degrees to what was to all intents and purposes the collapse of glass painting4 ,realism of a kind was inevitable when once the painter gained the strength to realise what he saw1 but when the glass painter1 seeking the strength of actual light and shade1 began to rely upon painted shadow for his effects1 the case was hopeless4 ,glass asks to be translucent4 ,the point of perfection in glass design is not easily to be fixed4 ,glass painting1 it must be confessed1 as it approaches perfection of technique1 is always dangerously near the border line2 the painter is so often tempted to carry his handiwork a little further than is consistent with the translucency of glass4 ,it happens1 therefore1 that one expects almost to find consummate drawing and painting marred by some obscuration of the glass4 ,if on the other hand we travel back to the time when the evil does not exist1 we find ourselves at a period when neither drawing nor painting were at their best4 ,it is by no means surprising that this should be the outcome of the association of glazier and painter4 ,according as one cares more for glass or for painting one will be disposed to shift1 backwards or forwards1 the date at which glass painting began to decline4 ,it may safely be said1 however1 that pictorial glass painting was at its best during the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,that is the period during which you may expect to find masterly drawing1 consummate painting1 and yet sufficient recognition of the character of glass to satisfy all but the staunch partisan of pure mosaic glass--who1 by the way1 stands upon very firm ground4 ,in ,flanders1 as has been said1 and in ,france1 are to be found exquisite pictures in glass1 admirably decorative in design1 glowing with jewel-like brilliancy of colour1 not seriously obscured by paint1 the figures modelled with a delicacy reminding one rather of sculpture in very low relief than of more realistic painting and carving1 the colour delicate and yet not thin1 the effect strong without brutality4 ,but it is in ,italy that are to be seen probably the finest glass pictures that have ever been painted2 the work1 nevertheless1 of a ,frenchman--,william of ,marseilles--who established himself at ,arezzo1 and painted1 amongst other glass1 five windows for the cathedral there1 which go about as far as glass can go in the direction of picture4 ,the man was a realist in his way--realist1 that is1 so far as suited his artistic purpose4 ,not merely are his figures studied obviously from the life1 but they are conceived in the realistic spirit1 as when1 in the scene of the ,baptism1 he draws a man getting into his clothes with the difficulty we have all experienced after bathing1 or when1 in the ,raising of ,lazarus 7page #cig71 he makes more than one onlooker hold his nose as the grave-clothes are unwrapped from the body4 ,in design the artist is quite up to the high level of his day 7#aebe or thereabouts72 but you see all through his work that it was colour1 always colour1 that made his heart beat 7we have here nothing to do with the religious sentiment which may or may not be embodied in his work71 colour that prompted his design1 as in the case of so many a great ,italian master4 ,this man possibly did in glass much what he would have done on canvas2 but he could never have got such pure1 intense1 and at the same time luminous1 effects of colour in anything but glass1 and he knew it1 never lost sight of it1 and tried to get the most out of what it could best give him--that is to say1 purity of colour1 and translucency and brilliancy of glass4 ,whatever amount of pigment he employed 7probably more than it seems1 the light is so strong in ,italy7 it seldom appears to do more than just give the needful modelling4 ,now and again1 in the architectural parts of his composition1 the white is lowered by means of a matt of paint1 where a tint of deeper-coloured glass had better have been employed2 but even there the effect is neither dirty nor in the least heavy4 ,and in the main1 for all his pictorial bias1 the system of the artist is distinctly mosaic2 his colour is pot-metal always or purest stain4 ,the sky and the landscape1 for example1 in which the scene of the ,baptism is laid1 are leaded up in tints of blue and green4 ,in the scene where ,christ purges the ,temple the pavement is of clear aquamarine-tinted glass1 against which the scales1 moneybags1 overturned bench1 and so on1 stand out in quite full enough relief of red and yellow1 without any aid of heavy shading1 or cast shadow1 such as a ,netherlander would have used4 ,and1 for all that1 the difficulty even of foreshortening is boldly faced4 ,not even in the most violently shaded ,flemish glass would it be easy to find a figure more successfully foreshortened than the kneeling money-changer1 scooping up his money into a bag4 ,that a designer could do this without strong shading1 means that he was careful to choose the pose or point of view which allowed itself to be expressed in lightly painted glass4 ,there is no riotous indulgence in perspective1 but distance is sufficiently indicated2 and the personages in the background1 drawn to a smaller scale than the chief actors in the scene1 keep their place in the picture4 ,everywhere it is apparent that the figures have been composed with a cunning eye to glazing4 ,these are not pictures which have been done into glass2 they are no translations1 but the creations of a glass painter--one who knew all about glass1 and instinctively designed only what could be done in it1 and best done4 ,this man makes full use of all the resources of his art4 ,his window is constructed as only a glazier could do it4 ,he does not shirk his leads4 ,he uses abrasion freely1 not so much to save glazing1 as to get effects not otherwise possible4 ,thus the deep red skirt or petticoat of the woman taken in adultery is dotted with white in a way that bespeaks at a glance the woman of the people1 whilst more sumptuous draperies of red and green are1 as it were1 embroidered with gold1 or sewn with pearls4 ,these are the effects he aims at1 not the mere texture of silk or velvet4 ,he delights in delicate stain on white1 and revels in most gorgeous stain upon stain4 ,in short1 these are pictures indeed1 but the pictures of a glass painter4 ,work like this disarms criticism4 ,one may have a strong personal bias towards strictly mosaic glass1 and yet acknowledge that success justifies departure from what one thought the likelier way4 ,things of beauty decline to be put away always in the nice little pigeon-holes we have carefully provided for them4 ,shall we be such pedants as to reject them because they do not fit in with our preconceived ideas of fitness8 ,alas6--or happily8--alas for what might have been1 happily for our wavering allegiance to sterner principles of design1 it is seldom that the glass painter so perfectly tunes his work to the key of glass4 ,in particular1 he finds it difficult to harmonise his painting with the glazing which goes with it4 ,he is incapable in the early sixteenth century of the brutalities of his successors1 who carry harsh lines of lead across flesh painting recklessly2 but the very association of ultra-delicate painting with lead lines at all demands infinite tact4 ,an idea of the point to which painting is eventually carried may be gathered from the representation of little nude boys blowing bubbles in which are reflected the windows of the room where they are supposed to be playing4 ,that is an extreme instance1 and a late one4 ,short1 however1 of such frivolity1 and in work of the good period1 painting is often so delicate that bars and leads unquestionably hurt it4 ,it is so even in the very fine ,jesse window at ,beauvais 7page #cfh74 ,occur where it may it is a false note which stops our admiration short2 and1 after all our enthusiasm1 we come back heart-whole to our delight in the earlier1 bolder1 more monumental1 and more workmanlike mosaic glass4 ,the beautiful sixteenth century work at ,montmorency or at ,conches does not shake the conviction of the glass-lover1 that the painter is there a little too much in evidence1 that something of simple1 dignified decoration is sacrificed to the display of his skill4 ,the balance between glass decoration and picture is perhaps never more nearly adjusted than in some of the rather earlier ,italian windows4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,landscape ,,in ,,glass4 ,at once a distinguishing feature of picture-glass1 and a characteristic of later work generally1 is the mise-en-scne of the subject4 ,illustration3 #agc4 ,,from ,,the ,,entry ,,into ,,jerusalem1 ,,fairford4 ,in quite the earliest glass the figures1 it was shown1 were cut out against a ground of plain colour 7pages #cc1 #abg71 or diapered perhaps with a painted pattern1 or leaded up in squares1 or broken by spots of pot-metal 7page #cg71 which1 by the way1 being usually of too strongly contrasting colour1 assert themselves instead of qualifying its tone4 ,sometimes the ground was leaded up in the form of a more or less elaborate geometric diaper 7page #ccf74 ,occasionally it was broken by the simplest possible conventional foliage4 ,the figure stood on a cloud1 an inscribed label1 a disc or band of earth4 ,in the fourteenth century spots breaking the ground took very often the form of badges1 fleurs-de-lys1 heraldic animals1 cyphers1 and so on 7page #aef71 and even in the fifteenth it was quite common to find figures against a flat ground1 broken only by inscription1 either on white or yellow labels 7pages #ahf1 #cci71 or leaded in bold letters of white or yellow into the background itself 7page #aif74 ,but simultaneously with this the figure was frequently represented against a screen of damask 7page #aia71 above which showed the further background1 usually more or less architectural in character4 ,in the ,fairford windows 7page #ahg7 is shown this treatment together with the label which helps to break the formality of the horizontal line4 ,sometimes the line is curved1 as though the figure stood in a semicircular niche1 or broken1 as though the recess were three-sided4 ,sometimes the figure stood upon a pedestal 7page #cia71 but more usually1 as time went on1 upon a pavement4 ,certain subjects were bound to include accessory architecture1 but at first it was as simple as the scenery in the immortal play of ,pyramus and ,thisbe4 ,but even in the fifteenth century it was rendered1 one may judge how navely1 from the little ,nativity on page #ed1 a subject hardly to be rendered without the stable4 ,again1 the quite conventional vinework1 also from ,malvern1 shown in the upper part of page #cde 7a jumble of odds and ends71 forms really part of the scene depicting ,noah in his vineyard--see the hand holding the spade handle4 ,the ,fairford scenery 7pages #bea1 #cgb71 quaint as it is1 goes much nearer to realism than that2 and towards the sixteenth century1 and during its first years1 there was a good deal of landscape in which trees were leaded in vivid green against blue1 with gleaming white stems suggestive of birch-bark1 always effective1 and refreshingly cool in colour4 ,there is something of that kind in the window facing the entrance to ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge2 but the more usual ,english practice in the fifteenth century was to execute the landscape in white and stain against a coloured ground4 ,that is the system adopted in the scene of the ,creation at ,malvern 7page #beb71 where trees1 water1 birds1 fishes1 are all very delicately painted and stained4 ,in the left-hand corner it will be seen that solid or nearly solid brown is used for foliage in order to throw up the white and yellow leafage in front of it4 ,there is some considerably later work very much in this manner at ,s4 ,nizier1 ,troyes4 ,but that kind of thing was not usual in ,french glass4 ,illustration3 #agd4 ,,from ,,the ,,creation1 ,,malvern ,,abbey4 ,the sky had of course from the first been indicated by a blue background2 but1 the blue ground being used1 in alternation with ruby1 for all backgrounds1 except a few in white1 it was not distinctive enough to suggest the heavens1 without some indication of clouds1 which accordingly were leaded up upon it1 sometimes in mere streaks of colour1 sometimes in fantastically ornamental shapes4 ,it was a later thought1 which came with the use of paler glass1 to paint the blue with clouds1 indicating them1 that is to say1 more or less in the form of diaper4 ,as with the sky so with the sea4 ,it was at first glazed in wave pattern2 eventually the wave lines were painted on the blue4 ,the blue background1 which had gradually become paler and paler1 became soon in the sixteenth century pale enough to stand approximately for a grey-blue sky1 on which was painted1 with marvellous delicacy1 distant landscape1 architecture1 or what not1 always in the brown tint used generally for shading1 although a tint of green was given to grass and trees by the use of yellow stain4 ,this distant view painted upon blue was a beautiful and most characteristic feature of sixteenth century glass4 ,the ,french painters adopted it1 and made it peculiarly their own1 though it occurs also in ,german and ,flemish glass4 ,backgrounds of this kind1 which in themselves suffice to mark the departure from ,gothic use1 are shown on pages #bjg1 #bac1 and on a larger scale opposite4 ,the wintry landscape there with the bare tree trunks against the cold grey sky1 forms the upper portion of the subject shown on page #bjg1 in which ,our ,lord gives ,his charge to ,peter2 the paler grey behind the heads of the group stands for the sea4 ,the wintry effect of the scene is not suggestive of the ,holy ,land1 but it brings the subject innocently home to us4 ,the leads1 it will be seen1 take the lines of the larger limbs of the trees1 whilst the lesser branches and small twigs are painted on the glass4 ,there is ingenuity in the glazing as well as delicacy in the painting4 ,this is a very different thing from the landscape painted in enamel colours4 ,the propriety1 the beauty1 the decorative quality of such work as this1 comes of the acceptance of the necessary convention of treating the painted background1 of rendering it1 that is1 always more or less in monochrome1 and not attempting anything like realism in colour4 ,the painted landscapes illustrated are of the simplest4 ,the ,french painters went much further than that1 associating with their painting broad masses of pot-metal colour1 but still keeping distinctly within the convention of deliberately simple colour4 ,by the use of silvery-white and shades of pot-metal blue and purple and green1 they produced the most pleasing and harmonious effects4 ,there was no great variety in the tune they played1 but the variations upon it were infinite4 ,let us picture here a few of them4 #a4 ,ecouen4--,a distant city1 in white1 and beyond that more distant architecture1 painted on the pale blue of the sky4 #b4 ,conches4--,against a pale blue sky1 broken by cumulous white clouds1 a grey-blue tower4 #c4 ,conches4--,a grey-blue sea and deeper sky beyond3 from the waves rises a castle1 in white1 breaking the sky-line1 the pointed roofs of its turrets painted in black upon the background4 ,illustration3 #age4 ,,background ,,to ,,the ,,charge ,,of ,s4 ,,peter1 ,s4 ,,vincent1 ,,rouen4 7,,comp4 #aef47 #d4 ,freiburg1 #aebh4--;,a smoke-grey sea1 fading away towards the horizon into pale silver1 the sky beyond dark blue1 its outline broken by a range of deeper blue mountains4 #e4 ,conches4--,beyond the foreground landscape in rich green1 a pale blue sea1 with slightly deeper grey-blue sky beyond1 a tower in darker blue against it2 a strip of deep blue shore divides the sky and sea1 and gives support to the dark tower2 against that a smaller tower catches the light1 and stands out in glittering white4 #f4 ,montmorency4--,a canopied figure subject in gorgeous colour2 the foreground a landscape with rich green herbage1 separated by a belt of white cliffs from buildings of pale grey1 amidst trees stained greenish1 backed by purple hills2 further a pale blue sky2 against the sky1 overshadowed beneath the canopy arch by a mass of purple cloud1 the stained and painted foliage of a tree1 growing from this side the hill4 #g4 ,montmorency4--,s4 ,christopher crossing the stream2 blue water painted with waves and water plants1 the foliage stained4 #h4 ,s4 ,nizier1 ,troyes4--,a vineyard1 very prettily managed2 the vines painted on the blue1 their leaves stained to green1 the grapes grey-blue1 whilst grey stakes are leaded in pot-metal4 ,sometimes1 as at ,ecouen1 far-off architecture would be painted not upon blue but upon a pale purple hill4 ,at ,laigle figures and animals are painted upon green1 but they do not hold their own4 ,on the other hand1 at ,alenon1 some distant figures appearing in very pale grey against a delicate greenish landscape 7stained upon the grey71 are charming in effect4 ,white backgrounds painted as delicately as the blue are not rare4 ,at ,groslay1 for example1 steely-white architecture is separated from white sky beyond by grey-blue hills1 a church with blue steeple breaking the sky4 ,but white does not lend itself so readily to combination with colour as blue2 and1 as a rule1 such backgrounds are grisaille in character1 relieved1 of course1 with stain4 ,the great sea-scape at ,gouda 7page #bbc71 representing the taking of ,dalmatia in ,egypt 7a very ,dutch ,dalmatia71 is nearly all in grisaille1 against quarries of clear white1 with only a little stain in the flags and costumes1 and one single touch of poor ruby 7about two inches square71 which looks as if it might be modern4 ,the port in perspective1 the ships1 the whole scene1 in fact1 is realistically rendered1 and comes as near to success as is possible in glass4 ,delightful peeps of landscape are sometimes seen through the columns and arches of an architectural background4 ,whether the architecture be in purple of divers shades1 or in white with only shadows in purple1 or whether the nearer architecture be in white and the more distant in purple1 in any case a distance beyond is commonly painted upon the grey-blue sky seen through it4 ,possibly1 as at ,conches1 further vistas of architecture may be stained greenish upon it--any colour almost1 for a change4 ,but whatever it may be1 and wherever it may be1 in the best work it is colour2 and it is always more effective than where the shadow is represented by paint1 even though the brown be not laid on with a heavy hand1 infinitely more effective than when blue or other coloured enamels are relied upon1 as in some instances at ,montmorency4 ,enamel may1 for all one can tell1 have been used in some of the landscapes here commended--it is impossible to say without minute examination of the glass1 which is rarely feasible--but it never asserts its presence2 and in any case it has not been used in sufficient quantity to damage the effect4 ,it will be gathered from the descriptions of early sixteenth century glazed and painted distances1 that they were as carefully schemed with a view to glazing 7though in a very different way7 as a ,gothic picture4 ,sometimes1 as at ,conches1 they are rather elaborately leaded2 and where that is the case there is not so much danger of incongruity between the delicacy of the painting and the strength of the leads--which assert themselves less than where they occur singly4 ,it stands to reason also that the more mosaic the glass the less fragile it is4 ,painting alone upon the blue is best employed for small peeps of distance4 ,it adapts itself to smaller windows2 and it must be done 7as for a while it was done7 so well1 that it seems as if the designer must himself have painted it4 ,were the artist always the glass painter1 and the glass painter always an artist1 who knows what case pictorial glass might not make out for itself8 ,it is a coarser kind of distance than the ,french that we find at ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,there the landscape backgrounds are in white and stain1 grey-blue being reserved for the sky beyond1 broken more or less by white clouds1 or1 occasionally1 by the white trunks of trees1 the foliage of which is sometimes glazed in green glass1 sometimes painted upon the blue and stained4 ,here and there a distant tree is painted entirely upon the blue4 ,this treatment is not ill adapted to subjects on the large scale of the work at ,king's ,college1 but one does not feel that the painters made anything like the most of their opportunity4 ,the inexperience of the designers is shown in their fear of using leads1 a most unnecessary fear1 seeing that1 at the distance the work is from the eye1 the bars themselves have only about the value of ordinary lead lines4 ,illustration3 #agf4 ,,the ,,relief ,,of ,,leyden1 ,,gouda4 ,stronger and more workmanlike1 but not quite satisfactory1 is the much later landscape 7#aeeg7 of ,dirk ,crabeth at ,gouda4 ,there the sky is blue1 leaded in quarries1 on which are trees1 painted and stained1 and some rather florid clouds4 ,in the later work generally the lead lines are no longer either frankly acknowledged or skilfully disguised4 ,the outline of a green hill against the sky will be feebly softened with trivial little twigs and scraps of painted leafage4 ,the decline of landscape is amply illustrated at ,troyes4 ,at ,antwerp again there is a window bearing date #afbf1 in which the landscape background of a quite incomprehensible subject extends to a distant horizon1 above which the sky is glazed in white quarries1 with clouds painted upon it4 ,this is an attempt to repeat the famous feat of glass painting which had been done some twenty years before at ,gouda4 ,the ,relief of ,leyden1 of which a diagram is here given1 is in its way a most remarkable glass picture4 ,in the foreground is a crowd of soldiers and citizens1 upon the quay1 about lifesize4 ,they form a band of rich colour at the base of the composition2 but the design is confused by the introduction of shields of arms and their supporters immediately in front of the scene4 ,beyond are the walls and towers of the city of ,delft1 and the adjacent towns and villages1 and the river dwindling into the far distance where ,leyden lies--in the glass a really marvellous bird's-eye view over characteristically flat country4 ,the horizon extends almost to the springing line of the window arch1 and above that rises a sky of plain blue quarries1 broken only towards the top by a few bolster-like and rather dirty white clouds4 ,absolute realism is of course not reached1 but it is approached near enough to startle us into admiration4 ,it is astonishing what has here been done4 ,but the painter has not done what he meant to do4 ,that was not possible1 even with the aid of enamel4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,italian ,,glass4 ,in the course of the preceding chapters the reader has been rather unceremoniously carried from country to country1 in a way which may have seemed to him erratic4 ,but there was a reason in the zig-zag course taken4 ,the progress of the glass painter's art was not by any means a straight line4 ,nor did it develop itself on parallel lines in the various countries in which it throve4 ,it advanced in one place whilst it was almost at a standstill in another4 ,that is easily understood4 ,it was inevitable that glass painting1 though it arose in ,france1 should languish there during the troublous times when ,english troops overran it under ,edward ,,iii4 and throughout the ,hundred ,years' ,war1 that it should revive in all its glory under ,francis the ,first1 and that during the disturbances of the ,fronde it should again decline4 ,the extremity of ,france was ,england's opportunity2 and our greatest wealth of stained glass windows dates from the reign of the later ,plantagenets4 ,the ,wars of the ,roses do not appear greatly to have affected art2 but after the ,reformation we were more busy smashing glass than painting it4 ,in ,germany the course of art ran smoother4 ,glass throve under the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 and it was not until the ,reformation that it suffered any very severe check4 ,medival ,swiss glass may be classed with ,german4 ,in the ,netherlands glass painting blossomed out suddenly under the ,imperial favour of ,charles ,v4 ,it continued to bear fruit under the ,dutch ,republic1 until it ran to seed at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,so it happens that1 in following the development of glass painting1 it has been necessary to seek the best and most characteristic illustrations first in one country and then in another1 to travel from ,france to ,england1 from ,england to ,germany and back to ,france1 thence to ,flanders1 to ,france again1 and finally once more to the ,netherlands1 to say nothing of shorter excursions from one place to another1 as occasion might demand4 ,in each separate locality there was naturally some sort of progress1 but we cannot take any one country as all-sufficient type of the rest2 and to have traversed each in turn would have been tedious4 ,there were everywhere differences of practice and design2 in each country1 for that matter1 there were local schools with marked characteristics of their own4 ,some of the characteristic national differences have been pointed out in passing4 ,to describe them at length would be to write a comparative history of glass1 of which there is here no thought4 ,what concerns us is the broadly marked progress of glass painting1 not the minor local differences in style4 ,something more1 however1 remains to be said of ,italian glass than was possible in any general survey4 ,the mere facts1 that the ,renaissance arose in ,italy so long before it reached this side the ,alps1 and that glass painting was never really quite at home in ,italy 7any more than the ,gothic architecture which mothered it71 sufficiently account for the difficulty1 nay1 the impossibility1 of classing it according to the ,gothic periods4 ,indeed1 one is reminded in ,italian glass less often of other windows of the period1 ,english1 ,french1 or ,german1 than of contemporary ,italian painting4 ,the comparative fitness of the works of the ,primitive painters for models of glass design has already been pointed out4 ,it is so evident that the ,italian sense of colour could find more adequate expression than ever in glass1 that one is inclined to wonder1 until it is remembered that ,italian churches were at the same time picture galleries1 that it did not more commonly find vent in that medium4 ,even as it is1 ,italian painters did found a school of glass painting1 comparatively uninfluenced by the traditional ,gothic types of design1 whilst observing the best traditions of glazier-like technique4 ,hence it is that we find in ,italy windows such as are nowhere else to be seen1 windows which at their best are of the very best4 ,there are resemblances in ,italian glass to ,german work2 and some of it is said to have been executed by ,germans4 ,it is none the less ,italian4 ,though it were executed in ,germany1 glazier and painter must have worked under the direct influence of the ,italian master1 and in complete accord with him1 putting at his service all their experience in their craft1 and all their skill4 ,so well did they work together1 that it seems more likely that the executant not only worked under the eye of the master1 but was at his elbow whilst he designed4 ,that alone would account satisfactorily for the absolutely harmonious co-operation of designer and glass-worker4 ,one thing is clear1 that the artist1 whatever his experience in glass1 great or little1 had absolute sympathy with his new material1 felt what it could do1 saw the opportunities it offered him1 and seized them4 ,an ,englishman1 or a ,frenchman1 who found himself for the first time in ,italy1 would be puzzled to give a date to the windows at ,pisa or ,milan1 or in either of the churches of ,s4 ,francis at ,assisi4 ,even an expert in the glass of other countries has to speak guardedly as to ,italian work1 or he may have to retract his words4 ,italian ,gothic is so ,italian and so little ,gothic1 it is of no use attempting to compare it with ,northern work4 ,to those1 moreover1 who have been in the habit of associating the ,renaissance with the sixteenth century1 the forms of ,quattro-,cento ornament will persist at first in suggesting the later date--just as the first time one goes to ,germany the survival of the old form of lettering in inscriptions throws a suspicion of lingering ,gothic influence over even full-blown ,renaissance design4 ,it takes some time to get over the perplexity arising from the unaccustomed association of an absolutely mosaic treatment of glass 7which with us would mean emphatically ,gothic work7 with distinctly ,renaissance detail1 such as one finds at the churches already mentioned1 at the ,certosa of ,pavia1 or at ,florence4 ,at ,assisi the glass means1 for the most part1 to be ,gothic4 ,one is reminded there sometimes of ,german work1 both by the colour of the glass and by the design of some of the medallion and other windows4 ,the ornament generally inclines to the naturalistic rather than to the ,quattro-,cento arabesque1 or to the geometric kind shown on page #if2 and though it includes a fair amount of interlacing handwork of distinctly ,italian type1 and is sometimes as deep in colour as quite ,early glass1 it is approximately ,decorated in character4 ,that is so equally with the brilliant remains in the tracery lights of ,or ,san ,michele at ,florence4 ,but it is characteristic of ,italian glass of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that1 both by the depth of its colour and the very quality of the material1 it should continually recall the thirteenth century4 ,sometimes1 as at ,milan1 for example1 you find even sixteenth century glass in which there is practically no white at all except what is used for the flesh tint4 ,in the cathedral at ,pisa are some windows with little subjects1 framed in ornament1 all in richest and most brilliant colour1 which are at first sight extremely perplexing4 ,the leading is elaborately minute1 and there is no modelling in the figures1 which yet have nothing of archaic or very early character4 ,it turns out that the paint upon the glass has perished1 and there is hardly a vestige of it left to show that this was not intended for mere mosaic4 ,the effect1 nevertheless1 is such as to prove how much can be done in pot-metal glass1 and how little it depends upon the painting on it4 ,illustration3 #agg4 ,,assisi4 ,elsewhere1 as at ,arezzo 7in work earlier than that of ,william of ,marseilles71 the paint has often peeled off to a very considerable extent1 revealing sometimes patches of quite crude green and purple1 which go to show that the ,italians habitually used glass of a raw colour1 where it suited their convenience1 and just toned it down with brown enamel4 ,the result proves that it was a dangerous practice2 but1 where the paint has held1 the effect is not dull or dirty1 as with us it would be4 ,the ,italian sun accounts probably both for the use of this scum of paint and for its not injuring the effect of colour4 ,the same quality of deep rich pot-metal colour associated with ,renaissance design1 is the first thing that strikes one in the windows at ,bologna1 in the cathedral at ,milan1 and in ,florence everywhere4 ,at ,milan in particular there are compositions1 in which blue and red predominate1 magnificently rich and deep1 in spite of recent cleaning4 ,the cunning way in which green is occasionally used to prevent any flowing together of red and blue into purple1 is a lesson in colour4 ,two schemes of design prevail in the nave windows 7the old glass in the choir is so mixed up with new that it does not count71 both equally simple4 ,in the one the rectangular divisions formed by the mullions and the stouter bars are accepted1 without further framing1 as separate picture spaces2 in the other the main form of the window is taken as frame to a single picture1 the mullions being only so far taken into account that the prominent figures are designed within them4 ,some of these windows are late enough in the century to show a falling off in treatment4 ,in the ,apostle window 7attributed to ,michel ,angelo87 the white glass is all reduced to a granular tint of umber2 and in the one illustrating the ,life of the ,virgin there is a most aggressively foreshortened figure1 which may have been effective in the cartoon1 but is absurd in the glass4 ,it is not1 therefore1 at ,milan that typically ,italian glass is best to be studied1 though there is enough of it to startle the student of glass whose experience had not hitherto extended so far as ,italy4 ,neither is ,italian glass at its best at ,bologna1 though the city was noted for glass painting1 which was practised there by no less a person than the ,blessed ,james of ,ulm4 ,but1 truth to tell1 the best windows at ,bologna 7they are most of them fairly good7 are not those of the ,saint but of ,pellegrino ,tibaldi and ,lorenzo ,costa4 ,it is at ,florence that the distinctive quality of ,italian glass is best appreciated4 ,there is a vast quantity of it1 varying in date from the early part of the fifteenth to the latter part of the sixteenth century1 but it is uniformly ,italian1 and1 with few exceptions1 it is extremely good4 ,figures under canopies are of common occurrence in ,florentine windows2 but the canopies differ in several respects1 both from the ordinary ,gothic canopy and from the shrine-like structure of the later ,renaissance4 ,in the first place1 the canopy returns in ,italy to its primitive dimensions4 ,it may or may not be architecturally interesting1 but there is in no case very much of it4 ,the ,italians never went canopy-mad2 and they kept the framework of their pictures within moderate dimensions4 ,the ,italian canopy of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 then1 was just a niche1 sometimes of ,renaissance design1 sometimes affecting a more ,gothic form with pointed or cusped arch and so on1 under which1 or in front of which1 the figures stood4 ,it bore definite relation to the figures1 and it was neither impossible of construction nor absurd in perspective4 ,occasionally1 in later work1 as at the ,certosa at ,pavia1 it was delicate in colour1 but1 as a rule1 it was strong and rich4 ,it was not merely that the shadowed portions were glazed in pot-metal1 as when1 at ,santa ,croce1 the coffered soffits of the arches are one mosaic of jewellery1 but that the canopy throughout was in colour4 ,illustration3 #agh4 ,s4 ,,maria ,,novella1 ,,florence4 ,that is the most striking characteristic of ,italian canopy work1 and indeed of other ornamental setting--that it is as rich as the picture1 a part of it1 not a frame to it4 ,constructionally1 of course1 it is a frame2 but the colour does away with the effect of framework4 ,it serves rather to connect the patches of contrasting colour in the figures1 than to separate one picture from another4 ,occasionally this results in too much all-overishness1 more commonly it results in breadth1 making you feel that the window is one4 ,it was explained what use was made of white canopy work in ,gothic glass1 judiciously to break up the surface of the window4 ,in ,italy the surface is judiciously left unbroken1 and in that case also the result is most admirable4 ,with the exception of an occasional brassy yellow canopy1 recalling ,german colour1 the same system of connecting canopy and subject together by colour is adopted alike at ,s4 ,croce1 at ,s4 ,maria ,novella1 and at the ,duomo at ,florence4 ,the composition of the windows is simple3 within a border of foliage or other ornament1 two or three tiers of figures1 under modest canopies1 separated perhaps by little medallions containing busts or demi-figures4 ,that occurs at ,s4 ,domenico1 ,perugia1 as well as at ,florence4 ,illustration3 #agi4 ,,florence4 ,a modification of the canopy occurs in the nave windows of the ,duomo4 ,the space within a narrow border which frames the broad lancet1 is divided into two by a strong upright bar1 and the divisions thus formed are treated as separate trefoil-arched lancets1 each with another border of its own1 the space above being treated much as though it were tracery4 7,something like this occurs1 it will be remembered1 already in the thirteenth century1 at ,bourges47 ,in the tall spaces within the borders are the usual tiers of figures under canopies4 ,again1 in the chapel of the ,certosa in ,val d',ema1 near ,florence1 there is a window with double-niched canopies and pronounced central shaft dividing the broad lancet into two narrow ones4 ,illustration3 #ahj4 ,s4 ,,giovanni ,,in ,,monte1 ,,bologna4 ,the ,italian canopy is not of so stereotyped a character as in ,decorated or ,perpendicular design2 and generally it may be said that there is1 both in the design and colour of ,italian glass1 more variety than one finds out of ,italy4 ,the plan is less obvious1 the scheme less cut and dried2 you know much less what to expect than in ,northern ,gothic1 and enjoy more often the pleasure of surprise4 ,elaborately pictorial schemes of design are less common in ,italian glass than might have been expected4 ,there is a famous window in the church of ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo1 at ,venice 7#adgc71 in which the four lights below the bands of tracery which here takes the place of transom are given over to subject4 ,there green trees and pale blue water against a deep blue sky and deeper blue hills1 anticipate a favourite sixteenth century colour scheme2 but the glass is a mere wreck of what was once probably a fine window4 ,figure groups on a considerable scale are chiefly to be found in the great bull's-eye windows1 which are a striking feature in ,italian ,gothic churches1 occupying a position where in ,france would have been a rose--over the ,west door1 for example4 ,illustration3 #aha4 ,,arezzo4 ,these great circular windows1 which occur at ,arezzo1 at ,bologna1 at ,siena1 and especially at ,florence1 are usually surrounded by an arabesque border4 ,occasionally the border consists of a medley of cherubic wings and faces2 occasionally1 as at ,siena1 it is in white1 more in the form of mouldings2 in one case1 at least1 it disappears1 as it were1 behind the figure group in the lower part of the window2 but1 as a rule1 it consists of ,renaissance pattern1 such as are shown here and on page #gj1 large in scale1 simple in design1 and as mosaic in execution as though it had been twelfth century work4 ,the centre of these circular lights may have1 as at the ,duomo at ,florence1 a single upright figure1 enthroned1 occupying a sort of tall central panel1 supported by angels in the spandrils at the sides2 or it may have a subject running across it1 as in the case of ,perino del ,vaga's ,last ,supper 7#aedi7 at the ,west end of the cathedral at ,siena4 ,but very often it enclosed one big figure subject1 such as the ,descent from the ,cross at ,santa ,croce1 attributed to ,ghiberti4 ,an earlier manner of occupying a bull's-eye is shown in the ,east window at ,siena1 dating probably from about the beginning of the fourteenth century4 ,this is subdivided by four huge cross bars 7two horizontal and two vertical7 into nine compartments1 or a cross consisting of one central square1 four squarish arms1 and four triangular spandrils4 ,each of these divisions is taken as though it were a separate light1 and has its own border1 enclosing a separate subject4 ,the bars1 it is true1 are of great size1 wide enough almost to have been of stone2 but the scheme rather suggests that the designer was not quite aware1 when he designed it1 how much less significant they would appear in the glass than they did in his drawing4 ,unquestionably the finest windows in ,florence are the great lancets in the apse and south apsidal transept of the ,duomo1 finer than the three lights at the ,east end of ,s4 ,maria ,novella1 which are so much more often spoken of1 possibly because they are seen to so much more advantage in the dark-walled ,lady ,chapel4 ,it is difficult to trace in these ,duomo windows the hand of ,ghiberti or ,donatello 7#adcd71 their reputed designers4 ,they are planned on the simplest lines4 ,in the upper series1 the space within a narrowish border is divided1 by a band of ornament or inscription1 into two fairly equal parts1 in each of which stand two figures facing one another 7opposite7 under the simplest form of canopy1 if canopy it can be called4 ,it is a mere frame1 at the back of which is a two-arched arcade1 with shafts disappearing behind the figures4 ,they stand1 that is to say1 not under but in front of it4 ,in the lower series the arrangement is the same1 except that the upper compartment contains a single figure1 larger in scale1 and seated1 under a canopy of rather more architectural pretensions4 ,some of the canopies have cusped arches1 and some of the borders are foliated in a more or less ,gothic way2 but obviously the ,gothicism throughout is only in deference to prevailing fashion4 ,in feeling and effect the work is ,renaissance4 ,the design here given shows about one half of a window2 but it gives1 unfortunately1 no hint of the colour4 ,the depth of it may be imagined when it is told that the only approach to white in it is in the beaded line round the nimbus of the figure to the right1 and that is of the horniest character4 ,the flesh is of a rich brownish tint4 ,the head on page #bgj goes nearer to suggesting colour4 ,there again the face is brown1 the hair and beard dark and bluish2 against it the band round the head1 which is ruby1 tells light4 ,the orange-yellow nimbus1 rayed1 is rather lighter still1 the beaded fillet edging it bone-white4 ,the drapery is of brightest yellow diapered with occasional blue trefoils1 each of which has in its centre a touch of red4 ,the background is of very dark blue1 the architecture nearest it bright green1 beyond that it is dark red4 ,illustration3 #ahb4 ,,figures1 ,,duomo1 ,,florence4 ,this short explanation will serve to indicate the key in which the colour is pitched4 ,the glass itself1 it has been said1 is as rich as ,french work of the twelfth century1 as deep as ,german of the fourteenth1 but more vivid than either2 there are no low-toned greens or inky blues4 ,the blue is sapphire1 the green has the quality of an emerald4 ,in this palette of pure colour the artist revelled4 ,nowhere as in the ,duomo at ,florence is one so impressed with the feeling that the designer was dealing deliberately always with colour4 ,plainly that1 and no other1 was his impulse1 colour--broad1 large1 beautiful1 impressive1 solemn colour masses4 ,elsewhere the story-teller speaks1 or the draughtsman1 here the colourist confesses himself4 ,the grand scale of his figures allows him to treat his colour largely1 and its breadth is no less notable than its brilliancy4 ,there is infinite variety in it2 but the general impression is of great masses of red1 blue1 yellow1 green1 purple1 brown1 and so on1 held together by the same colours distributed in smaller threads and spots1 as in diapers on drapery4 ,the broad mass of any one colour is itself made up of many various tints of glass4 ,the accidental fusion of colour1 as of red and blue into purple1 is guarded against by framing1 say1 the blue with green1 or the ruby with brownish-yellow4 ,at other times neutral tones are deliberately produced by the combination of1 for example1 red and green lines4 ,illustration3 #ahc4 ,,florence4 ,the event proves that in this way1 and by the choice of deep rather than low tones1 not only mellowness but sobriety of colour is to be obtained4 ,the artist would certainly have chosen rather to be crude than dull2 but it is very rarely that a false note occurs1 and then most likely it is due to the decay of the brown paint upon which he relied to bring it into tone4 ,at ,arezzo one was disposed to think nothing could be finer than the glass of ,william of ,marseilles2 at ,florence one is quite certain that nothing could be more beautiful than the glass in the ,duomo4 ,each is1 after its kind1 perfect4 ,but at ,florence1 at all events 7les absents ont toujours tort71 one finds that this is not only the more decorative kind1 but the more dignified4 ,one is disposed to ask1 whether it is not better that in glass there should be no deceptive pictures1 no perspective to speak of1 only simple and severely disposed figures1 which never in any way disturb the architectural effect1 which give to the least attractive interior--the ,duomo is as bare as a barn and as drab as a meeting-house--something of architectural dignity4 ,illustration3 #ahd4 ,,prato4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,tracery ,,lights ,,and ,,rose ,,windows4 ,glass in tracery lights and ,rose windows cannot consistently be planned on the lines suitable to lancets or other upright shapes2 and it is interesting to observe the modifications of design necessitated by its adaptation to circumstances so different4 ,this applies not only to ,gothic glass but to ,renaissance1 the best of which1 as it happens1 is in ,gothic windows4 ,happily it never occurred to sixteenth century artists to hamper themselves by any affectation of archaism1 and their work is deliberately in the new manner4 ,one can understand1 too1 a certain up-to-date contempt on their part for the old-fashioned stonework2 but it is rather surprising that so few of them seem to have realised how greatly their own work would have gained by a little more consideration of 7if not for7 the stonework4 ,where1 as at ,gouda1 by way of exception1 ,gothic windows were built to receive later glass1 tracery is to all intents and purposes abandoned3 the builders would have done away with mullions had they known how otherwise to support such huge glass pictures4 ,it has been explained already1 in reference to the influence of the window-shape1 and especially of the mullions1 upon glass design1 how much more formidable these divisions appear upon paper than in the window4 ,that is very plainly seen in many a window where the designer has relied upon them to frame his subjects4 ,the pictures have a way of running together in the most perplexing way1 and one has to pick them out for oneself again4 ,the practical conclusion from that is1 that the designer is under no obligation to confine himself too strictly within the separate lights of a large window4 ,what he is bound to do is to take care that the mullions never hurt his picture2 if they do1 it is his picture which is to blame4 ,he may urge with reason that the upright shafts of stone are there merely for the support of the window1 and that it is not his business to emphasise them1 enough if he acknowledge them4 ,in tracery1 however1 it is his bounden duty to take much more heed of the stonework4 ,it was designed1 in intricate and often very beautiful lines1 with deliberately ornamental intent2 it was meant to be seen1 and it is his function to show it off4 ,the question he has to put to himself is now no longer3 does the stonework hurt my design8 but3 does my design hurt the stonework8 ,and he should not be satisfied unless it helps it4 ,the artist who1 at ,bourges1 having fleur-de-lys-shaped tracery to deal with1 carried across it a design quite contrary to the lines of the stonework1 was guilty of a blank absurdity4 ,the ,early ,rose windows1 which were habitually filled with rich coloured glass1 consisted either of simple piercings1 as at ,lincoln1 or they were made up of piercings very definitely divided by massive stonework4 ,in proportion as mullions become narrow1 and form in themselves a design1 it seems doubtful how far deep-coloured glass can do them justice4 ,only strong tracery lines will stand strong colour4 ,at ,chlons-sur-,marne1 for example1 the foils of certain cusped lights surrounding a central circular picture are successfully ornamented with arabesque of deep yellow upon paler yellow ground2 and again at ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence1 certain gorgeous wheels of ruby and yellow1 or of blue1 green1 and yellow1 and so on1 are unusually satisfactory4 ,in such cases not only breadth of effect but definition of the tracery forms is gained by keeping them 7more especially in their outer circumference7 much of one tone1 whilst contrast of colour between one light and another helps still further to assist definition4 ,but this applies only to stonework strong enough to take care of itself4 ,there is a sort of perverse brutality in putting into delicate and graceful tracery deep rich glass which hides its lines4 ,such lines want sharply defining against the light4 ,early windows had1 of course1 no tracery properly so called4 ,the great ,rose windows1 and the smaller ,roses surmounting a pair of lancets1 were rather piercings than tracery2 and it was not difficult to adapt the design of a medallion window to suit them4 ,a small piercing was ready designed for a medallion subject2 nothing was wanted but a border round it1 narrower1 of course1 than would have been used for a broad lancet light1 but of the same foliated character4 ,the individual quatrefoils or other principal openings1 which went to make up a great ,rose window1 were filled in the same way4 ,if the opening were wedge-shaped1 as it often was1 the obvious thing to do was to introduce into it a medallion 7probably circular7 of the full width of the opening1 at about its widest1 and to fill up the space about it with foliated ornament or geometric mosaic1 with which also the smaller and less important piercings would naturally be filled4 ,sometimes the recurring figure medallions were set alternately in foliated ornament and geometric diaper2 or the lights might be grouped in pairs1 two with foliage and two with diaper4 ,similar alternation of the two common kinds of ,early filling1 naturally occurred in minor openings which contained no medallion4 ,something of this kind occurs at ,reims4 ,when the shape of the great ,rose permitted it--if1 that is to say1 the circular outline was strongly pronounced--it was possibly further acknowledged by a fairly broad border1 following it and disappearing1 as it were1 behind the stonework2 otherwise1 except in the case of smaller medallion-shaped openings1 it was not usual to mark them by even so much as a border line4 ,small ,roses had sometimes1 as at ,auxerre1 a central figure medallion round which were secondary foliage medallions set in diaper4 ,a certain waywardness of design1 already remarked in medallion windows1 was sometimes shown by filling the central medallion with ornament and grouping the pictures round it4 ,as the lights of a ,rose window radiated from the centre1 features which recurred throughout the series arranged themselves inevitably in rings2 and according to the disposition of the emphatic features of the design1 the rays or the rings pronounced themselves4 ,this is partly the affair of the architect who sets out the stonework1 but it lies with the glazier whether he choose to subdue or to emphasise either feature4 ,it is hard to say why one or other of these schemes of glass design1 in rays or in rings1 should be preferred2 but1 as a matter of experience1 the sun and star patterns are not among the most happy4 ,perhaps the stone spokes of a wheel window assert themselves quite enough any way1 and the eye wants leading1 not vaguely away from the centre1 but definitely round the window4 ,the circular belts of pattern formed by medallions or other features answer to1 and fulfil the part of1 the horizontal bands in upright windows 7page #aec71 and bind the lights together4 ,the band has it all its own way in a mere bull's-eye1 such as you find in ,italy1 where there are no radiating lines of masonry4 ,it is strongly pronounced in some circular medallion windows at ,assisi1 in which an extraordinarily wide border 7a quarter of their diameter in width7 is divided into eight equal panels1 each enclosed in its own series of border lines1 within which is a medallion set in foliated ornament4 ,this is fourteenth century work2 but1 as in thirteenth century ,roses1 the bars follow and accentuate the main divisions of the window4 ,even when it came to the glazing of a ,rose window in a later ,gothic style1 it is not uncommon to find a series or two of medallions running round the window1 as occurs at ,angers4 ,they hold the design together2 but in the nature of the case they are on too small a scale for the pictures to count for more than broken colour4 ,indeed you may see here the relative value in such a position of small figure subjects and bold ornament4 ,the scrollwork is as effective as the medallions are insignificant4 ,in fact1 compared to them1 the illegible medallion subjects in the lancet lights below are readable by him who runs4 ,it has to be confessed that quite some of the most beautiful and impressive ,rose windows are perfectly unintelligible1 even with a good field-glass4 ,this is so with the ,west ,rose at ,reims4 ,in the centre it is ablaze with red and orange1 towards the rim it shades off into deliciously cool greens and greenish-yellows4 ,it may mean what it may2 the colour is enough4 ,room for figure work on an intelligible scale is only to be found by a device which verges on the ridiculous4 ,in the beautiful ,north ,rose at ,s4 ,ouen1 ,rouen1 figures which should be upright are arranged in a circle like herrings in a barrel4 ,similar figures on a smaller scale occur in certain tracery lights at ,lincoln1 two of which are here given4 ,again in the ,north ,rose at ,le ,mans there are twenty-four radiating figures4 ,in fact1 they were customarily so arranged1 even down to the sixteenth century1 a period at which one does not credit the designer with medival artlessness4 ,it is obvious that out of a series of twenty or more figures1 radiating like the spokes of a wheel1 only a very few can stand anything like upright4 ,the designer of the ,south ,rose at ,s4 ,ouen has endeavoured to get over the difficulty1 as well as to accommodate his design to the exceeding narrowness of the lights as they approach their axis1 by giving his personages no legs1 and making them issue from a kind of sheath or bouquet-holder4 ,a number of the figures pretending to stand in the radiating lights by a ,rose or wheel window must be ridiculously placed4 ,and then there occurs the question as to whether they shall all stand with their feet towards the hub4 ,where the figures have space to float1 it is different4 ,the angels in the ,late ,gothic ,rose window at ,angers1 with swirling drapery which hides their feet1 and makes them by so much the less obviously human1 if not more actually angelic1 solve the difficulty of full-length figures 7on any appreciable scale7 in the only possible way4 ,illustration3 #ahe4 ,,two ,,lights ,,of ,a ,,rose ,,window1 ,,lincoln4 ,a portion of a simple and rather striking wheel window of the ,decorated period1 in which concentric bands of ornament form a conspicuous feature1 is shown overleaf4 ,in the small ,rose from ,assisi 7page #bgh7 the glazier has very successfully supplemented the design of the architect1 completing the four circles1 and accentuating them further by glazing the central spandrils in much darker colour than the rest of the glass1 which is mainly white4 ,in the elaborate tracery of the ,decorated or geometric period the mullions1 as was said1 ask to be pronounced4 ,this was usually done in the ,second ,gothic period by framing each light with a border1 separated from the stonework always by a fillet of white glass4 ,the exception to this was in the case of trefoiled or other many-foiled openings1 in which a central medallion or boss1 usually circular1 extended to the points of the cusps1 and the border round the cuspings stopped short against the border to that4 ,or again in triangular openings a central boss would sometimes extend to its margin1 and the borders would stop against that1 or pass seemingly behind it4 ,a typical form of ,decorated tracery occurs in the ,west window at ,york ,minster1 by far the most beautiful part of it4 ,there1 every important opening has within its white marginal line a broader band of ruby or green1 broken at intervals by yellow spots1 within which border is foliage of white and yellow on a green or ruby ground4 ,some of the smaller openings show white and yellow foliage only1 without any coloured ground4 ,a plan equally characteristic of the period is illustrated at ,tewkesbury4 ,there again occurs similar white foliage1 its stem encircling a central spot of yellow4 ,this also is on green and ruby backgrounds1 the former reserved for the more prominent openings2 but the border is in white1 painted with a pattern4 ,this broader white border more effectively relieves the dark lines of the masonry than the border of colour1 which sometimes confuses the shapes of the smaller tracery openings3 it does so1 for example1 in the ,late glass on page #bjj4 ,illustration3 #ahf4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,rose ,,window1 ,,german #ad,,th ,,century4 ,for what was said of the difficulty of carrying a broad border round the heads of ,decorated lights applies more forcibly still to tracery4 ,the merest fillet of colour is often as much as can safely be carried round the opening1 if even that4 ,on the other hand1 a broad border of white and stain1 even though it contain a fair amount of black in it1 may safely be used--as at ,chlons1 where it frames small subjects in rich colour4 ,some admirable ,decorated tracery occurs at ,wells1 much on the usual lines1 and containing a good deal of pleasant green2 but there the white and yellow foliage in the centre part of the lights is sometimes so closely designed that very little of the coloured ground shows through it1 and it looks at first as if what little ground there is had all been painted-out4 ,at ,s4 ,denis ,walmgate1 ,york1 the background to the foliage in white and yellow 7which last predominates7 is painted solid3 the only pot-metal colour 7except in the central medallion head7 is in a rosette or two of colour leaded into it2 the border is white4 ,another expedient there employed is to introduce figures in white and stain upon a ground of green or ruby1 diapered4 ,at ,wells there occur little figures of saints in pot-metal colour1 planted upon the white foliated filling of the tracery lights4 ,decorated circular medallions occupying the centre of ornamental tracery lights are usually framed in coloured lines2 occasionally the inner margin of the medallion is cusped1 in imitation of stonework4 ,illustration3 #ahg4 ,,assisi4 ,an effective plan1 adopted at ,evreux1 is to gather the lights into groups1 by means of the colour introduced into them1 which grouping may or may not be indicated by the stonework4 ,in any case1 it is a means of obtaining at once variety and breadth of colour4 ,perpendicular tracery lights are themselves1 in most cases1 only copies in miniature of the larger lights below1 and the glass is designed on the same plan4 ,a good illustration of this is at ,great ,malvern1 where the design consists of the orthodox canopy work in white and stain1 with little figures also nearly all in white1 colour occurring only in the lower skirts of their drapery1 in the background about their heads1 and behind the pinnacles above4 ,the effect is beautifully silvery4 ,often such figures under the canopies are angels1 all in white and stain4 ,sometimes seraphim1 in stain upon a white ground1 quarried perhaps1 fill the lights1 without canopies4 ,these are all typical ways of filling the tracery of a ,perpendicular window4 ,it was quite a common thing to fill it with glass wholly of white and stain4 ,in the centre there might be a medallion head in grisaille1 or an inscribed label1 the rest of the space being occupied by conventional foliage having just a line of clear white next the stonework4 ,beautiful examples of this treatment occur at ,great ,malvern2 occasionally the foliage is all in yellow with white flowers4 ,small openings are thus often glazed in a single piece of glass1 or in any case with the fewest possible leads4 ,at ,s4 ,serge1 ,angers1 there is larger work of a similar kind1 a bold scroll in white and stain on a ground of solid pigment1 out of which is scratched a smaller pattern1 not so bold as in the least to interfere with the scroll1 but enough to prevent anything like heaviness in the painted ground4 ,similar treatment is adopted in the cathedral at ,beauvais4 ,once in a while one comes1 in ,english work1 upon figures in white and stain on a solid black ground extending to the stonework1 without any line of white to show where the glass ends and the stonework begins4 ,it would be impossible more emphatically than that to show one's contempt for the architecture4 ,some disregard1 if not actually contempt1 is shown for architecture in the practice1 common no less in ,late ,gothic than in ,renaissance design1 of carrying a coloured ground right up to the stone1 without so much as a line of light to separate the two4 ,comparatively light though the colour may be1 it is usually dark enough1 unless it be yellow1 to confuse the forms of any but the boldest tracery4 ,something of the kind occurred by way of exception even in fourteenth century glass1 as at ,s4 ,radegonde1 ,poitiers1 and at ,toulouse1 where the tracery of the windows is one field of blue1 irregularly sprinkled with white stars4 ,the lines of the tracery are lost1 and one sees only spots of white4 ,the ,later ,gothic plan was to keep tracery light1 even though the window below it were altogether in rich colour1 and the effect was good2 as at ,alenon1 where a distinctly blue window has in the tracery only angels in white and yellow on a white ground2 or1 again1 at ,conches1 where white-robed angels1 on a ground of rich stain1 contrast pleasantly with the cool blue of the lights below4 ,unusual treatment of the tracery occurs at ,auch 7#aeac74 ,in the main the tracery lights contain figures in colour upon a ruby or paler-coloured ground1 which1 as in so many a ,renaissance window1 runs out to the stonework2 but occasionally here and there a light is distinguished by a border of white4 ,moreover1 the ground is1 as a rule1 not of one colour throughout1 nor even throughout a single light1 but varied2 and that not symmetrically or pattern-wise1 but so as artfully to carry the colour through4 ,in fact1 the artist has taken his tracery much more seriously than usual1 and has carefully studied how best he could balance by the colour in it the not quite so easily-to-be-controlled colour of his figure composition below4 ,the result is that the windows are all of one piece--each a complete and well-considered colour composition3 the tracery is not merely the top part of the frame to the coloured picture below4 ,illustration3 #ahh4 ,,lyons4 ,in ,renaissance glass the tracery was more often in comparatively full colour1 even though the lights below were pale4 ,a grisaille window at ,evreux1 with practically blue tracery1 has a very pleasant effect4 ,it was not often that the ,renaissance glass painters gave very serious attention to the tracery which they had to fill4 ,they were1 for the most part1 content to conceive each separate opening as a blue field upon which to place an angel 7as above71 a crown1 a fleur-de-lys1 or other emblem1 as best might fit4 ,in very many sixteenth century windows the design consists merely of angels1 emblems1 labels1 or even clouds1 dotted about1 as suited the convenience of the designer4 ,sometimes1 as at ,s4 ,alpin1 at ,troyes1 there occurs in a tracery light a tablet bearing a date1--presumably1 but not always positively1 that of the window4 ,such devices were very often in white upon a ground of blue1 purple1 or ruby4 ,angels of course adapted themselves to irregular shapes in the most angelic way2 and they are introduced in every conceivable attitude--standing1 kneeling1 flying1 swinging censers1 singing1 playing on musical instruments1 bearing scrolls or shields2 angels all in white1 angels in white with coloured wings1 angels in gorgeous array of colour3 and more accommodating1 still1 is the bodiless cherub1 beloved of ,luca della ,robbia4 ,there is a quite charming effect of colour in a ,jesse window at ,s4 ,maclou1 ,rouen1 where the tracery lights are inhabited by little cherubs1 in ruby on a grey-blue ground1 in grey on deeper grey-blue1 and in emerald-like green upon the same4 ,the scroll without the angel was a very convenient filling for smaller openings4 ,some elaborately twisted scrolls1 in white and stain on purple1 occur at ,moulins4 ,larger and more prominent lights often contain a separate picture1 or one picture runs through several lights1 or perhaps all through the tracery4 ,worse than that is1 where the picture runs through from the lights below2 as at ,alenon1 where the trees grow up into the blue of the tracery1 broken otherwise only by white clouds2 or at ,conches1 where the architecture from the subject below aspires so high4 ,it is almost worse still where1 as at ,alenon again1 and at the chapel at ,vincennes1 it is the canopy which so encroaches4 ,in the exceptional case of a ,jesse window there seems less objection to accepting the whole window as a field through which the tree may grow2 yet the tracery is not the happiest part of the ,beauvais window 7page #cfh74 ,sometimes the heads of the lower lights are made to appear as though they were part of the tracery4 ,a happier form of ,renaissance tracery design is where medallion heads in white and stain are introduced upon a ground of plain colour--blue at ,chlons1 purple-brown at ,montmorency4 ,these are sometimes most beautifully painted1 as are the ,raffaellesque little cherubs amidst white clouds1 also at ,montmorency2 but they are much more delicately done than they need have been1 and less effective than they might4 ,very delicate painting upon white does produce an effect even at a distance2 at least it gives quality2 but there should be some relation between effort and effect2 and here the effect is weak as compared with the expenditure of art4 ,in the tracery on page #bac1 fairly effective though monotonous1 the birds are glazed in with such unnecessary avoidance of lead1 that the cutting of the ground must have been a work of great difficulty4 ,in glass of every period it has been the custom to put too much into tracery2 in ,early work too much detail1 in ,later too much finish4 ,what is wanted is breadth4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,quarry ,,windows4 ,the very simplest form of window glazing1 the easiest and the thriftiest thing for the cutter to do1 and the most straightforward for the glazier1 is to frame together parallel-sided pieces of glass in the form of a lead lattice4 ,quarries1 as all such little square or rhomboid shaped panes of glass came to be called1 were used from the first4 ,ordinarily they were set on end1 so as to form diamonds2 which as time went on1 were generally not rectangular1 but long in proportion to their breadth4 ,for the most part they were painted with patterns traced in brown2 and1 on the discovery of silver stain1 they were in parts tinted yellow4 ,from the fourteenth century onwards1 quarry lights1 framed in borders1 and enlivened with colour1 form a very important variety of grisaille4 ,many a grisaille pattern was not far removed from quarry glazing1 as may be seen opposite4 ,it was natural that1 for clerestory and triforium windows in particular1 the glazier should do all he could to simplify his work4 ,clerestory windows are placed too high to be fairly seen in a narrow church1 and triforium lights are often half shut off from view by projecting shafts of open arcading in front of them4 ,it is only when1 by rare chance1 they happen to front you squarely at the end of an aisle or transept1 that they are properly seen4 ,there is no occasion1 therefore1 to indulge in subtleties of design2 the one thing needful is that the effect of the windows as a whole1 should be pleasant1 since all study of detail is out of the question1 except from the triforium galleries opposite1 or by the aid of a field-glass2 and light arrangements of grisaille and colour are in most cases all that is wanted4 ,the colour may be more or less1 according as it is desired to exclude light or to admit it2 but some very simple1 unpretending1 and perhaps even rude treatment1 is indicated by the conditions of the case1 which to contradict1 is wasteful and unworkmanlike4 ,the effect1 for example1 of the band of figures across the grisaille in the triforium of the transepts at ,evreux is admirable2 but the way in which seven saints out of the eight are cut vertically in two by the pillars of the architectural screen in front of them1 is nothing less than exasperating4 ,these figures tell only as the patches of colour2 and that could so easily have been obtained by much simpler means4 ,in such a position1 quarries may well take the place1 not only of figures1 but of more interesting grisaille2 and1 even though they be not painted at all 7as is again the case at ,evreux71 but merely broken by occasional sun-discs in white and stain crossing them1 and framed in a simple block border of white and colour1 the effect may be entirely adequate4 ,it is not meant to deny that figures in rich colour embedded in carefully designed grisaille are more attractive2 but1 for its purpose1 quarry work1 with borders and bosses of colour1 is in the majority of such cases1 enough4 ,illustration3 #ahi4 ,,lincoln4 ,illustration3 #aij4 ,,evreux4 ,figures or figure subjects in formal bands across tall quarry lights are always effective2 so are figures planted more casually upon the quarries--kneeling donors1 flying angels1 or whatever they may be4 ,so again1 are figure panels alternating with bosses of ornament2 but1 if the window occupy a position where the figures can be appreciated1 a surrounding of quarries seems hardly of interest enough1 and if not1 the figures seem rather thrown away4 ,one is tempted to make exception in favour of figures in grisaille1 which1 if very delicately painted 7as for example at ,s4 ,martin-cum-,gregory1 ,york71 show to advantage on a quarry ground1 which has the modesty not to compete with them in interest4 ,the quarries keep their place perfectly as a background2 and the slight painting upon them is just enough to give the glass quality1 and to indicate that1 however subordinate1 it is yet part of the picture4 ,a quarry window1 no less than any other1 wants a border1 if only to prevent the strongly marked straight lines of lead from appearing to run into the stonework4 ,a simple line of colour with another of white next the mullions is enough for that4 ,even this is occasionally omitted1 more especially in tracery lights1 but in that case the glass seems to lack finish4 ,the most satisfactory border to quarry lights into which otherwise no colour is introduced1 is a broadish border of white1 painted with pattern and in part stained4 ,a coloured border seems to imply other colour breaking the field of quarries4 ,by itself it is too much or not enough4 ,its proportion is a thing to be determined in each case on the spot2 but even in narrow lights1 if they contain bosses of colour 7as do those in the transepts at ,le ,mans7 a broad border about one fifth the width of the window1 with a broad white line next the stone1 is very effective4 ,the monotony of any great surface of quarry work1 has led to the introduction of medallions and the like1 even where it is not desired to introduce pot-metal colour4 ,in the window from ,evreux1 illustrated opposite1 the effect of the delicately painted little angel medallions1 in white on a ground of stain1 is all that could be wished4 ,any little surprise of that kind is always welcome2 but1 should it occur too frequently1 it becomes itself monotonous4 ,there is no end to the variety of forms in which colour may be introduced into quarry work4 ,it is best in the form of patches1 and not in the form of lines between the quarries as occurs occasionally1 at ,poitiers1 for example1 at ,rouen cathedral1 and at ,chlons 7page #afg74 ,illustration3 #aia4 ,,quarry ,,window1 ,,evreux4 ,big rosettes1 discs1 wreaths1 rings of colour1 and the like1 are more effective than small spots4 ,they need not be heavy1 there may be any amount of white in them4 ,in narrow lights1 they may sometimes with advantage come in front of the border2 that admits of the biggest possible medallion1 and it is best to have such features large and few4 ,mean little rosettes are too suggestive of the contractor2 in the church of ,s4 ,ouen1 at ,rouen1 one is uncomfortably reminded of him--it would be so easy to estimate for glass of that kind at so much the foot6 ,heraldic shields form often peculiarly effective colour-patches in quarry windows1 more especially because of the accidental arrangement of colour they compel4 ,there is a point at which symmetry of colour palls upon the eye4 ,illustration3 #aib4 ,,lincoln4 ,the even surface of quarry lights all in white and stain is broken sometimes by an occasional band of inscription1 which may either take the line of the quarries1 or cross them in the form of a label4 ,at ,evreux some quarry lights are most pleasingly interrupted by square patches of inscription in yellow1 or1 which is still more satisfactory1 in white4 ,in the same cathedral there is a very interesting instance of inscription1 in letters some five or six inches high1 leaded in blue upon a quarry ground4 ,illustration3 #aic4 ,,german ,,quarry ,,border4 ,illustration3 #aid4 ,,early ,,english ,,quarry4 ,the patterns with which quarries are painted naturally followed the ordinary course of grisaille4 ,in the thirteenth century the designs were strongly outlined1 and showed clear against a cross-hatched ground2 which1 however1 did not1 as a rule1 extend to the lead1 but a margin of clear glass was left next to it1 in acknowledgment of the quarry shape4 ,the combination of quarries and strap ornament in the example at ,lincoln 7page #bhg7 is unusual1 but the quarries themselves are1 but for the absence of a clear line next the leads1 characteristically of the thirteenth century4 ,the quarry border from ,nuremberg 7above7 is rather later in character4 ,in that case also1 as it happens1 there is no marginal line of clear glass4 ,the typical treatment is shown below4 ,later1 as in other grisaille1 the cross-hatched ground was omitted2 and the foliage took1 of course1 more natural form4 ,it was presently more delicately traced 7page #bij71 and more often than not tinted in yellow stain4 ,consistently with the more natural form of leafage the design in fourteenth century work was often one continuous growth trailing through the window1 and passing behind the marginal band of stain which now usually emphasised the top sides of the quarries4 ,often a futile attempt was made 7page #bhf7 to give the appearance of interlacing to these bands1 but that was nullified by the stronger lead lines4 ,true1 interlacing was only possible where1 as in some earlier work1 the bands were continued on all four sides of the quarry1 so that the lead fell into its place as interspace between two interlacing bands4 ,it was better when there was no pretence of interlacing 7below74 ,additional importance was sometimes given to the marginal band by tracing a pattern upon it1 or1 as on page #bia1 painting it in brown1 and then picking out geometric tracery upon it4 ,there came a time when marginal lines were omitted altogether4 ,that was the usual1 though not invariable1 practice in the fifteenth century1 by which time the draughtsman had apparently learnt to husband his inventive faculty4 ,the continuous growth of the pattern1 as well as the marginal acknowledgment of the lead lines1 died out of fashion1 and quarries were mostly painted sprig fashion4 ,the character of these sprigs will be best judged from the specimens on page #bhi1 some of the most interesting given in ,shaw's ,book of ,quarries4 ,quarry patterns do not1 of course1 occur in that profuse variety2 it is seldom that more than two patterns are found in a single window1 often there is only one4 ,the range of design in quarries of this kind is limited only by the invention of the artist4 ,it includes both floral and conventional ornament1 animal and grotesque figures1 emblems and heraldic badges1 cyphers1 monograms1 mottoes1 and so on4 ,there is scope not only for meaning in design1 but for the artist's humour2 but1 when all is said1 the ,late ,gothic pattern windows1 now given over entirely to quarry work1 are of no great account as concerns their detail4 ,the later quarry patterns are often pretty enough1 sometimes amusing1 but they go for very little in the decoration of a church4 ,plentiful as quarry work is everywhere1 and characteristic as it is of ,perpendicular glass1 there is not much that shows an attempt to do anything serious with the quarry window4 ,all that was done was to paint more or less delicate and dainty patterns upon the little lozenge panes4 ,however1 they were traced with a light hand and a sure one1 and with a kind of spontaneity which gives them really what artistic charm they have4 ,illustration3 #aie4 ,,quarry ,,patterns 7,,shaw74 ,illustration3 #aif4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,quarry4 ,illustration3 #aig4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,quarries4 ,the occasional endeavours to get stronger and bolder effects in quarry work were not very successful4 ,at ,evreux and at ,rouen there are some late quarries painted more after the fashion of bold mosaic diaper2 but the effect1 though satisfactory enough1 is not such as to convince one that that is the better way4 ,illustration3 #aih4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,quarry4 ,to heraldry1 and especially to shields of arms surrounded by mantling 7page #bic71 quarries form an excellent background1 but only in the event of there being enough of them left free to show that it is a quarry window upon which the heraldry is imposed1 or rather into which it is inlaid4 ,odds and ends of quarries want to be accounted for1 as forming the continuation of the glass above and below4 ,in the case of a window not a quarry window1 it is a mistake to break up the background1 as was sometimes done1 into quarries1 or rather into fragments of quarries4 ,the object of the square or diamond shape is to break up a plain surface4 ,if the ground is naturally broken up by figures1 foliage1 mantling1 or what not1 why introduce further quarry lines8 ,they are not in themselves interesting4 ,their great value is in that they give scale to a window2 but that is only on condition that they are seen in their entirety4 ,illustration3 #aii4 ,,round ,,glass1 ,,roundels1 ,,or ,,bull',s-,,eyes4 ,illustration3 #bjj4 ,,heraldic ,,glass4 ,in ,germany the place of quarries was supplied by roundels 7page #bib7 unpainted4 ,what applies to quarries applies in many respects to them2 and they have a brilliancy which flat glass has not4 ,they were usually enclosed in painted borders of white and stain1 and have a very delicate and pearly effect2 but where 7as at ,s4 ,peter's1 at ,cologne7 they occur in great quantity as compared with coloured subjects1 these appear to be floating rather uncomfortably in their midst4 ,the ,italians1 who also used roundels in place of quarries1 often let colour into the interstices between them1 and also little painted squares or pater of white and stain4 ,in the sham windows decorating the ,sistine ,chapel at ,rome1 separating ,botticelli's series of ,popes1 the pointed spaces between the rounds are coloured diagonally in successive rows of red1 yellow1 and green2 but the result is most pleasing where1 as at ,verona and elsewhere1 the little triangular spaces are neither of one tint nor yet symmetrically arranged1 but distributed in a quasi-accidental and unexpected way4 ,sometimes it was the little pater that was in colour and the rest white4 ,in any case1 the effect is refined1 as it is at ,arezzo also1 where the monotony of roundels1 in sundry clerestory windows1 is broken by figure medallions and other features in white and colour4 ,the adaptation of roundels to the circular shape is shown in the portion of a round window from ,santa ,maria ,novella4 ,what more remains to be said about roundels and quarry windows is reserved for the chapter on ,domestic ,glass4 ,illustration3 #bja4 ,,quarry ,,from ,,chetwode ,,church4 ,illustration3 #bjb4 ,,window ,,in ,,the ,,certosa ,,in ,,val ,d',,ema1 ,,florence4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,domestic ,,glass4 ,it is customary to draw a distinction between ,ecclesiastical and ,domestic glass4 ,in medival days the ,church was the patron of art2 and1 when kings and corporations commissioned stained glass windows1 it was usually to present them to ,mother ,church4 ,it is in churches1 then1 that the greater part of the old glass remains to us1 iconoclastic mania notwithstanding2 and it is only there that the course of glass painting can be traced4 ,once in a while1 as at ,s4 ,mary's ,hall1 ,coventry1 one comes upon a great window designed to decorate a civic building2 but the whiles are few and far between4 ,when such windows do occur they prove not to differ widely from more familiar church work4 ,what1 then1 is the difference between the two kinds of glass8 ,it is not that the one is ecclesiastical the other secular1 the one religious the other profane art4 ,sacred ,art is a term consecrated by use2 but1 strictly speaking1 it is a meaningless combination of words1 signifying1 if it signify anything1 that the speaker confounds the art of telling with the thing told4 ,art has no more a religion than it has a country4 ,no doubt there clings always to the art of the devout believer some fervour of faith1 as there may hang about the sceptic's doing a chill of doubt4 ,the historian will enrich his glass with story1 the preacher will convey in it a dogma4 ,poet or proser1 philosopher or fool1 may each in turn peep out of the window4 ,youth will everywhere betray its ardour1 manhood its vigour1 age its experience4 ,a live man cannot help but put himself into his work4 ,but none of that is art4 ,his art is in the way he expresses himself1 not in what he says2 and there is no more religion in his glass painting than in his handwriting1 though the graphologist may read in it his character4 ,the difference between church glass and domestic arises1 speaking from the point of view of art1 solely from architectural conditions4 ,in so far as they are both glass1 the same methods of glazing and painting apply to both4 ,it is only in so far as the position and purpose of the two are different1 that they call for different treatment in design4 ,the treatment suitable to a great hall does not materially differ from that adapted to a church2 the same breadth of design1 the same largeness of execution1 are required2 what suits a cloister would suit a passage4 ,when1 however1 it comes to the windows of dwelling-rooms1 the scheme and execution appropriate even to the smallest chapels of a church1 would most likely be out of place4 ,the distinction is very much as that between wall decoration in fresco and cabinet paintings in oil- or water-colour4 ,in the house there is less need than in the church for severity1 and more for liveliness1 less occasion for breadth1 and more for delicacy4 ,the scale of the dwelling-room itself justifies1 perhaps demands1 a smaller treatment4 ,here1 if anywhere1 is opportunity for that preciousness of execution which1 in work of more monumental character1 it seems a pity to expend upon so frail a substance as glass--frailer than ever when it was the thin white glass employed for window panes4 ,for1 so far from the glazier of the sixteenth or seventeenth century imagining1 as we mostly do1 that it was any part of the purpose of domestic glass to shut out the view--less need in those days6--he employed in most cases a material which was not merely translucent but absolutely transparent4 ,this use of transparent glass marks a distinction1 and forms something of a new departure4 ,it was employed to some extent in ,renaissance church work2 but there it was more as a background to the stained glass window than as a part of it4 ,here the transparent glass is the window2 and the design1 whether in pot-metal or in enamel1 shows more or less against the clear4 ,the relationship of certain seventeenth century windows at ,antwerp to the ,italian windows on pages #bie1 #bii1 #ceb1 is obvious4 ,they may be quite possibly founded upon them4 ,there is the same arrangement of subjects in cartouches1 set in geometric glazing of clear glass4 ,but in the ,italian windows one kind of glass is used throughout 7the little pieces of thin pot-metal colour in the cartouches1 and so on1 scarcely count72 and the proportion of the painted work to clear glass is so schemed that1 although you may feel that the plain work wants just a touch of enrichment to bring it all together1 you are not asked deliberately to imagine yourself to be looking through1 beyond the painting1 into space4 ,illustration3 #bjc4 ,,italian ,,grisaille1 ,,florence4 ,the detail in these windows from the ,certosa in ,val d',ema1 near ,florence1 is all outlined and painted in brown upon clear white glass1 the flesh warmer in tint than the rest2 the high lights are brushed out of a matt tint1 and some pale stain is washed in4 ,the artful thing about the design is1 the cunning way in which the borders are planned1 so as to avoid the absolute parallelism of marginal lines4 ,for the rest the design is rather characteristically ,late ,renaissance1 though the relation of border to cartouche1 and of both together to clear glass1 is better than usual4 ,it will be noted that these are not strictly domestic windows2 but they are designed to be seen about on a level with the eye1 and from a distance of not more than ten feet1 which is as far as the width of the cloister allows one to get away from them4 ,illustration3 #bjd4 ,,certosa ,,in ,,val ,d',,ema4 ,they fulfil1 therefore1 altogether very much the conditions which apply generally to domestic glass1 and may be taken1 if not as types of domestic work1 at least as something on the way from the church to the house4 ,this1 though the common type of ,italian ,renaissance grisaille1 was not invariable4 ,at ,s4 ,frediano1 ,lucca1 for example1 there is a white window1 which1 except for a little medallion in its centre1 might at a glance almost pass for thirteenth century work3 the ,cinque-,cento scroll is so rendered1 with cross-hatched ground and all1 as to suggest the early medival craftsman2 it is centuries away from ,da ,udine in style4 ,the domestic quarry window differed1 in medival work1 in no respect from church work4 ,in the sixteenth century it took rather a new form4 ,it consisted no longer of a more or less diaper-like all-over pattern1 but of a panel1 designed to be glazed in quarries4 ,here1 again1 is an approximation to the seventeenth century practice of leading up pictures in rectangular panes1 but only an approximation4 ,there is this important difference1 that the quarry window starts from the lead lines1 and is religiously designed within them4 ,thus to accept1 the simple square and obviously fit lines of quarry glazing1 and to expend his art in painting upon them1 simplifies the task of the glass painter2 and he very frequently fell back upon that plan1 more readily perhaps when he happened to know more about painting than about glazing4 ,that was ,da ,udine's case1 who is credited with the design of the windows in the ,laurentian library at ,florence1 as of those at the ,certosa in ,val d',ema4 ,they bear a date some few years after his death2 but they are so like what he certainly would have done that1 directly or indirectly1 the design is clearly due to him4 ,the one illustrated on page #bih is quite one of the best of these windows2 in the others the ornament is even less coherent4 ,the characteristic arabesque is painted in brown enamel1 with redder enamel for the flesh tints1 some yellow stain1 and a little blue enamel in the heraldic lozenge1 all upon clear white glass4 ,the effect is delicate and silvery and no appreciable amount of light is excluded 7a point usually of some importance in domestic work72 but1 though the main forms are designed within the lead lines1 one feels that these have not been considered enough1 that the leads compete with the painting1 and that the bars1 in particular1 which are far thicker than need be1 and occur with unnecessary frequency 7in fact1 at every horizontal quarry joint but one71 very seriously mar the effect of delicate painting4 ,that is as much as to say that the design1 graceful and fanciful as it is1 does not fulfil the conditions of quarry glass4 ,it is not enough for complete success in this form of window that the quarry lines shall be the basis of the design2 the painting also must be strong enough to hold its own against leads and bars4 ,that is hardly the case with the exceptionally delicate ornament in the ,dutch glass opposite4 ,but here1 notwithstanding that the scroll is slighter than the ,italian work and more delicately painted1 the central patch of enamel colour in the shield and mantling does1 to some extent1 focus the attention there1 and so withdraw the eye from the lead lines4 ,the window is not merely cleverly designed2 it is a frank1 straightforward1 manly piece of work1 marred only by the comparative heaviness of the leads4 ,the truth is that a glass painter becomes so used to lead lines1 and gets to take them so much for granted1 that they do not offend him2 and he is apt to forget how obtrusive they may appear in the eyes of the unaccustomed4 ,hence his sometimes seemingly brutal treatment of tenderly painted ornament4 ,illustration3 #bje4 ,,dutch ,,quarry ,,window1 ,s4 ,k4 ,,museum4 ,other good examples of ,dutch domestic glass1 not quite so good as this1 but painted with admirable directness1 are to be found at the ,muse des ,antiquits at ,brussels4 ,at the ,louvre also the ,dutch work is good4 ,there are two lights there in which cartouches enclosing small oval subjects 7fables7 spread over the greater part of the quarry glazing1 leaving only the lowermost of them comparatively empty4 ,on these are painted butterflies1 a dragon-fly1 even a gad-fly1 almost to the life4 ,these flies upon the window pane1 like the little miniature figures in the bottom corner quarries on page #cja1 are trivial enough in idea2 but the idea is cleverly and daintily expressed2 and one does not expect much else than triviality in seventeenth century design4 ,moreover1 in the privacy of domestic life it is permitted to be trivial4 ,for dignity of treatment it would be difficult to match the specimen of ,flemish glass shown on page #cjd1 now at ,warwick ,castle4 ,like the ,dutch and ,italian work1 it is painted on clear glass but without the prettiness of flesh tint1 and the background to the ornament 7it shows dull grey in the print7 is brilliant yellow stain4 ,this little light and its companion on page #ih are as large in style as they are beautiful in effect4 ,there is a gayer touch in the less seriously decorative panel of ,french work in the ,louvre given on page #cjg4 ,in that pot-metal is used for the dark ruby of the outer dress1 and for the little bits of blue rather cunningly let into the spandrils of the arch4 ,the fancifully designed canopy1 the arabesque1 and a portion of the drapery are in stain1 all delicately painted upon clear glass1 and glazed mainly on quarry lines--from which1 however1 the designer saw fit to depart4 ,what he meant by the unfortunate circular lead line about the head is difficult to imagine4 ,it can hardly be1 like other erratic leading1 the result of mending4 ,no fracture could possibly have steered so carefully between the figure and the ornament4 ,it looks almost as if at the last he had lost confidence in his technique1 and1 in trying vainly to avoid lead lines1 had ended in giving them extraordinary emphasis4 ,in ultra-delicate domestic work the leads are more than ever the difficulty4 ,one is uncomfortably conscious of them in the wonderful series of windows--formerly at ,ecouen1 and now in the ,chteau de ,chantilly--in which is set forth in forty pictures the story of ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,a specimen of these is given on page #bah1 thanks to the friendly permission of ,monsieur ,magne1 who illustrates the whole of them in his admirable monograph of the ,montmorency glass4 ,the legend to the effect that ,raffaelle designed and ,palissy painted them1 is past all possible belief2 but they are very remarkable specimens of sixteenth century work1 restored about the period of the ,first ,empire1 and mark somewhere about the high-water mark of ,french domestic picture glass4 ,a glance at these windows is enough to show that they were never schemed with any definite view to glazing4 ,rather it would appear that the pictures were first designed and then the leads introduced where best they could be disguised4 ,but the disguise is everywhere transparent4 ,such gauzy painting is inadequate2 it hides nothing4 ,you see always the thick black lines of lead1 cruel enough1 but clinging in a cowardly way to the edges of weak forms1 sneaking into shadows1 and foolishly pretending to pass themselves off as the continuation of painted outlines not one-twentieth part so strong as they4 ,the sparing use of glazing lines makes them all the more conspicuous4 ,they must originally have asserted themselves even more than they do now2 for the accidental lead lines introduced in reparation1 however much they damage the pictures1 do in a measure support the original glazing lines1 and pull the windows together4 ,the ,chantilly glass goes to prove the impossibility of satisfactorily disposing of the leads in very small figure subjects in grisaille4 ,in work on a larger scale it wants only a man who knows his trade to manage it4 ,witness what was done in church work4 ,illustration3 #bjf4 ,,grisaille1 ,,warwick ,,castle4 ,the propriety of executing figures in grisaille at all has been called in question by ,viollet le ,duc4 ,every bit of white glass1 he said1 should be diapered with pattern traced with a brush2 and1 since this treatment is not possible in flesh painting1 flesh ought not to be painted4 ,moreover1 he says that grisaille has always the appearance of vibrating1 and the vibration fatigues the eye2 therefore1 he argues1 it is labour lost to paint white figures4 ,far be it from an ornamentist to deny that a great deal too much importance is attached to figure work in decoration4 ,but the amount of tracing necessary on white glass is relative4 ,in grisaille it is quite safe to leave some glass clear2 and1 if it is not worth while to paint figures1 is it worth while to paint anything worth looking at1 or worth painting8 ,illustration3 #bjg4 ,,louis ,,xiii4 ,,and ,,anne ,,of ,,austria4 ,the truth is1 it wearies the sight to look at any glass for long at a stretch1 and for a mere coup d'oeil the most brutal workmanship would often do4 ,but1 if work is ever to be seen from near1 the charm is gone when once you know how coarse it is4 ,one tires of crude work1 and delights more and more in what is delicate4 ,whoever has taken pleasure in such work as the windows at ,s4 ,alpin at ,troyes would find it hard to renounce the figure in grisaille4 ,to return to the leading of grisaille4 ,of the two extremes1 the bold1 even the too bold1 acknowledgment of the constructional lines of a window1 is far preferable to the timid attempt to conceal them4 ,the glaziers of the ,renaissance eventually got over the difficulty by the simple plan of inserting into quarry windows 7usually unpainted7 or into pattern work of plain glass only1 little panes of painted glass4 ,in this way there are introduced into some windows at the ,chteau de ,chaumont some very beautiful little portrait medallions1 outlined with a firmness and modelled with a delicacy which remind one of the drawings of ,clouet4 ,at the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg are some similar medallion heads1 quite ,holbein-ish in character4 ,a later portrait panel1 lacking the style and draughtsmanship of these1 but very cleverly painted 7by ,linard ,gontier they say71 is reproduced on page #cje4 ,it represents1 as the inscription and cypher go to show1 ,louis ,treize and ,anne of ,austria1 as bride and bridegroom4 ,its date1 therefore1 speaks for itself4 ,another little pane by ,gontier1 from the ,htel des ,arquebusiers at ,troyes1 now in the library there1 is given on page #caj4 ,the characteristic ornamental work surrounding this1 though not forming a consecutive frame to the picture1 is of about the same period with it 7#afba74 ,its design consists of that modified form of ,arab foliation 7compare it with the detail on page #ceb71 which was very much used in damascening and niello work2 indeed1 the ,french still call that kind of pattern nielle4 ,here it is traced in a fine brown outline1 and filled in partly with yellow stain and partly with blue enamel4 ,the effect is pleasing4 ,illustration3 #bjh4 ,,domestic ,,glass1 ,,the ,,louvre4 ,it was in ,switzerland that glass painting other than for churches was most extensively practised4 ,the ,council ,chambers of ,swiss towns1 and the halls of trade and other guilds1 were enriched with bands of armorial glass across the windows2 and throughout the sixteenth century it was the custom to present to neighbouring towns or friendly ,corporations a painted window panel4 ,great part of these have been dispersed1 and in ,switzerland they are now perhaps rarer than in the museums of other countries4 ,the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg and the ,htel ,clny1 at ,paris1 are rich in ,swiss glass2 and we have some at ,south ,kensington4 ,superb examples1 however1 still remain in ,switzerland--for example1 in the ,rath-haus at ,lucerne--though they belong to a period as late as the first ten years of the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 #bji4 ,,pierced ,,quarries1 ,,warwick4 ,the usual form of design consisted of a sort of florid canopy frame of moderate dimensions1 enclosing a shield or shields of arms1 supported by fantastically dressed men-at-arms4 ,there was often great spirit in the swagger of these melodramatic swashbucklers1 admirably expressive of the idea which underlies all heraldry3 ,i am somebody1 they seem to say1 pray who are you8 ,it is a comparatively modest specimen of this class that is presented on page #ij4 ,in the windows of a private house it was frequently the master and mistress who supported the armorial shield1 all in their ,sunday best1 and very proud of themselves too4 ,little ,bible subjects were also painted1 mainly in grisaille4 ,it was for window panes that ,holbein drew the ,stations of the ,cross1 now among the chief treasures of the museum at ,ble4 ,these also must be classed with domestic work4 ,they may in some cases have been destined for a church2 but they would much more appropriately decorate a private oratory4 ,these heraldic or pictorial panes go even beyond the delicacy of cabinet pictures1 and are sometimes more on the scale of miniatures2 but of such miniature painting the ,swiss were masters4 ,they carried craftmanship to its very furthest point1 and among them traditions of good work lingered long after they were quite dead in ,france4 ,of ,english work there was not much2 and of that the less said the better4 ,far into the eighteenth century the ,swiss still had a care for their window panes1 and1 when painting went out of fashion1 engraved them with armorial or other devices4 ,precisely that kind of engraving was employed also upon polished mirrors1 of which one finds examples in ,italy4 ,unpainted quarry windows in ,english houses were sometimes relieved1 at the same time that ventilation was secured1 by the occasional introduction 7in the place of glass7 of little fretted panels of pierced lead1 as shown on page #cjh4 ,below is a diamond-shaped piercing of the ,jacobean period4 ,illustration3 #baj4 ,,quarry ,,of ,,fretted ,,lead4 ,illustration3 #baa4 ,,domestic ,,window ,,pane1 ,,troyes4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,canopy4 ,no one can have paid much attention to stained glass without observing the conspicuous part played in its design by the quasi-architectural canopy4 ,inasmuch as it1 in a sense1 enshrines the figure1 there exists some sort of symbolic reason for its use4 ,but that is not enough to account for its all but universal employment4 ,a more obvious excuse for it is1 the purpose it fulfils in the construction of design4 ,it is a means of accounting for the position of figures midway up the window1 perhaps one above the other1 and not standing upon the sill4 ,it is at once framework and support to them1 preventing them from seeming to float there in space4 ,where the designer of the church designed also the glass for it1 it was almost inevitable that he should plan it more or less upon architectural lines2 and so we find that in windows known to have been designed by architects the canopy is very often the most conspicuous part of the design4 ,but at all times the master-builder must have been a power1 and at all times also even glaziers and glass painters must have been so intimately acquainted with forms of architecture1 that it is not surprising they should have introduced them into their work4 ,the fact is1 the designer happens upon something like a canopy almost without intending it1 and1 having arrived so far1 perfects the resemblance to it4 ,suppose a window of four long lights1 in each of which it is desired to introduce three figures4 ,that means dividing it horizontally into three1 which may be done by the use of bands of inscription1 as at a in the diagram overleaf3 there is no suggestion of architecture there4 ,supposing you wish to frame the window at the sides1 so as to stop the picture1 as at b1 to the left of the diagram2 you have still no very distinct suggestion of architecture4 ,but if1 the better to frame the picture1 you add an extra band of colour1 as shown at c1 you arrive at once at something so like perspective as to indicate an architectural elevation4 ,indeed1 that is precisely the form the canopy takes sometimes in ,italian glass4 ,even when the cinque-centist framed his picture merely in lines he could hardly help giving them the appearance of mouldings1 painting upon 7as at ,arezzo7 egg-and-tongue or other familiar architectural enrichment in white and stain4 ,illustration3 #bab4 ,,diagram4 ,in the clerestory at ,freiburg is a window in which the serried saints appear at first sight to be simply framed by lines of pale purple2 but on examination these resolve themselves into a simple architectural elevation1 with even a hint of unsuspected shadow in it4 ,the date of that example is #aeab2 and canopies1 not to go back to ,grco-,roman decoration1 begin with the beginning of ,gothic4 ,it is adduced1 therefore1 to show1 not the origin of canopy work1 but how inevitably something of the sort occurred4 ,its immediate source is clearly imitation4 ,the thing is borrowed straight from architecture1 and indicates1 it may justly be said1 if not a certain lack of inventive faculty on the part of the designer1 at least some disinclination to take the pains to invent4 ,so in the thirteenth century we have funny little glass penthouses over the figures of saints1 architectural in form but not in colour2 in the fourteenth windows are crossed by rows of tall brassy disproportioned tabernacles1 as yet flat fronted2 in the fifteenth1 white ghosts of masonry pretend to stand out over the figures2 in the sixteenth1 altar-like1 or other more or less monumental1 structures1 are pictured with something like the solidity of stonework2 and eventually the canopy is merged in painted glass architecture1 which joins itself on as best it can to the actual masonry4 ,the forms of canopy typical of each period of architecture have been discussed in the several chapters on design1 but something remains to be said upon canopy work in general1 and upon particular instances of it4 ,the ,early canopy goes for nothing as design4 ,its one merit is that it is inconspicuous4 ,one could wish that the ,decorated were equally so4 ,there is1 as a rule1 no shutting your eyes to its mass of overpowering shrinework4 ,when1 by way of exception1 it chances to be modest it is sometimes more interesting--as where it is scarcely more than a cusped arch1 or where1 as at ,strassburg1 it takes the form of an arcaded band across the window1 in which are series of little demi-figures4 ,at ,cologne ,cathedral also sundry saints are pigeon-holed in this way4 ,apropos of this1 it should be mentioned that it invariably adds to the interest of a canopy1 when2 for example1 the broad shaft of a ,decorated canopy enniches angels and other figures1 or when they are introduced among its pinnacles or in its base4 ,the wide-spreading ,german canopy affords scope for variety of design not possible so long as the structure is confined within a single light4 ,in some four-light windows at ,erfurt 7#acdi-acgb7 the broad shafts of the canopies1 with saints in separate niches1 occupy the whole width of the outer lights1 leaving only two lights for the central picture4 ,in a five-light window at ,strassburg the canopy is five-arched1 allowing separate arches in the outer lights for figures of saints1 whilst the three central ones cover a single subject4 ,in canopies which include niches with separate subsidiary subjects1 these are sometimes by way of prelude to the main story4 ,in the cathedral at ,berne is something of the kind4 ,there1 among the pinnacles of the canopy which crowns the subject of the ,adoration1 are seen the ,kings setting out on their pilgrimage1 journeying by night1 having audience of ,herod1 and arriving finally at the city of ,bethlehem4 ,in the great altar-like canopies of the ,renaissance there is sometimes a gallery above1 with angels or other figures1 which give points of colour amidst the white4 ,in any case1 the canopy is usually more interesting when it is peopled4 ,the ,perpendicular canopy is in effect much more pleasing than what had gone before1 but it sins in its simulation of stonework4 ,there also little figures in white and stain are very effectively introduced into the shafts and other parts of the construction1 but more in the form of architectural sculpture4 ,there are some very interesting instances of this at ,fairford1 though the canopies themselves are not otherwise peculiarly interesting4 ,the useful device of low1 flat-topped canopies1 adopted in the nave windows at ,cologne ,cathedral1 seldom occurs out of ,germany4 ,it is there most successful4 ,indeed1 these particular canopies are interesting examples of the interpenetration of architectural tracery as well as of its moderate and modest use4 ,late ,german canopies are often much more leafy than ,french or ,english2 they are less architectural--or rather1 the architecture breaks out into more free and flowing growth4 ,the charm of ,late ,gothic canopy work1 as was said1 lies in its colour1 or in the absence of colour--in its silvery effect1 that is to say4 ,and one may safely add that quite the most satisfactory canopies1 in whatever style1 are those in which white largely prevails1 modified by stain1 but preserving its greyish character4 ,in later ,renaissance work white is still largely used2 but it is made less brilliant by painted shadow1 and so has less to excuse its architectural pretensions4 ,at ,milan there is a window in which what should be white is in various granular tints of brown4 ,the coloured canopy1 to which the ,italians adhered 7as well as to the border enclosing it71 does not frame them as the white glass does4 ,the idea appears to be1 on the contrary1 that it should form part of the picture4 ,elsewhere than in ,italy coloured canopies1 other than yellow1 are rare2 but they occur4 ,there are1 for example1 the hideous flesh-coloured constructions peculiar to ,germany4 ,at ,troyes are some not unsatisfactory little canopies in green1 and others in purple 7#adii74 ,at ,chlons-sur-,marne is an effective canopy 7#aebf-aecg7 of golden arabesque on purple4 ,at ,freiburg 7#aebe7 is a steely-blue ,renaissance canopy1 from which depend festoons of white and greenish-yellow1 against the ruby ground of the subject4 ,and there are others satisfactory enough4 ,but so invariably effective is the framework of white and stain1 that to depart from it seems almost like giving up the very excuse for canopies4 ,the ,late ,gothic canopy work does most effectually frame the pictures1 and gives light1 of course1 at the same time4 ,it goes admirably with the colour scheme1 which includes always a fair quantity of white1 even in comparatively rich figure subjects4 ,there is no denying1 nor any desire to deny1 its altogether admirable effect4 ,if the effect were not otherwise to be obtained1 the end would justify the means4 ,but the effect is due simply to the setting of the subjects in a framework of white1 not to the architectural character of the design4 ,all that those ,perpendicular canopies do could be done equally without architectural forms at all4 ,canopies make no more beautiful screens of silvery-white than1 say1 the ,five ,sisters at ,york4 ,intrinsically they are less interesting than pattern work4 ,they give less scope for arranging subjects variously1 just as one will2 and they allow less range for the fancy of the artist4 ,the most interesting canopies1 and among the most effective1 are those ,early ,renaissance picture frames 7,french1 ,german1 or ,italian7 which1 whilst just sufficiently suggesting something near enough to architecture to be called canopies1 are really little more than arabesque4 ,one might almost say they are pleasing in proportion as they depart from the quasi-architectural formula4 ,the enormous value of the mass of white afforded by the canopy1 as a setting for colour1 has reconciled us too readily to its use4 ,why not this mass of white without pretended forms of masonry1 without this paraphernalia of pinnacles8 ,the architect alone1 perhaps1 in his heart likes canopy work1 and would prefer it to any other kind of ornamental device4 ,when he plans a window1 or directs its planning1 forms of architectural construction occur to him naturally4 ,supposing him to be an artist 7as we have perhaps a right to expect him to be7 he produces a fine thing2 but were he to work upon more workmanlike lines1 or1 to speak quite precisely1 more upon the lines of the worker in glass1 how much better he would do--being an artist6 ,in his reliance upon inappropriate structural forms1 he makes the obvious mistake of depending upon the kind of thing with which he is most familiar1 not the thing especially called for4 ,each particular craft has a technique of its own4 ,one other class of person also loves canopy work--the tradesman2 but his affection for it is less disinterested1 and more easily accounted for4 ,the stock canopy 7as every one knows who has been1 as it were1 behind the counter7 is a famous device for cheapening production4 ,the examples chosen for illustration throughout these pages do1 on the whole1 much more than justice to the periods which they were chosen to represent2 but1 taken altogether1 they do not1 even so1 form a very effective plea for canopy work4 ,were the canopy more defensible than it is in glass1 it would still have monopolised far too large a place in the scheme of medival and ,renaissance design4 ,we owe largely to it1 in connection with the gradually increasing claims of figure work1 the all but extinction of pattern glass4 ,figure work is practically implied by the canopy4 ,occasionally1 indeed1 architecture has formed the whole motif of a window2 but the case is so rare that it does not count4 ,once in a while there may be excuse1 and even occasion1 for almost any device4 ,there is no valid reason of art why figures and figure subjects should not be framed in ornament1 designed indeed with reference to the architecture of the building1 but not in the least in the likeness of architecture4 ,this ornament might perfectly well be in white and stain4 ,ornamental setting in colour does occur in thirteenth century medallion windows1 and again 7though only by exception7 in certain ,early ,renaissance glass2 but by that time pictures1 as a rule1 absorbed all the interest of design4 ,the instinct which makes us want to give even pictured personages some sort of roof above their heads is more natural than logical4 ,anyway1 to make windows to look like niches in the wall1 is an absurd ideal of design1 and the nearer the glass painter gets to it the further he has gone off the track4 ,if anything in the nature of a canopy be desirable1 clearly it should be constructed on the lines1 not of masonry1 but of glazing4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,ornament4 ,there is a direction in which glass has never been fully developed1 that of purely ornamental design4 ,this is the more to be deplored because that direction is the one in which was most scope for the peculiar depth and brilliancy of colour characteristic of mosaic glass4 ,ornament was used in the thirteenth century not only as a setting for figure medallions1 but as of sufficient interest to form of itself most beautiful windows in grisaille4 ,presently the attractions of figure work put an end to that2 and1 furthermore1 the preference for picture naturally led to the development of design in the direction of glass painting1 which lent itself so much more readily than mosaic to pictorial expression4 ,we owe to that1 not only the perfection of glass painting1 and its ultimate degradation1 but the neglect of latent possibilities in more thoroughly mosaic glass1 aye1 in pure glazing4 ,even in figure work1 much might be done for clerestory and other distant work1 at all events1 in pure mosaic glass4 ,those who have not closely observed old glass have no conception of the amount of leadwork there is in the windows they admire1 at the very moment that they deprecate leading1 so little do these interfere with the design1 when disposed with the cunning of a craftsman4 ,one can imagine figures on a large scale boldly blocked out1 with broad shadows1 in which not only the shadows1 but even the reflected lights in them1 might be glazed in pot-metal1 and from the floor of a big church the leads would be inappreciable4 ,but1 except in work upon an absolutely heroic scale1 there would always be the difficulty of the flesh2 the features would have to be painted2 and glass pictures of this kind would needs be designed with a severe simplicity not calculated to satisfy the modern pictorial sense4 ,the advocates of painting complain that due consideration of the qualities of glass would limit the artist to the baldest kind of pictorial effect4 ,something certainly must be sacrificed to fit treatment of the material1 or glass suffers1 whatever picture may gain4 ,that is what has happened4 ,but if so much sacrifice is necessary to figure1 why always adopt that form of design8 ,why not sometimes at least abandon subject1 and seek what can best be done in glass1 even though that be barbaric8 ,it is not quite certain but that glass really lends itself only to a rather barbaric kind of design1 or what we are barbarous enough to call barbaric4 ,this is certain3 the interest of figure work has put an end to ornamental glass4 ,it has become almost an article of faith with us that1 to the making of a window worth looking at1 figure design is indispensable4 ,that should not be so4 ,and1 seeing that picture does not afford full scope for the qualities which glass-lovers most dearly love in glass1 it seems rather cruel that picture should so largely preponderate in its design as to suppress the possibilities in the way of ornament4 ,why should it be so8 ,there are two very important reasons for the introduction of figure into glass1 the one literary1 the other artistic4 ,in the first place1 we love a story1 that is no more than human2 we want to know what it is all about1 that is no more than rational2 and figure subjects afford the most obvious means of satisfying those cravings of ours4 ,but artists want these cravings satisfied by means of art4 ,some of them1 perhaps1 think more of the means employed than of the end achieved1 and would have art for art's sake4 ,theirs is a doctrine of very limited application4 ,sanity insists upon subordination of the means to end2 and art is not an end in itself1 nor is craftsmanship4 ,it is not1 therefore1 for one moment suggested that story1 sentiment1 meaning1 in windows1 should be ruthlessly sacrificed to craftsmanship1 even though expression implied the use of figure1 which it does not4 ,what is claimed1 is merely this3 that when you employ a material or a process some consideration is due to it4 ,before undertaking to express an idea1 it is always as well for the artist to consider how far its expression is consistent with art4 ,if it can be expressed only at the cost of all that is best in art1 it were better to adopt some other means of expression4 ,if a particular craft is your one means of expression1 and that particular thing cannot well be said in it1 then say what can be said2 it will be to much more purpose than saying even a better thing and saying it ill4 ,the better the thought1 the greater the crime of saying it inadequately4 ,after all1 the sentiment1 or what not1 which people ask for in glass1 and which compels figure work1 is not1 in the majority of instances1 by any means so important1 even in their eyes1 but that they would sacrifice it readily enough if they knew the price in art at which they would have to pay for it4 ,let patrons of stained glass1 if they care for art1 ponder this statement2 it is not spoken in haste1 but in conviction4 ,there is one reason of sentiment which would argue against great part of the use that is made of figure work1 at all events in church glass1 the doubt1 namely1 as to how far it is possible1 in these days1 to reconcile the devout with the decorative treatment of sacred subjects4 ,we are all admiration when we gaze up at the splendid figure of ,moses in the great transept window at ,chartres4 ,but it is the artist in us that is entranced1 the lover of glass1 and especially of colour2 the artless worshipper might feel that the dignity of the ,lawgiver would perhaps have been better expressed with less attention to decorative effect4 ,we are not shocked at the archaic effigy1 because we realize that reverence underlies its simplicity4 ,in modern work it is otherwise4 ,artistic intention1 admirable or not from the sthetic point of view1 is responsible for the introduction into our churches of delineations of all that ,christians hold sacred so ridiculous1 it is a wonder devout worshippers allow them to be there4 ,the excuse for glass is its decorative effect4 ,its value is in its colour4 ,a ,saint in stained glass 7to mention no higher ,person7 stands in a window for just so much colour3 is not that rather a degradation of the saint8 ,in the second place1 apart altogether from what has been called the literary interest 7which no one will dispute7 there is in figure work a charm1 altogether artistic1 in the very unexpectedness of the colour-patches you get in it1 not accidental quite1 but in many instances at least1 inspired by accident4 ,the besetting sin of ornament is obviousness2 it has a way of distributing itself too symmetrically and evenly1 of laying its secret bare to the most casual glance4 ,we see at once there is nothing to find out in it1 and our interest drops to zero4 ,in figure design1 on the contrary1 there are breaks even in the very best balanced scheme2 there is always something unexpected1 unforeseen1 something to kindle interest2 in fact1 the difficulty is1 there1 to distribute the composition evenly enough4 ,the question arises whether this sameness1 and consequent tameness1 of ornament1 the way the points of intended interest recur with irritating frequency and regularity1 resolving themselves into mere spots--whether this defect is inherent in ornament1 and inseparable from it4 ,proof that it is not is afforded by heraldry1 distinctly a branch of ornamental design1 in which1 for precisely the same reasons as in figure work1 we get just that inevitable deviation from system1 and more especially from symmetry1 which seems necessary to the salvation of ornament4 ,where by happy chance an ornamental window has been patched with glass not belonging to it1 or where portions of it have been misplaced1 we get similar relief from monotony4 ,here the unexpectedness of contrast1 colour1 and so on1 is accidental2 in heraldry it is1 in the nature of things1 unforeseen of the artist1 and unavoidable4 ,may not similar results be obtained of set purpose and design8 ,surely they may4 ,were it otherwise1 it would be worth falling back now and then upon haphazard1 and letting colour come as it might4 ,happily there is no occasion for that feeble sort of fatalism4 ,given a colourist and a man with that sense of distribution 7whether of line1 mass1 or colour7 which makes the artist1 what is to hinder him from deliberately planning so much of surprise as may be necessary to tickle the appetite for the ornamental8 ,the ogre in the path is what we call economy4 ,because ornament can without doubt be more cheaply executed than figure work1 it is taken for granted that it must be reserved by rights for cheap work4 ,what else is there to recommend it8 ,and1 that being so1 ornament being but padding1 by all means1 it is argued1 let it be not only cheap but of the cheapest6 ,design1 moreover1 if it be worth having at all1 is costly1 and there is clearly thrift in repeating the same pattern1 and even one unit of it1 over and over again4 ,the practice of saving design in this way has become at last so much a matter of course1 that no one thinks of designing an ornamental window1 as a whole1 without repetition of pattern--except the artist2 and with him it is a fond desire which he hopes perhaps some day to fulfil--at his own expense4 ,under circumstances such as these1 what wonder ornament is monotonous8 ,it could not well be otherwise4 ,but these conditions are not in the nature of things4 ,ornamental design has subsided because no one asks for1 cares for1 or encourages1 ornament4 ,it needs only to be in the hands of an artist--not necessarily a ,holbein1 but just a ,rhodian potter1 a ,persian carpet weaver1 a medival carver1 or a nameless glazier--to be worthy of its modest place in art4 ,considering the costliness of good figure work and the absolute worthlessness of bad1 considering the way in which glass lends itself especially to ornament1 considering how in ornament the qualities most necessary to decorative effect and most characteristic of the material can be obtained1 surely the wiser policy would be to do what can so readily be done4 ,when glass lends itself so kindly to ornament it seems a sin to neglect it4 ,is it quite past praying for1 that there may still be a future for windows merely ornamental1 which shall yet satisfy the sense of beauty8 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,characteristics ,,of ,,style4 ,what are the characteristics of the various styles in glass8 ,how does one tell the period of a window8 ,these are not questions that can be fully answered in the short space of a chapter1 which is all that can here be devoted to it2 but it may help those to whom a window tells nothing of its date1 briefly to mention the characteristics according to which we class it as belonging to this period or that4 ,with a view to conciseness and to convenience of reference it will be best to catalogue these characteristics rather than to describe them4 ,any subdivision of glass into styles must be more or less arbitrary4 ,one style merges into the other1 and the characteristics of each overlap1 so to speak4 ,the most convenient lines of demarcation are the centuries2 for1 as it happens1 the changes in manner do take place more or less towards the century end4 ,the one broad distinction is between ,gothic and ,renaissance4 ,gothic may best be divided into three periods--viz41 ,thirteenth century and before1 ,fourteenth century1 and ,fifteenth century and after4 ,thirteenth century glass1 commonly called ,early ,english1 or1 as the case may be1 ,early ,french1 may as well be taken to include1 for our purpose1 what little remains of twelfth century or ,norman work4 ,it includes naturally ,early ,german work1 which is ,romanesque and not ,gothic in character4 ,fourteenth century glass belongs to the ,middle or ,transitional ,gothic period4 ,we call it ,decorated1 for the inadequate reason that its detail is naturalistic4 ,fifteenth century glass1 with us ,perpendicular1 in ,france ,flamboyant1 in ,germany ,interpenetrated1 may1 for convenience' sake1 be taken to include so much of ,gothic as may be found lingering in the sixteenth century4 ,the ,sixteenth century is more properly the period of the ,renaissance4 ,it is better not to apply to it the ,italian term cinque-cento1 since the greater part of it is not of the purely ,italian character which that would imply4 ,seventeenth century glass is to be distinguished from that of the sixteenth mainly inasmuch as it shows more markedly that decadence which had already begun to set in before the year #afjj4 ,it may be conveniently described as ,late ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 #bac4 ,,st4 ,,remi1 ,,reims4 ,eighteenth century glass is not of sufficient account to be classed4 ,it will be seen that the dates above given do not quite coincide with those of ,winston1 who gives ,early ,english to #abhj1 ,decorated to #achj1 and ,perpendicular to #aecj4 ,there is here no thought of impugning his accuracy2 but it seems more convenient not to distinguish a new style until the work begins markedly to differ from what had gone before1 especially when the marked difference happens conveniently to coincide with the beginning of a new century2 and ,winston himself says of ,perpendicular work 7and implies as much of ,decorated7 that the style can hardly be said to have become thoroughly established until the beginning of the new century4 ,we have thus a century of ,middle ,gothic1 the fourteenth century4 ,what goes before is ,early ,gothic or ,romanesque1 as the case may be2 what comes after is ,late ,gothic1 cooeval for a quarter of a century or more with the ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 #bad4 ,,detail ,,from ,,medallion ,,windows ,,at ,,canterbury4 ,,early ,,glass4 ,the first thing which strikes one in ,early ,glass is either its deep rich1 jewelled colour 7,canterbury1 ,chartres71 or its sober1 silvery1 greyness 7,salisbury2 ,five ,sisters1 ,york74 ,exception to this alternative occurs mainly in very early ornamental glass 7circa4 #acjj--,s4 ,denis2 ,s4 ,remi1 ,reims2 ,angers71 in which white and colour are somewhat evenly mixed4 ,early figure work occurs also occasionally in colour on a white ground4 ,the design of the richer class of windows consists largely of figure work4 ,the design of grisaille windows consists mainly of ornamental pattern4 ,composition4--,rich windows are of three kinds3 medallion windows1 rose windows1 figure and canopy windows4 ,jesse windows form an exception4 7,chapter ,,xxix47 #a4 ,medallion ,windows are the most characteristic of the period 7,chapter ,,xii474 ,these contain figure subjects1 on a quite small scale1 within medallion shapes set in ornament 7,canterbury1 ,chartres1 etc474 ,illustration3 #bae4 ,,mosaic ,,diaper4 ,in the very earliest medallion windows 7,angers1 ,poitiers7 the ordered scheme of the medallioned window is sometimes interrupted by subjects not strictly enclosed in medallions4 ,or else1 perhaps 7,chartres71 the subjects take the form of panels one above the other--they can scarcely be called medallions--with little or no ornament between4 ,after the first few years of the thirteenth century1 however1 the figure medallions 7circles1 quatrefoils1 etc47 occur1 as a rule1 one above the other throughout the length of the light1 with perhaps a boss of ornament between2 the interstices being filled1 in ,english glass with ornamental scrollwork1 in ,french with geometric diaper 7opposite74 ,illustration3 #baf4 ,,detail ,,of ,,medallion ,,window1 ,,chartres4 ,in the broad windows of ,norman churches 7pages #abc1 #abd7 the medallions are proportionately large1 and are subdivided into four or five divisions1 each of which is devoted to a separate picture4 ,in our narrower lancet lights there is no occasion for that4 ,illustration3 #bag4 ,,bars ,,in ,,medallion ,,windows4 ,the figures in medallion subjects are few and far apart1 standing comparatively clear-cut against a plain background 7page #cbe72 compacter groups indicate a later period4 ,landscape is symbolised rather than represented by a conventional tree or so2 a town by an arch or two1 a battlemented wall1 or the like4 ,medallions are framed by lines of colour and beaded bands of white1 but they do not1 as a rule1 separate themselves very markedly from their ornamental surroundings4 ,the effect is one rather indeterminate glory of intense colour4 ,except in quite the earliest medallion windows1 the strong iron bars supporting the glass are1 as a rule1 bent 7above71 to follow the outline of the medallions4 ,that was done in no other period4 #b4 ,rose ,windows occur mainly in ,french churches4 ,they are a variation upon the medallion window4 ,a great ,rose window 7,chartres1 ,bourges1 etc47 may be regarded as a series of radiating medallion lights1 with subjects relatively fewer in number1 and a greater proportion of pattern work4 ,occasionally they consist of pattern work altogether4 ,smaller ,roses 7the only form of tracery met with in quite ,early work7 contain very often a central circular medallion subject1 the cusps or foils round it being occupied with ornament1 all in rich colour1 even though the lights below it be in grisaille4 #c4 ,figure and ,canopy ,windows 7page #dj7 are more proper to the clerestory and triforium of a church1 but they are not entirely confined to a far-off position4 ,with regard to them it should be mentioned that figures under canopies1 sitting1 or more often standing--one above the other in long1 narrow lights--occur throughout the ,gothic periods1 and even in ,renaissance glass4 ,the characteristic thing about the ,early ones is the stiffness and comparative grotesqueness of the figures and the modesty of the canopy4 ,this last is of small dimensions4 ,it may be merely a trefoiled arch 7page #dj74 ,usually it is more architectural 7page #df71 gabled1 with a little roofing1 and perhaps a small tower or two rising above1 not beautiful4 ,it is in fairly strong colours4 ,it is so little conspicuous that it is not at first sight always distinguishable from the background to the figure4 ,occasionally the figure has no canopy at all4 ,the saint stands front face1 straight up in his niche1 in a constrained and cramped position1 occupying its full width1 which is obviously insufficient4 ,his feet rest in an impossible manner upon a label bearing his name2 or1 if that be inscribed upon a label in his hand1 or on the background behind him1 then he stands upon a little mound of green to represent the earth 7page #dj74 ,figure and canopy alike are archaic in design1 and rudely drawn4 ,it is seldom that a figure subject on a smaller scale is introduced below the standing figure1 as was frequently the case in later work4 ,groups of figures are characteristically confined to medallion windows4 ,the ,border is a feature in ,early glass4 ,it is broad4 ,in medallion windows it measures sometimes as much as one-fourth the width of the light4 ,it takes up1 that is to say1 perhaps half the area of the window4 ,it consists of foliated ornament similar in character to that between the medallions4 ,very broad borders occasionally include smaller figure medallions4 ,in figure and canopy windows the borders are less1 and simpler4 ,sometimes they consist merely of broad bands of colour interrupted by rosettes of other colours4 ,circumstances of proportion1 and so on1 influence the width of the border2 but a broad border is characteristic of the ,early period4 ,illustration3 #bah4 ,,le ,,mans4 ,in ,rose windows the border is of less account1 and is confined1 as a rule1 to the outer ring of lights1 or1 it may be1 to their outer edge4 ,detail4--,ornamental detail is severely conventional4 ,in very ,early work 7page #cbg7 it has rather the character of ,romanesque ornament1 with straplike stalks interlacing1 often enriched by a beaded1 zig-zag1 or other pattern1 which may be either painted upon it or picked out of solid brown4 ,early in the thirteenth century foliage assumes the simpler ,gothic form1 with cinquefoiled1 or more often trefoiled1 leafage 7as here shown74 ,illustration3 #bai4 ,,chartres4 ,when it begins to be more naturalistic it is a sign of transition to the ,decorated period4 ,in ,germany something of ,romanesque flavour lingered far into the thirteenth century 7page #ccj74 ,there is properly no ,early ,gothic period there4 ,heraldry is modestly introduced into ,early glass4 ,the ,donor is occasionally represented on quite a small scale in the lower part of a window1 his offering in his hand2 or he is content to be represented by a small shield of arms4 ,colour4--,the glass in ,early windows is uneven in substance1 and1 consequently1 in colour4 ,this is very plainly seen in the white glass1 which shades off1 according to its thickness1 from greenish or yellowish-white to bottle colour4 ,the colour lies also sometimes in streaks of lighter and darker4 ,this is especially so in red glass4 ,the shades of colour most usually employed for backgrounds are blue and ruby4 ,white occurs1 but only occasionally4 ,illustration3 #bbj4 ,,auxerre4 ,illustration3 #bba4 ,,patchwork ,,of ,,grisaille1 ,,salisbury4 ,the ,early palette consists of3-- ,white1 greenish1 and rather clouded2 red1 rubylike1 often streaky2 blue1 deep sapphire to palest grey-blue1 oftenest deep2 turquoise-blue1 of quite different quality1 inclining to green2 yellow1 fairly strong1 but never hot2 green1 pure and emerald-like1 or deep and even low in tone1 but only occasionally inclining to olive2 purple-brown1 reddish or brownish1 not violet2 flesh tint1 actually lighter and more pinkish shades of this same purple-brown4 ,in very early work the flesh is inclined to be browner4 ,illustration3 #bbb4 ,s4 ,,kunibert1 ,,cologne4 ,it must be remembered that1 though the palette of the first glaziers was restricted1 the proceeding of the glass-makers was so little scientific that they had no very great control over their manufacture4 ,no two pots of glass1 therefore1 came out alike4 ,hence a great variety of shades of glass1 though produced from a few simple recipes4 ,they might by accident produce1 once in a way1 almost any colour4 ,a pot of ruby sometimes turned out greenish-black4 ,still1 the colours above mentioned predominate in ,early work1 and are clearly those aimed at4 ,workmanship4--,the glazing of an ,early window is strictly a mosaic of small pieces of glass4 ,each separate colour in it is represented by a separate piece of glass1 or several pieces4 ,the great white eyes1 for example1 of big clerestory figures are separate pieces of white glass1 rimmed with lead1 and held in place by connecting strips of lead1 which give them often very much the appearance of spectacles 7page #dj74 ,in work on a sufficiently large scale the hair of the head and beard are also glazed in white1 or perhaps in some dark colour1 distinct from the brownish-pink flesh tint peculiar to the period 7same page74 ,no large pieces of glass occur4 ,illustration3 #bbc4 ,s4 ,,kunibert1 ,,cologne4 ,upon examination the window proves to be netted over with lines of lead jointing1 much of which is lost in the outlines of the design4 ,in large clerestory figures and the like1 masses of one colour occur1 but they are made up of innumerable little bits of glass1 by no means all of one shade of colour2 whence the richness in tone4 ,illustration3 #bbd4 ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois4 ,painting4--,in ,early glass painting plays a very subordinate part4 ,only one pigment is used1 and that not by way of colour1 but to paint out the light and define form4 ,details of figure and ornament are traced in firm strong brush lines4 ,lines mark the exaggerated expression of the face1 the close folds of the spare drapery wrapped tightly round the figure1 the serration of foliage1 and so on 7pages #cc1 #cg1 #cbd74 ,lines1 in the form of sweeping brush strokes or cross-hatching1 are used also to emphasise such shading 7not very much7 as may be indicated in thirteenth century work1 or perhaps it should rather be said that the lines of shading are supplemented very often by a coat of thin brown paint1 not always very easily detected on the deep-coloured glass of the period4 ,white ,windows1 or ,grisaille4--,grisaille assumes in ,france the character of interlacing strapwork all in white4 ,sometimes this is quite without paint 7page #be74 ,plain work of the kind occurs also with us2 but it is dangerous to give a date to simple glazing4 ,that at ,salisbury 7page #bf7 is probably not of the very earliest4 ,in ,france1 as with us1 such strapwork is associated with foliated detail1 traced in strong outline upon the white glass and defined by a background of cross-hatched lines which go for a greyer tint 7above74 ,after the beginning of the thirteenth century1 this strapwork is sometimes in colour1 or points of colour are introduced in the shape of rosettes1 etc41 and in the border 7pages #acg1 #ach74 ,in ,england there is from the first usually a certain amount of coloured glass in grisaille windows 7pages #ada1 #ccb74 ,sometimes there is a considerable quantity of it 7,five ,sisters1 ,york72 but it never appears to be much4 ,the effect is always characteristically grey and silvery4 ,illustration3 #bbe4 ,,grisaille1 ,,salisbury4 ,so long as the painted foliage keeps closely within the formal lines of strapwork1 etc41 it is1 at all events in ,english glass1 a sign of comparatively early thirteenth century work4 ,later in the century the scroll winds rather more freely about the window 7page #adc74 ,the omission of the cross-hatched background and the more natural rendering of the foliation 7page #chf7 announce the approach to the ,decorated period4 ,figure subjects in colour1 planted1 as it were1 upon grisaille or quarry lights 7,poitiers1 ,amiens71 and grisaille borders to windows with figures in rich colour 7,auxerre71 are of exceptional occurrence4 ,winston gives the year #abhj as the limit of the ,early period1 but there seems no absolute reason for drawing the line at that date4 ,the use of stain1 which was the beginning of a new departure in glass1 does not pronounce itself before the fourteenth century4 ,it seems1 therefore1 more convenient to include the last twenty years of the century in the first period1 and to call it thirteenth century1 accepting the more naturalistic type of foliage1 when it occurs1 as sign of transition2 for1 apart from that1 the later thirteenth century work is not very markedly different from what was done before #abhj4 ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,illustration3 #bbf4 ,s4 ,,urbain1 ,,troyes4 ,decorated or ,intermediate ,gothic4--,decorated glass grows characteristically livelier in colour than ,early glass2 at first it becomes warmer1 owing to the use of more yellow1 then lighter1 owing to the use of white4 ,it does not divide itself so obviously into coloured and grisaille4 ,the figure subjects include1 as time goes on1 more and more white glass4 ,the grisaille contains more colour4 ,figures and figure subjects are now very commonly used in combination with grisaille ornament in the same window4 ,that is a new and characteristic departure 7page #aei74 ,composition4--,figure windows occur1 indeed1 with little or no ornament1 in which case the subjects are piled one above the other1 in panels rather than medallions1 or under canopies4 ,when the canopies are insignificant the result is one apparently compact mass of small figure work1 as deep and rich perhaps in colour 7,s4 ,sebald's1 ,nuremberg7 as an ,early medallion window2 but the colour is not so equally distributed2 it occurs more in patches4 ,decorated canopies1 however1 are usually1 after the first few years1 of sufficient size to assert themselves as very conspicuous patches of rather brassy yellow1 which in a window of several lights 7and windows now almost invariably consist of two or more lights7 form a band 7or if there are two or more tiers of canopies1 a series of bands7 across the window4 ,in the case of grisaille windows also1 figures or figure subjects are introduced either in the form of shaped panels or under little canopies1 and take the form of a band or bands of comparatively rich colour across a comparatively light window4 ,when these canopies are themselves pronounced1 the window shows alternate bands of figures 7rich71 canopies 7yellowish71 and ornamental pattern 7whitish74 ,in any case these horizontal bands across the window mark departure from the earlier style4 ,canopies4--,canopies occur now over subjects as well as single figures4 ,the canopy is designed in flat elevation4 ,any indication of perspective betokens the end of the period4 ,it has broadish shafts1 usually for the most part white1 which terminate in pinnacles 7page #aee74 ,it has seldom any architectural base3 the figures stand upon grass or pavement4 ,it has usually a three-cusped arch1 and above that a pointed gable decorated with crockets and ending in a finial4 ,crockets and finial are usually in strong1 brassy yellow4 ,above are pinnacles and shrinework in white and colour1 including as a rule a fair amount of yellow4 ,it may rise to a great height1 dwarfing the figure beneath it4 ,this occurs very especially in ,german work4 ,sometimes the most conspicuous thing in the window is this disproportionate canopy4 ,its very disproportion is characteristic of the period4 ,in ,german work one great brassy canopy will frequently be found stretching right across the several lights of the window1 over-arching a single subject4 ,this triptich-like composition will occupy1 perhaps1 two-thirds of the height of the window4 ,the background behind the pinnacles of this canopy may be either of one colour or of geometric diaper in mosaic 7elsewhere characteristic of the ,early period71 finished off by a more or less arbitrary line--a cusped arch1 for instance--above which is white glass4 ,this kind of canopy has1 by way of exception1 an architectural base4 ,illustration3 #bbg4 ,,ch,,lons4 ,another ,german practice is to fill the window with huge circular subject medallions1 occupying the entire width of the window1 and intersected by the mullions4 ,single-light windows have sometimes a central elongated medallion or panel subject 7without canopy71 above and below which is ornamental grisaille4 ,borders4--,all windows have1 as a rule1 borders2 but they are narrower than in ,early work4 ,tracery lights1 which now form a conspicuous part of the window1 are1 as a rule1 also each separately bordered1 often with a still narrower border in colour1 or it may be only a line of colour4 ,grisaille windows have usually coloured borders1 foliaged or heraldic 7as above74 ,the border does not necessarily frame the light at its base2 very often there is an inscription there4 ,between the coloured border and the stonework is still invariably a marginal line of white glass4 ,illustration3 #bbh4 ,,early ,,decorated ,,figure1 ,,troyes4 ,sometimes1 more especially in tracery1 this white line is broad enough to have a pattern painted upon it1 in which case there is no coloured border4 ,or this white border line may be enriched at intervals by rosettes or blocks of colour upon it4 ,or1 again1 it may be in part tinted with pale yellow stain4 ,some such border is usually carried round each separate tracery light1 with the result that ,decorated tracery may usually be distinguished at a glance from later work by a certain lack of breadth about it4 ,there is no need to say more about ,decorated tracery1 seeing that the idea of this epitome is to enable the amateur to form some opinion as to the period of a window1 and not to prompt the designer4 ,the geometric character of the stonework proclaims the period1 and1 unless there is something in the design of the glass to indicate a later date1 it may be taken to belong to it4 ,it cannot well be earlier if it fits4 ,stain4--,yellow stain is proof positive that the glass is not much earlier than the fourteenth century1 for it is only about that time that the process of staining white glass yellow was discovered4 ,the occurrence therefore of white and colour upon the same piece of glass--i4e41 not glazed up with it1 but stained upon it1 is indicative of ,middle or ,late ,gothic4 ,stained yellow is always purer and clearer than pot-metal2 when pale it inclines to lemon1 when dark to orange4 ,it is best described as golden4 ,in comparison with it pot-metal yellow is brownish or brassy4 ,this yellow stain warms and brightens ,decorated windows1 especially those in grisaille4 ,it naturally does away with a certain amount of glazing1 for colour is now not entirely mosaic4 ,bands of yellow ornament in white windows1 if stained1 have lead on one side of them at most4 ,the hair of angels comes to be stained yellow upon white glass1 which towards the fifteenth century takes the place of the flesh tint4 ,figures4--,figures are still rather rudely drawn4 ,they do not always fill out their niches1 which1 indeed1 frequently overpower them4 ,in attitude they pose and would be graceful4 ,there is some swing about their posture1 but it is often exaggerated4 ,drapery becomes more voluminous1 fuller and freer1 as shown opposite4 ,at the back of the figure hangs commonly a screen diapered damask-fashion--the diaper often picked out of solid paint4 ,grisaille4--,the distinguishing characteristics of ,decorated grisaille are fully described in the chapter dealing with it4 ,it has usually a coloured border4 ,the foliated pattern no longer follows the lines of the white or coloured strapwork1 but it does not interlace with the straps 7pages #afc1 #ccc74 ,coloured bosses adorn the centre of the grisaille panels4 ,frequently these take the form of heraldic shields1 planted1 as it were1 upon the grisaille4 ,illustration3 #bbi4 ,s4 ,,ouen1 ,,rouen4 ,the practice of cross-hatching the background to grisaille foliage dies out in ,france and ,england4 ,in ,germany it survives throughout the period2 or1 it may be1 the background is coated with solid paint1 and the cross-hatching is in white lines scratched out of that4 ,naturalism4--,the foliation of the ornament is now everywhere naturalistic4 ,that is the surest sign of the period1 at first the only sign of change4 ,in grisaille patterns and in coloured borders you can identify the rose1 the vine1 the oak1 the ivy1 the maple1 and so on 7pages #afb1 #aff1 #afh74 ,in ,germany1 the design of ornamental windows consists often of naturalistic foliage in white and colour upon a coloured ground1 the whole rich1 but not so rich as ,early glass 7pages #aga et seq474 ,there also occur windows stronger in colour than ordinary grisaille1 designed on lines more geometric than those of ,french or ,english glass of the period 7page #agj74 ,illustration3 #bcj4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german4 ,colour4--,glass gets less streaky1 evener1 and sometimes lighter in tint1 as time goes on4 ,flesh tint gets paler and pinker1 and at last white2 white glass gets more nearly white4 ,much blue and ruby continue to be used2 but more green is introduced1 and more yellow1 often the two in combination4 ,in fact1 there is a leaning towards combinations of green and yellow1 rather than the red and blue so characteristic of ,early glass4 ,green is frequently used for backgrounds4 ,the pure bright emerald-like green gives way to greens inclining more to olive4 ,in some ,german windows1 green1 yellow1 and purple-brown predominate4 ,occasionally1 in the latter part of the century1 pale blue is modified by yellow stain upon it1 which gives a greenish tint4 ,painting4--,outline is still used2 but it becomes more delicate4 ,shading is still smeared on with a brush4 ,but in the latter half of the century it was the practice to stipple it1 so as to soften the edges and give it a granular texture4 ,this is not quite the same thing as the stipple or matt shading described on page #fd1 where the glass was entirely coated with a stippled tint and the lights brushed out4 ,illustration3 #bca4 ,,wells4 ,decorated glass is plentiful in ,england and ,germany1 not so abundant in ,france4 ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,perpendicular ,glass4--,by the fifteenth century the glass painter had quite made up his mind in favour of more light4 ,he makes use of glass in larger sheets1 and of lighter and brighter colour4 ,his white is especially purer than before1 and he uses it in much greater quantities4 ,illustration3 #bcb4 ,,figures1 ,s4 ,,mary',s1 ,,ross4 ,so decidedly is this so1 that a typical fifteenth century window strikes you as a screen of silvery-white glass in which are set pictures or patches of more or less brilliant1 rather than intensely deep1 colour4 ,design4--,design takes1 for the most part1 the form of figure and canopy windows1 schemed somewhat on the same lines as in the ,decorated period--the subjects1 that is to say1 cross the window in horizontal bands4 ,but there is so much white glass in the canopy work--it is practically all in white 7as stone7 touched with stain 7as gilding7--and it so entirely surrounds the figure subjects1 that you do not so much notice the horizontal bands 7into which the subjects really fall when you begin to dissect the design7 as the mass of white in which they are embedded4 ,illustration3 #bcc4 ,,perpendicular ,,canopy4 ,canopies4--,the larger ,perpendicular windows are now crossed by stone transoms1 so that very long lights do not1 as a rule1 occur4 ,each light has a canopy1 without any enclosing border 7#bcc74 ,the canopy stands1 as it were1 in the window opening1 almost filling it1 except that1 above1 behind the topmost pinnacles1 are glimpses of red or blue background1 not separated from the stonework by so much as a line of white1 heretofore of almost invariable occurrence4 ,the hood and base of canopy are shown in misunderstood perspective1 indicating usually a three-sided projection 7page #cdb74 ,its shafts and base rest upon the ground1 on which are painted grass and foliage1 all in white and stain4 ,when standing figures occupy the place of honour1 the base may very likely include a small subject1 illustrative of a scene in the life of the personage depicted above4 ,or the base may be a sort of pedestal 7page #agi74 ,the figures usually stand upon a chequered mosaic pavement in black and white1 or white and stain1 not very convincingly foreshortened 7page #ahe74 ,in the canopy may be little windows of pot-metal colour1 and in the base perhaps a spot or two of colour2 but1 whatever the amount of pot-metal 7never much7 or of stain 7often a good deal71 the effect is always silvery-white2 and as time goes on the canopy becomes more solidly and massively white4 ,the groining at the back of the niche just above the figures is a feature of the full-blown style4 ,the vault is usually stained1 less often glazed in pot-metal4 ,there is more scope for this coloured groining in windows where the canopy runs through several lights4 ,that is more common in ,france and ,germany than with us4 ,in ,english work each light has1 as a rule1 its own canopy4 ,in ,france1 and more especially in ,germany1 the canopies are not seldom in yellow instead of white1 golden in effect instead of silvery4 ,sometimes white and yellow canopies alternate 7,nuremberg1 ,munich74 ,the ,german canopy is often more florid1 and less distinctly architectural than the ,english4 ,perpendicular canopies are more in proportion to the figures under them than ,decorated4 ,usually they are important enough to be a feature in the window1 if not the feature4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are quite small and insignificant 7,east window1 ,york71 in which event the subjects appear more like a series of small panels1 one above the other4 ,in that case there is likely to be a large amount of white glass in the subjects themselves 7pages #beb1 #cci74 ,possibly the background is white4 ,in any case1 there is usually a fair share of white glass in the drapery of figures4 ,the faces also are almost invariably white1 often with stained hair2 and this white flesh is characteristic of the period4 ,until the turn of the century1 landscape or architectural accessories are1 to a large extent1 in white and stain1 against a blue or ruby ground4 ,variety of colour in the background 7or a further amount of white7 is introduced by means of a screen of damask behind the figure1 shoulder high1 above which alone appears the usual blue or ruby background1 diapered4 ,the screen may be of any colour3 purple-brown is not uncommon4 ,when scale permits1 the damask pattern is often glazed in colours1 or in white and stain upon pot-metal yellow4 ,illustration3 #bcd4 ,,figure ,,and ,,canopy ,,windows1 ,,bourges4 ,illustration3 #bce4 ,,fairford4 ,heraldic shields are more conspicuous than ever in the design4 ,donors and their patron saints are often important personages in the foreground of the picture4 ,tracery4--,tracery lights being now more of the same shape as the lights below1 the glass is designed on much the same plan4 ,that is to say1 they also contain little figures under canopies4 ,these are often entirely1 or almost entirely1 in white and stain1 only here and there a point of colour showing in the background1 more especially about their heads4 ,trefoiled1 quatrefoiled1 three-sided1 or other openings not adapted to canopy work1 have usually foliated ornament in white and stain1 with border line of white and stain1 the background painted in solid brown4 ,inscribed scrolls and emblematical devices in white and stain also occur in the smaller tracery lights4 ,grisaille4--,grisaille takes almost invariably the form of quarries4 ,the pattern of the quarries consists ordinarily of just a rosette or some such spot in the centre of the glass1 delicately outlined and filled in with stain4 ,a band of canopied figures sometimes crosses quarry windows1 the pinnacles of the canopies breaking into the quarries above4 ,figures occur also often in white and stain1 against a quarry ground1 without canopy1 standing perhaps on a bracket1 or on a mere label or inscription band 7,york ,minster74 ,occasionally we get subjects altogether in white and stain1 without quarry glazing4 ,in ,germany unpainted roundels1 or circular discs of white glass1 take the place of quarries 7page #bib74 ,detail of ,ornament4--,the detail of ,perpendicular foliage is no longer very naturalistic2 it has often the appearance of being embossed or otherwise elaborated4 ,it is most commonly in white with yellow stalks4 ,borders4--,the border is no longer the rule1 except in quarry windows4 ,it is now very rarely used to frame canopies4 ,where it occurs it is usually in the form of a block border1 differing only from that of the ,decorated period by the character of the painted detail4 ,borders all in white and stain also occur4 ,the border does not follow the deeply cut foils of the window head4 ,these are occupied each by its separate round of glass painted with a crown1 star1 lion's head1 or other such device1 in white and stain1 against which the coloured border stops4 ,stain4--,abundant use of beautiful golden stain is typical of the period4 ,stain is always varied1 sometimes shading off by subtle degrees from palest lemon to deep orange4 ,the deliberate use of two distinct tones of stain1 as separate tints1 say of a damask pattern1 argues a near approach to the sixteenth century4 ,so does the use of stain upon pot-metal yellow4 ,other signs of the mature style are3-- #a4 ,the very careful choice of varied and unevenly coloured glass to suggest shading or local colour4 #b4 ,the use of curious pieces of accidentally varied ruby to represent marble1 and the like4 #c4 ,the abrasion of white spots or other pattern on flashed blue 7the abrasion of white from ruby begins with the second half of the century74 #d4 ,the introduction of distant landscape in perspective1 and especially the representation of clouds in the sky1 and other indications of attempted atmospheric effect4 #e4 ,the treatment of several lights as one picture space1 without canopy4 ,colour4--,white glass is cooler and more silvery1 more purely white4 ,red glass is less crimson1 often approaching more to a scarlet colour4 ,blue glass becomes lighter1 greyer2 sometimes it is of steely quality1 sometimes it approaches to pale purple4 ,more varieties of purple-brown and purple are used4 ,purer pink occurs4 ,drawing4--,in the fifteenth century the archaic period of drawing is outgrown4 ,figures are often admirably drawn1 more especially towards the end of the period1 at which time the folds of drapery are made much of4 ,painting4--,painting is much more delicate4 ,the method adopted is that of stippling 7page #fd74 ,figure and ornament alike are carefully shaded1 quarry patterns and narrow painted borders excepted4 ,illustration3 #bcf4 ,,scraps ,,of ,,late ,,gothic ,,detail4 ,for a long while painters hesitated to obscure the glass much2 they shaded very delicately1 and used hatchings1 and a sort of scribble of lines1 to deepen the shadows4 ,as a result the shading appears sometimes weak1 but the glass is always brilliant4 ,illustration3 #bcg4 ,,fairford4 ,with the progress of the century stronger stipple shading was used2 more roundness and greater depth of shadow was thus achieved1 at proportionate cost of silvery whiteness and brilliancy in the glass4 ,the characteristic of the later technique was that it depended less upon mosaic1 and more upon paint4 ,leads were not used unless they were constructionally unavoidable2 and it was sought to avoid them4 ,the nimbus1 for example1 was glazed in one piece with the head 7page #ahi71 stained perhaps1 or with a pattern in stain upon it1 to distinguish it from the face2 or it showed white against the yellow hair4 ,from the lead lines alone of an ,early window1 and of many a ,decorated one1 you could read the design quite plainly4 ,the later the period the less that is so4 ,by the end of the fifteenth century the lead lines convey very often little or no idea of the picture1 which they hold together but no longer outline4 ,canopies1 for example1 are sometimes leaded in square quarries1 without regard to the drawing1 except where that must be 7page #cdb74 ,a pretty sure sign of period is afforded by the way the leads give1 or do not give1 the design4 ,exceptions are mentioned on page #gc4 ,where leads seem to occur more or less as it happens1 as though they might have been an after-thought1 that is most positive proof of ,late work4 ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,renaissance glass does not1 like ,gothic1 divide itself into periods4 ,it was at its best when it was still in touch with medival tradition4 ,illustration3 #bch4 ,,french ,,renaissance1 ,,mosaic4 ,the finest work in the new manner must be ascribed therefore to the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,after that its merits belong more to picture than to glass4 ,apart from details of architecture1 ornament 7as above71 costume and so on1 which at once proclaim the style1 it is difficult to distinguish between ,gothic and ,renaissance glass of the very early sixteenth century4 ,the distinction does not in fact exist2 for ,gothic traditions survive even in work belonging1 according to the evidence of its detail1 to the ,renaissance4 ,design4--,design takes now mainly the pictorial direction4 ,it spreads itself more invariably over the whole face of the window4 ,the canopy1 for example1 is seldom confined to a single light4 ,canopies4--,the canopy scheme is at first not widely removed from ,gothic precedent1 although the detail may be pronouncedly ,renaissance4 ,it frames the subject as before2 but it is less positively white4 ,it is enriched with much more yellow stain2 and the mass of white and stain is broken by festoons and wreaths of foliage1 fruit1 and flowers1 medallions with coloured ground1 ribbons1 or other such features1 in pot-metal colour4 ,a simple ,franois ,ier canopy is given on page #cdi4 ,sometimes these canopies consist rather of arabesque ornament than of anything that can properly be called architectural1 in white and yellow 7page #cej71 or perhaps all in yellow1 upon a ground of pot-metal colour 7page #bje72 that is to say1 the setting out of the window and the technique employed are absolutely ,gothic1 and perhaps not even very late ,gothic1 whilst the detail is altogether ,renaissance in design4 ,this mosaic manner 7as at ,auch7 bespeaks1 of course1 the early years of the ,renaissance4 ,another sure sign of lingering ,gothic influence is where the round arch is fringed with cusping4 ,the more typically ,renaissance form of design is where a huge monumental structure fills the greater part of the window1 not canopying a subject1 but having in front of it a figure group 7,transept of ,s4 ,gudule1 page #ga74 ,the foreground figures stand out in dark relief against the architecture and the sky beyond1 seen through the central arch4 ,into this grey-blue merges very often a distant landscape1 painted in great part upon the blue1 and really seeming to recede into the distance4 ,the effect of distance is largely obtained by contrast with the strong shadow of the soffits and sides of the arch seen in perspective4 ,we have here four characteristics of ,renaissance glass3-- #a4 ,the monumental canopy with figures in front of it4 #b4 ,strong contrast of light and shade4 #c4 ,fairly accurate perspective in the architecture4 #d4 ,something like atmospheric effect in the landscape1 which is painted more or less upon the sky4 ,when in a canopy the shadowed portions of the architecture are glazed in deep-coloured glass 7purple1 as a rule71 and not darkened by painting1 it indicates the early part of the century4 ,the canopy1 instead of being arched1 ends sometimes in a rich frieze and cornice 7,church of ,brou74 ,when it is in two stages1 enclosing two subjects1 the lower one has naturally this horizontal entablature 7,chapel of the ,holy ,sacrament1 ,s4 ,gudule74 ,a less usual treatment is where the figures do not occupy the foreground1 but are seen through the arch4 ,the subject occupies1 in fact1 very much the position of a painted altar-piece in a carved stone altar4 ,foreground figures prove often to be donors and their patron saints4 ,the head of the window above the great architectural canopy1 as it is convenient to call it1 is usually of plain white glass1 glazed in rectangular or diamond quarries 7page #ga74 ,a coloured ground above a ,renaissance canopy indicates ,gothic tradition1 and an ,early period therefore 7,s4 ,jacques1 ,lige74 ,more to the latter half of the century belong the pictorial compositions in which architecture1 more or less proper to the subject1 fills great part of the window1 the foremost arches adapting themselves1 sometimes1 to the stonework4 ,in this case the architecture is in white glass1 more or less obscured by painted shadow2 and pot-metal colour occurs only in the figures1 where it is perhaps quite rich1 in occasional columns of coloured marble1 and in a peep of pale blue distance seen through some window or other opening 7page #bac74 ,illustration3 #bci4 ,,fran,,ois ,,ier ,,canopy1 ,,lyons4 ,the grey-blue distance has often figures as well as landscape and architecture painted upon it2 to represent verdure it is stained green4 ,blue is more usual than white as a ground2 but that also occurs1 similarly painted4 ,the not very usual landscape in white1 with a blue sky above1 in the windows of ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge1 belongs to the early part of the century4 ,tracery4--,in small windows the subject1 or its canopy1 is often carried up into the tracery lights 7page #cfh71 or the architecture ends abruptly and horizontally at the springing of the arch1 and the heads of the lights are treated as part of the tracery4 ,tracery lights often contain figure subjects4 ,very commonly they are occupied by figures of angels robed in white and stain1 or in rich colour1 or with colour only in their wings1 playing upon musical instruments1 bearing emblems1 scrolls1 and so on1 all on a coloured ground 7page #bhj74 ,there occur also1 but less frequently1 cherubic heads1 portrait medallions1 badges1 twisted labels1 or other devices1 upon a ground of ruby1 pale blue1 purple1 or purple-brown4 ,a purple or purplish background is of the period4 ,coloured grounds are used without borders4 ,white grounds are usually diapered with clouds4 ,there is no very distinctive treatment of rose windows4 ,they are filled as pictorially as they well can be4 ,they contain1 perhaps1 a central subject and in the outer lights angels1 cherubs1 and the like1 much as in other tracery lights4 ,ornament4--,the detail of their ornament is a ready means of distinguishing ,renaissance windows4 ,in place of ,gothic leafage we have scrollwork of the marked arabesque or grotesque character derived from ,italy4 ,it needs no description4 ,screens and draperies have often patterns in white and stain on ruby and other coloured grounds1 produced by abrading the red and painting and staining the white thus exposed4 ,the process may be detected by the absence of intervening lead between the white or yellow and the deep ground4 ,other damask patterns are stained on the coloured glass without abrasion1 yellow on blue giving green1 on purple olive1 and so on4 ,ornamental windows scarcely go beyond quarry work1 with a border of white and stain4 ,except in quarry windows1 borders are seldom used4 ,grisaille windows scarcely occur4 ,the little subjects in white and stain painted upon a single piece of glass1 usually circular and framed in quarries or in a cartouche set in plain glazing 7page #ceb71 belong to a class by themselves4 ,illustration3 #bdj4 ,,church ,,of ,s4 ,,peter1 ,,cologne4 ,technique4--,in many respects the technique of the ,renaissance glass painter is only a carrying further of the later ,gothic means4 ,he uses more and more white glass1 employing it also as a background2 he uses more shades of coloured glass1 especially pale blues1 greens1 and purples2 he chooses his glass more carefully for specific purposes2 he uses more coated glass1 and abrades it2 he makes greater use of stain1 staining upon all manner of colours--ruby1 blue1 purple1 green--and even painting in stain1 and picking out high lights upon it in white4 ,he paints delicate work more delicately4 ,flesh-painting he carries to a very high point of perfection1 more especially in the portraits of ,donors4 ,in strengthening his shadows he eventually gets them muddy4 ,at first he used to hatch them to get additional strength2 eventually he was not careful always so much as to stipple them4 ,he uses often a warmer brown pigment for flesh painting1 and by-and-by resorts to a quite reddish tint by way of local colour2 he uses large pieces of glass when he can1 and glazes his backgrounds and other large surfaces in rectangular panes4 ,above canopies he comes to use pure white glass1 as if to suggest that the canopy is solid1 and beyond only atmosphere4 ,the one quite new departure in sixteenth century technique was the use of enamel colour 7see ,chapter ,,viii474 ,that began to come into use towards the middle of the century4 ,when you detect the least touch of enamel colour in a window1 other than the pinkish flesh tint1 you may suspect that it belongs to the second half of the century2 when it seriously affects the design and colour of the window1 you may be sure it does4 ,but it is not until quite the end of the century that mosaic anywhere practically gives way to enamel painting4 ,illustration3 #bda4 ,s4 ,,jean1 ,,troyes1 #afgh4 ,the sixteenth century1 therefore1 includes1 broadly speaking1 all that is best in ,renaissance glass and much that is already on the decline4 ,there is a tide in the affairs of art2 and after the full flood of the ,renaissance1 sweeping all before it1 glazing and glass painting sank to the very lowest ebb1 out of sight in fact of craftsmanship4 ,only here and there1 by way of rare exception1 was good or interesting work any longer done1--as for example at ,troyes1 where good traditions1 piously preserved in a family of exceptionally skilful glass painters1 were followed long after they were elsewhere extinct4 ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,you may recognise seventeenth century work not so much by any new departure in design 7except that it aims more and more at the effect of an oil picture1 and that the portrait of the ,donor and his family constitutes the picture7 as by its departure from the old methods1 the methods above described2 by the introduction of pure white glass1 glazed in geometric pattern1 in the upper half of the window or1 it may be1 as a background2 by the use of enamel paint instead of coloured glass2 by the abuse of heavy shading 7in the vain attempt to get chiaroscuro71 and by a loss1 consequently1 of the old translucency and brilliancy2 by the aggressiveness of the lead lines 7now that it is sought to do as much as possible without them72 by the adoption of thin-coloured glass1 toned by paint1 instead of deep pot-metal2 by the occurrence of whole panes of glass coated with solid paint2 by the decay of the enamel2 and by the general dilapidation of the window4 ,illustration3 #bdb4 ,,certosa ,,in ,,val ,d',,ema4 ,the unlearned must not be misled by the shabbiness of a window1 by the breakages1 the disfiguring leads which represent repair1 the peeling off of the paint1 and so on1 into the supposition that these are signs of antiquity4 ,on the contrary1 the very method of its making was the saving of ,early glass1 and ,late work owes its vicissitudes largely to the mistaken process adopted in its execution1--by which you may know it4 ,it would be beyond the scope of a book about glass to go more thoroughly into the characteristics of style generally4 ,enough to indicate what more especially concerns the subject in hand4 ,without some slight acquaintance with the course of art1 it will perhaps be difficult to trace the development of glass design4 ,historical or antiquarian knowledge of any kind will make it more easy4 ,not merely the character of ornament or architecture1 but the details of lettering1 costume1 heraldry1 give evidence in abundance to those who can read it2 but it is with art and craftsmanship that we have here to do4 ,the data given in this chapter and throughout are derived from the study of old work4 ,winston and other authorities have been referred to only to corroborate impressions gained by personal experience1--the experience only of a designer1 a workman1 a lover of glass1 professing to no more learning than a student must in the course of study acquire4 ,nevertheless these few notes on what is characteristic in design and workmanship1 may1 it is hoped1 be helpful to artists1 craftsmen1 students1 and lovers of art1 and perhaps sufficient for their guidance4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,style ,,in ,,modern ,,glass 7,a ,,postscript74 ,it is easy1 and it is only too common a thing1 for the designer to depend for inspiration over much upon old work2 but until he knows what has been done he is not fully equipped for his trade4 ,moreover1 a workman skilled only in his craft may be prolific in good work3 one1 on the other hand1 learned only in archology1 is1 in the nature of things1 sterile4 ,he may know as much about old glass as ,winston1 and fail as utterly even to direct design a-right as he did at ,glasgow4 ,the ,munich windows there are glaring evidence as to what a learned antiquary and devoted glass-lover can countenance4 ,too surely the fire of archological zeal warps a man's artistic judgment4 ,what1 then1 about historic style8 ,are we to disregard it in our work8 ,that question may be answered by another3 ,what about old work8 ,old work1 it is argued1 should be our guide4 ,well1 old work preaches no adherence to past styles4 ,it went its own way1 in delightful unconsciousness that the notion could ever occur to any one deliberately to go back to a manner long since out of vogue2 and when the idea of a ,renaissance did occur to the artist1 he very soon made it something quite different from the thing he set out to revive--if ever that was his deliberate intention4 ,it is too lightly assumed that the styles are there1 ready made for us1 and that all we have to do is to make our choice between them1 and take the nearest to a fit we can find4 ,so many of us only learn to copy1 whereas the whole use of copying is to learn4 ,artists study style for information1 not authority4 ,the truth is1 no style of old glass is fashioned to our use4 ,early ,gothic glass has most to teach us with regard to the mosaic treatment of the material1 and perhaps also about breadth and simplicity of design2 but when it comes to figure drawing and painting1 here is surely no model for a nineteenth century draughtsman4 ,renaissance work has most to teach in the way of painting and pictorial treatment2 but it is not an exemplar of workmanlike and considerate handling of glass4 ,because ,early work was badly drawn1 because ,decorated was ill-proportioned1 because ,perpendicular was enshrined in stone-suggesting canopy work1 because ,renaissance was apt to depend too much upon finish1 because seventeenth century work was overburdened with paint2 must a man1 therefore1 according to the style of the building for which his work is destined1 make it rude1 misproportioned1 stonelike1 ultra-finished1 or over-painted8 ,it happens that ,early figure work in glass was mostly in deep rich colour4 ,are we to have no figures1 therefore1 in grisaille8 ,it happens that later glass was1 at its best1 delicate and silvery in effect4 ,are we1 therefore1 to have no rich windows any more8 ,thirteenth century pictures were diminutive in scale4 ,are we to have no larger pictures ever8 ,sixteenth century subjects spread themselves over the whole window4 ,are we never to frame our glass pictures8 ,and as to that frame1 are we to choose once and for all the ornamental details of this period or that1 or the formula of design adopted at a given time8 ,whether in the matter of technique or treatment1 of colour or design1 no one style of old glass is enough for us4 ,what does an historic style mean8 ,partly it means that during such and such years such and such forms were in fashion2 partly it means that by that time technique had reached such and such a point1 and no further4 ,must we rest there8 ,if at a certain period in the history of design the scope of the glass painter was limited1 his art rude1 shall we limit ourselves in a like manner8 ,if at another it was debased1 ought we to degrade our design1 just because the building into which our work is to go is of that date1 or pretends to be8 ,it was the merest accident that in the thirteenth century drawing was stiff and design more downright than refined1 that the appliances of the glazier were simple1 and the technique of the painter imperfect4 ,it was an accident that silver stain was not discovered until towards the middle of the fourteenth century1 that the idea of abrading colour-coated glass did not occur to any one until nearly a century later1 that the use of the glass-cutter's diamond is a comparatively modern invention1 and so on4 ,out of the very scarcity of the craftsman's means good came2 and there is a very necessary lesson to us in that2 but to throw away what newer and more perfect means we have 7all his knowledge is ours1 if we will7 is sheer perversity4 ,to affect a style is practically to adopt the faults and follies of the period4 ,if you are bent upon making your glass look like sixteenth century work1 you glaze it in squares1 and introduce enamel4 ,to treat it mosaically would be not to make it characteristic enough of the period for your pedant1 notwithstanding that sixteenth century glass was1 by exception1 treated in a glazier-like fashion4 ,should one1 then1 it may be asked1 take the exception for model8 ,the answer to that is3 take the best1 and only the best4 ,it is no concern of the artist whether it be exceptional or of every-day occurrence2 some kinds of excellence can never be common4 ,is it good8 ,that is the question he has to ask himself4 ,with regard to the use of the forms peculiar to a style--,gothic ,tracery or ,renaissance ,arabesque--that is very much a question of a man's temperament4 ,has he any sympathy with them8 ,does that seem to him the thing worth doing8 ,if his personal bias be that way1 who shall say him nay8 ,assume even that the conditions of the case demand ,decorated or ,italian detail1 it does not follow that they demand precisely the treatment of such detail found in the fourteenth or the sixteenth century4 ,the style of a building is not to be ignored4 ,to put1 nowadays1 in a thirteenth or fourteenth century church windows in the style of the fifteenth or sixteenth would be absurd2 to put in a fifteenth or sixteenth century church windows in the style of the thirteenth or fourteenth1 more foolish still4 ,but it does not follow that in a church of any given century1 the modern windows should be as nearly as possible what would have been done in that century4 ,no man in his senses1 no artist at all events1 ever denied that the designer of a stained glass window must take into consideration the architecture of the building of which his work is to form part4 ,the only possible question is as to what consideration may be due to it4 ,the archologist 7and perhaps sometimes the architect7 claims too much4 ,certainly he claims too much when he pretends that the designer of a window should confine himself to the imitation of what has already been done in glass belonging to the period of the building1 or of the period which the building affects4 ,why should the modern designer submit to be shackled by obsolete traditions8 ,what is his sin against art1 that he should do this dreary penance1 imposed by architectural or ecclesiastical authority8 ,and what good is to come of it8 ,the unfortunate designer of modern glass is asked to conform both to the technique and to the design of glass such as was executed at the period to which belongs the building where his glass is to go1 no matter how inadequate the one or the other1 or both1 may be4 ,so far as technique is concerned1 it can scarcely be questioned that the only rational thing to do1 is to do the best that can be done under the circumstances4 ,that is equally the thing to aim at in design1 simply one's level best4 ,it seems strange that there should be two opinions on the subject4 ,a building of some centuries past 7or in that style7 is to be filled with nineteenth century glass4 ,choose your artist3 a man whose work has something in common with the sentiment of the period of the building1 a man with education enough to appreciate the architecture and what it implies1 with modesty enough to think of the decorative purpose of his work and not only of his cleverness2 let such a man express himself in his own way1 controlled only by the conditions of the case2 and there would be little likelihood that his work would1 in the result1 shock either the feelings or the taste of any but a pedant--and if art is to conform to the taste of the pedant1 well1 it is time the artist shut up shop4 ,why will men of learning and research discount1 nay1 wipe out1 the debt art owes to them1 by claiming what is not their due8 ,even though it were necessary or desirable that we should restrict ourselves to what might have been done in the thirteenth century or in the sixteenth1 that would not argue that we must do only what was done4 ,surely we may be allowed to do what the men of those days might conceivably have done had they possessed our experience4 ,surely we need not go for inspiration to the glass of a period when glass was admittedly ill-understood1 inadequate1 poor1 bad4 ,it is quite certain that the thirteenth century workmen did not realise all that might be done in painted glass1 quite certain that those of the seventeenth did not appreciate what might be done in mosaic glass4 ,it would be sheer folly to paint no better than a thirteenth century glazier1 because our window was destined for ,salisbury ,cathedral1 to make no more use of the quality inherent in glass than was made by a painter of the seventeenth century1 because it was designed for ,st4 ,paul's4 ,those who are really familiar with old work know that1 even in periods of decline1 work was sometimes done which showed no falling away from good tradition4 ,you may find ,renaissance glass almost as mosaic in treatment as thirteenth century work4 ,but because that was comparatively rare1 because the average work of the period was much less satisfactorily treated1 modern ,renaissance must1 it is absurdly assumed1 be on the same unsatisfactory lines4 ,suppose we want modern ,italian ,renaissance1 and1 further1 that we wish not only to retain the character of ,renaissance detail but to get good glass1 suppose also that we do not want forgery1--the thing to do would be1 to inspire oneself at the very best sources of ,italian ornament--carving1 inlay1 goldsmith's work1 embroidery1 no matter what 7ornament is specifically mentioned because it is in ornament that the tyranny of style is most severely exercised71 and to translate the forms thence borrowed into the best glass we can do4 ,that1 of course1 is not quite so easy as appropriation1 wholesale2 it implies research1 judgment1 a thorough knowledge of glass2 but it would certainly lead1 in capable hands1 to nobler work1 and work which might yet be in the ,italian spirit4 ,the danger is that it would clash1 not with ,renaissance feeling1 but with preconceived ideas as to what should be4 ,our affectations of old style would be much more really like old work if they pretended less to be like it4 ,had the old men lived nowadays they would certainly have done differently from what they did4 ,an artist in glass cannot safely neglect to study old work1 more especially in so far as it bears upon modern practice4 ,it is for him to realise1 for example1 what artistic good there was in early archaic design1 what qualities of colour and so on came of mosaic treatment1 what delicacy is due to the liberty of the later ,gothic glass painter1 what fresh charm there was in the more pictorial manner of the ,cinque-,cento1 and at what cost was this bought4 ,questions such as these are much more to the point than considerations of the date at which some new departure may have been made4 ,the several systems on which a window design was set out1 the various methods of execution--mosaic and paint1 pot-metal and enamel1 smear-shading and stipple1 cross-hatching and needle point1 matting and diapering1 staining and abrading--all these things he has to study1 not as indices of period1 but that he may realise the intrinsic use and value of each1 that he may deduce from ancient practice and personal experience a method of his own4 ,doubtful and curious points concern the antiquary not the artist4 ,he had best keep to the broad highway of craftsmanship1 not wander off into the byeways of archology4 ,typical examples concern him more than rare specimens--examples which mark a stage in the progress of art1 and about which there is no possibility of learned dispute4 ,he wants to know what has been done in order to judge what may be done1 and especially he wants to know the best that has been done4 ,the problem is how to produce the best glass we can in harmony with the architecture to which it belongs1 but without especial regard to what happens to have been done during the period to which the architecture of the building belongs4 ,we may even inspire ourselves at the sources of sixteenth century ,italian art1 and yet in no wise follow in the footsteps of the glass painters of the period1 who were more or less off the track2 we may set ourselves to do1 not what they did 7glass was not their strong point71 but what they might have done4 ,there1 if you like1 is an ideal worthy of the best of us4 ,if we pretend to be craftsmen we must do our work in the best way we know4 ,if we are men1 let us at least be ourselves4 ,let us work in the manner natural to us4 ,if we undertake to decorate a building with a style of its own1 let us acknowledge our obligation to it2 let us be influenced by it so far as to make our work harmonious with it--harmonious1 that is to say1 in the eyes of an artist1 not necessarily of a savant4 ,evidence of modernity is no sin1 but a merit1 in modern work4 ,to see how a man adapted his design to circumstances not those of his own day1 gives interest to work4 ,we never wander so wide of the old medival spirit as when we pretend to be medival or play at ,gothic4 ,true style1 as craftsmen know1 consists in the character which comes of accepting quite frankly the conditions inherent in our work4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,jesse ,,windows4 ,the subjects depicted in stained glass tell the story of the ,church1 or preach its doctrine4 ,scenes from the ,old ,testament1 from the ,life of ,christ1 from the legends of the ,saints1 and so on1 recur from the earliest ,gothic times1 and throughout the period of the ,renaissance4 ,these pictures accommodate themselves to the current plans of design1 or the plan of design is chosen to suit them1 as the case may be4 ,there is one subject1 however1 occurring from the first in glass1 which does not fall into any of the usual schemes of design1 and which1 in fact1 differs so entirely from any of them1 that it forms a class of design apart4 ,the subject1 in fact1 by way of exception to the rule1 not merely affects but determines the decorative form of the window4 ,this subject is the ,descent of ,christ--in short1 the genealogical tree of the ,saviour2 and the window devoted to its delineation is called a ,jesse window4 ,much freer and more varied scope for composition was offered by this piece of church heraldry than the ordinary medallion or figure and canopy window afforded1 and the glazier turned it early to exceedingly decorative use4 ,the tree is shown issuing1 as it were1 from the loins of ,jesse4 ,it bears his descendants1 or rather a very arbitrary selection of them 7it is as well not to inquire too strictly as to their legitimate right to be there71 ending in the ,virgin and the ,saviour4 ,the earliest arrangement of a ,jesse window is as follows3 at the base is the recumbent figure of ,jesse2 the straight stem of the tree1 proceeding from him1 is almost entirely hidden by a string of figures1 one above the other1 occupying the centre part of the window1 and represented1 for the most part1 as ,kings2 above them is the ,virgin1 also crowned2 and in the arch of the window sits our ,lord in ,majesty1 surrounded by seven doves1 to signify the gifts of the ,spirit4 ,it is not perhaps quite clear upon what these figures sit4 ,they hold on with both hands to branches of highly conventional ,romanesque foliage1 springing from the main stem1 and occupying the space about the figures in very ornamental fashion4 ,a series of half medallions on each side of this central design contain little figures of attendant prophets--in a sense1 the spiritual ancestors of the ,saviour4 ,all this is in the deepest and richest mosaic colour1 as in the beautiful bluish ,jesse window at the ,west end of the cathedral at ,chartres1 which belongs to about the middle of the twelfth century4 ,very much the same kind of thing occurs at ,le ,mans and elsewhere4 ,later the tree more often branched out into loops1 forming oval or vesical-shaped spaces1 in which the figures sat1 as may be seen on page #cfb4 ,the ground of the window is in that case blue1 the background of the figure ruby4 ,had it been red the figures would probably have been upon blue4 ,this particular instance1 by the way1 is said to be of the twelfth century1 although the ornament has more the character of thirteenth century work4 ,you see also the doves referred to encircling the figure sitting in ,majesty1 and the figures attendant upon the ,virgin4 ,sometimes these are prophets1 sometimes angels2 sometimes they stand in little canopy niches1 sometimes they are in the midst of the foliage4 ,the fragment from ,salisbury on page #aag formed most probably part of a ,jesse window4 ,the symbolic doves have often each a nimbus4 ,a single dove represents1 of course1 the ,holy ,ghost4 ,a rather suggestive variation upon the orthodox ,early scheme occurs in a window at ,carcassonne4 ,each of the three lights is bordered with a rather geometric pattern4 ,within the border the central light is designed much on the usual lines3 ,jesse recumbent below1 and above the figures of ,kings1 sitting each in his own little vesical-shaped space formed by the growth of the tree4 ,in the sidelights1 however1 the ,prophets are provided with the very simplest canopies1 one above the other4 ,an interesting arrangement is to be found in the clerestory of the cathedral at ,tours1 where the central light of a window has a ,tree of ,jesse1 with the usual oval compartments1 corresponding with hexagon-shaped medallions in the two sidelights1 in which are depicted scenes presumably appropriate to the subject2 it is difficult to make them out with any certainty4 ,illustration3 #bdc4 ,,part ,,of ,,early ,,jesse ,,window1 ,,mus,e ,,des ,,arts ,d,,coratifs1 ,,paris4 ,occasionally what seems at first sight a medallion window resolves itself1 as at ,s4 ,kunibert1 ,cologne1 into a kind of genealogical tree1 enclosing subjects illustrative of the descent of ,christ4 ,the rather unusual combination of medallion and vine shown below1 also ,german1 is of rather later date4 ,illustration3 #bdd4 ,,freiburg4 ,in the fourteenth century the tree naturally becomes a vine1 usually in colour upon a blue or ruby ground1 extending beyond the limits of a single light1 and crossing not only the mullions1 but the borders 7which1 by the way1 often confuse the effect of a ,decorated ,jesse window74 ,the vine extends also very often into the tracery1 where sits the ,virgin with the ,infant ,christ4 ,the figure of our ,lord is always1 of course1 the topmost feature of the tree--in the arms of the ,virgin1 in the lap of the ,father1 or sitting in ,majesty4 ,a variation upon ordinary practice occurs where the ,father supports a crucifix4 ,the figure of ,jesse naturally1 as at ,shrewsbury 7page #bda71 extends across several lights4 ,occasionally a figure and canopy window proves to be also a ,jesse window--a vine1 that is to say1 winds about the figures1 and connects them with the figure of ,jesse2 but this combination of canopy work with tree work 7as at ,wells1 some of the detail of which is given overleaf7 is confused and confusing4 ,a much happier combination of figures under canopies with tree work occurs in a sixteenth century window at ,s4 ,godard1 ,rouen1 which has at the base a series of five figures1 above whom spreads the tree1 its roots appearing above the head of the central one1 who proves to be ,jesse4 ,by the fifteenth century the vine is rather more conventionally treated4 ,it is usually in white and stain upon a coloured ground1 or1 if the leaves are green1 the stems are white and stain4 ,the figures also have more white in their drapery4 ,in the earlier part of the century the main stem branches very often in an angular manner so as to form six-sided bowers for the figures1 framing them1 perhaps1 in a different colour from the general groundwork of the window4 ,or the various lights of the window may have alternately a blue and a ruby ground4 ,it is rarely that two figures are shown in the width of a single light1 either in separate compartments or grouped in one4 ,illustration3 #bde4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,jesse ,,window1 ,,wells4 ,later the tree1 oftenest in white and stain1 branches more freely1 not twisting itself any longer into set shapes or obvious compartments4 ,the figures are1 as it were1 perched amongst its branches4 ,in ,french and ,german work the tree1 towards the sixteenth century1 is not so necessarily a vine4 ,it may take the form more of scrollwork1 white or yellow1 and the personages in its midst may be only demi-figures1 issuing possibly from vase-like flowers or flower-like ornament4 ,that is so in a remarkably fine window in the clerestory of the cathedral at ,troyes 7three lights of which are shown on page #cff71 where the figures no longer occupy the centre of the lights1 but are scattered about from side to side1 balanced in a very satisfactory way by their names writ large upon the background4 ,this characteristic lettering gives not only interesting masses of white or yellow on the ruby ground1 but horizontal lines of great value to the composition4 ,in the lower part of the window a separate screen of richest yellow marks off the figure of ,jesse1 and at the same time distinguishes the ,donors1 together with their family and their armorial bearings1 from the merely scriptural part of the design4 ,in earlier windows1 it should have been stated1 prominence is sometimes given to the really more important personages by drawing them to a much larger scale1 or by showing them full-length when the others are only half-length1 or by draping them all in white and stain1 whilst the rest are in colours not so strongly relieved against the ground4 ,there are two other rather unusual ,jesse windows at ,troyes1 both of ,late ,gothic period4 ,the one is at ,s4 ,nizier3 there the foliage is so rare as to give the effect almost of a leafless scroll4 ,the other is at ,s4 ,nicholas3 there the tree grows through into the tracery1 where it appears no longer1 as in the lights below1 upon a deep blue ground1 but upon yellow1 the radiance1 as it proves1 from the group of the ,trinity1 into which the tree eventually blossoms4 ,illustration3 #bdf4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,jesse ,,window1 ,,cathedral1 ,,troyes1 #adii4 ,quite one of the most beautiful ,jesse trees that exist is in a ,late ,gothic window at ,alenon4 ,it is unusual1 probably unique in design4 ,the figures1 with the exception of ,jesse1 are confined to the upper lights and tracery1 forming a double row towards the top of the window4 ,this leaves a large amount of space for the tree1 a fine1 fat1 ,gothic scroll1 foliated more after the manner of oak than acanthus leaves1 all in rich greens 7yellowish1 apple1 emerald-like7 on a greyish-blue ground4 ,it forms a splendid patch of cool colour1 contrasting in the most beautiful way with the figures1 draped mostly in purple1 red1 and yellow4 ,the figures issue from great flower-like features as big as the width of the light allows1 mostly of red1 or purple1 or white1 with a calyx in green4 ,the ,virgin issues from a white flower suggestive of the lily4 ,in the window shown on page #cfh the tree blossoms also into a topmost lily supporting the ,madonna4 ,a characteristic feature about the ,alenon window is1 the absence of symmetry in its scheme4 ,of the eight lights which go to make up its width1 only three are devoted1 below the springing of the great arch over it1 to the ,jesse tree4 ,three others contain a representation of the death of the ,virgin1 under a separate canopy1 and in the two outermost lights are separate subjects on a smaller scale4 ,this kind of eccentricity of composition is by no means unusual4 ,a ,jesse window very often occupies only one half or one quarter of a large ,late ,gothic window4 ,and the strange thing is that the effect is invariably satisfactory1 often delightful4 ,you do not miss the symmetry1 but enjoy the accidental variety of colour4 ,in sixteenth century work1 and even before that1 you meet with windows in which figures are in colours upon a white ground4 ,in that case the tree is usually painted upon the white and stained4 ,so it was in the beautiful ,flemish window1 parts of which are now dispersed over the ,east windows of ,s4 ,george's1 ,hanover ,square1 calculated1 there1 rather to mystify the student of design4 ,in it the grapes1 it will be seen 7page #baf71 are glazed in purple pot-metal colour4 ,in the present condition of the window1 now that the enamel-brown has partly peeled off1 the grape bunches scarcely seem to belong to the rather ghostly vine behind them4 ,that is a misfortune which not uncommonly happens where reliance has been placed upon delicate painting2 but for all that this is noble glass1 and the figures1 as was also not uncommon at the period1 are designed with great dignity4 ,illustration3 #bdg4 ,,jesse ,,window1 ,,beauvais4 ,there is distinction1 again1 in the drawing of the figures in the ,jesse at ,s4 ,etienne1 ,beauvais1 shown on page #cfh4 ,that is a splendid specimen of characteristically ,renaissance work4 ,jesse is honoured by a rich canopy of white and stain1 which allows of a deep purple background separating him from his descendants4 ,these appear as demi-figures1 very richly robed1 in strong relief against a pale purplish-blue ground of the atmospheric quality peculiar to the period4 ,the vase-shaped flowers whence they issue are also in rich colour1 dark against the ground1 as are the variegated fruits and green leaves of the tree1 but its branches are of silvery-white1 suggesting of birch-bark4 ,this tree-trunk is altogether too realistically treated for the ornamental leafage and still more arbitrary flowers growing from it2 but it is a marvellously fine window1 masterly in drawing and perfectly painted4 ,and it owes positively nothing to age or accident4 ,indeed1 the effect is somewhat diluted by restoration4 ,even on the reduced scale of the illustration given1 you can detect in the head of the hatless figure to the right a touch of modern ,french character2 and the fine colour of it all is fine in spite of the flatness of tint in the background1 for which the nineteenth century must be held responsible4 ,except for the confusion caused by the occasional introduction of canopies and borders1 a ,jesse window may be usually recognised at a glance4 ,in the cathedral at ,troyes1 however1 is what might be mistaken1 at first sight1 for a ,jesse tree4 ,but the recumbent figure is not that of ,jesse1 but of ,christ4 ,he lies1 in fact1 in the wine press1 whence grows a vine bearing half effigies of the ,twelve ,apostles1 and the patron saints of the ,donor and his wife1 who themselves had places in the lower portion of the sidelights1 but the figure of the wife is now missing4 ,the general design and effect of this window1 and especially the seriousness of the ornamental portion of it1 are such as almost to belie the period of its execution4 ,it is an exceptionally fine window for the year #afbe4 ,this same subject is anticipated in a sixteenth century window 7#aeeb7 at ,conches4 ,there the ,saviour treads the blue grapes1 and a stream of blood-red wine issues from them4 ,the frame of the press immediately behind him is designed to suggest the cross4 ,the ,jesse window referred to in the north transept at ,carcassonne is balanced by a window on the south1 which is of peculiarly interesting design1 not1 to my knowledge1 elsewhere to be found in glass1 although it occurs in ,early ,italian painting4 ,it represents the ,tree of ,life1 of ,knowledge of ,good and ,evil--which knowledge appears to be inscribed all over it and the window4 ,it might almost be described as a tree of lettering1 for it bears upon its branches 7which are labels7 and upon its fruit 7which are heart-shaped tablets7 voluminous inscriptions1 not1 in the present state of the glass1 always easy to decipher1 but most effectively decorative4 ,on either side the window1 by way of border to the outer lights1 is a series of little figures1 prophets1 or whoever they may be1 bearing other inscribed scrolls1 mingling with the boughs of the tree1 the leaves of which form1 as it were1 a kind of green and yellow fringe to the inscribed white branches4 ,at the foot of the tree stand ,adam and ,eve1 in the act of yielding to the temptation of the woman-headed serpent coiled round its trunk1 and beyond are shown the ,ark of ,noah and the ,ark of the ,covenant4 ,amidst the upper branches is a crucifix1 the narrow red cross so inconspicuous that the ,christ seems almost to hang upon the tree1 and at its summit is the emblem of the pelican1 ,qui sanguine pascit alumnos4 ,this is altogether not only a striking1 and1 at the same time1 most satisfactory window1 but an admirable instance of the use of lettering in ornament4 ,lettering is very often introduced into ,jesse windows1 and forms sometimes a conspicuous feature in them3 how much more use might be made of it is suggested by this ,tree of ,life4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,story ,,windows4 ,there is something very interesting in the simple heartedness with which the medival artist would attack a subject quite impossible of artistic realisation1 apart from his modest powers of draughtsmanship1 or the limitations of glass4 ,the daring of the man may be taken as evidence of his sincerity4 ,if he had not believed absolutely in the things he tried to pourtray1 he could not have set them forth so simply as he did1 not only in the quite archaic medallions of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 but even in pictures conceived at the end of what we call the ,middle ,ages4 ,it would be impossible nowadays to picture ,paradise1 as in the scene of the ,temptation at ,fairford 7overleaf71 with its bald architecture and little ,gothic fountain1 to say nothing of the serpent4 ,but down to the sixteenth century no subject was impossible to the designer4 ,even the ,creation did not deter him2 on the contrary1 it was a favourite subject in old glass1 throughout the medival period 7page #beb73 there is no shirking the difficulty of rendering the division of light from the darkness1 or the separation of the waters from the dry land4 ,indeed1 problems such as these are sometimes solved with very remarkable ingenuity1 if not quite in a way to satisfy us3 the ,creator in the likeness of a ,pope1 triple crown and all1 as at ,chlons-sur-,marne1 was pictured no doubt in all good faith and reverence4 ,perhaps one of the most daring notions ever put into stained glass occurs in a window in ,all ,saints' ,church1 ,north ,street1 ,york4 ,the design illustrates an old ,northumbrian legend called ,the ,pryck of ,conscience1 and boldly sets out to show--the fishes roaring1 the sea a-fire1 a bloody dew1 and1 as a climax1 the general conflagration of the world4 ,of heaven and hell ,i have no power to tell1 wrote the idle singer 7as he most wilfully miscalled himself7 of this perhaps empty day4 ,it was left to the modern artist to discover that4 ,the subject most frequently affected by the designer of the ,west window of a ,gothic church was ,the ,last ,judgment1 in which appeared our ,lord in ,majesty1 ,st4 ,michael weighing human souls1 angels welcoming the righteous into heaven1 and fiends carrying off the doomed to hell4 ,these ,doom windows1 as they are also called1 are not1 to the modern mind1 impressive--not1 that is to say1 as the pictures of reward and punishment hereafter they were meant to be4 ,the scene strikes us invariably as grotesque rather than terrible1 actual as it may have been to the simple artist1 who meant to be a sober chronicler1 and to the yet simpler worshippers to whom he addressed himself4 ,illustration3 #bdh4 ,,the ,,temptation1 ,,fairford4 ,apart from that1 ,last ,judgment windows are among the most interesting in the church4 ,the portion of the window1 in particular1 which is devoted to perdition is most attractive4 ,hell flames offered to the artist a splendid opportunity for colour1 upon which he seized with delight4 ,and the fiends he imagined6 ,doubtless those crude conceptions of his were very real to him1 convincing and terror-striking4 ,the grim humour which we see in them may be of our own imagining2 but that the draughtsman enjoyed his creations no artist will doubt4 ,illustration3 #bdi4 ,,part ,,of ,,last ,,judgment1 ,,fairford4 ,that is easy to understand4 ,his subject allowed him freedom of imagination1 gave him scope for fancy1 humour1 colour2 and all his faculties found outlet4 ,no wonder his would-be fiends live beautiful in our recollection6 ,in the midst of ruby flames dance devils1 purple1 black1 and brown1 gnashing carnivorous teeth or yellow fangs1 their beady1 white eyes gleaming with cruelty4 ,devils there are apparently red-hot2 others green and grey1 with a beautiful but unholy kind of iridescence about them4 ,as for the blue devils1 they are beautiful enough to scare away from the beholder blue devils less tangible1 which may have had possession of him4 ,there is a great white devil in a window at ,strassburg1 who has escaped1 it seems1 from the ,doom window near by1 but not from the flames about him1 a background of magnificent ruby4 ,the drawing of a part of the ,last ,judgment from ,fairford 7page #cgc7 gives only the grotesqueness of the scene1 the quaintly conceived tortures of the damned2 but that division of the glass is in reality a glory of gorgeous colour1 to which one is irresistibly attracted4 ,for that1 as ever1 the designer has reserved his richest and most glowing colour4 ,some slight touch of human perversity perhaps inspires him also4 ,at ,fairford1 at all events1 he has put some of his best work1 and especially some of his finest colour1 into the figures of the ,persecutors of the ,church4 ,unfortunately1 they are high up in the clerestory1 and so do not get their share of attention2 certainly they do not get the praise they deserve4 ,why1 one is inclined to ask1 this honour to the enemies of the ,church on the part of the churchman8 ,was he at heart a heathen giving secret vent in art to feelings he dared not openly express8 ,not a bit of it6 ,he was just a trifle tired of ,angels1 and ,saints1 and subjects according to convention2 he was delighted at the chance of doing something not quite tame and same1 and revelled in the opportunity when it occurred4 ,in the tracery openings above the persecutors1 where in the ordinary way would be angels1 are lodged much more appropriate little fiends4 ,they haunt the memory long after you have seen them1 not as anything very terrific1 but as bits of beautiful colour4 ,the ,devil overleaf1 hovering in wait for the soul of the impenitent thief upon the cross1 is not by any means a favourable specimen of the ,fairford fiends4 ,occasionally there is a grimness about the medival ,devil which we feel to this day4 ,in a window at ,s4 ,etienne1 ,beauvais1 there is a quite unforgettable picture of a woman struggling in the clutches of the evil one4 ,she is draped in green1 the ,devil is of greenish-white1 the architecture is represented in a gloom of purple and dark blue2 only a peep of pale sky is seen through the window4 ,on the one hand1 this is a delightful composition of decorative colour4 ,on the other it is intensely dramatic4 ,it sets one wondering who this may be1 and what will be the outcome of it4 ,the struggle is fearful1 the fiend is quite frantic in action4 ,one is so taken with the scene that one does not notice that his head is wanting1 and has been replaced by one which does not even fit his shoulders4 ,that the effect1 for all that1 is impressive1 speaks volumes for the story-teller4 ,illustration3 #bej4 ,,fairford4 ,alas1 alas1 the ,devil is dead6 ,his modern counterfeit is a fraud4 ,you may see this at the church of ,s4 ,vincent1 at ,rouen1 in one of the subjects representing the life of that saint1 where he puts the devils to flight4 ,the nearest of them is an evil-looking thing1 ruby coloured1 uncannily spotted1 like some bright poisonous-looking fungus4 ,the restorer has supplemented these retreating devils by a farther one painted on the grey-blue sky4 ,the imp is grotesque enough1 and very cleverly put in1 but it plainly belongs no longer to the early sixteenth century4 ,it suggests a theatrical property1 not the hobgoblin of old belief4 ,that is just what the devilry in old glass never does4 ,it must be owned that medival ,angels charm us less4 ,they are by comparison tame4 ,their colour is delicate and silvery1 belike1 but not seductive2 their wings sit awkwardly upon them2 they fulfil more or less trivial functions1 bearing scrolls or emblems1 shields of arms even4 ,they are not in the least ethereal4 ,they are too much on the model of man or woman4 ,what possible business1 for example1 have they with legs and feet8 ,yet it is by the rarest chance that the body is1 as it were1 lost in a swirl of drapery1 which1 by disguising the lower limbs1 makes the image by so much1 if not the more angelic1 at least the less obviously of the earth4 ,the glass hunter cannot but be amused every now and again by odd anachronisms in medival and even later illustrations in glass4 ,but wonder at them ceases when we remember how simple-minded was the craftsman of those days before archology4 ,if he wished to picture scenes of the long past--and he did--there was nothing for it but to show them as they occurred to his imagination--as happening1 that is to say1 in his own day2 and that is practically what he did4 ,he had perhaps a vague notion that a ,roman soldier should wear a kilt2 but in the main he was content that the onlookers at the ,crucifixion should be costumed according to the period of ,william the ,conqueror1 or ,maximilian1 in which he himself happened to live4 ,the practice had1 at least1 one advantage over our modern displays of probably very inaccurate learnedness1 in that it brought the scene close home to the unlearned observer1 and1 as it were1 linked the event with his own life4 ,in short1 there is more vitality in that rude story-telling than in the more elaborate histories1 much less inaccurate in detail doubtless1 to which to-day and henceforth artists are pledged4 ,there is no occasion to dwell upon the oddities of glass painting2 they are those of medival art all through4 ,if we take a certain incongruity for granted1 the guilelessness of it only charms us4 ,that same guilelessness enables the artist to make absolutely ornamental use of themes which to-day we might think it profane to make subservient to decorative effect4 ,we never question his sincerity1 though in the scene of the ,creation1 as at ,erfurth1 he made a pattern of the birds1 pair and pair1 each on its own tree4 ,he can safely show the staff of ,s4 ,christopher1 as at ,freiburg1 blossoming so freely as conveniently to fill the head of the window and balance the ,child upon his shoulder4 ,according as it occurs to him1 or as it suits his purpose1 kings and bishops take part in the ,crucifixion2 ,s4 ,michael tramples upon a dragon big enough to swallow him at a mouthful2 ,abraham goes out1 gorgeously arrayed in red and purple1 to slaughter ,isaac on a richly decorated altar1 and a white ram1 prancing among the green1 calls his attention to itself as the more appropriate sacrifice2 ,adam and ,eve are driven forth from ,eden by a scarlet angel1 draped in white1 with wings as well as sword of flaming red4 ,in this last case the peculiar colour has a significance4 ,elsewhere it implies the poverty of the glazier's palette1 or indicates the sacrifice of natural to artistic effect4 ,so it was that1 till quite the end of the thirteenth century1 we meet with positively blue beards1 ruby cows1 and trees of all the colours of the rainbow2 and even at a much later date than that1 primary-coloured cattle look over the manger at the ,nativity1 and ,christ is shown entering ,jerusalem on a bright blue donkey4 ,to the last the glass painter indulged in very interesting compound subjects--the ,nativity1 for example1 with in the distance the ,magi on their way2 the ,last ,supper1 and in the foreground1 relieved against the tablecloth1 ,christ washing ,peter's feet1 the apostles grouped round so as to form part of each or either subject4 ,sometimes a series of events form a single picture1 as where you have the ,temptation1 the ,expulsion1 ,eve with her distaff1 ,adam with his spade1 the childhood of ,cain and ,abel1 and the first fratricide1 all grouped in one comprehensive landscape4 ,consecutive pictures1 by the way1 generally follow in horizontal not vertical series1 beginning on your left as you face the window4 ,there is no invariable rule2 but in most cases the order of the subjects is from left to right1 row after row1 terminating at the top of the window4 ,from the beginning difficult doctrinal subjects are attempted1 as well as histories and legends4 ,in the sixteenth century the design is often an allegory1 full of meaning1 though the meaning of it all may not be very obvious4 ,the ,virtues1 for example1 no longer content to stand under canopies1 systematically spearing each its contrasting ,vice1 harness themselves1 as at ,s4 ,patrice1 ,rouen1 to a processional car1 in which are the ,virgin1 ,christ upon the ,cross1 and sundry vases1 preceded by the ,patriarchs and other holy personages4 ,another interesting morality1 at ,s4 ,vincent1 ,rouen1 is pictured in a medley of little figures each with descriptive label--,richesse1 for example1 a lady in gorgeous golden array2 ,pitie1 a matron of sober aspect2 ,les ,riches ,ingrass1 a group of gay young men2 ,le ,riche and ,le ,poure1 alike pursued by death4 ,another decorative device of the sixteenth century is the ,virgin1 lifesize1 surrounded by her emblems and little white scrolls describing them--,fons ortorum1 ,sivit as ,dei1 and so on1 in oddly spelt ,latin4 ,this occurs at ,conches4 ,in ,later ,gothic1 and of course in ,renaissance glass1 the situation is1 if not realised1 at all events dramatically treated4 ,one scarcely knows to which period to attribute the window at ,s4 ,patrice1 ,rouen1 with scenes from the life of ,s4 ,louis1 an admirably sober and serious piece of work4 ,conspicuous in it is the recurring mantle of the ,king1 deep indigo coloured1 embroidered with golden fleurs-de-lys1 on an inky-blue ground4 ,the whole effect is rich but strikingly low in tone4 ,an exceptionally fine scene is that in which the ,king1 in a golden boat with white sails1 ermine diapered1 a crown upon his head1 kneels in prayer before a little crucifix1 whilst his one companion lifts up his hands in terror3 the man is clad in green2 for the rest the colour is sombre1 only the pale blue armour of the ,saint1 his dark blue cloak1 for once undiapered--as if the artist felt that here the golden lilies would be out of place--and the leaden sea around3 that extends to the very top of the picture1 distant ships painted upon it to indicate that it is water4 ,an inscription explains how3-- ,en revenant du pays de ,syrie ,en mer fut tourmente 444 gde furie ,mais en priant ,jesu ,christ il en fut delivr4 ,it must be allowed that the storm does not rage very terrifically2 but the effect is not merely beautiful as colour but really descriptive1 and something more4 ,it is only occasionally that this much of dramatic effect is produced2 but touches of well-studied realism are common1 as where1 in the same church1 at the martyrdom of a saint1 the executioners who feed the fire shrink from the yellow flames and guard their eyes4 ,decorative treatment goes almost without saying in the early sixteenth century4 ,at ,s4 ,patrice1 again1 is a singularly fine instance of that4 ,in the centre of the window1 against a background of forest1 with the distant hunt in full cry1 ,s4 ,eustache stands entranced1 his richly clad figure a focus of bright colour2 facing him1 in the one light1 the legendary stag1 enclosing between its antlers the vision of the crucifix1 balanced1 in the other1 by the white horse of the convert3 the note of white is repeated in the lithe hounds running through the three lights1 and1 with the silvery trunks of the trees1 holds the composition together4 ,this subject of the ,conversion of ,s4 ,hubert was rather a favourite one in glass1 and was usually well treated4 ,the stag is invaluable4 ,at ,erfurth he stands against the green1 a mass of yellow1 with purple antlers1 which form a vesica-shaped frame for the fabled vision4 ,the use of white1 by the way1 as a means of holding the window together is remarkable throughout ,later glass1 even apart from white canopy work4 ,in the cathedral at ,perugia there is a window in which a stream of white pavement flows1 as it were1 down through the groups of richly coloured figures1 emphasising them1 and at the same time connecting them with the canopy4 ,there is no end to the interest of subject in glass2 but the subject would lead us too far astray from the purpose of this book4 ,enough has been said to indicate the kind of interest which each of us best finds for himself in glass hunting4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,see ,,windows4 ,the just appreciation of stained glass is more than difficult1 and judgment with regard to it more than ordinarily fallible4 ,it is too much to expect of a window that it should stand the test of a light for which it was not designed4 ,the most conscientious artist can do no more than design it for the light by which he imagines it is most likely to be seen4 ,there must inevitably be times of day1 when the sun is in a position not favourable to it1 and many days when the intensity of the light1 even though it come from the right quarter1 is not what he relied upon4 ,it happens1 of course1 that glass is often seen under such conditions that the brilliancy of the windows on one side of the church is literally put out by a flood of light poured in upon them through the windows 7brilliantly illuminated by it7 on the opposite side4 ,the best of critics could not appreciate the best of glass under circumstances like that4 ,suppose the windows north and south of a church to be of equal merit1 one's appreciation of them1 at first sight1 would depend upon the time of day2 and the light which did most justice to the northern windows would do least to the southern1 and vice vers4 ,experience teaches a man to make allowances1 but he can only judge what he has seen2 and it is only with the light shining through a window that he can see its colour or judge of its effect4 ,the wonderful difference which the strength of the light makes in the appearance of a window1 is nowhere quite so obvious as in the case of windows1 not of glass1 but of translucent alabaster--as1 for example1 at ,orvieto1 in the lower lights on either side of the nave1 or1 framed in black marble mullions1 at the ,west end of the cathedral4 ,the more or less square-shaped slabs of which they are formed are1 in very many cases1 made up of a number of pieces cemented together in lines which take very much the place of lead lines1 and suggest1 with the bars holding them in place1 the practice of the glazier2 but the effect is much less that of glass than of deepest amber in the unbroken panels1 of gorgeous tortoise-shell in those that are patched and pieced together4 ,these last are1 if not the more beautiful1 certainly the more interesting4 ,the brown and gold and horny-white grow murkier when the light does not shine full upon the windows2 but there is a mystery about the colour still1 which makes up for the loss of brilliancy4 ,if your mood is that way1 you may find in the curious marbling of the stone strange pictures of cloudland and fantastic landscape4 ,it is partly the shape1 no doubt1 of a circular slab high above the western door1 which calls to mind the image of the moon with its mysterious mountains4 ,a more delicate1 if not always so rich an effect1 is to be seen in the great monolithic slabs which fill the five square-headed windows in the apse of the upper church at ,s4 ,miniato4 ,effect1 did ,i say8 ,nay1 rather effects1 for they change with every gradation in the light4 ,you may see at first little more than flat surfaces of pleasantly mottled white and purple-grey1 translucent1 but comparatively dull and dead4 ,then1 as the sun creeps round the corner1 a strange life comes into them4 ,the white and palest greys begin to glow1 and turn by slow degrees to pearly-pink1 which kindles into gold1 and deepens in the duskier parts to copper-red4 ,the stronger markings of the stone now show out in unsuspected strength1 and the lighter veins take on by contrast a greenish tint1 so that the warm colour is subtly shot with its cool counterpart4 ,if1 when you first see the windows1 the sun illumines them1 the effect is less magical2 you get your strongest impression first2 but in the course of an hour or so a great change may take place--when1 for example1 towards noon the light passes away2 but for a long while the stone remains luminous4 ,your eyes are open now1 and in the delicate ashen-grey you see--or is it that you feel it to be there8--a tint of rose4 ,in proportion as it is less opaque than alabaster1 glass is less perceptibly affected by changes of light2 but1 whether we perceive it or not1 it owes all its effect to the light shining through it4 ,the most fair-minded of us misjudge windows because we cannot see them often enough to be quite sure we have seen them at their best--that is to say1 on the right day1 and at the right time of day4 ,in comparing one window with another we are more than ever likely to do injustice4 ,even if they happen to be both in the same church1 the light most favourable to the one may1 as just said1 be quite the least favourable to the other4 ,each must in fairness be judged at its best2 and it is no easy matter to compare to-day's impression with yesterday's1 or it may be last week's--more especially when a newer impression of the same thing1 staring you in the face1 will stamp itself upon the vision4 ,when years1 instead of days1 intervene1 the justice of even the most retentive memory is open to gravest doubt4 ,go to the church of ,s4 ,alpin1 at ,chlons1 and in the morning you will find the ,east windows brilliantly rich3 in the early afternoon1 even of a bright day1 they will be lacking in transparency1 dull1 ineffective4 ,so at ,s4 ,sebald's1 ,nuremberg1 the splendid fourteenth century glass on the north side of the choir proves absolutely obscure in the late afternoon4 ,grisaille1 which was delicate under a moderately subdued light1 will appear thin and flimsy with a strong sun behind it4 ,it has happened to me to describe the same glass on one occasion as too heavily1 on another as too thinly painted2 and1 again1 to describe a window as warm in tone which memory 7and my notes7 had painted cool4 ,on another occasion1 well-remembered windows were not to be identified again4 ,it seemed that in the course of a few intervening years they must have been restored out of all knowledge2 a few hours later in the day there was no mistaking them1 though they had1 indeed1 lost something by restoration4 ,when the most careful and deliberate notes tell such different1 and indeed quite opposite1 stories1 notes made at times not far enough apart to allow for anything like a complete change of opinion on the part of the critic1 it is clear that conditions of light go so far towards the effect of glass1 that it is quite impossible to appraise it fairly the first time one sees it4 ,the more momentary the impression on which one has to found an opinion1 the more essential it is that we should choose the moment4 ,the strongest light is by no means the most favourable to glass4 ,in a glare of sunlight it is quite probable that some unhappy windows will have more light shining upon than comes through the glass4 ,happiest are the windows seen by the subdued light of a rainy day4 ,occasionally a window1 so deep that under ordinary conditions of light it is obscure1 may need the strongest possible illumination2 but even in the case of very deep-toned windows--such1 for example1 as those in the transepts of the ,duomo at ,florence--the glass1 as a whole1 is best seen by a sober light4 ,you get the maximum of colour effect with the minimum of hurt to any individual window1 if there be any hurt at all4 ,a really garish window may be beautiful as the light wanes4 ,the great ,north ,rose at ,notre ,dame 7,paris7 is impressive at dusk4 ,other conditions upon which the effect of glass largely depends are quite beyond our control4 ,as a matter of fact1 we rarely see it at its best4 ,for one thing1 we do not see it in sufficient quantity4 ,we find it in here and there a window only1 white light shining unmitigated from windows all round4 ,perhaps in the window itself there is a breakage1 and a stream of light pours through it1 spoiling1 if not its beauty1 all enjoyment of it4 ,it is not generally understood how completely the effect of glass depends upon the absence of light other than that which comes through it4 ,every ray of light which penetrates into a building excepting through the stained glass does injury to the coloured window2 more often than not1 therefore1 we see it under most adverse circumstances4 ,it is worse than hearing a symphony only in snatches2 it is rather as if a more powerful orchestra were all the while drowning the sound4 ,it takes an expert to appreciate glass when light is reflected upon it from all sides4 ,the effect of some of the finest glass in ,germany1 as at ,munich and ,nuremberg1 is seriously marred by a wicked ,german practice of filling only the lower half of the window with coloured glass and glazing the upper part in white rounds4 ,that enables folk to read their ,bibles1 no doubt2 but the volume of crude white light above goes far to kill the colour of the glass4 ,in such case it is not until you have shut off the offending light that it is possible to enjoy1 or even to appreciate1 the windows4 ,a comparatively dark church is essential to the perfect enjoyment of rich glass4 ,the deep red light-absorbing sandstone of which ,strassburg and ,shrewsbury ,cathedrals are built1 adds immensely to the brilliancy of their beautiful glass4 ,white light is the most cruel1 but not the only1 offender4 ,old glass sometimes quarrels with old glass4 ,an ,early window is made to look heavy by a quantity of ,late work about it1 and a ,late window pales in the presence of deep rich ,early glass4 ,as for modern work1 it is that which suffers most by comparison with old2 but it arouses often a feeling of irritation in us which puts us out of the mood to enjoy4 ,worst offence of all is that done in the name of restoration1 where1 inextricably mixed up with old work1 is modern forgery2 not clever enough to pass for old1 but sufficiently like it to cast a doubt upon the genuine work1 at the same time that it quite destroys its beauty4 ,something of our appreciation depends upon the frame of mind in which we come to the windows4 ,they may be one of the sights of the place2 but the sight-seeing mood is not the one in which to appreciate4 ,how often can the tourist sit down in a church with the feeling that he has all the day before him1 and can give himself up to the enjoyment of the glass1 wait till it has something to say to him8 ,a man has not seen glass when he has walked round the church1 with one eye upon it and the other on his watch1 not even though he may have made a note or two concerning it4 ,you must give yourself up to it1 or it will never give up to you the secret of its charm4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,windows ,,worth ,,seeing4 ,the course of the glass hunter seems never yet to have been clearly mapped out for him4 ,nor can he depend upon those who pretend to direct his steps4 ,the enthusiastic description of the monograph proves in the event to have very likely no warrant of art2 the paragraph in the guide-book is so cold as to excite no spark of curiosity about what may be worth every effort to see4 ,between the two a beginner stands uncertain which way to turn1 and as often as not goes astray4 ,the question which perplexes him on the very outskirts of the subject is3 ,which are the windows to see8 ,that depends4 ,some there are which every one who cares at all about glass should certainly see1 some which the student who really wants to know should study1 some which the artist should see1 if merely for the satisfaction of his colour sense4 ,to enumerate only a single class of these would be to write a catalogue2 but catalogues are hard reading2 the more interesting and more helpful course will be1 to tell shortly of some of the windows best worth seeing1 and why they should be seen4 ,and if choice be made of instances typical enough to illustrate the history of glass1 the list may serve as an itinerary to such as may think it worth while to study it1 as it should be studied1 not in books1 but in churches4 ,illustration3 #bea4 ,,grisaille ,,patterns1 ,,salisbury4 ,churches favourable to the study of ,early glass in ,england are not very many4 ,a series of thirteenth century windows is rare2 and good examples1 such as the fragments from the ,s4 ,chapelle1 at ,south ,kensington1 are few and far between4 ,the one fine series of medallion windows is at ,canterbury ,cathedral1 in the round-headed lights of the choir4 ,in the clerestory also is some figure work1 on a larger scale1 but less admirable of its kind4 ,for good thirteenth century grisaille in any considerable quantity one must go to ,salisbury1 where1 fortunately1 the aisle windows are near enough to the eye to show the very characteristic patterns of the glass4 ,to sit there in the nave and wait until service is over1 is no hardship even to the most ardent glass hunter4 ,the silvery light from the windows facing him at the ,east end of the aisles is solace and delight enough4 ,yet more enchanting is the pale beauty of the ,five slim ,sisters1 in the ,north transept of ,york ,minster2 that1 however1 is gained1 to some extent1 by the confusion of the pattern1 which is not quite typically ,early1 but begins to show symptoms of a transition stage in design4 ,to appreciate at its full value the stronger colour of the ,early mosaic glass one must cross the ,channel4 ,we have nothing in this country to compare in quantity1 and therefore for effect1 with the gorgeous glass illuminating the great ,french churches4 ,reims1 for example1 ,bourges1 ,le ,mans1 are perfect treasure houses of jewelled light4 ,but richer than all is ,chartres4 ,the windows there are less conveniently placed for study than at ,le ,mans1 but they are grander1 and more in number4 ,at ,reims the art is coarser1 though the magnificence of certain red windows there lives in the memory4 ,emphatically ,chartres is the place to know and appreciate thirteenth century glass4 ,no other great church of the period retains so much of its original glazing2 and since it is one of the largest1 and the glass is very much of one period1 it follows that no church contains so much ,early glass4 ,the impression it produces is the more pronounced that there is little else4 ,except for a modern window or two1 one ,late ,gothic window1 and some four or five lights of grisaille1 which belong to the second period1 the glass throughout this vast building is typically ,early4 ,it is well worth a pilgrimage to ,chartres only to see it4 ,you may wander about the church for hours at a time1 unravelling the patterns of the windows1 and puzzling out the subjects of the medallion pictures4 ,to sit there in more restful mood upon some summer afternoon1 when the light is softened by a gentle fall of rain1 is to be thrilled by the beauty of it all4 ,it is as though1 in a dream1 you found yourself in some huge cavern1 lit only by the light of jewels1 myriads of them gleaming darkly through the gloom4 ,it is difficult to imagine anything more mysterious1 solemn1 or impressive4 ,yes1 ,chartres is the place in which to be penetrated by the spirit of ,early medival glass4 ,there is a story told of a child sitting for the first time in his life in some ,french church1 awed by the great ,rose window facing him1 when all at once the organ burst into music2 and it seemed to him1 he said1 as if the window spoke4 ,words could not better express than that the powerful impression of ,early mosaic glass1 the solemnity of its beauty1 the way it belongs to the grandeur of the great church1 the something deep in us vibrating in answer to it4 ,exceptionally interesting ,early glass is to be found in the cathedral of ,poitiers2 but it is hurt by the white light from other windows4 ,in the case of ,early coloured windows it is more than ever true that their intensity can only be appreciated when all the light in the building comes through them4 ,that intensity1 as was said1 is deepened where1 as at ,strassburg1 the colour of the walls absorbs instead of reflecting light4 ,there the red sandstone of which the church is built gives back so little light that1 as you enter the door1 you step from sunshine into twilight1 in which the glass shines doubly glorious4 ,some of these 7certain of the ,kings1 for example1 on the north side of the nave1 each with its huge nimbus eddying1 as it were1 ring by ring of colour1 out to the margin of the niche7 are of the thirteenth if not of the twelfth century2 but they are typical of no period4 ,the borders framing them are perhaps a century later than the figures4 ,indeed1 the period of this glass is most perplexing to the student of style1 until he realises that1 after the great fire at the very end of the thirteenth century1 remains of earlier glass1 spared from the wreck1 were incorporated with the newer work4 ,and1 not only this1 but1 what was rare in medival days1 the fourteenth century designer1 in his endeavour to harmonise1 as he most successfully did1 the old work with the new1 gave to his own work a character which was not of his period1--much to the mystification of the student1 who too readily imagines that he cannot go far wrong in attributing to the glass in a church a date posterior to its construction4 ,the cathedral at ,strassburg is rich also in distinctly ,decorated glass1 to all of which the tourist pays no heed4 ,he goes there to see the clock4 ,if he should have a quarter of an hour to spare before noon--at which hour the cock crows and the church is shut--he allows himself to be driven by the verger1 with the rest of the crowd1 into the transept1 and penned up there until the silly performance begins4 ,to hear folk talk of the thing afterwards at the table d'hte you might fancy that ,erwin ,von ,steinbach had built his masterpiece just to house this rickety piece of mock old mechanism4 ,some of the most interesting glass of the ,middle ,gothic period is to be found in ,germany1 for tradition died hard there2 and1 whilst thirteenth century glass was more often ,romanesque than ,gothic in character1 that of the fourteenth often followed closely the traditions of earlier ,gothic workmanship4 ,the ,germans excelled especially in foliage design1 which they treated in a manner of their own4 ,it was neither very deep in colour nor grisaille1 but midway between the two4 ,the glass at ,regensburg is an exceedingly good instance of this treatment2 but instances of it are to be found also in the ,museum at ,munich1 very conveniently placed for the purposes of study4 ,the windows at ,freiburg in the ,black ,forest should also be seen4 ,but some of the very richest figure work of the period is to be found in the choir windows of ,s4 ,sebald's ,church1 at ,nuremberg4 ,except for the simplicity of their lines these are not striking in design2 but the colour is perhaps deeper in tone than in the very richest of thirteenth century glass4 ,the first impression is that the composition is entirely devoid of white glass2 but there proves to be a very small amount of horny-tinted material which may be supposed to answer to that description4 ,as the light fades towards evening these windows become dull and heavy2 but on a bright day the intensity of their richness is unsurpassed4 ,they have a quality which one associates rather with velvet than with glass4 ,illustration3 #beb4 #ad,,th ,,century ,,german ,,glass4 ,excellent ,decorated glass1 and a great quantity of it1 is to be found at ,evreux1 and again at ,troyes4 ,the clerestory of the choir at ,tours is most completely furnished with rich ,early ,decorated glass of transitional character--interesting on that account1 and1 at the same time1 most beautiful to see4 ,there is other ,decorated work there with which it is convenient to compare it1 together with earlier and later work more or less worth seeing4 ,again most interesting work1 but not much of it1 and that rather fragmentary1 is to be found at the church of ,s4 ,radegonde1 at ,poitiers2 but there was in ,france at about that time rather a lull in glass painting4 ,in ,england1 on the contrary1 there is an abundance of it4 ,there is good work in the choir of ,wells ,cathedral4 ,part of it is in a rather fragmentary condition1 but it is all very much of a period2 and there is enough of it to give a fair idea of what ,english ,decorated glass is like4 ,york ,minster is rich in it4 ,it is quite an object lesson in style to go straight from the contemplation of the ,five ,sisters1 which belong to the latter part of the ,early period of glass painting1 into the neighbouring vestibule of the ,chapter ,house1 where the windows are of the early years of the ,second ,period1 and thence to the ,chapter ,house itself1 where they are typically ,decorated4 ,the study of ,decorated glass can be continued in the nave again1 which is filled with it4 ,entering1 then1 the choir1 you find mainly ,perpendicular glass1 much of it typical of ,english work of the ,late ,gothic period4 ,other very beautiful ,late ,gothic work is to be found in some of the smaller churches of ,york1 such as ,all ,saints'4 ,there is a window there made up of fragments of old glass1 among which are some very delicately painted and really beautiful heads4 ,this work is all characteristically ,english4 ,english also is the glass in the ,priory ,church at ,great ,malvern4 ,there is a vast quantity of it1 too1 which adds to its effect2 but unfortunately1 a great part of it now fills windows for which it was obviously not designed4 ,this is the more unfortunate because1 where it has not been disturbed1 it shows unmistakable evidence of having been very carefully designed for its place4 ,the tracery of the great ,east window is1 for example1 an admirable instance of the just balance between white and colour so characteristic of later ,gothic glass4 ,again1 the ,creation window1 amongst others1 is a lesson in delicate glass painting4 ,illustration3 #bec4 ,,fairford4 ,distinctly ,english in the delicacy of their painting are1 again1 the windows in the church of ,s4 ,mary1 ,ross4 ,the far-famed windows of ,fairford are1 of course1 not ,english4 ,they were captured1 the story goes1 at sea1 and brought to ,gloucestershire1 where a ,perpendicular church was built to accommodate them4 ,english antiquaries make claim that they are ,english1 but internal evidence shows them to be ,flemish or ,german4 ,considerable notoriety attaches to the ,fairford windows owing to a theory which was at one time propounded to the effect that they were designed by ,albert ,drer4 ,the theory is now as dead as a back number1 but the notoriety remains--and not undeservedly2 for although this glass stands by no means alone1 and is distinctly second to some contemporary work 7such1 for example1 as that on the north side of the nave of ,cologne ,cathedral1 which ,drer might conceivably have designed71 it is remarkably fine2 and it enjoys the comparatively rare distinction of practically filling the windows of the church4 ,you not only1 therefore1 see the colour 7which1 rather than the painting1 is its charm7 at its best1 but you have a complete scheme of decoration--,type answering to ,anti-type1 the ,twelve ,apostles corresponding to the ,prophets1 the ,evangelists to the ,four ,fathers1 and again the ,saints opposed to the ,persecutors of the ,church4 ,most old glass owes something to the disintegration of its surface1 and the consequent refraction of the light transmitted through it4 ,in the ,fairford glass the colours are more than usually mellow4 ,the white1 in particular1 is stained to every variety of green and grey--the colour1 as it proves1 of the minute growth of lichen with which it is overgrown4 ,it is said that1 when the fury of iconoclasm was abroad1 this glass was buried out of harm's way2 which may possibly have hastened the decay of the glass1 and so have given root-hold for the growth which now glorifies it4 ,it would not be easy to find finer instances of ,late ,gothic ,german work than the five great windows on the ,north side of ,cologne ,cathedral4 ,there1 too1 one has only to turn right-about-face to compare early sixteenth century with nineteenth century ,german practice1 and on precisely the same scale1 too4 ,any one who could hesitate for an instant to choose between them1 has everything yet to learn in regard both to glass and to colour4 ,the garish modern transparencies show1 by their obvious shortcomings1 the consummate accomplishment of the later ,gothic glass painters4 ,there is a very remarkable late ,gothic ,jesse window in the ,lorenz ,kirche at ,nuremberg1 and another almost equal to it in the cathedral at ,ulm4 ,the ,tree of ,jesse is very differently1 but certainly not less beautifully1 rendered in the fine ,west window at ,alenon4 ,in most of the great ,french churches1 and in many of the smaller ones1 you find good fifteenth century work4 ,at ,bourges you have seven four-light windows and one larger one1 all fairly typical4 ,the best of them is in the chapel of ,jacques ,coeur1 the ,jack that built at ,bourges quite one of the most remarkable of medival houses extant4 ,but there is no one church which recurs before all others to the memory when one thinks of ,late ,gothic glass in ,france4 ,one remembers more readily certain superlative instances1 such as the flamboyant ,rose window at the ,west end of ,s4 ,maclou1 at ,rouen1 a wonder of rich colour1 or the ,western ,rose in the cathedral there4 ,the fact is1 that the spirit of the ,renaissance begins early in the sixteenth century to creep into ,french work2 and1 as glass painting arrives at its perfection1 it betrays very often signs of going over to the new manner4 ,this is peculiarly the case in that part of ,france which lies just this side of the ,alps2 so much so1 that a markedly mixed style is commonly accepted as ,burgundian4 ,this is most apparent in the beautiful church of ,brou1 a marvel of fanciful ,gothic1 florid1 of course1 after the manner of the ,early sixteenth century1 extreme in its ornamentation1 but1 for all but the purist1 extremely beautiful4 ,the church itself is as rich as a jewel by ,cellini1 and infinitely more interesting2 and the glass is worthy of its unique setting4 ,there is a very remarkable series of windows to see in the cathedral at ,auch1 all of a period1 all by one man1 filling all the eighteen windows of the choir ambulatory4 ,transition is everywhere apparent in them1 though perhaps one would not have placed them quite so early as #aeac1 the date ascribed to them4 ,a notable thing about the work is its scale1 which is much larger than is usual in ,french glass of that period4 ,nowhere will you find windows more simply and largely designed or more broadly treated4 ,nowhere will you find big ,renaissance canopies richer in colour or more interesting in design4 ,the fifty or more rather fantastically associated ,prophets1 ,patriarchs1 ,sibyls1 and ,apostles depicted1 form1 with the architecture about them and the tracery above1 quite remarkable compositions of colour4 ,and it is very evident that the colour of each window has been thought out as a whole4 ,there is not one of these windows which is not worth seeing4 ,they form collectively a most important link in the chain of style1 without1 however1 belonging to any marked period4 ,indeed1 they stand rather by themselves as examples of very ,early ,renaissance work1 aiming at broad effects of strong colour 7quite opposite from what one rather expects of sixteenth century ,french work71 and reaching it4 ,and though the artist works almost entirely in mosaic--using coloured glass1 that is to say1 instead of pigment--and depends less than usual upon painting1 he yet lays his colour about the window in a remarkably painter-like way4 ,there are noteworthy windows at ,chlons-sur-,marne1 in the churches of ,,ss4 ,madelaine and ,joseph1 which can be claimed neither as ,gothic nor ,renaissance1 details of each period occurring side by side in the same window4 ,at the church of ,s4 ,alpin at ,chlons is a series of picture windows in grisaille1 not often met with1 and very well worth seeing4 ,early sixteenth century glass is so abundant that it is hopeless to specify churches4 ,nowhere is the transition period better represented than at ,rouen1 and1 for that matter1 the ,early ,renaissance too4 ,the church of ,s4 ,vincent contains no less than thirteen windows1 with subjects biblical or allegorical1 but always strikingly rich in colour4 ,the choir is1 you may say1 an architectural frame to a series of glass pictures second to few of their period1 and so nearly all of a period as to give one an excellent impression of it3 the brilliancy of the colour1 the silveriness of the white glass1 and the delicacy of the landscape backgrounds is typical4 ,scarcely less interesting is the abundant glass in the church of ,s4 ,patrice1 which carries us well into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond2 so that ,rouen is an excellent place in which to study all but ,early glass3 there is not much of that to speak of there4 ,two exceptionally fine ,renaissance windows are to be found in the church of ,s4 ,godard2 and there are others well worth seeing whilst you are in ,rouen1 if not in every case worth going there to see1 in the churches of ,s4 ,romain1 ,s4 ,nicaise1 ,s4 ,vivien1 in addition to ,s4 ,ouen1 ,s4 ,maclou1 and the cathedral4 ,yet finer ,renaissance work is to be found at ,beauvais--finer1 that is to say1 in design4 ,one is reminded there sometimes of ,raffaelle1 who furnished designs for the tapestries for which the town was famous2 these may very well have inspired the glass painters2 but there is not at ,beauvais the quantity of work which one finds at ,rouen4 ,the very perfection of workmanship is to be seen also in the windows at ,montmorency and ,ecouen 7both within a very short distance of ,paris72 but1 on the whole1 this most interesting glass hardly comes up to what one might imagine it to be from the reproductions in ,m4 ,magne's most sumptuous monograph4 ,in a certain sense also the windows at ,conches1 in ,normandy1 are a disappointment4 ,in a series of windows designed by ,aldegrever one expects to find abundant ornament2 and there is practically none4 ,what little there is1 is like enough to his work to be possibly by him2 but one feels that ,heinrich ,aldegrever1 if he had had his way1 would have lavished upon them a wealth of ornamental detail1 which would have made them much more certainly his than1 as it is1 internal evidence proves them to be4 ,it would hardly have occurred to any one1 apart from the name in one of the windows1 to attribute them to this greatest ornamentist among the ,little ,masters4 ,it is only the ornamentist who is disappointed1 however1 not the glass hunter4 ,it is an experience to have visited a church like ,conches1 simple1 well proportioned1 dignified2 where1 as you enter from the ,west 7and the few modern windows are hidden71 you see one expanse of good glass1 of a good period1 not much hurt by restoration4 ,the effect is singularly one4 ,you come away not remembering so much the glass1 or any particular window1 as the satisfactory impression of it all--an impression which inclines you to put down the date of a pilgrimage to ,conches as a red-letter day in your glass-hunting experiences4 ,there is magnificent ,renaissance glass in ,flanders1 and especially at ,lige1 in which1 for the most part1 ,gothic tradition lingers4 ,most beautiful is the great window in the ,south transept of the cathedral4 ,the radiance of the scene in which the ,coronation of the ,virgin is laid1 reminds one of nothing less than a gorgeous golden sunset1 which grows more mellow towards evening when the light is low4 ,in the choir of ,s4 ,jacques there are no less than five tall three-light windows1 by no means so impressive as the glass at the cathedral1 but probably only less worthy of study because they have suffered more restoration4 ,the seven long two-light windows at ,s4 ,martin1 though less well-known1 are at least as good as these4 ,in most of them may be seen the decorative use of heraldry as a framework to figure subjects1 characteristic of ,german and ,flemish work4 ,very much of this character is the glass from ,herkenrode1 which now occupies the seven easternmost windows of the ,lady ,chapel in ,lichfield ,cathedral4 ,they are pictorial1 but the pictures are glass pictures1 depending upon colour for their effect2 and they are really admirable specimens of the more glass-like manner of the ,early ,flemish ,renaissance4 ,there is in the three windows at the ,east end of ,hanover ,square ,church1 ,london1 some equally admirable glass1 which must once have belonged to a fine ,jesse window2 but it has suffered too much in its adaptation to its present position to be of great interest to any but those who know something about glass4 ,all this work is in marked contrast to the not much later ,flemish glass at ,brussels--the two great transept windows1 and those in the ,chapel of the ,holy ,sacrament at ,s4 ,gudule1 to which reference is made at length in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,they are windows which must be seen4 ,they are at once the types1 and the best examples1 of the glass painter's new departure in the direction of light and shade4 ,on the other hand1 the large ,east window at ,s4 ,margaret's1 ,westminster 7,dutch1 it is said1 of about the same date71 has not the charm of the period1 and must not be taken to represent it fairly4 ,the brilliant achievements of ,william of ,marseilles at ,arezzo1 and the extraordinarily rich windows in the ,duomo at ,florence1 have been discussed at some length 7pages #bdh1 #bfh74 ,they should be seen by any one pretending to some acquaintance with what has been done in glass4 ,other ,florentine windows worthy of mention are1 the ,western ,rose at ,s4 ,maria ,novella1 and the great round window over the ,west door at ,s4 ,croce1 ascribed to ,ghiberti4 ,the transept window in ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo at ,venice does not come up to its reputation4 ,it is in a miserable condition1 and as to its authorship 7whence its reputation71 you have only to compare it with the ,s4 ,augustine picture1 which hangs close by1 to see that it is not by the same hand4 ,one of the multitudinous ,vivarini may very likely have had a hand in it1 but certainly not ,bartolomeo4 ,his manner1 even in his pictures1 was more restrained than that4 ,there are a number of fine windows in the nave of ,milan ,cathedral1 two at least in which the composition of red and blue is a joy to see4 ,earlier ,italian glass is of less importance2 the windows at ,assisi1 for example1 are interesting rather than remarkable4 ,they show a distinctly ,italian rendering of ,gothic1 which is of course not quite ,gothic2 but to the designer they indicate trials in design1 which might possibly with advantage be carried farther4 ,illustration3 #bed4 ,,raising ,,of ,,lazarus1 ,,arezzo4 ,by far the most comprehensive series of ,renaissance windows in this country is in ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge4 ,in the matter of dignity and depth of colour1 the small amount of rather earlier glass in the outer chapel holds its own2 but the thing to see1 of course1 is the array of windows1 twenty-three of them1 all of great size1 within the choir screen4 ,it flatters national vanity1 though it may not show great critical acumen1 to ascribe them to ,english hands4 ,evidently many hands were employed1 some much more expert than others4 ,it seems there is documentary evidence to show that the contracts for them 7#aeaf-aebf7 were undertaken by ,englishmen4 ,very possibly they were executed in ,england1 and even1 as it is said they were1 in ,london4 ,that they were not painted by the men who drew them1 or even by painters in touch with the draughtsmen1 is indicated by such accidents as the yellow-haired1 white-faced negro1 of pronounced ,african type1 among the adoring ,magi4 ,it is as clear that the painter had never seen a black man as that the draughtsman had drawn his ,gaspar from the life4 ,certain of the accessory scroll-bearing figures1 which keep1 as it were1 ornamental guard between the pictures1 might possibly have been designed by ,holbein1 who is reported to have had a hand in the scheme2 but they are at least as likely to be the handiwork of men unknown to fame4 ,but1 no matter who designed the glass1 it is on a grand scale1 and largely designed4 ,it is not1 however1 a model of the fit treatment of glass1 though it belongs to the second quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,for the designers have been more than half afraid to use leading enough to bind the glass well together1 and have been at quite unnecessary pains to do without lead lines4 ,the windows vary1 too1 in merit2 and they bear evidence1 if only in the repetition of sundry stock figures1 of haste in production4 ,still1 they have fine qualities of design and colour1 and they are1 on the whole1 glass-like as well as delightful pictures4 ,we have nothing to compare with them in their way4 ,to see how far pictorial glass painting can be carried1 go to ,holland4 ,no degree of familiarity with old glass quite prepares one for the kind of thing which has made the humdrum market town of ,gouda famous4 ,imagine a big1 bare1 empty church with some thirty or more huge windows1 mostly of six lights1 seldom less than five-and-twenty feet in height1 all filled with great glass pictures1 some of them filling the whole window1 and designed to suggest that you see the scene through the window arch4 ,they do not1 of course1 quite give that impression1 but it is marvellous how near they go to doing it4 ,no wonder the painters have won the applause due to their daring no less than to what they have done4 ,any one appreciating the qualities of glass1 and realising what can best be done in it1 is disposed at first to resent the popularity of this scene-painting in glass2--one measures a work naturally by the standard of its fame2--but a workman's very appreciation of technique must1 in the end1 commend to him this masterly glass painting4 ,for the ,crabeth ,brothers1 their pupils1 and coadjutors1 were not only artists of wonderful capacity1 daring what only great artists can dare1 but they had the fortune to live at a time when the traditions of their art had not yet been cast to the winds4 ,though working during the latter half of the sixteenth century1 they were the direct descendants of the men who had raised glass painting to the point of perfection1 and they inherited from their forbears much that they could not unlearn4 ,ambitious as they might be1 and impatient of restraint1 they could not quite emancipate themselves from the prejudices in which they were brought up4 ,more than a spark of the old fire lay smouldering still in the kiln of the glass painter1 and it flared up at ,gouda1 brilliantly illuminating the declining years of the century1 and of the art which may be said to have flickered out after that4 ,this last expiring effort in glass painting counts for more1 in that it is the doing not only of strong men but of men who knew their trade4 ,it is extremely interesting to trace the work of the individual artists employed2 which a little book published at ,gouda1 and translated into most amusing ,english1 enables one to do4 ,dirk ,crabeth's work is pre-eminent for dignity of design1 his figures are well composed1 and his colour is rich2 although in the rendering of architectural interiors he falls into the mud1 that is to say1 into the prevailing ,netherlandish opacity of paint4 ,his brother ,walter has not such a heavy hand2 he excels in architectural distance1 as ,dirk does in landscape2 and his work is generally bright and sparkling1 not so strong as his brother's1 but more delicate4 ,their pupils1 too1 do them credit1 though they lack taste4 ,among the other more or less known artists who took part in the glass1 ,lambrecht van ,ort distinguishes himself in canopy work1 as a painter-architect might be expected to do2 ,adrian de ,vrije and ,n4 ,johnson delight also in architecture1 ,wilhelmus ,tibault and ,cornelius ,clok in landscape4 ,clok and ,tibault compete in colour with the ,crabeths1 and go beyond them in originality4 ,description of this unrivalled collection of later ,dutch glass painting1 except on the spot1 is as hopeless as it would be dull4 ,the windows must be seen4 ,the men were artists and craftsmen1 and their work is truly wonderful4 ,who shall attempt what these men failed to do8 ,that is the moral of it4 ,illustration3 #bee4 ,,the ,,virgin1 ,s4 ,,martin-,s-,,vignes1 ,,troyes4 ,the only other place where later glass is of sufficient worth to make it worth seeing1 the only place where ,seventeenth century work arouses much interest1 is ,troyes4 ,there is a quantity of it in the churches of ,s4 ,nizier1 ,s4 ,pantaleon1 and in the cathedral1 attributed1 for the most part1 to ,linard ,gontier1 who is certainly responsible for some of the best of it4 ,but it is in the church of ,s4 ,martin-s-,vignes1 in the outskirts of the town1 that it is to be appreciated en masse4 ,there you may see some hundred and ten lights in all1 executed during the first forty years of the seventeenth century4 ,this is the place to study the decline and fall of glass painting--a melancholy sort of satisfaction4 ,here more thoroughly than ever must be realised how hopeless it is to evade in glass the glazier's part of the business2 how powerless enamel is to produce effect2 how weak1 poor1 lacking in limpidity and lustre1 its colour is--and this even in the hands of an artist born1 one may say1 after his time4 ,gonthier was an incomparable glass painter4 ,he could produce with a wash of pigment effects which lesser men could only get by laborious stippling and scratching2 he could float enamel on to glass with a dexterity which enabled him to get something like colour in it2 but he was not a colourist1 nor yet1 probably1 a designer4 ,the difference in the work attributed to him1 and the style of his design 7which is sometimes that of an earlier and better day7 lead one rather to suppose that he adapted or adopted the designs of his predecessors as suited his convenience4 ,to see what glass painting came to in the eighteenth century you cannot do better than go to ,oxford4 ,you have there the design of no less a man than ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 painted by one of the best china painters of his day4 ,none but a china painter1 by the way1 could be found to do it4 ,it is not unfair1 therefore1 to compare this masterpiece of its poor period with the rude work of the fourteenth century1 done by no one knows whom4 ,and what do we find8 ,conspicuous before us is the great ,west window1 which might as well have been painted on linen1 so little of the translucency of glass is there left in it4 ,it in no way lessens the credit of the great portrait painter that he knew nothing of the capacities of glass2 that was not his mtier4 ,and there was no one to advise him wisely in the matter4 ,but the result is disastrous4 ,the beauty of his drawing--and there is charm at least in the figures of the ,virtues--counts for little1 as compared with the dulness of it all4 ,it has neither the colour of mosaic glass nor the sparkle of grisaille4 ,the white is obscured by masses of heavy paint1 which1 when the sun shines very brightly behind it1 kindles at best into a foxy-brown2 and even this is in danger of peeling off1 and showing the poverty of the glass it was meant to enrich4 ,any pictorial effect it might have had is ruined by the leads and bars1 which assert themselves in the most uncompromising manner4 ,in short1 the qualities of oil painting aimed at are altogether missed1 and the facilities which glass offered are not so much as sought4 ,it is no hardship to turn your back upon such poor stuff4 ,and there1 high up on the other side1 are seven great ,gothic windows4 ,these are by no means of the best period4 ,the design consists largely of canopy work1 never profoundly interesting2 the figures are1 at the best1 rudely drawn2 some of them are even grotesquely awkward4 ,their heads are too large by half1 their hands and feet flattened out in the familiar1 childish1 medival way4 ,in all the sixty-four figures there is not one that can be called beautiful4 ,yet for all that1 there is a dignity in them which the graceful ,virtues lack4 ,they are designed1 moreover1 with a large sense of decoration4 ,the balance of white and colour is just perfect1 and the way the patches of deep colour are embedded1 as it were1 in grisaille1 is skilful in the extreme4 ,to compare them with the futile effort of the eighteenth century1 opposite1 is to apprehend what can be done in glass1 and what cannot4 ,the whole secret of the success of the mere craftsman where the great painter failed1 is that he knew what to seek in glass1--colour1 brilliancy1 decorative breadth4 ,he not only knew what to do1 but how to do it2 and he did it in the manliest and most straightforward way4 ,rude though the work1 it fits its place1 fulfils its function1 adorns the architecture1 gives grandeur to it4 ,what more can you ask8 ,domestic glass1 such as that in which the ,swiss excelled 7window panes1 many of them1 rather than windows71 is best studied in museums1 whither most of it has drifted4 ,there is no national collection without good examples4 ,better or more accessible it would be difficult to find than those in the quiet little museum at ,lucerne--so quiet that1 if you spend a morning there1 studying them1 you become yourself1 by reason of your long stay1 an object of interest4 ,so little attention do these masterpieces in miniature glass painting attract1 that the guardians do not expect any one to give them more than a passing glance2 but they leave you1 happily1 quite free to pursue your harmless1 if inexplicable1 bent4 ,the list of windows worth seeing is by no means exhausted4 ,in many a town1 as at ,york1 ,tours1 ,troyes1 ,evreux1 ,bourges1 ,rouen1 ,nuremberg1 ,cologne1 and in many a single church1 you may find the whole course of glass painting1 from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century1 more or less completely illustrated2 and1 where that is so1 of course one period throws light upon another4 ,but the impression is always stronger when the century has left its mark upon the church4 ,not until you have a clear idea of the characteristics of style1 can you sort out for yourself the various specimens1 which occur in anything but historic sequence in the churches where they are to be found4 ,having arrived at understanding enough to do that1 you will need no further guidance1 and may go a-hunting for yourself4 ,to the glass hunter there are almost everywhere windows worth seeing4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,a ,,word ,,on ,,restoration4 ,if old windows have suffered at the hands of time1 they have also gained1 apart from sentiment1 a tone and quality which the glass had not when it was new4 ,their arch-enemy is the restorer1 at whose hands they have suffered cruel and irreparable wrong4 ,he is the thief who has robbed so much old glass of its glory1 and a most impenitent one3 there are times when any one who cares for glass could find it in his heart to wish he were crucified4 ,so greedy is he of work1 if not of gain1 that restoration cannot safely be left even to the most learned of men2 to him1 perhaps1 can it least of all be entrusted4 ,the twelfth century windows at ,s4 ,denis should be among the most interesting extant4 ,they are ruined by restoration4 ,the beauty which they may have had1 which they must have had1 is wiped out2 and1 for purposes of study1 they are of use only to those who have opportunity and leisure to ferret out what is genuine amidst the sham4 ,the ,s4 ,chapelle is cited as a triumph of restoration1 an object lesson1 in which we may see a thirteenth century chapel with its glass as it appeared when first it was built4 ,if that is so1 then time has indeed been kinder even than one had thought4 ,no less an authority than ,mr4 ,ruskin 7in a letter to ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dallas1 published in the ,athenum7 praises the new work there1 and says he cannot distinguish it from the old4 ,there is at least a window and a half 7part of the ,east window1 and the one to the left of that7 in which1 at all events1 the old is easily distinguishable from the new4 ,but if the new is not more obvious throughout1 that is not because the new is so good1 but because the old has been so restored that it is unrecognisable--as good as new1 in fact1 and no better4 ,the old glass is so smartened up1 so watered down with modern1 that it gives one rather a poor idea of unspoiled thirteenth century work4 ,a more adequate impression of what it must have been1 may be gained from the few panels of it1 comparatively unhurt by restoration1 now in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the story of destruction repeats itself wherever the restorer has had his way4 ,sometimes he has actually inserted new material if only the old was cracked1 obscured1 corroded2 and has effaced the very qualities which come of age and accident4 ,sometimes he has indulged in a brand-new background4 ,there1 at least1 it seemed to his ignorance1 he might safely substitute nice1 new1 even-tinted1 well-made glass for streaky1 speckled1 rough1 mechanically imperfect material4 ,invariably he has thinned the effect of colour by diluting the old glass with new4 ,many quite poor new-looking windows1 spick and span from the restorer 7those1 for example1 at the ,east end of ,milan ,cathedral71 turn out to contain a certain amount of old work1 good perhaps1 lost in garish modern manufacture4 ,at ,notre ,dame1 at ,paris1 the considerable remains of ,early and ,early ,decorated glass go for very little4 ,one has to pick them out from among modern work designed to deceive4 ,certain windows at ,mantes have suffered such thorough restoration that one begins to wonder if they are not altogether new2 and you have precisely the same doubt at ,limoges and at scores of other places4 ,at ,lyons an ,early ,rose has been made peculiarly hideous by restoration4 ,much of the harsh purple in ,early ,french mosaic is surely due to the admixture of crude new glass4 ,it is needless to multiply examples2 they will occur to every one4 ,all this old work swamped in modern imitation goes inevitably for nought4 ,if the new is good it puzzles and perplexes one2 if bad1 one can see nothing else4 ,what is crude kills what is subdued4 ,it is as if one listened for a tender word at parting1 and it was drowned in the screech of the steam-engine4 ,early glass was so mechanically imperfect1 and age has so roughened and pitted it1 that its colour has1 almost of necessity1 a quality which new work has not2 and one is disposed1 perhaps too hastily1 to ascribe all garish glass in old windows to the restorer4 ,many a time1 however1 the new work convicts itself4 ,at ,strassburg it is quite easily detected4 ,you may check your judgment in this respect by surveying the windows from the rear4 ,it is a very good plan to preface the study of old work by examining it from the churchyard1 the street1 the close1 or in the case of a big church from its outer galleries4 ,the surface exposed to the weather1 with the light upon it1 explains often at a glance what would else be unaccountable4 ,a vile habit of the restorer is to smudge over his glass with dirty paint1 perhaps burnt in1 perhaps merely in varnish colour2 this he terms antiquating4 ,the worse the new work added to the old1 the more thoroughly it spoils it2 the better the forgery1 the more serious the doubt it throws upon what may be genuine4 ,the modern ideal of restoration is thoroughly vicious4 ,all that can be done is mending2 and it should be an axiom with the repairer1 that1 where glass 7however broken7 can possibly be made safe by lead joints1 no new piece of glass should ever be inserted in its place4 ,better any disfigurement by leads than the least adulteration of old work4 ,it is absurd to set good old work in the midst of inferior reproduction of it1 as the common practice is1 more especially in the case of ,early work4 ,every bungler has thought himself equal to the task of restoring thirteenth century glass4 ,it was rudely drawn and roughly painted4 ,what could be easier than to repeat details of ornament1 or even to make up bogus old subjects1 and so complete the window8 ,to paint figures anything like those in the picture windows of the sixteenth century was obviously not so easy1 and the difficulty has acted as a deterrent4 ,where it has not1 the discrepancy between old and new is usually unmistakable4 ,men like ,m4 ,capronnier1 however1 have sometimes put excellent workmanship into their restoration of ,renaissance work1 to be detected only by a certain air of modernity1 which happily has crept into it1 in spite of the restorer4 ,but was it not he who flattened the grey-blue background to the transept windows at ,s4 ,gudule8 ,the fine window at ,s4 ,gervais1 ,paris1 with the ,judgment of ,solomon1 has lost much of its charm in restoration4 ,to compare it with the two lights in the window to the right of it1 is to see how much of the quality of old glass has been restored away4 ,that quality may be due in part to age and decay4 ,what then8 ,beauty is beauty2 and if it comes of decay 7which we cannot hinder71 let us at least enjoy the beauty of decay4 ,it has been proved at ,strassburg that thirteenth or even twelfth century work may be quite harmoniously worked into fourteenth century windows4 ,and even in the sixteenth century there were artists who managed to adapt quite ,early mosaic glass to ,renaissance windows1 in which abundant stain1 and even enamel1 was used4 ,the effect may be perplexing1 but it does not deceive4 ,why will not a man frankly tell us what is new in his work8 ,then we could appreciate what he had done4 ,but it is only once in a while that he takes you into his confidence4 ,this happens1 by way of exception1 in a window at ,s4 ,mary's ,redcliffe1 ,bristol1 in the case of some figure work on quarry backgrounds1 in which the new work is all of clear unpainted white or coloured glass1 but so judiciously chosen that you do not at first perceive the patching4 ,the effect is absolutely harmonious2 and when you begin to study the glass1 you do so without any fear that imposition is being practised upon you4 ,where the painting has in parts been made good1 there is always that fear1 as1 for example1 at ,s4 ,mary's ,hall1 ,coventry3 the windows have been restored with great taste2 but one cannot always be quite sure as to what is modern4 ,the merest jumble of old glass1 more especially if it be all of one period or quality1 is far better than what is called restoration4 ,who does not call to mind window after window in which the glass is so mixed as to be quite meaningless1 and is yet1 for all that1 beautiful8 ,the ,western ,rose at ,reims is an unintelligible jumble mainly of blue and green4 ,it may not be design1 but it is magnificent4 ,again1 the ,western lights at ,auxerre1 in great part patchwork1 are simply glorious when the afternoon sun shines through4 ,at the ,east end of ,winchester ,cathedral is a seven-light window1 reckoned by ,winston to be one of the finest of a fine period4 ,at the ,west end is an enormous window1 which seems to be a mere medley of odds and ends4 ,on examination you can trace in perhaps twelve out of forty-four lights of this last the outline of canopy-work1 and in two or three that of the figure under it2 but for the rest1 certainly in the two lower tiers 7which are best seen71 it is mere patchwork1 including some quite crude blue1 and a certain amount of common clear white sheet4 ,the effect1 when you examine it closely1 is anything but pleasing4 ,but as you stand near the choir screen on a not very bright morning1 and look from one window to the other1 the effect is just the opposite of what might have been expected4 ,for the really fine ,east window has been restored2 and1 whether to preserve it or to bring old work and new into uniformity1 it has been screened with sheets of perforated zinc6 ,on the other hand1 the really considerable amount of crude white and colour with which the ,west window has been botched is1 so to speak1 swallowed up in silvery radiance4 ,probably it helps even to give it quality2 anyway1 the effect is delightful4 ,indeed1 it recalls the impression of the ,five ,sisters at ,york1 or suggests some monster cobweb in which the light is caught4 ,beauty1 forbid that any busybody should restore it6 ,at ,poitiers 7,s4 ,radegonde7 is a grisaille window of the fourteenth century1 all patched1 defaced1 undecipherable--mended only with thick bulbous bits of green-white glass--which is quite all one could desire in the way of decoration4 ,illustration3 #bef4 ,a ,,restoration ,,at ,,angers4 ,in very many churches there remain fragments of old glass in stray tracery openings1 not enough to produce effect4 ,the question has been what to do with them4 ,a common practice is to use up such scraps in the form of bordering to common white quarry glass4 ,that is quite a futile thing to do4 ,the effect of setting old glass amidst plain white is to put out its colour2 and this1 not only in the case of deep-coloured glass1 but equally of ,early grisaille2 which when framed in clear glass1 looks merely dirty4 ,the most beautiful and sparkling of thirteenth century glass so framed would be degraded4 ,at ,angers are some windows consisting of a mosaic of scraps worked up into pattern 7before the days of restoration as we know it72 and the mere introduction amidst it of a strapwork of thin white sheet 7above7 is enough to take from it all charm of colour1 all quality of old glass4 ,massed all together in one window1 without such adulteration1 the most miscellaneous collection of chips makes usually colour4 ,in the hands of a colourist it would be certain to do so4 ,what if it be confused8 ,mystery is1 at all events1 one element of charm1 and even of beauty4 ,illustration3 #beg4 ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois4 ,it is not beyond the bounds of possibility to marry old work with new2 but the union is rarely happy4 ,it wants1 in the first place1 good modern glass4 ,further than that1 it wants an artist1 and one who has more care for old work than for his own4 ,there is some satisfactory eking out old glass with new at ,evreux1 where a number of small subjects1 many of them old1 are framed in grisaille1 in great part new1 in a very ingenious way4 ,at ,munster is a window in which little tracery lights 7you can tell that by their shapes7 are used as points of interest in a modern composition--with a result1 only less happy than where1 at ,s4 ,mary's ,redcliffe1 a window is made up almost entirely of old glass1 very much of one period1 the more fragmentary remains forming a sort of broken mosaic background to circular medallions1 heads1 and other important pieces1 arranged more or less pattern-wise upon it4 ,old glass must needs be mended sometimes1 patched perhaps2 new may have to be added to it2 it has even to be adapted on occasion to a new window1 with or without the admixture of new2 but none of this is restoration of the glass in the modern sense4 ,that implies restoring it to what once it was--which is1 on the face of it1 absurd4 ,the effect of windows made up 7as at ,s4 ,jean-aux-,bois1 page #dji7 of segments of two or three old windows satisfies the artistic sense perfectly4 ,what the restorer does is to take each pattern he finds in it for what he calls authority1 and to make two or three windows1 all of which have much more the appearance of modern forgeries 7which in great part they are7 than of old work4 ,the antiquation of the new glass in them deceives none but the most ignorant2 but it does throw doubt upon the genuineness of the old work found in such very bad company4 ,if there remain enough old glass to make a window1 let it be judiciously repaired2 if there be not enough for that1 let it be piously preserved1 best of all1 in a museum1 where those who care for such scraps may see it3 scattered about in stray windows in out-of-the-way churches they are practically unseen4 ,better than what is called restoration1 the brutality of the mason who plasters up gaps in the clerestory windows of great churches with mortar1 or the plumber's patch of zinc1 which temporarily at least keeps out the weather and the crude white light1 leaving us in full enjoyment of the colour and effect of old glass4 ,how grateful we are when it is only cobbled1 and not restored4 ,restoration is a word to make the artist shudder4 ,in a window at ,auch1 representing the ,risen ,christ1 with1 on the one side1 the doubting ,thomas1 and on the other the ,magdalene1 the customary inscription1 ,noli me tangere1 is followed 7in letters of precisely the same character7 by the signature of the artist1 ,arnaut de ,moles4 ,it is the reverend ,abb responsible for the authorised description of the church1 who suggests that it may have been with intention he signed his name just there4 ,he has come off1 as it happens1 very much better at the hands of the restorer than most men4 ,had it been possible for him to foresee what nineteenth century restoration meant1 well might he have written over his signature ,leave me alone6 ,,index4 7,the ordinary figures refer to the numbers of the illustrations1 and those in black type to the pages of the book47 ,,abrasion1 #fj1 #fb ,,aix-,,la-,,chapelle1 #ad ,,alabaster windows1 #chj1 #cha ,,alen,,on1 #cff ,,angels1 #cge ,,angers1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #bef museum1 #afh 7,s4 ,serge71 #ag1 #he1 #hf ,,annealing1 #fc ,,antwerp1 #hj1 #hb1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #beh ,,arab glass1 #ai1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc ,,architecture 7due consideration of71 #cef ,,arezzo1 #bdh1 #da1 #dc1 #aha1 #bed ,,assisi1 #bfb1 #ec1 #agg1 #ahg ,,auch1 #bcc1 #bhj1 #cic1 #daj ,,augsburg1 #aah ,,auxerre1 #ee1 #ge1 #bbj ,,background1 #bea 7architectural71 #bji1 #baa 7landscape71 #bji1 #baa ,,bars1 #aja1 #aac1 #aad1 #abb1 #aeh1 #bfg1 #bge 7shaped71 #fh1 #fi ,,beauvais1 #cgd1 #cid1 #bdg ,,beverley minster1 #gd ,,black ,,paint 7used for local colour71 #hi ,,bologna1 #bfd1 #ahj ,,bonlieu1 #aa ,,borders 7,early71 #aad1 #cbg 7,decorated71 #agd-g1 #cce 7,perpendicular71 #aij1 #cdd ,,bourges1 #cib1 #gj1 #gb1 #bcd 7,s4 ,bonnet71 #bjh1 #aeg ,,brabourne church1 #af ,,bristol 7,s4 ,mary's71 #djg ,,british ,museum1 #a ,,brou1 #cic ,,brussels 7,s4 ,gudule71 #fi1 #gi1 #hj1 #bcc1 #cie1 #db ,,bull',s-eye windows1 #bfg ,,cambridge 7,king's ,college71 #baf1 #beg1 #cif ,,canopies 7,early71 #ace1 #cac1 #ccd 7,decorated71 #aee1 #aig1 #cac 7,italian71 #bfd1 #bfe 7,perpendicular71 #ahd et seq41 #cdj 7,renaissance71 #bje1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #cdg ,,canopy 7the beginning of the71 #ace ,,canterbury1 #che1 #bc1 #gc1 #gi1 #ha1 #bad ,,carcassonne1 #cfb1 #cfi ,,cartouches1 #bbi ,,ch,,lons1 #cic1 #ab1 #ac1 #ih1 #aba1 #abb1 #bbg ,,chantilly1 #cjc1 #afj ,,chartres1 #add1 #chg1 #bg1 #ga1 #gf1 #ajc1 #aag1 #baf1 #bai 7,s4 ,pierre71 #if1 #aae ,,chetwode church1 #bja ,,choice of glass1 #fj1 #aja ,,clerestory windows1 #bhc ,,clok 7,cornelius7 #cii ,,coated glass1 #di ,,cologne1 #cib1 #adg 7,s4 ,kunibert71 #be1 #bh1 #gg1 #bbb1 #bbc 7,s4 ,peter71 #bdj ,,colour 7,early71 #abb1 #cbh1 #ccj 7,decorated71 #cch in quarry windows1 #bhg 7,italian71 #bfh1 #bgj 7,perpendicular71 #cdf ,,conches1 #cid ,,confused effect1 #db1 #acd1 #bag ,,costa 7,lorenzo71 #bfd ,,coutances1 #aja ,,crabeths 7the71 #bdg1 #cii ,,cutting1 #h 7economy of71 #be ,,da ,,udine 7,giovanni71 #cjj ,,decay1 #bai ,,decline of glass painting1 #hf ,,decorated borders1 #agf1 #cce canopies1 #aee1 #cac1 #ccd colour1 #cch composition1 #ccd figure design1 #aeg1 #ccg grisaille1 #afc1 #ccg ,jesse windows1 #cfc medallion windows1 #aeb quarries1 #bij style1 #ccc-cch tracery1 #bgh ,,design 7banded71 #afj 7,early71 #cf1 #aaa1 #aab 7effect of window-shape upon71 #aac 7essential conditions of71 #if 7,perpendicular71 #ahg1 #cdj ,,detail 7ornamental71 #cbh ,,devils1 #cgd ,,diaper 7geometric71 #acc 7,german71 #aga 7painted or picked out71 #ce1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #di1 #ef ,,donors1 #bba ,,doom windows1 #cgb ,,dramatic effect1 #cgh ,,drawing1 #cdf ,,early canopies1 #cac colour1 #cbh1 #ccj design1 #cf1 #aaa1 #aab ,english1 #cbg figures1 their crudity1 #da glass 7confusion in effect of71 #db glazing1 #ccj grisaille1 #acg et seq41 #djh ,jesse windows1 #cfb mosaic windows1 #cb et seq4 ornament1 #dj1 #aae1 #acj rose windows1 #bgc tracery1 #bgd ,,ecouen1 #cid ,,enamel1 #ab et seq41 #gg et seq41 #ii1 #bcb 7influence of ,byzantine71 #ag 7objections to71 #hd 7use of in ornament71 #gh ,,enamel plus ,,pot-,,metal1 #gi ,,english 7,early71 #cbg 7,perpendicular71 #aij ,,evreux1 #agf1 #agg1 #aac1 #aah1 #aij1 #aia ,,fairford1 #cgd1 #cia1 #cd1 #adc1 #add1 #aej1 #agc1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bec ,,fifteenth century glass1 #cbb1 #cdj ,,figure-,,and-,,canopy windows1 #cbf ,,figure design1 #aeg1 #ccg ,,figures 7,early71 #da1 #db ,,figures and ornament1 #abf1 #cai ,,five ,sisters 7the71 #adf1 #adg ,,flashed glass1 #di1 #ej ,,flesh tints1 #gg1 #ajf ,,florence1 #bfd1 #bgj1 #cjj1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahc 7,certosa in ,val d',ema71 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bdb 7,s4 ,maria ,novella71 #agh1 #aii ,,fourteenth century glass1 #cbb1 #ccc painting1 #dg ,,freiburg1 #aje1 #abf1 #abg1 #bdd ,,french glass painting1 #ge medallion windows1 #abe ,,geometric diaper 7,german71 #aga 7mosaic71 #acc ,,german foliated pattern windows1 #agd geometric diaper1 #aga ,,glazing1 #f1 #ae et seq41 #hj1 #hb1 #aja1 #bbi1 #bhb1 #afh 7,early71 #ccj 7economy in71 #add 7ingenuity in71 #ef ,,glazing plus ,,painting1 #dc1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed in rectangular panes1 #hj1 #bbe shadows in pot-metal1 #gb1 #bbd ,,gontier 7,linard71 #hj1 #ha1 #bbi1 #bcj ,,gothic influence1 #bjc 7,italian71 #bfc landscape1 #bec pattern windows1 #bia tracery1 #bhj ,,gouda1 #bbc1 #bef1 #beh1 #cih1 #dja1 #df1 #afa1 #afb1 #afe1 #agb1 #agf ,,grisaille 7,early71 #acg et seq41 #cca1 #djh ,,grisaille 7,decorated71 #afc1 #ccg 7,perpendicular71 #aib1 #cdc and colour1 #ajf1 #abj1 #aeg ,,heraldry1 #aih ,,hitchin church1 #ba ,,interlacing1 #afg ,,italian canopies1 #bfe ,gothic1 #bfc glass1 #bdh1 #bfj et seq41 #bii ,,jesse windows1 #cfj et seq4 7,early71 #cfb 7,decorated71 #cfc 7,renaissance71 #cfg ,,jewellery 7glass related to71 #ba ,,johnson 7,n471 #cii ,,kaleidoscopic effect1 #db ,,king',s ,college1 ,cambridge1 #baf1 #beg1 #cif ,,landscape1 #bji1 #bea1 #bef ,,last ,judgment windows1 #cgb ,,late ,,gothic pattern windows1 #bia style1 #cdc technique1 #cdf tracery1 #bhj windows1 #agh et seq4 ,,late ,,renaissance canopies1 #bbe ,,lead lines1 #ch outlines1 #bc ,,leading 7its influence on colour71 #ci ,,leads 7contrivances for avoiding71 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #ig 7scheming of71 #bg1 #bh ,,le ,,mans1 #bj1 #bah ,,lichfield1 #bad1 #cie ,,li,,ge1 #bad1 #cie ,,lincoln1 #fg1 #ic1 #ie1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aib ,,lisieux1 #afg ,,local schools1 #bfa ,,london 7,s4 ,george's1 ,hanover ,square71 #bad1 #aei ,,lucerne1 #djc ,,lyons1 #bf1 #hc1 #hd1 #aec1 #ahh1 #bci ,,malvern1 #ee1 #cg ,,many lights 7windows of71 #aea et seq4 ,,map of a window1 #h ,,marseilles 7,william of71 #bdh ,,material and design1 #ajg ,,medallion windows1 #abc et seq41 #cbd1 #cbe 7,decorated71 #aeb 7,french71 #abe of many lights1 #aec ,,medi,,val artlessness1 #cgf ,,mending 7judicious71 #djg ,,middle ,,gothic glass1 #afb et seq4 ,,milan1 #bfc ,,misuse of shading1 #fh ,,montmorency1 #cid1 #dj1 #aeh ,,mosaic1 #e1 #f 7marble and glass71 #bi diaper1 #acc ,,mullions1 #aea1 #aie1 #aig1 #aih1 #bdj1 #bgb ,,munich museum1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca ,,naturalism1 #ccg ,,needle-,,point work1 #hg et seq4 ,,netherlandish glass1 #gc1 #cjb ,,new departures1 #aji ,,nimbus 7the71 #bjh ,,norbury1 #aad ,,nuremberg1 #bbd1 #abe 7,s4 ,lorenz71 #afd 7,s4 ,sebald71 #afc ,,obscuration1 #fh1 #gi1 #hb ,,old work 7the spirit of71 #ceh ,,ornament 7a plea for71 #cag et seq4 7,early71 #dj1 #aae1 #acj 7,decorated71 #afj 7,perpendicular71 #cdc 7possibilities in71 #cba 7,renaissance71 #cdi ,,orvieto1 #chj1 #ai ,,oxford 7,all ,souls' ,college71 #ce1 #ada 7,new ,college71 #agi1 #dja1 #dh1 #aji1 #acg ,,paint 7brushing out71 #fd 7early use of71 #cc 7first use of71 #aa ,,paint as local colour1 #eg ,,painted mosaic glass1 #dc et seq4 ,,painter as glass designer 7the71 #fi ,,painting1 #f1 #dd1 #de1 #dg1 #ec1 #ei et seq41 #fd1 #fh1 #he1 #hi1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aij1 #baa1 #bdg1 #bfc1 #cca1 #cch1 #cdf ,,painting out1 #aa1 #cd1 #ce1 #dd1 #de1 #bgh ,,palette 7the early71 #cbh ,,paris 7,louvre71 #bjh 7,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs71 #bdc ,,paris 7,s4 ,eustache71 #bbc 7,s4 ,gervais71 #aff ,,pattern windows 7,german71 #agd 7,late ,gothic71 #bia ,,peckitt1 #bcc ,,perpendicular1 #cdj 7,english71 #ahh1 #aij 7,german71 #ahh ,,perpendicular borders1 #cdd canopies1 #ahd1 #cdj colour1 #cdf design1 #ahg1 #cdj detail1 #cdc drawing1 #cdf grisaille1 #cdc ornament1 #cdc style1 #cdj tracery1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #cdc ,,picking out1 #ce1 #ajc ,,pictorial versus ,,decorative1 #bch ,,picture 7achievement in71 #bej 7the ideal glass71 #bdf ,,pictures 7a medley of71 #aie ,,picture-,,windows1 #bcf et seq4 ,,pisa1 #bfc ,,plain glazing1 #bbf1 #aff1 #afg and painted grisaille1 #aci ,,poictiers1 #chh1 #bd1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj ,,possibilities in the way of ornament1 #cba ,,pot-,,metal1 #e ,,prato1 #ahd ,,quarries1 #adf1 #afh1 #aib1 #bhc et seq4 ,,quarry-,,like patterns1 #afi ,,quarry windows 7colour in71 #bhg ,,regensburg1 #chi1 #abc1 #abh1 #aca1 #beb ,,reims1 #ib1 #ii 7,s4 ,remi71 #aah1 #bb1 #fe1 #ff1 #bac ,,renaissance canopies1 #bje1 #cdg 7,late71 #bbe ,,renaissance ,jesse windows1 #cfg landscape1 #bee ornament1 #cdi tracery1 #bhj-bhb1 #cdi ,,resources of the glass painter1 #ie et seq4 ,,restoration1 #djd et seq4 ,,reynolds 7,sir ,joshua71 #dja1 #djb ,,rose windows1 #bgb et seq41 #cbf 7,early71 #bgc ,,ross 7,s4 ,mary71 #ee1 #ade1 #bcb ,,rouen1 #cib1 #cid1 #de1 #aai1 #bch 7,s4 ,godard71 #aed 7,s4 ,ouen71 #bi1 #bbi 7,s4 ,patrice71 #cgg1 #cgh1 #aee 7,s4 ,vincent71 #cge1 #cgg1 #dd1 #aef1 #age ,,roundels1 #bic1 #aii ,s4 ,,denis1 #djd ,s4 ,,jean-,,aux-,,bois1 #hg1 #hh1 #ajj1 #bbd1 #beg ,s4 ,,miniato1 #cha ,,salisbury1 #che1 #ae1 #cj1 #fd1 #ig1 #ajb1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bea ,,scraps1 #dji ,,sens1 #ij ,,seventeenth century glass1 #bcc1 #cbc style1 #ceb ,,shading 7misuse of71 #fh1 #gj1 #gc1 #gi1 #hj1 #bdg 7the beginning of71 #ac1 #de ,,shrewsbury1 #ch1 #ci1 #eg1 #aci1 #adb1 #aeb1 #aga1 #agd ,,silver stain1 #eb ,,single-,,figure windows1 #aah1 #aig ,,sixteenth century glass1 #cbc1 #cdg style1 #cdh technique1 #cej windows1 #bja et seq4 ,,soissons1 #hi1 #ia ,,south ,,kensington ,museum1 #bje ,,stain1 #ej1 #eb1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #aje1 #ahb1 #ccf1 #cdd ,,stanton ,s4 ,john1 #abj ,,storied windows1 #aie1 #bji1 #cga et seq4 ,,strassburg1 #chh1 #acd ,,style1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aef1 #agg1 #agh1 #cbc 7,early71 #cbd 7,decorated71 #cce1 #cch 7,late ,gothic71 #cdc 7,perpendicular71 #cdj 7#afth century71 #cdh 7#agth century71 #ceb 7the characteristics of71 #cbb et seq4 in modern glass1 #ced et seq4 ,,subjects not within mullions1 #aih ,,subject-,,windows1 #aig ,,swiss glass1 #hg1 #id1 #cjh ,,thirteenth century glass1 #cbb ornament1 #acj ,,tibaldi 7,pellegrino71 #bfd ,,tibault 7,wilhelmus71 #cii ,,time of day to see windows 7the71 #chb ,,tours1 #cfb1 #chi ,,tracery 7,early71 #bgd 7,decorated71 #bgh 7,gothic71 #bhj 7,perpendicular71 #cdc 7,renaissance71 #bhj-b1 #cdi ,,tracery lights1 #bgb et seq4 ,,transition1 #afe1 #agh1 #aha1 #ccc from ,gothic to ,renaissance1 #fe1 #bjb1 #bjd from plain glazing to painted grisaille1 #aci ,,tree of ,life 7the71 #cgj ,,triforium windows1 #bhd ,,troyes1 #cb1 #cff1 #dja1 #aab1 #adh1 #adi1 #aea1 #bbh1 #bdf 7museum71 #baa 7private collection71 #bjg 7,s4 ,jean71 #bda 7,s4 ,martin s ,vignes71 #bcj1 #dg1 #afi1 #agj1 #bee 7,s4 ,urbain71 #ca1 #ajh1 #aad1 #bbf ,,van ,,linge1 #bcc ,,van ,,orley 7,bernard71 #fi1 #bbb1 #bde ,,van ,,ort 7,lambrecht71 #cii ,,van ,,thulden1 #bcc ,,verona 7,s4 ,anastasia71 #aii ,,warwick ,castle1 #ed1 #bjf1 #bji ,,water ,perry1 #id ,,wells1 #cij1 #acf1 #bca1 #bde ,,white and colour 7combination of71 #aic ,,white as a frame for colour1 #aib1 #cae ,,white-,,line work1 #ia ,,winchester1 #djg ,,window plane 7the71 #bdb ,,window shape 7effect of1 upon design71 #aac1 #baa1 #bab1 #bdj ,,windows 7how to see71 #chj et seq4 ,,wine press 7the71 #cfh ,,workmanlikeness1 #bdd ,,workmanship 7,early71 #ccj ,,yellow stain1 #eb ,,york1 #adg1 #aib1 #bgg1 #chg1 #adf 7,all ,saints71 #cga1 #cf ,,note--,the name of a town without mention of a church may be taken to mean that the glass is in the cathedral or principal church4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,,ld41 ,,printers1 ,,london ,,and ,,tonbridge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber ,,notes3 ,archaic1 alternate and misspellings of words have been retained to match the original work with the exception of those listed below4 ,missing punctuation has been added and obvious punctuation errors have been corrected4 ,illustrations have been moved so as not to interrupt the flow of the text4 ,page #he3 the printing of several lines was transposed in the original4 ,they have been corrected4 ,page #abe3 borders-lines changed to border-lines 7,he frames his little pictures with sufficient border-lines to keep them distinct74 ,page #bbf3 7#af,r#e7 changed to 7#afae7 7as in the cathedral at ,antwerp 7#afae774