,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,art ,,by ,,dr4 ,,franz ,,von ,,reber ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,bavarian ,,royal ,,and ,,state ,,galleries ,,of ,,paintings ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,and ,,polytechnic ,,of ,,munich ,revised by the ,author ,,translated ,,and ,,augmented ,,by ,,joseph ,,thacher ,,clarke ,,with #caj ,,illustrations ,,and ,a ,,glossary ,,of ,,technical ,,terms ,,new ,,york ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,franklin ,,square ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahhb1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,all rights reserved4 ,the application of the historic method to the study of the ,fine ,arts1 begun with imperfect means by ,winckelmann one hundred and twenty years ago1 has been productive of the best results in our own days4 ,it has introduced order into a subject previously confused1 disclosing the natural progress of the arts1 and the relations of the arts of the different races by whom they have been successively practised4 ,it has also had the more important result of securing to the fine arts their due place in the history of mankind as the chief record of various stages of civilization1 and as the most trustworthy expression of the faith1 the sentiments1 and the emotions of past ages1 and often even of their institutions and modes of life4 ,the recognition of the significance of the fine arts in these respects is1 indeed1 as yet but partial1 and the historical study of art does not hold the place in the scheme of liberal education which it is certain before long to attain4 ,one reason of this fact lies in the circumstance that few of the general historical treatises on the fine arts that have been produced during the last fifty years have been works of sufficient learning or judgment to give them authority as satisfactory sources of instruction4 ,errors of statement and vague speculations have abounded in them4 ,the subject1 moreover1 has been confused1 especially in ,germany1 by the intrusion of metaphysics into its domain1 in the guise of a professed but spurious science of sthetics4 ,under these conditions1 a history of the fine arts that should state correctly what is known concerning their works1 and should treat their various manifestations with intelligence and in just proportion1 would be of great value to the student4 ,such1 within its limits as a manual and for the period which it covers1 is ,dr4 ,reber's ,history of ,ancient ,art4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 there is no compend of information on the subject in any language so trustworthy and so judicious as this4 ,it serves equally well as an introduction to the study and as a treatise to which the advanced student may refer with advantage to refresh his knowledge of the outlines of any part of the field4 ,the work was originally published in #ahga2 but so rapid has been the progress of discovery during the last ten years that1 in order to bring the book up to the requirements of the present time1 a thorough revision of it was needed1 together with the addition of much new matter and many new illustrations4 ,this labor of revision and addition has been jointly performed by the author and the translator1 the latter having had the advantage of doing the greater part of his work with the immediate assistance of ,dr4 ,reber himself1 and of bringing to it fresh resources of his own1 the result of original study and investigation4 ,the translator having been absent from the country1 engaged in archological research1 during the printing of the volume1 the last revision and the correction of the text have been in the hands of ,professor ,william ,r4 ,ware1 of the ,school of ,mines of ,columbia ,college4 ,,charles ,,eliot ,,norton4 ,,cambridge1 ,,massachusetts1 ,may1 #ahhb4 ,in view of the great confusion which results from an irregular orthography of ,greek proper names1 a return to the original spelling of words not fully ,anglicized may need an explanation1 but no apology3 it is only adopting a system already followed by scholars of the highest standing4 ,the ,romans1 until the advent of that second classical revival in which the present century is still engaged1 served as mediums for all acquaintance with ,hellenic civilization4 ,they employed ,greek names1 with certain alterations agreeable to the ,latin tongue1 blunting and coarsening the delicate sounds of ,greek speech1 much in the same manner as they debased the artistic forms of ,greek architecture by a mechanical system of design4 ,the clear became um1 was changed to us1 to e or i1 etc4 ,this ,latinized nomenclature1 like the ,roman triglyph and ,tuscan capital1 was exclusively adopted by the early ,renaissance1 until1 with the increasing knowledge of ,greek lands and works of art1 names were introduced which do not happen to occur in the writings of ,roman authors4 ,these were either changed in accordance with the more or less variable standard in use during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 or were adopted in their ,greek form without change1 the latter method being more and more generally employed4 ,this has gradually led to a partial revision of ,greek names and their spelling4 ,zeus and ,hermes1 ,artemis and ,athene1 have resumed1 as ,greek deities1 their original titles2--,sunium and ,assus have been changed to ,sunion and ,assos2 while other names have only been reformed in part1 as in the case of the unfortunate ,polycleitos1 who at times appears as ,polycletos1 and at times as ,polycleitus4 ,confusion and misunderstanding cannot but result from this unreasonable triple system of ,latinized1 ,anglicized1 and ,greek orthography4 ,peirithoos may be sought in alphabetically classified works of reference under ,per and ,pir as well as under ,peir4 1 ,pergamon1 is written ,pergamum1 ,pergamus1 and ,pergamos1 in the two latter forms being naturally confused with the ,cretan 1 ,pergamos1 which1 in its turn1 is ,latinized to ,pergamus4 ,in the present book the ,greek spelling of ,greek names has been adopted in all those cases where the word has not been fully ,anglicized2 that is to say1 changed in pronunciation1 when it would sound pedantic to employ its original form1 as1 for instance1 to speak of the well-known ,pstum and ,lucian as ,poseidonia and ,loukianos4 ,the ,english alphabet provides1 however1 two letters for the ,greek 1 and the more familiar c has been employed1 as in ,corinth1 acropolis1 etc41 except in cases where the true sound is not thereby conveyed1--namely1 before e1 i1 and y1--when the k is substituted4 ,moreover1 the final is transformed to 1 according to the universal usage of our tongue4 ,,joseph ,,thacher ,,clarke4 ,,contents4 ,,egypt4 ,,page ,the ,delta4 ,the ,oldest ,monuments1 if not the most ,ancient ,civilization of the ,world #a1 #b ,changeless ,continuity of ,life and ,art #b ,,architecture4 ,the ,age1 ,purpose1 and ,architectural ,significance of the ,pyramids #c-e ,the ,pyramids of ,gizeh #e-g ,variety of ,pyramidal ,forms #h1 #i ,the ,pyramids of ,saccara1 ,meydoun1 ,dashour1 ,abousere1 and ,illahoun #i-ab ,table of ,dimensions #ab ,the ,younger ,pyramids of ,nubia4 ,truncated ,pyramids #ab ,rock-cut ,tombs #ac ,development of ,column from ,pier #ad ,the ,tombs at ,beni-hassan #ad1 #ae ,development of the ,lotos-column #af1 #ag ,the ,invasion of the ,hycsos4 ,restriction of the ,prismatic ,shaft4 ,extended ,application of the ,floral ,column in the ,new ,theban ,empire #ah1 #ai ,the ,calyx ,capital #bj1 #ba ,piers with ,figures of ,osiris and ,typhon4 ,entablature #ba ,cavern ,sepulchres #bb ,temple ,plan1 ,obelisks #bc ,peristyle ,court #be ,hypostyle ,hall #bf1 #bg ,the ,dwellings of ,kings and ,priests #bh ,peripteral ,temples #bi ,rock-cut ,temples #cj ,the ,monuments at ,abou-,simbel #ca1 #cb ,palatial and ,domestic ,architecture #cc ,interiors #cd ,the ,labyrinth #ce ,unimportant ,character of ,secular ,architecture #cf ,,sculpture4 ,fundamental and ,changeless ,peculiarities #cf ,conventional ,types #cg ,the ,formation of the ,head #ch ,head-dresses4 ,conjunction of ,human ,trunks and ,animal ,heads #ci ,the ,body4 ,lack of ,progressiveness and of ,history #dj ,animal ,forms #da ,materials #db ,reliefs #dc ,coilanaglyphics #dd ,the ,variety and ,interest of the ,subjects ,illustrated #de ,,painting4 ,intimate ,relation to ,sculpture4 ,hieroglyphics #df ,painting as an ,architectural ,decoration4 ,retrospect #dg ,,chald,a1 ,,babylonia1 ,,and ,,assyria4 ,the ,traditional ,age4 ,the ,land and ,people #dh ,building ,materials4 ,clay and ,bitumen #di ,perishable ,character of the ,monuments4 ,hills of ,rubbish ,recognized as ,cities #ej ,,architecture4 ,chalda4 ,the ,ruins of ,mugheir1 or ,ur #ej ,warka and ,abou-,sharein #ea ,the ,principle of the ,arch #eb ,political ,history #ec ,babylon4 ,the ,fabulous ,account of ,herodotos #ed ,the ,temple ,pyramid at ,borsippa #ef ,palace ,structures4 ,the ,hanging ,gardens of ,semiramis #eg ,private ,dwellings4 ,works of ,engineering #eh ,assyria4 ,nineveh #ei ,the ,discoveries of ,layard and ,botta #fj ,the ,hills of ,coyundjic and ,nebbi-,jonas #fa ,royal ,dwellings #fb ,the ,palace at ,kisr-,sargon #fc-fe ,terrace ,pyramids #ff ,lighting and ,roofing #ff1 #fg ,the ,restriction of ,columnar ,architecture #fh ,the ,forms of ,small ,columns #fi-ga ,vaulted ,construction #ga ,the ,pointed ,arch #gb ,the ,general ,appearance of the ,palaces #gc ,sacred ,architecture #gd ,terrace ,pyramids #ge ,the ,cella #gf ,the ,dwellings of the ,priests #gg ,altars and ,obelisks #gh ,domestic ,architecture #gi1 #hj ,,sculpture4 ,little ,represented in ,chalda #ha ,babylonian ,seals and ,gems #hb ,enamelled ,tiles #hc ,statues #he ,conventional ,types #he1 #hf ,cherubims #hg ,mural ,reliefs #hg-hi ,variance from ,egyptian ,sculpture #ij ,historical ,reliefs #ia-ic ,religious ,representations #id ,formal ,landscapes4 ,bronzes #ie1 #if ,,painting4 ,upon ,tiles and ,stucco #if ,colors #ig ,the ,general ,appearance of ,assyrian ,architecture1 as ,decorated by ,reliefs and ,paintings #ih ,,persia4 ,historical ,considerations #ii ,the ,artistic ,poverty of the ,medes4 ,the ,achmenid4 ,their ,chief ,cities #ajj ,,architecture4 ,persepolis #aja1 #ajb ,the ,characteristic ,differences of ,persian and ,mesopotamian ,building #ajb ,the ,introduction of ,columns #ajc ,columnar ,forms #ajc1 #ajd ,capitals #aje-ajg ,the ,entablature #ajh ,plan of the ,palace of ,darius #aji-aac ,its ,state of ,preservation #aaj ,illumination #aaj1 #aaa ,upper ,stories #aaa-aac ,the ,palace and ,hall of ,xerxes #aad ,the ,propyla #aae ,the ,harem #aaf1 #aag ,the ,disposition of the ,terrace #aag ,fire ,altars #aah ,funeral ,monuments #aai-aba ,tomb of ,cyrus #aai ,tombs of the ,later ,achmenid #abj ,tombs of ,subjects #aba ,domestic ,architecture #aba ,,sculpture4 ,its ,dependence upon the ,art of ,assyria #aba ,egyptian and ,hellenic ,influences #abb ,mythological and ,ceremonial ,representations #abc-abe ,the ,sculptured ,decoration of ,palaces and ,terraces #abf1 #abg ,rarity of ,historical ,scenes #abh ,,painting4 ,chiefly ,ornamental #abh ,general ,harmony of the ,three ,arts #abi ,,ph,,nicia1 ,,palestine1 ,,and ,,asia ,,minor4 ,extensive ,artistic ,influence of ,mesopotamia in ,point of ,distance as well as of ,time #acj ,the ,seleucid4 ,the ,sassanid #aca1 #acb ,phnicia4 ,explorations in ,recent ,times #acb1 #acc ,the ,chief ,cities #acc ,,architecture4 ,ruins at ,amrith #acd1 #ace ,the ,monuments known as ,el-,meghazil #ace-acg ,the ,grotto ,tombs of ,central ,phnicia4 ,sarcophagi at ,jebeil #acg1 #ach ,domestic ,architecture #ach ,,sculpture4 ,work of ,driven ,metal 7,sphyrelaton7 #aci ,bronzes #aci1 #adj ,inlaid ,work4 ,ivory ,carvings4 ,glass #adj ,influence of the ,sphyrelaton upon ,sculptural ,style #ada ,stone-cutting #adb ,the ,decisive ,influence of both ,egypt and ,mesopotamia #adc ,palestine4 ,the ,dependence of the ,jews in ,artistic respects upon ,egypt #adc ,the ,tabernacle #adc-adg ,its ,disposition #add1 #ade ,its ,columns4 ,the ,horns of the ,altar4 ,the ,seven-armed ,candlestick #ade1 #adf ,the ,holy of ,holies4 ,cherubim #adf1 #adg ,solomon's ,temple #adg-aef ,untrustworthiness of ,biblical ,accounts #adg ,construction of the ,building4 ,its ,site #adh ,the ,brazen ,laver #adi 8,jachin and ,boaz0 #adi-aea ,the ,tower #aea1 #aeb ,interior4 ,upper ,story #aec1 #aed ,materials #aed ,decoration4 ,the ,molten ,sea4 ,the ,mercy-seat and ,cherubim #aee ,the ,destruction and ,rebuilding of this ,temple #aef ,its ,architectural ,character #aeg ,rock-cut ,tombs #aeg1 #aeh ,cyprus and ,carthage4 ,the ,rock-cut ,tombs at ,paphos #afj ,the ,temple of ,aphrodite at ,golgoi4 ,cesnola's ,discoveries #afa1 #afb ,the ,ruins of ,carthage #afc ,malta1 the ,balearic ,isles1 ,sardinia #afc ,asia ,minor4 ,an ,independent ,art ,found only in ,lycia1 ,phrygia1 and ,lydia #afd ,the ,rock-cut ,tombs of ,lycia4 ,the ,timbered ,dwelling ,carved in ,stone #afe1 #aff ,the ,monument of the ,harpies at ,xanthos #afg ,lycian ,sarcophagi #afh ,temple ,faades ,imitated upon ,cliffs #afi ,the ,rock-cut ,tombs of ,phrygia #aga1 #agb ,the ,tumuli of ,lydia #agc1 #agd ,,hellas4 ,the gean ,sea the ,centre of ,greek ,civilization #age ,the ,dorians and the ,ionians #agf ,the ,development of ,poetry ,earlier than that of ,art #agg ,,architecture4 ,the ,tholos of ,atreus #agi-ahc ,the ,phnician ,character of its ,decoration #ahc ,the ,grave at ,menidi #ahc ,the ,treasure-houses of the ,pelopid #ahd ,tumuli #ahe ,the ,common ,modes of ,burial #ahf ,pyramids #ahf1 #ahg ,primitive ,fortifications4 ,tiryns #ahg ,myken #ahh ,gateways and ,portals #ahi-aic ,the ,agora of ,myken #aib ,primitive ,temple ,cellas without ,columns #aib1 #aic ,the ,structure upon ,mt4 ,ocha4 ,timbered ,roofs and ,ceilings4 ,the ,origin of the ,doric ,entablature #aie-aig ,the ,decorative ,painting of ,woodwork #aig ,the ,doric ,column #aig-aii ,its ,egyptian ,prototype #aih ,the ,development of the ,temple-plan #aii-bjb ,the ,temple in ,antis #aii ,prostylos #bjj ,amphiprostylos4 ,peripteros #bja ,stone ,construction #bjb ,the ,entasis #bjc ,the ,capital #bjd ,the ,inclination of the ,columns #bje ,the ,details of the ,entablature #bjf-bji ,polychromy #baj ,curvatures #baa1 #bab ,the ,pteroma and ,ceiling #bac ,illumination #bad ,archaic ,doric ,temples #bae ,the ,progress of this ,style4 ,selinous #baf ,corinth #bag ,acragas #bai ,olympia4 gina #bbb ,the ,supremacy of ,athens #bbc ,the ,theseion #bbd ,the ,parthenon #bbe ,the ,propyla #bbf ,phigalia #bbg ,eleusis #bbh ,the ,ionic ,style4 ,its ,intimate ,relation to ,oriental ,architecture #bbi1 #bcj ,the ,capital #bca-bcc ,the ,entablature #bcd ,its ,want of ,historical ,development #bce ,phigalia #bcf ,the ,ionic ,monuments of ,asia ,minor #bcg-bdj ,the ,ionic ,monuments of ,attica #bdj-bde ,the ,temple upon the ,ilissos #bda ,the ,propyla #bdb ,the ,erechtheion #bdc-bde ,caryatides #bde ,the ,corinthian ,capital #bdf-bdi ,the ,temple of ,olympian ,zeus in ,athens #bdi ,monumental ,tombs #bej ,the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos #bea1 #beb ,the ,monument of the ,nereides at ,xanthos #beb ,the ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates #bec ,the so-called ,tower of the ,winds at ,athens #bec ,the ,stoa #bec-bee ,the ,palstra #bee ,the ,gymnasion #bef ,the ,stadion and ,hippodrome #beg ,the ,theatre and ,odeion #beh-bfj ,domestic ,architecture4 ,palaces #bfj1 #bfa ,the ,boundless ,luxury of the ,diadochi #bfa ,,sculpture4 ,the ,unrivalled ,perfection of the ,art4 ,its ,fundamental ,deviation from the ,principles of ,egyptian ,sculpture #bfd1 #bfe ,its ,dependence upon ,western ,asia #bff ,empaistic ,work4 ,xoana #bfg ,ddalos #bfh ,the ,homeric ,shield of ,achilles4 ,its ,workmanship and ,artistic ,importance #bfi-bga ,pseudo-,hesiodic ,shield of ,heracles #bgb ,the ,gate of the ,lions at ,myken #bgc1 #bgd ,schliemann's ,excavations upon the ,acropolis of ,myken #bgd1 #bge ,the ,chest of ,kypselos4 ,the ,throne of ,apollo at ,amycl #bgf-bgh ,the ,introduction of ,bronze ,casting4 ,marble-cutting and ,chryselephantine ,work #bgh-bha ,the ,potter ,boutades #bgh ,glaucos4 ,rhoicos and ,theodores #bgi ,boupalos and ,athenis #bhj ,dipoinos and ,skyllis #bha1 #bhb ,the ,first ,metopes at ,selinous #bhc1 #bhd ,archaic ,statues at ,miletos #bhe ,reliefs at ,assos4 ,the ,apollo of ,thera #bhf ,the ,stele of ,aristion #bhg1 #bhh ,the ,second ,metopes at ,selinous #bij ,archaistic ,works #bia1 #bib ,the ,gable ,sculptures of the ,temple of gina #bic-bif ,the ,school of gina3 ,callon and ,onatas #bif1 #big ,the ,school of ,attica3 ,hegias1 ,critios1 and ,nesiotes #big ,canachos #bih ,agelades #bii ,calamis #cjj ,pythagoras #cja ,myron #cjb1 #cjc ,the ,progress of ,athens after the ,persian ,wars #cjc ,pheidias #cjd-cae ,the ,athene ,parthenos #caj-cac ,the ,panathenaic ,frieze #cac-cae ,the ,metopes #caf ,the ,scholars of ,pheidias4 ,agoracritos #caf1 #cag ,the ,gable ,sculptures of the ,temple of ,olympia #cag1 #cah ,the ,victory of ,paionios #cai ,the ,scholars of ,myron #cbj ,the ,phigalian ,frieze #cba ,callimachos and ,demetrios #cbb ,polycleitos #cbb-cbf ,the ,third ,metopes at ,selinous #cbg1 #cbh ,the ,extent of the ,school of ,attica and ,argos4 ,kephisodotos #cbi ,scopas #ccj-ccc ,the ,niobids #cca1 #ccb ,praxiteles #ccc ,the ,scholars of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the ,sculptures of the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos #ccd ,the ,hermes of ,olympia #cce1 #ccf ,the ,venus of ,melos #cch1 #cci ,silanion and ,euphranor #cdj ,lysippos #cdj-cdd ,the ,school of ,lysippos #cdd1 #cde ,the ,sculpture of the ,hellenistic ,period #cdf1 #cdg ,the ,altar at ,pergamon #cdg1 #cdh ,the so-called ,dying ,gladiator #cdh1 #cdi ,the ,school of ,pergamon #cdi1 #cej ,the ,school of ,rhodes4 ,the ,laocoon #cea-cec ,the ,farnese ,bull #cec-cee ,the ,apollo ,belvedere #cef-ceh ,the ,introduction of ,greek ,sculpture into ,rome #ceh-cfj ,the ,borghese ,gladiator #cfa ,the ,belvedere ,torso #cfb ,the ,hellenic ,renaissance in ,rome #cfc-cff ,,painting4 ,lack of all ,remains #cff ,its ,early ,development ,fictitiously ,related by ,pliny4 ,eumaros4 ,kimon #cfg ,polygnotos #cfh1 #cfi ,the ,scenography of ,agatharchos4 ,of ,apollodoros #cgj ,zeuxis #cga1 #cgb ,parrhasios #cgc1 #cgd ,timanthes #cgd ,the ,school of ,sikyon3 ,eupompos1 ,pamphilos #cge ,melanthios4 ,pausias #cgf ,the ,school of ,thebes and ,athens3 ,nicomachos1 ,aristides1 ,euphranor #cgg1 #cgh ,nikias #cgh ,apelles #cgi-chb ,protogenes #chc ,antiphilos4 tion4 ,asclepiodoros4 ,theon #chd ,hellenistic ,painting4 ,timomachos #che ,trivial and ,obscene ,subjects4 ,mosaic4 ,sosos #chf ,,etruria4 ,relationship to the ,arts of ,greece #chg ,,architecture4 ,the so-called ,cyclopean ,walls4 ,arched ,gates #chh ,vaulted ,canals #chi ,cemeteries4 ,tumuli4 ,the ,tomb of ,porsena #cij ,imitations of ,dwellings upon ,tombs #cia1 #cib ,grotto ,sepulchres #cib ,imitations of ,temple ,faades upon ,cliffs #cic1 #cid ,norchia #cid1 #cie ,the ,etruscan ,temple #cif1 #cig ,the ,dwelling-house #cig ,its ,court #cih1 #cii ,lack of ,progressive ,architectural ,history #cii1 #djj ,,sculpture4 ,museums4 ,the ,oldest or ,decorative ,period4 ,phnician ,importations #djj ,the ,influence of ,western ,asia ,superseded by that of ,greece #dja1 #djb ,the ,sarcophagus of ,cre #djb ,realism4 ,sculpture in ,marble #djc ,the ,bronze ,chariot from ,perugia #djd ,the ,capitoline ,wolf4 ,engraved ,mirrors #dje ,height of ,etruscan ,art4 ,hellenistic ,influences #djf ,sculptured ,sarcophagi #djf1 #djg ,terra-cottas and ,bronzes #djh ,the ,similarity of late ,etruscan to ,roman ,sculpture #djh1 #dji ,,painting4 ,its ,development ,similar to that of ,sculpture4 ,the ,ornamental and ,dependent ,period #dji ,realistic ,characteristics #dji1 #daj ,the ,wall-paintings of ,cre and ,corneto #dji1 #daj ,the ,influence of ,greece #daa ,artistic ,manufactures #daa1 #dab ,sgraffiti4 ,the ,importance of ,etruscan ,art #dab ,,rome4 ,the ,conditions of ,civilization ,similar to those of ,etruria #dac ,,architecture4 ,primitive ,walls #dad1 #dae ,gates4 ,vaulted ,canals #daf ,temples3 their ,tuscan ,character4 ,the ,temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus #dag ,hellenic ,influences #dah ,prostylos and ,pseudo-peripteros #dai1 #dbj ,the ,tuscan ,order #dbj ,the ,doric ,order #dbj1 #dba ,the ,ionic ,order #dba1 #dbb ,the ,corinthian ,order #dbc1 #dbd ,the ,composite ,capital #dbd ,constructive ,advances4 ,arching and ,vaulting #dbe ,aqueducts and ,sewers #dbe1 #dbf ,baths #dbf-dbi ,the ,baths of ,agrippa4 ,the ,pantheon #dbg ,the ,baths of ,caracalla and of ,diocletian #dbh1 #dbi ,the ,circus1 ,theatre1 and ,amphitheatre #dcj-dcf ,the ,theatre of ,marcellus #dcc ,the ,flavian ,amphitheatre 7,colosseum7 #dcf ,funeral ,monuments #dcf1 #dcg ,commemorative ,columns #dcg ,triumphal ,arches #dch-ddj ,public ,buildings4 ,basilicas #dda-ddc ,dwellings #ddd ,private ,courts of ,justice the ,prototypes of the ,christian ,basilica #dde-ddg ,,sculpture4 ,lack of ,statues during the ,earliest ,period4 ,decorative ,work #ddg1 #ddh ,the ,influence of ,etruria #ddh ,the ,influence of ,greece #ddi ,rise of ,sculpture after the ,samnite ,war #ddi1 #dej ,importations of ,statues from ,greece #dea ,coponius #deb ,portrait ,sculpture #dec-dee ,iconic ,statues #dec ,the ,horses of ,st4 ,mark's #ded ,shortcomings of ,roman ,reliefs #def1 #deg ,historical ,representations #deg-dei ,trajan's ,column #deh ,the ,arch of ,titus #dei ,the ,monument of ,antoninus ,pius #dfj ,the ,degeneration of ,sculpture #dfa ,portraiture #dfa1 #dfb ,the ,arch of ,constantine #dfc ,,painting4 ,the ,earliest ,paintings by ,greek ,artists4 ,the ,temple of ,ceres #dfd ,fabius ,pictor #dfd1 #dfe ,pacuvius and ,metrodoros #dfe ,battle-scenes #dfe1 #dff ,panel-painting4 ,collections #dff ,wall ,decorations after the ,alexandrian ,fashion #dff-dgj ,the ,golden ,house of ,nero #dfg ,landscapes4 ,architectural ,ornamentation #dfh1 #dfi ,mosaics #dgj1 #dga ,from ,herculaneum and ,pompeii #dga ,conclusion #dga1 #dgb ,the ,christian ,paintings of the ,catacombs #dgb ,,glossary #dgc ,,index #dgi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,egypt4 ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,the ,pyramids of ,gizeh #a #b4 ,the ,great ,pyramid of ,gizeh4 ,section ,n4 and ,s41 looking ,west #f #c4 ,section of the ,great ,pyramid of ,saccara #i #d4 ,the ,pyramid of ,meydoun #aj #e4 ,southern ,stone ,pyramid of ,dashour #aa #f4 ,section of the ,middle ,pyramid of ,abousere #ac #g4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,transport of a ,colossus #ad #h4 ,section and ,plan of the ,northernmost ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,beni-hassan #ae #i4 ,second ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,beni-hassan #af #aj4 ,pier ,decoration from the ,tombs of ,sauiet-el-,meytin #ag #aa4 ,lotos-column of ,beni-hassan #ah #ab4 ,column from ,sedinga #ai #ac4 ,lotos-columns from ,thebes #bj #ad4 ,calyx ,capital from ,carnac #ba #ae4 ,capitals from ,edfou #bb #af4 ,osiris ,pier #bc #ag4 ,royal ,grave near ,thebes #bd #ah4 ,southern ,temple of ,carnac #be #ai4 ,temple of ,edfou #bf #bj4 ,great ,temple of ,carnac #bg #ba4 ,section of the ,hypostyle ,hall1 ,great ,temple of ,carnac #bh #bb4 ,chapel upon the ,platform of the ,temple of ,dendera #bi #bc4 ,temple of ,phil #cj #bd4 ,faade of the ,rock-cut ,temple of ,abou-,simbel #ca #be4 ,hall of the ,rock-cut ,temple of ,abou-,simbel #cb #bf4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,interior of a ,house #cc #bg4 ,labyrinth of the ,fayoum #ce #bh4 ,egyptian ,profile4 ,greek ,profile #ch #bi4 ,husband and ,wife4 7,munich ,glyptothek47 #ci #cj4 ,the ,schoolmaster of ,boulac #dj #ca4 ,lion of ,reddish ,granite4 7,british ,museum47 #da #cb4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,sculptural ,work #dc #cc4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,lance-maker #dd #cd4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,prisoners of ,different ,nationalities #de ,,chald,a1 ,,babylonia1 ,,and ,,assyria4 #ce4 ,relief from ,corsabad4 ,assyrian ,shrines #dh #cf4 ,temple at ,mugheir 7,ur7 #di #cg4 ,ruins of ,warka #ea #ch4 ,patterned ,wall4 ,warka #ea #ci4 ,tomb at ,mugheir #eb #dj4 ,bors-,nimrud4 ,temple-terrace at ,borsippa #ed #da4 ,plan and ,elevation of the ,temple at ,borsippa #ef #db4 ,plan of ,babylon #ei #dc4 ,plan of ,nineveh #fa #dd4 ,plan of the ,palace of ,kisr-,sargon1 ,corsabad #fc #de4 ,ornamented ,pavement from the ,northern ,palace of ,coyundjic #fd #df4 ,cornice of the ,temple ,substructure at ,corsabad #ff #dg4 ,plan of the ,northwestern ,palace of ,nimrud #fg #dh4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #fh #di4 ,plan of the ,palace of ,esarhaddon at ,nimrud #fi #ej4 ,various ,capitals and ,bases1 from ,assyrian ,reliefs #gj #ea4 ,table1 from an ,assyrian ,relief #ga #eb4 ,mouth of a ,tunnel under the ,n4 ,e4 ,palace1 ,nimrud #gb #ec4 ,tunnel under the ,s4 ,e4 ,palace1 ,nimrud #gb #ed4 ,view of an ,assyrian ,palace1 ,restoration #gc #ee4 ,terraced ,pyramid1 from a ,relief1 ,coyundjic #gd #ef4 ,plan and ,section of the ,terraced ,pyramid1 ,nimrud #ge #eg4 ,relief from the ,northern ,palace1 ,coyundjic #gf #eh4 ,entrance to ,one of the ,so-called ,temples1 ,nimrud #gg #ei4 ,obelisk from ,nimrud #gh #fj4 ,assyrian ,dwellings4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #gi #fa4 ,tent-like ,dwelling4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #hj #fb4 ,susa4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #ha #fc4 ,babylonian ,seal1 and its ,impression #hb #fd4 ,wall ,decoration of ,enamelled ,tiles #hc #fe4 ,statue of a ,king1 from ,nimrud #hd #ff4 ,winged ,lion1 0 0 #he #fg4 ,winged ,bull1 0 0 #he #fh4 ,lion1 0 0 #hf #fi4 ,king and ,warrior4 ,relief from ,corsabad #hh #gj4 ,heads4 ,reliefs from ,nimrud #hi #ga4 ,temple4 ,relief from ,corsabad #ij #gb4 ,a ,besieged ,city4 ,relief from ,nimrud #ia #gc4 ,wounded ,lioness4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #ib #gd4 ,transportation of ,stone4 ,relief from ,coyundjic #ic #ge4 ,transport of a ,cherubim #id #gf4 ,glazed ,terra-cotta1 from ,nimrud #ig ,,persia4 #gg4 ,restoration of the ,palace of ,darius1 ,persepolis #ii #gh4 ,plan of ,persepolis #aja #gi4 ,fragment of a ,base from ,pasargad #ajc #hj4 ,persian ,columns with ,bull ,capitals #ajd #ha4 ,spiral ,ornaments upon ,chairs #aje #hb4 ,columns from the ,eastern ,portico of the ,hall of ,xerxes #ajf #hc4 ,rock-cut ,tomb of ,darius #ajg #hd4 ,entablature of the ,palace of ,darius #aji #he4 ,plan of the ,palace of ,darius at ,persepolis #aaj #hf4 ,persian ,door-casing #aab #hg4 ,relief from the ,portal of the ,hall of a ,hundred ,columns #aac #hh4 ,propyla of ,xerxes at ,persepolis #aae #hi4 ,altar ,pedestals at ,pasargad #aah #ij4 ,the ,tomb of ,cyrus #aai #ia4 ,relief from a ,portal1 ,persepolis #abd #ib4 ,relief from the ,stairs of the ,palace of ,darius #abg ,,ph,,nicia1 ,,palestine1 ,,and ,,asia ,,minor4 #ic4 ,rock-cut ,tombs at ,myra #acj #id4 ,temple ,cella 7,el-,maabed7 at ,amrith #acd #ie4 ,the ,monuments ,el-,meghazil at ,amrith #acf #if4 ,faade of a ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,jebeil #ach #ig4 ,from a ,relief at ,saida #ada #ih4 ,from the monument ,el-,meghazil at ,amrith #ada #ii4 ,from ,rock-cut ,relief at ,mashnaka #adb #ajj4 ,the ,mosaic ,tabernacle #adc #aja4 ,relief at ,thabarieh #adf #ajb4 ,vase ,discovered in ,cyprus #aej #ajc4 ,hypothetical ,plan and ,section of ,solomon's ,temple #aea #ajd4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,siloam #aeh #aje4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,hinnom #aeh #ajf4 ,tomb at ,paphos in ,cyprus #afj #ajg4 ,cyprian ,pilaster ,capitals #afa #ajh4 ,votive ,figure from ,cyprus #afb #aji4 ,cyprian ,head #afc #aaj4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,antiphellos #afd #aaa4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,antiphellos #afe #aab4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,myra #aff #aac4 ,the so-called ,monument of the ,harpies at ,xanthos #afg #aad4 ,sarcophagus at ,antiphellos #afh #aae4 ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,telmissos #afi #aaf4 ,details of ,columns from ,telmissos1 ,myra1 and ,antiphellos #agj #aag4 ,the so-called ,tomb of ,midas #aga #aah4 ,phrygian ,rock-cut ,tomb near ,doganlu #agb #aai4 ,the so-called ,grave of ,tantalos #agd ,,greece4 #abj4 ,view of the ,athenian ,propyla4 ,restoration #age #aba4 ,plan and ,section of the ,tholos of ,atreus #agi #abb4 ,restoration of the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,portal #ahj #abc4 ,fragments of an ,engaged ,column from the same #aha #abd4 ,the ,pyramid of ,kencre #ahf #abe4 ,plan of the ,acropolis of ,tiryns #ahh #abf4 ,the ,gate of the ,lions at ,myken #ahi #abg4 ,the ,smaller ,gate at ,myken #ahi #abh4 ,portal from ,samos #aij #abi4 ,gateway of ,phigalia #aij #acj4 ,portal upon ,delos #aia #aca4 ,gate of ,missolonghi #aib #acb4 ,gate of ,messene #aib #acc4 ,gate of ,thoricos #aic #acd4 ,gate of ,ephesos #aic #ace4 ,interior of a ,structure upon ,mount ,ocha1 ,euba #aid #acf4 ,elevation of the ,corner of the ,middle ,temple1 ,selinous #bjc #acg4 ,entablature of the ,parthenon #bjf #ach4 ,scheme of the ,doric ,entablature #bjg #aci4 ,plan and ,elevation of the so-called ,temple of ,theseus #bjh #adj4 ,painting over the ,pteroma of the same #bji #ada4 ,coffered ,pteroma ,ceiling1 ,selinous #baa #adb4 ,coffered ,ceilings from the ,parthenon #bab #adc4 ,plan of the ,middle ,temple1 ,selinous #bac #add4 ,capital from the ,northern ,temple1 ,selinous #baf #ade4 ,capital from the ,middle ,temple1 ,selinous #baf #adf4 ,capital from the ,temple at ,assos #baf #adg4 ,capital from the ,eastern ,plateau1 ,selinous #bag #adh4 ,capital from the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,selinous #bag #adi4 ,capital from the ,temple of ,heracles1 ,acragas #bag #aej4 ,capital from the ,temple of ,theseus1 ,athens #bah #aea4 ,capital from the ,portico of ,philip1 ,delos #bah #aeb4 ,capital from the ,temple of ,demeter1 ,pstum #bah #aec4 ,plan of the ,great ,temple at ,pstum #bai #aed4 ,plan1 ,section1 and ,elevation of the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,acragas #bbj #aee4 ,entablatures of the ,older and of the ,present ,parthenon #bba #aef4 ,plan of the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia #bbb #aeg4 ,plan of the ,parthenon #bbe #aeh4 ,plan and ,view of the ,propyla1 ,athens #bbf #aei4 ,plan of the ,temple of ,apollo1 ,bass #bbg #afj4 ,plan of the ,temenos at ,eleusis #bbh #afa4 ,ionic ,order of the ,mausoleum at ,halicarnassos #bcb #afb4 ,plan of the ,normal ,ionic ,capital #bcc #afc4 ,plan of the ,corner ,ionic ,capital #bcc #afd4 ,ceiling of the ,peripteros of the ,mausoleum4 ,restored #bce #afe4 ,base and ,capital from ,bass #bcf #aff4 ,base from the ,heraion at ,samos #bcg #afg4 ,base from the ,temple of ,apollo ,didymos1 ,miletos #bcg #afh4 ,base from the ,temple of ,athene1 ,priene #bcg #afi4 ,base from the ,propyla1 ,cnidos #bcg #agj4 0 0 ,temple of ,wingless ,victory1 ,athens #bcg #aga4 ,ruins of the ,temple at ,aphrodisias #bci #agb4 ,the ,temple upon the ,ilissos #bda #agc4 ,plan of the ,erechtheion #bdb #agd4 ,northwestern ,view of the ,erechtheion #bdc #age4 ,order of the ,eastern ,portico of the ,erechtheion #bdd #agf4 ,corinthian ,capital from ,bass #bdh #agg4 0 0 from the ,temple of ,apollo1 ,miletos #bdh #agh4 ,corinthian ,capital from the ,tower of the ,winds1 ,athens #bdh #agi4 ,tomb at ,mylassa #bea #ahj4 ,the ,mausoleum at ,halicarnassos4 ,restoration #beb #aha4 ,the ,monument of the ,nereides at ,xanthos #bec #ahb4 ,plan of the ,stoa ,diple at ,thoricos #bed #ahc4 ,plan of the ,stadion at ,messene #bef #ahd4 ,plan of the ,hippodrome at ,olympia #beg #ahe4 ,plan of the ,greek ,theatre1 according to ,vitruvius #beh #ahf4 ,the ,theatre at ,segesta4 ,restored #bei #ahg4 ,the ,cover of ,dodwell's ,vase4 7,munich47 #bga #ahh4 ,the ,relief over the ,gate of the ,lions1 ,myken #bgc #ahi4 ,steles from the ,acropolis of ,myken #bge #aij4 ,golden ,mask from ,myken #bgf #aia4 ,figures from the ,vase of ,clitias and ,ergotimos #bgg #aib4 ,metope ,relief from ,selinous #bhd #aic4 ,statues from ,miletos #bhe #aid4 ,the ,apollo of ,thera #bhf #aie4 ,archaic ,relief from ,sparta #bhg #aif4 ,the ,stele of ,aristion #bhh #aig4 ,a ,stele found at ,orchomenos #bij #aih4 ,head of a ,warrior1 ,selinous #bia #aii4 ,archaistic ,artemis1 from ,pompeii #bib #bjj4 ,central ,figures from the ,western ,gable1 gina #bid #bja4 ,harmodios and ,aristogeiton #big #bjb4 ,apollo1 after ,canachos #bih #bjc4 ,the ,discos-thrower #cjb #bjd4 ,statuette of the ,athene ,parthenos #cje #bje4 ,fragment ,imitated from the ,shield of ,athene ,parthenos #cjf #bjf4 ,coins of ,elis #cjg #bjg4 ,demeter and ,persephone1 from the ,parthenon #caa #bjh4 ,aphrodite and ,peitho1 from the ,parthenon #cab #bji4 ,fragment from the ,frieze of the ,cella of the ,parthenon #cad #baj4 ,figure from the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia #caf #baa4 ,figure from the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia #cag #bab4 ,head of ,apollo1 from the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia #cah #bac4 ,metope from the ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia #cai #bad4 ,the ,victory of ,paionios1 ,olympia #cbj #bae4 ,from the ,frieze of the ,temple at ,phigalia #cba #baf4 ,copy of the ,doryphoros1 ,naples #cbc #bag4 ,amazon1 after ,polycleitos #cbe #bah4 ,head of ,hera1 ,naples #cbf #bai4 ,the ,ludovisi ,juno1 ,rome #cbf #bbj4 ,metope from the ,eastern ,plateau1 ,selinous #cbh #bba4 ,eirene and ,ploutos1 after ,kephisodotos #cbi #bbb4 ,the ,apollo ,kitharoidos #ccj #bbc4 ,niobids4 7,florence47 #cca #bbd4 ,head of ,niobe #ccb #bbe4 ,fragment of the ,frieze at ,halicarnassos #ccd #bbf4 ,head of ,eros4 7,vatican47 #cce #bbg4 ,the ,hermes of ,praxiteles #ccf #bbh4 ,the ,head of the ,hermes #ccg #bbi4 ,the ,venus of ,melos #cch #bcj4 ,copy of the ,apoxyomenos of ,lysippos #cda #bca4 ,the ,farnese ,hercules #cdc #bcb4 ,the ,zeus of ,otricoli #cdd #bcc4 ,boreas1 from the ,tower of the ,winds #cdf #bcd4 ,notos1 from the ,tower of the ,winds #cdf #bce4 ,coins of the ,diadochi #cdg #bcf4 ,the ,dying ,gladiator #cdh #bcg4 ,the ,laocoon #ceb #bch4 ,the ,farnese ,bull #ced #bci4 ,the ,wrestlers #cef #bdj4 ,the ,apollo ,belvedere #ceg #bda4 ,the ,artemis of ,versailles #cei #bdb4 ,the ,borghese ,gladiator #cfa #bdc4 ,the ,belvedere ,torso #cfb #bdd4 ,group from the ,villa ,ludovisi #cfd #bde4 ,the ,capitoline ,centaur #cfe ,,etruria4 #bdf4 ,the ,campana ,tomb at ,veii #chg #bdg4 ,the ,gate of ,falerii #chh #bdh4 ,canal of the ,marta #chi #bdi4 ,restored ,plan and ,elevation of the ,tomb of ,porsena #cia #bej4 ,ceiling of a ,tomb at ,cervetri #cib #bea4 ,plan and ,section of a ,tomb at ,cervetri #cic #beb4 ,interior of a ,tomb at ,cervetri #cid #bec4 ,temple ,tomb at ,norchia #cie #bed4 ,elevation of the ,etruscan ,temple1 according to ,vitruvius #cig #bee4 ,tomb at ,corneto #cih #bef4 ,etruscan ,sarcophagus #cii #beg4 ,bust from the ,grotto dell' ,iside in ,vulci #djb #beh4 ,sarcophagus of ,terra-cotta from ,cre #djc #bei4 ,etruscan ,relief #djd #bfj4 ,the ,capitoline ,wolf #dje #bfa4 ,etruscan ,stone ,sarcophagus #djg #bfb4 ,painting from ,cre #daj ,,rome4 #bfc4 ,the ,janus ,quadrifrons in the ,forum ,boarium #dac #bfd4 ,gateway in the ,walls of ,norba #dad #bfe4 ,remains of the ,servian ,wall #dae #bff4 ,the ,cloaca ,maxima #dag #bfg4 ,plan of the ,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis #dai #bfh4 ,plan of the ,temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina #dai #bfi4 ,tuscan ,column from the ,coliseum #dbj #bgj4 ,the ,temple at ,cori #dba #ba4 ,view of the ,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis #dbb #bgb4 ,corinthian ,capital from the ,pantheon #dbd #bgc4 ,composite ,capital #dbd #bgd4 ,section of the ,aqua ,marcia ,tepula and ,julia #dbf #bge4 ,section of the ,pantheon1 in its ,present ,condition #dbg #bgf4 ,section of the ,pantheon4 ,restoration by ,adler #dbh #bgg4 ,plan of the ,baths of ,caracalla #dbi #bgh4 ,chief ,hall of the ,baths of ,caracalla #dcj #bgi4 ,plan of the ,circus of ,romulus #dca #bhj4 ,scheme of the ,roman ,theatre1 according to ,vitruvius #dcb #bha4 ,theatre of ,marcellus1 ,rome #dcc #bhb4 ,plan of the ,flavian ,amphitheatre #dcd #bhc4 ,section of the ,auditorium of the ,flavian ,amphitheatre #dce #bhd4 ,faade and ,section of a ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,petra #dch #bhe4 ,triumphal ,arch of ,titus #dci #bhf4 0 0 ,septimius ,severus #ddj #bhg4 ,section of the ,primitive ,roman ,basilica #ddb #bhh4 ,plan of the ,primitive ,roman ,basilica #ddb #bhi4 ,plan of the ,basilica of ,maxentius #ddc #bij4 ,section of the ,house of ,pansa in ,pompeii #ddd #bia4 ,plan of the ,house of ,pansa in ,pompeii #ddd #bib4 ,the ,flavian ,palace #dde #bic4 ,court of the ,palace of ,diocletian at ,spalatro #ddf #bid4 ,fragment of the ,cista ,prnestina #ddg #bie4 ,janus ,bifrons upon an ,ancient ,roman ,coin #ddh #bif4 ,statue of ,isis4 7,museum of ,naples47 #dej #big4 ,relief of ,mithras4 7,in the ,louvre47 #dea #bih4 ,vertumnus 7,silvanus74 7,in ,berlin47 #deb #bii4 ,relief of ,bonus ,eventus4 7,british ,museum47 #dec #cjj4 ,statue of ,augustus4 7,in the ,vatican47 #ded #cja4 ,equestrian ,statue of ,nonius ,balbus1 ,jun4 #dee #cjb4 ,relief from the ,arch of ,titus in ,rome4 #deh #cjc4 ,relief of ,trajan1 from the ,arch of ,constantine in ,rome4 #dej #cjd4 ,relief upon the ,pedestal of the ,column of ,antoninus ,pius #dfj #cje4 ,victory1 from the ,arch of ,constantine #dfc #cjf4 ,wall-painting from the ,aurea ,domus of ,nero #dff #cjg4 ,ceres4 ,pompeian ,wall-painting #dfg #cjh4 ,wall-painting from ,herculaneum #dfh #cji4 ,landscape-painting from ,pompeii #dfi #caj4 ,wall-painting of ,decorative ,architecture1 ,pompeii #dgj ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,i4--,the ,pyramids of ,gizeh4 ,,egypt4 ,it is a curious chance that the most ancient monuments of human civilization should stand upon a land which is one of the youngest geological formations of our earth4 ,the scene of that artistic activity made known to us by the oldest architectural remains of ,africa and of the world was not ,upper ,egypt1 where steep primeval cliffs narrow the valley of the ,nile1 but the alluvion of the river's delta4 ,it would be difficult to decide whether the impulse of monumental creativeness were here first felt1 or whether the mere fact of the preservation of these ,egyptian works1 secured by the indestructibility of their construction as well as by the unchangeableness of ,egyptian art1 be sufficient to explain this priority to other nations of antiquity--notably to ,mesopotamia4 ,although no ruins have been found in ,chalda of earlier date than the twenty-third century ,b4,c41 it is not at all impossible that remains of greater antiquity may yet come to light in a country which is by no means thoroughly explored4 ,nor should we deem the oldest structures now preserved to be necessarily those first erected4 ,the perishable materials of the buildings which stood in the plains of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 generally sun-dried bricks with asphalt cement1 were not calculated to insure long duration1 or to prevent their overthrow and obliteration by the continual changes in the course of these rivers1 through the silting and swamping of their valleys4 ,yet1 though tradition would incline us to assume that ,chaldan civilization and art were the more ancient1 the oldest monuments known exist upon the banks of the ,nile4 ,the changeless blue of the ,egyptian sky1 the strictly regular return of all the natural phenomena connected with the ,nile1 that wonderful stream of the land's life1 are entirely in accord with the fixedness of ,egyptian civilization in all its branches4 ,though the high state of advance which we first find in ,egyptian art1 three thousand years before the ,christian era1 must necessarily have been preceded by less perfected degrees1 it is wholly impossible to perceive such stages of development in any of the monuments known4 ,after ,egypt had attained a certain height of civilization1 its history1 during the thousands of years known to us1 shows none of those phases of advance or decline1 of development in short1 to be observed in ,europe during every century1 if not during every decade4 ,the ,egyptian completed buildings and statues begun by his remote ancestors without the slightest striving for individual peculiarity4 ,he commenced new works in the same spirit1 leaving them for similar execution by his great-grandchildren4 ,numberless generations thus dragged on without bequeathing a trace of any peculiar character and ability4 ,it is only by the cartouches of the kings in the hieroglyphic inscriptions that it is possible to separate the dynasties1 and to group into periods of a thousand years or more1 works of art which seem from their style to belong to one and the same age4 ,what gigantic revolutions have affected the civilization of ,europe during the fourteen centuries elapsed since the overthrow of the ,roman ,empire1 and how slight are the appreciable changes during the nearly equal number of years of the ancient dynasties of ,memphis--the period of the pyramids1 or again of the ,theban kingdom--from the seventeenth dynasty to the rule of the ,ptolemies6 ,the true age of the monuments of ,lower ,egypt has not long been known4 ,when ,napoleon ,i4 fired the spirits of his troops before the ,battle of the ,pyramids by the well-known words 8,forty centuries look down upon you from the heights of these pyramids10 he must have been aware that1 according to the conceptions of the archological science of the time1 he was exaggerating4 ,in fact1 however1 he was far behind the truth4 ,the pyramids of ,abousere1 possibly also those of ,dashour1 are of the third dynasty 7#ccch to #cabd ,b4,c41 according to ,lepsius71 those of ,gizeh of the fourth dynasty of ,manetho 7#cabd to #bhdj ,b4,c474 ,these are structures which have stood for five thousand years4 ,the pyramids of ,cochome1 referred to as the first dynasty of ,manetho1 are still older1 dating from a time nearly coincident1 according to ,biblical authority1 with the creation of the world itself 7#cgfa ,b4,c474 ,it is true we are still so far from chronological certainty that dates often differ astonishingly4 ,osburn1 for instance1 places the fourth and fifth dynasties as late as the period between #bbbh and #bajh ,b4,c41 and notably the two kings of the fourth dynasty1 ,shofo and ,nu-,shofo1 about #bagj ,b4,c4 ,the first twelve dynasties of ,memphis1 dated by ,lepsius about #chib to #bafg1 and by ,osburn as late as #aiei ,b4,c41 are now known principally by their monumental tombs4 ,among these1 the sepulchres of the kings are prominent in like manner as the ruler in an absolute and theocratic monarchy is elevated above his subjects4 ,the enslaved people labored upon the monuments of their masters1 often during the entire lifetime of these latter4 ,it may be seen from contemporary wall-paintings that the discipline maintained during the work of construction was not lacking in strictness1 but it was certainly not that excessive oppression generally imagined4 ,a body of over one hundred thousand workmen sorely oppressed might1 even in ,egypt1 have been difficult to manage by a hated despot4 ,it was principally during the annual inundations of the ,nile that the kings employed and fed the poorer classes1 at that time1 perhaps1 unable otherwise to subsist4 ,during other seasons the rulers could not have taken the tillers of the soil from fields and flocks without great injury to their own interests4 ,it is no mark of a selfish despotism1 which builds without reference to the welfare of land and subjects1 that the kings removed their enormous sepulchral piles from the vicinity of their residences--from the valuable alluvion of the ,nile to the barren edge of the desert4 ,they thus1 as ,plato recommends1 occupied no place with dwellings of the dead where it would be possible for the living to find nourishment4 ,the fertile ground of the valley was not encumbered by the colossal pyramids1 which were so numerous in ancient ,egypt that ,lepsius found the remains of sixty-seven in the forty-eight kilometers alone between ,cairo and the ,fayoum1 on the western bank of the river4 ,supposing only five score such pyramids1 with an average area of one hundred ares each1 two elevenths of that of the great pyramid of ,gizeh1 to have stood in the narrow valley of the ,nile1 what an enormous loss in the grain production of that most fertile but limited land would so great a reduction of arable surface have caused during the past five thousand years6 ,the fundamental motive of the pyramid is the funeral mound4 ,a small upheaval above the natural level of the ground results of itself from the earth displaced by the bulk of the buried body4 ,our present practice of interment clearly illustrates this4 ,increased dimensions elevate the mound to an independent monument4 ,many nations1 some of a high degree of civilization1 have contented themselves with such imposing hills of earth over the grave1--tumuli1 which1 from the manner of their construction1 assumed a conical form4 ,others placed the mound upon a low cylinder1 thus better marking its distinction from accidental natural elevations4 ,the ,egyptians and the ,mesopotamians rejected the cone entirely1 and formed1 with plane surfaces upon a square plan1 the highly monumental pyramid4 ,peculiar to the former people are the inclined sides which give to the pyramid its absolute geometrical form1 as opposed to the terraced structures of ,chalda4 ,the sand of the desert ebbed and flowed fifty centuries ago as constantly as in our time1 when the sphinx1 after being uncovered to its base1 has been quickly hidden again to the neck4 ,rulers1 unwilling that their gigantic tombs should be thus submerged1 were obliged to secure to them great height1 with inclined and unbroken sides1 upon which the sand could not lodge4 ,the typical pyramid of ,gizeh1 near ,cairo--the monument of ,cheops 7,shofo1 ,suphis71 the first or second king of the fourth dynasty--rises above the broad necropolis of ,memphis1 by far the largest and one of the most marvellous works of mankind4 7,fig4 #a47 ,with a ground-line mean of #bcb4ef m41 the great pyramid attained an altitude of #adh4ba m41 of which the entire apex is now overthrown1 leaving a height of about #ach m4,a ,the original intention of the builders was doubtless an absolutely square plan4 ,the greatest difference in the length of the ground-lines of the base is #j4de m4 ,the angle of the upward inclination of the sides has been found1 by measurements at various points1 to average #ea #ea #dc4 ,the entire pyramid is solidly built of massive blocks1 pierced by a few narrow passages which lead to small chambers4 7,fig4 #b47 ,like most of these monuments1 the entrance is situated somewhat above the ground2 it opens to a passage which descends with a gentle inclination4 ,the shaft is covered with stones leaning against each other1 so as to present the great resistance of a gable to the superimposed mass4 ,in passing out of the masonry it is continued into the natural rock under the same angle1 #bf #bg4 ,near the point of separation it meets with another passage1 which ascends with an inclination of #bf #f to the centre of the structure1 sending off a nearly horizontal branch at half-way4 ,all three shafts lead to grave-chambers1 the highest being the most important4 ,as the ascent continues above the horizontal branch1 its importance is emphasized by the passage being increased from #a4b or #a4e m4 high to a corridor #h4e m4 in height1 roofed by gradually projecting blocks1 and having upon its floor a slide to facilitate the transport of the sarcophagus4 ,thereupon follows a horizontal vestibule1 closed most securely by four blocks of granite which fell like portcullises4 ,only three of these had been let down2 the fourth remained in its original position1 the lower grooves never having been cut to allow its descent4 ,the upper chamber1 of polished granite1 but otherwise not ornamented1 is #aj4dh m4 long1 #e4bd m4 broad1 and #e4hd m4 high4,b ,it is ceiled horizontally with nine colossal lintels of granite1 a detail which seemed at first surprising1 as other voids of far less width were more firmly covered1 either by projecting and gradually approaching stones1 as in the ascending corridor2 or with blocks leaned together so as to form a gable1 as in the other passages1 and in the middle chamber1 called that of the ,queen4 ,yet it was for the security of this upper chamber that the greatest care proved to have been taken4 ,the weight of the half-height of the pyramid remaining above it was by no means allowed to rest upon its horizontal lintels4 ,there are above them five low relieving spaces separated by four stone ceilings similar to the first2 mighty blocks are inclined over all these to a gable triangle4 ,in case of rupture the horizontal beams would of themselves have formed new triangles and prevented direct downward pressure4 ,cheops certainly did not need to fear the ceiling of his chamber falling in upon him4 ,ventilation was provided for the room by two narrow air-channels1 which1 inclining upwards1 took the shortest course to the outside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,the ,great ,pyramid of ,gizeh4 ,section ,north and ,south1 looking ,west4 ,the perfectly geometrical form of the pyramids of ,gizeh has from early times led to speculations upon their having been erected in conformity with mathematical or astronomical calculations2 and endless attempts have been made to discover the fixed proportions which they are supposed to embody1 and to determine their symbolical or metrical significance4 ,too much is often assumed upon the strength of accidental coincidences1 generally only approximate2 but if such proportions indeed existed1 whatever may have been their intention1 they are evidently beyond the true province of art4 ,the second great pyramid1 built by the successor of ,cheops1 ,chephren 7,sophris71 seems not to have been so regular in its interior arrangement4 ,the third1 that of ,chephren's successor1 ,mykerinos 7,menkera71 is of the most beautiful execution4 ,the unevenness of the ground was so considerable that a substructure of masonry was here necessary4 ,the entire kernel is of rectangular courses of stone1 and1 with the exception of the exterior casing1 is built in the form of steps4 ,this manner of construction was employed in most of the pyramids1 but is here particularly noticeable4 ,the casing of granite1 highly polished1 is still partly intact2 the joints of its stones are scarcely perceptible1 and are not wider than the thickness of a sheet of paper4 ,the mechanical excellence of all these pyramids is indeed wonderful2 they remain as a marvellous proof of the constructive ability of man in ages far anterior to known periods of the world's history4 ,nor are they mere piles of masonry which could have been erected by an enslaved people without the guidance of skilled and thoughtful designers4 ,the arrangement of the passages1 of the chambers and their portcullises1 of the quarried stone and polished revetment1 was admirably adapted to the required ends4 ,in the third pyramid two corridors have been found1 one above the other4 ,the upper1 opening within from the first chamber1 at some height above the floor1 does not reach the exterior surface1 but ends suddenly against the unpierced outside casings4 ,this peculiarity is explained by1 and in turn gives weight to1 the statement that this pyramid1 as originally built by ,mykerinos1 was considerably smaller than it is at present1 measuring1 according to the end of the unfinished upper corridor1 #ed4hf m4 on the side of the plan1 and #db4bj m4 in vertical height4 ,nitocris1 the last queen of the sixth dynasty1 prepared the pyramid to serve also as her own monument by adding courses of stone which increased these dimensions to #aag4bi and #ff4ge m4 respectively4 ,but as the original entrance1 by the prolongation of its inclined line outward1 would thereby have opened much too high above the ground1 a new corridor beneath the first was rendered necessary4 ,the second chamber1 which probably once contained the sarcophagus of the queen1 was found entirely plundered4 ,the third and lowest1 better protected1 had been opened2 but in it there still remained in position a magnificent coffer of basalt4 ,the exterior of this sarcophagus was sculptured with lattice-work in imitation of a palace-like structure with portals4 ,fragments of the wooden coffin1 with carved hieroglyphics1 once within it1 and of the mummy itself1 were flung about the room4 ,the sarcophagus1 of the greatest value as illustrating the architectural forms of its time1 sank in the ,mediterranean with the ship which was carrying it away to ,england4 ,the mummy and the lid of the coffin are in the ,british ,museum4 ,hieroglyphics upon the latter designate the venerable remains as those of ,king ,menkera1 the same ,mykerinos whom ,herodotos1 following traditions of the ,egyptian priests1 mentions as one of the best rulers of the land4 ,the stone ceiling of the ,mykerinos chamber was at first thought to be vaulted1 it having the form of a low pointed arch4 ,this peculiarity proved1 however1 to be due to a hollowing-out of the inclined gable blocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,section of the ,great ,pyramid of ,saccara4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,the ,pyramid of ,meydoun4 ,princes and princesses of these early dynasties appear to have been buried in smaller pyramids1 like those which stand in groups of three near the first and third great pyramids of ,gizeh4 ,prominent subjects were allowed to take a place in the royal necropolis2 but their pyramids were always truncated1 in form resembling the ,egyptian footstool--the pyramidal point remained the peculiar privilege of the kings4 ,it appears to have been customary to commence all these structures with a few large terraces of masonry1 which were not fully developed into the perfectly pyramidal structure until the last stones1 the revetments1 were put in place4 ,these terraces generally had vertical sides4 ,occasionally this construction was varied by being formed with sloping sides1 which repeated the obtuse ascending angle of the footstool1 so that the separate steps1 elsewhere with a vertical rise1 were here somewhat inclined4 ,it is not certain whether the absolute pyramidal form was always intended to be carried out upon the completion of these latter monuments4 ,the examples of the inclined terraces which have been preserved rather seem to show that various attempts were made to develop architecturally upon the exterior the peculiarity of its inner construction4 ,the arrangement and line of the kernel were more or less strictly adhered to1 so that the last course of facing-stones showed the original angle of the interior masonry4 ,the increasing of the terraces by successive courses--coats1 as it were--seems to have been generally continued as long as the reign of a ,pharaoh would permit4 ,the layers1 when inclined1 were most numerous at the foot of the pyramid1 decreasing in number as they ascend1 that the mass might not take the proportions of a tower4 ,this manner of building is displayed by the section of the first pyramid of ,saccara 7,fig4 #c471 which1 if the courses had been continued in equal number1 would have reached a height of at least one hundred and fifty meters1 instead of the #eg4ia m4 effected by its terrace-like contractions4 ,the pyramid of ,meydoun shows that this contraction did not necessarily take place in regular and equal steps4 7,fig4 #d47 ,there the layers were added1 without decreasing in number1 to a considerable height1 when the structure was quickly completed by broad and low terraces4 ,similar to this must have been those pyramids which ended in a platform and served as the mighty pedestals of colossal figures1 described by ,herodotos as existing in ,lake ,moeris4 ,a remarkable variation from these forms is finally to be noticed in the stone pyramid of ,dashour4 7,fig4 #e47 ,rising at first with steep inclination1 #ed #ad1 it changes its slant at half-height to reach1 with a smaller angle1 #db #ei1 a more rapid conclusion4 ,this artistically unfortunate form seems to have been owing to a change of plan during the execution of the work2 it was doubtless originally designed to have been finished like the pyramid of ,meydoun4 ,it is hardly necessary to seek the origin of the double angle in the analogous obtuse termination of ,egyptian obelisks4 ,this pyramid of ,dashour is further remarkable on account of its magnificent revetment of polished ,mocattam limestone1 which is almost entirely preserved4 ,there is as great a difference in the material as in the form of the pyramids4 ,as early as the third dynasty ,king ,asychis 7,asuchra7 built a pyramid of what ,herodotos terms ,nile mud2 that is to say1 of sun-dried bricks4 ,it is not improbable that the great pyramid of ,dashour may be identified with this4 ,besides this peculiarity of material1 it is of unusual construction1 not having been immediately built upon the natural ground1 but standing on a thick layer of sand1 which1 enclosed by retaining-walls1 forms an excellent foundation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,southern ,stone ,pyramid of ,dashour4 ,one of the group of pyramids at ,abousere is built of rubble-stones1 quarried from the high plateau of the desert itself1 and roughly cemented with ,nile mud4 ,the builder of this irregular masonry held it the more necessary to insure the ceiling of his grave-chamber with the greatest care1 and three gables of stones1 #aj4ij m4 long and #c4ff m4 thick1 provide a resistance as sufficient against the imposed mass as does the sixfold roofing of the ,king's ,chamber at ,gizeh4 7,fig4 #f47 ,the exterior layers were carefully constructed of blocks from the quarries of ,tourah4 ,immense dikes1 forerunners of our modern causeways1 led from these quarries to the buildings at ,abousere4 ,although intended only for the conveyance of materials1 they were yet so firmly built that they exist at the present time4 ,egyptian wall-paintings show in the clearest manner the transportation of colossal monolithic statues along these ways upon sledges1 either moved upon rollers or dragged over an oiled slide1 as in ,fig4 #g4 ,the pyramid of ,illahoun1 like the northern pyramid of ,dashour and others1 is built of brick2 its masonry was additionally strengthened by walls of stone1 the thickest being upon the diagonals of the plan4 ,the pyramid of ,meydoun is built of alternate horizontal courses of variously quarried stone4 ,the following are the most important pyramids still standing1 with their dimensions in meters3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,name of ,pyramid4 ,original ,present ,height4 ,height4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a4 ,great pyramid of ,gizeh #adh4ba #acg4cd #b4 ,second pyramid of ,gizeh #aci4ci #acf4cg #c4 ,northern stone pyramid of ,dashour #ajd4ci #ii4di #d4 ,southern stone pyramid of ,dashour #ajc4bi #ig4bh #e4 ,pyramid of ,illahoun ---- #ci4fb #f4 ,pyramid of ,meydoun ---- #fh4dj #g4 ,northern ,pyramid of ,lisht ---- #bj4he #h4 ,pyramid of ,hovara ---- #cb4ca #i4 ,northern pyramid of ,lisht ---- #bg4ca #aj4 ,southern brick pyramid of ,dashour #ha4df #dg4ee #aa4 ,great pyramid of ,abousere #fi4ci #di4ii #ab4 ,third pyramid of ,gizeh #ff4hc #fa4hg #ac4 ,northern brick pyramid of ,dashour #fe4be #bg4dc #ad4 ,great pyramid of ,saccara #fa4jf #eg4ia #ae4 ,pyramid of ,abou-,roash ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,name of ,pyramid4 ,side of ,plan4 ,angle of ,ascent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a4 ,great pyramid of ,gizeh #bcb4ef #ea #eb #b4 ,second pyramid of ,gizeh #bae4ji #eb #ba #c4 ,northern stone pyramid of ,dashour #bai4bh #dc #cf #d4 ,southern stone pyramid of ,dashour #ahg4ic above #ed #ad below #db #ei #e4 ,pyramid of ,illahoun now1 #agj4fi ---- #f4 ,pyramid of ,meydoun now1 #afa4ed #gd #aj #g4 ,northern ,pyramid of ,lisht now1 #acg4af ---- #h4 ,pyramid of ,hovara #aaf4ib ---- #i4 ,northern pyramid of ,lisht now1 #aji4gc ---- #aj4 ,southern brick pyramid of ,dashour #ajd4ci #eg #bj #aa4 ,great pyramid of ,abousere #aji4fj #ea #db #ab4 ,third pyramid of ,gizeh #gg4jd #ea #aj #ac4 ,northern brick pyramid of ,dashour #ajd4cd #ea #bj #ad4 ,great pyramid of ,saccara ,e4 ,w4 #abj4jb #gc #cj ,n4 ,s4 #ajg4ja #ae4 ,pyramid of ,abou-,roash #ajd4ci ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,the ,nubian pyramids on ,mount ,barkal and in ,meroe1 far more numerous than those of ,lower ,egypt1 have lost much of their interest since investigations have shown that the civilization of ,egypt and the prototypes of monumental art did not descend from ,nubia1 as was at first supposed1 but arose in the delta and advanced up the stream4 ,inscriptions prove these pyramids to be some three thousand years younger than those of ,memphis1 dating them at as recent an epoch as the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,they are generally grouped in an extended necropolis1 and differ from those of the ancient kingdom by a steeper angle of elevation1 by a roundel-moulding upon the angles1 and1 above all1 by much smaller dimensions4 ,though the truncated pyramidal form1 as has been seen in a number of tombs at ,gizeh1 was not excluded from the funeral architecture of ,egyptian subjects1 it was never general4 ,rock-cut tombs were much more customary4 ,the upright cliffs which border the banks of the ,nile led naturally to such a formation1 and in their sides are excavated caverns of very different dimensions1 from the prevalent small1 square chambers1 with a narrow entrance high above the level of the valley1 to the most extended series of rooms4 ,these tombs were commonly decorated by mural paintings alone1 but occasionally by carved architectural details1 which always represent a wooden sheathing of slats or lattice-work4 ,the larger chambers1 even of the most primitive period1 have the roof supported by square piers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,section of the ,middle ,pyramid of ,abousere4 ,it is from these piers that the ,egyptian columns seem to have originated1 dividing from the outset into two classes and developing in different directions4 ,one class of columns arose from chamfering the corners of the square pier1 this support being thus transformed into an eight-sided1 and1 when the proceeding was repeated1 to a sixteen-sided1 shaft4 ,the first phase of change1 with its octagonal plan1 was simple and advantageous--a predominance of vertical line was secured to the support1 as well as greater room and ease of passage to the chamber4 ,the second1 the sixteen-sided figure1 offered but few new advantages2 on the contrary1 the play of light and shade between the sixteen sides and angles was lost in proportion as the edges became more obtuse and less visible4 ,as the sleek rotundity of an absolutely cylindrical shaft was not desirable1 the blunt angles of the sixteen-sided prism1 of rather coarse stone1 were emphasized to avoid the disagreeable uncertainty which is felt when the plan is undecided between a polygon and a circle4 ,this was effected by channelling the sides1 making the arris more prominent and giving a more lively variation of vertical light and shade4 ,the pier thus maintained1 in some degree1 its prismatic character while approaching the cylinder1 and the channelled column arose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,transport of a ,colossus4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,section and ,plan of the ,northernmost ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,beni-hassan4 ,rock-cut tombs of the twelfth dynasty 7#bchj-bafg ,b4,c41 according to ,lepsius7 situated at ,beni-hassan1 and part of the necropolis of the ancient ,nus1 a city early destroyed1 show the polygonal pier in the two phases of eight and sixteen sided plan4 ,the most northern of these has the octagonal unchannelled pier in the vestibule1 and the sixteen-sided channelled column within4 ,only fifteen channels are executed on the latter1 the sixteenth side being left plane for the reception of a painted row of hieroglyphics4 ,both exterior and interior shafts have a base like a large flat millstone1 which projects far beyond the lower diameter of the column1 its edge being bevelled inward4 ,a square abacus plinth is the only medium between shaft and ceiling1 the two columns of the vestibule lacking even this4 ,a full entablature did not exist in the interior1 as a representative of the outer edge of roof and ceiling there would naturally have been out of place4 ,the northernmost tomb has no distinct entablature carved upon the exterior2 but its neighbor 7,fig4 #i47 shows1 cut from the solid rock1 a massive horizontal epistyle above the columns1 and upon this the projecting edge of the ceiling1 which appears to consist of squarely hewn joists4 ,lattice-work was found represented upon the stone sarcophagus of ,mykerinos4 ,here the model of a wooden ceiling is truthfully imitated upon the rock4 ,as1 in the flat coverings of rainless ,egypt1 roof and ceiling appear one and the same1 this entablature has but two members--epistyle and cornice2 while the frieze1 in ,greek architecture the representative of a horizontal ceiling beneath the inclined roof1 does not here exist4 ,this order of architecture1 called1 because of the similarity of the shaft1 the ,proto-,doric1 was predominant in the ancient kingdom4 ,but at least as early as the twelfth dynasty another class of columns was in use which had been developed in an entirely different manner4 ,the ,proto-,doric columns originated from the mathematical duplication of the prismatic sides and angles of the square pier2 these second made the same pier their model1 but followed its painted ornament1 not its architectural form4 ,the primitive designer enriched his work with flowers1 striving to preserve the quickly fading natural decoration by an imperishable imitation4 ,many of the bands of ornament customary in antiquity may be considered as rows or wreaths of leaves and flowers1 although often they do not betray their derivation at first sight1 because of the original imperfect representation of nature1 the subsequent strict conventionalization1 and final degeneracy into formalism4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,second ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,beni-hassan4 ,in ,egypt1 ornamental adaptations of the lotos-flowers of the ,nile appear at first in long1 frieze-like rows1 the blossoms being bound together by the stems in much the same arrangement as similar decorations in ,assyria1 or the better conventionalized anthemion friezes in ,greece4 ,when this horizontal ornament was transferred to the narrow vertical sides of a pier1 it was necessary to place the flowers closely together1 to lengthen the curled stems and bind them2 in short1 to form of the wreaths1 which had answered for the narrow band1 a bouquet better corresponding to the tall1 upright space to be filled4 ,such a bunch of long-stemmed lotos-buds is shown upon the pillars of the tombs near ,sauiet-el-,meytin 7,fig4 #aj471 which1 certainly of the ancient kingdom1 were probably of the sixth dynasty4 ,this bouquet may have been as customary an ornament for the pier as the garlands of lotos-flowers were for the frieze4 ,the history of architectural decoration shows that the stone-cutter's chisel everywhere followed in the footsteps of color4 ,the four sides of the pier bore the same painted flowers2 if these were to be sculptured1 nothing could be more natural than to carry them from four-sided relief into the full round1 where they offered the same face to all points of view1 and transformed the painted pier into a column formed like a bunch of lotos-blossoms4 ,this development must have taken place early in the ancient kingdom1 for we find the floral column in the same tombs of the twelfth dynasty at ,beni-hassan which show the so-called ,proto-,doric shaft in its various phases4 ,form and color so work together in the floral column as to leave no doubt of the fundamental idea having been the bunch of lotos-buds painted upon the sides of the pier4 ,four stems of rounded profile are engaged1 rising from a flat base similar to that of the polygonal column4 ,they are tied together under the buds by fivefold ribbons of different colors4 ,above these the lotos-flowers spread from the stems1 showing between their green leaves the opening buds in narrow slits of white4 ,the flowers of the painted bouquet 7,fig4 #aj47 are spread apart2 but in the sculptured column they are necessarily united1 forming the capital4 ,even the little blossoms with short stems1 represented upon the painting of ,sauiet-el-,meytin1 are not neglected1 although the calyx itself has become much smaller1 owing to technical reasons of the execution4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,pier ,decoration from the ,tombs of ,sauiet-el-,meytin4 ,beni-hassan proves that the two orders1 the channelled polygonal shaft and the lotos-column 7,fig4 #aa471 had been developed as early as the twelfth dynasty2 but as columnar architecture was not general in the ancient kingdom1 the examples preserved are isolated4 ,the little temple of that age discovered by ,mariette ,bey near the great sphinx of ,gizeh shows no trace of columns1 their place being supplied by monolithic piers4 ,the period between the twenty-second and the sixteenth century ,b4,c41 during which the ,nile-land was occupied by the nomadic ,hycsos1 the shepherd kings1 enemies to all civilization1 was not favorable to the further application and development of architectural genius4 ,the columns do not again appear until the advent of the new ,theban kingdom with the eighteenth dynasty 7#aeia ,b4,c41 according to ,lepsius71 when they were extensively employed1 especially in temples4 ,it was then that the typical forms of the orders were determined4 ,the ,proto-,doric1 the channelled polygonal column of the tombs at ,beni-hassan1 fell into disuse4 ,its simplicity suited neither the desire for richness of form1 peculiar to the later ,egyptians1 nor the delight in polychromatic ornament1 which found only one unchannelled strip at its disposal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,lotos-column of ,beni-hassan4 ,the polygonal shaft received1 in certain measure1 a new lease of life by the invention of a necessary part1 a capital in place of the meagre abacus plinth which had formerly been the insufficient medium of transition between the upright support and the horizontal entablature4 ,the vegetable prototype was deserted1 and a female head1 or rather a fourfold mask about a cubical kernel1 crowned the shaft1 being surmounted by an ornament somewhat resembling a chapel4 ,the column thereby became similar to a ,hermes1 or to a caryatid figure of ,janus ,quadrifrons1 as it were4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,but the representation of the deity ,athor had only a limited application1 and seems to have prevented the column from being generally employed4 ,a far wider field was opened to the floral column1 which in its architectural and ornamental development was removed further and further from its original model4 ,the changes were brought about in two ways1 the most direct alterations being effected by the sculptor4 ,the four buds and stems of the lotos-columns of ,beni-hassan were increased to eight2 the latter changed their round cylinders to angular prisms1 thus giving up much of the vegetable character4 ,the former straight and stiff shaft1 rising directly from the base1 was curved near the bottom by a short swelling1 which suddenly increased the diameter4 ,this entasis was surrounded by a row of leaves1 again characterizing the ascending bundle as stems4 ,leaves were also added at the foot of the buds1 these being out of place and impairing the consequential development expressed in the column of ,beni-hassan1 though corresponding well enough with the treatment adopted for the similar enlargement at the foot of the shaft4 ,the four little flowers1 which were tied in by the bands of the ,beni-hassan column1 naturally became eight in number with the duplication of the stems and blossoms4 ,they were before much diminished in size1 but here became an entirely unorganic1 rectangular ornament4 ,the binding ribbons of the neck retained their original variegated colors2 but the painting of the capital itself put aside every likeness to the natural colors of the flower4 7,fig4 #ac a47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,column from ,sedinga4 ,an entirely picturesque transformation also affected the lotos-column1 and led to the second phase of its development4 ,the stone shaft was cut cylindrically1 the memberings being omitted and all reminiscences of stem and bud being abandoned4 ,the wreaths of leaves remained at the lower end of the shaft and of the capital1 as did also the binding ribbons with the little flowers1 which were still more broadened and distorted4 ,the rest of the column gave space for painted1 or rather coilanaglyphic1 representations of devotional acts1 for the cartouches of the kings and for hieroglyphic inscriptions 7,fig4 #ac b47 ,the capital1 which had before consisted of four and of eight buds1 became consolidated to a single one2 the binding ribbon of the neck was retained without a function4 ,it was the more natural to open the single bud to the calyx of a flower1 a graceful and satisfactory solution of the problem which retained its sway henceforth in ,egypt much as the ,corinthian capital1 so nearly related in form to this ,egyptian calyx1 predominated over other ,roman varieties4 ,the shaft and the ribbons remained1 as in the painted column of the ,memnonium4 7,fig4 #ac b47 ,so also did the row of leaves at the base of the capital2 the little flowers were entirely omitted1 and the upper part of the calyx was thickly covered with royal seals painted between upright ornaments1 so small that their line does not affect the composition of the whole4 7,fig4 #ad47 ,a discord resulted from the retention of the abacus plinth of the former bud capital in its original proportions1 a defect which in some degree defeated the sthetic advantages of the boldly projecting calyx as a medium between the vertical support and the horizontal mass above it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,lotos-columns from ,thebes4 a4 ,sculptured ,column from the ,great ,temple at ,carnac4 b4 ,painted ,column from the ,memnonium of ,ramses ,,ii4 ,the calyx capital attained no typical and established form in ,egyptian architecture1 even as the ,corinthian capital received no formal development in the ,hellenic art which originated it4 ,the decoration of the calyx continued to offer a wide field for the inventive talent of the ,egyptian architect1 which was here employed with most fortunate results4 ,the ruined buildings1 especially of later periods1 show hundreds of different capitals1 from the simplest upright forms of the papyrus to elaborately turned and rolled leaves2 these floral ornaments being almost always composed and conventionalized with admirable taste4 ,a decided advance was made by separating the upper edge of the calyx1 with notches1 into four large petals1 although the decoration did not have sufficient influence to affect the column as a whole4 ,the most satisfactory among the varieties of the floral column1 and that most thoroughly carried out1 was certainly the palm2 the capital of which was characterized as a crown of leaves1 and the shaft1 by an imitation of the bark1 as a palm-stem4 ,the tall leaves rendered a greater height of the palm capital necessary2 thus increased1 it most closely approached the ,corinthian in beauty of outline4 ,the division of the great calyx into eight lobes was another result of this decoration4 ,as the palm capital was frequently placed among others1 especially by the ,egyptians of later periods1 it naturally had the effect upon the varieties to be brought into harmony with it of lowering the necking of their shafts in the same measure as had been necessary for itself4 7,fig4 #ae47 ,the slender proportions prevalent during the time of the ,ptolemies caused the abacus plinth upon the calyx to be heightened to a cube1 and even increased to twice the height of the capital itself1 in which case it was ornamented by the heads of ,athor and ,typhon1 or by the entire dwarfed figure of the latter4 ,in rare cases1 piers take the place of columns in the temple courts1 and are masked by statues of ,osiris or of ,typhon4 7,fig4 #af47 ,these figures have of themselves no constructive function as supports1 and are not to be classed with the caryatides and telamones of ,greece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,calyx ,capital from ,carnac4 ,the great variety of form in the column and capital is not shared by the entablature4 ,this consists1 as seen at the tombs of ,beni-hassan1 of two members4 ,the lower stretches from pier to pier1 or from column to column1 as a connecting epistyle4 ,the upper1 representing the horizontal ceiling1 reposes thereupon1 and is crowned by the universal cornice-moulding--a boldly projecting ,egyptian scotia4 ,between these two members there is a continuous roundlet1 often characterized1 by its ornament of an encircling ribbon1 as a bundle of reeds4 ,the cornice is sometimes marked by rows of reed-leaves bent forward at the top1 the epistyle covered with hieroglyphics4 ,in later times1 the decoration of the entablature became more florid1 repetitions of the uros serpent appearing as a cornice ornament4 ,the columns of the new kingdom had1 meanwhile1 been given up in the rock-cut tombs1 where they first occurred4 ,yet the cavern sepulchres themselves remained so much in vogue that they even served the kings of the ,theban dynasties in place of pyramids4 ,their tendency was rather to burrow deeply into the cliff than to create large sepulchral chambers1 where the support of columns would have been necessary4 ,the principal intention of the excavators--to make the royal burial-place as inaccessible as possible--was adverse to any monumental development of the interior4 ,the decoration was restricted to paintings upon the long and repeatedly closed corridors1 and sufficed only to rank these above the bare channels of the pyramids4 ,the formation of the earth on the border of the desert offered no ground for the exterior architectural treatment of these graves1 and a simple portal is generally all that designates the entrance to the shafts which were the sepulchres of the ,theban dynasties4 ,the plan of that at ,biban-el-,moluc is given in ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,capitals from ,edfou4 ,the temples of the new kingdom with their numerous halls and courts offered1 on the other hand1 most ample scope for the application of columnar architecture4 ,these extended series of strangely enclosed rooms and courts1 though richly decorated with paintings1 would have seemed bare within and without if the column had not entered into their composition1 and if the building had not been expanded and ornamented by its help4 ,with the floral orders1 the temple interior became an architectural organism truly deserving of study and admiration4 ,with exception of that portion of the structure which stood before the chief portal1 and cannot be considered as an integral part of the building1 every ,egyptian temple was divided into three principal parts1 contained within an oblong enclosure3 namely1 the court1 the hall of columns1 and the holy of holies--a series of cellas4 7,fig4 #ah47 ,long rows of sphinxes generally stand facing the avenue which leads to the entrance of the temple1 and prepare for the sacred silence within4 ,the doorway is flanked by two enormous towers1 so-called pylons1 formed like steep truncated pyramids4 ,the walls of these masses of masonry1 ornamented with coilanaglyphic paintings1 show slots upon the front for the reception of the high flag-poles which are represented upon contemporary wall-decorations4 ,the towers are crowned with the scotia cornice1 the roundlet of which is continued down the angles4 ,within they are pierced by stairways and small chambers1 scantily lighted by narrow slits in the wall4 ,it is probable that the summits of these pylons1 without doubt the highest standpoints in the valley of the ,nile1 served as observatories for the ,egyptian astronomers and astrologers2 a practical use was thus added to the original purpose of monumental decorative gate-ways4 ,two or four colossal sitting figures were generally placed before the pylons1 and sometimes also two obelisks1 bearing the dedicatory inscriptions of the temple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,osiris ,pier4 ,the obelisks are among the most curious and characteristic structures of ,egypt4 ,they are very comparable to the pyramids1 and perhaps may even be regarded as small pyramids placed as an apex upon a tall shaft4 ,few deviate from this type2 one of the obelisks of ,carnac1 crowned by a profile like a pointed arch1 and the obelisk of ,medinet-el-,fayoum with rounded end1 are exceptions4 ,the obelisks are monolithic4 ,in consideration of the difficulty of procuring so large a block from the granite quarries1 of transporting its enormous weight and erecting its tall mass1 this peculiarity added greatly to the imposing effect of the monument4 ,the delight of the later ,roman emperors in the possession of obelisks caused many of these to be transported to ,rome1 where they still form prominent ornaments of the city4 ,most of those remaining in ,egypt lie overthrown1 and often deeply buried under the accumulating earth of centuries4 ,the two before the ,temple of ,luxor were both erect until #ahca1 in which year one of them was removed to the ,place de la ,concorde in ,paris4 ,the removal during #ahgg-gh of an obelisk1 and its erection in ,london1 show what difficulties must have attended the quarrying1 carving1 transport1 and elevation of these gigantic monuments in primitive times4,c ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,royal ,grave near ,thebes4 ,the chief portal of the temple1 flanked by the two pylons1 opens upon the great peristyle court4 ,the colonnades are upon two or three of its sides1 seldom towards the entrance4 ,in the most elaborate instances1 as the ,temple of ,luxor1 the court is bordered with double rows of supports--columns alternating with piers--before which stand the above-mentioned figures of ,osiris4 ,sometimes this peristyle court is duplicated1 as in the great ,memnonium of ,ramses ,,ii4 and the temples of ,medinet-,abou and ,luxor1 the two spaces being separated either by smaller second pylons 7,medinet-,abou71 by a simple wall pierced by a gate 7,memnonium71 or by a narrow colonnade between them 7,luxor74 ,in such cases the architectural treatment of the courts differs1 the second usually being more richly provided with columns and piers than the first4 ,smaller temples are often so built against these courts that they can be entered only from within them 7,fig4 #bj471 while they project1 with the greater part of their plan1 beyond the chief enclosure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,southern ,temple of ,carnac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,temple of ,edfou4 ,the second chief division of the building--the hall of columns1 the hypostyle--is entered from the court1 either directly or through new pylons4 ,this space1 generally not so deep as the outer peristyle1 is entirely covered1 the stone ceiling being upheld by close-standing columns1 the number of which varies greatly according to the dimensions of the building4 ,in the southern ,temple of ,carnac1 the plan of which 7,fig4 #ah47 may be regarded as typical of the usual ,egyptian arrangement1 eight columns are sufficient1 while the dimensions of the hypostyle hall of ,medinet-,abou render twenty-four necessary--a number increased to thirty-two in ,luxor1 forty-eight in the ,memnonium of ,ramses ,,ii41 and to a maximum of one hundred and thirty-four in the ,great ,temple of ,carnac4 ,smaller halls may have received their light through the portal4 ,the upper half of the intercolumniations of the court colonnades was also occasionally left open1 as shown by ,fig4 #ai42 but1 with the enormous dimensions of the hypostyle and the close ranges of shafts so frequent1 a more perfect system of illumination was necessary4 ,the light of day was procured for the hall by an eminently satisfactory arrangement1 which gives the key to the true manner of lighting any enclosed space from above--the clerestory--so effectively developed in later ages4 ,the two rows of columns nearest the longitudinal axis were made half as high again as their neighbors1 thus lifting their entablature and ceiling well above that of the remaining space4 ,these two ceilings on different levels were connected by piers placed upon the next range of shorter columns1 which supported the edge of the higher covering4 ,the light entered between these piers1 their openings being but little impeded by stone tracery4 ,the central aisle was thus brilliantly lighted1 and1 under the cloudless sky1 rays and reflections could find their way into the most remote corners of the forest of columns4 ,as shown by ,fig4 #ba41 the larger central columns were distinguished by the broad-spreading calyx capital from the others1 which retained the simpler forms of the folded bud4 ,the effect of such a hall1 especially of the great hypostyle of ,carnac1 must have been magnificently rich and imposing4 ,the dimensions of the chief columns were in this instance gigantic4 ,they were #bb4hf m4 high4 ,their calyx capitals were #f4aj m4 in diameter1 the epistyle beams #f4gj by #a4hc by #a4bb m4 ,the entire hall was #ia4dd m4 in length4 ,walls and columns were thickly covered with carved and painted decorations1 which were kept well subordinated to the grand forms of the architecture1 and were so blended by the varying light and shade that a rich and sober effect was produced by the somewhat gaudy colors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,great ,temple of ,carnac4 ,one example1 the ,temple of ,soleb1 shows this second division of the building also repeated3 that such a duplication was less common than that of the courts is explained by the far greater requirements of its construction4 ,the last of the three chief temple divisions was reached from the hypostyle hall1 either by a simple gateway or by a third pylon portal4 ,the ,egyptian priests performed their mystic rites and guarded the sacred animals in a series of chambers1 the innermost of which--the real temple cella--was exceedingly small in proportion to the entire building1 being sometimes even cut from a single stone4 ,as the temple served the priesthood for a dwelling1 a cloister-like arrangement of this third space was necessary4 ,the long-accepted supposition that even the royal palaces were included in the temple enclosure has recently been questioned1 although the hieratic character of the monarchy1 and the strict religious ritual by which the life of the king in his function of high-priest was governed1 even to the smallest particulars1 would render this of itself not improbable4 ,the plan of the ,great ,temple of ,carnac shows the dwelling of the priests1 with its halls and smaller rooms1 separated by a court from the places of worship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,section of the ,hypostyle ,hall1 ,great ,temple of ,carnac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,chapel upon the ,platform of the ,temple of ,dendera4 ,magnificently as the temple architecture of the ,egyptians had developed since the eighteenth dynasty1 its advance had mainly affected the interior4 ,the temples of every other people were built with more or less reference to an imposing exterior effect1 but those of ,egypt generally remained the fortress-like enclosures which had become typical in the earliest ages of the land's history4 ,the peripteral plan1 indeed1 occurs in several small cellas of the ancient kingdom1 but it was exceptional1 and did not arrive at any systematic development4 ,it has been seen that ,egyptian architecture1 though it chanced upon the channelled shaft of the ,proto-,doric column1 was apparently unable to utilize this motive1 the great importance of which was not recognized in the land of the ,nile4 ,the peripteral temple plan is a similar advance1 which1 not fitted for the requirements and tendencies of ,egyptian architecture1 lay dormant for centuries4 ,the unbroken fortress-like walls of the temple were not pierced and resolved into the surrounding pteroma until the sceptre of ,egypt had been swayed during three centuries by the semi-,hellenic ,ptolemies4 ,these rulers1 warned by the example of ,cambyses1 were wise enough not to interfere with their ,egyptian subjects in their most sensitive point of religious conceptions1 rendered sacred by the traditions of thousands of years4 ,but they did not hesitate to reintroduce into the land the exterior splendor of the peripteral plan1 by that time so fully developed in ,greece4 ,the free and cheerful religious rites of the ,greeks1 performed before the temple1 and not within it1 agreed1 as did the natural character of the people1 with the peripteral temple1 which was opened outwardly by its pteroma4 ,it was otherwise with the mysterious and sombre precision of the ,egyptian ritual1 which demanded absolute seclusion4 ,though the peripteral temple plan was in some measure brought into vogue by the ,ptolemies1 it was1 in ,egypt1 deprived of its chief characteristic--the freely opened intercolumniation4 ,the ,romans1 in their desire similarly to combine columnar architecture with entire enclosure1 merely decorated exterior walls with engaged shafts and pilasters1 giving up the columns as supporting members of independent function1 and using them only as a suggestive ornament4 ,this merely decorative treatment1 rare in ,greece1 was not adopted in ,egypt until the latest times4 ,the ,egyptian preferred to place a screen-like wall1 half the height of the columns1 in each opening2 this hid all the interior from view1 even when the building was of small dimensions1 as in ,fig4 #bb41 and permitted the access of light and air through the upper half of the intercolumniation4 ,the one used as an entrance was also closed by a door-frame of greater height than the side screens4 ,upon the corners of the peripteral building inclined piers were often retained1 as a reminiscence of the original enclosure wall as well as for greater constructional security4 ,this is shown by the ,temple of ,phil4 7,fig4 #bc47 ,that the arrangement of outstanding columns did not entirely supplant the closed surrounding walls is evident from the same plan1 where both methods occur side by side in a group of buildings of the same date4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,temple of ,phil4 ,there were parts of the narrow valley of the ,nile where the cliffs of the desert so advanced upon the river as to leave absolutely no room for the erection of temples occupying so much ground4 ,the inhabitants here had recourse to grotto temples2 that is to say1 they transferred the principal rooms of the sanctuary to an excavation in the cliff4 ,when the space between rock and stream permitted it1 the courts and pylons were built1 and only the hypostyle hall and the holy of holies1 reduced to the minimum necessary for the performance of the rites1 were cut from the rock4 ,this is the case in ,el-,cab1 ,redesie1 ,silsilis1 and ,girsheh4 ,the last of these1 the largest1 had a court with ,osiris piers upon the sides and with four columns upon the front1 which seems never to have been flanked by pylons4 ,its largest excavated space1 apparently corresponding to a second court1 is also decorated upon the longer sides with ,osiris piers4 ,thereupon follows a narrow hall1 which but inadequately represents the hypostyle2 and1 finally1 as the holy of holies1 a small chamber with an altar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,faade of the ,rock-cut ,temple of ,abou-,simbel4 ,far more important than these are the grotto temples of ,abou-,simbel1 in the vicinity of the second cataract1 where the portals are also cut wholly from the rock4 ,the larger of the two even attempts to approach1 as well as is possible1 the enormous pylons of the great ,theban temples4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,to this end the gentle inclination of the cliff was cut away to the talus angle of the ,egyptian walls and pylons1 and the cornice above1 of roundlet and scotia1 was worked from the rock4 ,four such colossal sitting figures1 as are often placed before the pylons1 were also cut from the cliff--an effective ornament and an economy of labor thus being secured4 ,the representation of the portal between two pylons was given up2 the whole front formed one wall in which the entrance-door was cut without further decoration4 ,the empty space above the opening was filled by a high-relief1 carved within an oblong niche4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,the entrance1 which has now been cleared of the sand1 leads in natural order to a space corresponding to the court of the free-standing temples2 it is somewhat similar to that of ,girsheh1 which was also erected by ,ramses ,,ii41 though more imposing and of better proportions4 7,fig4 #be47 ,a following room1 the ceiling of which is supported by four piers1 suggests the temple hypostyle1 here much dwindled in extent from the difficulty of its excavation as well as from the general restriction of this space in ,nubian monuments compared with those of ,central ,egypt4 ,the innermost chambers of the holy of holies are not only as small as those of the free-standing temples1 but are reduced in number4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,hall of the ,rock-cut ,temple of ,abou-,simbel4 ,the second rock-cut temple of ,abou-,simbel1 situated near the one described1 is of smaller dimensions4 ,it has upright colossal statues upon the front1 which1 instead of being cut in the round1 have more the effect of reliefs from the fact that they stand in niches1 a difference arising from the greater steepness of the cliff at this point4 ,the treatment appears rational in consideration of the smaller amount of material thereby removed1 though the unmonumental effect of the reliefs1 which lean with the inclination of the wall1 is an unfortunate result of this economy4 ,the first hall1 analogous to the temple court1 has its ceiling supported by six piers1 which are decorated upon the side towards the central aisle by ,athor masks4 ,three entrances lead from this hall into a narrow space1 here entirely at variance with the character of a hypostyle1 and through this into the holy of holies4 ,notwithstanding the contraction of the two inner departments1 the three principal divisions of the free-standing buildings can be recognized in all rock-cut temples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,interior of a ,house4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,the existing ruins allow a comparatively clear understanding of the religious architecture of ,egypt1 in which class the monumental tombs must be reckoned as well as the various forms of temples2 but we are left almost entirely uninstructed as to the nature of the private dwellings4 ,the plan of the cloisters within the great temple of ,carnac 7compare ,fig4 #bj47 is indeed clear1 though1 being only a portion of a larger scheme1 it had no individual or exterior expression4 ,the manner in which these spaces were roofed and lighted is not evident4 ,the so-called royal pavilion of ,medinet-,abou is a complete puzzle in its development of plan and assumed connection with other structures2 it can only be held to prove that some private buildings were of several stories4 ,other peculiarities here noticeable are windows framed by lintels and jambs of enormous blocks1 and rounded battlements above a projecting cornice4 ,egyptian sculptures and wall-paintings often represent the interiors of well-to-do private houses and of palaces2 they show the plans of dwellings and adjoining vegetable-gardens so well that the very products of the latter can be distinguished2 but1 though these plans designate the separate rooms and their entrances1 it is still impossible to comprehend the general arrangement of a normal house1 or its exterior appearance4 ,the views of the interiors1 with their slim columns and narrow entablatures1 with a system of perspective which shows things above one another instead of behind one another1 with their evident misrepresentations and constructive impossibilities1 must have stood in very much the same relation to the ,egyptian reality as the fictitious architecture of the ,pompeian wall-decorations does to the buildings of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the architectural details introduced by the painter served only as a frame for the figures or for the contents of the store-rooms which he represented4 ,it may be concluded that1 when private dwellings were more pretentious than the single room necessary to provide the most imperative shelter1 columns were not excluded from them2 and1 from the absence of any remains of these supports1 it is probable they were of wood4 ,the ruins and rubbish of sun-dried bricks1 which compose the overthrown cities hitherto excavated1 show that the great majority of dwellings were no more than low hovels4 ,even palaces seldom went beyond a series of small chambers1 and thus did not present an important architectural problem4 ,this is illustrated by the gigantic labyrinth1 famed in so many fables of antiquity1 and somewhat known by the excavations of ,lepsius in the ,fayoum4 7,fig4 #bg47 ,a great number of small chambers are here grouped in three rectangular wings around an oblong space1 which was probably divided into several courts4 ,the walls remaining do not show that geometrical regularity of arrangement described by ,herodotos1 ,strabo1 ,diodoros1 and ,pliny1 but a really labyrinthic aggregate of small chambers1 the destination of which is not clear4 ,the pyramid which closes the fourth side of the square is alone of monumental importance4 ,it seems possible that1 instead of one or more palaces1 we have here the remains of some city4 ,it is certainly wrong to connect the work with the ,dodecarchia 7twenty-sixth dynasty1 #fhe to #ebe ,b4,c473 the twelve pretenders would hardly have united to erect a common monument4 ,in the list of ,manetho1 ,amenophis ,,iii41 the sixth king of the twelfth dynasty1 is mentioned as the founder1 a notice corroborated by inscriptions discovered on the site4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,labyrinth of the ,fayoum4 ,that the private buildings were so unimportant in comparison with the religious architecture of ,egypt is explained by the excessive subjugation of the people to a monastic ritual1 and by the favorable character of the ,egyptian climate4 ,it is necessity that prompts invention1 and ,egypt1 with its ever-cloudless sky and constant temperature1 required no protection against the inclemency of the weather2 the climate did not force man to spend his days within doors1 nor did it destroy the lightest shelter4 ,in the absence of rain1 the most primitive horizontal ceiling was sufficient4 ,according to the religious conceptions of the ,egyptian1 it was more important for him to prepare a permanent house for his death-sleep--he had more at heart the protection of his corpse than of his living body4 ,thus thousands of graves have been preserved1 while science cannot find a single dwelling remaining to betray even the general character of ,egyptian domestic architecture4 ,to these considerations it must be added that the dwellings stood in the valley of the ,nile1 and have been subjected to annual inundations which have formed a considerable alluvial deposit1 while the graves were almost without exception situated upon the changeless cliffs that border on the desert4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the architecture of ,egypt was practised in a manner to show almost no historical development--with the sculpture this is the case in still greater degree4 ,the most ancient carved remains1 which with reasonable security may be assigned to the fifth dynasty1 show the formal system1 retained during the subsequent twenty centuries1 as already perfected4 ,even at that early date the network of lines1 which the ,egyptian sculptors 7more as mechanics than as artists7 followed down to the time of the ,ptolemies1 was already calculated and introduced as a canon4 ,besides figures of the gods1 the sculpture of ,egypt is rich in the images of kings1 queens1 and prominent subjects2 and in such portraits the observation of the living model1 of the peculiarities of character which lead to the differences of exterior appearance1 would seem to be a natural consequence4 ,but as the individual disappeared in the mass of the ,egyptian people1 so the appreciation of individuality was almost wholly lacking in the ,egyptian artist4 ,sculptors and painters worked without the least desire for pre-eminence in ability and distinction1 without thought of perpetuating their names1 and the work they produced expressed these faults4 ,as ,brunn truly remarks1 we can look upon whole rows of ,egyptian sculptures without a question ever arising in our minds as to the authorship of this or that work1 without observing that one is superior to the others1 or that any were much above manufactures4 ,the work became what the artist felt himself personally to be--a mere link in a monotonous chain4 ,the result of this is that the statues generally represent an entirely abstract human being--not an absolute ideal1 for that can hardly be said to exist in any art1 but a type of the ,egyptian race1 well understood and unalterably repeated4 ,as soon as the art had to a certain degree mastered the normal appearance of the human body1 it contented itself therewith and came to a standstill4 ,the peculiarities in the living model or in the attributed characters of the deities were rarely considered by the artist1 who only distinguished by attributes what should be otherwise expressed2 he did not attempt to show the effect of the mind upon the outer being1 and thus to give to sculpture its true importance4 ,illustration3 ,egyptian ,profile4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,greek ,profile4 ,the description of single ,egyptian works is consequently almost the same as the consideration of the entire sculpture and painting of the land--the more so as the artist not only employed generally one and the same conventional figure1 but in position and movement mainly alternated between two types4 ,the statues are1 with a few exceptions1 either sitting or in an act between standing and stepping1 which does not appear to be an advance1 because the feet are too near together2 both soles being flat upon the ground1 the centre of gravity falls between the two legs1 almost more upon the one behind than upon the one before4 ,a figure seems to move only when the body1 advanced before the centre of its two supports1 throws the greatest part of its weight upon the forward leg1 and thus relieves the hinder foot1 which1 with uplifted heel1 touches the ground with the toes1 in readiness to be removed4 ,both sitting and standing statues have the arms pressed closely to the body--the former with bent elbows and hands resting flat upon the knees1 the latter with arms hanging straightly and stiffly1 the hands holding the so-called ,nile key2 or folded upon the breast1 the hands grasping attributes1 crook and plough or whip4 ,individual action is in every case excluded4 ,if the formation of the body be more closely examined1 the following peculiarities are remarkable3 ,the head1 as the comparison of it with a ,greek type at ,fig4 #bh4 shows1 deviates so greatly from the normal oval that it could almost be drawn within a square1 the principal line of the face being about parallel to the back of the head1 as is the flat outline of the top of the skull to the line from the chin to the neck4 ,the general directions of the eye1 the mouth1 and the ear are not perpendicular to the sides of the parallelogram1 inclining too markedly upward2 the comparatively large ear is placed half as high again from the throat as it should be4 ,these deviations are in some measure explained by the peculiarities of race characteristic of the ,orientals1 and especially of the ,egyptians--by the different formation of the skull and position of the eye4 ,the forehead is almost straight1 being on a line with the upper lip2 and1 as it recedes from the nose1 does not project at all4 ,it is rendered still more unimportant by the curved ridge of the brows lacking decision1 and the eye itself wanting in depth4 ,the eye has remained in the rough condition of a primitive imitation of nature--thick strips surround it in place of lids1 and continue1 the upper overlapping the under1 beyond its exterior angle towards the ear4 ,the gently curved1 round1 broad nose projects but little over the upper lip1 which1 instead of preparing the close of the oval towards the chin1 is pushed forward like the lower lip1 upward and outward4 ,the closed1 sensually broad lips are sharply outlined4 ,the corners of the mouth1 slightly drawn upward1 give1 with the similar inclination of the angles of the eyes1 a certain expression of smiling sarcasm not intended by the designer1 and consequently cold and stiff4 ,the chin is flat and pointed in profile1 the line from it to the short and thin neck almost straight4 ,such is the type that was retained through thousands of years1 so unchangeably that even the sexes are scarcely to be distinguished by the heads4 ,male figures often have a kind of chin beard1 cut at right angles1 and bound on with ribbons which can sometimes be distinctly traced4 ,the heads1 and through them the whole figures1 are characterized by head-dresses1 referable to one fundamental form--the pshent1 a high cap like a tiara2 but they have been so modified from their prototype that the ,description de l'gypte1 pl4 #aae1 shows thirty distinct varieties4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,husband and ,wife4 7,munich ,glyptothek47 ,the deities are frequently recognizable by the heads of animals--of a lion1 ram1 cow1 ape1 jackal1 crocodile1 hawk1 or ibis1 as the case may be4 ,the worship of nature1 peculiar to ,egypt1 found a better expression in these symbols than in the monotonous representations of man1 in marked contrast to the incorporation of ,hellenic myths1 where1 in the monstrous conjunction of human and animal forms1 the human head was rarely given up1 it being more generally placed upon the body of an animal4 ,the figure1 as accepted by the ,egyptian designer1 was1 to the smallest details1 drawn according to a network of lines4 ,diodorus states it to have had #ba units in height1 the unit being probably the length of the nose4 ,the shoulders are drawn upward1 and1 like the flat breast1 are broad2 the hips1 on the contrary1 are narrow and weakly modelled3 they are girded with a cloth which appears carefully folded and adjusted1 but1 with all its tightness1 does not fit the forms of the body4 ,when upon sitting figures1 this cloth often stands out as stiffly and straightly as if carved of wood1 giving no indication of the true nature of its material4 ,the lean arms are muscular1 dry1 and hard2 the hands are rendered clumsy by the equally thick and almost equally long fingers4 ,the legs are not powerful1 and rather slim1 indicating great elasticity1 and1 like all other parts of the body1 the ability to endure great exertion4 ,the knees are sharp and drawn with anatomical understanding2 the feet are narrow and long1 as are also the toes1 which1 lying in their entire length upon the ground1 do not greatly differ in dimensions and form4 ,in female figures the breasts are fully developed1 the nipples being formed like a rosette2 a closely fitting gown reaches from the broad neck-ornament1 common with both sexes1 to the ankles1 but1 being represented without reference to the material and without the most necessary folds1 appears so elastic that its existence is only surely to be perceived at the borders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--,the ,schoolmaster of ,boulac4 ,the most ancient sculptures and the later works of ,nubia are somewhat heavy and full1 those of the best period 7the time of ,ramses7 more slim and elastic4 ,after the fifth century ,b4,c4 the figures become better modelled1 and a certain influence of ,greek sculpture is betrayed4 ,but the ancient type remained in the chief characteristics unchanged until the end of the ,ptolemaic dynasties1 and even to the later ages of the ,roman ,empire4 ,those works of ,greek and ,roman sculptors1 so popular during the age of ,hadrian1 which borrowed the costume and position of ,egyptian statues while having nothing else in common with ,egyptian art 7such1 for instance1 as the numerous figures of ,antinous to be found in almost all the larger museums71 must not be classed with the truly national works executed in ,egypt and for that country4 ,the monotony of ,egyptian sculpture was not without some exceptions4 ,less pretentious works1 where the necessity of canonic idealization seems not to have been so imperative--as in the well-fed form of the so-called schoolmaster in the museum of ,boulac 7,fig4 #cj471 which shows not only in the head1 but in the entire body1 an undeniable portrait--make it questionable whether the conventionalized representations may not be more owing to the restraint of religious authority and tradition1 to the hieratic laws which exercised so complete a sway over the life of the country in every respect1 than to any absolute incapability of the ,egyptian artist for individual characterization4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,lion of ,reddish ,granite4 7,british ,museum47 ,egyptian sculpture1 thus under the ban of religious conservatism1 always dealt more successfully with the forms of animals than with human beings and deities4 ,in hunting scenes there is wonderful spirit and character in the drawing of the dogs1 and of the animals which they attack4 ,the artist attained an elastic and life-like force in the representation of all animal forms1 even when these were compelled into monstrous combinations with human members4 ,the most common of the latter are the androsphinxes1 which differ from the ,greek sphinx in being male--having the head and breast of a man and the body of a crouching lion4 ,at times the human head is supplanted by that of a ram or hawk4 ,rams were also treated as sphinxes1 especially before the temples of ,ammon and ,kneph4 ,the most important androsphinx is the well-known colossus of ,gizeh with the head of ,thothmes ,,iv4 ,the heads of the sphinxes seem usually to have been portraits of kings4 ,this gigantic guardian of the necropolis of ,memphis1 the most enormous monumental figure of the world1 with space between the outstretched front legs for a chapel there built1 is now again buried to the neck by the shifting sand of the pyramid plateau after having been excavated with great labor4 ,its face alone is #ab4b m4 long4 ,but it is in cases where the entire lion is represented without deformation that ,egyptian sculpture attains its greatest perfection4 7,fig4 #ca47 ,a great majority of the ,egyptian works of sculpture were cut with marvellous patience in the hardest materials1 in variously colored granite1 diorite1 syenite1 and basalt4 ,limestone and alabaster were rarely employed for colossal or life-size statues1 but were used more frequently for works of smaller dimensions2 these were also burned in clay with a surface of blue or green glazing1 or were cut in more valuable stones1 such as agate1 jasper1 carnelian1 and lapis-lazuli4 ,enamelled clay idols were manufactured in great numbers2 modern museums contain hundreds of these little figures of perfectly similar form4 ,the so-called scarabus is also very common--beetle-shaped bodies of clay1 or of the above-named stones--with incised figures or hieroglyphics upon their lower surface4 ,such amulets were perforated and worn as beads1 and were placed loosely in the coffins with the mummies4 ,the artistic manufacture of colored glass was extensive4 ,fine metal-work was less common1 although ornaments of enamelled gold1 silver1 and copper of high artistic value have occasionally been found4 ,wood-carving was practised upon the mummy-coffins4 ,although the valley of the ,nile did not produce large pieces of a satisfactory material1 this lack was supplied by gluing together layers of palm or sycamore wood1 and hiding the defects of this process by a painted priming of stucco4 ,the coffins themselves are in so far works of sculpture as they represent upon the cover the form of the swathed body placed within them1 and even show the face as exposed4 ,the sculpture of reliefs was less developed and less correct than of the round4 ,as the relief was always very low1 and could not express the greater projections1 the artist's desire to represent the human body clearly and completely led to an unfortunate conflict between the profile and front view of the figure4 ,while mostly drawn in profile1 and showing particularly the head and legs in side view1 which is the more favorable for representation in low-relief1 the shoulders and breast are developed in the other direction1 and are seen as from in front4 ,it is only in this position that both arms are visible--an important consideration to the artist1 whose object was solely to represent some action or attributes4 ,it was also felt as a difficulty that in a relief of the side view the visible shoulder should project farther than any other part of the body1 the breadth of the breast and arms being more than double that of the head4 ,the primitive designer1 to avoid these objections1 resorted to a forced and clumsy torsion of the body1 which may be noticed in the childhood of almost every art--in the ,assyrian as well as in the most ancient ,greek4 ,the head1 with exception of the eye1 which was represented as in front1 was taken in profile2 shoulders and breast from in front1 but arms and hands1 as well as hips1 legs1 and feet1 in profile again4 ,the lower the relief1 the less could the surface be modelled1 and this led to a sharp demarcation of the outline1 which exaggerated the peculiar leanness of the ,egyptian race to a hard angularity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,sculptural ,work4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,the relief is a transitional stage between sculpture and painting2 it works upon a more or less flat surface1 seeks its chief effect in outline1 and lends itself readily to the heightening of color4 ,the most common ,egyptian relief1 which has been termed coilanaglyphic1 being hollowed out1 stands even nearer to painting than to sculpture4 ,in real reliefs the surface is so cut away as to leave the figures embossed2 but here the forms do not rise above the background1 and the original plane remains untouched3 the sculptor contented himself with firmly incising the outlines1 and slightly rounding the forms of the body within them4 ,this incised outline is clearly seen only by sharp side light1 but it has the advantage of protecting the borders of the figures and thus securing the indestructibility of the representation4 ,in other respects the coilanaglyphics are nothing else than paintings1 the space within the carved outlines being colored in the same manner as are all ,egyptian wall decorations4 ,the limits of the latter art were thus greatly extended1 for all temples were covered with such colored coilanaglyphics1 while the stuccoed sides of rock-cut tombs and of brick masonry were richly ornamented by paintings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,lance-maker4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,the number of ancient painted decorations which have been preserved is very great1 notwithstanding their age and the perishable nature of all pigments exposed to air and light4 ,the subjects represented and often repeated are1 for the greater part1 religious scenes1 which share the monotony of the strict ,egyptian ritual1 though often allowing an interesting insight into the customs of interment1 the transport of mummies by the processional boat1 the sacred dances and sacrifices4 ,representations of profane scenes are more varied and are exceedingly interesting2 the technicalities of ,egyptian art are shown by the cutting of a monolithic palm-column1 the polishing of a granite chapel1 the painting of walls1 the writing of hieroglyphics upon tablets and papyrus1 the carving and painting of sphinxes and statues 7,fig4 #cb471 the transport of a colossal figure upon a sledge 7,fig4 #g471 the making of bricks and walling of brick masonry1 the interior of houses 7,fig4 #bf471 even the plans of dwellings and gardens4 ,besides numerous tools and the products of manufacturing trades1 there may be recognized upon these paintings weavers1 rope-makers1 the preparers of paper and of linen cloth1 ship-builders1 carpenters with hand-saw and auger1 and the cutters of bows and lances 7,fig4 #cc471 who employ adzes quite similar to those still in use4 ,commerce on land and sea is represented by wares1 unpacked or in bales1 by scales1 various kinds of wagons and trading vessels1 etc41 all shown in the clearest manner possible4 ,ploughs1 sowing and harvesting1 the gathering of figs and grapes1 the pressing of oil and wine1 illustrate the condition of agriculture2 while the especial ability of the ,egyptians for animal representations is exercised in the hunting scenes of lions1 tigers1 buffaloes1 jackals1 and gazelles2 by the snaring of birds and fishes in nets1 as well as by the admirably characterized figures of apes1 porcupines1 etc4 ,there are also historical paintings1 great battle scenes1 the storming of cities1 and the triumph of the returning victors1 who bring with them booty and prisoners1 the nationality of whom is often readily distinguishable by peculiarities of physiognomy and costume4 7,fig4 #cd47 ,the ,egyptian kings appear of superhuman size1 either fighting from splendid war-chariots1 or striding forward to sacrifice their kneeling enemies1 a dozen of whom1 seized at once by the hair1 are decapitated at a blow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,prisoners of ,different ,nationalities4 ,egyptian ,wall-painting4 ,extended and varied as these ,egyptian representations were1 and instructive as that which through their agency has been preserved now is1 it yet must be confessed that the painting was more a conventional picture-writing than an art4 ,the seven colors used--red1 blue1 brown1 yellow1 green1 black1 and white--are1 as a rule1 applied simply1 without mixture or variation1 and without much reference to the appearance of nature4 ,at least1 it is very rarely that any striving after natural effect is to be noticed2 that1 for instance1 the skin of a negress appears bluish-gray through a partially transparent white drapery1 or that the typical red-brown complexion of an ,egyptian1 under similar conditions1 is of a broken yellow4 ,within the sharply drawn outlines the colors are flat and without any modification by light and shade1 upon the changing effects of which all pictorial illusion is based4 ,this illusion is the fundamental principle of painting1 the aim of which is to render the appearance of objects4 ,it being here entirely lacking1 we cannot properly speak of an art of painting in ,egypt1 or1 indeed1 in antiquity at all1 before the time of ,polygnotos4 ,egyptian paintings are entirely of the nature of ornament2 the representation of human beings is conventionalized in the same manner as are floral ornaments1--while imitated to a certain degree from nature1 it is simplified according to the requirements of decorative laws4 ,the actions shown are all without truth and life4 ,the beauty of decoration demands a certain harmony in the choice of colors1 which is there unfettered2 in ,egyptian paintings this is sought and attained at the cost of truth to nature4 ,it was not distasteful to the ,egyptian to see the same figure repeated a dozen times in absolute similarity1 for an ornament can always bear repetition4 ,to these considerations must be added a marked peculiarity of ,egyptian painting4 ,although the art had been restricted to the portrayal of merely exterior actions1 even this end could hardly have been attained without the complement of a written explanation1 which was here so adjoined as to harmonize with the figures in composition and even in color4 ,this conjunction is far more intimate than is that of picture and text in an illustrated chronicle3 the hieroglyphic writing and the painting are closely allied in character4 ,it was only a step from the one to the other1 and their limits are sometimes hardly distinguishable1 especially in the stucco paintings of the mummy-coffins and the pen and brush drawings upon papyrus manuscripts1 where the carelessness of the execution increases the similarity4 ,the hieroglyphic inscriptions might even be considered as the extreme consequence of the hieratically conventionalized pictures4 ,the painting of ,egypt existed unchanged for a period of more than two thousand years1 with a stability unequalled in the other civilizations of the world4 ,it was perhaps not quite so extensively employed in the ancient kingdom as in later times3 paintings can be dated as far back as the third dynasty 7#ccch to #cabd ,b4,c41 according to ,lepsius71 but they were restricted to interior decoration4 ,the walls of the pyramids were unadorned by color4 ,after the practice of art had been greatly limited by the invasion of the ,hycsos 7from the thirteenth to the seventeenth dynasty1 #bacf to #aeia ,b4,c471 it arose with new vigor at the advent of the modern kingdom1 especially during the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties1 when the architecture which flourished at ,thebes offered a wide field for painted decorations4 ,from that time the walls lost their bareness1 and richly colored ornaments were employed even upon the exterior1 enlivening the dead and heavy character of ,egyptian building and somewhat supplying the deficiency of its exterior development4 ,the art of ,egypt attained its greatest elaboration--not1 indeed1 without some loss of national character--in the time of ,alexander and the ,ptolemies 7#ccb to #cj ,b4,c471 when ,hellenic influence broke through the sombre massiveness of the unmembered walls and applied the brilliant decoration of colored columns to the exterior4 ,but1 delightful as the island of ,phil appears because of these changes1 it yet marks the commencing decline of ,egyptian art1 with the negation of the serious and mystical peculiarities of the land4 ,the excellence of ,egyptian technical processes could only delay the utter exhaustion and extinction of their art until the time of the later ,roman empire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,assyrian ,shrines4 ,relief from ,corsabad4 ,,chald,a1 ,,babylonia1 ,,and ,,assyria4 ,the traditional culture of the land of the ,euphrates and ,tigris is not younger than that of the ,nile4 ,though the third dynasty 7commencing1 according to ,berosos1 with the twenty-third century ,b4,c47 is the first of which we have monumental remains1 it cannot be denied that long before that time an important people had inhabited the country1 a nation very different from the nomadic hordes which then1 as to-day1 roved through the neighboring deserts4 ,several races of antiquity were conscious that the most primitive people of civilization had lived in the land of the two streams4 ,the ,jews considered that to have been their original home4 ,the ,patriarch ,abraham had emigrated from ,chaldan ,ur to ,canaan4 ,the ,greek legend of ,deucalion points to the history of ,mesopotamia in the same manner as does the ,jewish myth of the ,deluge2 the oldest ,greek knowledge of astronomy1 astrology1 and the calculation of time seems to have been derived from the same source4 ,the tale of the division of the nations in ,babel1 and their spreading over the face of the earth from that point1 is certainly based upon the existence of a most ancient centre of civilization upon the banks of the ,euphrates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,temple of ,mugheir 7,ur74 ,the land offered no materials for monuments which1 like those of ,egypt1 could stand uninjured through thousands of years4 ,the narrow valley of the ,nile is enclosed by the cliffs of the desert border1 which seemed directly to encourage1 by the excellence of the building-stone there procured1 the erection of immense and indestructible works4 ,the plain of ,mesopotamia1 on the other hand1 spread far beyond the courses of the two streams1 losing itself in deserts without any line of eminences as a demarcation4 ,the remote mountains offered no quarries at all comparable to those of ,egypt4 ,the soil was of good clay for the manufacture of bricks1 but fuel was lacking with which to burn and harden them4 ,the inhabitants of the land were generally obliged to content themselves with drying the clay in the sun1 making up by the great thickness of the masonry for the firmness lacking to the material4 ,they further strengthened the massive walls with a facing1 or with buttress-like piers of burnt brick1 or solidified the interior with alternate courses of this harder substance4 ,the bitumen which still flows at ,hit1 on the ,euphrates1 north of ,bagdad at the southern border of the higher alluvial terrace of ,assyria1 was an excellent substance for cementing the bricks2 in more important works it was used alternately with lime-mortar3 in common buildings1 or in the interior of the thickest walls1 clay kneaded with straw answered the purpose of a cement4 ,it is natural that little should now remain of such structures4 ,they could only survive the thousands of years that have elapsed since their building1 when an immense thickness secured at least the kernel of the wall1 or when the ruins of other buildings early covered and protected them4 ,the remains of ancient ,chalda are generally nothing more than formless heaps of rubbish1 many of which have not yet been opened4 ,taylor1 ,loftus1 and their predecessors1 ,ainsworth1 ,chesney1 and ,layard1 discovered the ruins of over thirty cities in the lower half of the ,mesopotamian plain4 ,of these1 ,mugheir 7the ancient ,ur71 ,warka 7,erech71 ,niffer 7,nipur71 and ,abou-,sharein offered the most important remains of great age2 while the ruins of ,sura1 ,tel ,sifr1 ,calvadha1 and ,ackercuf are mainly of the later ,chaldan period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,ruins of ,warka4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,patterned ,wall4 ,warka4 ,recognizable among the rubbish-hills of ,mugheir are the remains of a terrace which consisted of two oblong steps1 the lowest measuring #fj4ce by #dj4ed m4 in length and breadth1 and about #ab m4 in height1 standing upon a platform raised #f m4 above the surrounding country4 ,the greater part of this is overthrown and buried beneath its own material4 ,the kernel of the solid structure is of sun-dried bricks2 the facing1 which is divided by buttresses1 being of burnt brick cemented with bitumen4 ,the whole is perforated by numerous small air-channels4 ,the second step is only about half preserved1 and that which it must once have supported has entirely disappeared4 ,a remarkable inscription1 repeated upon the four corners of the upper terrace1 explained the purpose of the structure and the time of its erection4 ,according to ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson's interpretation of the cuneiform legend1 this was dedicated to the deity ,sin 7,hurki7 as a temple1 and was first founded by ,king ,urukh 7about #bbcj ,b4,c474 ,the name of the spot is given as ,ur1 a city known from ,biblical tradition4 ,the inscriptions were not1 however1 contemporaneous with the foundation of the building1 for1 after giving a long line of kings1 they at last name ,nabonetos1 the last ,king of ,babylon1 as the restorer of the temple--a fact which is further attested by the bricks themselves1 those of the lower terrace having the name of ,urukh1 those of the upper of ,nabonetos4 ,the temple remains of ,warka and of ,abou-,sharein unite with these ruins of ,mugheir to show that the ,chaldan temple consisted of a simple and massive terrace of few steps1 crowned1 without doubt1 by a chapel1 which must be supposed richly decorated with colors and gold ornaments from the fragments of agate1 alabaster1 and fine marbles1 of gold-plating and gilded nails1 found in ,abou-,sharein1 and from the blue enamelled clay tiles of ,mugheir4 ,the sides of the great steps were either plainly buttressed or treated with projections1 as is the case with the terrace wall of a palace at ,warka1 shown by ,fig4 #cg4 ,there was here a complicated system of reeded projections and stepped incisions--cylinders and prisms which cannot be called pilasters1 as they were without capitals1 and probably also without base-mouldings4 ,another ruin of ,warka 7,fig4 #ch7 has a colored wall-facing1 made by driving conical pegs of terra-cotta about #j4a m4 long into the clay1 so that the red1 black1 and whitish base surfaces form different patterns4 ,this ruin is further interesting as giving some insight into the private architecture of the ,chaldans4 ,rooms were there found separated from one another by walls fully as thick as the enclosed spaces themselves were broad--a clumsy heaviness which shows what massive masonry the poor crumbling material necessitated4 ,the existing remains suggest so strongly the arrangement of the later ,assyrian palaces that there can be but little doubt that they1 in some degree1 served as a model for these latter2 although the palace wall1 with its revetment of alabaster1 might be erected with less thickness4 ,no trace of window-like openings can be observed in the ruins of ,warka or in those of ,abou-,sharein4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,tomb of ,mugheir4 ,the principle of the arch1 though not extensively employed1 was well understood and occasionally introduced in ,assyria4 ,from a small grave-chamber discovered at ,mugheir1 we may conclude that it was not known in the ancient ,chaldan period4 ,the roofing was then effected by a gradual projection of the horizontal courses of bricks until the opposite sides nearly touched each other at the top of the gable thus formed4 7,fig4 #ci47 ,it may perhaps be assumed that this manner of covering by the so-called false arch and vault was only employed for very narrow spaces1 while larger rooms were more naturally ceiled by wooden beams4 ,the ruins of ,warka1 though they do not give a very clear understanding of the fortifications of ancient ,chalda1 at least show that the city walls were not necessarily square1 as had been concluded from the testimony of ancient writers1 but1 as in this case1 followed the irregular outline of the city4 ,the political history of ,chalda was from the earliest times greatly disturbed by internal divisions4 ,at first the city ,nipur1 celebrated for its worship of ,bel1 appears to have been the most important place1 at least of ,southern ,chalda4 ,to this followed ,ur or ,hur1 the city worshipping ,hurki or ,sin1 then ,nisin or ,carrac1 and1 finally1 ,larsa1 the present ,senkereh4 ,upper ,chaldan ,babylon1 originally ,ca-dimirra1 does not seem to have become the only capital until the age of ,king ,cammurabi1 about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,a hundred years later ,northern ,mesopotamia1 ,assyria1 began to gain predominance1 and in the thirteenth century ,b4,c4 ,babylon was conquered 7for the first time87 by ,tiglathi-,nin1 a son of ,king ,salmaneser of ,assyria4 ,chalda soon regained its independence1 but only to fall again into the power of the conqueror ,tiglath-,pileser1 and to remain for five centuries subjugated to ,nineveh4 ,the attempts to throw off this yoke of ,assyrian authority were in vain2 even the uprising under the bold ,merodach-,baladan1 #gca ,b4,c41 was not of long duration1 and finally led to the depopulation and total destruction of the prominent ,chaldan cities by ,sennacherib4 ,the ,assyrian ,esar-haddon rebuilt ,babylon2 but it did not recover its ancient importance until the ,satrap ,nabopolassar revolted from his allegiance1 and1 with the help of the ,medes1 made an end of the kingdom of ,nineveh2 and until his son ,nebuchadnezzar1 after the fall of ,jerusalem in #ehg ,b4,c41 reduced even distant ,egypt to vassalage1 thus taking into possession the full heritage of the ,assyrian empire in both south and west4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,bors-,nimrud4 ,temple-terrace of ,borsippa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,plan and ,elevation of the ,temple at ,borsippa4 7,from ,oppert's ,measurements47 ,though the subjugation of the land by ,assyria had not been without effect upon the civilization of ,chalda1 the general character of ,babylonian art remained much the same through all these political changes4 ,the last king1 ,nabonetos1 could complete the temple of ,ur1 which ,urukh had founded seventeen centuries before1 as though there had been no interruption in the work4 ,the terraced ruins show that there was no great difference in the architectural treatment of ages so removed4 ,other city ruins show such an intermixture of ancient ,chaldan and ,babylonian walls that their date can be determined only by inscriptions or by stamps upon the bricks4 ,the earlier remains are predominant in ,mugheir1 ,warka1 and ,abou-,sharein2 but the later capital of the country1 ,babylon1 the city of ,nebuchadnezzar1 is known almost exclusively by the imposing structures of the modern kingdom4 ,greek antiquity1 up to the time of ,alexander1 was acquainted with this city of wonders only by fables4 ,even the explicit description of ,herodotos is in great degree mythical1 especially his astonishing account of the city walls3 #dhj stadia 7#if4eeg m47 in length1 #bjj ells 7#ajj m47 high1 and #ej ells 7#be m47 broad4 ,the ruins have also proved the account of the famed hundred gates of the city walls1 and the square network of straight streets which ran from these1 to be hyperbolical4 ,such immense masses of masonry would1 as ,layard has maintained1 certainly have left heaps of rubbish2 and1 in fact1 the ruins of a much smaller city enclosure have been traced4 ,the irregular orientation of the palace plan is also incompatible with the conception that the city was divided up into squares with the regularity of a chess-board4 ,the traditional account that the enormous terraced temple of ,bel was built on the borders of the stream opposite the palace structures is certainly incorrect2 for1 while these latter are still represented by extensive brick ruins1 there is not a trace upon the other bank1 the supposed site1 of massive terraces which could not possibly have so entirely disappeared4 ,nor could the stream have swept away so colossal a building2 for a little north of ,hillah1 in the immediate vicinity of the spot where ,herodotos describes the temple of ,bel1 there have been found the remains of a small ,mylitta temple1 which would have offered almost no resistance to an inundation4 ,yet ,herodotos undoubtedly related1 besides his fables1 much that was correct about ,babylon4 ,his account of the temple of ,bel seems only questionable in so far as the site is concerned2 the rest of his description agrees perfectly with ruins which have been found about eleven kilometers westward1 and are known by the name ,bors-,nimrud4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,the temple thus could not have belonged to the city proper of ,babylon2 and inscriptions mention the place as ,borsippa1 spoken of by ,greek writers as a separate town1 which could at best be regarded as a distant suburb of the extended ,babylon4 ,the immense hill of rubbish standing entirely isolated in the desert has a lower circumference of #fhe m4 ,this dimension agrees tolerably well with the six stadia given by ,herodotos as the measure of the first step of the terraced pyramid4 ,the regularly diminished seven steps1 the 8towers0 of ,herodotos1 #g4e m4 high1 reaching altogether a total altitude of #ge m41 rose from a square substructure with a side of two stadia 7#ahj m47 and a height of #bb4e m4 ,the diagonals of these different terraces were not directly above one another1 the steps being #i m4 broad in front and only #c4i m4 broad behind1 while the sides were equal--#f4c m4 ,this peculiarity of the ruin agrees with the flights of stairs described by ,herodotos1 which1 notwithstanding the analogy of the palace temple of ,kisr-,sargon1 may here naturally be supposed to have been upon the front1 where the terraces were sufficiently broad for this purpose4 ,fig4 #da is an attempt to restore the chief lines of the structure by means of the dimensions given by ,oppert4 ,upon the summit of this terraced pyramid stood the necessarily small temple1 which1 according to ,herodotos1 contained a spacious couch and a golden table1 but no statue of the deity4 ,the sides of the terraces are directed to the cardinal points of the compass1 as was the case also with the ancient ,chaldan temple of ,ur2 and1 as at ,ur1 inscribed cylinders were here walled in at the angles4 ,these relate that ,nebuchadnezzar had magnificently completed the structure--8the temple-pyramid of the seven spheres1 the wonder of ,borsippa10 begun by a former king4 ,rawlinson and ,oppert have concluded1 from the remains of glazed bricks of different colors1 that each of the seven terraces was dedicated to one of the seven planets of the ancients1 and was characterized by its color--the upper1 gold2 the second1 silver2 the next1 red1 blue1 yellow1 white2 and the lowest1 black--according to the hues assigned to the sun1 the moon1 ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,jupiter1 ,venus1 and ,saturn4 ,the lowest terrace has a panelled architectural treatment similar to that noticed in the ruins at ,warka and the palace temple at ,kisr-,sargon4 ,it is probable that these high terraces in the flat plains of ,mesopotamia were elevations which served the ,chaldan astronomers for their celebrated observatories1 as the pylons of temples upon the banks of the ,nile were similarly used by the ,egyptian priests4 ,as ,strabo speaks especially of an astronomical school at ,borsippa1 there can be little doubt that it was in some way connected with the terraced pyramid of the seven spheres4 ,the ruins of ,hillah1 ,casr1 ,mudjelibeh1 and ,jumjuma give even less information concerning the palace buildings than the hill of ,bors-,nimrud does concerning the form of the ,chaldan temple4 ,these masses of masonry have for centuries served as quarries1 and1 as far distant as ,bagdad1 bricks1 bearing the stamp of ,nebuchadnezzar1 betray that the material has been transported from the ruins of ,babylon4 ,though the supply is by no means exhausted1 this excavation has rendered much unrecognizable1 and has so greatly increased the destruction that ,layard held it impossible to discover a clew to the plan of the palace structure in the confusion of its overthrown and rifled rubbish4 ,oppert assumes the hill of ,jumjuma1 or ,amran-ibn-,ali1 as it is called from the ,mohammedan chapel now standing upon it1 to be the remains of the celebrated ,hanging ,gardens known as those of ,semiramis1 the wonder of the ancient world4 ,but1 plausible as his supposition is1 it will hardly be possible to prove by existing remains the correctness of the description given by ,diodoros of the ,hanging ,gardens1 in itself more probable than the report followed by ,strabo4 ,diodoros speaks of the ,gardens as a terraced structure1 the side of the square plan being about #abj m4 in length1 with separate steps which ascended from the land side1 while upon the banks of the river a steep wall formed the back of the highest terrace1 measuring #ae m4 vertically1 and closing the gardens towards the water4 ,the steps were constructed by the help of thirteen thick parallel walls1 each being higher than the one next below it4 ,they left between them twelve narrow corridors1 the ceilings of which1 like those over ,assyrian canals1 were probably vaulted1 and were then covered with rushes and bitumen1 burnt brick pavements and lead sheathing1 so as to bear the stairways which connected the different terraces1 the reservoirs for cascades and fountains1 and the imposed garden--earth with large trees1 etc4 ,pumping works in the highest of these covered corridors supplied the garden with the necessary water from the ,euphrates4 ,the ruined terraces of ,mudjelibeh 7,babil71 avoided by the ,arabs as the scene of the punishment of the fallen angels1 are so completely overthrown that it is not possible to determine whether the remains are those of a temple or of a palace4 ,it is probable that they had some connection with the great pyramidal tomb of ,belus1 a structure which may be assumed to have been much like the stepped pyramid of ,nimrud to be described below4 ,the monument of ,mudjelibeh was destroyed as early as the time of ,xerxes ,,ii4 ,it has since served as a quarry for the neighboring cities ,seleucia and ,ctesiphon1 and has been demolished to the lowest terrace4 ,the enormous river embankments and dikes which protected ,lower ,mesopotamia from flood and drought1 though now only to be traced by inconsiderable remains1 are of the greatest importance and interest4 ,the neglect of these invaluable works1 and of the sluices and irrigating canals in connection with them1 has reduced to a deserted and pestilential swamp that most fertile land known to ,herodotos--where once a harvest of two and three hundredfold was returned to the tiller of the soil4 ,though there are vestiges of some ancient bridges in the land1 it is not possible to decide whether the account given by ,diodoros of the great tunnel constructed by ,semiramis be true or fabulous4 ,there seems to have been no reason for the erection of such tall edifices in the vastly extended ,babylon as the three and four storied houses described by ,herodotos1 and no analogy to such a peculiarity exists in the great modern cities of the ,orient4 ,it must be remembered in this connection that the crumbling bricks to which the ,mesopotamians were restricted would1 in such high buildings1 have demanded clumsily massive substructures and lower-story walls4 ,though the ruins of ,babylon have only recently been thoroughly examined1 their existence has long been known4 ,benjamin of ,tudela speaks of ,bors-,nimrud as the ,biblical ,tower of ,babel1 and this local tradition has been handed down to the present day4 ,the palace ruins of the great city have always been readily recognizable1 and the one has been called ,babel1 the other ,casr 7palace71 from time immemorial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,plan of ,babylon4 7,according to ,rich47 ,it is otherwise with the second great centre of ,mesopotamia--,nineveh1 the famed capital of the kingdom of ,assyria1 in the upper land of the great streams4 ,as early as the beginning of this century1 ,carsten ,niebuhr expressed the conviction that the remains of the overthrown city were to be sought among the hills of rubbish which lie opposite the present ,mosul1 beyond the ,tigris2 but the energetic ,rich1 who devoted so much time and labor to the barren ruins of ,babylon1 paid no attention to the site4 ,nineveh had entirely disappeared1 and was only traditionally known from the ,book of ,jonah and from the legend of ,sardanapalos4 ,it was during two visits to ,mosul1 in the years #ahdj and #ahdb1 that the eminent ,english traveller and statesman ,sir ,a4 ,h4 ,layard conceived the plan of undertaking investigations in the vicinity4 ,he expressed his convictions at the time to the ,french consul1 ,m4 ,p4 ,e4 ,botta1 and in #ahdc that gentleman commenced the excavation of the hill ,coyundjic1 which lay next to ,mosul4 ,the natives1 becoming aware of the nature of the search1 directed his attention to the hill of ,corsabad1 situated at a distance of about twenty-five kilometers from ,mosul2 the excavations were removed thither1 and carried on with most gratifying results4 ,a few days' digging laid bare a number of walls reveted with huge slabs of alabaster4 ,the wonderful sculptures in relief upon these excited redoubled activity1 and soon entire chambers of the palace structure were freed from the overthrown rubbish which had covered it for well-nigh three thousand years4 ,the ,french government purchased the entire village of ,corsabad3 in ,m4 ,v4 ,place was provided a worthy successor to ,m4 ,botta4 ,the inscriptions discovered have proved the ruins to be those of a palace founded by ,sargon about #gaj ,b4,c4 in the city ,kisr-,sargon or ,dur-,sargina4 ,in the year #ahde1 ,layard obtained1 through ,sir ,stratford ,canning1 then ambassador to ,turkey1 the necessary means for the ,english government to take part in the promising undertaking4 ,he at first directed his attention to ,nimrud1 a hill of ruins about a day's journey south of ,mosul1 the great size of which promised the existence of important remains4 ,an immense terrace platform was there found to have supported a number of palaces1 several of which were excavated1 the more valuable sculptures and other objects of interest being transported to the ,british ,museum4 ,at ,nimrud were discovered the most ancient and the most modern of ,assyrian buildings known--namely1 the northwestern palace1 temple1 and tower built by ,assur-nazi-pal shortly after #hhe ,b4,c41 as well as the ,temple of ,assur-ebil-ili1 presumably the last ,assyrian king1 dating to about #faj ,b4,c4 ,besides these1 there were the southeastern and central palaces built by ,shalmaneser ,,ii4 after #hfj1 the latter having been restored by ,tiglath-pileser ,,ii41 from #gde to #gbg1 as ,sargon rebuilt the northwestern palace after #gbb2 and1 finally1 there was the southwestern palace of ,esar-haddon1 from #fha to #ffh ,b4,c4 ,the city itself 7,calah7 corresponded in grandeur and extent with the palace terrace4 ,it was founded by ,shalmaneser1 and long rivalled ,nineveh1 especially after its reconstruction by ,assur-nazi-pal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,plan of ,nineveh4 ,it is now beyond a doubt that the chief capital of the country is buried beneath the hills of ,coyundjic and ,nebbi-,jonas1 the latter so called from a ,mohammedan chapel to the prophet ,jonah which traditionally marks the site of ,nineveh4 ,both these mounds of ruins were examined by ,layard4 ,in the southwestern palace of ,coyundjic1 built by ,assur-bani-pal1 from #ffh to #fbf ,b4,c41 was discovered the most extensive among these dwellings of ,oriental despots4 ,the most elaborate of ,assyrian palaces was the northern one of this site1 built by ,assur-bani-pal about #fdj ,b4,c41 a monarch who devoted certain chambers of the southwestern palace1 originally erected by his grandfather1 to the reception of inscribed clay tablets--an inexhaustible wealth for the study of ,assyrian history1 of which hardly a third part seems to have been recovered intact4 ,in ,nebbi-,jonas were found traces of the palaces of ,vulnirari ,,iii41 from #hab to #ghc2 of ,sennacherib1 from #gje to #fha2 and of ,esar-haddon1 from #fha to #ffh ,b4,c4 ,the line of the city walls1 still recognizable among the hills of rubbish1 is shown by the plan at ,fig4 #dc4 ,these fortifications could hardly have enclosed the entire city1 and it is probable that only the inner town1 with the palaces and public buildings1 was thus protected1 and that the dwelling-houses of the many inhabitants formed suburbs which extended far around the enclosed centre1 gradually losing themselves in gardens and groves of date-trees1 as is the case with modern capitals of the ,east4 ,the comparatively small walls of ,babylon1 at variance with the report given by ,herodotos1 lead to the same conclusion in regard to that city4 ,the ruins of ,calah-,shergat1 situated about #ajj kilometers down the stream from ,nineveh1 are identified with ,assur1 the oldest capital of the land1 which maintained its pre-eminence until ,nineveh1 in the fourteenth century ,b4,c41 became the great centre of power4 ,reson is thought to be recognized in the ruins of ,selamiyeh1 lying between ,nimrud and ,nineveh1 and ,erbil in ,arbola4 ,these sites have not been sufficiently examined to be of direct importance in the history of art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,palace of ,kisr-,sargon1 ,corsabad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,ornamented ,pavement from the ,northern ,palace of ,coyundjic4 ,it is plain from the ruins already mentioned that the dwellings of the kings took the most prominent place among the creations of ,assyrian architecture4 ,the despotic element had in ,mesopotamia the same superiority as the hierarchy in ,egypt3 in the former country the palace was as much in the foreground as was the temple in the latter4 ,in ancient ,chalda the two elements1 and consequently the two classes of monuments1 were more equally represented4 ,still1 in most points of view1 the relation of ,chaldan and ,assyrian architecture is very close1 and the differences arose chiefly from the superior material at the builders' disposal in ,upper ,mesopotamia4 ,the terraces of ,assyria1 like those of ,chalda1 were solidly constructed of sun-dried bricks and stamped earth1 but the neighboring mountains provided stone for the complete revetment of these masses with quarried blocks4 ,carefully hewn slabs existed upon the terrace platform of ,sargon's palace1 and upon the substructure of the pyramid of ,nimrud1 while there was rough ,cyclopean stone-work employed in the construction of the city walls at ,kisr-,sargon4 ,the facing of brightly glazed tiles and stucco-paintings1 universal in ,chalda1 is restricted upon ,assyrian masonry of the same brick materials to the upper part of the wall1 the lower half being sheathed and protected by sculptured slabs of alabaster4 ,the appearance of the whole gained greatly by this change1 the revetment of reliefs in place of the painted figures giving a more imposing and durable character to the walls4 ,the palace architecture of ,assyria is best exemplified by the plan of the royal dwelling of ,kisr-,sargon 7,fig4 #dd71 the isolated position and clear disposition of which are adapted to show the general character of these structures4 ,the platform terrace consisted of two divisions1 the broader 7,p7 being inside the limits of the city fortifications1 while the remainder 7,t7 projected beyond them4 ,a double flight of steps 7,a7 led to the chief portal 7,b71 ornamented by gigantic winged human-headed bulls1 which here not only stood on the sides of the passage itself1 as at all principal entrances1 but laterally upon the front walls1 within and without4 ,these figures are among the most characteristic creations of ,assyrian art2 they will be treated more in detail in the following consideration of the sculpture of the country4 ,the triple gateway opened into the first and largest enclosed court 7,c74 ,upon the left of this1 one narrow passage led to the chambers of the harem1 which were ranged around six smaller courts 7,d to ,h74 ,upon the right of the first enclosure were the household offices 7,j71 with eight courts and numerous halls1 magazines1 kitchens1 cellars1 stables1 etc4 ,the side opposite the chief entrance was formed by the private apartments of the monarch 7,m7 and by the great hall of the palace--a group of chambers not presenting its chief front to the first court 7,c71 with which it was connected only by subordinate entrances--but to a second enclosure of almost equal extent 7,k71 which may be regarded as the chief open space of the royal dwelling4 ,an inclined ascent 7,r7 led to the right wing of the inner terrace1 by which the king1 approaching in a chariot or borne by attendants in a sedan-chair1 could enter his seraglio without passing the first court 7,c7 or the entrance to the household offices 7,j74 ,the encroaching line of the city wall 7,p7 made it impossible for the portal to the second court 7,s7 to be arranged in the central axis of that enclosure2 but strict symmetry of plan was not adopted even when there were no such obstacles4 ,the inner apartments of the king were entered by a magnificent triple gateway 7,l7 from the court of the seraglio2 these were1 in certain measure1 regularly planned1 being so grouped around a smaller court 7,m7 that oblong halls1 as long as this was square1 were upon three of its sides4 ,the hall upon the south opens into a number of intricate chambers1 probably used as baths1 sleeping-apartments1 and rooms for the immediate body-guards of the king and for the temporary families of the harem4 ,upon the north a wing was added to the building1 projecting almost to the outer border of the terrace1 and dividing this 7,t7 into a northern and a western court4 ,the addition was the most richly ornamented portion of the entire palace2 it was probably here that the halls of reception were placed4 ,the walls of other parts of the seraglio were reveted upon their lower part with sculptured slabs of alabaster2 but this treatment was not elsewhere so freely applied1 nor was it as richly decorated as in this northwestern wing4 ,in the first hall1 which is #ce m4 long and #aj m4 broad1 the walls are ornamented with continuous scenes representing1 as in a procession1 the homage and punishment of prisoners-of-war4 ,in other rooms and in smaller courts these reliefs1 divided by a band of cuneiform inscriptions1 are of smaller dimensions and less pretentious execution1 though of marked interest as forming1 with their copious inscriptions1 chronicles of historical events4 ,the spacious terrace at the west has in its centre an oblong hall 7,n71 generally supposed to be the temple or chapel of the palace1 but which may with more probability be considered as a hall of state4 ,the scanty remains of this structure make a sure determination of its purpose impossible4 ,they consist chiefly of the foundations of solid unburnt brick masonry1 faced with slabs of black basalt4 ,the cornice of this substructure is of gray limestone1 in form much resembling the characteristic scotia of ,egyptian architecture4 7,fig4 #df47 ,a small terraced pyramid 7,o7 at the southwest is a more remarkable structure4 ,four of its steps1 with their facing of white1 black1 orange1 and blue enamelled tiles1 are still remaining4 ,these lead1 from analogy with the pyramid of ,borsippa1 to the assumption of three further steps1 tiled with the red1 silver1 and gold assigned to the remaining planets4 ,the vertical panelling of the sides is somewhat similar to that of the remains at ,warka2 it is not here restricted to the walls of the lower terrace1 like that upon the ruins of ,mugheir and ,borsippa4 ,the square platform at the top of the terraces1 the side of which could have measured little more than #aj m41 received either an altar or a small cella1 not longer than #f m4 ,ascent to the top of the pyramid was provided by an inclined plane1 which wound from step to step in a rectangular spiral4 ,the destination of the pyramid as the palace chapel seems reasonably certain1 from its similarity to other terraced temples of ,assyria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,cornice of the ,temple ,substructure at ,corsabad4 ,the palaces hitherto discovered show the greatest freedom of detailed arrangement4 ,the variations among the plans may be illustrated by a comparison of those of the northwestern palace of ,nimrud 7,fig4 #dg71 the palace of ,esarhaddon 7,fig4 #di71 and of that of ,sennacherib at ,coyundjic4 ,the methods of construction adopted for their erection are more similar4 ,all have walls built of burnt or unburnt brick and of stamped clay2 those of the larger chambers are reveted in their lower half with slabs of alabaster or with brightly enamelled tiles1 and ornamented by paintings upon stucco above4 ,all the principal halls are so narrow in proportion to their length as to resemble corridors--a peculiarity arising from technical difficulties of ceiling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,plan of the ,northwestern ,palace of ,nimrud4 ,the manner of lighting and roofing adopted in ,assyrian palaces is not directly evident from the existing remains2 none of the walls1 the highest of which reaches #i m4 above the ground1 showing traces of any window-like openings4 ,some authorities assume that all the light of the interior was admitted through the doors4 ,that this may1 in some instances1 have been barely possible is evident from the plan of ,sargon's palace at ,corsabad 7,fig4 #dd71 where the principal chambers were entered directly from the open courts1 or1 in exceptional instances1 were preceded by narrow ante-rooms which could not greatly have interfered with the light4 ,but it is plain from the plan of the northwestern ,palace of ,nimrud 7,fig4 #dg7 that twelve chambers in such unfavorable positions as those shown upon its eastern side could not have received the slightest light through the two narrow passages leading from the confined court4 ,it is futile to deny the necessity of light and air for the dwellings of man2 and theories which suppose these enormous spaces left in darkness1 or unventilated and lighted artificially1 are certainly untenable4 ,other scholars are of the opinion that light and air were procured through horizontal openings in the ceiling and roof2 but this imperfect and unpractical arrangement is particularly ill adapted for inhabited rooms1 and is rendered extremely improbable by the fact that upon the pavements there did not exist the slightest arrangement for leading off the water which must have fallen upon them had the roof been an inefficient shelter4 ,the floors were rarely of stone slabs1 like the carved fragments shown in ,fig4 #de1 and in other places the sun-dried bricks would have been rapidly reduced to mud by the furious rain-storms of ,mesopotamia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,the present condition of the ruins1 the walls of which nowhere rise to the full height of the chambers1 does not1 however1 exclude the possibility of openings for light having existed just beneath the ceiling4 ,the form of such orifices cannot surely be determined2 high windows could not have existed1 and there must have been low openings in the top of the wall1 separated by piers1 between which stood small columns1 as is evident from a relief of ,coyundjic1 given in ,fig4 #dh to serve as an argument for this manner of illumination4 ,light and air could thus have been freely admitted1 without inconvenience to the dwellers within4 ,the high position of the apertures1 immediately under the somewhat projecting roof1 prevented the entrance of rain1 and shut off the interior from the view of those without1 just as this same manner of lighting to-day protects the harems of the ,east4 ,the small shafts1 which were introduced as supports between these windows1 appear to have been the only representatives of columnar architecture in the ,assyrian palace4 ,if columns had been used1 in their customary function1 as upholders of the roof1--as members which bore an important entablature1--some traces of these would certainly have been preserved2 their material could hardly have been more perishable than the sun-dried brick of the walls4 ,the entire arrangement of plan shows that their assistance was not relied upon4 ,the chambers were disproportionately narrow1 plainly to render it possible to cover them without the introduction of intermediate supports4 ,the beauty and fitness of the corridor-like spaces were so sacrificed to this narrowness that its universal appearance can be regarded only as a constructive necessity4 ,it is well illustrated by the cramped principal hall of the palace of ,esar-haddon at ,nimrud 7,fig4 #di71 where a greater width than that permitted by the span of ceiling timbers was only to be obtained by the erection of a division wall to provide a subsidiary support for the beams4 ,so helpless a make-shift1 destroying the unity and grandeur of the hall1 could have been adopted only in entire ignorance of the opening and supporting element of the column1 apparently never recognized in ,assyria4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,plan of the ,palace of ,esar-haddon at ,nimrud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,various ,forms of ,capitals and ,bases1 from ,assyrian ,reliefs4 ,the form of the small columns1 which stood in the openings allowed for light in the upper walls1 can be approximately determined from the representations upon reliefs4 ,the shafts were cylindrical1 and probably without flutings2 they had a roundlet1 or at least a projecting fillet1 at either end4 ,the base consisted solely of a high tore1 sometimes notched upon the top1 or placed upon the back of a striding lion4 7,fig4 #ej47 ,the most common form of the capitals was a peculiar conjunction of two spiral scrolls1 similar to a doubled ,ionic capital1 with an echinos-like roundlet beneath and a stepped abacus above4 ,it is hardly to be doubted that this was the prototype of the ,ionic capital1 although it cannot be determined from the reliefs whether a lateral roll corresponded to the volute of the front1 or whether the helix was repeated upon all four sides1 as is the case with the capitals of ,persian columns4 ,the small scale of the representations upon reliefs1 and their careless execution1 do not permit a sure understanding of any part of the capitals4 ,a table 7,fig4 #ea7 upon a relief of ,coyundjic better determines the form of the volutes2 it has distinct spirals in place of the rosettes1 wrongly shown by ,layard's drawing4,d ,there is reason to suppose that the double helix was not the primitive and normal form of the ,assyrian capital1 but was rather an abbreviation of the leaved calyx so frequently met with in ,phnicia1 ,palestine1 and ,cyprus1 and that the rolled ends of the leaves1 shown by two of the examples in ,fig4 #ej1 originally suggested the volutes of the capital and the various spiral forms occurring upon carved ,assyrian furniture1 as in ,fig4 #ha4 ,the question will be considered more at length in the section upon ,syrian architecture4 ,the columns of ,assyria were employed only in this subordinate position1 and the dimensions and shape of larger enclosed spaces were dependent upon the limited span of the wooden ceiling beams4 ,assyrian palaces were1 in these respects1 unable to fulfil the demands of a monumental architecture4 ,it can only be surmised how roof and ceiling were constructed in detail4 ,the beams were naturally so placed as to require the least possible length to span the clear width2 the sinking in the middle1 to which the elastic trunks of palm-trees so much inclined1 and the accumulation of water in the hollow thereby formed1 were thus avoided as well as might be4 ,the constructive details of the roof-platform are not surely known2 it is probable that a layer of clay and earth was placed upon the beams1 being rolled down compactly after every rain4 ,the exterior representation of roof and ceiling1 the wall entablature1 may have consisted of a painted wooden sheathing1 bearing ornaments of the character displayed by the pavement4 7,fig4 #de47 ,it was divided1 like the ,egyptian entablature1 into two parts2 in neither case was there a marked distinction between roof and ceiling4 ,the imitations of building-fronts upon reliefs make it probable that stepped battlements rose above the main cornice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,table upon an ,assyrian ,relief4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,mouth of a ,channel under the ,northwestern ,palace1 ,nimrud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,channel under the ,southeastern ,palace1 ,nimrud4 ,the fundamental principles of vaulted construction1 as of columnar architecture1 were known in ,assyria1 but neither the column nor the arch was worthily recognized and developed into an important feature capable of exercising an influence upon the extent or form of the enclosed spaces4 ,the palace terraces were pierced by narrow vaulted channels1 still to be traced among the ruins4 ,this was the case with the most ancient structure of ,assyria1 the northwestern palace of ,nimrud4 7,fig4 #eb47 ,though it cannot be proved that the ,assyrians were the original inventors of the arch of wedge-shaped stones1 there are certainly no earlier instances of this manner of building known than those of that country4 ,round arch barrel-vaults were not exclusively used for such channels2 an ogive appears upon the same terrace of ,nimrud1 in the somewhat later southeastern palace4 7,fig4 #ec47 ,though the key-stone of the latter is undeveloped1 the vault is yet built upon the principle of the ,gothic pointed arch4 ,it is not impossible that this form may have descended in uninterrupted tradition from ,mesopotamia to the ,arabs1 being brought by them to ,europe1 where1 effecting a change in the round ,romanesque arch1 it exercised a decisive influence in the development of medival manners of building4 ,the bricks of these vaulted ,assyrian channels are carefully moulded to the more or less marked wedge-form determined by the size of the arch--a greater refinement than is practised by modern masons1 who use only rectangular bricks1 effecting the curve by the wedge-shape of the mortar-joint4 ,yet1 perfected as vaulted construction appears in these channels1 its application seems to have been almost restricted to them2 ,assyrian builders hesitated to apply vaulted ceilings to spaces of much greater span than gates and window apertures4 ,reliefs show arched portals alternating with horizontally covered openings2 and in the fortification walls of ,kisr-,sargon1 the city adjoining the palace-ruins of ,corsabad1 traces of a barrel-vaulted entrance have been discovered where the arch1 of #d4e m4 clear1 rested upon the backs of the winged monsters referred to as the guardians of all important gateways4 ,a vaulted corridor1 considerably less in span1 will be noticed at the temple pyramid of ,nimrud4 ,among the numerous palace chambers remaining1 only a few narrow cells show traces of vaults2 the opinion of some recent investigators1 that the customary horizontal ceilings of smaller rooms were surmounted by cupolas of beaten earth1 does not appear plausible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,restoration of an ,assyrian ,palace4 ,from the chief points gained by this consideration1 it is evident that the restoration given in ,fig4 #ed1 a variation of the reconstruction by ,layard and ,fergusson1 cannot greatly misrepresent the once existing structures4 ,the ,assyrian palace was1 upon the whole1 a more satisfactory building than the ,egyptian temple4 ,the outlines and masses of its composition were grand2 it was richly ornamented1 perhaps even overladen1 with sculptured and colored decoration4 ,the massive and unpierced walls of the lower half bore a kind of open loggia1 consisting of light columns between powerful piers which were fully capable of upholding the ceiling4 ,the entire edifice being elevated upon a terrace1 upper stories were not necessary to secure an imposing height4 ,the existence of one lower story alone is indicated by the ruins2 no large staircases1 or other means of ascent to an upper floor1 were provided4 ,the apparent duplication of the stories of houses upon reliefs is owing to a fault of perspective common to the primitive representations of all nations3 things are shown as above and upon1 instead of behind and beyond1 one another4 ,the ground-chambers1 of which sixty-eight have been counted in the ,palace of ,sennacherib at ,coyundjic1 and over two hundred in the ,palace of ,sargon1 were surely ample in number and extent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,terraced ,pyramid4 ,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,plan and ,section of the ,terraced ,pyramid of ,nimrud4 #a4 ,vaulted ,corridor4 #b4 ,modern ,shafts4 #c4 ,revetment ,wall of ,cut ,stone4 #e4 ,solid ,brick ,masonry4 #f4 ,great ,palace ,terrace4 #g4 ,temple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,relief from the ,northern ,palace of ,coyundjic4 ,though the royal dwellings of ,assyria chiefly attract attention in considering the architecture of the country1 there are also many remains of sacred buildings in the lands of the ,upper ,tigris4 ,but we are acquainted only with those places of worship which stood in immediate connection with the palaces1 no traces of edifices for general and popular worship having been discovered up to the present time4 ,even were we without knowledge of the ruins1 it would be natural to suppose the temples of ,assyria similar to those of ,mesopotamia2 that is to say1 pyramidal terraces1 with high lower stories4 7,compare ,fig4 #da47 ,a relief from ,coyundjic1 the upper portion of which is unfortunately destroyed1 confirms this view1 showing a terraced structure of three or four steps situated upon a natural elevation4 ,the lower terrace is decorated1 like ,chaldan works of the kind1 with pilasters in low-relief2 before it are pylon towers4 7,fig4 #ee47 ,this specifically ,mesopotamian type is to be recognized in the most prominent ruins of ,assyrian sacred architecture--namely1 in the terraced pyramid which occupied one corner of the great palace platform of ,nimrud4 ,it is also to be observed in the more fragmentary remains at ,kileh-,shergat1 which time has buried beneath shapeless hills of rubbish1 without entirely obliterating the original disposition4 ,the ruins at this site have not been thoroughly investigated2 those at ,nimrud showed the lower part of the pyramid at least to have been solidly built of bricks1 reveted with a wall of quarried stones4 7,fig4 #ef47 ,in the height of the main palace terrace was a shaft1 the purpose of which is uncertain1 as it was without entrance1 and empty2 it is interesting in architectural respects from the admirably executed barrel-vault of brick masonry which formed its ceiling4 ,the ruin1 for the greater part destroyed1 offered beyond this corridor but few peculiarities4 ,the stone revetment has been almost entirely carried away1 and every trace of the temple cella which must have surmounted these terraces1 as it did those of ,chalda1 has disappeared4 ,the better-preserved but much smaller terraced temple of the palace at ,kisr-,sargon has already been mentioned4 ,two interesting reliefs show the general form of such cellas1 though in these instances the structures represented are not raised upon artificial elevations4 7,figs4 #ce and #eg47 ,they are small temples in antis1 rectangular buildings1 three sides of which are formed by walls2 while1 in the open fourth1 two columns support the entablature and roof4 ,in one case the ends of the walls upon each side of the columns are undecorated2 in the other the pilasters1 though without a base1 are crowned with a member similar to the capitals of the columns4 ,the simple entablature projects in an oblique line2 it is terminated by stepped battlements1 in which the ,mesopotamian type of the terraced pyramid is repeated in outline and adopted as a merely decorative detail4 ,such temple cellas were erected not alone upon extensive terraces1 but in the plain2 perhaps1 also1 like the similar structures of ,phnicia1 in the midst of sacred lakes4 ,the reliefs given in the cuts show the chapels to have stood at the foot of natural elevations1 as well as upon them4 ,another form of sanctuary1 with gabled roof and lanceolate acroteria1 is represented upon a relief of ,corsabad4 7,fig4 #ga47 ,the building remotely resembles a ,hellenic peripteros4 ,its constructive peculiarities cannot well be understood from the relief1 as these considerations were probably not clear to the sculptor himself4 ,it is possible that the architectural form was one foreign to the country1--perhaps the imitation of a temple in ,southern ,asia ,minor4 ,another variety of these palace chapels appears upon the terrace of ,nimrud1 the forms there differing but slightly from those of the dwelling-chambers2 the sacred cellas are distinguished only by the exclusively mythological character of the reliefs1 and by the altars and offerings placed at the entrance4 7,fig4 #eh47 ,it is possible1 however1 that these spaces were used as the dwellings of priests rather than as sanctuaries1 especially as the two examples known are situated near the base of the great temple of ,nimrud1 being in this respect admirably adapted to the uses of the sacerdotal officers in the royal household4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,entrance to one of the so-called ,temples1 ,nimrud4 ,the forms of ,assyrian altars are illustrated by reliefs4 7,figs4 #ce and #eg47 ,the rectangular shaft1 at times furrowed1 rests upon a plinth1 and bears a projecting slab1 bordered by stepped battlements4 ,a tripod was found before the entrance to the so-called ,temple of ,nimrud 7,fig4 #eh72 and upon reliefs are represented fire-altars1 upholding by a single support a basin for burnt sacrifices4 ,these altars and the bronze tables for offerings were not treated as architectural details1 but more resembled the chairs and thrones variously represented upon reliefs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,obelisk from ,nimrud4 ,the ,assyrian obelisks were of greater importance2 though they cannot be compared to the gigantic wonders of ,egyptian mechanical skill1 they yet represent the typical forms of ,assyrian art as characteristically as do the ,egyptian shafts the architecture of that land4 ,a small specimen carved in black basalt1 #b4a m4 high and #j4f m4 broad at base1 was discovered in ,nimrud and has been transported to the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #ei47 ,the gently diminished pier is crowned with a terraced pyramid1 thus giving the principal monumental form of ,mesopotamia1 on a small scale1 as distinctly as the termination of ,egyptian obelisks does the more strictly geometrical pyramid of the ,nile land4 ,the steps and part of the shaft are carved with cuneiform inscriptions1 and with reliefs which represent an act of homage--the presentation to the king of various gifts1 animals1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,assyrian ,dwellings4 ,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,rich as are the results of scientific investigations in regard to the palaces of ,assyria1 they are deficient in everything concerning the cities1 which could have been but mean and insignificant in comparison with the royal dwellings4 ,only scanty traces of the fortification walls around ,coyundjic1 ,corsabad1 and ,nimrud have been preserved4 ,from reliefs these appear to have been provided with projecting galleries for defence1 with square or circular loop-holes1 and with battlements of rectangular or oblique outline4 ,as before mentioned1 there have been preserved at ,kisr-,sargon 7,corsabad7 the remains of a round-arched city gate1 flanked with winged lions4 7,a skilful restoration of this is given by ,viollet-le-,duc in his ,entretiens47 ,the small hills of rubbish within the city did not tempt the closer investigation of excavators1 who found such inexhaustible rewards for their labors at the palace terraces4 ,private dwellings1 which were not1 like the chambers of the kings1 constructed with hewn and sculptured stones as a revetment of the weak masonry of unburnt bricks1 are now in so complete a state of destruction that an understanding of their original form is hardly possible4 ,the known reliefs are not adequate to convey satisfactory information in regard to them4 ,among the clearest of these is a relief of ,coyundjic 7,fig4 #fj71 which shows buildings with hemispherical and oval cupolas1 much like those still customary in some parts of ,syria4 ,the openings for light and air are distinctly indicated in the summit of the vaults4 ,on the other hand1 dwellings like that shown in ,fig4 #fa1 which often occur in great numbers within the enclosure of fortification walls1 are of most perplexing construction1 unless assumed to be tents4 ,some interior views indicate this character1 and the surrounding walls might accordingly be considered the fortifications of an encampment4 ,the plan-like illustrations of walled towns1 where the houses are repeated in conventionalized forms1 give no definite information concerning the peculiarities of ,assyrian domestic architecture4 7,fig4 #fb47 ,they remind us rather of the topographical usage prevalent during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of our era1 when1 in similar manner1 approximate representations of houses and cottages were typically employed to designate a village1 a town1 or a city1 upon maps from which no conception of the nature of the structures could be obtained4 ,but it may be concluded from these views that a majority of the dwellings consisted of a higher and a lower division1 each being provided with an independent platform4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,tent-like ,dwelling4 ,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,susa4 ,assyrian ,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,the character of ,egyptian architecture was essentially influenced by the rich colored ornamentation which covered and enlivened so much of the wall-surface with the coilanaglyphic paintings peculiar to that country4 ,upon the palace buildings of ,mesopotamia painting and sculpture were something more than mere decorative adjuncts to the architectural construction4 ,they may even be said to have predominated4 ,the brick walls of ,nineveh1 instead of bearing ornamental slabs1 were themselves upheld by the richly sculptured revetment4 ,the works of the sculptor and the painter take a more important place in the history of ,assyrian art than do those of the architect4 ,this1 however1 was not the case in the earliest ages of the ,chaldan empire1 for monuments like the ,temple of the ,moon at ,ur 7,mugheir71 and like the remains at ,warka1 appear to have been almost destitute of carved1 if not of painted1 ornamentation4 ,the simple treatment of wall-surfaces with glazed and colored tiles1 even when laid in the variegated patterns of the ,chaldan buildings1 can hardly be spoken of as painting2 and in that country no surely attested remains of sculpture have been discovered4 ,nor could the carving of stone flourish in the later ,babylonian period4 ,the remoteness from mountains and quarries of the great cities1 and especially of the capital itself1 which stood in the midst of an extended alluvion1 was too great to allow stone material to be readily procured even for the revetment of walls4 ,only one fragment of a larger relief was found by ,layard among the ruins of ,babylon1,e and this was so entirely similar to the ,assyrian sculptures that it would1 without further question1 have been regarded as the work of ,nineveh had not the ,babylonian character of the cuneiform inscriptions indicated its origin4 ,a colossal statue of black basalt1 representing a lion standing upon a human being1 a work known to travellers for over a century1 still lies in position1 half buried in the earth2 it might convey an adequate idea of the sculpture of ,babylon were it not so weathered and imperfect as not to be considered worth removal4 ,the most numerous examples of the stone-carving of ,southern ,mesopotamia--that is to say1 of ,babylonia--are given by the cylindrical seals of syenite1 basalt1 agate1 carnelian1 etc4 ,these stones generally measure about #j4jc m4 in length and #j4ja m4 in diameter2 they are perforated in the line of their axis1 to allow of their being strung upon a cord or fixed upon a metal wire1 by which1 if held as a handle1 the seal could be rolled over some soft substance1 such as wax1 thus leaving the impression of the figures engraved upon it4 7,fig4 #fc47 ,the great variance between the style of these cylinders and that of ,mesopotamian reliefs is mainly due to the totally different technical peculiarities of intaglio and relief-cutting4 ,the seals of ,babylonia and ,assyria are usually so much alike that they are to be distinguished only by the character of the cuneiform inscriptions1 or1 in some instances1 by the mythological subjects represented4 ,the origin of many of the carved cylinders which lack such indications cannot be determined1 the place of their discovery being of slight importance in the case of objects so easily transportable4 ,numbers of these seals exist in all large ,european museums1 being picked up by the inhabitants of ,hillah after torrents of rain have furrowed the earth in which they lie concealed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,babylonian ,seal in the ,british ,museum1 and its ,impression4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,wall ,decoration of ,enamelled ,tiles4 ,the ,babylonians made up for this national lack of monumental works of sculpture1 due1 as has been seen1 to the difficulty of obtaining suitable material1 by the development of another branch of decorative art4 ,favored by the clayey earth of the ,chaldan alluvion1 they did not content themselves with the manufacture of admirable bricks1 or with exact and durable masonry of this material1 but developed a glazed decoration of their outer surfaces4 ,the walls of chambers seem generally to have been prepared with a coating of plaster and then painted4 ,naturally1 no traces of this process exist1 but passages in the books of the ,biblical prophets indicate it to have been customary4 ,exterior walls1 which1 on account of climatic influences1 could not thus be treated1 were ornamented with enamelled and variously colored tiles4 ,upon the steps of temple terraces this was effected by glazing the outer sides of all the bricks with a single color1 but for palace walls entire compositions were so formed that each separate tile was drawn and colored in reference to the entire representation4 7,fig4 #fd47 ,remains show the glazing to have been quite thick2 the colors1 chiefly bright blue1 red1 dark yellow1 white1 and black1 have been perfectly preserved4 ,a ,french traveller of the last century relates that a chamber with walls of colored tiles1 representing1 among other objects1 the sun1 moon1 and a cow1 was unearthed from the hill of ,mudjelibeh1 one of the mounds of ruins formed by the overthrow of the ,babylonian palaces4 ,an account given by ,diodoros1 who describes a great hunting scene upon the innermost city wall1 shows how extended this enamel painting must have been4 ,among many figures the queen1 ,semiramis1 took a prominent part in the action1 throwing a spear at a panther from her position on horseback1 while the lance of the king transfixed a lion4 ,the general character of the composition can be understood from the analogy of similar scenes represented upon reliefs from ,nineveh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,statue of a ,king1 from ,nimrud4 7,british ,museum47 ,the palace decorations naturally developed in an entirely different manner in ,northern ,mesopotamia--,assyria4 ,the spurs of neighboring mountains advanced from all sides close upon ,nineveh1 and good building-stones1 notably the most beautiful alabaster1 are found in the plain1 under the shallow strata of alluvial earth4 ,the flat colored decoration of the walls with glazed bricks was superseded by a carved revetment of lavish richness1 which so generally covered the lower half of larger palace chambers with reliefs that an almost inexhaustible material is presented for elucidation of the style by the fragments discovered during the short period of twenty years4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,winged ,lion from ,nimrud4 7,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,winged ,bull from ,nimrud4 7,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,lion from ,nimrud4 7,british ,museum47 ,sculpture so concentrated itself upon this decorative field of revetment reliefs that it appears rarely to have ventured the execution of independent works4 ,statues in the full round are extremely rare1 and the few known are nearly as similar to each other as are those of ,egypt4 ,the best-preserved figure was found in the so-called temple at the foot of the terraced pyramid of ,nimrud1 and has been carried to the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #fe47 ,it is about #a m4 in height1 hewn from a hard limestone1 and represents a king in the garb of a priest4 ,the round head is covered with long thick hair1 which1 falling somewhat over the forehead1 is not parted1 but divided into wavy horizontal rows2 it ends upon the shoulders in a straight section of closely and regularly arranged spiral curls4 ,the imposing beard is still more conventionalized2 beginning in thick curls1 it is arranged in alternate courses of rope-like twists and rows of small coils4 ,the ends of the mustache curl into marked spirals4 ,the large eyes1 of rather oblique position1 are situated too low1 and are consequently without expression4 ,their strap-like lids do not sufficiently protrude1 while the thick eyebrows1 excessively curved upward and meeting above the bridge of the nose1 so interfere with the natural form of the forehead as to give to the face a gloomy and almost bestial expression4 ,the curved ,semitic nose is broad and fleshy1 as are all the features1 which1 though not appearing puffy1 have a decided tendency to fatness4 ,the well-formed ear is placed lower than is that of ,egyptian statues1 and is ornamented with large rings4 ,the thick and short neck disappears behind under the full locks of hair2 the round shoulders make the back appear broader than the breast1 but are more correctly modelled than those of ,egyptian figures4 ,the long priestly garment1 thickly fringed1 covers one of the fleshy arms up to the wrist1 and falls without folds or indication of the lower body beneath it1 being girded around the stout waist by a twisted sash2 it leaves only the toes visible4 ,the right hand holds an instrument formed like an augur's crook1 probably of some sacred significance2 the left grasps the sceptre4 ,arms and hands have broad muscles1 blunt1 rounded outlines1 and the short and thick proportions peculiar to the entire body4 ,with the exception of the face1 the sculptor made few absolute misrepresentations of nature1 though evidently more skilled in relief-carving1 and paying but little attention to the side view4 ,an inscription upon the breast designates the statue as that of ,king ,ashurakbal1 the builder of the northwestern palace and of the so-called temple of ,nimrud1 8the conqueror of the upper valley of the ,tigris to ,lebanon and the great sea1 who brought under his power all the lands1 from the rising to the setting of the sun40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,relief from ,corsabad4 7,louvre47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,fragments of ,reliefs from ,nimrud4 7,british ,museum47 ,the monsters mentioned above form a peculiar transitional step between the full round and relief sculpture4 7,figs4 #ff and #fg47 ,winged bulls1 or1 more rarely1 lions1 with human heads and animal ears1 flanked the larger portals as sacred guardians of the entrance4 ,on the sides of the passage they were executed in relief up to the heads1 which were worked almost entirely free1 and project1 with the royal or divine tiara1 from the main block4 ,in the front view1 the breast and fore legs1 as well as the head1 appear in the round4 ,this combination of round and relief carving resulted in two abnormities4 ,in the first place1 the animals have five legs1 as the side was allowed four1 while the front1 besides the support which it had in common with the side1 demanded another1 that it might not appear one-legged4 ,further1 the monsters seem1 in the relief1 to be striding and advancing1 but in the front view to be firmly standing4 ,these cherubims--for thus the commentators of the ,bible call such 8forms having a human head1 the body of a lion or bull1 and the wings of an eagle0--are among the most characteristic works of ,mesopotamian sculpture4 ,they were imposing symbols of guardian deities2 the hair of the head and beard curled tightly1 as did that of breast1 abdomen1 and the end of the tail2 the feathers of the powerful wings were almost straight1 the legs hard and muscular1 the expression of the face severe and majestic4 ,lions of normal formation1 exceptionally occurring in the place of these cherubims1 show so masterly an understanding of nature and such wise conventionalization that1 with the sphinx-like lions of ,egypt 7compare ,fig4 #ca71 they rank among the most successful representations of animals in any period of sculpture4 ,prominent among the subjects shown by the reliefs1 serving the purposes of mural decoration1 is the so-called tree of life1 a symbol not adequately explained1 a plant form woven in ribbons and anthemions to an ornamental play of lines1 before which stand sacrificing figures or winged genii with eagle-heads1 holding in the one hand a basket1 in the other a species of pine-cone1 or in the one a lotos-flower or a scourge1 and in the other a gazelle or a small lion4 ,upon this follow the long processions advancing in homage before the king1 which so fittingly covered the walls of the courts4 ,the monarch stands to receive his vizier1 who is followed by several warriors4 7,fig4 #fi47 ,behind stand eunuchs--one holding a sun-shade1 another a fan for flies1 a third a handkerchief1 a fourth drinking-vessels1 a fifth jugs with bottoms formed like the jaws of a lion 7used to dip out wine from the large cooling-vessels71 a sixth a wine-skin2 the two following have a large platter with food and the stand belonging thereto2 another comes with two models of cities1 perhaps to be explained as dishes2 then two with a throne1 the next with a table1 those following with a bench2 others1 again1 with a magnificent chariot1 the tongue of which is carved as a horse's head and the cross-pieces as the heads of gazelles1 while the rich back of the seat is supported by human figures2 two helmeted warriors follow this1 with a less elaborate war-chariot1 and others lead four horses to the scene4 ,a similar representation shows subjects bringing gifts to the king4 ,some lead horses2 numbers of others present flowers and fruits1 among which apples1 pomegranates1 grapes1 pineapples1 figs1 etc41 may be distinguished2 those following offer cakes1 locusts strung upon sticks1 hares1 birds1 and the like4 ,the figures upon these ceremonial reliefs1 generally over life-size1 are carefully executed to the smallest detail4 ,little can be said concerning their peculiarities of feature beyond that stated above1 in the consideration of the statue of ,king ,ashurakbal4 ,in opposition to the wiry toughness of the ,egyptian type1 the voluptuous and vigorous fulness of the ,assyrian appears distinctly in the full cheeks1 the thick eyelids and brows1 the widely opened eyes with curved and projecting balls1 the energetic aquiline nose1 the pouting lips1 and the imposing growth of hair and beard1 so neglected in ,egyptian sculptures4 ,eunuchs are characterized by a lack of beard2 the usual fulness degenerates into mere obesity in all the features1 but especially in the heavy and hanging under-jaw1 and the weak1 fleshy arms1 the only parts of the body not hidden by the garments4 ,the fragments illustrated by ,fig4 #gj1 when compared with ,egyptian heads from reliefs 7,fig4 #bh71 will convey an idea of the entire difference of race and artistic style in the lands of the ,tigris and of the ,nile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,temple4 ,relief from ,corsabad4 ,in the works of ,assyria1 as in those of ,egypt1 the breast is usually presented in front view1 for the reasons already set forth1 but the attempt to show this part of the body in true profile is more common in the former country2 an instance may be observed in the vizier of ,fig4 #fi4 ,the wrists1 like the arms1 are muscular and stout2 the hands broad1 coarse1 and awkwardly stiff4 ,bracelets1 closing firmly by means of a spiral spring1 are placed upon the wrists and above the elbows4 ,the magnificence of these and similar ornaments1 which have frequently been copied by modern jewellers1 and also the dignity of the swords and other accoutrements1 strictly depend upon the rank of the wearer1 being graded from the king and vizier to the warrior and eunuch4 ,the most customary garment in time of peace reached from the neck to the ankles1 and was often edged with a fringe of tassels and a double or fourfold border of pearls4 ,the underdress is smooth and white1 that of the king alone being richly patterned4 ,the overgarment seems to have consisted almost wholly of fringes1 leaving the right arm free4 ,the royal mantle was also in this respect an exception1 having two sleeves and covering the shoulders1 besides being ornamented with rosettes or embroidered with mythological representations4 ,the feet in ,assyrian reliefs are long and powerful1 more supple and true to nature than the hands1 though the toes lie too closely upon the ground4 ,the monarch and his escort have rings upon the great toe of each foot2 they wear a kind of sandal which covers only the heel1 in wise recognition of the fact that a complete sole disturbs in some measure the natural elastic action of the ball of the foot and the toes4 ,when the underdress is short1 as is the case in hunting and warlike costumes1 the leg below the knee is correctly but rather stiffly modelled2 the muscles protrude like hard bands1 without giving to the limb the vigorous force peculiar to ,egyptian works4 ,yet the whole composition1 as well as every detail of ,assyrian sculpture1 displays more direct study of nature than was to be found in ,egypt1 where the figures were created upon an abstract model1--a canon founded more upon convention than upon observation of life4 ,instead of remaining behind reality1 as did the ,egyptian1 the ,assyrian sculptor went beyond natural truth1 exaggerating and coarsening4 ,there the figures were without flesh and blood1 ghost-like1 as if their slim trunks and extremities were not fitted for earthly nourishment2 here the material existence was expressed in the most positive manner4 ,a voluptuous fulness was chosen as a type of the luxurious and contemplative ,mesopotamian1 in the same way as the elastic leanness of the ,egyptian figure characterized the sinewy ,fellah1 emaciated from scanty nourishment and fatiguing exertion in his dry climate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,relief from ,nimrud4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,wounded ,lioness1 from ,coyundjic4 ,more than three quarters of the historical reliefs are warlike scenes1 mostly on a small scale1 with figures less than half a meter high4 ,cities are surrounded1 set on fire1 and plundered2 when the fortress is situated upon a height1 the besiegers build ramparts of fascines1 and1 sheltered by these1 attack the walls with battering-rams similar to those used by the ,romans4 ,the defenders attempt to burn these offensive machines with torches and to cripple them with chains1 the latter being warded off from below with hooks and poles4 ,it is also shown how warfare was carried on in the open field1 upon wooded mountains1 in swamps1 and on the marshy banks of rivers1 with the aid of lances1 slings1 and bows4 ,the archers are sometimes protected by a kind of chain mail4 ,it is represented with great clearness and fulness how the defeated enemies seek to save themselves by flight to a swamp1 how friends and foes swim rivers supported upon inflated skins1 while the king is transported in his chariot upon a ferry-boat4 ,some battle-fields are covered with the slain1 whose severed heads are piled up to form a trophy of victory truly ,oriental4 ,at times the male prisoners of war are shown suffering death by torture2 they are stripped to the skin and beaten with clubs1 or are impaled and flayed alive in great numbers4 ,the tongues and ears of others are cut off2 while prisoners of higher rank are dragged by rings through the under-lip before the victorious king1 who languidly deigns to blind them with a lance4 ,at the same time1 the monarch receives homage from kneeling subjects2 players of stringed instruments celebrate his victory1 while eunuchs record the amount of booty brought before him4 ,the spoil is shown with great circumstantiality2 female captives1 holding children by the hand and infants at the breast1 advance on foot or are borne upon carts1 and all manner of utensils and provisions are carried upon beasts of burden and drays4 ,the captured herds--beeves1 sheep1 and camels--are given with wonderful truth to nature2 like the animal types occurring in the act of homage upon the obelisk of ,nimrud already mentioned1 they are of masterly characterization--the peculiarities of the lion1 antelope1 buffalo1 rhinoceros1 elephant1 and ape being carefully observed and admirably rendered4 ,the same understanding of animal forms is shown in the often-repeated hunting scenes3 the conception of the wounded beasts is truly wonderful4 7,fig4 #gc47 ,besides the capture of gigantic lions and buffaloes1 the snaring of small game1 hares and birds1 is shown4 ,even the various species of fish can be distinguished in the reliefs1 which show net and rod fishing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,transport of ,stone4 ,relief from ,coyundjic4 ,many industrial occupations are also represented4 ,trees are felled1 the trunks of which are floated upon the river as rafts1 or are dragged behind boats1 for the building of a royal palace2 terraced mounds are heaped up by enslaved laborers with baskets of earth4 ,larger masses of building-stone1 and the cherubims already described1 are brought down stream from the quarries by means of rafts1 the buoyancy of which is increased by inflated skins bound beneath them4 7,fig4 #gd47 ,the statues are carried to the terrace platforms by inclined planes1 up which they are drawn by hosts of workmen1 who pull upon the cordage attached to the sledge1 which slides over rollers1 and are driven forward by blows from the over-seers4 7,fig4 #ge47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,transport of a ,cherubim4 ,religious representations are much rarer than in theocratic ,egypt4 ,the kings of despotic ,mesopotamia arrogated to themselves the supremacy allowed in ,egypt to the gods1 who in the latter country had been placed by the priests in relation with every human action1 and whose ceremonial scenes were so predominant4 ,the typical winged figure described above occurs continually in small reliefs1 and even in diminutive ornaments4 ,in rare instances a griffin or a kind of ,pegasos is employed in its place upon purely decorative works4 ,the sacred symbol of the tree of life1 or that of the great god ,ashur--the winged and encircled figure already mentioned--is worshipped by standing or kneeling human beings and by inferior deities4 ,processions are represented bearing images upon thrones1 and the sacrifice of lambs is shown1 the animals being slaughtered and burned piecemeal4 ,these purely ceremonial reliefs differ fundamentally from the historical scenes4 ,in the former the figures are over life-size2 they are carved with great attention to detail1 and are never grouped1 but placed at regular distances3 in the latter the human beings do not receive the attention devoted to the inanimate objects occurring in the pictured story1 and especially to the indications of its locality4 ,the fortifications of besieged towns are mapped out with scrupulous exactness1 and are easily understood when it is borne in mind that the effect of distance1 from the lack of perspective in this primitive art1 is expressed by piling things upon one another which were in reality behind one another4 ,buildings are shown by reliefs like those given in ,figs4 #ce and #eg1 with a more or less successful attempt to clearly illustrate constructive details4 ,the landscape is conventionalized in a peculiar manner4 ,fields of grain upon regularly rolling hills are designated by wavy lines2 the trees are usually suggestive of the carved toys accompanying the well-known ,noah's ark of our children--this impression being heightened by the trunks radially diverging from the hill1 that they may be the more closely grouped together4 ,the childlike art of the ,assyrians here expressed a common error of childhood--that more trees can grow upon the increased surface of a hill than upon a plain with an area equal to the base of the hill-cone4 ,at times1 when necessary for the characterization of a locality1 palms1 grape-vines1 figs1 and other plants are indicated by a detailed imitation of leaves and fruit4 ,lakes1 rivers 7,fig4 #gd71 and swamps are carefully drawn in wavy parallel lines with spirally conventionalized ripples2 they are bordered with reeds and sedges1 and inhabited by aquatic animals easily recognized by the naturalist4 ,the events are represented in a simple and straightforward manner2 unimportant figures are diminutive and less carefully carved1 while the chief actors in a scene not only tower above their fellow-beings1 but even above trees and fortifications4 ,as the only intention of the artist was to represent a locality and an occurrence1 he did not hesitate to give a city such proportions that the defenders upon its battlements could never have passed through its gates1 and1 standing upon the ground1 would have overtopped the towers4 ,these conventionalized types do not appear in the bronzes1 sheathings of thin wood-work1 bowls1 and other vessels1 or in the rarer remains of ivory carvings4 ,a number of objects of this kind1 discovered during the excavations of ,nineveh1 are deposited in the ,british ,museum4 ,the better preserved and more easily recognizable among the ivory carvings are of ,egyptian style1 and even in some instances represent ,egyptian religious ceremonies4 ,this is also1 in a measure1 the case with the bronzes1 which are composed of ten parts of copper and one of tin2 though a majority of these show thicker and heavier forms1 especially in the animals1 and strikingly remind one of similar utensils discovered in ,phnicia and ,cyprus4 ,these articles must be considered either to have been directly imported1 or so slavishly copied from foreign originals that they are at present not surely distinguishable4 ,there can be little doubt that the native place of the bronze vessels was ,phnicia1 and not ,egypt4 ,the former country1 as proved by the repeated allusions of ,homer and other early authors1 was famed in the pre-historic ages of ,greece for the manufacture of metal utensils1 and especially for an extended employment of the bronze supplied by the copper-mines of ,cyprus and the tin trade with ,england4 ,when considered in connection with the well-known extent of ,phnician commerce1 this derivation of the metal remains found at ,nineveh is rendered more than probable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,glazed ,terra-cotta1 from ,nimrud4 ,red4 ,brown4 ,green4 ,black4 ,the few and unimportant vestiges of ,assyrian painting add little material to the history of art4 ,it has already been mentioned that the palace walls were covered with a colored facing1 shown by fragments found among the ruins to have been of painted stucco and glazed tiles4 ,it consisted of bands of ornament1 rows of rosettes and anthemions1 woven strap-work1 conventionalized mythical animals1 and other forms arranged in set regularity4 ,this treatment was adopted especially for the exterior and for the courts1 where imposing ceremonial reliefs with colossal figures covered the lower surface of the wall4 ,animals the size of life are given in yellow upon a blue ground1 such mosaic mural decorations being formed of tiles drawn and colored with reference to their ultimate position4 7,fig4 #fd47 ,there are also paintings corresponding to the reliefs of alabaster common upon the lower half of important walls4 ,with figures somewhat over #j4b m4 high1 they represent scenes which appear to have stood in some relation to the carved ornaments of interior chambers4 ,the most important of the fragments preserved shows a king1 who1 returning from battle or the hunt1 is about to place to his lips a bowl handed him by a servant4 7,fig4 #gf47 ,the bow which he holds in his left hand rests upon the earth2 a sword hangs by his side4 ,a eunuch with bow1 quiver1 and sword1 and a warrior in short dress1 with lance and pointed helmet1 follow him4 ,the garments are outlined by a broad band of yellow color1 somewhat similar in effect to the heavy leading of medival stained glass-work1 which increases the impression of flat stiffness peculiar to the ,assyrian costumes of baggy cloth without folds4 ,the head1 arms1 and legs are drawn in simple lines4 ,a dark-yellow border separates the green dress from the red background1 and the brownish color of the exposed flesh4 ,white is intermingled with yellow in the rosettes1 fringes1 swords1 etc42 the hair1 beard1 sandals1 and the pupils of the eyes are black4 ,other fragments illustrated by ,layard have a green background1 yellow flesh1 blue garments1 horses1 fishes1 etc41 all drawn with a heavy white1 or1 in rare instances1 brown1 outline4 ,it would be difficult to determine whether these pigments have preserved their original color1 and whether1 indeed1 some tints are not entirely lost4 ,chemical analysis has demonstrated that several metallic preparations were known to the ,assyrians4 ,the yellow is that preparation of antimony and lead which1 under the name of ,naples yellow1 has been supposed a modern invention2 the blue is a combination of copper and lead1 also praised as a device of recent date in its application as a flux for glazing4 ,the white is an enamel of oxidized tin1 commonly held to have been first employed by the ,arabs of ,northern ,africa in the eighth or ninth ,christian century2 the red is a suboxide of copper4 ,in regard to the style of these paintings1 little can be added to that already stated in the consideration of ,assyrian sculpture4 ,the figures are somewhat more slender1 and seem at times to betray a slight ,egyptian influence4 ,as in that country1 the tones of color within the firm outlines are without modulation1 differing only in the hues of the substances they represent4 ,the composition is1 perhaps1 more picturesque1 the figures frequently covering each other with varied position and action4 ,the carved slabs which served as a revetment of the lower wall-surfaces were brought into harmony with the paintings above them by the addition of color to the reliefs4 ,the hair1 beard1 and the pupils of the eyes were black2 some parts of the dress1 as the ribbons of the tiara1 the sandals1 etc41 red4 ,there is no doubt that other tints1 not now recognizable1 were added to the sculptures2 but it must not be held that this painting was so brilliant and decided as some restorations represent4 ,if the uniform effect of a completely painted wall-surface had been desired1 the carving would largely have been given up4 ,the best ornamental treatment of the architecturally bare surface was given by the marked division of its height4 ,if the light openings of columns and pilasters1 just under the ceiling1 be assumed to have existed above the high and unpierced wall1 as a distinct horizontal member crowning the enclosing mass1 we can but admire this combination1 in the ,assyrian palace1 of superposed courses of sculptured1 painted1 and architectural works4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,restoration of the ,palace of ,darius1 ,persepolis4 ,,persia4 ,the fall of ,nineveh1 instead of being despicable--according to the common legend--from the weakness of ,sardanapalus1 the last ,assyrian king1 deserves rather1 from the heroic ruin of the monarch with his city1 to be compared to the fall of ,carthage or of ,jerusalem4 ,it removed for some time the centre of ,western ,asiatic power farther to the east1 beyond the ,mesopotamian streams3 first to mountainous ,media1 whose inhabitants1 through want of culture1 were better fitted to destroy than to build1 and who1 therefore1 play almost no part in the history of art4 ,as the short reign of ,median greatness passed away1 political power tended to the southeast1 to ,persia1 which raised its world-renowned kingdom upon the ruins of the ,median1 and stretched the boundaries of the new empire far beyond any former compass of ,western ,asiatic sovereignty4 ,cyrus1 the first historical monarch of ,persia1 not only conquered all resistance1 notably that of ,nebuchadnezzar and his ,babylonian dominion1 and of the ,lydian king ,crsus 7by no means remarkable solely on account of his great riches71 but carried his victorious arms even to the gean ,sea2 so that ,asia1 in so far as it was known to ,europe1 was synonymous with ,persia4 ,cambyses1 successor to ,cyrus1 crushed the oldest power of the world1 that of the ,pharaohs2 and the third ,persian king crossed the ,bosporos1 that he might embody in the colossal ,persian empire the eastern lands of ,europe and the borders of the ,pontos4 ,persia1 by the personal greatness of some of its rulers1 by the healthy force of its original inhabitants1 as well as by marked good-fortune1 thus attained a position in the history of the world hitherto equalled by no other country2 and it was by no means wanting in a corresponding monumental expression of this advance4 ,the chief cities of the land--,susa1 ,pasargad1 and ,persepolis1 for which latter1 a name known through ,greek historians1 we might substitute ,new ,metropolis of the ,persians--strove1 at least in their royal palaces1 to surpass the cities of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians4 ,diodoros speaks of ,persepolis as 8the world-renowned royal fortress10 imposing even to the ,greeks4 ,the thousands of years that have passed have yet left remains sufficient for an ideal reconstruction of the whole1 and a conception of the artistic ability of the ,persians may there be obtained4 ,this is less the case with ,susa1 more destroyed1 and in no wise thoroughly examined4 ,its site1 known by the name ,shush1 which still clings to the ruins1 is revered by ,mohammedan pilgrims as that of the tomb of ,daniel1 in like manner as the location of ,nineveh found traditional confirmation among them in the ,mohammedan chapel of ,jonas4 ,the remains of ,pasargad1 near ,murgab1 are somewhat better preserved than are those of ,susa4 ,beside its palace terraces1 among its other tombs1 altars1 etc41 there rises1 nearly intact1 one of the most wonderful monuments of the world--the tomb of the great ,cyrus4 ,most important1 however1 and worthy of chief consideration1 is ,new ,pasargad1 or ,persepolis1 where the massive palace ruins near ,istakr1 known under the name of ,chehil-,minar 7forty columns7 or ,takt-i-,jemshid 7throne of ,jemshid71 have for centuries been the wonder of travellers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,plan of ,persepolis4 ,a4 ,grand ,stairway4 ,b4 ,propyla of ,xerxes4 ,c4 ,cisterns4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g4 ,great ,hall of ,xerxes4 ,h4 ,portal between the ,palaces and ,harem4 ,k4 ,palace of ,darius4 ,l1 ,m1 ,n4 ,palace of ,xerxes4 ,o4 ,unrecognized ,ruins4 ,p4 ,harem4 ,q4 ,portal to the ,court of the ,harem4 ,the ,persians1 of later development than the ,mesopotamians1 naturally based their art upon the older culture of the people conquered by them4 ,the palaces were similarly placed upon extensive terraces1 which1 like those in ,nimrud1 seem to have been afterwards enlarged to make room for several royal dwellings4 ,the palace terrace of ,persepolis 7,fig4 #gh7 is1 as an exception1 not isolated1 but so placed as to employ a rocky plateau1 which1 levelled partly by excavation1 partly by filling1 acquired architectural character by the vertical revetment of its borders3 it abutted with one of its oblong sides upon a cliff1 this forming a background of richly carved tomb-faades4 ,the casing of the platform beneath the ,palace of ,kisr-,sargon 7,corsabad7 consisted of a masonry formed of quite regularly hewn stones4 ,at ,persepolis1 on the other hand1 is employed1 in a similar position1 a kind of ,cyclopean masonry with predominant horizontal lines--a proof that this wall does not necessarily indicate a greater age than does a facing of hewn stone4 ,in spite of the close relationship of the architecture of ,persia to that of ,assyria1 the ruins still show in many points such a fundamental difference that ,mr4 ,fergusson's nearly absolute identification of the art of the two nations cannot be accepted1 and a higher grade of independent position1 at least in architecture1 must be granted to the ,persians4 ,the ,assyrian ruins showed walls and no columns2 in ,persia1 on the contrary1 we find columns and no walls4 ,in view of this1 it is a daring hypothesis to assume that chance has preserved here only the one1 there only the other1 constructional member--that the ,persian ruins exhibit the skeleton1 as it were1 the ,assyrian the flesh1 of one and the same architectural body1 the totality of which is only to be understood and explained by the mutual complement1 the combination of the two4 ,for such is ,mr4 ,fergusson's view4 ,the inadmissibility of transferring ,persian columns to ,assyrian palaces has already been made evident4 ,the peculiar formation of plan recognized in the ruins of ,nineveh1 the narrow and corridor-like chambers1 required no interior supports4 ,the clumsy disproportion of the long and cramped ,assyrian rooms seems rather to have been decided by the lack of such constructive assistance2 with it1 on the other hand1 the ,persian palace was enabled to develop freely4 ,the subordinate shafts in the windows of the palaces at ,nineveh did not partake of the true nature of a column1 they did not serve to enlarge an enclosed space1 but were merely decorative substitutes for the piers which elsewhere separated the openings4 ,it is not possible to transfer the characteristic ,persian details either to these or to the columns in antis of the ,assyrian temple cellas4 ,the sculptured reliefs mentioned above1 from which alone the columns of ,assyria are known1 present an entirely different class of forms4 ,the ,persians recognized the full importance of columnar construction in opening and enlarging enclosed spaces as no other nation has done except the ,egyptians4 ,it is in this that the artistic advance of the former beyond their ,chaldan and ,babylonian predecessors consists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,fragment of a ,base from ,pasargad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,persian ,columns with ,bull ,capitals4 ,the columns of ,persia were developed with a characteristic conventionalization which1 though not entirely without foreign precedents1 was upon the whole original1 and1 at least in the more simple varieties1 decidedly artistic2 the capital was peculiarly adapted to its functions4 ,but one small fragment has been found of the ancient remains of ,pasargad1 dating1 according to inscriptions1 to the epoch of ,cyrus4 ,it is a base1 and is fortunately characteristic and interesting4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,the tore is similar1 upon the one hand1 to the plinth-mouldings of ,assyrian columns2 upon the other1 in its detail1 to the more recent creation of the ,ionic column1 which was not without connection with the art of ,mesopotamia4 ,the ornamentation consists of shallow horizontal channellings1 with sharp arrises like those of the so-called ,proto-,doric shafts of ,egypt1 and is closely allied to the bases of the most ancient examples of the ,ionic style4 ,the terrace of ,persepolis1 with its monuments1 built during or after the time of ,darius1 displays these bases only in the palaces built by that king4 ,the tore there occurring was placed upon two square plinths4 ,the later monuments of ,persepolis1 which1 for the greater part1 were built by ,xerxes1 show the base to have kept pace with the further advance of the shaft1 and to have consisted of multiplied and embellished members4 ,the square plinth is supplanted by a beautifully curved calyx1 turned downward and ornamented by two rows of leaves--the upper rounded and heart-shaped1 the lower lanceolate4 ,to this is sometimes added a wreath of anthemions1 which appears to have been taken from ,syrian or ,phnician models4 ,the projecting moulding of these more elaborate examples is diminished in size1 and has lost the horizontal grooves4 ,the shaft1 with thirty-six shallow channels1 separated by sharp arrises like those of the primitive base1 rises upon the combined tore and plinth to a height of nine times its lower diameter4 ,it is not inconsiderably diminished4 ,the junction between shaft and base is effected1 as in the ,ionic style1 by a gentle curve1 ornamented by a small roundlet4 ,the capital shows1 instead of the floral form usual in other countries1 an animal combination1 which1 from the analogy of certain gold coins of ,western ,asia1 appears to have been a widely known symbol4 ,it consists of two bull's heads and shoulders1 grown together back to back1 with the front legs bent under them in a recumbent position4 ,the head is drawn upward1 the elegantly curved neck being ornamented by a rich chaplet4 ,upon the common back of the two animals lies the chief transverse beam of the ceiling4 ,a description of the peculiar style of carving will be given in the section upon ,persian sculpture4 ,it may only be here premised that the general treatment of the animals is quite similar to that noticed in ,assyria4 ,the capital is particularly well adapted to receive and support two ceiling timbers crossing above it at right angles2 the lower of these shows its section upon the front of the building1 and rests upon the back of the bulls2 while the epistyle beam upon it1 which joins the columns and is seen in its whole length upon the front1 is supported by the heads and by the main timber between them4 ,this method of laying the ceiling beams was the reverse of that followed by the architects of other nations4 ,the timbers of the ceiling1 which run at right angles1 are usually placed upon1 and not beneath1 the connecting epistyle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,spiral ,ornaments upon ,chairs4 a4 ,from an ,assyrian ,relief4 b4 ,from the ,vicinity of ,miletos4 c4 ,from ,xanthos4 d1 e1 f4 ,from ,paintings upon ,greek ,vases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,columns from the ,eastern ,portico of the ,hall of ,xerxes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,rock-cut ,tomb of ,darius4 ,in the time of ,xerxes1 these simple bull capitals appear not to have satisfied the increasing demands of luxurious elegance4 ,three new members were therefore placed below them1 and the entire capital became almost as high as the remainder of the shaft1 which was naturally much curtailed by this innovation4 7,fig4 #hj47 ,the two lower of these new members may perhaps be counted as one--the wreath of falling leaves being regarded as part of the calyx above it4 ,these leaves are very simply treated2 they do not curve1 and are terminated by a semicircle3 between them and the calyx there is a small egg-and-dart moulding2 that is to say1 a wreath of small leaves entirely bent over4 ,as the derivation of this characteristic member cannot be traced to ,syria1 the supposition is natural that it was derived from the ,hellenic architecture of ,asia ,minor1 which had been fully developed in its principal aspects since the time of ,darius4 ,the general form1 as well as the detailed decoration of the upright calyx by narrow bundles of lotos-flowers1 points so distinctly to an ,egyptian model that it must1 without further question1 be ascribed to the influence of that land1 which had been subjugated by the ,persian ,cambyses4 ,after a repetition of the egg-and-dart moulding1 there follows above the calyx a remarkable member of sixteen spiral rolls1 as similar to the forms of ,assyrian as to those of ,ionic capitals4 ,the spirals are so placed around the oblong kernel of the shaft that two touch upon each of its angles--thus standing vertically1 and not horizontally4 ,the derivation of the form appears to be owing more to ,assyrian-,mesopotamian reminiscences than to any influence of the ,greek ,ionic style4 ,the remarkable vertical position of the volutes is better explained by subordinate ornaments of the former than by architectural members of the latter land4 ,the decorations upon the legs of thrones and other parts of furniture1 shown by reliefs1 prove the helix to have been more frequently used by the ,assyrians as the vertical ornament of a shaft than as a horizontal coronation--a capital4 7,fig4 #ha47 ,that the former usage was extensive is shown by the similar occurrence of the form upon ,greek examples from ,asia ,minor4 ,the spiral1 with concave or convex fluting1 with ribbed and channelled rolls1 was originally double2 in ,persia it was transferred to a four-sided shaft1 to serve1 not as a coronation1 but as a vertical ornament1 as one of the three or four distinct members of the complicated capital4 ,the double-headed animals were placed upon it as the termination of the column4 ,in the mythological sculptures of ,mesopotamian lands1 lions and bulls shared equally the honors of frequent representation2 and upon the capitals of ,persepolis a horned and double-headed lion was substituted for the double-headed bull4 ,this1 however1 was not in an important position1 and the change is known by only a single example--the eastern portico of the ,great ,hall of ,xerxes4 7,fig4 #hb47 ,the isolated attempt was the more successful because no other animal forms had been so well conceived and characterized by the ,orientals as the lion2 that king of beasts1 with open mouth and powerful paws1 was the favorite subject for decorative treatment down to the latest times of ,hellenic art4 ,as the comparatively short fore legs of the lion could not be bent underneath the body1 but were necessarily extended from the shoulder1 the general outline of the capital was impaired by a long and straight horizontal line just at its junction with the shaft2 and on this account the lions1 notwithstanding their more majestic heads1 could not displace the traditional bulls4 ,as the entablature was in all probability entirely constructed of wood1 and has disappeared without a trace1 the restoration of this part of the building is difficult4 ,but the normal forms may yet be determined with greater correctness than is presented in ,coste's restoration 7,fig4 #hb71 which is a tasteful combination of the scotia and roundlet cornice common to both ,egyptian and ,assyrian architecture1 with dentils and the leaved ornaments found above all the doors and windows of ,persian remains1 and with the decorations upon the borders of staircase buttresses4 ,a number of rock-cut tombs appertaining to the early ,persian kings1 the ,achemenid1 and dating from the time of ,darius1 represent the faades of royal palaces1 and give important information concerning the exterior appearance of such structures4 ,the oldest and best-preserved of these is designated by cuneiform inscriptions as the tomb of ,darius4 7,fig4 #hc47 ,it is especially interesting as illustrating the formation of the entablature4 ,an epistyle1 triply stepped1 like that of the ,ionic style1 so that each face slightly projects beyond the one beneath it1 is placed above the transverse beam1 which lies upon the backs of the double-headed animals forming the capitals of the columns4 ,the multiplication of the faces of the epistyle is explained by the weakness of the timber produced by ,mesopotamia and ,persia1 which1 in opposition to the single and massive ,doric lintel-block1 required the employment of several beams to obtain the desired capability of support4 ,upon it followed the ornaments known as dentils1 representatives of the small and closely lying joists of the horizontal1 slightly projecting roof4 ,they are quite similar to the dentils upon the tombs of ,beni-hassan1 and to those of the still more nave imitations of wooden houses found in ,lycia1 which will be considered in the following section4 ,in ,persia1 the proportions of the dentils and of the distances between them are still characteristic of the original timbered construction--a truthfulness of imitation which was lost as early as the development of the ,ionic style4 ,the nature of the band following above is not clear2 it might be natural to suppose in it a representative of such a hollow cornice with leaves as ,coste has introduced upon his entablature1 were it not that a frieze-relief with ornamental lions is visible upon this member in another tomb1 and that a remarkable block of the ,palace of ,darius at ,persepolis bears further testimony against it4 ,one of the corner piers of the front portico of that building has been preserved to such a height that the side bearing of the lintel can be observed4 ,this renders the projection and outline of the entablature certain4 ,it was six times stepped1 and may best be reconstructed1 as in ,fig4 #hd1 by a series of narrow bands1 which represent in some measure the layers of the horizontal ceiling and roof4 ,from a comparison with the rock-cut tomb1 it is plain that a further cornice1 like that over the door and window-frames1 was here not possible4 ,if a parapet had been desired for the accessible platform of the roof1 it must have taken the form of a light balustrade1 not that of a heavy scotia cornice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,entablature of the ,palace of ,darius4 ,reconstructed from the ,bearing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,plan of the ,palace of ,darius at ,persepolis4 ,the oldest and1 because best-preserved1 the most intelligible of the royal dwellings upon the terrace of ,persepolis is that shown by inscriptions to have been built by ,darius4 7,fig4 #he2 and ,k upon the topographical plan of ,persepolis1 ,fig4 #gh47 ,it exhibits a regular and well-considered plan1 the oblong form and general disposition of which are somewhat similar to the simpler ,greek houses4 ,a flight of steps led from each side to the narrow southeastern front--a double tetrastyle loggia4 ,this was flanked by two moderately large rooms1 which1 as they could be entered only from the portico and had no connection with the interior1 were probably intended for guards or servants4 ,a door1 between four windows1 opened into the square hall1 the ceiling of which was supported by sixteen columns1 standing in line with those of the loggia4 ,this space corresponded to the atrium of ,greek and ,roman houses4 ,three of its sides1 that of the front being excepted1 had access to inner rooms--those upon the right and left being small1 while1 opposite the entrance1 they were more spacious1 and separated from the hall by a corridor4 ,the walls were enriched by niches as well as by door and window openings4 ,through one of the chambers upon the left was a lateral entrance1 reached by a double flight of steps upon the southwest4 ,notwithstanding the preservation of the special foundation terrace1 of the steps1 of the door1 window1 and niche frames1 as well as of some corner piers1 the ruin did not at first glance make evident the disposition here described4 ,all the columns of the palace have disappeared4 ,it is uncertain whether this is because the supports of the less pretentious structure were of wood1 or whether stone shafts1 of the moderate dimensions which must be assigned to them1 were carried away during the two thousand years in which the ruins of the palace terrace have served as a quarry for neighboring towns4 ,the square plinths upon which the columns stood have1 however1 remained in their original position1 so that the number and site of the supports may be easily and surely determined4 ,the greater portion of the walls has also disappeared4 ,some corner piers and the marble frames of doors1 windows1 and niches1 cut from immense monolithic blocks1 alone stand erect2 but their perfect state of preservation and well-marked position permit the nature of the wall between them to be determined without difficulty4 ,it seems that this was of small quarried stones1 or even of brick1 thus being easily removed1 or1 in the latter case1 reduced to dust by atmospheric influences2 while the massive door and window casings were secure from removal by man and from the injuries of time4 ,their stepped jambs are decorated upon the inner side with reliefs2 the heavy lintels have a scotia cornice1 carved with a triple row of leaves and bordered below by an astragal4 ,of the openings for providing light to the great hall no traces remain4 ,if1 as is usually supposed1 the windows now recognizable were all that ever existed1 the chambers of the palace would have been most gloomy1 with the exception of the hall of columns1 which had four openings upon the loggia1 besides the door4 ,the light of the hall itself must have been dim1 for it could not enter directly1 the windows and doors being beneath the shade of the deep portico1 with its double range of columns2 and when still more impeded by the close-standing shafts of the hypostyle1 it would have been wholly insufficient for the chambers4 ,it is further to be remarked that several of the inner rooms have no direct communication with the hall1 while if they had depended on it for light they would certainly have been provided with window-openings in place of the blind niches4 ,it is evident from the existence of a second story1 presently to be discussed1 that horizontal apertures in the roof and ceiling could not have existed2 this would be even more inadmissible here than in the palace buildings of ,nineveh4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to assume other openings for illumination and ventilation than those now to be observed in the ruins1 and windows were most probably arranged in the manner in which the ,orientals still secure their dwellings from the view of the outer world while admitting light and air--the manner customary with the ,assyrians1 as well as with the more ancient ,greeks4 ,the apertures were probably upon the exterior walls1 just under the ceiling1 high above the ground4 ,all traces of architectural members in such a position must necessarily have disappeared when the mass of masonry which supported them was overthrown4 ,it is possible that their form was entirely plain1 like that given in the restoration of the ,palace of ,darius at the head of this section 7,fig4 #gg71 and offered no carved details to aid in their recognition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,persian ,door-casing4 ,a comparison of the rock-cut faade upon the tomb of ,darius with the palace of that king will aid in the consideration of the upper story4 ,as the tomb represents the palace with but slight variations1 even agreeing tolerably well with its proportions1 it may be supposed that the monarch copied his dwelling upon the front of his grave1 that he might1 as it were1 inhabit it even after his death4 ,this is not an isolated instance of such a proceeding in the history of architecture4 ,the second story1 distinctly recognizable upon the tomb1 cannot be regarded as an insignificant decoration1 especially as the ,palace of ,darius at ,persepolis seems1 from its plan1 to have been thus arranged4 ,the limited area covered1 exceeded by many a modern private house1 renders an enlargement by a second story natural2 and this is also made probable by the hypostyle1 which occupies a place where an open court1 with full upper light1 would otherwise have been more suitable4 ,space for the staircases was provided by the two narrow corridors next the rear chambers4 ,the second story was not1 however1 extended over the entire ground-plan1 but seems to have left the flat roof of the side chambers as an elevated veranda1 perhaps sheltered from the sun by canopies1 as the talar1 a similar though smaller upper structure1 stands as a pavilion upon the modern houses of ,persia4 ,the walls of the second story could scarcely have been placed elsewhere than upon the otherwise unreasonably thick partition-enclosure of the hypostyle hall4 ,they could not have stood over an intercolumniation1 as upon the faade of the rock-cut tomb--for this would have been difficult1 if not impossible of construction--but in other respects the upper part of the palace may have been like that representation4 ,its corner supports1 which are a strange combination of scotias and roundlets1 ending below in lion's paws and above in a one-sided lion capital1 have1 at least1 every appearance of being copied from an architectural model1 and are similar in their lower half to the legs of the throne given in ,fig4 #hg4 ,the standing figures1 which1 in double row1 support the ceiling1 may have been carved in relief or simply painted4 ,that this was a common ornament is evident from its repetition upon the reliefs of gateways1 where such typical figures are admirably characterized as representatives of the various nations subjugated by the ,persian power1 they literally supporting the throne4 ,the entrance and the second-story windows may be supposed to have been upon the side opposite the front1 where the veranda was broadest and the staircases led from the lower floor1 as otherwise the imitation of the faade upon the rock-cut tomb would have shown windows and doors as well as a staircase1 which probably led in double flight to the uppermost roof4 ,that this house-top was flat and accessible is evident from the reliefs considered in this connection 7,figs4 #hc and #hg71 one of which represents the royal throne shaded by a canopy1 the other one of those fire-altars which1 according to ,persian custom1 was placed upon the highest level of the house4 ,this altar upon the summit of a royal palace is mentioned in the ,bible1 when ,hezekiah1 overthrowing the ,saban worship of the sun1 destroyed 8the altar which is upon the top of the upper rooms of ,ahaz40 ,in the restoration of the ,palace of ,darius 7,fig4 #gg71 the introduction of the altar with the royal canopy may be considered as more than a mere decoration of the design4 ,this simplest and best-preserved ruin upon the terrace of ,persepolis permits a comparatively trustworthy understanding of the elements of ,persian palace architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,relief from the ,portal of the ,hall of ,hundred ,columns4 ,the ruin ,o of the topographical plan 7,fig4 #gh7 shows the remains of a similar structure of about the same dimensions1 later1 and therefore of less interest1 than the ,palace of ,darius4 ,the ,palace of ,xerxes 7,l1 ,m1 ,n7 was nearly double this size1 being provided with a spacious terrace before its gates1 and with a colonnade upon one side1 the nature of which cannot readily be explained4 ,on the other hand1 it had no large chambers behind the hypostyle1 as the rooms upon the right and left seem1 by their more spacious proportions1 to have rendered these unnecessary4 ,the portico was hexastyle1 and the square hall behind it consequently provided with thirty-six columns4 ,two of the side chambers were so large that their ceilings required the support of four columns4 ,of still greater dimensions1 more than eight times the area of the ,palace of ,darius1 was the ,palace ,hall of ,xerxes 7,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g7 which was preceded by a magnificent double flight of steps4 ,the ceiling of the imposing hypostyle was upheld by thirty-six columns of gigantic size4 ,there are no traces of chambers having been connected with it2 three of its sides were provided with hexastyle porticos1 which masked and artistically enlivened the dead enclosing-walls4 ,the masonry has disappeared1 with the exception of unimportant remains of the portal 7,g71 which ,coste has restored as the foundations of pedestals4 ,although a similar ruin at ,susa1 examined by ,loftus1 was also without walls1 it is impossible to agree with ,coste that these were originally altogether lacking1 and that the columns of the central space were unenclosed--that the three portals1 provided with separate roofs1 were grouped around this without any connection4 ,while we agree with ,fergusson in as far as regards the completion of the wall line and the unity of the whole under a common roof1 we must yet discredit his further assumption that this building was provided1 like the ,palace of ,darius1 with an upper story2 all the requisite conditions for this were lacking4 ,the ruin is remarkable from the remains of the colossal columns being in the comparatively best state of preservation4 ,they represent the three orders described above3 those of the western portico having the double-headed bull2 those of the eastern the double-headed lion1 and the others the form of shaft coronation combined of three or four members4 ,the destination of this building was not that of a dwelling1 but1 without doubt1 that of a festive hall for the audiences and ceremonies of the vainest and most magnificent of despotic monarchs4 ,to this end it was fittingly placed next to the entrance-gate of the palace terrace4 ,it is one of the most enormous buildings of the world2 the area covered by its plan1 about #aj1ejj sq4 m41 nearly equals that of the ,cathedral of ,milan1 and surpasses that of the ,cologne cathedral by about #bcej sq4 m4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,propyla of ,xerxes at ,persepolis4 ,the imposing portal next to it1 ,b1 proved by inscriptions to have also been erected by ,xerxes1 remains upright in the grand masses shown by ,fig4 #hh4 ,an adequate explanation of its nature is not possible4 ,it is only clear that its principal disposition1 like that of the similar portal1 ,h1 of the terrace1 was determined by the intersection of passages1 the crossing being marked by four columns1 while the parallel walls were of sculptured marble blocks4 ,in a former work upon the history of ancient architecture1,f the author has expressed the supposition that side walls were built in the directions marked by dotted lines upon the topographical plan 7,fig4 #gh71 connecting the portal with the ascending staircase4 ,the gate would thus receive the character of a fortification1 a termination of the palace terrace1 instead of being the useless structure1 easily to be circumvented1 which it is commonly considered4 ,it is probable that these side walls existed also at the chief portals of the ,assyrian palaces1 as otherwise the entrances1 especially that of the harem1 would have been too much exposed4 ,these masses of masonry have disappeared from the ruins of ,nineveh1 because of the crumbling of the terrace borders1 and in ,persepolis1 where all walls have been overthrown and carried away1 their extent is not marked by the more durable door and window frames1 which alone remain of the palace enclosures4 ,the assumption of similar communicating walls in connection with the other portal structures of the palace terrace 7,h and ,q7 not only renders to these their full importance1 but throws light upon a building of enormous extent 7,c71 the destination of which has hitherto been problematical4 ,this edifice has been called1 in lack of a better name1 the ,hall of a ,hundred ,columns4 ,it is an extended enclosure of square plan1 within which stood columns1 traceable by the remains of six of their number4 ,upon the front was a portico1 not decastyle1 like the interior1 but octastyle2 two bases remaining in situ determine its arrangement and dimensions4 ,the columns may be calculated1 from their lower diameter1 to have been about #g m4 high4 ,the enclosure of the hall1 determined in extent by the remains of all the portals and niches1 measured #fh m4 upon each side4 ,according to general acceptance1 the building was restricted to the area now covered by its ruins1 and served as a second great hall for ceremonies4 ,fergusson terms it a coronation hall4 ,but1 apart from the fact that the ,hall of ,xerxes must have been far better fitted by its imposing proportions for such a purpose than this low and broad space1 where the forest of columns would have impeded the view1 it is hardly possible that two such extensive buildings would have been provided upon the terrace for the same use4 ,but some adequate space is yet to be assigned to that important necessity of ,oriental custom1 the harem1 which tradition particularly asserts to have existed among the ,persian palaces4 ,if the ruin is examined in its relation to the other palace structures of ,persepolis1 it becomes plain that it can be nothing else than the central hall of a similar1 but more extended1 series of chambers1 of which1 as is also the case with the ruined remains at ,o1 hypostyle and portico have alone been preserved1 while the walls of all the outer rooms have disappeared4 ,only the doors and windows of any wall upon the terrace now exist2 and as the entrances were naturally small and the openings for light high above the ground1 in the enclosure of the harem1 it is not surprising that this masonry has disappeared in almost its entire extent4 ,two principal portals1 perhaps the only ones of the outermost walls1 have been preserved1 however1 and mark the outline of the building4 ,these are the gateways ,h and ,q of the topographical plan3 the first of these even shows some trace of the enclosing wall2 it is the entrance from the palaces ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 and ,o2 the second probably led to an open court1 to which access must have been allowed the fair prisoners4 ,the space between the hypostyle and the exterior wall1 indicated upon the plan by dotted lines1 must have been occupied by the numerous small rooms which provided dwellings for the three hundred girls of the harem4 ,the low and broad central hall served as a place of assemblage2 the great number of its columns and the excessive lowness of the ceiling exclude the idea of its having been used for public ceremonies1 but render it particularly fitted for this purpose1 the many shafts separating the groups of intimate conversers4 ,the dim twilight of the room was1 at these evening assemblies1 enlivened by the many-colored lamps of the ,east4 ,the harem upon the terrace thus received a development analogous to that of the royal dwellings1 and its necessarily great extent was provided for in a becoming place4 ,by the assumption that the remains at ,p are those of the harem1 an integral part of the ,oriental palace is recognized1 and a large tract of the terrace area is occupied1 the use of which could not otherwise be designated upon the topographical plan4 ,the disposition of the terrace under ,darius appears to have differed considerably from that under his successors4 ,it is not known whether its extent has since been increased2 to establish this point1 extensive excavations would be required4 ,it is probable that the northwestern side of the plateau has been built out by adding earth to the natural rock2 the buildings upon the southern half appear the more primitive3 it is certain1 however1 that the position of the ascent was changed during the great reconstruction completed by ,xerxes1 and possibly commenced during the latter part of the reign of ,darius4 ,the orientation of the ,palace of ,darius1 which1 of all the buildings at ,persepolis1 alone faces the south1 shows the great staircase to have been originally upon the southern end of the terrace4 ,enormous dowelled blocks of stone assured the stability and preservation of the newer parts of the substructure4 ,the broad and gently rising flights of steps remain in so good a condition that it is even to-day possible to ascend them upon horseback4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,altar ,pedestals at ,pasargad4 ,among the remaining monuments of ,persian architecture there are no temples2 it would be vain to seek such structures2 the worship of the land did not demand closed rooms1 requiring only sacrifice and prayer upon the summits of mountains or artificial elevations4 ,herodotos relates that the ,persians not only scorned temples1 but did not erect images of their deities1 nor even altars4 ,this last point is certainly incorrect2 the worship of fire particularly called for altars1 and these are represented upon the ornamented faades of the rock-cut tombs4 7,fig4 #hc47 ,it is probable that two pedestals1 standing near each other upon the palace terrace of ,pasargad1 are ancient ,persian4 ,they are cubes1 each about #c m4 high2 one is terminated by steps1 and has upon one side a straight line of ascending stairs2 the platform at the summit was sufficiently large to receive an altar1 or may perhaps itself have been used as a receptacle for fire and sacrifices4 ,they are similar to the altar upon the upper story of the ,palace of ,darius1 used for religious devotion4 ,the supposition may be ventured that these two altars1 in such vicinity1 point to the dualism of the ,persian worship of ,ormuzd and ,ahriman4 ,other large monuments of the land may have had something to do with religious observances2 but as they lack any characteristic form1 this cannot be proved4 ,such is the case with the cone of ,darabgerd1 known as ,kella ,darab1 apparently an imitation of a natural mound4 ,it is surrounded by a circular wall1 perforated in eight equidistant places1 and rises1 in two rings of masonry1 to a height of #dh m4 ,a similar structure is the massive tower of ,firuz-,abad1 a rectangular obelisk #bg m4 high1 measuring #h4e m4 upon each side of its base4 ,near it is an enormous platform1 with broad buttresses upon the four sides1 which are directed to the cardinal points of the compass2 the foundation of the mass measures #fa by #gh m4 ,the masonry is of carefully hewn stone1 of a workmanship not found in the country after the advent of the ,christian era2 the swallow-tail dowelling of the blocks is similar to that upon the pavement of the terrace at ,persepolis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,tomb of ,cyrus4 ,to the consideration of these structures must be added that of the semi-sacred tombs4 ,though few other monuments can be traced back to the age of the founder of the ,persian sovereignty1 the heroic ,cyrus1 fortune appears to have preserved his tomb almost entirely intact in architectural respects4 ,the description of it by ,arrian is not precise1 but his account may still be identified with an interesting and evidently ancient ,persian monument1 now known as ,medshed ,mader-i-,suleiman1 the tomb of the mother of ,solomon4 ,its situation is in ,murgab1 not distant from the ruins of ,pasargad1 which contain inscriptions with the name of ,cyrus1 and reliefs commemorating his exploits4 ,the monument consists of a terrace seven times stepped1 covering a ground surface of #ab4e by #ac4e m42 it is built of enormous blocks carefully joined1 and bears a cella with gabled roof4 ,the simple and gently curved mouldings of the cornice and base of the cella do not betray ,greek influence1 but it is possible that the form of the roof1 rare in the ,orient1 may be attributed to reminiscences of ,hellenic construction observed during the campaigns of ,cyrus in ,asia ,minor4 ,the entrance1 described by ,arrian as very small1 is #j4i m4 broad and #a4b m4 high2 the exterior of the cella is #e4b m4 broad and #f4c m4 long2 the chamber itself only #c m4 long and #b4a m4 broad and high4 ,there is naturally no longer any trace of the objects once within the interior--the table1 coffin1 and bier of solid gold2 the garments of royal purple4 ,the inscriptions have1 unfortunately1 also disappeared4 ,the blocks of the chamber floor are swallow-tailed into each other with great exactness2 to which circumstance1 and to the exact jointing of all the massive masonry1 this exceptionally fine state of the building's preservation is to be ascribed4 ,the whole structure gives the impression of a terraced ,chaldan temple4 ,it is not improbable that the ,tomb of ,cyrus received this sacred form because the character of a hero of ,western ,asia was attributed to the king soon after his death4 ,a colonnade appears to have enclosed the sombre pile2 several drums of its columns still project above the ground4 ,the accounts of ,greek authors refer to buildings erected for the priests to whose care the monument was intrusted2 these are believed to have been recognized in the remains of a neighboring caravansary4 ,the tombs of later ,persian kings1 which1 during the entire dynasty of the ,achmenid1 were almost alike1 are of a totally different nature from that of ,cyrus1 being cut in and upon the face of the rock4 ,upon the steep cliff of ,naksh-i-,rustam and ,persepolis there are seven of these facades1 which form an imposing feature of the landscape1 whether viewed in the vicinity or from afar4 ,all follow the type of the ,tomb of ,darius described above1 giving a representation of the royal dwelling upon the wall before the grave-chamber4 7,fig4 #hc47 ,only the lower half of the door is used as an entrance1 the upper part being closed by an imitation of slat-work4 ,it leads to a corridor running parallel to the face of the cliff2 in the ,tomb of ,darius this extends to the left1 beyond the breadth of the faade1 to three chambers1 each of which is arranged for three coffins4 ,all these graves had been plundered when investigated by ,coste and ,flandin4 ,a rock-cut tomb at ,serpul-,zohab is of still simpler disposition2 originally it had two columns upon the front1 but was not further decorated2 the interior consisted of a small chamber1 providing only sufficient space for two sarcophagi4 ,it is not certain whether other monuments in the vicinity of ,naksh-i-,rustam and of ,pasargad should be regarded as tombs4 ,they resemble towers2 their corners are strengthened by pilasters1 and they have oblong niches upon each side1 the frames of which are triply stepped4 ,of the tombs of ,persian subjects nothing whatever is known2 it may be possible that the people of that nation were accustomed formerly1 as at present1 to carry down their dead from the highlands to the ,necropolis of ,chalda1 where millions of graves still await scientific investigation4 ,as little is known of ,persian domestic architecture4 ,no vestiges of private houses have been found which belong to an historical period earlier than that of the ,roman emperors4 ,the habitations of subjects were not to be compared with the magnificent palaces of their despotic rulers1 and must have been built of the most destructible materials4 ,we may imagine the ,persian house somewhat to have resembled1 in disposition of plan1 the royal dwellings1 though of course greatly simplified by the substitution of an open court for the hypostyle hall1 by the omission of terraces1 columns1 and carvings1 and by the reduction of all spaces and dimensions to a minimum4 ,the ,persians developed far less independence in sculpture than in architecture4 ,they showed themselves1 in their carvings1 to be but meanly endowed scholars of the ,assyrians1 and gained little by subjecting themselves to the influence of other nations1 the spirit of which they did not comprehend or employ towards any possible improvement of ,assyrian traditions4 ,the ,mesopotamians were1 in their artistic development1 thrown upon their own resources2 they therefore looked earnestly to the fountain-head of nature as the model of their sculptured work2 but the ,persians1 in the wider extent of their kingdom1 instead of profiting by the study of nature1 so requisite to true progress1 depended upon forms and methods inherited from the ,assyrians1 upon which they engrafted certain peculiarities borrowed from the ,egyptians1 and also1 in still greater measure1 from the higher art practised among the ,greeks of ,asia ,minor in the time of ,darius and ,xerxes4 ,in this adoption of foreign properties1 in this mingling of ,mesopotamian1 ,egyptian1 and ,hellenic manners of expression1 they utterly sacrificed originality and simplicity of style1 and made of their sculpture a repulsive hybrid of inharmonious elements4 ,it may well be conceived that with this lifeless imitation the creative impulse languished1 and art became more and more limited1 until it shrank at last into mere ornamental handiwork4 ,the ,persians could the more easily forego the revetment of their walls with carved slabs1 after the ,assyrian fashion1 as their architecture itself1 far more than that of ,mesopotamia1 fulfilled its own aim1--accomplished with its own means what was elsewhere effected by sculpture and painting4 ,with ,persian statues in the full round we have no acquaintance4 ,several examples remain of colossal monsters in the half round1 like those met with in ,assyrian sculpture4 ,in conception and in detail1 in proportion and in situation1 they scarcely differ from those of ,assyria3 they are only somewhat stiffer2 their strap-like sinews and veins1 their muscles and hair1 are conventionalized almost to pure ornament2 they have entirely lost the life-like natural truth of the works of ,nineveh4 ,the tendency towards decoration is well expressed in the wings of these monsters4 ,the rectilinear feathers of the models upon the ,tigris were in ,persia transformed into the graceful but unnatural curves seen also in the griffins of ,greek architecture4 ,this ,colossus is found in the best state of preservation at the ,propyla of ,xerxes near the ascent of the terrace of ,persepolis4 ,on the front are perfect bulls1 with proportionately small heads2 on the back are the cherubim already mentioned1 with long-bearded1 tiara-crowned human heads4 ,these purely ,assyrian monsters of the gateway may perhaps be regarded as trophies from ,mesopotamia1 which1 in the course of time1 had become naturalized into the ,persian practice of palace architecture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4--,relief for a ,portal of ,persepolis4 7,see ,fig4 #hf47 ,if the masonry1 probably of brick1 had received a richly sculptured stone revetment1 like that which covered the ,assyrian walls1 some remains of this would certainly have been found4 ,it seems1 however1 that the wall surfaces were ornamented only with paintings4 ,in proportion as carved decoration was diminished1 the architectural treatment of the enclosing masses was increased1 by doors1 windows1 and niches1 and by the repeatedly stepped epistyle beams and its crowning scotia1 richly ornamented with leaves over the lintels4 ,only the inner surfaces of the door-jambs were used for representations in relief1 the subjects being partly mythological1 partly ceremonial4 ,the ruins of ,pasargad show such a mythological figure1 in long1 close-lying garments without folds1 according to the ,assyrian tradition1 though of somewhat lighter proportion4 ,it has a less pronounced ,semitic profile1 ,egyptianized by long twisted ram's horns upon the head1 and with the irrelevant ornaments of the ,nile situla1 disks1 and uros-serpents2 the greater part of it is so destroyed that only the outline is recognizable4 ,upon the terrace of ,persepolis there is repeated a kingly or divine being lifting a lion into the air while strangling it1 such as appears in more vigorous design upon the reliefs of ,nineveh2 or this figure pierces with a short sword a bull1 lion1 or griffin standing upright upon its hinder legs4 ,one of these peculiar mythological representations is given in ,fig4 #ia4 ,the head of the male figure1 ornamented with a diadem1 is distinguished from the ,assyrian type only by a longer and less protruding nose1 and by some diminution of the luxuriant hair and beard4 ,the exposed limbs1 the arms and legs1 have more slender proportions2 with a softer and somewhat ,hellenized swing of the outlines1 there is less modelling than was found upon the ,tigris4 ,the expression of great muscular power1 of striking and healthy energy of action1 peculiar to the ,assyrians1 is lost in ,persia4 ,the garments are not sack-like and close-fitting2 with the richly patterned treatment of surfaces1 there is an attempt1 not altogether fortunate1 to indicate the folds of drapery and the free flow of cloth4 ,it is possible to recognize in this respect the influence of ,asiatic ,hellas1 falling1 indeed1 upon rather sterile ground1 and received with little understanding4 ,the strapped shoes take from the cramped foot its true form1 being curved in the sole even more than is the case with the naked instep4 ,the power1 long since acquired by the ,greeks1 of so raising the hinder foot of a moving figure that only the toes touch the ground1 was as far from being possessed by the ,persians as was the power of causing the whole body to take part in an action--carrying forward the momentary position4 ,the human being is apparently able neither to turn the animal away from himself1 nor1 by additional exertion1 to give the death-blow4 ,the opposing griffin is similarly petrified2 it here appears with eagle's head and feathered tail1 occurring in other representations with lion's head and scorpion's tail4 ,both paws of the fore feet1 and one of the eagle's claws of the hind feet1 are in the position of attack2 one paw grasps the right arm1 as it reaches towards the head of the monster2 the other is laid upon the left1 which pierces its body with a broad and pointed dagger4 ,at the same time1 one of the bird-like hinder legs touches the front knee of the human figure4 ,but nowhere is there the energetic movement of seizing or pressure found upon ,assyrian sculptures2 there is a posture1 but no action2 and thus the lion-eagle monster has no frightful power--only something hatefully comical in figure and bearing4 ,nor has the bull or lion1 which occasionally takes the place of the griffin1 anything of the ,assyrian force2 the scene might be considered as a harmless play of the man with the animal1 were it not for the sword half buried in the body4 ,the most accessible subjects for such an art were naturally mere ceremonial representations1 where the action1 reduced to a minimum1 was naturally neither momentary nor energetic4 ,there are the promenades of the king1 with staff and lotos-flower in his hands1 followed by eunuchs1 one third of his size1 who carry his handkerchief and sunshade1 and cool him with a fan of peacock's feathers4 ,it is worthy of curious notice that1 upon a door at the back of the palace1 the sunshade is omitted from the relief1 as being of use only in going out4 ,a casual observation of ,persian sculpture may be deceptive1 and we may seem to recognize quiet dignity in what is mere want of all expression4 ,it is thus with the frequently repeated ceremonial scenes1 the architectural employment of which has been mentioned above4 7,fig4 #hg47 ,the canopied throne appears raised upon an elevation2 the king sits with his feet resting upon a footstool1 his retinue before him with censers4 ,three superposed rows of men stand as supporters of the throne1 with outstretched arms bearing the platform4 ,the figures are placed in such regular position that the effect is purely ornamental2 but are individually interesting1 in so far as they are intended to represent1 in feature and costume1 the different nationalities of the ,persian empire4 ,notwithstanding the celebrated description of the review of the ,persian army upon the banks of the ,hellespont given by ,herodotos1 it would be hopeless to attempt to recognize among the figures the types of known tribes4 ,of a similar kind are the upper parts of the rock-cut reliefs upon the tombs of the ,achmenid1 the architectural peculiarities of which have already been mentioned4 ,because of the sacred character of these graves1 the kings are not represented enthroned1 but standing upon a stepped platform before an altar1 over which floats the winged and encircled deity1 near the disk of the sun or moon4 ,a consideration of the exterior treatment of the upper story of the palaces would here be in place if it could be shown that the ornamentation was indeed carved4 ,persian sculpture received its most extensive application upon the buttresses of the steps placed before every palace4 ,here are found the ceremonial scenes of the ,assyrian courts in a feeble rendering1 far removed from the sharp and careful cutting of the details1 and the naturalistic modelling of the bodies1 peculiar to the works of ,mesopotamia4 ,long processions of men represent different nationalities1 characterized by their costumes and by the treatment of hair and beard2 by their various feather-caps1 hoods1 capuchins1 pointed hats2 short skirts1 with wide pantaloons2 long garments1 with great fulness at the bottom1 and sleeves falling in multiplied folds2 by the skins of animals worn as mantles2 by girdles1 sword-belts and swords1 bows and quivers2 by peculiar sandals1 shoes1 boots1 and the like4 ,these subjects bring to the monarch most manifold gifts--horses1 dromedaries1 musk-oxen1 rams1 goats1 a wagon1 elephants' tusks1 stuffs1 garments 7among which various kinds of stockings are even distinguishable71 swords1 double-headed hammers1 bracelets for the arms2 censers1 with vessels for incense2 salve1 in little bowls1 borne upon trays which hang like scales2 wine-skins1 goblets1 globular and flat cake-like loaves of food1 carried in the palm of the hand2 carved cups and saucers2 little bags1 etc4 ,others bear only lotos-flowers and pomegranates4 ,they are slim1 narrow-chested figures2 the short upper body is given in profile1 without anatomical truth in general form or detail2 not only without motion1 but apparently incapable of it4 ,at times the position of the arms shows1 not1 indeed1 a gesture1 but some attempt of varied position2 the hands lie upon one another1 or touch the mouth1 the end of the beard1 the hilt of the sword hanging at the side1 or the quiver1 or are extended so as to rest upon the shoulders of the preceding figure in the procession4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--,relief from the ,stairs of the ,palace of ,darius4 ,lifeless as these appear1 they are still superior to the guards1 armed with a lance1 who march towards each other from opposite sides1 in long processions4 7,fig4 #ib47 ,the heads differ from the ,assyrian type only in the pointed chin-beard2 the bodies alternate between uniforms of two fixed patterns4 ,one of these is without a shield1 in a closely fitting leathern garment1 with awkward pantaloons bound at the ankles1 and a globular cap of surpassing clumsiness4 ,the other1 distinguished by shield and plumes1 with a long robe drawn up at the hips1 and with wide sleeves hanging in folds1 is more tolerable4 ,the elliptical shields1 like those of ,botia1 have a round cut upon both sides1 in which the lance was probably placed2 they are strengthened by a circular plate riveted to the centre4 ,upon the terrace stairs1 in the triangles formed by the ascending steps1 are groups of animals--lions seizing bulls from behind4 ,though the forms are rendered with but little understanding of detail1 the entire composition is well fitted to the triangular space allowed it1 and thus has a certain decorative and architectural value4 ,the parapet of the staircase terrace is decorated with rows of highly conventionalized lotos-flowers upon leafy stems2 in its centre is the winged divinity of the disk between crouching lions4 ,these carvings upon the staircase buttress1 though monotonous1 were still so rich that they gave to this member much the same distinction as that of the gable in ,greek architecture1 to which it is somewhat similar in outline1 the ascent from each side forming a triangle4 ,the representations upon it are1 in their subjects1 suited to the palace fronts1 where guards were in place1 as well as gift-bearing deputies from tributary nations4 ,though the division of the surface into several horizontal stripes by rows of figures1 one over another1 is not artistically beautiful1 it still has the advantage that the standard of proportion is not infringed upon1 as is so often the case when colossal statues are placed before buildings2 the disadvantage may perhaps be less when life-sized figures1 like these1 are dwarfed by being brought into comparison with enormous edifices4 ,only one important historical scene is known--the rock-cut relief of ,bi-,sueton4 ,a king1 followed by guardsmen1 sets his foot and bow upon a victim lying backwards on the ground1 who stretches up his hands in a beseeching manner1 while a procession of nine prisoners approaches1 their hands tied behind them1 and bound one to the other4 ,above is the winged deity4 ,the proud bearing of the king1 and the stooping of the helpless enemies1 show a slightly superior artistic ability4 ,though ,persian sculpture was successful in some rare instances1 the conviction must still remain that1 in comparison with the art of ,assyria1 it was not only a dependent imitation1 but failed to attain any of the superiorities of its model4 ,that which was borrowed from other lands than ,mesopotamia was superficially carried into execution in unimportant details4 ,strictly speaking1 we can hardly acknowledge the existence of the art of sculpture in ,persia1 as it was without either independent foundation or any progress of its own4 ,of ,persian painting there are no remains or information4 ,the walls were without doubt plastered and colored4 ,if there had been a revetment of glazed tiles1 according to the ,mesopotamian practice1 some fragments of this almost indestructible material would surely have been found4 ,from analogy of the carvings1 it is probable that paintings upon the walls were chiefly ornamental and of subordinate importance4 ,upon the principal front of the buildings there remained but little space where painted decorations could be employed2 the faade of the ,tomb of ,darius was largely covered with inscriptions4 ,on the other hand1 the restoration of the ,palace of ,darius1 at the head of this chapter 7,fig4 #gg71 shows that the aid of color was particularly needed upon the other sides1 which would have been bare and monotonous without painted ornaments4 ,we may suppose that the ,persians felt this need1 and that decorative painting was extensively employed2 they were led to it by familiarity with the methods of ,assyrian art1 and with the colored mural decorations universal in ,egypt1 both which lands they considered their tributary provinces4 ,though we cannot speak of monumental independence in ,persian sculpture and painting--of which1 indeed1 no ancient ,orientals had any conception--the art of the land had at least the superiority that its three branches1 in their application1 stood in true relations to each other1 inasmuch as architecture employed and brought forward the sister arts as secondary1 decorative aid2 painting and sculpture did not predominate in the excessive degree characteristic of the older nations of the ,east4 ,the ,egyptians1 whose architecture1 otherwise so richly developed1 was chiefly restricted to the interior1 made excessive use of painting and coilanaglyphics to enliven the dead masses of exterior walls4 ,the ,assyrians needed sculptured revetment and painted stucco to support and hide the weakness of their masonry1 and its incapacity for architectural treatment1 within and without4 ,merely decorative art thus gained an undue supremacy in both countries4 ,among the ,persians1 on the other hand1 architecture attained its full rights by important and harmonious advances1 while decorative sculpture and painting withdrew to their proper subordinate positions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,rock-cut ,tombs of ,myra4 ,,ph,,nicia1 ,,palestine1 ,,and ,,asia ,,minor4 ,the primitive tradition which makes the valley of the ,euphrates and ,tigris the centre of the most advanced culture of the earth is illustrated by the extraordinary expanse of ,mesopotamian influence in both time and space4 ,extending eastwards even to the ,ganges1 in a westerly direction passing beyond the ,adriatic1 bounded on the north only by inhospitable ,scythia 7,siberia71 and on the south by the ,indian ,ocean1 its roots1 long after the advent of the ,christian era1 sent forth fresh shoots into ,western ,asia1 recognizable in the monuments of the ,sassanid and in the works of the world-conquering ,arabians4 ,the spring of native civilization was not entirely exhausted1 although1 after the fall of the ,persian empire and the foundation of a ,greek ,asiatic monarchy by ,alexander the ,great1 ,hellenism had expanded itself over ,western ,asia for five centuries1--first among the luxurious ,seleucid1 who had attached to themselves the ,asiatic half of the ,macedonian empire1 and in later times under the strict military power of the imperial ,roman period4 ,nor could the barbarism of the ,parthians wholly obliterate from the land the reminiscences of ancient ,persian and ,mesopotamian culture4 ,these influences appear again when the ,persian ,ardshir--boasting a direct descent from the ,achmenid1 and therefore called ,artaxerxes by the ,byzantine ,greeks--shook off the yoke of the barbaric ,parthians in the year #bbf after ,christ1 as his forefather ,cyrus1 eight centuries previously1 had founded his empire upon that of the ,medes4 ,ardshir was the first ruler of a new national ,persian dynasty1 named after his father1 ,sassan1--a race under whose sway the land east of the ,tigris was raised to a glory and importance which made itself felt even in distant and powerful ,rome4 ,one ,roman emperor1 the unhappy ,valerian1 was even forced to languish during the last ten years of his life in a ,persian prison1 the ,romans not venturing to free him from the despicable slavery of the ,sassanian ,shahpur ,i41 who meanwhile took care to hand down to posterity that world-renowned result of ,persian bravery and cunning by numerous monuments and rock-carved reliefs1 which testify1 as a leaf of authentic history1 to an event so humiliating to ,rome4 ,the ,palace of ,ctesiphon1--the ,sassanian representative of the ,hellenic ,seleucia upon the ,tigris1 a city of the ,diadochi which had itself taken the place of the ,chaldan ,babylon on the ,euphrates1--the dwellings of ,sarbistan and ,firuz-,abad1 with many other buildings and monuments sculptured upon the face of cliffs1 give evidence of the artistic ability of the new ,persian kingdom1 which continued to flourish until the foundation of the ,mohammedan power in ,mesopotamia1 #fda ,a4,d4 ,much was certainly lost1 and the artistic ornamentation of architecture1 as illustrated by the columns and pilasters of ,sarbistan1 which are without capital or base1 sank again to the rudeness of the ancient monuments of ,chalda2 but1 on the other hand1 the constructive gain was not inconsiderable1 notably in the greater development of gateways1 windows1 and niches1 as well as in the appearance of immense arches1 cylindrical vaults1 and cupolas1 which received peculiar forms of parabolic lines1 though not excluding the round arch4 ,the later ,persians had marked influence upon the conquering ,arabs1 who1 with few native traditions1 were readily receptive3 this is illustrated by the horse-shoe arch1 so characteristic of ,moorish architecture1 which may be traced in the works of the ,sassanid from the ,palace of ,ctesiphon to the ,monument of ,tak-i-,gero4 ,chronological considerations and the increasing influence of ,greek and ,roman elements seem1 however1 to forbid the treatment of ,sassanian architecture in this sequence4 ,indian art is omitted chiefly upon the ground that the best work of the ,farther ,east does not appertain to a history of antiquity at all2 the remains antedating the ,christian era1 such as the columns of ,asoka1 are too undeveloped and wanting in independence to deserve separate consideration4 ,this would be even less the place for a review of ,sassanian sculpture1 because in this1 in spite of the recurrence of ancient ,mesopotamian figures and details1 and notwithstanding the national peculiarities observable in the modelling of muscles and draperies1 the ,hellenic and ,roman influences are too great to allow of a proper treatment of the subject apart from the artistic development of ,greece and ,italy4 ,sassanian and ,indian art1 though standing in a certain relation to the civilization of antiquity1 may receive a more just historical treatment if considered immediately before the advent of ,mohammedan methods of building1--upon the threshold of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the chief currents of culture and intellectual development have ever flowed steadily towards the ,west3 such was the course of the wide-spreading artistic influence of ,mesopotamia4 ,the valley of the ,euphrates and ,tigris is divided from the shores of the ,mediterranean by desert tracts which did not allow ,assyrian traditions1 though directed and furthered by the important trade-roads1 to take immediate and undisputed possession of the strip of ,phnician coast4 ,egypt lay too near for this2 its influence could not remain unfelt by the seafaring inhabitants of the ,syrian lands4 ,indefinite theories have been prevalent for some time concerning the meeting and blending of the peculiar civilizations of the lands of the ,nile and the ,tigris1 but until recently ,phnicia was the least-known country of the ancient world4 ,the ,syrian expedition of the ,french under the auspices of ,napoleon ,,iii41 like the ,egyptian under ,napoleon ,i41 presented the possibility of a thorough and systematic exploration of ,phnician remains4 ,the difficulties of prosecuting the investigations were not less than they had been in ,chalda4 8,the land10 says ,renan1 who was commissioned to conduct the explorations1 8is now completely deserted4 ,the destruction of the forests has everywhere done its evil work2 the soil1 year after year carried off by the inhabitants of the villages or washed away by the torrents of winter rain1 has disappeared from the native rock2 the flow of water from the springs1 more and more exhausted1 has become too weak to find its way to the sea against the many hinderances2 hemmed in by dunes and alluvial formations1 it fills the plain with the poisonous exhalations of swamps1 so that the once blooming and populous land has become a pestilent desert1 where for miles there is scarcely a hut to be seen40 ,the remaining monuments are chiefly grouped around the five principal trading towns of the coast1--,ruad 7,aradus71 ,amrith 7,marathus71 ,jebeil 7,byblus71 ,saida 7,sidon71 and ,sur 7,tyre71--which follow one another from north to south in the given succession4 ,still farther to the south are isolated ruins near ,gabr-,hiram and ,um-el-,auamid4 ,beyrout1 now the most important city of all the original ,phnician territory1 has the fewest remains of antiquity2 the greater number are at the totally deserted site of ,marathus1 where the neighboring brook1 ,nahr-el-,amrith1 alone retains a trace of the city's anciently celebrated name4 ,the city ,aradus1 frequently mentioned in the ,mosaic ,scriptures1 founded ,marathus1 its most important colony1 as well as ,paltus1 ,balaneia1 ,carnek1 and ,enhydra4 ,of ,aradus itself little exists beyond a few enormous blocks of hewn stone2 the fanaticism of the present inhabitants of ,ruad prevented an adequate examination of the site4 ,all these cities lost their importance in the ,roman period1 with the ascendency of ,antaradus1 the medival ,tortosa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4--,temple ,cella 7,el-,maabed7 of ,amrith4 ,the remains at ,amrith are barely sufficient to give a conception of the temple buildings and monumental tombs of the ,phnicians4 ,one fane1 in an exceptionally good state of preservation1 is still called by the inhabitants ,el-,maabed 7the temple74 ,it consists of a rectangular area1 the temenos1 #dh m4 broad and #ee m4 long1 sunk into the native rock1 so that three of its sides are formed by the perpendicular cut1 and reach the height of #e m4 ,upon the north1 the entrance1 the enclosure was completed by a wall1 which was also continued around the other three sides1 and there heightened the boundary4 ,two piers1 in the southeastern and southwestern corners1 standing #c4e m4 from the edge of the rock1 and numerous sockets for the ends of the beams1 plainly visible in the walls1 lead to the supposition that a gallery was carried partially or entirely around the space4 ,the whole sunken area formed the court of a temple1 perhaps a sacred lake1 as many traces of paved springs in the interior seem to indicate4 ,the small cella1 which rises exactly in the centre of the quadrangle1 thus became an unapproachable sanctuary4 7,fig4 #id47 ,it is formed of only five stones4 ,the socle is hewn from the solid rock1 #c m4 high and #e4e m4 square1 with traces of a stairway upon the right side4 ,the three-walled cella1 open to the north1 is #e m4 high2 its ceiling is monolithic1 while the walls consist of three superposed blocks cut to the plan of the chamber4 ,the roof1 chiselled within to the form of a flat-arched vault1 juts forward over the opening2 its projection may have been supported by light columns of metal1 the probable form of which will be considered in connection with the rock-cut reliefs of ,mashnaka4 ,upon the side-walls1 which stand #b4cd m4 apart1 there are two low benches1 leaving a ground-space of only #j4h m4 between them4 ,the architectural decoration of this shrine is limited to a cornice of scotia and roundlet2 though this appears also in ,assyria and ,persia1 it still gives an ,egyptian character to the cella exterior1 which in plan and general disposition is very similar to the ,mesopotamian chapels represented upon ,assyrian reliefs 7,figs4 #ce and #eg71 and to such structures as appear to have existed upon the terraced pyramids of ,chalda4 ,in this cella we possess the oldest and the only ,semitic temple known1 still in admirable preservation1 although the downfall of the crumbling mass is predicted by the authorities who accompanied the ,phnician expedition4 ,of two similar structures1 which stood near the city of ,marathus1 ,renan could discover only overthrown blocks buried in the swamp of ,ain-el-,hayat 7fountain of the serpents7 and hidden by oleander-bushes4 ,they stood at a distance of #aj m41 their open sides turned towards each other4 ,the remains of the better-preserved cella show it to have been entirely monolithic4 ,it stood upon a double substructure1 of which1 strange to say1 the lower part is considerably smaller than the upper4 ,it betrays still closer relationship with ,egyptian works of the kind by rows of uros-serpents over the cornice scotia and the winged disk upon the inner ceiling4 ,from their plan1 they appear to have had no columnar supports1 and resemble1 in the careful restoration made by ,mr4 ,thobois1 the monolithic cellas of ,phil preserved in ,leyden and in the ,louvre4 ,traces of three other sanctuaries1 or at least of their temenos enclosure1 which is partly cut in the rock and partly built1 exist in the vicinity of the ,stadion of ,amrith1 now known as ,el-,meklaa 7the quarry71 and designated by ,renan1 upon insufficient grounds1 as itself ancient ,phnician4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,the ,monuments ,el-,meghazil of ,amrith4 ,the monumental tombs of ,amrith are not less important than these places of worship2 the ruins known under the name ,el-,auamid-el-,meghazil 7the spindle-columns7 are truly majestic4 7,fig4 #ie47 ,the first rises in three cylindrical steps upon a square platform little elevated above the ground4 ,the lower part1 #b4e m4 in height and #e4ae m4 in diameter1 built of two stones1 is ornamented over the corners of the platform with engaged lions1 which are among the most prominent works of ,phnician sculpture known1 and will be considered at greater length below4 ,upon this first cylindrical step rests a block #g m4 high1 ornamented at the base with delicately curved moulding1 and at the summit with dentils and battlements4 ,these latter are found also upon fragments from ,jebeil in conjunction with squares and rosettes and a particularly characteristic frieze of straight-lined laurel branches2 they show great similarity to ,mesopotamian remains4 ,in the circular plan of the structure there is no reminiscence of ,egyptian methods of art2 an hemispherical termination lends to the whole so marked an individuality that1 although its form seems not to have been universal1 or even the most common1 upon the ,syrian coasts1 there yet may be recognized in this monument a truly original ,phnician type4 ,in the development of memorial stones a cultured people generally expresses its fundamental artistic conceptions1 as is the case with the pyramidal termination of ,egyptian obelisks1 and with the ,assyrian piers terminated by a stepped terrace1 in both of which are embodied the lines predominant in the architecture of those nations4 ,a stairway hewn in the rock leads to the subterranean burial chambers2 its entrance is at some little distance from the monument1 as shown in the section ,fig4 #ie4 ,only #f m4 removed from this rises a second pile1 which1 from a certain parallelism of position1 seems to belong with it4 ,it is simpler than the first1 consisting of a cube measuring #c m4 upon the side1 so roughly hewn that it appears a block taken just as it was quarried2 upon it is a monolithic cylinder #d m4 high and #c4g m4 in diameter1 terminated by a five-sided pyramid of steep inclination4 ,somewhat removed from these are two similar monuments1 of which the better preserved stands upon steps and rises in two cubes1 separated by a cornice of wavy outline1 the upper block terminating in a four-sided pyramid1 now almost entirely overthrown4 ,it is remarkable for the monolithic horizontal covering of the entrance to the grave chambers1 which is again a little distant from the base4 ,of the pyramidal termination of its neighbor1 only traces remain4 ,all these monuments were in part cut from the native rock and in part composed of enormous monoliths2 a fifth1 of considerably greater dimensions1 was built of quarried stones4 ,of this latter1 the commanding mausoleum known under the name of ,burdj-el-,bezzak 7,tower of the ,snails71 little remains beyond the platform1 which measures #aa m4 in height and #i m4 in the square plan4 ,the four-sided pyramid1 of obtuse inclination1 placed upon this elevation1 is now entirely overthrown4 ,the blocks1 #e m4 long1 are hewn only upon the joints1 and left with a rough face4 ,a cornice of curved profile ran around the platform2 within it are two chambers1 each lighted by a small window1 the existence of which rendered the otherwise customary grotto beneath the pile superfluous4 ,grotto tombs1 with a decorated entrance cut upon the rock wall1 seem to have been most generally employed in ,central ,phnicia4 ,they are exemplified by the numerous remains of this kind at ,saida 7,sidon7 and ,jebeil 7,byblus74 ,a tomb at the latter place shows a simple but interesting faade2 its ornamentation1 by the heavy gable and ring-formed acroterium1 is strikingly similar to forms occurring in ,central ,asia ,minor 7,phrygia74 7,fig4 #if47 ,its flat border and plain five-leaved rosette in the tympanon triangle give no evidence of ,hellenic influence4 ,the interior of these tombs is generally a large room1 with curved ceiling and niches upon three of its sides1 sunk into the rock1 one above another1 like those of the ,catacombs1 to hold the rows of coffins4 ,the finest of the sarcophagi of ,jebeil is decorated with festoons1 wreaths1 single leaves and branches1 in a nave style of ornament betraying no knowledge of ,greek sculpture4 ,in ,southern ,phnicia a monumental development of the sarcophagus seems to have been chiefly favored4 ,the tomb known as that of ,hiram 7,gabr-hiram71 south of ,sur 7,tyre71 is an immense coffer1 #c m4 high1 with a heavy arched cover1 raised upon a plinth built of hewn blocks #d4bd m4 long1 #b4fd m4 broad1 and #c m4 high1 the upper part of which is formed by a monolithic slab almost one meter in thickness4 ,not far from this site1 at ,um-el-,auamid1 is a large sarcophagus1 #b4dj m4 long and #a4bd m4 broad1 with a gable-shaped lid decorated by clumsy corner acroterias4 ,against one of its sides stands a small altar1 remarkable for the corners of its battlemented termination1 which must be similar to the horns of the altar which stood in the tabernacle of ,solomon's ,temple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,faade of a ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,jebeil4 ,of the domestic architecture of ,phnicia can be mentioned only an entirely unornamented house1 hewn from the rock1 in ,amrith1 and a portal at ,um-el-,auamid1 where the middle block of the triple lintel is decorated with the ,egyptian disk and uros-serpents upon either side4 ,the materials employed by the ,phnician architects seem generally to have been the cedars of ,lebanon and the various metals of transmarine commerce2 it is on this account that the preserved monuments are so few1 and their remains so bare of carved decoration4 ,this explains also the lack of examples illustrating the sculpture and extended industrial art of the country4 ,the ,homeric epics constantly point to the ,syrian coast as the home of all contemporary skill in metal-work1 pottery1 and weaving4 ,stone statues were rare2 metal was the favorite material of ,phnician sculpture1 although it was but seldom1 as in the columns before the ,temple of ,jerusalem1 employed for casting4 ,the usual proceeding of the artificer was to make a core of wood for the work1 whether this were to be in relief or in the full round2 upon it sheets of metal were secured1 and these finally beaten with the hammer to the modelling of the carved wood beneath1 thus forming a so-called sphyrelaton4 ,the sculptures of ,solomon's ,temple illustrate this process1 and1 according to the ,biblical account1 may unhesitatingly be ascribed to ,phnician artists4 ,in some instances the beaten metal was gold1 this being the case with the ,temple of ,jerusalem and with a small temple at ,carthage1 which contained an image similarly overlaid4 ,silver was more rarely thus employed1 though it is known that from the earliest times the ,spanish silver-mines were worked by the ,phnicians4 ,the metal was perhaps more frequently devoted to utensils like the twelve silver vessels discovered upon ,cyprus1 of which those now in the ,louvre show a workmanship nearly akin to that of the before-mentioned ,assyrian bronzes4 ,it has been remarked in the section upon ,assyria that this style was neither purely ,mesopotamian nor ,egyptian1 but rather a mixture of both1 the latter predominating4 ,this points to the ,phnician origin of such works1 and these silver vessels of ,cyprus lend a striking confirmation to the supposition4 ,the beaten metal was usually a bronze1 the copper in its composition being derived from the ,phnician island ,cyprus1 the tin an article of commerce brought from ,england4 ,it is natural that the ,phnicians1 to whom alone these metals were accessible1 should be regarded as the inventors of that amalgamation of ten parts of copper with one of tin known as bronze1 of so great importance in casting4 ,homer's mention of vessels and utensils from ,sidon1 and the discovery of ,phnician bronzes in the ruins of ,nineveh1 prove a most ancient and extended trade in objects formed of that metal4 ,the carved wooden form covered with sheets of metal1 the sphyrelaton1 is a peculiarly ,phnician product4 ,such beaten reliefs were generally of copper1 pure1 or with a small percentage of tin2 gold1 silver1 and even tin were1 however1 similarly employed1 in conjunction with mosaics of precious stones1 ivory1 and notably with amber1 a substance greatly prized in early antiquity1 and brought by the enterprising ,phnicians from the coasts of the ,north ,sea4 ,a certain effect of color was thus obtained4 ,in the decoration of weapons1 a ground of metal served instead of the wood as a foundation4 ,this inlaid work was known to the ,greeks of the ,homeric age4 ,it stood in the same relation to primitive monumental painting as the mosaic of the ,byzantines did to the decline of the art1 its greatest height of development being reached by the so-called chryselephantine sculpture1 where a combination of carving and inlaying was effected with gold and ivory upon a wooden kernel4 ,the throne of ,solomon was an example of this1 the lions carved upon its arms rendering it the work rather of a sculptor than of an artisan4 ,carvings entirely of ivory are mentioned by ,hezekiah as frequently existing in the sanctuaries of ,tyre1 and in ,nineveh there have been found many fragments1 apparently ,egyptian1 which may1 without doubt1 be attributed to the ,phnicians4 ,the ,biblical prophets speak of great works in ,tyre composed of precious stones1 and ,theophrastos mentions an entire obelisk of emerald as existing in the ,temple of ,melkarth of that city1 which is explained to have been of a colored glass 7plasma di smeraldo74 ,glass itself1 assumed to have been invented by the ,phnicians1 but common in ,egypt before the fifteenth century ,b4,c41 appears to have been made only in colored1 and generally opaque1 masses4 ,the most ancient piece of white transparent glass known is described by ,layard as a cup whereupon is cut the name of ,king ,sargon in cuneiform characters--consequently an ,assyrian work from the end of the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,from a ,relief of ,saida4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,from the ,monument ,el-,meghazil of ,amrith4 ,phnician sculpture is almost exclusively represented by metal-work1 and1 as this was mostly beaten1 it is natural that it should assume that peculiar style of conventionalization which1 even in works of stone1 reminds us of empaistic prototypes1--that is to say1 of the characteristic forms and modes of conception originally decided by the properties of beaten metal4 ,this style is shown by the ,phnician leaved ornaments upon architectural details1 and is especially striking in the representations of animal forms4 ,upon a frieze at ,saida 7,fig4 #ig71 for example1 is a remarkable illustration of the ,phnician sphyrelaton1 which enables us to understand the form of the bulls upon the brazen laver in the ,temple of ,jerusalem4 ,the half-lions upon the monument of ,amrith1 also1 although carelessly carved and much weathered1 are still more interesting in this regard4 7,figs4 #ie and #ih47 ,besides their peculiarities as imitations of empaistic work1 especially recognizable in the primitive legs1 they show some reminiscences of ,egyptian granite forms and of a ,mesopotamian conception of animal nature1 marked also upon the bull's-head by the strap-like formation of the sinews4 ,less direct insight can be gained from other ,phnician sculptures because of their more advanced state of destruction4 ,the rock-cut reliefs of ,gineh and of ,mashnaka1 however1 well deserve to be mentioned4 ,the first shows upon one side an animal1 apparently a bear1 leaping upon a man1 while at the right1 in a sunken rectangular frame1 is an enthroned figure1 and in another a man in front view1 with two dogs1 which are scarcely recognizable4 ,enough is still preserved to show that the work is not of ,egyptian origin1 but may more justly be compared to ,assyrian sculptures1 though without the stiff character of courtly ceremonial peculiar to the works of ,nineveh4 ,the two rock-cut reliefs of a mountain-pass near ,mashnaka 7,fig4 #ii7 are more important to the history of the architecture than to that of the sculpture of ,western ,asia1 because of the remarkable forms of the capitals represented upon them2 they will be considered in connection with ,solomon's ,temple4 ,the smaller1 movable sculptures found in ,phnicia1 which were possibly not the work of the country1 are of less interest2 they usually exhibit decided ,egyptian influence4 ,numerous marble sarcophagi found in ,saida are characterized by the confusion of style peculiar to ,phnicia4 ,the covers are imitated from the swathed human forms represented upon the lids of ,egyptian mummy-coffins2 the heads betray in some measure the influence of ,greece1 and render it probable that they were executed in the time of the ,seleucid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,rock-cut ,relief of ,mashnaka4 ,as might be expected from the position of the country1 lying between ,egypt and ,chalda1 and from the national commerce and manufactures1 which attracted the products of both countries1 the artistic style of ,phnicia was a mixture of ,egyptian and ,mesopotamian elements4 ,this was1 of course1 also the case with that of the ,jews1 who1 in their architecture and sculpture1 were as dependent upon the ,phnicians as were the primitive ,romans upon the ,etruscans4 ,the influence of ,egypt was felt in ,palestine in a greater degree than in ,phnicia1 because the ,israelites had grown to a people upon the banks of the ,nile1 and without doubt transplanted many artistic conceptions1 as well as methods and details1 to the ,promised ,land4 ,this is noticeable in the tabernacle and in the temple1 the latter1 as is well known1 receiving its general disposition from its relation to that former encampment4 ,the tabernacle 7,fig4 #ajj7 is in fundamental character a repetition in movable tents of the triple ,egyptian temple system of court1 hall1 and cella4 ,at the time of the emigration of the ,jews from their long sojourn in ,goshen1 they could have been familiar only with ,egyptian forms2 we cannot mistake if we suppose them1 before their intercourse with the ,phnicians1 to have supplied all their artistic needs from ,egyptian precedents4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,the ,mosaic ,tabernacle4 ,the simple enclosure of the tabernacle formed a court1 with a front of fifty cubits1 and twice as long as it was broad4 ,there were twenty-one columns1 like tent-poles1 upon the sides1 and eleven upon the front2 those of the corners being counted twice4 ,these supports were five cubits high1 ornamented with silver capitals1 and standing in sockets of bronze2 they must have been entirely similar to the shafts represented upon ,egyptian wall-paintings4 ,they appear not to have been joined by cross-bars4 ,white immovable hangings were fastened between them1 beneath their capitals1 with the exception of the four central intercolumniations of the eastern front1 where hung movable curtains of blue1 purple1 and scarlet linen4 ,the tabernacle itself1 b1 did not stand in the centre of this enclosure1 but nearer the western end1 probably so that a square of fifty cubits was left before its entrance1 in which space there stood the altar1 c1 of earth and wooden sheathing for burnt-offerings1 five cubits square and three cubits high1 and the laver of brass1 d4 ,there thus remained upon the three other sides a space of twenty cubits between the tabernacle and the enclosure4 ,this disposition is not expressly affirmed1 but may naturally be assumed from the indications presented by the dimensions of the tabernacle1 which was thirty cubits long and ten broad4 ,except in the front1 e1 where were five columns1 it was formed of forty-eight boards overlaid with sheet-gold4 ,these boards1 like the poles of the enclosure1 were not rammed into the earth1 but stood upon double sockets of silver2 they were fastened together by tenons and by bars1 which were pushed through projecting golden rings4 ,the arrangement of the five columns of the front1 also overlaid with gold1 is not certain4 ,it is hardly possible that they were placed in antis2 for1 although the shafts were but thin poles1 the six intercolumniations thus formed would have had a width of only one and a half cubits each--too narrow for passage4 ,the two outermost columns may1 from this consideration1 be assumed to have stood before the ends of the boarded wall1 in prostyle arrangement1 or close upon this1 as indicated in the plan at e2 a method of avoiding the narrowing of the space by the two exterior intercolumniations which was adopted in much later times upon the so-called tombs of ,absalom and ,zachariah1 to be considered below1 where the forms may have been in some measure decided by reminiscences of these primitive constructions4 ,if the ten cubits of the tabernacle front were divided into four parts instead of six1 passage would have been easy4 ,there is no information concerning the appearance of these shafts4 ,their sockets of bronze may have been similar to the high bases of ,moorish columns1 and to those which support the canopy-poles of our churches4 ,if the shafts were neither connected by cross-braces nor rammed into the earth1 they must have been provided with a footing even broader than that of either of the instances mentioned1 and have resembled the wide-spreading plinths of ,egyptian lotos columns4 ,that the columns were disproportionately slim is evident from the consideration that five shafts of normal ,egyptian1 or ,greek ,doric1 proportions1 ten cubits high1 would have entirely occupied the narrow front of the tabernacle1 and have left no space for the intercolumniations4 ,mere tent-poles would have been sufficient1 as the building was provided with no fixed roof1 but was covered1 like the tents of ,bedouins1 with colored linen1 cloths of goat-hair1 and the skins of rams and seals4 ,as this covering received its chief support from the side walls1 a light epistyle of wood was sufficient to unite the summits of the front columns4 ,it cannot be said that there was any entablature1 in the proper sense of the word4 ,the proportions of the tabernacle1 three times as long as it was broad1 were like those of the ,egyptian temple4 ,it was divided into two unequal compartments1 the front1 f1 being twice the depth of the innermost holy of holies1 g4 ,the altar for incense1 h1 one cubit square in plan and two cubits high1 probably stood in the centre of the first space2 it was of acacia-wood1 covered with beaten gold4 ,like the altar for burnt-sacrifices1 its corners were ornamented with 8horns10 the nature of which has been variously explained1 but which could have been nothing else than corner acroteria1 like those upon the monuments1 sarcophagi1 etc41 of ,asia ,minor1 and those of the small altar found at ,um-el-,auamid1 in ,phnicia4 ,such acroteria--which do1 indeed1 somewhat resemble upright horns--were not merely for ornament1 but served to hold the golden lattice-work 7zer7 surrounding the top of the altar1 to prevent the scattering of coals4 ,next to the northern side-wall stood the table for shew-bread1 i2 in the southwestern corner of the space the seven-armed candlestick1 k1 was so obliquely placed that1 to a person entering1 its flames were in a line4 ,the form of the candlestick is known from the representation upon the ,arch of ,titus1 which1 though possibly not copied from the original--as ,josephus relates that only an imitation was paraded during the triumph of ,titus--yet agrees with the main points of the ,biblical description4 ,the seven arms consisted of three concentrical semicircles and a vertical staff1 all of which ended at the same height4 ,the base was polygonal1 and ornamented with sculptures1 the support decorated with leaves1 the arms represented branches with buds and blossoms1 ending in the open calyxes of the flowers which bore the lamps4 ,its importance1 as was the case with all the appurtenances of ,jewish worship1 was considerably greater in material than in artistic respects2 the candlestick was without doubt solid1 and was made of a talent of gold--worth more than four hundred pounds sterling4 ,a relief of ,thabarieh1 probably older than the ,christian era1 shows its general form2 it is given in ,fig4 #aja as further illustrative of the peculiar metallic style of the ,phnician-,israelitic art of stone-cutting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,relief of ,thabarieh4 ,the holy of holies1 a cubical space of ten cubits on the side1 was separated from the larger antechamber by four columns1 l1 which were also covered with gold1 and stood upon silver sockets2 they bore a second curtain of four colors4 ,this cella contained the palladium of the people1 the ark of the covenant1 m1 a coffer of acacia-wood1 two cubits and a half long and a cubit and a half high1 borne upon poles fixed in golden rings4 ,upon the lid1 the so-called mercy-seat1 were the figures of two cherubim1 monstrous combinations of bulls1 lions1 eagles1 and human bodies2 or1 at least1 of three of these--the body of either the lion or the bull being adopted4 ,though ,de ,saulcy and ,layard do not doubt that these cherubim were perfectly similar to the symbolical monsters before the portals of the palaces of ,nineveh1 it must not be forgotten that the ,jews were1 at this period of their wanderings1 so completely influenced by ,egyptian conceptions of art that peculiarly ,assyrian forms could not have existed in the tabernacle4 ,the cherubim must rather have been ,egyptian--entirely similar to the sphinxes1 which1 as has been seen1 frequently presented this same combination of human head and breast1 with the body of a lion4 ,neumann considers the cherubim to resemble the animals upon an ,assyrian ornament1 with sunken head and bent fore-legs2 but it is more probable that they were crouched like a sphinx1 or were1 perhaps1 sitting upon their hinder quarters1 like the figures of a ,phnician throne of rather later period published by ,renan4 ,they were carved in wood and overlaid with thin sheets of gold1 as was also the golden calf with which the ,israelites in the desert sought to imitate the ,egyptian idolatry of animals4 ,this is all that can be said of the ,jewish sculpture of the period2 the ,second ,commandment entirely prevented any independent development of art4 ,the form and arrangement of the tabernacle are in the main clear4 ,this is not the case with the monumental temple which ,solomon1 according to the plan of his great predecessor1 erected to take its place1 after ,king ,david had recovered1 and brought to the plateau of ,moriah 7at present known as ,haram-el-,sherif7 the ark of the covenant1 which had for some time been held as booty in the hands of enemies4 ,the ,biblical accounts enlarge1 after the well-known manner of the ,jews1 principally upon the great cost of the materials1 and are thus rather archological notices than artistic descriptions4 ,as might be expected from writers ignorant of art1 the statements are1 for the greater part1 vague and confused4 ,the conditions of ,jewish architecture and sculpture appear radically changed since the time of ,moses4 ,immediately after the exodus1 ,egyptian conceptions and manners of work were dominant2 but1 as time advanced without further direct communication between the two countries1 these became more and more outgrown1 and at last completely changed to a dependency upon the civilization and art of ,phnicia4 ,the ,egyptian element1 however1 by no means disappears1 for1 as has been seen1 it existed in ,phnicia itself1 as might be expected from its geographical position between ,mesopotamia and ,egypt3 ,the ,jews were not so far developed from a nomadic people as to be able themselves to create imposing architectural works4 ,these call for centuries of practice in the art of building4 ,the construction of their temple was given over to their northern neighbors1 the more readily as ,solomon was in friendly alliance with ,hiram1 ,king of ,tyre4 ,the ,tyrian architect ,hiram was sent with a great number of assistants to ,jerusalem4 ,stone-cutters of ,byblos worked1 with the aid of ,jews1 in the quarries of ,jerusalem2 the necessary timber was hewn in the ,phnician forests of ,lebanon2 and upon the ,jordan1 in the vicinity of ,scythopolis1 a metal-foundry for the temple ornaments was built under ,phnician direction4 ,an understanding of the activity among these artisans during the time of building may be obtained from a consideration of the number of workmen employed3 eighty thousand stone-cutters were assisted by seventy thousand bearers of burdens4 ,this multitude of laborers would not have needed one year to complete the temple1 far less the seven years actually employed 7#ajad to #ajjg ,b4,c471 had it not been for the imposing substructure of the rocky plateau1--a mass of masonry which may almost be compared to the ,egyptian pyramids2 surpassing the remains at ,ruad1 if not in the colossal size of the blocks1 at least in the exactitude of their workmanship4 ,from the numbers said to have labored in ,jerusalem at one time1 it appears probable that by far the greater part of the immense foundations was built under ,solomon1 though the supporting vaults of the southeastern corner are known to date from the time of ,herod1 if not even later4 ,the erection of enormous terraced foundations plays a prominent1 and at times even the most important1 part in the architecture of all the people of ,western ,asia4 ,the temple itself occupied but a very small part of the oblong area1 more than #aejj m4 in circumference1 which was gained by this artificial extension of the rocky plateau4 ,this space was provided with gates upon all four sides1 to some of which access was had by arched bridges2 it was surrounded by thick walls and double ranges of columns1 asserted by ,josephus to have been monolithic4 ,this outer court1 accessible to all1 contained a smaller interior enclosure formed by other colonnades1 and probably also by several large halls2 four gateways with gilded bronze doors led to the interior1 to which every worthy ,jew had access4 ,infidels were debarred from farther advance by a grating almost #a4e m4 high1 which enclosed the space corresponding to the outer court of the ,mosaic tabernacle4 ,the altar for burnt-offerings had been increased in plan to a square of twenty cubits1 and to a height of ten cubits2 an inclined ascent of considerable size was necessary to reach the summit4 ,it is believed that the kernel of this altar is the holy rock in the present ,mosque of ,omar4 ,the brazen laver 7the kijor7 had developed into the so-called molten sea1--a basin of ten cubits in diameter1 cast in bronze1 and supported at a height of five cubits upon the backs of twelve bronze oxen4 ,it may be conceived as very similar to the fountain of the ,court of the ,lions in the ,alhambra4 ,the oxen were so divided in groups of three that they faced the cardinal points of the compass1 8and all their hinder parts were inward40 ,these figures1 so purely ,phnician1 must have been far more similar to the productions of ,assyria than could have been the case with the ,mosaic cherubim4 ,their heads probably resembled that shown above 7,fig4 #ig7 upon the relief of ,saida1 their legs those of the primitive animals upon the monument of ,amrith 7,fig4 #ih71 or of the lions in the court of the ,alhambra4 ,the altar and the molten sea were situated before the front of the temple1 the axis of which was turned east and west1 at right angles to the general direction of the outer court1 which ran north and south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,vase ,discovered in ,cyprus4 ,the entrance to the temple was ornamented by two bronze columns1 known as ,jachin and ,boaz2 their height is given in different passages as #ah and #ce cubits1 and here begins the confusion caused by the ,biblical contradictions which make it so difficult to obtain a reliable understanding of the nature of ,solomon's building4 ,it cannot even be decided whether these columns were in the entrance1 as architectural supports1 or stood before the gates1 without a function1--they being spoken of as in1 upon1 and before the portico4 ,if they stood in the entrance itself1 as supports of its lintel 7as assumed by ,baehr71 it is probable that they did not divide its width into three equal intercolumniations4 ,the diameter of the shafts was four cubits1 and such an arrangement would so have occupied the total opening of the portal1 only fourteen cubits1 that but two cubits would have remained for each of the three passages4 ,it is more probable that they were placed next to the jambs in the manner assumed for the front of the tabernacle4 ,if the columns be supposed to have stood before the portico1 without any function of support1 like obelisks1 all difficulty is avoided4 ,in either case it would be important1 for an understanding of the style of ,solomon's ,temple and of ,phnician workmanship1 to comprehend the long description given of their capitals4 ,it is only clear that these were four or five cubits high1 and had the general form of lilies1 probably that of a calyx1 as if derived from the floral capitals of ,egypt4 ,a column discovered in the foundation vaults of the temple exhibits a peculiarly heavy capital of this kind1 which is1 however1 though evidently of primitive outline and proportions1 characterized by the acanthus-like carving as a work influenced by the later art of ,greece4 ,it is to be observed that the normal ,egyptian-bell calyx1 without additions1 could not be spoken of as having the form of a lily1 by which name the curled ends of leaves were usually designated in the ,orient4 ,the volutes thus especially referred to must have been similar to those upon the ,assyrian capital1 and notably to those of the rock-cut relief in the ,pass of ,mashnaka 7,fig4 #ii71 which1 situated upon ,phnician territory1 offer the most striking analogy4 ,an illustration of the extensive ornamental employment of the helix termination is offered by the decoration of a vase recently discovered in ,cyprus 7,fig4 #ajb71 and by pilaster capitals in the ,cesnola collection4 7,fig4 #ajg47 ,it is an anachronism to bring the columns1 because of their channelled shafts and some minor peculiarities1 into connection with the forms of ,persian architecture1 which could not have been developed so long before the time of ,cyrus4 ,the additions--wreaths of chains1 nets of checker-work1 hanging pomegranates1 etc4--of which the ,scriptures render a chaotic account1 cannot1 in detail1 be understood or explained4 ,if the shafts are supposed to have been united by a lattice-work of metal1 it is more natural to seek a parallel in the free-standing columns of an ,assyrian relief than in the canopies of ,persian thrones suggested by ,julius ,braun4 ,that the chains1 net-work1 and the pomegranates did not hang upon the capitals themselves has been argued by ,vogu1 from the analogy of an ancient capital of the ,mosque of ,haram1 and is made evident by ,braun's question1 how1 indeed1 it would be possible to count two hundred pomegranates strung around a capital at such a height above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,hypothetical ,plan and ,section of ,solomon's ,temple4 ,an important portal stood before the halls of the temple4 ,with a plan of #aj cubits deep and #bj cubits broad1 the astonishing height of #abj cubits is attributed to this tower1 a number appearing in the ,chronicles1 and repeated in the ,septuagint and by ,josephus1 so that it cannot be regarded as the mistake of a transcriber4 ,but even if the first measures are arbitrarily assumed to refer only to a small interior space enclosed by walls of enormous thickness1 the constructive impracticability of erecting a tower of such height is evident2 it appears impossible that the temple could have been preceded by a pile twice as high as the principal building was long1 and six times as high as this was broad6 ,we would not venture to present a restoration with such proportions1 and must agree with ,hirt1 ,streber1 ,de ,saulcy1 ,de ,vogu1 and others1 that the account is a ,scriptural exaggeration1 passed on from hand to hand4 ,it is hardly to be explained by the suggestions of ,de ,saulcy and ,streber4 ,the first of these authorities wishes to reduce the elevation by the supposition that one half of the entire height existed under the earth as a foundation1 so that only #fj cubits remained visible above4 ,this is ludicrous2 the solid rock beneath the temple rendered such remarkable foundations useless and impossible to execute4 ,streber1 also seeking to uphold the ,biblical authority1 would have it that the #abj cubits was obtained by adding together the heights of two pylons4 ,but this is no less inadmissible1 apart from the extreme improbability of heights having been given in so unwonted a manner2 the portal appears1 from its narrow width1 to have been a single tower1 and not divided1 like those of ,egypt1 into two separate pylons4 ,it is at least probable1 however1 that the structure rose above the main building2 like the pylons of ,egypt1 it must have had a marked talus1 and without doubt a cornice of scotia and roundlet1 as these forms appear upon the monumental tombs of ,siloam 7,fig4 #ajd7--the oldest of ,palestine--and as this cornice was common in ,phnicia1 and appears also in ,assyria1 upon the temple terrace of ,kisr ,sargon1 and in ,persia1 over door and window openings4 ,the entrance1 #ad cubits broad1 was probably diminished as its walls ascended1 sloping like the outer angle of the elevation1 so that the construction of the lintel presents little difficulty1 especially when we consider the enormous stones employed in the restoration of the building by ,herod1 some of which ,josephus relates to have been #e and #f cubits broad and thick1 and #de 767 cubits long4 ,above the lintel the same principle of a relieving triangle seems to have been practised1 as may be observed in various parts of ,egypt and in ,myken3 the blocks over the door did not lie directly upon the lintel1 but gradually approached from both sides above the jambs1 leaving between them a gable-shaped opening1 which was closed1 in order to spare the beam beneath1 by only a slab of marble1 as at ,myken1 or by light1 thin masonry4 ,this method of construction is indicated by the mention that a golden candlestick1 dedicated by ,queen ,helena1 was so placed over the temple entrance as to be shone upon by the sun2 and especially by the reference to a triangle existing over the door which opened into the holy of holies4 ,the first gate had jambs of olive-wood and movable doors of cypress1 both overlaid with gold4 ,it led to the larger hall1 #bj cubits broad1 #dj cubits long1 and #cj cubits high2 to which adjoined the holy of holies1 a cubical space of #bj cubits side4 ,the access to this1 permitted in rare instances1 was through a richly carved door1 overlaid with gold and draped with a magnificent curtain4 ,the separating wall was of gilded cedar4 ,these two halls were surrounded upon all sides1 with the exception of the front1 by a large number of small chambers1 in three stories1 lighted from without by three rows of windows4 ,these secondary sacristies were each #e cubits in height within1 and1 with their ceilings1 must have attained an altitude of #bj cubits4 ,the holy of holies was consequently entirely surrounded1 and must have been without windows1 and dark4 ,the larger space still rose #aj cubits above this side structure1 and in this clerestory its windows1 which are especially mentioned1 must have found place4 ,the flat roof1 or1 rather1 the terraces upon different heights of which it was composed1 mounted from the holy of holies to the portal tower in steps somewhat more than #bj1 #cj1 and perhaps #fj cubits high4 ,according to ,eupolemo 7,eusebius71 the covering was of copper sheathing4 ,the temple bore an upper story1 explicitly described by ,josephus1 as it appeared after ,herod's reconstruction of the building1 but which is only once mentioned before his time1 with the remark that these upper chambers were overlaid with gold 7#b ,chron4 iii4 #i74 ,the height of this second story is evident from ,josephus1 who gives #fj cubits as the total elevation of the building1 while the space beneath it had but #cj cubits in this dimension4 ,in regard to the extent of its plan1 it must be assumed that it was not built above the lateral chambers or the holy of holies1 as the height of the principal hall was far greater than that of the chambers2 this would have made the upper story on entirely different levels1 and have required staircases large enough to occupy the whole of the space above the #bj square cubits of the holy of holies2 and the height of this chamber would1 upon the exterior1 have become thrice that of its length and breadth--namely1 #fj cubits4 ,such deformities1 impracticable of execution1 without purpose1 and offending all sense of fitness and beauty1 may be rejected when the authorities for them are indefinite and contradictory1 or1 as is the case with ,maimonides 7#aaij ,a4,d471 are assuredly unauthentic4 ,it is probable that the upper story was built only upon the ceiling of the larger hall2 and that it was not formed of the massive materials employed for the walls of the lower temple1 but1 as is indicated by the statement that these upper chambers were overlaid with gold1 was built lightly of wood4 ,such a manner of construction would have permitted a passage to be left around it in the width of the hall ceiling1 thus uniting the suitability and the sthetic advantages of a terraced form1 and agreeing with ,mesopotamian and ,persian analogies4 ,the suggestion may even be ventured that it was by a misunderstanding connected with these upper chambers that the fabulous height of #abj cubits was originally assigned to the portal tower1 which1 perhaps1 was regarded as twice the height of the principal hall2 if the elevation of the lower hall and the upper-story had been taken together1 if #fj cubits had been doubled in the place of #cj1 this would account for the #abj cubits taking the place of the more probable #fj4 ,the lower walls of the temple were built of hewn blocks of white marble4 ,the remarkable statement that a layer of cypress or cedar beams always followed upon one of stone cannot be explained otherwise than as a reference to the interior revetment of the masonry with wood4 ,the wall of the court1 where the beams are said to have followed three courses of stone1 must be considered as of triple thickness1 its quarried blocks being hidden by a sheathing1 like that of the temple4 ,the statement that the ceiling joists of the smaller surrounding chambers were not sunk into the stone wall itself1 but were borne upon the beams1 now becomes intelligible2 they rested upon the studding of the wooden revetment4 ,the entire interior of the temple1 exclusive of the passage through the portico1 is particularly asserted to have been provided with this sheathing4 ,the partition between the holy of holies and the principal hall was probably altogether of wood1 as here only the two revetments were visible4 ,upon these walls were sculptured ornaments overlaid with beaten gold4 ,this wood-carving1 with its surface of sheet-metal1 here took the place of the sculptured and painted decoration upon the walls of ,nineveh2 it is in this point that the chief difference between the mural treatment of ,upper ,mesopotamia and ,phnicia appears to have consisted4 ,quarries of alabaster were common in ,assyria2 ,mount ,lebanon1 on the other hand1 provided the most beautiful wood for carving1 and ,phnician commerce procured the metals for the characteristic beaten work--the sphyrelaton4 ,the few notices preserved concerning the decorations of ,solomon's ,temple prove them to have been similar1 in both subject and design1 to those of ,nineveh2 they represented cherubim1 palms 7the so-called tree of life71 and floral wreaths4 ,it was only in the cherubim and in the oxen bearing the molten sea that the exercise of sculpture in the full round was at all permitted1 and these subjects did not greatly encourage the artistic study of nature4 ,the cherubim stood in the holy of holies as guardians of the ark of the covenant4 ,they were independent colossal figures1 carved of olive-wood and overlaid with beaten gold4 ,they were no longer1 as in the ,mosaic tabernacle1 upon the lid of the ark--the mercy-seat--in a recumbent or sitting position1 but stood at either side of the holy coffer1 and were without doubt greatly different in style from their predecessors4 ,in the consideration of the cherubim of the tabernacle1 the similarity of these works to ,assyrian parallels was denied1 for the ,israelites1 immediately after the exodus1 were naturally acquainted alone with the artistic traditions of ,egypt2 but this was by no means the case in the time of ,solomon1 when we have to deal with ,phnician styles1--that is to say1 with a combination of various manners of artistic conception and expression4 ,the cherubim of ,solomon may fairly be assumed to have in the main resembled the monstrous guardians of ,assyrian palaces2 the chief deviation from the cherubim of ,nineveh was that their wings were not folded closely1 but were outstretched as if for flight1 so that the tips of their feathers touched together over the ark of the sanctuary1 and extended to the side walls of the holy of holies1 measuring ten cubits in entire span4 ,the ark of the covenant itself and the other vessels of the temple were either overlaid with gold or were of the solid metal4 ,the altar of incense1 the shew-bread table1 and the seven-armed candlestick remained as they had been in the tabernacle2 to them were added1 besides many less important utensils1 ten further lamp-holders of gold4 ,as the beaten metal not only extended over all the carved walls of wooden sheathing1 but even covered the horizontal ceiling1 the eye saw nothing but gold--a decoration which the many-flamed candlesticks must have rendered particularly brilliant1 but which was eminently barbaric1 as the metal was probably not enlivened by colored enamels4 ,it is in questionable taste1 even in the most prominent members of an architectural composition1 to outbid the artistic expression of a work by employing for it a material of too striking intrinsic value2 but it is wholly condemnable to paralyze the concentrating effect1 which is always attained by the moderate use of a very bright and valuable material1 by its universal employment1 and thus to lose the precious character of the centre through the attempted magnificence of the whole4 ,as is well known1 ,solomon's ,temple was destroyed at the command of the ,babylonian ,king ,nebuchadnezzar1 in #ehg ,b4,c4 ,the attempt to rebuild it was not entirely successful until ,cyrus ended the ,babylonian exile1 and not only permitted the building to proceed1 but even returned the sacred utensils1 which had been carried off as booty1 and kept in the ,temple of ,bel4 ,this reconstruction1 named1 after the ruler1 ,zerubbabel1 was not completed until after forty-six years1 when1 under ,darius1 all the difficulties in the way of its prosecution were overcome4 ,there is reason for supposing that the influence of ,persia made itself felt upon the style of the new work1 but nothing of importance to the history of art is directly known concerning it4 ,the magnificent restoration of ,herod1 commenced in #af or #ae ,b4,c41 was executed in ten years1 to be destroyed within a century by ,titus1 so that1 literally1 not one stone remained upon the other4 ,the remodelled temple is not important to the history of ,phnician-,israelitic art2 though the original plan and arrangement were in the main preserved1 its style became a debasement of the ,greek and ,roman orders4 ,the gigantic platform1 the site of the building with which so many remarkable events are connected1 will always continue to be of peculiar interest in the history of the world's development4 ,the description of ,solomon's palace given by the ,scriptures is too vague to convey any adequate conception of it4 ,it was a building extended by columns and provided with an upper story3 the shafts were of cedar-wood2 their form is not mentioned4 ,the walls were of stone1 hewn rectangularly1 as might be expected from the similar masonry of the temple4 ,the cedar beams of the ceiling must be supposed1 agreeably to ,solomon's preference for costly materials1 to have been overlaid with gold4 ,there is nothing in these descriptions to suggest ,persian arrangement or details1 which did not develop from ,assyrian methods of building until four centuries later4 ,as the ,phnician architecture of this epoch can be compared to that of no younger land than ,mesopotamia1 and as the plans of the known ,assyrian palaces are provided with no halls of columns1 it is natural to seek for the origin of the hypostyle disposition in ,egyptian elements1 which1 in other respects1 take so important a place in the development of ,israelitic art4 ,buildings of wood overlaid with metal are1 on the other hand1 peculiarly characteristic of the ,syrian coast4 ,all this magnificence has totally disappeared1 and it would be natural to expect that1 as in other parts of ,western ,asia1 the rock-cut tombs in the vicinity of ,jerusalem1 preserved by their indestructibility1 would give the most direct and trustworthy information concerning the ,phnician-,israelitic style4 ,but the more ancient of these monuments--those erected before the time of the ,seleucid--are of such extreme simplicity that1 from lack of detail1 they convey no understanding of ,phnician columns and entablatures1 nor1 indeed1 of any characteristic architectural forms4 ,a simple stairway leads to the smaller grotto graves1 which1 excavated in the cliff1 were once closed by slabs of stones4 ,their plan is generally square1 the ceiling cut to the form of a flat barrel-vault4 ,in the larger family sepulchres the burial-chambers are grouped around an antechamber1 the bodies in them being placed upon stone benches or pushed into coffin-like niches4 ,when the entrance is at all architecturally characterized upon the exterior1 which is of comparatively rare occurrence1 it displays the heavy ,egyptian scotia and roundlet 7,fig4 #ajd71 or a simple framing with a gable and a ridge acroterium of double volutes1 like the rock-cut tombs of ,phrygia4 7,fig4 #aje47 ,where there is carved foliage in the gables and friezes1 as upon the so-called tombs of the judges and kings1 these are the conventional traces of a later period1 though these ornaments frequently retain in design and execution the peculiar dry angularity characteristic of the imitation of beaten metal which is so universal in ,phnicia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,rock-cut ,tomb of ,siloam4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,rock-cut ,tomb of ,hinnom4 ,the influence of ,greece and ,rome is distinctly betrayed in the so-called ,tomb of ,jacob1 the pretended sepulchres of the kings1 and the tombs attributed1 without reason1 to ,absalom and ,zachariah4 ,these monuments1 some of which have been cut entirely from the native rock1 are ornamented by ,doric friezes with ,roman disks in the metopes1 and by ,doric and ,ionic columns and engaged shafts1 which reproduced the debased forms which characterize the treatment of ,greek architecture under the ,romans4 ,yet in all this there are still traces of national peculiarities4 ,at times vegetable ornaments1 grapes and grape-leaves1 pomegranates1 ivy1 laurel1 and acorns fill the tympanon and the frieze1 interrupted by the triglyphs4 ,the general form of the two last-named tombs is peculiar4 ,that of ,zachariah is a cube of a little over #e m4 on the side2 that of ,absalom of almost #g m4 ,they are ornamented by pilasters and debased ,ionic engaged shafts1 and have heavy cornices of the ,egyptian roundlet and scotia1 to which is added1 upon the ,tomb of ,absalom1 a late ,doric frieze4 ,the former is concluded by a pyramid1 #c4f m4 high1 cut also from the native rock1 a termination which gives to the general form a certain similarity to the ,tomb of ,amrith known as the ,snail-tower4 ,the latter supports upon the cube a smaller and much lower mass of masonry1 built of quarried stones1 and bearing upon a doubly stepped cylindrical base a cone of concave outline1 which terminates1 at a height of #ac4e m4 above the ground1 in a clumsy1 tulip-like flower4 ,the entrance to the burial-chamber cut in the rock substructure of ,absalom's tomb has been broken in above the scotia cornice2 the traces of nails upon the walls of the small space point to the customary sheathing of metal4 ,notwithstanding such isolated reminiscences of indigenous--that is to say1 ,phnician--manners of building1 it is impossible to agree with several noted authorities in recognizing1 in the ,doric and ,ionic details which appear combined with them1 predecessors and models of the ,hellenic development of these styles4 ,such prototypes should least be sought among a people who1 possessing no art of their own1 did but borrow from their neighbors4 ,and1 moreover1 these forms appear by no means to be primitive attempts1 but clearly exhibit the lifelessness and debasement of the latest period of ,greek architectural history4 ,these monuments may safely be ascribed to the last two centuries ,b4,c4 ,although the ,corinthian order almost entirely superseded the older styles in ,italy during the time of the ,csars1 these provincial ,doric and ,ionic forms may still be assumed to date rather from the later than from the earlier half of this period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--,tomb at ,paphos in ,cyprus4 ,palestine1 in the history of art1 may be regarded as a domain of ,phnicia1 and the same thing may be said of ,cyprus and of ,carthage4 ,all the eastern coast of the ,mediterranean1 lying as it did between the great powers of civilization in the valley of the ,nile and the plain of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 seemed destined by nature1 as we have seen1 to combine the artistic peculiarities of ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,cyprus1 in a somewhat similar position1 shared the ,phnician civilization and was also exposed to the influence of the ,greeks1 especially to that of the ,dorians1 who had founded colonies upon the southern islands of the gean1 and who early possessed a stronghold in ,crete4 ,it is therefore not surprising that upon the rock-cut tombs of ,cyprus the ,doric style of architecture was not restricted to the late and debased forms found upon the tombs near ,jerusalem1 but may occasionally be met with in a very primitive state of development4 ,an instance of this is offered by a tomb near ,paphos4 7,fig4 #ajf47 ,in general1 the position of the island exposed it more to the influence of ,egypt than of ,mesopotamia2 it is not evident in how marked a degree this was felt4 ,of the chief ,phnician sanctuary upon ,cyprus--the ,temple of ,astarte at ,paphos--there exist only insufficient representations upon coins and upon an engraved gem of the ,museo ,pio-,clementino4 ,these prove no more than that1 within a circular enclosure of lattice-work1 there stood a tall structure towering above low side-buildings1 which were supported1 like porticos1 upon columns4 ,two ,egyptian shafts appear to have been placed before the entrance1 without function as supports1 and1 like ,jachin and ,boaz1 without strictly architectural purpose4 ,still less is known of the temples of ,amathus and ,golgoi4 ,it is hardly probable that the remains of a building discovered by ,general ,cesnola in the village of ,atienu1 near the present port of ,larnaka 7the ,biblical ,chitim and ,greek ,kition7 are those of the world-famed ,temple of ,aphrodite at ,golgoi4 ,the structure seems rather to have been a treasure-house1 in some way connected with the great temple1 which once contained1 with the votive statues there discovered1 other objects belonging to the temenos4 ,the oblong plan with irregular entrances1 the bareness of its walls1 and especially the carelessly arranged pedestals which filled the space within1 seem to point to its original destination as that of a magazine4 ,the only objects of architectural interest discovered in these remains are the columns which flank the doors1 in a position corresponding to that of the columns of the ,mosaic tabernacle4 ,the bases1 found in position1 are channelled like those of ,persia4 ,the shafts and capitals are not preserved4 ,the form of the latter may perhaps be surmised from a comparison of fragments in the ,cesnola collection 7,fig4 #ajg71 analogous to the capitals of ,mashnaka1 to the double spirals of ,assyrian architecture1 and to the descriptions given of the lily-capitals of ,solomon's ,temple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,cyprian ,pilaster ,capitals4 ,cesnola's discoveries upon ,cyprus are more important in sculptural than in architectural respects1 and are worthy to rank with those of ,botta1 ,layard1 and ,schliemann4 ,the chief works are limestone statues of various sizes4 ,to these are added1 from the investigations of other ruins1 doubtless of tombs1 a great number of minor articles3 terra-cotta figures1 vases and lamps1 and various objects of glass1 metal1 etc4 ,these works are easily divided into two great groups1 each of peculiar style1 with which the inscriptions that have been discovered agree in general character and in relative number4 ,among the eighty-five inscriptions found up to #ahgj1 thirty-three are ,greek1 twenty ,phnician1 and thirty-two ,cyprian4 ,the styles of ,phnician and ,cyprian sculpture resemble each other far more closely than did the languages of those countries1 so that in the comparative rarity of examples it is difficult to distinguish the origin of these works4 ,they show a kind of compromise between ,egyptian1 ,syrian 7,assyrian71 and early ,greek methods--a combination agreeing with the geographical position of the island1 and with the descent and history of its inhabitants4 ,all ,cyprian sculpture shows1 in so far as it is not influenced by a reflection of the later ,greek and ,roman forms1 the ,phnician style which has been described as developed from beaten metal-work2 this is evident even in the stone carvings4 7,figs4 #ajh and #aji47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,votive ,figure from ,cyprus ,the destruction of ,carthage is as famous for its completeness as that of ,jerusalem1 which1 indeed1 it resembled in other respects1 and it is natural that but few traces of this magnificent ,queen of the ,sea should have been preserved4 ,recent ,french and ,english investigations under ,bente and ,davis describe the considerable remains of the fortification walls of the ,byrsa1 built of colossal blocks of tufa4 ,their great thickness1 #aj m41 permitted the formation of semicircular chambers in three superposed stories1 which1 being accessible from within1 served as casemates and magazines4 ,the numerous rock-cut tombs are1 as in ,phnicia1 provided with steps from above1 and form an oblong crypt1 about which the deep niches for the reception of bodies are grouped4 ,the remains of barbaric temples upon ,malta and the neighboring islands are of subordinate importance1 if indeed they are to be mentioned at all1 in the consideration of ,phnician art4 ,the double temple upon ,gozo is the most important of them4 ,it consists of two adjoining spaces1 each concluded by a semicircular apse1 having upon both sides similar niches1 so that the entire enclosure appears as a combination of apses around an oblong4 ,the pavement is partly of rectangular blocks1 so stepped as to show an interior division2 but the ,cyclopean masonry of the walls is so rough that1 in its entire lack of ornamental treatment1 the structure has but little interest for the history of art1 and permits no conclusions concerning ,phnician architecture1 which elsewhere produced such incomparable masonry of hewn stones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,cyprian ,head4 ,the funeral monuments of the remaining ,punic lands1 of the ,balearic ,isles1 and notably of ,sardinia1 though of greater artistic value1 are fully as uncertain in their origin4 ,their form is at times like that of the monuments of ,amrith2 yet they may very possibly be of ,etruscan derivation1 for1 apart from their resemblance to the tombs of ,etruria1 they are almost exclusively upon the eastern coast of ,sardinia1 the side turned towards ,italy1 while the ,phnicians would more naturally have come in contact with the western part of the island4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,rock-cut ,tomb at ,antiphellos4 ,the most advanced outpost of the extended civilization of ,phnicia was ,asia ,minor4 ,under the dominion of the ,seleucid and of the ,romans1 the influence of ,greek art was so felt upon the ,syrian coast1 and even as far as the banks of the ,tigris1 that purely national works of architecture and sculpture are comparatively rare4 ,but this influence was doubly great in the land of which1 from the earliest times1 the ,ionians had possessed the seaboard1 and where they had founded a number of flourishing cities which had attained to a degree of prosperity and culture not less than that of their relatives upon the peninsula of the ,peloponnesos4 ,yet1 although ,ionian art bore some of its finest fruit upon ,asiatic soil1 and from roots which may partly be traced back to ,mesopotamia1 this can be historically treated only in connection with the civilization of ,greece and its common origin and development4 ,hellenic ,asia ,minor and the countries under its influence--that is to say1 the coasts and islands of the gean1 ,propontis and ,pontus--cannot be separately considered4 ,all the sculpture of these regions must therefore be reserved for a later page2 but there are a few architectural monuments of the southern coast and of the interior which require our present attention as being peculiarly national4 ,yet even in these territories1 divided according to their ancient population into ,lycia1 ,phrygia1 and ,lydia1 all the monumental architecture was greatly affected by the long ,asiatic sway of the ,diadochi1 and by the military power of ,rome4 ,the temples and public edifices gave up their national peculiarities for manners of building characteristic of ,greece and ,rome4 ,it was only in the tombs that original conceptions retained a stubborn hold4 ,these1 when cut in the rock1 became imitations of the dwellings of the country4 ,types of house construction were represented which had been determined by the climatic necessities and by different building materials of each province4 ,by their massive simplicity and by the popular consideration that a changeless dwelling best suited the quiet repose of the dead1 the rock-cut tombs retained their primitive peculiarities without sensible alteration1 being exposed only to unimportant modifications4 ,little reference was made in them to the advance of artistic or constructional methods from age to age4 ,though we have to deal exclusively with the tombs of the country1 they allow us to draw conclusions concerning the appearance of other buildings1 whether temples or dwellings1 which they had taken as their models4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,rock-cut ,tomb at ,antiphellos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,rock-cut ,tomb at ,myra4 ,next to the ,phnician coast1 and opposite ,phnician ,cyprus1 lies ,lycia1 embracing the greater part of the southern sea-line of ,asia ,minor4 ,it calls for chief consideration because of its almost numberless tombs1 some of which are admirably preserved1 and because of their instructive variety4 ,entire cliffs1 like the ,necropolis of ,myra1 shown in ,fig4 #ic at the head of this section1 are literally covered with such monumental faades1 picturesquely grouped according to the natural configuration of the rock4 ,the greater number are excavated grottoes1 the fronts of which are careful imitations of timbered houses4 ,they might be called log-house tombs if other than the roof beams were of unsquared trunks4 ,the interstices between the framing1 when not remaining open as an entrance1 are closed by panels4 ,the individuality of these monuments is as marked as could have been possible among the dwellings of ,lycian mountaineers1 whose wealth was not great1 and whose architectural demands did not much vary4 ,an exact imitation of the ingenious carpentry is cut in the rock down to the smallest detail3 the stiles of the panelling1 the round unhewn timbers of the roof1 the clamping and dovetailing of the beams1 and the primitive tree-nails with which these are secured are shown with the greatest distinctness4 ,the appearance of the whole1 when intact1 must have resembled a petrified village4 ,these groups of tombs are among the most curious and striking remains of antiquity4 ,the attempt was made by several races of early civilization to prepare a funeral-chamber which should resemble as closely as possible the dwellings inhabited during life2 but this intention was not elsewhere so thoroughly carried out1 and never resulted in so piquant a contradiction to the material in which it was executed4 ,the native rock was made completely to deny its nature1 and to present the image of a distinctively wooden construction4 ,upon abrupt cliffs this was usually restricted to a faade1 which at times was very simple1 but quite characteristic1 as in a tomb at ,antiphellos 7,fig4 #aaj71 where the wooden framing underneath the flat projecting roof forms two windows1 left open as entrances to the cavern4 ,a somewhat more complicated example is shown by another tomb of this site 7,fig4 #aaa71 which is especially remarkable on account of the carefully imitated coping of the cross-beams4 ,in this case only one of the door and window panels is open1 and a gabled roof appears1 which seems to have been customary in ,asia ,minor1 and to some degree in ,phnicia4 ,the framing of an interior or of side walls is also shown by the stone imitation1 as in the case of a fine example at ,myra 7,fig4 #aab71 which seems to illustrate the utmost limit of the style4 ,but here the contradiction between the form and the material is so glaring that the curious elegance of the result does not redeem it4 ,the repeating of wooden constructions in stone without any modification--which is at first sight1 and in less extent1 pleasing and piquant--has here become disagreeably obtrusive4 ,this is still more striking upon the rarer monumental sarcophagi at ,phellos and ,myra1 where the block-house is carved in the full round from the native rock4 ,these works represent the wooden model upon all four sides1 so completely and conscientiously that it would be possible1 by their aid1 to reconstruct the dwelling-house of a ,lycian mountaineer in wood--to repeat from such a petrified copy the original1 though its frail materials perished more than twenty centuries ago4 ,it is curious how greatly the present huts of the country resemble their antique predecessors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,so-called ,monument of the ,harpies at ,xanthos4 ,near these tombs1 in some instances even connected with them1 though usually independent1 stand upright monuments of the nature of obelisks1 but with an upper member characteristic of ,lycia4 ,in place of the pyramidal point of ,egypt1 or of the hemispherical or stepped termination of ,phnicia and ,assyria1 there is here a cornice of projecting slabs1 upon which rests a small but comparatively high block4 ,the most important example is that known as the ,monument of the ,harpies 7,fig4 #aac71 now in considerable part transported to the ,lycian ,hall of the ,british ,museum4 ,it consisted of a gigantic monolith bearing a small burial-chamber1 the enclosing slabs of which were ornamented by the famous reliefs1 so important in the history of ,greek sculpture4 ,the third group of ,lycian sepulchral monuments1 the smaller sarcophagi1 is the most numerous1 forming at times an extended necropolis4 ,though the majority are not free from ,hellenic influences1 they yet generally maintain the peculiar national characteristics1 being imitations of wooden constructions somewhat similar to the rock-cut tombs4 ,the lid in some instances appears to be of slat-work1 and1 instead of the semicircular gable common in ,phnicia1 presents a pointed arch4 ,the cornice dentils distinctly betray their derivation from the projecting ceiling beams1 which1 upon the block-house tombs1 had still preserved the round form of unhewn timbers4 ,a tomb at ,antiphellos 7,fig4 #aad7 has a channel cut upon the summit of the lid1 probably to serve as a socket for the ridge-crestings4 ,the heads of lions and other projecting ornaments upon the sides enrich the architectural treatment4 ,the monument cannot be spoken of as a sarcophagus1 in the true sense of the word1 for its lid was not movable1 the body being introduced from the front1 where window-like openings were provided for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,sarcophagus at ,antiphellos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,rock-cut ,tomb at ,telmissos4 ,a fourth class of ,lycian rock-cut tombs1 those with a faade resembling a small temple-front1 is of particular interest to the history of architecture4 ,many among these display the influence of a late ,hellenic period1 yet some preserve such primitive forms as to make it certain that ,lycia took a prominent part in the development of the ,ionic style--that the southern coast of ,asia ,minor was an important station1 marking the advance of artistic culture from ,mesopotamia to the gean ,sea4 ,these tombs generally represent the front of a temple in antis--that is to say1 of a portico with two columns between the advanced side walls4 ,the predominant ,ionic forms are singularly primitive in the capital and entablature1 the greater number of the examples showing no trace of the decline of the style1 or of the ,roman type1 so easily recognizable by the formal character of the details4 ,these differ greatly1 and seem to show the experiments of an early period of development1 which may still have been contemporaneous with a far higher advance of the style upon the more northern coasts of the gean ,sea and ,sporades1 being influenced in a different degree by the same ,western ,asiatic motives4 ,the important combination which characterizes the perfection of ,ionic architecture--the conjunction of the volute with the ,doric echinos beneath it--does not appear upon these capitals2 the spiral has not a graceful curve1 and the contraction of the side rolls of the volute is lacking2 the abacus is badly profiled1 and the shafts are often joined without a curve to the clumsy bases4 7,compare ,fig4 #aaf47 ,as was always the case among the ,orientals1 who knew of no independent gable and roof formation above the ceiling1 the entablature consisted of only two members1--the epistyle1 uniting the columns1 and the terminating cornice4 ,the triple division of the entablature1 of so marked importance in the perfected style1 was not known2 even the two members here occurring were not sharply defined1 and the dentils of the cornice were fully developed at a time when their original constructive significance had not yet been forgotten in their decorative application4 ,the gable acroteria are clumsy knops1 similar to the circular ridge ornaments and the horn-like corner pieces of ,phnician monuments4 ,in short1 we may trace in the rock-cut tombs of ,lycia1 if not a ,proto-,ionic style1 yet a distinct parallel development of the most primitive ,ionic forms4 ,these did not exclude the influence of ,greece1 after the full perfection of the style had been attained1 but rather prepared its way4 ,an example of such later semi-,hellenic work may be observed in the magnificent monument of ,xanthos1 built in the middle of the fourth century ,b4,c4 as a trophy after the capture of ,telmissos by the ,xanthians4 ,this also has been in part transported to the ,british ,museum4 ,this structure was not cut from the solid rock1 but was built of quarried stones4 ,it shows the full development of ,ionic forms4 ,upon a comparatively high substructure there stood a cella surrounded by columns--of a peripteral arrangement rare in ,lycia1 where all the tombs which represent temples seem to show that the national places of worship1 like those of ,assyria and ,phnicia1 were restricted to a portico in antis1 the evolution of the peripteros being an improvement of the ,greeks4 ,the nave originality observable in the ,ionic does not exist in the more isolated ,doric forms1 although a few very archaic monuments of the latter style are known4 ,their existence is explained by the vicinity of ,crete1 that southern outpost of early ,doric culture1 as well as by the neighboring ,doric colonies which flourished upon the southwestern extremity of ,asia ,minor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,details of ,columns from ,telmissos1 ,myra1 and ,antiphellos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,so-called ,tomb of ,midas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,phrygian ,rock-cut ,tomb near ,doganlu4 ,lycia appears to have had but little influence upon the other countries of the seaboard1 which were almost entirely ,hellenized2 nor did its influence penetrate as far into the interior country as ,phrygia1 where the civilization of the ,greeks was introduced only by way of the gean and ,pontic coasts4 ,there were neither frequented ports nor navigable streams to open the way4 ,the tracklessness of wooded mountains restricted the commercial and intellectual horizon of the ,phrygians1 who1 as a nomadic people1 were contented with the slightest artistic exertion4 ,in the same way as the ,lycian carved his wooden hut upon the face of the cliff1 that he might retain after his death the beloved dwelling of his life1 the ,phrygian ornamented the front of his grotto graves by a representation of his movable house1 the nomadic tent4 ,only the cloth of the tent1 with its woven pattern1 was shown2 its constructive ribs1 not visible upon the exterior of the original1 were omitted from the imitation4 ,the most important of these tomb frontispieces1 between ,kiutahija and ,sivrihissar upon the ,saquaria1 which are attributed to ,phrygian kings1 is called by the ,turks ,yasili-,kaia 7the inscribed stone74 7,fig4 #aag47 ,it is known as the ,tomb of ,midas from the one legible word1 ,midai1 occurring in an unintelligible inscription4 ,upon the face of the cliff there is cut a square surface1 #aa m4 broad and about #i m4 high1 terminated above by a low gable1 which1 with the acroterium1 adds #c m4 to the height of the whole4 ,the triangle is framed by a light lattice-work in low relief1 and crowned with two volutes1 similar to the circular ridge decorations of ,phnician tombs4 ,the tympanon is not carved1 but probably1 with the entire front1 was painted4 ,the extensive rectangular surface beneath is covered with a complicated meander ornament in relief--a play of lines evidently taken from a woven pattern and resembling the decorations of ,moorish walls1 where the fundamental motive was also the tent-cloth4 ,the border of this surface represents1 without conventionalization1 an edging set with precious stones1 such as may have been customary upon costly ,syrian stuffs4 ,the small interior chamber was only large enough for the reception of a sarcophagus4 ,the entrance to it was not marked by any architectural features--even as the tent itself was not provided with a door--but the passage was originally closed by a slab1 upon the face of which the woven pattern was without doubt continued4 ,a second tomb of the vicinity1 also marked by an undecipherable inscription1 is of similar character4 7,fig4 #aah47 ,the gable represents a wooden construction1 somewhat like the framing of ,lycian sarcophagi2 its double acroterium is decorated with three rosettes4 ,the principal surface1 the square below1 is without carving1 and had probably a painted pattern4 ,a third frontispiece of this type shows a floral frieze of alternate palmettoes and buds1 resembling an ,assyrian motive1 but inverted1 perhaps because its direct model was the border of a carpet4 ,it recalls the hanging rows of pomegranates upon the columns ,jachin and ,boaz of ,solomon's ,temple4 ,the cliffs of ,phrygia are honey-combed by such rock-cut tombs4 ,especially in the district north of ,seid-el-,ar are there numberless small grottoes1 the entrances to which are either perfectly plain or provided only with a simple triangular gable--all giving proof of the rarity of artistic effort among these idyllic mountains4 ,the influence of ,assyrian and ,persian methods is evident even to the west of the river ,halys1 the border of the ,mesopotamian dominion before ,cyrus2 but upon its farther banks1 in ,eastern ,phrygia1 ,oriental art is universally prevalent4 ,at ,eyuk there are remains1 supposed to be those of a temple1 with a portal flanked by monsters like the cherubim of ,nineveh and ,persepolis4 ,at ,boghaz-,kieui1 besides rock-cut reliefs entirely similar to those of ,persia1 there are the foundations of a terrace with the ruins of a palace1 built upon the plan of the royal dwellings of ,persepolis4 ,lydia1 the last of the three independent countries of ,asia ,minor1 was so near to the ,ionic cities of the coast1 and so exposed to the influence of their civilization1 that but few national peculiarities were preserved in the historical period4 ,the tumulus was there1 as in early ,greece1 the customary form of the monumental tomb4 ,in ,lydia1 as in ,etruria1 numbers of these mounds stood in an extended necropolis4 ,the conical tumulus is as characteristic a form for the extreme west of ,asia ,minor1 for the ,troad1 as the strictly geometrical pyramid is for ,egypt1 or its terraced variation for ,mesopotamia4 ,the mound of earth was at times reveted with a masonry of large polygonal blocks1 or placed upon a low cylindrical drum of such ,cyclopean walls2 the only architectural ornaments were simple base and cornice mouldings4 ,the best-preserved1 though not the most important1 monument of this kind is the so-called ,grave of ,tantalos upon ,mount ,sipylos1 near ,smyrna1 one of a group of twelve4 7,fig4 #aai47 ,the rectangular chamber in its centre1 #c4e m4 long and almost #c m4 high1 is roofed by a false vault1 the horizontal1 gradually projecting stones being cut within to the outline of a pointed arch4 ,the entrance to this tumulus1 like the shafts of the ,egyptian pyramids1 was hidden by the casing of exterior masonry4 ,the fragments of a stone pier near by1 somewhat like the ,meghazil monument of ,amrith1 probably belonged to the ornament upon the summit of the cone1 which1 with a diameter of plan equal to #cc4f m41 attained a height of #bg4f m4 ,of greater grandeur1 though in an entire state of destruction1 are the royal graves of the ,lydian capital4 ,the world-renowned name of ,sardis has been preserved in the appellation of the squalid village ,sarabat now standing upon its site4 ,in its vicinity are the remains of more than one hundred tumuli4 ,the most important of these1 with a cylindrical drum #beg m4 in diameter and #ah4e m4 high1 still rises to an elevation of #fa4e m4 ,it is with some probability identified with that monument of ,alyattes described by ,herodotos1 who exaggerates its dimensions to a diameter of #djj m4 ,the cone of rammed earth was apparently not reveted with stone4 ,upon its apex there was a pier of five blocks1 which bore a hemispherical termination2 of this various fragments have been found4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,the ,so-called ,grave of ,tantalos4 ,these tumuli approach in dimensions closely to the pyramids of ,egypt4 ,the elevation of the cone upon a cylindrical base was a certain advance1 but its execution was such as to allow of no comparison between the monuments of the two countries4 ,the pyramids of ,egypt were built2 the tumuli of ,lydia were merely heaped up of earth4 ,the former demanded great technical ability and the assistance of a commanding and calculating mind2 the latter were the works of an enslaved people alone4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,lydian cones more closely resembled the natural form of a funeral mound than did the pyramids of ,egypt and ,mesopotamia1 and on this account were capable of greater development4 ,such tumuli are to be met with from ,asia to ,etruria1 and were adopted even by the great architects of ,greece3 the highest artistic civilization always gives preference to the simplest solution of a problem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,view of the ,athenian ,propyla4 ,restoration4 ,,hellas4 ,the ,mediterranean ,sea was the heart of the ,old ,world2 the important lands of the early history of civilization were grouped about its richly indented shores1 generally decreasing in respect of culture as they receded from it4 ,the northeastern part of the ,mediterranean1 because of its many islands1 having an even greater proportionate coast-line1 was the centre of the countries ennobled by ,hellenic civilization4 ,separating and uniting at once1 like all the waters of the earth1 the gean ,sea formed the boundary between the two chief races of ,greek intellectual life--the ,dorians and the ,ionians2 while it was1 at the same time1 the favoring medium of exchange for the productions of their genius4 ,european ,greece1 with its predominating ,doric population1 and the almost exclusively ,ionic coasts of ,asia ,minor1 equally looked upon this sea as their own1 traversing it with thousands of ships1 and gaining more from the trackless waters before them than from the interior lands of the immense continents whose seaboard alone they were content to occupy4 ,in ,asia the ,greeks were restricted to the countries upon its uttermost western border2 in ,european ,greece the development was chiefly directed towards the eastern coast1 paying even less attention to their own shores on the ,adriatic than to the early colonized ports of ,magna-,grcia and ,sicily4 ,the ,archipelago itself provided convenient strongholds and outposts in every direction4 ,the numerous harbors and anchoring-places of its many islands offered protection against the notorious treachery of the gean main--a protection imperatively necessary for the primitive seafarers of antiquity4 ,but1 as in the history of all civilization1 the currents of ,greek intellectual and artistic progress moved distinctly from east to west4 ,the ,european 7,doric7 culture was in itself less calculated to influence ,asia than the ,asiatic 7,ionic7 to affect the younger continent4 ,it was1 as decided by nature1 upon ,european soil1 upon ,attica--the most advanced promontory of ,european ,greece--that the two branches of the ,greek race united1 and bore in ,athens that double fruit at which we marvel4 ,the ,dorians1 displaced1 in some measure1 by the rapid growth of ,ionic ,asia and ,europe1 turned still farther westward1 and settled upon the shores of ,sicily and the ,gulf of ,tarention1 where imposing monuments still attest the extent of their power4 ,the legends of the wanderings of ,hellenic tribes1 and especially of the so-called ,doric migration1 were based upon the busy currents of intercourse between ,asia and ,europe1 over seas and straits1 and between the ,european continent and the ,morea1 the ,island of ,pelops4 ,the relations and the quarrels of ,hellenic and semi-barbaric peoples upon each side of the gean are illustrated by the tales of the ,argonauts and their voyage1 and of the ,trojan ,war1 both of which bear the stamp of a certain piratical rivalry4 ,the fatal lack of unity1 resulting from the separate development of neighboring districts1 could not be more distinctly characterized than by the fact that the ,greek races1 although they felt themselves divided from other nations--from barbarians--by an impassable gulf1 and were aware of their own absolute intellectual superiority1 yet lacked any comprehensive designation for themselves3 the name ,greeks1 or ,hellenes1 is of comparatively recent origin4 ,the ,homeric epics prove that the intellectual development of the people to whom the immortal poet belonged stood1 at least as early as the ninth century ,b4,c41 at a height to which nations of such primitive civilization as the ,egyptians and ,chaldans had never attained4 ,phenomenal as the appearance of those poems may have been1 they still could not have stood so high above their time--which they evidently represent with a certain transfiguration--that contemporaries were not able to comprehend and enjoy them4 ,the creative arts stood1 at this epoch1 in strange contrast to so great an intellectual height2 they were far surpassed by the advance of poetry4 ,though certain textile and ceramic manufactures 7the making of wooden and bronze utensils1 woven stuffs1 and pottery7 must have been practised to some extent in ,greece proper1 the better artistic productions are continually referred to as imported from the civilized countries of ,asia4 ,larger objects1 and notably buildings1 were either exceedingly primitive1 or1 in the lack of trained native ability1 were erected and ornamented in foreign styles4 ,the ,homeric epics know nothing of a columnar temple1 nothing of artistic images of the gods1 nothing even of dwellings corresponding to the importance of their princely heroes4 ,even at a much later time a ,spartan1 accustomed to erect his own house with saw and axe alone1 might be astonished at the squarely hewn beams of a ceiling1 which he previously had seen formed only of round trunks1 like those imitated upon the ,lycian block-house tombs4 ,it is of this exceeding simplicity that we must picture to ourselves the palaces of the kings1 one of which is so attractively described by the singer of the ,odyssey1 in the account of the royal dwelling at ,ithaca4 ,the entire establishment must have been similar to a grange--a wall enclosing a number of buildings with the court before them4 ,the rustic parallel is clearly brought to mind by the description of this farm-yard1 where the compost-heap1 surrounded by swine and geese1 was the bed of the old watch-dog1 who1 in ,homer's truly idyllic account1 alone recognizes his master1 and1 dying1 wags his tail in greeting4 ,from this yard a gate led to an inner court1 comparable to the peristyle of later buildings1 but without the ornament of columns1 and in all respects extremely primitive4 ,goats and beeves were driven in here without further ado to be slaughtered4 ,this adjoined upon one side the chambers of the men1 upon the other those of the women1 so separated that the tumultuous massacre of the suitors in the principal hall did not disturb the slumber of ,penelope1 and only reached the ears of the maids like distant moaning4 ,upon the third side1 probably opposite the entrance1 was the hall of the men1 a ceiled space1 which must have been of considerable extent1 as the hundred and eight unwelcome guests could here unite in the banquet and other amusements4 ,its ceiling1 like that of the armory and that of the royal sleeping-chamber1 was supported by upright beams of wood4 ,we may imagine these similar to the shafts in the ,palace of ,oinomaos at ,elis1 one of which1 bound together with iron hoops1 was preserved as a relic in the time of ,pausanias4 ,the ceiling beams of the hall were smoked and blackened by open fires and torch-lights as in rustic dwellings4 ,of the walls there is no mention1 though the supposition is not improbable that the bright metal sheathing of the palaces of ,menelaos and ,alkinos existed here also4 ,it would be explained by the ,phnician overlaying of wood-work with beaten bronze1 or1 to speak more correctly1 with copper4 ,the space could not have been without openings for light and air4 ,these are not directly mentioned by the poet1 but may be assumed1 from the analogies offered by other civilized nations of early antiquity1 to have existed in the wall1 immediately under the ceiling4 ,here the interstices between the immense horizontal beams1 which rested upon the walls1 were left open1 and the motive of the subsequent ,doric metope resulted of itself4 ,that the timbers overhead were not sheathed with boards is evident from a ,homeric simile3 ,athene rose to the ceiling1 and there sat1 8like unto the resting swallow20 that is to say1 upon the cross-beams of the open triangle formed by the roof-framing4 ,further evidence is offered by the account of the hanging of ,epicaste upon a ceiling beam1 which must have been exposed from all sides4 ,the tholos of the palace at ,ithaca was an isolated circular structure1 before the court1 and may perhaps be identified with the high thalamos to which ,telemachos descended4 ,in this also lay gold and metal in heaps2 while shrines containing garments1 and amphoras filled with oil and wine1 etc41 stood around4 ,its double door1 of careful workmanship1 agrees with the character of a treasury4 ,if this identification of the tholos and thalamos be accepted1 no doubt can remain that we have here to deal with a space similar to many yet remaining in ,greece1 generally known under the name of treasure-houses4 ,examples exist at ,orchomenos1 near ,pharsalos1 ,amycl1 ,menidi1 and in ,myken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,plan and ,section of the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,restoration of the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,portal4 7,clarke47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--;,fragments of an ,engaged ,column from the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,one of the five in ,myken1 known as the ,treasury1 or the ,tholos1 of ,atreus1 remains in an admirable state of preservation1 especially as regards the interior4 ,this consists of a space of circular plan1 #ae m4 in diameter1 and of the same height1 formed like a pointed vault4 7,fig4 #aba47 ,its walls begin to curve from the floor1 which is of stamped clay pis4 ,upon this the first circular course of masonry immediately reposes4 ,the walls then rise1 in parabolic outline1 to a pointed apex4 ,they are not constructed upon the principle of a vault--that is to say1 with wedge-shaped stones1 and with the direction of joints to a common centre--but are laid in horizontal beds1 each course so projecting over the one beneath it that1 by this diminution of the concentric circles1 they finally unite at the summit4 ,they were smoothly cut upon the jointing surfaces1 while the face was not chiselled until after the completion of the masonry4 ,the blocks were rectangular1 and the joints1 which consequently increased radially in plan1 were filled with the same pis used for the floor2 the interstice between the wall door and the rock-cut inner chamber upon one side being also cemented with this substance4 ,an entrance-passage1 the dromos1 led from the valley to the tholos in a gently inclined ascent4 ,it was bordered by walls of cut stone1 but nowhere ceiled4 ,its floor1 #f4bj m4 broad and #cf m4 long1 was paved with pis4 ,thisentrance-passage was terminated without by a terraced retaining-wall1 and within by an elaborate portal faade4 ,the recent investigations of ,stamatakis and ,thiersch have given sufficient information concerning the composition and details of this front to permit a restoration of its chief masses4 7,fig4 #abb47 ,the lower part was constructed of long stones1 carefully cut and jointed4 ,the stepped jambs of the opening1 peculiar to all antique doors1 were probably cut after the blocks were in position4 ,upon either side were decorative engaged columns1 which are so entirely similar to the one represented upon the ,gate of the ,lions at ,myken that it is possible completely to understand their nature by that general guide2 by the help of fragments which still exist1 and others drawn in former publications1 though now lost2 by traces upon the wall1 and especially by the sockets cut for the swallowtail clampings of the bases and capitals4 ,the shaft1 instead of being diminished1 increases as it ascends1 as does also the column upon the relief over the ,gate of the ,lions4 ,its base1 from this analogy1 and from the narrow space left for it by the clampings1 seems to have consisted of a simple tore4 ,the abacus and parts of the mouldings beneath it still exist2 the coronation was formed by two roundlets1 separated by a scotia1 the lower being considerably smaller in height and diameter than the upper4 7,fig4 #abc47 ,without the lower member1 there is a certain similarity of the capital to a ,doric echinos1 which is increased by the proportions of the boldly projecting abacus2 but the whole is so similar to an ,asiatic 7,ionic7 base that it was not natural to believe it a capital1 and the fragment published by ,donaldson has hitherto been believed to be the foot of the shaft4 ,the columns were entirely covered with an ornamentation in relief of zigzag lines alternating with the well-known spiral wave2 they stood upon rectangular pedestals1 of which the triply stepped plinths have been preserved4 ,the existence of bronze ornaments upon the lintel of the door is evident from the traces of nails2 five lion-heads can be distinctly recognized4 ,an epistyle extended from capital to capital across the entire front of the portal2 it projected far beyond the lintel1 upon which it partly reposed4 ,above this entablature was a surface1 like an attica1 which masked the triangle formed by the relieving blocks over the lintel4 ,the upper walls were not originally visible1 having been reveted by thin slabs of stone1 secured in position by dowels4 ,fragments from ,myken deposited in the ,british ,museum1 in the ,munich ,antiquarium1 and in ,athens appertained to this upper faade2 they all show spiral ornaments between horizontal grooves1 and are similar to many other decorations of the same age4 ,the borders of the casing over the relieving triangle and its extreme upper corner were patterned in like manner1 as is plain from the mitre-joint of some of the slabs1 and from a small fragment exactly fitting the upper angle of the opening4 ,the entire triangle was probably closed by some light stone carving1 since it could have had no function as a passage for light4 ,the door1 as may be seen from traces of pivots upon the sill and lintel1 had two wings1 which1 from their bolt-holes1 appear to have been so large that1 when closed1 they considerably overlapped4 ,upon the exterior jambs a broad strip of metal was affixed1 still to be traced by two vertical rows of nail-holes1 in which fragments of bronze occasionally remain4 ,this work leads to the supposition that the wings of the door were themselves overlayed with metal1 and1 with the characteristic forms of the decoration upon the monument1 points to the peculiarities of ,asiatic art4 ,it is natural to attribute this to the influence of ,phnicia2 indeed1 the effect of the civilization of that country upon early ,greece can hardly be overestimated4 ,a broad1 horizontal strip of metal sheathing existed also upon the exterior1 and small fragments of it are repeatedly met with in the rubbish filling the tholos2 similar vestiges are found in a second monument of the kind near by4 ,this overlaying of walls with sheet copper was by no means uncommon in ancient ,greece4 ,the subterranean bronze chamber of ,danae may be explained as a tomb sheathed with metal4 ,in mythical ages1 in the sanctuary at ,delphi1 as well as in later times1 in the ,chalkioicos of ,athene at ,sparta1 this wall-treatment appears employed for temples1 even as ,homer described it in palaces at ,sparta and the ,island of the ,phacians4 ,the ,tholos of ,atreus was itself subterranean2 the exterior of the conical mass of masonry was covered with a hill of earth4 ,in consideration of the almost perfect preservation of the interior1 it is evident that some remains of a strictly architectural exterior would have been recognizable1 had it existed4 ,a tumulus covered and protected the structure2 though its earth is now1 for the greater part1 washed away1 to it must still be ascribed the good condition in which the kernel has remained4 ,the recently discovered grave at ,menidi1 in ,attica 7,lolling71 is a parallel construction4 ,as regards beauty of execution and richness of ornament1 it is far inferior to the ,tholos of ,atreus2 it is also much smaller1 having an average diameter of #h4ce m4 and #i m4 original height4 ,its only peculiarity is that the relieving blocks over the lintel1 instead of projecting one over the other so as to form a triangle1 are so placed as to leave four voids between as many horizontal beams1 in a manner similar to the arrangement for relieving the ceiling of the principal chamber of the great pyramid of ,gizeh4 ,the ,tholos of ,atreus offers a welcome commentary upon the thesauros of the royal palace at ,ithaca1 but only in respect to its construction4 ,the purpose of the circular buildings still existing in ,greece seems to have been entirely different from that of the treasure-house described in the ,odyssey4 ,it is true that eminent authorities deny this difference--and the analogies of the round ,homeric building1 of the treasure-vaults at ,myken mentioned by ,pausanias1 and of the treasury of ,minyas in ,orchomenos1 lend their arguments some weight1 and1 at least1 a greater probability than the suppositions that the structures of tholos form were intended for spring-houses 7,forchhammer7 or places of worship 7,pyl74 ,but there are reasons against all these assumptions4 ,the treasure-houses of the ,pelopid must have been upon the acropolis1 inside the fortification walls1 not at various distances outside their limits1 as is the case with those of ,myken4 ,still less could such vaults for hoarded valuables have been as distant from the city as was the ,tholos of ,baphio from the ancient ,amycl1 which stood entirely isolated in the midst of an open plain1 without the possibility of communication with any royal residence4 ,the tumuli of earth above the crypts would have but ill suited them to form a part of the palace building2 while for a cell which was only to receive precious goods--for a magazine of deposit--the rich overlaying of the interior walls with sheet metal1 and especially the elaborate carving of the portal front1 seem out of place4 ,these peculiarities1 not to mention some of less importance1 point to another purpose1 for which they are1 one and all1 fitted--namely1 the destination of the structures as tombs4 ,their position1 before the acropolis and without the city walls2 the covering of the chamber with earth in a tumulus form2 the impossibility of their having had any communication with other buildings2 the elaborate decoration of the entrance1 and the princely wealth of metals in the interior--all support1 with the striking analogies beyond the gean1 this conception of the tholos buildings advocated by ,welcker and ,mure4 ,it is possible that it is to these structures that ,pausanias refers as the treasure-houses of the ,atrid2 but ,pausanias1 like us1 knew ,myken only by its ruins4 ,that patron of all ciceroni upon classic ground was not exacting for proofs of their legends4 ,the hypothesis of ,pyl may in so far be correct that the tholos itself did not serve as the place of sepulchre1 which was provided by the small side chamber1 but was a chapel for the funeral worship naturally to be assumed in connection with an heroic dynasty4 ,it is not possible to assign these tombs to individuals1 like those of the early ,persian monarchs1 or even to dynasties3 the questionable identification of the graves discovered in the agora of the acropolis1 ventured by ,schliemann1 would here be inadmissible4 ,it is reasonably certain1 however1 that the best-preserved tholos1 that known by the name of ,atreus1 is about contemporaneous with the ,gate of the ,lions1 and dates from the most flourishing period of the heroic age--before the downfall of the ,atrid upon the return of ,agamemnon4 ,a small chamber1 only of sufficient size to receive the cinerary urn1 in the centre of an upheaval of earth1 was sufficient for the graves of the heroes who fell before ,troy4 ,several of these tumuli exist4 ,the larger of them1 those of ,hector and of ,achilles1 had a considerable elevation1 and1 standing upon a low promontory1 were visible far at sea4 ,they were without architectural features or decoration1 mere cones of earth and stones2 terminated1 as ,homer relates concerning those of ,ilos1 ,sarpedon1 and ,elpenor1 by a monument like a column1 which must have resembled the piers upon ,lydian tumuli4 ,it is questionable whether the trees which grew in later times upon the mounds of ,protesilaos before ,troy1 and of ,alcmon in ,arcadia1 were originally and intentionally there placed1 and are to be deemed characteristic of such works4 ,those planted upon the tumulus of ,augustus in ,rome may certainly be referred to his individual desire4 ,from the account given by ,pausanias of the tumulus of pytos at ,pheneos1 in ,arcadia2 from foundations remaining upon the island of ,syme1 and from later ruins at ,kyrene--not to mention a well-preserved tumulus of very considerable dimensions1 reveted with stone1 which1 from its situation in ,algerian territory1 might perhaps be ascribed to the ,carthaginians1 or even to the ,romans--from all these examples1 it is evident that such mounds1 like the tumuli of ,lydia and ,etruria1 were1 for the greater part1 elevated upon cylindrical foundations4 ,but whether the interior were chambered or solid1 whether the cone of earth rose directly from the earth or from a drum substructure1 the tumulus appears to have been1 in primitive times1 the most customary form of monumental tomb for persons of high rank4 ,the common man was probably buried in pits1 as at the present day1 the grave being marked by an upright stone1 with or without some slight ornament4 ,schliemann's discoveries in the agora of ,myken show that1 under certain circumstances1 this procedure was adopted even for princes4 ,the kingly importance of these sepulchres is assured by their position1 and by the immense quantity of gold and valuables found within them4 ,the decorative style of these objects dates them conclusively to the heroic age2 but the assignment of the different graves to ,agamemnon and his associates is a mere hypothesis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,pyramid of ,kenchre4 ,a pyramidal form was only in isolated instances substituted for the tumulus4 ,of a pyramid1 described by ,pausanias as existing between ,argos and ,epidauros1 there now remains a mass of masonry measuring #ab m4 in the line of the diagonal4 ,a second1 near ,kenchre1 between ,argos and ,tegea1 is better preserved4 7,fig4 #abd47 ,its plan is oblong1 #ad4e m4 long and nearly #ab m4 broad2 the two chambers of the interior are at present unroofed4 ,the structure appears to have served as a common place of sepulchre for the fallen1 and1 at the same time1 as a memorial of victory4 ,this destination is also evident in two further pyramidal remains1 in ,laconia and near ,lessa1 which are described by ,curtius and by ,ross4 ,the ,greeks adopted both ,asiatic and ,egyptian forms for their funeral monuments2 but in the construction of both tumulus and pyramid they introduced comparatively large chambers1 early striving for ends foreign to those despotic lands3--a wise economy of material and labor and a gain of space4 ,mausoleums and sepulchres are always among the first traces of civilization1 and the most ancient examples of architectural art4 ,in ,greece1 however1 there are contemporaneous remains significant of other purposes4 ,chief among these are the fortifications of towns1 although in general these works enclosed only the acropolis1 which contained the residences of the rulers and the sanctuaries of the people4 ,the true age of these defences can by no means be surely determined4 ,not all ,cyclopean masonry is to be attributed to the earliest ages of ,hellenic antiquity1 for this manner of polygonal jointing remained in use long after a time when cut and squared stones were generally employed4 ,on the other hand1 immense rectangular blocks1 laid in horizontal courses1 frequently occur in city walls which are known to be of the greatest antiquity and even to have been totally ruined in the historical period1 such monoliths being regularly used upon corners1 the jambs of gates1 etc41 where especial strength and independent firmness were called for4 ,when the surface of ,cyclopean walls is perfectly smooth and exactly jointed1 these may confidently be regarded as not of primitive antiquity2 the erection of such masonry is a subtlety of greater difficulty than that of square blocks and horizontal beds4 ,but walls built of enormous boulders1 unhewn1 and roughly piled up without calculation1 the larger interstices being filled with smaller stones1 are of extreme age4 ,such masonry appeared to later generations to be the work of giants1 of ,cyclops1 and hence a name which might more fittingly be changed to ,pelasgic than to ,poseidonic1 as suggested by ,gladstone4 ,the walls of ,tiryns 7,fig4 #abe7 are of such gigantic blocks--bulwarks mentioned by ,homer and ,hesiod1 and admired in their ruins by ,pausanias4 ,they are built upon a ridge of rock1 which is over #aij m4 long1 only #gj m4 broad1 and elevated #aj m4 above the surrounding plain4 ,the masonry is from #g to #ae m4 thick2 of its original height1 estimated as #ah m41 there remains from #aj to #ab m4 ,the enormous stones vary from #b to #c m4 in length and #j4i to #ab4 m4 in thickness4 ,in its greatest breadth the wall is provided with galleries1 roofed by projecting stones laid in horizontal beds and cut to the outline of a pointed arch4 ,such spaces are provided with loopholes upon the exterior1 and1 without doubt1 served as magazines and casemates4 ,within these fortifications must have stood the royal residence1 famed in the legends of ,heracles and ,eurystheus2 of it no recognizable traces remain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,plan of the ,acropolis of ,tiryns4 ,the walls of ,myken are not of equally gigantic masonry1 but are fully as old1 and are especially interesting because of the city having been a complete ruin in the earliest historical times4 ,besides casemate galleries in the walls1 there are in ,myken a number of highly important gateways and portals2 those of the fortifications at ,tiryns were entirely destroyed1 an inclined plane leading to the eastern side of the acropolis is there alone to be recognized as an approach4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,gate of the ,lions at ,myken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,smaller ,gate of ,myken4 ,the doors were naturally of greater technical perfection than the long line of bulwarks2 having been created for both admittance and defence1 they required a certain constructive calculation1 and permitted the employment of more exterior ornament4 ,the simplest possible form of a gateway is the combination of three stones--the two jambs and the lintel--observable in two examples at ,myken4 7,figs4 #abf and #abg47 ,such a construction had the disadvantage that the upright blocks could not be joined to the wall1 and that the lintel1 which necessarily lay clear for a considerable length1 could not immediately receive the massive continuation of the masonry above it4 ,notwithstanding the convergence of the jambs upon the great gate of ,myken1 the beam has a length of #d4f m41 with a span of #c4je m42 the bottom of the door being #c4b m4 wide1 and its height #c4be m4 ,a relieving gable was consequently constructed1 similar to that common in ,egypt during the age of the ,pyramids1 and to that described in the consideration of the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,a triangular opening remained above the lintel1 by which the efficacy of the wall as a fortification was considerably impaired4 ,the orifice was closed by one or two slabs1 which did not press heavily upon the lintel2 but they could not have been sufficient to escape fracture by heavy missiles1 or to resist the blows of a battering-ram4 ,the attack was therefore diverted from this vulnerable point by moral means4 ,the panel received a certain consecration by some protecting sacred symbol being carved upon it--such1 for instance1 as a ,gorgon's head--a recourse which was effective in times when the slightest desecration of a divine emblem was deemed more impious than the bloodiest deed of human violence4 ,such a carving has been preserved over the gateway of ,myken1 which has received its name from the lions represented upon it4 ,as a work of sculpture1 it will be considered below4 ,the column between the animals has1 however1 a bearing upon the architectural forms of the epoch4 ,it is the same shaft1 diminishing from summit to base1 which has been noticed upon the portal front of the ,tholos of ,atreus4 ,a second gate of ,myken resembled the ,gate of the ,lions1 but was smaller and simpler4 7,fig4 #abg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--,portal upon ,samos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,gate of ,phigalia4 ,the form of three blocks appears to have been soon changed1 the wall itself serving in place of an especial jamb4 ,the span of the lintel was decreased by two or four boldly projecting blocks as brackets4 ,examples of this development are offered by portals of ,samos and ,phigalia4 7,figs4 #abh and #abi47 ,but in the same measure as the danger from the great span of the lintel was diminished1 that of the brackets being pressed downward and disjointed was increased4 ,a third manner of covering the opening1 by stones leaned against each other at an angle1 was a still further advance4 7,fig4 #acj47 ,when the side thrust could be well borne--and for this the walls were always sufficient--such a gable could support any pressure that could possibly be imposed1 while allowing a great breadth of passage4 ,finally1 a triangular construction could be obtained by a gradual projection of horizontal stones1 laid as they had been in so many instances for the relief of a lintel beneath them4 ,this construction occurs in two varieties1 differing in appearance1 though not in principle3 the projection of the horizontal courses of stone either began directly from the ground 7,fig4 #acj71 as has been noticed in the ,tholos of ,atreus 7,fig4 #abb71 or commenced at some height1 the jambs being carried up vertically4 7,fig4 #acb47 ,in both these varieties the line of the gable frequently appears concavely curved1 as in the parabolic walls of the tholos1 and the outline of a pointed arch was thus obtained4 7,figs4 #acc and #acd47 ,in spite of their early familiarity with the abstract principle of the arch1 as shown in ,fig4 #acj1 the ,greeks refused to adopt the true arch1 with its wedge-shaped stones1 even in late historical ages1 when they assuredly were acquainted with its construction4 ,an illustration of their feeling in this respect is given by the aqueduct adjoining the ,tower of the ,winds in ,athens1 where the semicircles are cut from monoliths4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--,portal upon ,delos4 ,the influence of the gateways upon the masonry is evident from the more frequent adoption of the rectangular blocks1 which had at first only been employed to give the portals an independent strength1 both for the ramparts and for the out-works and protecting towers which these openings necessitated4 ,such a fortification1 erected for the defence of a gate1 still stands in ,tiryns--the city to which succeeding ages ascribed the invention of tower-building 7,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 vii4 #ef72 it reaches a height of #ac m4 ,thetower which defended the gate of ,myken was even larger4 ,homer mentions such structures at ,troy1 ,thebes1 and ,calydon1 and is also familiar with casemates and battlements4 ,the latter are shown by paintings upon archaic vases to have been of the normal rectangular shape4 ,schliemann's excavations in ,myken have proved that in this city the agora was situated just within the principal gate4 ,some of the stone benches encircling the agora were found in almost perfect preservation2 they were constructed of slabs standing erect in concentric rows to receive the horizontal seats4 ,they lend a new confirmation of ,homer's truthful characterization of locality1 illustrating a passage which occurs in the description of the shield of ,achilles1 which describes the judgment scene upon the marketplace3 8,on polish'd chairs1 in solemn circle1 sat ,the rev'rend elders40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--;,gate of ,missolonghi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,gate of ,messene4 ,though the remains of these prehistoric ages show in some degree the form of an ancient ,greek acropolis1 with its royal dwelling of courts and halls1 and the sepulchral monuments before its gates1 they are yet insufficient to complete even the main outlines of the picture by giving any understanding of the temple--that structure destined to become the ideal of ,hellenic architecture4 ,while the life and customs contemporary with the ,homeric poems are1 in other respects1 represented with incomparable truth and distinctness1 the epics are entirely silent upon this subject4 ,it appears that the temples were neither of great size nor of artistic importance2 among the ruins of ,tiryns and ,myken there are no vestiges of columns or entablatures4 ,the symbolical images of the deities were placed upon cliffs1 in caverns1 among the branches of sacred trees1 or in the hollows of their trunks1 and simple altars were erected before them4 ,frequently the worship of a deity was merely connected with a grove1 or with some other locality fitted by nature for this purpose1 and was there performed without an image or other dead symbol4 ,it was thus with the most primitive god of ,greek mythology1 ,zeus of ,dodona4 ,when a building was provided at all1 it was1 in the heroic ages1 restricted to the cella1 a ceiled chapel of oblong plan1 which stood in the centre of a consecrated area1 the temenos4 ,this original form--the whole of the primitive shrine--is recognizable even in the developed peripteros1 as the kernel within the outstanding columns4 ,it does not appear strange that we should be acquainted with so few of these chapels when it is considered that hardly greater traces remain of the entire architecture of the ,teutonic races during the first seven ,christian centuries4 ,it is natural1 in the development of civilization1 that sanctuaries exemplifying different phases of advancement should seldom stand next to each other2 after the destruction of the old1 the new arises in its place1 upon its consecrated site4 ,examples of such original cellas are not1 however1 entirely wanting4 ,several remains published by ,dodwell and ,stackelberg are to be explained as chapels4 ,a structure upon ,delos1 designated by ,thiersch as a tomb1 is quite comparable to a columnless temple cella4 ,there is less probability that the ruins upon ,mount ,ocha and near the village ,stoura1 upon ,euba1 were temples4 ,they are chambers sheltered from above by slabs of stone1 inclined like a gable4 7,fig4 #ace47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,gate of ,thoricos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--;,gate of ,ephesos4 ,this method of roofing could not have been generally practised in early times1 when simple and natural constructions utilized the materials at hand best adapted to the purpose4 ,the builders1 among the bald mountains of ,euba1 were forced to such a manner of covering their chamber by lack of wood4 ,the south of the island produces no trees which could provide the timber for roof-beams2 while1 on the other hand1 open quarries in the neighborhood furnished a kind of slate-stone which is easily split into large slabs like joists and boards4 ,so clumsy a ceiling construction as that upon ,mount ,ocha was not natural in countries of dense forests1 such as was the original home of the ,dorians4 ,in other parts of ,hellas than the rocky and sterile islands of the gean1 the chapels must have been roofed with wood4 ,the most obvious considerations make it evident that ceiling and roof of the primitive cella were originally of wood4 ,in the later marble architecture of ,greece this assumption is confirmed by numerous reminiscences of timbered construction1 sufficient even to explain the methods and form of the original carpentry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--;,interior of a ,structure upon ,mount ,ocha1 ,euba4 ,a pitched and gabled roof seems to have been generally employed for these early structures4 ,the horizontal ceiling might be sufficient for the changeless blue sky of ,egypt1 but could not suffice in ,greece1 where1 in certain seasons1 heavy rains were frequent1 and even hail-storms not unknown4 ,still no land upon the ,mediterranean was familiar with the great steepness of roof made necessary by the enduring snow and ice of the ,north4 ,in colder climates the pitch of the covering was not only greatly increased1 but all horizontal projections were avoided1 and the upper surfaces of smaller members and mouldings inclined4 ,the rafters required ceiling beams beneath them2 because of the necessary support and jointing1 they could not be placed directly upon the stone walls1 and it was further desirable to support the summit of the triangle by a king-post4 ,the ceiling thus provided stood in such relation to the roof that a beam tied together each pair of rafters1 and was1 consequently1 so laid across the oblong enclosure that the ends reposed upon the side walls4 ,upon these horizontal timbers planks were placed which concealed the inclined roof4 ,by this an independent ceiling was created2 and1 as the boarding was laid upon the beams and not fastened to their lower side1 this gave rise to the formation of lacun or long coffers4 ,the ends both of the horizontal ceiling beams and of the roof rafters were visible upon the exterior3 the latter1 forming the eaves1 projected beyond the wall1 to further the shedding of water and to protect the sides of the building4 ,as the upper surface of the roof had been so closed as to be water-tight1 it is natural that this sheathing should have been carried around upon all sides of the projecting rafter ends4 ,it was otherwise with the spaces between the beams1 which1 being protected by the eaves1 were not covered and masked by boards4 ,the artistic instinct of the ,greek would not permit him thus to conceal constructive forms when this was not rendered necessary by practical considerations4 ,they received1 on the contrary1 an especial emphasis1 that they might express their peculiar function with full force4 ,moreover1 the closing of the aperture between the ends of the beams would have required the provision of other openings for light1 as there were no windows in the walls of masonry4 ,this manner of roof and ceiling construction was generally employed in ,european ,greece1 being customary for palaces and dwellings as well as for the primitive temples4 ,open interstices between the horizontal beams existed in the hall of the royal dwelling at ,ithaca4 ,there can be no further doubt as to the development and original function of the metopes of the ,doric entablature when it is considered that the ,greeks1 as late as the time of ,euripides 7,iphig4 in ,taur4 #aac71 were familiar with the idea that it was possible to enter a primitive structure through these openings between the ends of the beams4 ,the masking of the metopes would thus have been not only purposeless1 but even detrimental2 it was reasonable1 however1 to sheathe the ends of the beams themselves by small boards1 which should at once protect and ornament them4 ,the hewn extremities of such great timbers were rough and ugly2 without covering1 they would have been exposed to rapid decay4 ,the simple decoration of three narrow strips of wood affixed to the ends of the beams was so customary in primitive carpentry that it became a typical motive in the later architecture of ,greece4 ,the chamfering of sharp edges of boards has been practised by the wood-workers of all nations4 ,when two corners thus treated are placed together1 there results a prismatic groove1 which distinctly marks the edges of the separate pieces4 ,thus originated the primitive form of the triglyph1 as the most natural and practical decoration of the rough-hewn ends of the ceiling beams by sheathing4 ,the upper edges of the three strips were hidden against a plate beneath the rafters2 the lower were covered by a continuous board1 which united the various members of the frieze1 and concealed any inexact jointing between the beams and the top of the wall4 ,by placing the chamfered boards upright1 an sthetic advantage was obtained3 a vertical line was repeated just before the conclusion of the entablature by the cornice1 being thus emphasized in the midst of horizontal members4 ,other ornamental details were added1 based1 likewise1 upon motives of the original wooden construction4 ,the continuous strip affixed to the lower edges of the triglyphs was securely and visibly fastened4 ,this was effected by several thick trunnels1 so driven in from below that the heads were left protruding4 ,under the end of each beam the strip was doubled1 to give additional strength where the wood was most weakened by perforation4 ,the ends of the rafters were also sheathed1 and brought into harmony with the frieze4 ,the inclined eaves were covered with boards1 and as these did not stand erect1 like those before the ceiling beams1 but hung from the lower sides of the rafters1 there was particular need for an increased and distinctly secure attachment4 ,the sheathing was consequently pinned by more numerous trunnels2 and as every triglyph had been provided with a second strip1 here a second board was placed under the end of each rafter4 ,the projecting heads of these nails were called gutt by the later ,romans1 but this cannot convince us that the peculiar form was intended as an ornamental petrifaction of hanging rain-drops3 such a glorification of bad weather would have been foreign to the ,greeks1 accustomed to the clearest skies2 and1 for so primitive a construction1 this explanation appears far-fetched4 ,the imitation of rain-drops could nowhere have been more out of place than upon the inclined lower side of the eaves2 drops might1 perhaps1 hang from the front edge of the cornice1 but never upon its under slope1 which rain could not even wet4 ,the construction of an original work of carpentry thus provided the motives of the ,doric entablature--navely expressing the advance from the roughest practical necessity to high architectural perfection4 ,in the apertures between the beam-ends1 or metopes1 and in the open triangle of the gable1 were placed votive offerings1 which there found a secure and sheltered stand1 heightening the exterior importance of the work4 ,in small chapels this interference with the openings for light could have been of no disadvantage4 ,the gable was closed by a boarding1 which hid from view the rough inner construction of the roof4 ,this veil1 the tympanon1 was placed behind the triangle formed by the outer cross-beam and rafters1 as the ceiling had been laid above the other horizontal timbers4 ,the low gable thus naturally developed upon the front2 and in later times1 when the votive offerings had been exchanged for sculptured figures1 formed a most characteristic and imposing feature4 ,the effect was heightened by the partly protective1 partly decorative1 painting of all the wooden surfaces4 ,red and blue appear originally to have been the chief colors2 the former1 in a dark shade1 being used for the sheathing of the tympanon1 the latter for the triglyphs and other members4 ,upon the bands were figured ornaments1 most of which had developed from ,asiatic prototypes2 they consisted of the meander1 anthemions1 and the woven ribbons1 etc41 observable upon ,assyrian sculptures and upon the archaic bronzes and vases of ,greece and ,central ,italy4 ,the extended polychromatic treatment of the marble temple is doubtless a reminiscence of this painted wood4 ,without such traditions1 it would have developed differently3 upon a structure of stone it would have been less restricted to the frieze and cornice4 ,the entablature had thus far advanced without connection with that most noble work of architecture--the ,doric column4 ,the shaft and entablature of the style were not created in connection or simultaneously2 the forms of triglyph and mutule are not a growth from the columnar root1 but rather prove the ,doric frieze and cornice to have been the primitive ,hellenic expression of roof and ceiling1 which preceded the column1 even as the plainest constructive necessities precede ornament4 ,the peculiar wooden character of the entablature could exercise no important influence upon the shaft4 ,if the existence1 in heroic times1 of the peripteros1 the temple with outstanding columns1 be denied--and of such structures there is not a vestige--it cannot be supposed that columns existed at all4 ,interior supports of wood are1 indeed1 mentioned by ,homer1 and engaged shafts formed part of the faade of the ,tholos of ,atreus1 and were represented upon the relief over the ,gate of the ,lions in ,myken2 but between these and the ,doric column there is a distance only to be explained by the assumption that ,asiatic influence was paramount1 if not exclusive1 in the architecture of the heroic ages of ,greece4 ,though it is possible that rudiments of the ,doric echinos may be recognized in the upper tore and scotia of the engaged columns of ,myken1 it is yet evident that the turned-work of these members resulted from a wooden prototype1 and that the overladen decoration of the shaft1 in its style1 is due to familiarity with a sheeting of beaten metal--i4e41 to ,phnician artistic traditions4 ,that the forms of the entablature were not created for the peripteros appears from the circumstance that the metopes lose their value as windows by the change of plan1 and leave the cella without openings for light and air when surrounded by columns4 ,with the appearance of the peripteral temple1 the ,doric entablature1 which upon the oblong chapel had been the natural expression upon the exterior of roof and ceiling construction1 became a functionless ornament1 needing1 as will be seen1 many changes to bring it into harmony with the outstanding colonnade4 ,the development of the ,doric column is not perfectly clear2 it is more than probable that it was not wholly autochthonic and primitive ,greek1 like the entablature of the style4 ,its principal part1 the shaft1 was certainly imported4 ,no prominent architectural feature can be deemed newly invented that has been in common usage in a neighboring and accessible country for centuries4 ,the ,doric shaft1 with its characteristic diminution and channellings1 was known in ,egypt more than a thousand years before its introduction into ,greece1 as proved by the monuments of ,beni-,hassan4 ,commercial intercourse had existed between the two countries for centuries1 and it cannot be assumed that the ,greeks had not seen ,egyptian works of architecture2 they could not have arrived at precisely the same results by independent invention4 ,it would rather be difficult to conceive how the receptive ,greeks could have refused all instruction from the neighboring people1 so far in advance of them for centuries after the ,trojan war4 ,eight-sided drums have been found at ,bolymnos1 and an octangular shaft at ,trzen2 but these isolated instances offer no proof that the development of the channelled shaft from the square pier was effected in ,greece in the same manner as had been done fifteen centuries or more previously in ,egypt4 ,the genius of the ,greeks1 however1 always showed its independence when the artistic perception of the neighboring nations had been at fault or defective4 ,it was impossible for them to rest content with the termination of the so-called ,proto-,doric columns of ,beni-,hassan4 ,a simple plinth upon the upper end of the shaft was insufficient2 it left without mediation the contrast between the forcible upright line of the channels and the long level of the epistyle4 ,some interposition was necessary between the vertical and the horizontal members1 and a moulding of inclined outline was best fitted to fulfil this natural requirement1 which almost appears to be an sthetic law4 ,the abacus plinth was retained as the transition from the circular drums of the shaft to the broader oblong of the lintel4 ,the oblique and projecting member between the two1 the echinos1 was a link connecting the plans1 as well as the directions1 of column and entablature4 ,the perfectly straight outline of an inverted cone was rarely employed in ,greece for the echinos2 a stele of ,artemis ,brauronia upon the ,athenian acropolis1 shown by inscriptions to be of great age1 is an isolated instance4 ,this rigid line was early exchanged for a curve1 which1 in its advancing stages of refinement1 became one of the most characteristic features of ,doric architecture4 ,the moulding seems1 at times1 to have been ornamented with painted leaves1 which1 in the ,ionic echinos beneath the roll1 was changed1 in the manner peculiar to that order1 from the colored indication to carving4 ,it is not certain whether this floral decoration was generally adopted1 or existed only in the isolated instance by which it is known--the so-called ,temple of ,theseus4 ,upon the translation of the wooden construction to a stone entablature1 which resulted in a narrow intercolumniation1 the base was given up1 and the upper step of the stylobate was regarded as a common plinth4 ,it appears that the employment of columns connected with temples commenced1 in ,greece1 in the manner observed upon the rock-cut tomb faades of ,egypt and ,lycia1 and the chapels of ,mesopotamia and ,phnicia3 two columns were placed within the open front1 between the projecting side walls2 that is to say1 the temple was in antis4 ,the next step was the removal of these side walls1 or parastad1 columns taking their place in the corners before them1 and the prostyle temple was thus obtained4 ,these changes rendered several important alterations necessary4 ,they caused a new wall to be erected before the interior of the cella1 the naos1 the colonnade of the front thus acquiring the nature of a portico1 the pronaos4 ,the jambs of the door in this wall were so inclined as to diminish the span of the lintel1 the frame receiving upon its upper corners the stepped ears1 or parotides1 customary in ,western ,asia4 ,a new member of the entablature was needed to replace the omitted wall and provide a bearing for the ceiling cross-beams--namely1 the epistyle4 ,it is possible that this member1 distinctly separated1 existed before the change1 but it certainly was not necessary4 ,the division of the cella into naos and pronaos finally altered the position of the front ceiling-beams2 in the naos they lay1 as before1 resting upon the side walls1 but in the pronaos they were placed lengthwise--from the columns to the newly erected division wall4 ,besides improving the construction of the portico ceiling1 this greatly added to the beauty of the front entablature3 epistyle and ceiling-beams would otherwise have lain upon each other1 in the same direction1 but from this change resulted the frieze of triglyphs and metopes upon the front1 as upon the sides4 ,the gain was not effected without a difficulty arising in the frieze above the end of the side wall and the corner column1 the outer ceiling-beam of the pronaos thus lying in its length upon the epistyle without the formation of a metope4 ,and here the constructive truth was first sacrificed in favor of the exterior appearance3 a cube1 standing above the corner column1 took the place of the outer beam1 and the continuous alternation of triglyphs and metopes was carried out4 ,having so far deviated from logical construction1 the desire for an harmonious treatment of the exterior led to other and greater changes4 ,the dead-wall of the rear had had no part in the development of the frieze1 and appeared intolerably bare4 ,this deficiency could hardly be overcome otherwise than by a repetition of a portico upon the back1 creating the epinaos1 and carrying the entablature of triglyphs and metopes around the entire building1 thus perfecting the amphiprostyle temple4 ,the more these alterations were made in favor of the exterior appearance1 the more was the original structure dismembered4 ,the extreme boundary of possible concessions was attained1 and1 at the next step1 the entablature1 translated into stone1 separated itself entirely from the construction and became an applied ornament4 ,in one stride the ultimate type of the ,hellenic temple was determined1 by carrying outstanding columns entirely around the cella1--the building became a peripteros4 ,it is probable that these extensive alterations took place almost simultaneously1 and were adopted at once for the most prominent shrines1 while the preceding varieties--the temple in antis and the prostyle and amphiprostyle temples--though their entablatures were also executed in stone1 were only employed in subordinate positions4 ,with the heightened importance of the decorative exterior the monumental significance of the temple rose above the mere necessities of a chamber for the sacred image4 ,the structure acquired equal solidity in every part exposed to view4 ,it was built of a homogeneous material4 ,the timbering of roof and ceiling was hidden by the stone symbols placed before the ends of the rafters and beams2 the entablature was allowed an independent freedom of development and proportion4 ,the heaviness of the material made it necessary to diminish the voids and increase the solids of the supports as much as was feasible4 ,the stone shafts were allowed a greater diameter and placed more nearly together than when1 as was the case in ,etruria at a much later period1 their burden had been of timber4 ,the stone cornice1 which was not as high as the epistyle1 could not span the same clear width1 and called for a second support over the intercolumniations1--a further triglyph4 ,this was the more acceptable1 as the appearance of the frieze was improved by its adoption2 the breadth of triglyph and metope became nearly equal and better proportioned1 their alternating rhythm more pleasing4 ,the metopes1 having upon the peripteros no importance as windows1 were closed by thin slabs1 which added to the unity and imposing force of the edifice4 ,it is surprising how faithfully the traditional forms were still retained1 even to the smallest details1 while they yet received a truly artistic conventionalization and those proportions which make the ,doric temple the grandest and most perfect monument of architectural history4 ,it is probable that the completed peripteros existed as early as the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,the first steps of advance were rapidly made1 and may1 perhaps1 be referred to the ages immediately preceding4 ,it would indeed be interesting to know when1 where1 and by whom the incomparable design was perfected which gave to the world its proudest edifice2 but it must suffice to understand the intentions of which the ,doric temple was the final result4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--;,corner ,elevation of the ,middle ,temple of the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,restoration4 ,semper has suggested that a canopy-like roof1 supported by columns1 was placed above and around the small temple cella to increase its extent1 and1 at the same time1 to express its power and sacredness by that oldest symbol of terrestrial and celestial authority4 ,this attractive assumption does not interfere with the theory of the previous development of the temple in antis and the prostylos1 or with the historical considerations based upon the appearance of an imperfect peripteros centuries before in ,egypt4 ,the cella and outstanding columns rose from a stepped foundation1 the crepidoma1 the kernel of which1 the stereobate1 was formed of massive walls1 or1 when possible1 of the native rock4 ,the blocks were too high for human steps1 and are not to be conceived as stairs4 ,such an ascent entirely surrounding the temple would have been purposeless1 and contrary to the isolating character of the crepidoma4 ,they formed a base1 such as is displayed in an exaggerated manner by the ,mesopotamian sanctuaries1 where1 however1 the chapels elevated upon the gigantic terraces were small in proportion to the substructure4 ,in buildings of greater dimensions1 the few and massive steps serving as the base of the ,greek temple were increased1 not in number1 but in size4 ,they were thus always proportional and fitted to their function as a foundation4 ,accessible stairs from all sides would have given a pyramidal effect to the lower part of the composition2 while1 at the foot of the upright supports1 the horizontal line should rather be emphatically pronounced4 ,smaller intermediate blocks were provided for the ascent to the temple1 thus made possible only upon the front4 ,the upper step1 the stylobate1 was1 as has been said1 the common plinth1 the columns being without base-moulding1 and1 consequently1 without individual functions or isolated independence4 ,the comparatively narrow intercolumniations were the better passages from this absence of projections at the foot of the columns4 ,the powerful shafts were doubly modified by the diminution and by the entasis4 ,the first refinement found its model in the natural contraction of all ascending bodies2 a greater strength is needed below because of the increasing weight4 ,to this must be added an optical motive3 every diminution modifies the perspective effect1 increasing the apparent height or distance of bodies thus bordered by lines slightly converging1 though apparently parallel4 ,the entasis was entirely decided by such optical considerations4 ,it overcame a deception1 resulting from the diminution1 which makes a straight-lined cone of very steep sides appear of slightly concave outline4 ,the shafts usually had twenty1 in a few instances sixteen1 channels1 of nearly elliptical profile1 separated by sharp arrises4 ,as may be seen in unfinished temples1 these grooves were not executed until the last stone of the building was in place1 that the chipping of the delicate edges by the imposition of the drums or blocks next to them1 and by other accidents during the process of building1 might be avoided4 ,it was only upon the capital that the channels were cut in advance1 as a guide4 ,to avoid the chipping of this stone1 it was necessary to prevent its sharp lower edges from resting directly upon the top of the drum beneath it4 ,to this end a diminutive step1 a scamillus of smaller diameter1 was turned upon the bottom of the capital block1 or the same effect was attained by slightly slanting off and increasing the right angle of its lower edge4 ,it was contrary to the artistic feeling of the ,greek architect for constructive truth to mask even this slight necessity by priming and painting4 ,it was1 rather1 made more distinct by increased size and a characteristic profile1 in some instances even by a repetition of the incision4 ,the upper end of the shaft was thus distinctly separated1 notwithstanding the continuous channellings1 and was related to the capital as the mediating neck of the column1 the hypotrachelion4 ,the echinos began its projection with several annulets1 which still more definitely marked the junction of the capital with the shaft4 ,it would be difficult to decide whether these mouldings were reminiscences of the binding-ribbons upon the necking of ,egyptian floral columns4 ,they were not placed beneath the echinos1 but upon it1 and consequently follow the curved profile1 enlarging concentrically with its projection4 ,the ,doric capital1 among all capitals that we know1 attains the highest sthetic perfection by its fulfilment of the requirements of a transitional member3 by the proportion of its projection1 and especially by its expressive and characteristic curve1 which rises from a firm and almost straight line to the decided turn beneath the abacus4 ,the outline is more elastic than a simple oblique angle1 more vigorous and capable of resistance than the concave curve4 ,the echinos provides the requisite projection2 the abacus upon it forms the second transition from the circular plan of the shaft to the rectangle of the entablature4 ,in the ,doric style this upper half is about the same height as the echinos beneath it1 while in the capitals of other orders the curved members of circular plan have been developed at the expense of this plinth1 which is dwarfed to a thin plate4 ,it was first noticed by ,cockerell in #ahbi that the axes of the columns surrounding the cella are not vertical1 but lean inward4 ,this peculiarity was chiefly adopted to counteract an optical deception1 resulting1 like the deviation which led to the entasis1 from the diminution of the shafts1 making these1 when perfectly upright1 appear inclined away from the neighboring wall and from each other4 ,the deception is particularly felt upon the corner shafts2 these were corrected to lean in the direction of the diagonal1 and decided the inclination of the columns of the front and side4 ,the absolute deviation from the vertical is very slight1 about #a-aejth of the height1 and by no means makes the inner sides of the diminished columns parallel to the wall4 ,the inclination was effected by the irregular cutting of the first block1 which was lower within than without1 being so formed that the surface of its base was not circular1 but slightly elliptical4 ,all the succeeding drums had perfectly round beds1 and consequently slanted in the manner decided by the first4 ,the contact of these stones of the shaft was restricted to a narrow rim upon the exterior of their plan4 ,in their centre they were steadied by an encased dowel of wood1 the form of which is known from the remains of the ,parthenon2 this served as a pivot for the grinding of one block upon the other4 ,the stone beams of the epistyle lay from axis to axis of the columns4 ,in buildings of great dimensions several slabs were laid side by side as lintels1 each having the entire height of this member1 which1 as forming the conjunction of the columns1 may be conceived as a representative of the wall4 ,the outer surface of the epistyle block was carved upon its upper edge with the tainia and trunnels1 described as securing the triglyphs of the original timbered entablature4 ,the forms of these details show the great reverence with which the primitive wooden prototypes were imitated1 while1 at the same time1 they were fitted to be cut in stone in a far more artistic manner than were the direct copies of carpentry observed in ,lycia4 ,the slits of the triglyph terminated at first in elliptical lines1 which became1 in the decline of the style1 straight and horizontal4 ,the triglyphs themselves were so distributed that one was placed over each column and one over the centre of each intercolumniation4 ,an exception was made at the corner1 where the triglyph could not be placed in the axis of the shaft1 being needed for the support of the angle4 ,it would be contrary to the open and non-sustaining character of the metope for this to be assigned to a position so constructively important4 ,vitruvius1 regardless of this consideration1 recommends that the corner triglyph be placed in the axis of the column beneath it1 like all the others2 but only one debased instance is known where this occurs--the so-called ,temple of ,demeter at ,pstum4 ,the disturbance of symmetry which resulted to the frieze by the removal of the corner triglyph from the axis was counterbalanced by the metopes being made slightly larger1 and especially by the outer intercolumniations being greatly diminished in width4 ,this last step was also desirable from other considerations1 notably because the dark background of the cella caused the openings between the inner shafts to appear narrower than the free and light space between those of the exterior4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--;,entablature of the ,parthenon4 ,all these changes were primarily caused by the ,doric entablature not having been created for the peripteros2 it was necessary thus to fit it for decorative employment4 ,the metopes were originally open interstices between the beams2 intertrabies1 as they might be called1 with reference to the intercolumniations2 having1 upon the peripteros1 been closed within and without by light slabs1 the votive offerings1 formerly placed in the apertures1 were now superseded by sculptures in relief upon these stones1 which gave to the entire entablature--or1 when the carving was restricted1 to that of the fronts--an imposing decoration4 ,a continuous band1 like that beneath the triglyphs1 terminated the frieze2 but the individuality of triglyph and metope was even here maintained1 the superposed member being broken around them1 as a separate coronation for each4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,scheme of the ,doric ,entablature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--,plan and ,elevation of the so-called ,temple of ,theseus1 ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,painting upon the ,pteroma of the ,temple of ,theseus4 ,the cornice showed reminiscences of the projecting eaves by its corona being cut with a downward slant1 such as would never have been invented for the treatment of stone4 ,that this inclination was not precisely the same as the pitch of the roof rafters cannot be adduced as an argument against its fundamental idea2 in the marble structure there was nothing to call for so exact a resemblance4 ,the decoration of the lower surface of the corona shows the original motive of its wooden construction as distinctly expressed as was the formation of the triglyph in the frieze4 ,the position of the ends of the rafters1 beneath the sheathing1 is marked by boards1 each being pinned upon it with eighteen wooden pegs4 ,from the duplication of the triglyphs in the stone building there resulted an equal number of mutules1 and these were still further multiplied by being placed over each metope--this latter increase having been at first attempted with members of half the normal width1 as at ,fig4 #acf4 ,the whole composition was thus the more richly divided the higher the building ascended2 upon one column rested two triglyphs and four mutules4 ,it is further remarkable that1 to make the decoration harmonious upon all sides of the edifice1 these mutules were also introduced upon the front and rear entablatures2 this repetition1 with the inclination of the corona upon the fronts1 naturally without a gutter1 must be regarded as a further concession1 made1 contrary to the genetic signification of members1 in favor of the monumental appearance of the entire exterior4 ,the corona is bordered by the so-called ,doric cyma1 or beak-moulding1 distantly resembling the scotia of ,egypt and ,mesopotamia4 ,the concluding gutter is of a beautifully curved outline4 ,when it occurs upon the sides of the building1 where it is frequently restricted to the corners1 it is provided with lions' heads1 which1 arranged over the columns as gargoyles1 throw from their open jaws the rain-water of the roof beyond the steps of the crepidoma4 ,an isolated instance--the ,heraion of ,olympia1 which seems never to have been provided with a stone entablature--shows that the timbered roof and ceiling were placed at times with a wooden epistyle directly upon the stone columns of a peripteros4 ,the covering of the roof was formed1 in the best period1 by flat marble tiles1 the joints of which were covered by smaller curved blocks1 running from ridge to eaves1 and terminated over the cornice by antefixes4 ,the apex and corners of the gable were provided with acroteria1 standing upon special bases4 ,they are reminiscences of an ancient usage of ,western ,asia3 those of the corners found their origin in the ornaments of primitive altars and sarcophagi1 known in ,biblical accounts as horns4 ,they were sometimes supplanted by votive offerings suited to the position1 such as tripods1 or by griffins and other symbolical figures4 ,the pointed acroterium of the apex was usually the whole of the two half-anthemions represented upon those of the corners2 in larger monuments it was often replaced by statues1 just as extended compositions of figures were created for the tympanon beneath1 as a substitute for the dedicated objects which appear to have originally filled the gable4 ,the polychromy of the ,doric temple was one of the most important features of its external appearance4 ,it is probable that the greater part of its marble surface1 possibly the whole1 was colored4 ,our ,northern conceptions can with difficulty comprehend the full value of this treatment in the general composition2 in our gray landscape1 a building thus painted might appear harsh and variegated4 ,the color of the lower supporting members was restricted to a light tint1 the so-called baphe1 which had first been applied to the stucco priming necessary for the coarse and porous stone of older temples1 and was afterwards transferred from this to the marble of later monuments4 ,it stained the surface with a light golden-brown tint1 moderating the harsh chalky white of lime stucco1 or of marble1 and investing the newly erected building with the patina by which age always modulates the color of stone4 ,this baphe was employed for the marble temple on account of the traditional painting of the stucco priming1 because of the too dazzling white natural to the freshly hewn material1 and1 finally1 in order to harmonize the columns and stylobate with the intensely rich colors of the entablature4 ,dark and positive pigments were restricted to the frieze and cornice1 having1 without doubt1 been first employed to preserve the original wooden material4 ,the beams and slat-work1 like the triglyphs with their regulas and the mutules1 were designated by blue2 the trunnels were red or gilded4 ,that which had at first been open was treated as a dark-red background2 the metopes and tympanon thus clearly outlining the reliefs and groups of statues which ornamented them4 ,the continuous members were treated with particular richness2 the narrower strips were painted with the meander and other woven forms2 the gutter with anthemions2 while the ,doric cyma was decorated with leaves of various colors1 so artistically conventionalized as but little to resemble nature4 ,the inner side of the entablature was still more richly colored4 7,fig4 #adj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,coffered ,pteroma ,ceiling of the ,southern ,temple upon the ,eastern ,plateau of ,selinous4 ,restoration4 ,one of the most wonderful refinements of ,greek architecture was the attention paid to optical deceptions1 and the correction of these by the curvature of all straight and horizontal lines4 ,it has been mentioned that the peripteral columns did not stand mathematically upright1 all the axes being inclined inwards2 the discovery of this fact was followed by a publication1 made by the architect ,hoffer in #ahch1 which maintained that no perfectly level line existed upon the entire temple1 the horizontals being curved slightly upwards4 ,hoffer's assertions were verified by the micrometrical studies made by ,penrose1 in #ahdf1 upon the ,parthenon1 the so-called ,theseion1 the ,propyla1 ,erechtheion1 and the ,temple of ,olympian ,zeus in ,athens1 and afterwards upon the temples of ,nemea and ,segesta4 ,his measurements make evident a curvature of #j4jfi m4 in #cj4hgf m4 upon the front of the ,parthenon1 and of #j4ajh m4 in #fi4ebe m4 upon its sides4 ,though so very slight a deviation is not readily apparent1 there are no mathematically rectangular forms upon the entire building2 the corner metopes are1 for instance1 trapezoidal4 ,whether these curves1 the existence of which is not to be denied1 were really intentional1 was questioned by ,boetticher1 but it has been proved beyond a doubt by the further investigations of ,ziller4 ,the motive for the adoption of refinements1 so extraordinarily delicate and difficult of execution1 was the same desire to correct displeasing optical deceptions which prompted the entasis of the columns and the inclination of their axes from the vertical4 ,the apparent deviation of the lines1 sagging from the horizontal1 was most disagreeably apparent upon the front entablature--the base of the gable triangle1 which1 when straight1 invariably appears concave1 while a corona1 in reality curved upwards1 presents itself to the eye as perfectly level4 ,by a deviation from the absolutely horizontal1 the appearance of greater correctness was attained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,fragments of ,coffered ,ceilings from the ,parthenon4 ,a4 ,from the ,side ,pteroma4 ,b4 ,from the ,epinaos4 ,the peripteral columns of the ,doric style worthily express the peculiar character of the ,dorians by their simple dignity4 ,by them a passage was formed around the cella1 the pteroma1 the ceiling of which was most richly decorated with cofferings4 7,fig4 #ada47 ,so short a span was here required of the horizontal beams that it was possible to translate them into stone simultaneously with the outer entablature2 this seems to have been universal in the larger peripteral temples1 that of ,zeus in ,olympia possibly being an exception4 ,the ceiling did not remain in its original position1 resting upon the epistyle1 but1 with the increased dimensions of the stone frieze1 was considerably elevated4 ,the spaces between the lintels were closed by slabs of stone which retained the form of the original wooden cofferings1 being hollowed by stepped lacun1 diminishing in size4 ,a transitional moulding was placed in each angle formed by a vertical and horizontal surface4 ,upon the coffered ceilings of ,attic monuments 7,fig4 #adb7 this member is the ,lesbian cyma1 supplemented by an astragal1 these signs of an ,ionic influence being further noticeable in other parts of these buildings4 ,the wall of the cella1 though surrounded by the pteroma1 still bears traces of the entablature1 which1 as shown above1 preceded the outstanding columns2 the triglyphs and metopes are repeated1 or in their place is a frieze of sculptured reliefs1 in which the isolated carvings of the metope become continuous and connected4 ,at times there remain beneath the latter the tnia1 regulas1 and trunnels--only to be explained and justified as the reminiscences of portions of an originally well-founded decoration which had1 in part1 been gradually supplanted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--,plan of the ,middle ,temple upon the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,the cella itself1 within the pteroma1 appears in plan either without columns1 as a temple in antis1 as a prostylos1 or as an amphiprostylos1 thus supporting the assumption that these were the original forms of its development4 ,the cella was often greatly increased in length2 this made its transverse division desirable1 and there resulted the front portico1 or pronaos1 the principal hall of the temple1 or naos1 and the space partitioned off at the rear1 called1 analogically1 the epinaos4 ,an especial chamber of the building was at times isolated to serve as a treasury2 this was known as the opisthodomos4 7,fig4 #adc47 ,the pronaos1 whether with or without columns1 was closed1 if at all1 only by a light bronze grating2 from it a wide portal1 occupying almost the entire division wall1 opened into the naos4 ,its upper part was fixed1 but entrance was afforded through its lower part by folding wings4 ,the grooves worn by the doors are still visible upon the ,parthenon floor4 ,the interior was disproportionately narrow1 a result of the peripteral enclosure and of the limitations imposed by the gable1 which would have become too high and heavy if the front had been greatly widened in favor of the interior breadth2 moreover1 the horizontal ceiling was unfavorable to width1 which was limited to the natural span of the beams4 ,the possibility of admitting much light had been given up with the change in the position of the entablature and metopes4 ,notwithstanding the size of the door1 sufficient daylight could not enter through this2 it was itself in the shadow of the pteroma1 and generally1 also1 of a pronaos4 ,but little illumination was required for the small chapel when this served solely as a receptacle for the sacred image4 ,a dim and mystical twilight was easily obtained by the use of one or more perpetually burning lamps1 which could only have been favorable to the artistically unpretentious interior4 ,it was otherwise with the larger and more important temples1 opened for festive assemblages4 ,their interiors were divided by architectural members1 and contained manifold works of art and objects of value--a varied richness1 which called for an increased splendor of light1 possible only by artificial illumination4,g ,in the desire to increase the available space of the temple interior1 the enclosing walls were advanced more closely to the columns of the peripteros1 thus decreasing the width of the pteroma2 while the hall was divided by two rows of inner shafts into three aisles1 the outer two of which1 considerably narrower than the middle1 were partitioned into two stories by the introduction of galleries1 accessible by staircases at either side of the chief portal4 ,we now turn from this general consideration of the ,doric style to a review of the principal monuments remaining1 dividing them1 as well as possible1 into groups representative of certain ages and periods of development4 ,the oldest peripteral temples known are not situated in ,greece proper1 but in the early colonies upon the coasts of ,magna ,grcia and ,sicily4 ,they are distinguishable from later buildings by a nave freedom of form and the lack of any strictly systematical development--any canonical type4 ,the carving of details is as careful as the coarse and porous limestone permits4 ,the columns stand so far apart that the low and heavy proportion of the whole is not altered by the comparatively high stylobate4 ,the great distance of the shafts from the wall reduces the naos to a corridor-like narrowness1 the more noticeable as the whole temple plan is very long4 7,fig4 #adc47 ,the columns themselves are low1 never having a height greater than five lower diameters4 ,the monolithic shaft is much diminished1 and has an excessive entasis2 it is provided with twenty1 or in rare instances sixteen1 channels of segmental outline4 ,the incisions beneath the capital block1 bordering the hypotrachelion1 are generally multiplied1 often being three in number4 ,the necking upon the columns of ,sicilian temples is not merely the straight commencement of the channellings1 but often forms1 under the rings1 a slight scotia--the apophyge--which weakly detaches the echinos from the shaft by interrupting its organic connection4 ,the echinos has too great a projection2 its outline is soft1 and the small rings are placed too high4 ,the entire capital appears powerless and flat3 on this account the thickness of the entablature has not been increased2 the outer and inner surfaces of the epistyle do not project beyond the upper diameter of the shaft4 ,the members of the entablature are exceedingly high and heavy1 as are the details1 down to the trunnels and cyma4 ,the frieze alone is low1 and the metopes consequently small1 being framed by massive triglyphs1 the chamferings of which have circular or lanceolate endings4 ,the mutules above the triglyphs have the same great breadth2 in one instance there remains above the metope only space for half a mutule4 7,fig4 #acf47 ,the polychromy is1 in general1 sombre--yellow-brown and black1 with little red1 being the colors chiefly employed2 the patterns of the ornaments are distinctly of ,oriental origin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--,northern ,temple upon the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--,middle ,temple upon the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4--,temple of ,assos4 ,the most prominent monuments of this class are at ,selinous1 upon the western extremity of ,sicily4 ,that city was founded in #fbh ,b4,c43 its acropolis appears to have been early occupied by temples2 at least the northernmost of these buildings1 with the widest intercolumniations1 of two and two thirds lower diameter1 and the most spacious pteroma1 dates from the commencement of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the middle temple of the acropolis appears scarcely fifty years younger2 it is celebrated for the primitive reliefs of its metopes1 which will be considered in the section upon ,greek sculpture4 ,a corner of the building is given above1 ,fig4 #acf2 its capital is ,fig4 #ade4 ,a third example of this earliest period of development--which is designated by ,semper as the laxly archaic style--is known under the name ,tavola dei ,palladini1 and stands among the ruins of the ,elian colony1 ,metapontion1 a city founded as early as #gfh ,b4,c41 but entirely rebuilt in #ehf ,b4,c41 after its destruction by the original inhabitants of ,lower ,italy4 ,the fifteen columns at present upright probably date from the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the intercolumniations are wide1 the shafts excessively diminished1 and the curve of the echinos too pronounced4 ,it is difficult to decide whether to this class may belong the remains of the temple at ,cadacchio upon ,corfu 7,corkyra71 and of that built of lava at ,assos1 in the ,troad4 7,fig4 #adf47 ,the former has been greatly disfigured by a late restoration1 and it is not at present possible to determine the date of the latter1 known only by insufficient publications4 ,the next advances of temple architecture consist in placing the higher columns more nearly together and in heightening and narrowing the triglyphs4 ,the elegance of proportion and detail was thus considerably increased4 ,ionic elements were first introduced in this period1 greatly to the advantage of the style1 which is designated as the archaic4 ,an example is the middle temple upon the eastern plateau of ,selinous1 where the columns are cut with ,ionic flutes4 ,it is also important in the history of sculpture from the remains of metopes carved with scenes of the gigantomachia4 7,fig4 #adg47 ,of similar character is the great uncompleted ,temple of ,zeus upon the same plateau1 #aaj m4 long and #ej m4 broad1 with three aisles and galleries in the interior 7,fig4 #adh72 and also the so-called ,chiesa di ,sansone at ,metapontion1 of which small temple there are only few and scattered remains4 ,a third ,doric temple of this site1 discovered during the last few months1 is as yet inedited4 ,it is uncertain whether the ,temple of ,artemis upon the island of ,syracuse 7,ortygia7 should be reckoned with this group4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4--,middle ,temple upon the ,eastern ,plateau of ,selinous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,temple of ,zeus upon the ,eastern ,plateau of ,selinous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,so-called ,temple of ,heracles1 ,acragas4 ,one example of the epoch exists in ,greece proper--the ,temple of ,corinth4 ,its columns were once heavily primed with stucco1 and are now so weathered that it is impossible to draw any definite conclusions from them4 ,the outline of the capital is primitive1 though not in the degree formerly supposed1 when this ruin was thought to be the oldest monument of the ,doric style4 ,the two last-mentioned remains and the ,temple of ,athene upon the island ,ortygia have the heaviest and lowest proportions1 the lower diameter of the columns comparing to the height as #a to #d4bg 7,athene71 #a to #d4bi 7,artemis71 and #a to #d4cb 7,corinth74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4--,so-called ,temple of ,theseus1 ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,porticus of ,philip1 ,delos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,so-called ,temple of ,demeter1 ,pstum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,plan of the ,great ,temple of ,pstum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,plan1 ,section1 and ,elevation of the ,temple of ,olympian ,zeus at ,acragas4 ,the ,temple of ,zeus at ,selinous was the first of a number of colossal structures1 in which the architectural ability of the ,greeks1 by that time thoroughly schooled1 sought also to develop itself in enormous size4 ,the hexastyle front was increased to the octastyle1 thus permitting wider dimensions of the cella1 which still1 however1 did not attain the greatest possible extent1 the architect being unwilling to reduce the breadth of the pteroma4 ,the columns became even shorter and thicker2 they were less diminished and had a more delicately adjusted entasis2 the intercolumniations were increased4 ,the separation of the capital from the shaft by an apophyge was abandoned2 the entasis was made steeper and of a more vigorous outline4 ,the disproportionately high and weak triglyphs are especially characteristic of this stage of development2 with the exception of these1 the entablature still remained low and heavy4 ,marble came more and more into use as a building-stone2 the execution of details in stucco was rarer4 ,the new material did not limit the use of color1 which1 in place of the former tones1 became brighter--red1 blue1 and yellow prevailing4 ,the most imposing1 because the best-preserved1 of these colossal works is the magnificent ,temple of ,pstum1 with its two stories of inner columns partly intact4 7,fig4 #aec47 ,the triglyphs have not as yet disappeared from the walls of the cella1 but otherwise the construction shows no primitive traits1 being fully fitted for its execution in stone4 ,resembling this in many points is the ,temple of ,acragas1 or ,agrigentum1 termed that of ,heracles4 7,fig4 #adi47 ,the great ,temple of ,zeus of the same city was of the most gigantic dimensions ever attempted in the sacred architecture of the ,greeks4 ,it was also1 unfortunately1 even greater than was really practicable for a trabeated construction in such a building-material1 and consequently became a monstrosity4 ,the temple was heptastyle1 that is1 had seven columns upon the front1 which rendered impossible the normal entrance in the middle4 ,it differed still more decidedly from other ,greek temples in that the cella was not surrounded by an open pteroma1 the outstanding columns being supplanted by a wall decorated with engaged shafts4 ,it would be difficult to decide whether this peculiar pseudo-peripteros owed its conformation to the building-stone at disposal1 only to be quarried in blocks too short for the lintels of the pteroma1 or whether other considerations led to this abnormal negation of the fundamental principles of columnar architecture1 which here has no relation to the better-founded practices of ,roman builders in the application of engaged shafts4 ,the transformation of the pteroma made an entire change in the general disposition of plan2 but too little of the building now remains above ground to render its arrangement certain4 ,if door-openings be assumed at both sides of the middle column1 as in the illustration1 this would have been possible only upon the west1 the middle column of the east--the customary entrance-front--being proved by the remains to have been engaged4 ,it is not probable that windows existed in the wall between the columns2 the supposition is more natural that some of the side metopes were unclosed1 and provided the pteroma with sufficient daylight4 ,this would have been no innovation1 but rather1 in this case1 where it was impossible to execute the open peripteros1 a return to the original method of illumination through the interstices between the beams upon the top of the cella wall4 ,the before-mentioned ,temple of ,athene upon the island of ,ortygia is another ,sicilian example belonging to this archaic period of gigantic dimensions4 ,the two colossal monuments of ,athens1 built during the second half of the sixth century1 are more important1 although the older ,parthenon upon the acropolis1 if1 indeed1 ever completed1 could not have stood longer than half a century1 and the ,doric temple of ,olympian ,zeus was discontinued before its construction had far advanced4 ,a comparison of a fragment of the earlier building with the entablature of the present ,parthenon shows how disproportionately high were the triglyphs and how heavy and broad the tnia and regulas of the archaic period4 7,fig4 #aee47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--;,entablatures of the ,older and ,present ,parthenon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--,plan of the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia4 ,the exercise of the designer's individual ability in these works1 and the hieratic retention of every constructive and sthetic gain thus obtained1 prepared for the fullest perfection of the ,doric style4 ,the advance was effected by a slight attenuation of the too massive columns1 a further reduction of the height of the entablature1 and an increase in the projection of the smaller decorative members4 ,the temples built during1 or shortly after1 the time of the ,persian wars show the gradual introduction of these changes4 ,among the ,sicilian remains of this period are the uncompleted ,temple of ,segesta1 the so-called ,temple of ,concordia at ,acragas1 and the six peripteral temples upon the acropolis and eastern plateau of ,selinous not previously mentioned4 ,among those of ,greece proper1 the ,temple of ,athene upon gina and the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia 7,fig4 #aef7 are most prominent4 ,the frieze of triglyphs was omitted from the cella walls of the ,temple of gina1 but the regulas and trunnels were retained with curious effect3 it is as though the designer were only slowly and with difficulty led to give up1 one by one1 the traditions of a primitive wooden construction4 ,the date of the building of the ,olympian temple is uncertain1 but the name of its architect1 ,libon1 of ,elis1 has been handed down1 with one exception the earliest connected with ,greek architecture4 ,the recent excavations have entirely exposed the overthrown ruins4 ,they show that the forms of the edifice are more primitive than would have been expected from the age in which ,pheidias completed the celebrated chryselephantine statue of the temple deity4 ,it is possible that the advance of the building was slow1 or that there were long interruptions of the work before its final completion4 ,an especially important result of the investigations is the evidence that an enclosed dicula for the statue of ,zeus1 hitherto advocated by restorers because of the supposed opening in the roof and ceiling for light1 did not exist1 the interior having been divided into three aisles like the great ,temple of ,pstum4 ,the proportions of the peripteros were of great vigor and beauty4 ,it was built of poros1 with the exception of the metope reliefs upon the fronts of the cella1 and the carved gutter and roof tiles1 which were of marble4 ,this so-called poros1 a stone almost exclusively employed for the earlier buildings of the ,greeks1 is a rough shell conglomerate1 usually brought to a surface by a heavy priming of stucco4 ,the floor of the pteroma of the great temple at ,olympia was of a pebble cement1 the small inner staircases of wood4 ,while the architecture of the ,peloponnesos still retained traces of the archaic style1 the highest perfection of ,doric forms was attained in ,attica1 reaching its fulfilment at a time1 after the ,persian wars1 when the political supremacy of ,athens was far greater than that ever enjoyed by any state of the world so restricted in territory4 ,the deserved sovereignty of ,athens over ,greece1 its naval power1 imposing even to the ,orientals of ,western ,asia and ,egypt1 and1 finally1 the necessity and opportunity of rebuilding the ,attic capital after its destruction by the ,persians1 before the decisive battle of ,salamis1 caused a monumental rebirth of the noble city1 which not only became the classic model in those ages throughout the extent of ,greece and its colonies upon distant shores1 but the highest ideal of architecture to the present day and for the entire future of the human race4 ,attica was fitted to cultivate equally the artistic peculiarities of the two branches of the ,hellenic stock1 its ,ionic population being intermingled1 in a marked degree1 with ,doric elements4 ,it had attained the highest development of civilization1 and was the home of the most famed artists4 ,by the taxes levied upon the eastern mainland and the islands of the ,archipelago1 ,athens had almost unlimited means at its disposal4 ,to this nature added the incomparable marble building-material1 quarried almost before the gates of the city1 which indeed possessed all the conditions requisite for the first monumental capital of ,greece and of the civilized world4 ,familiarity with the ,ionic style did not permit that heaviness and clumsiness of architectural members observable upon the contemporaneous temples of the ,peloponnesos4 ,the columns of the ,temple of gina had been allowed a height as great as #e4c times their lower diameter4 ,in the ,doric buildings of ,athens this was still further increased1 the so-called ,temple of ,theseus having the proportion of #e4fb to #a1 the ,parthenon as #e4dg to #a4 ,the diminution and entasis of the shaft were reduced to just relations2 the delicate curve of the latter1 as demanded by the optical deception it was to correct1 was greatest below the half height of the column4 ,the channellings no longer remained segmental arcs1 but received an independently designed1 elliptical profile4 ,the echinos became steeper1 rising in an almost straight line to the firm and sharp turn beneath the abacus4 ,the triglyphs1 returning slightly to former proportions1 became broader than those of the preceding period2 smaller members were diminished in height1 but were made more projecting4 ,the colors of the entablature became still more intense2 blue and red predominated2 green was also employed1 and gilding appeared upon the trunnels and in the beautifully composed surface patterns4 ,ionic elements1 almost entirely disused during the latter ages1 reappeared in very general employment1 especially in the deep cofferings of the pteroma ceiling and upon the capitals of the pilasters4 ,the typical monuments of this ,attic ,doric style are the so-called ,theseion1 and the ,parthenon and ,propyla of the ,athenian acropolis4 ,the first of these buildings 7,fig4 #aci7 was certainly not sacred to ,theseus2 its dedication is not surely known4 ,it preceded the highest perfection1 still betraying some slight archaic influences4 ,the triglyphs are too high1 the smaller members1 notably the regulas and trunnels1 too heavy4 ,ionic elements are freely introduced4 ,besides the coffering of the pteroma ceiling and the before-mentioned pilaster capitals1 there was an ,ionic zophoros1 or continuous frieze of figures1 bordered above and below by leaved cyma-mouldings and astragals1 in place of the ,doric entablature usually employed1 at least in part1 upon the walls of the cella4 ,the ornamental painting was extended to the capitals of the pteroma columns 7,fig4 #aej71 which bore a series of leaves1 and to the walls1 the interior of the naos having been prepared for the reception of pigments4 ,the perfect preservation of the building is owing to its early transformation into a ,christian church4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,plan of the ,parthenon4 ,the ,parthenon far surpassed the ,theseion in artistic perfection2 it was1 indeed1 worthy the superintendence of a ,pheidias4 ,its architect1 ,ictinos1 conceived his work to stand so high above contemporary buildings that he celebrated it in an especial monograph1 mentioned by ,vitruvius1 though1 unfortunately1 not consulted by him4 ,the dimensions of the octastyle temple were imposing2 the edge of the stylobate measured about #cj by #fh m42 elevated upon the steep acropolis1 it could be seen from a great distance4 ,though its site was not limited1 the economy of space was carried to an extreme4 ,the intercolumniations are narrow1 especially those of the front2 the pteroma was thus reduced in breadth to less than one and one half times the lower diameter of the columns4 7,fig4 #aeg47 ,the pronaos and epinaos had no side walls1 the cella being amphiprostyle1 enclosed by high grilles4 ,the depth of these vestibules was less than one quarter of their breadth4 ,the remaining interior was partitioned into two chambers of unequal size3 the naos and the opisthodomos1 the latter of which served as a treasury4 ,the naos was divided by ranges of columns into three chief aisles1 and the gallery over the sides was carried across the nave1 next to the rear wall4 ,the world-renowned chryselephantine statue of ,athene1 #ab m4 high1 stood before the transverse columns1 between which and the partition there was allowed a passage1 nearly equal in breadth to the side aisles4 ,the stairs to the gallery may1 from the analogies of the great temples of ,olympia and ,pstum1 be assumed to have existed at either side of the entrance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--,plan and ,view of the ,propyla1 ,athens4 ,the ,propyla of the ,athenian acropolis1 by which the architect ,mnesicles made his name immortal1 were not less perfect than the ,parthenon4 ,work upon them was begun shortly before the completion of the latter building1 in #dch ,b4,c41 and occupied five years4 ,ionic members had frequently been employed upon ,doric structures1 but the ,propyla offer the first instance of a combination of the styles in almost equal proportions3 the interior of these gates was entirely ,ionic1 the exterior entirely ,doric4 7,figs4 #abj and #aeh47 ,six ,ionic columns bore the famed marble ceiling of great span1 while two ,doric porticos formed the fronts4 ,the stone-cutting of all the monuments upon the ,athenian acropolis was incomparably exact and beautiful1 as was the harmony of their proportions and forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--,plan of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,bass4 ,the ,temple of ,phigalia1 or ,bass1 in ,arcadia1 though stated to have been built by the architect of the ,parthenon1 shows that the perfection of the monuments last considered was possible only upon ,attic ground4 ,the sanctuary of ,arcadia was dedicated to ,apollo ,epicourios in gratitude for the deliverance of the district from the plague of #dca ,b4,c4 ,its plan 7,fig4 #aei7 was excessively long1 having fifteen side columns1 with a hexastyle front4 ,the elevation offers a remarkable combination of archaic traditional forms and of exaggerated novelties4 ,though the three incisions of the capital necking are peculiarly primitive1 the echinos has become even steeper than it was upon the ,parthenon4 ,ionic sculptured ornaments begin to appear upon the entablature4 ,the inward inclination of the axes of the columns and the curvature of the horizontals have been neglected in ,bass1 as if the architect had not considered it worth while to display such refinements to the uncultivated ,arcadians4 ,in the interior of the temple ,ionic columns are engaged upon short transverse walls1 which project from the sides4 ,these are so remarkably archaic in form 7,fig4 #afe7 that it is difficult to explain how ,athenian architects1 who must have been familiar with the interior columns of the ,propyla and those of the ,erechtheion1 then in course of construction1 could have prepared the designs4 ,an extremely ancient and undeveloped ,corinthian capital 7,fig4 #agf7 has been found among the ruins of ,bass2 it will be referred to below4 ,many of the anomalies of the temple would be explained by the assumption that the building occupied the site of a former chapel1 the entrance to which had naturally been upon the east1 and that the lack of available ground prevented the retention of the original and usual orientation1 making the peripteros1 as the enlargement of a former fane1 open the inner chamber of the naos upon one of the long sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,plan of the ,temenos of ,eleusis4 ,other ,attic remains1 some of which date from the end of the fifth century1 also show traces of the deterioration of the art4 ,chief among these are the ,propyla of ,eleusis and the house of assemblage for those initiated in the ,eleusinian mysteries1 known as the ,telesterion1 a square hypostyle hall1 fronted by a portico of twelve columns1 apparently without a gable4 7,fig4 #afj47 ,it is not known how soon after the ,persian wars the temples of ,rhamnous and ,sunion were rebuilt2 they may have slightly preceded the age of decline4 ,the increasing love of magnificence and luxury felt among the ,greeks was not satisfied with the simple majesty of the ,doric style2 the ,ionic was more and more frequently substituted in preference4 ,the latter had been employed for the ,propyla of the ,athenian acropolis1 and had appeared independently in smaller temples1 and1 finally1 in the national shrine of ,attica1 the ,erechtheion4 ,the ,doric became restricted to porticos and peristyles1 and1 in double-storied interiors1 to the lower order1 for which important constructional functions it was fitted by the great solidity of the column4 ,but the desire to simplify the execution of ,doric members1 and reduce the expense which must have been attendant upon the delicate refinements of curvatures1 introduced dry and hard geometrical forms1 and the sthetic value of the style was1 for the greater part1 lost4 ,an example of this debasement is offered by the portico of ,philip upon ,delos1 where the echinos projects in an absolutely straight line4 7,fig4 #aea47 ,in the colonies1 upon the other hand1 even as late as the ,roman period1 the style was archaistically treated1 with a provincial lack of good taste1 illustrated by the weak echinos and apophyge of the capital of the so-called ,temple of ,demeter at ,pstum4 7,fig4 #aeb47 ,an entirely different manner of building had early appeared by the side of the ,doric style1 which cannot be accounted of quite equal birth with that eldest male offspring of ,hellenic civilization1 but1 to carry out the simile1 should rather be considered as a step-sister4 ,the development of the peripteral plan1 the echinos coronation of the channelled shafts1 and the entablature of triglyphs1 metopes1 and mutules1 appear autochthonic and purely ,greek2 while the ,ionic style1 though adopting the plan and general disposition of the former1 was1 in its most characteristic details1 an importation from ,asia4 ,it is not meant by this that the perfected style was not characteristically ,hellenic4 ,the ,greeks accepted none of the products of their neighbors without a change--a transformation of disposition and detail by their peculiar genius4 ,but the fundamental motives1 the elements of the style1 in as far as these are not identified with the ,doric1 had been taken from neighboring ,eastern lands of primitive civilization3 from the coasts of ,asia ,minor and ,syria4 ,the ,ionic column betrays this relationship in both base and capital4 ,the former consists fundamentally of a tore elevated upon a drum1 usually hollowed by a scotia4 ,this tore was employed as a footing for the columns of ,nineveh1 and is familiar through one example and through representations upon reliefs4 ,from thence it was transplanted to ,persia1 where1 in the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c41 it appears with the horizontal channelling found upon the more primitive ,ionic monuments4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,the concave profile of the under plinth is new and ,hellenic4 ,the delicate perception of the ,greek designer recognized the advantage of this scotia over the clumsy heaviness which had resulted from the tore being placed immediately upon the ground or upon a rectangular slab1 and the lower member was made to harmonize with the channelled moulding above it by the emphasis of horizontal lines4 ,it is uncertain whether the slender proportions of the ,ionic shaft1 so marked in comparison with the strength of the ,doric style1 is to be attributed to ,oriental influences4 ,it agreed as well with the light ,ionic entablature and ceiling as did the powerful ,doric column with the great weight imposed upon it2 and it may be regarded as one of the principles of architectural construction that the strength of the support has ever been originally determined by the weight of the ceiling and superstructure3 the column has been adapted to the entablature1 not the height of epistyle1 frieze and cornice to the diameter of the shaft4 ,with this consideration agreed the desire to attain great elegance and lightness of proportion1 peculiar to the ,ionic race4 ,the ,ionic column1 thus made of greater proportional height1 had diminution and entasis like the ,doric4 ,it differed remarkably in the fluting4 ,a vertical grooving cannot be traced upon the columns of ,assyria2 upon those of ,persia it is similar to the ,doric channels1 with sharp arrises4 ,the development of the flute itself may perhaps be deemed peculiarly ,greek4 ,as painted ornaments were gradually given up1 they were replaced by architectural carvings2 such sculptured decorations were harmoniously introduced upon the shaft1 and the channels were deepened to a semicircular profile4 ,this rendered a change of the arrises necessary1 for if the ends of the arcs were to have abutted1 as upon the ,doric column1 the deep flute1 with its extremely sharp edge1 could only have been executed upon a plane4 ,upon a convexly curved surface1 like that of the cylindrical drums1 it would have been impossible to cut semicircular grooves immediately adjoining1 as their outlines would have intersected4 ,the sharp arrises were therefore relinquished1 and a broad vertical band1 the surface of the original cylinder1 was left in its place1 the play of light and shade which enlivened the body of the shaft being increased by these flutings1 but the evidence of the derivation of the channelled column from the polygonal pier was entirely sacrificed1 the cylindrical form being characterized as original by the remaining fillets4 ,the carving of the shaft was rendered more difficult from the slight projections left at the top and bottom as transitional members to the base and to the capital4 ,this horizontal fillet was a further gain to the outline of the column1 concave and convex surfaces thus alternating from floor to ceiling4 ,the flutings were terminated above and below1 before reaching this transverse member1 by a semicircle1 which agreed with their sectional outline4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,ionic ,order from the ,peripteros of the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4--,plan of the ,normal ,ionic ,capital4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,plan of the ,corner ,ionic ,capital4 ,the capital consisted1 in part1 of an echinos1 similar to that of the ,doric style1 the leaves1 which1 at least in one instance1 had been painted upon it1 being here carved1 and an astragal taking the place of the necking rings4 ,this echinos is almost entirely covered by a spiral roll1 which gives to the style its most striking characteristic4 ,with the discovery of the helix upon the capitals of ,assyrian reliefs1 all the labored explanations of the significance and derivation of this member have fallen to the ground4 ,it is impossible to believe1 with ,vitruvius1 that the ,ionic column was considered as the representative of the fair sex3 that the locks of hair were indicated by the spiral line of the capital1 the folds of the wide garments and draperies by the flutes and fillets1 and the sandals by the base4 ,nor are the theories more satisfactory which seek for such natural motives as spiral shells or twisted ram's horns1 assumed to have been primitive ornaments of the sanctuaries4 ,and it is still worse to regard the peculiar form of the capital as decided by the conception of an elastic cushion1 which1 displaced by the weight of the entablature1 curls again at either side of the echinos4 ,the ,ionic helix was a form of capital imported from the ,east1 where it had been used by barbaric designers as a mere ornament upon upright legs of furniture 7,fig4 #ha71 or upon ,persian columns 7,fig4 #hj7--;a form developed by the ,greeks into an architectural member of the first importance4 ,the ,assyrians1 by doubling the volutes1 had formed with this motive a capital not particularly well adapted to the functions of a transitional member between vertical support and horizontal burden4 ,the ,hellenic architect perceived that a more decided projection was necessary1 and therefore placed an echinos beneath the volute1 leaving the roll as the medium between the circular shaft and oblong entablature1 which1 in the ,doric style1 had been formed by the abacus4 ,the horizontal lines of the abacus1 thus supplanted1 were represented upon the ,ionic column only by a narrow moulding1 curved to the profile of a cyma and sculptured with a leaved ornament4 ,in the ,greek capital the spirals became an elegantly curved roll1 of greater length than breadth1 with tightly curled ends1 which were bound together1 upon either side of the echinos1 by a band4 ,the capital thus shows its true profile1 the helices upon front and back1 and upon the subordinate sides rolls of their thickness4 7,fig4 #afa47 ,this difference between face and side resulted in one great difficulty upon the corners1 which1 like the irregularity of the division of the ,doric frieze of triglyphs and metopes in the same place1 proves that the ,ionic style also did not originate upon the peripteral plan1 but was adapted to it from a temple in antis4 ,it was natural that the more ornamental side of the column should face the entrance front1 and thus the capitals upon the longer sides of the building were forced to show their rolls1 the partie honteuse1 unless the corner capital assumed an unnatural deformation to present the helices upon two adjoining1 instead of two opposite1 faces4 7,figs4 #afb and #afc47 ,the corner capital thus became a miserable hybrid1 which1 because of the impossibility of its execution in a natural manner1 from the intersection of the outer volutes when these proceeded in a straight line parallel to the epistyle1 lost not only all constructive significance and harmony with those next to it1 but also its individual beauty4 ,there was no other expedient than to bend the faces of the corner volutes outward in the line of the diagonal--a malformation visible at every standpoint4 ,a further difficulty was presented by the corners of the spirals over the echinos1 which required to be masked by floral decorations4 ,upon the narrow abacus moulding rested the entablature1 remarkable for the ,oriental character of the details1 and notably for reminiscences of primitive wooden construction1 which are almost as evident in the ,ionic as in the ,doric style4 ,the epistyle1 formed in the latter by a single plane block1 was here triply stepped to agree with the multiplied beams required by the nature of ,oriental timber--generally provided by the various species of palms4 ,according to the description of ,vitruvius1 the motive was also employed for the wooden epistyle beams of ,etruscan temples4 ,each face projected slightly beyond the one beneath it1 as previously customary in ,asia1 and shown by the ruins of the palace of ,darius 7,fig4 #hd7 and the rock-cut faade of that monarch's tomb 7,fig4 #hc74 ,the epistyle is terminated by a ,lesbian cyma and an astragal1 the latter being1 in some instances1 repeated upon every light step from beam to beam beneath4 ,the frieze1 known in this style as the zophoros1 the bearer of figures1 is an original ,hellenic creation1 the ,oriental entablature consisting of only two members as representative of only two constructive features3 the epistyle that connected the columns1 and the ceiling and roof1 which1 in the rainless countries of the ,east1 appear as one and the same member4 ,in ,greece the inclined roof was separated fundamentally from the horizontal ceiling1 and the entablature consequently expressed a triple character4 ,the nave and truthful manner of this expression1 peculiar to the ,doric style1 was not followed by the ,ionic4 ,the second member of the entablature1 the frieze1 should represent the ceiling1 but the symbols of that constructive feature1 the dentils1 were crowded up among the details of the cornice1 while the zophoros itself1 perhaps as a result of the relief sculpture employed upon the ,doric metopes1 became a continuous decoration of carving4 ,the dentils1 as significant of the ends of the small ceiling-beams1 were in their proper place1 touching the epistyle1 upon the monuments of ,persia 7,fig4 #hc71 and also upon the tombs of ,lycia 7,figs4 #aaj and #aaa71 so closely allied to the ,mesopotamian tradition2 they were there of far greater size than in the ,greek ,ionic1 where their position and diminutive dimensions reduced them to a mere ornament4 ,the members of the cornice stand in no such relation to the interior construction of beams and rafters as did the mutules and trunnels of the ,doric temples4 ,the curved gutter1 however1 is ornamented with lion's-heads and anthemions1 which seem in both styles to have been derived from western ,asia4 ,the stone beams of the pteroma ceiling rest directly upon the epistyle1 and are consequently as far below their exterior representatives1 the cornice dentils1 as1 in the ,doric1 they were above the triglyphs4 ,between them are the rich cofferings1 not with small lacun1 calculated to produce an effect mainly by color1 but in broad surfaces1 frequently stepped1 with carved cyma-mouldings in the angles4 7,fig4 #afd47 ,the plan of the cella differed but slightly from that of ,doric temples4 ,the doors are usually provided with parotides1 the doubly-spiral brackets which have remained a popular ornament beneath the coronations of door and window openings until the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,ceiling from the ,peripteros of the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos4 ,restoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,base and ,capital from ,bass4 ,the historical development of the ,ionic temple is not illustrated by as many examples as was that of the ,doric style1 and1 indeed1 there was no such marked and regular advance as that observable in the temples of ,selinous1 ,olympia1 and ,athens4 ,a great number of ,ionic monuments stand in a district not as yet thoroughly examined3 the southern coasts of ,asia ,minor4 ,towards the border of ,lycia traces of an archaic or proto-,ionic style have been observed1 more closely allied to ,eastern motives than were the developed temples of ,greece4 ,the capitals of ,lycian tombs 7,fig4 #aaj7 have no echinos1 by the addition of which so great an advance was subsequently made2 the formation of the rolls upon the sides was also primitive1 they being at times perfectly straight1 at times disproportionately curved4 ,the difficult transition from the end of the shaft to the volutes was evaded1 and masked by anthemions or other ornaments4 ,the only example of such an imperfect formation in ,european ,greece existed in the interior of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,bass 7,fig4 #aei72 the date of its erection1 however1 shows this example not to have been archaic1 but rather archaistic1--that is to say1 intentionally and affectedly imitated from primitive peculiarities of form4 7,fig4 #afe47 ,the columns1 engaged to transverse walls1 have bases of excessive projection1 the thin and feeble tore being out of proportion to the high member beneath it4 ,the lower end of the shaft itself forms a second projection1 which greatly exceeds the usual cong and fillet of the bottom drum4 ,the shallow flutings are continued up to the very top of the shaft1 there being concluded by an almost straight line4 ,the capital itself is most strikingly archaistic1 presenting the helices upon each of its three exposed faces2 it is an applied decoration which has given up all semblance of constructive unity or function1 leaving the prismatic kernel1 without an abacus moulding1 to project above the curves and support the imposed entablature4 ,the narrow space remaining between the two large spirals of each side is almost entirely filled by a decoration of anthemions1 and the introduction of an echinos is thus rendered unnecessary4 ,the sculptured zophoros of the interior entablature1 now one of the chief treasures of the ,british ,museum1 betrays in its figures the greatest freedom from convention1 in marked contrast to the affectedly antique character of the architectural forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--;,from the ,heraion upon ,samos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,from the ,temple of ,apollo ,didymos1 ,miletos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,from the ,temple of ,athene at ,priene4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--;,from the ,propyla of ,cnidos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,from the ,temple of ,wingless ,victory1 ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--,temple ,ruin at ,aphrodisias4 ,the northern coast of ,asia ,minor1 as far as it is at present known1 offers few ,ionic remains of the archaic period4 ,the original ,temple of ,artemis1 at ,ephesos1 according to ,pliny the most ancient peripteros of the style1 has been totally obliterated by frequent reconstructions and the famed conflagration of ,herostratos4 ,a second fane of national importance1 the ,temple of ,hera1 at ,samos1 is at present known only by one unfluted column1 #a4f m4 in lower diameter1 and by horizontally fluted tores and plinths4 ,these two buildings were of such interest that their architects saw fit to celebrate their constructive peculiarities in monographs1 as had been done for the ,doric ,parthenon4 ,the writings of ,chersiphron and of the ,cretan ,metagenes upon the ,artemision at ,ephesos1 and of ,theodoros1 the son of the ,samian ,illecles1 upon the ,heraion of that island1 are mentioned as late as the time of the ,roman emperors4 ,these peripteral temples1 built about the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c41 were of very considerable dimensions1 but were far surpassed in size by a third national shrine of the ,ionians1 the ,temple of ,apollo ,didymos1 rebuilt by ,paionios of ,ephesos and ,daphnis of ,miletos almost a century later than the former monuments1 #dgj ,b4,c41 upon the site of an ancient structure destroyed by the ,persians4 ,the temple was a dipteros decastylos1 that is1 had a double row of outstanding columns around the cella1 with ten upon the front2 it measured #ia m4 in length and #di m4 in breadth4 ,the columns were proportionately tall1 #ai m4 in height1 which equals nine and a half lower diameters1 and were placed closely together1 the intercolumniations being only one and a half diameters wide4 ,the scotia of the base was divided by a projecting moulding and elevated upon a square plinth2 the tore had no horizontal flutings4 7,fig4 #afg47 ,the capital had a straight connection between the spirals1 and the epistyle was stepped but twice4 ,the interior of the temple was provided with pilasters1 the capitals of which are of an ,oriental character1 richly decorated with floral motives4 ,a ,corinthian capital also occurs upon the building 7,fig4 #agg71 which will be referred to below4 ,the enormous temple of which there are fragmentary remains at ,sardis1 supposed to be that of ,cybele1 appears to have been erected during this period1 and resembles the shrine of ,apollo ,didymos at ,miletos4 ,the ,temple of ,athene ,polias at ,priene1 the work of the architect ,pythios1 who celebrated its completion in a monograph1 dates from the middle of the fourth century ,b4,c41 as it was dedicated by ,alexander the ,great4 ,it was a hexastyle peripteros1 of normal dimensions1 #ce m4 long and #ai m4 broad4 ,the plans of ,ionic temples differed in proportion from those of the ,doric style1 their length being less than twice their width4 ,the base of the temple at ,priene 7,fig4 #afh7 is peculiar1 in that the horizontal flutings of the tore1 entirely lacking in the ,didymaion1 were restricted to its lower half2 this can hardly be taken to prove that the building was never completed1 but is rather explained by the consideration that no escape was possible for the rain-water which dripped into the upper grooves4 ,the connection between the spirals of the capital face is curved downward2 the ornaments of the entablature are more florid1 and the gutter is almost overladen with floral motives4 ,the tetrastyle ,ionic ,propyla of the same place appear to be of more recent date2 the capitals of the inner pilasters are decorated similarly to those within the ,didymaion4 ,another structure of this kind at ,cnidos is of more beautiful detail1 the base 7,fig4 #afi7 being particularly graceful in outline and proportions2 the increased curve of its tore obviated the trouble of water standing in the horizontal flutings4 ,there are but few remains of the temples of ,artemis ,leucophryne at ,magnesia1 and of ,dionysos at ,teos1 built towards the end of the fourth century ,b4,c41 and celebrated in monographs by the architect ,hermogenes4 ,the first of these was1 according to ,strabo1 the third largest fane of ,asia ,minor1 measuring #fd m4 in length and #bi m4 in breadth4 ,the influence of ,attic architecture is evident in the bases and in the rich decoration of the capital rolls4 ,the building is thought to be the first example of a pseudodipteros1 that is1 of a peripteros having a pteroma equal to the breadth of that upon a temple with two ranges of outstanding columns1 a dipteros4 ,resembling this1 though smaller1 was the hexastyle peripteros of ,teos1 at first intended to have been of the ,doric style1 the plan being altered to ,ionic after all the material had been provided4 ,traces of decline in the art prove the octastyle peripteros of ,apollo at ,claros1 near ,colophon1 and the temple at ,pessinus1 in ,galatia1 to have been more recent4 ,the ,temple of ,panhellenic ,zeus and the ,sanctuary of ,aphrodite at ,aphrodisias 7,fig4 #aga7 are referred to the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the excessive attenuation of the columns of the latter1 which have a height equal to ten lower diameters1 the extension of the floral ornaments even to the channels of the shaft and the connection of the capital spirals1 the so-called egg-and-dart moulding in the cyma1 the diminutive dentils and the introduction of consoles above them1 all betray the tasteless magnificence of the ,roman imperial period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,temple upon the ,ilissos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4--,plan of the ,erechtheion4 7,boetticher47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,northwestern ,view of the ,erechtheion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,from the ,eastern ,pronaos of the ,erechtheion4 ,the ,ionic style in ,attica developed in a peculiar manner1 being there superior1 both as regards breadth of form and beauty of detail1 to the works of ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,doric had been perfected in ,athens1 and the most noble ,ionic monument1 the ,erechtheion1 stood beside the ,parthenon2 the ,athenian acropolis presented the noblest examples in both methods of building1 standing unrivalled at the head of the ,hellenic world in architectural1 as in political and intellectual respects4 ,characteristic of the ,attic ,ionic are the so-called ,attic base and the entablature without dentils4 ,the former consists of a second tore beneath the concave plinth of the usual base2 by this addition its symmetry was increased1 and a rhythmical profile of great beauty was gained3 two convex and two concave members of harmonious proportion alternating from the upper slip to the commencement of the fluting4 ,the ,attic architect evidently did not accept the significance of the dentils as representatives of the ceiling-joists1 and preferred to cut a decided drip upon the lower surface of the corona1 which had so marked a slant in the more familiar ,doric cornice4 ,in the place of the dentils1 a transition was provided by a cyma and astragal1 which mouldings received in ,athens their typical perfection4 ,the few ,ionic ruins of ,european ,greece do not illustrate the historical development of the ,attic ,ionic style4 ,the interior columns of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,bass 7,figs4 #aei and #afe7 cannot be considered in this connection2 their archaistic details by no means express the influence of ,athens1 notwithstanding that the work is attributed to the architect ,ictinos4 ,the peculiarities of ,attic ,ionic architecture are well exemplified by the small amphiprostyle temple upon the ,ilissos1 near ,athens1 which1 though now entirely destroyed1 was in existence up to the end of the last century1 and was measured and drawn by ,stuart and ,revett4 7,fig4 #agb47 ,the lower tore of the base is here small and weak1 as if a hesitating attempt to improve the usual outline4 ,the shaft was short1 perhaps from the influence of the ,doric examples2 the epistyle1 from the same consideration1 was without the characteristic steps4 ,similar to this is another tetrastyle amphiprostylos1 the ,temple of ,wingless ,victory before the ,propyla of the acropolis1 which1 as if to compensate for the loss of the temple upon the ,ilissos1 was rebuilt in #ahce1 with overthrown fragments rescued from a ,turkish bastion1 and has become one of the chief ornaments of the ascent4 7,fig4 #aeh47 ,the entire crepidoma is so small--#h m4 long and #e4e broad--that the cella1 after the deduction of the front and rear porticos1 is even broader than it is deep4 ,the architectural details are of exceeding delicacy and perfection 7,fig4 #agj72 the sculptures of the zophoros and of the balustrade will be considered in the following section4 ,the inner columns of the ,athenian ,propyla show the lower tore fully developed1 and the base-mouldings isolated by a plinth of slightly concave profile1 elsewhere adopted only at ,eleusis1 in imitation of this building4 ,the highest perfection of the ,ionic style was1 as before said1 attained in the second national sanctuary of the ,athenians--the world-renowned ,temple of ,athene ,polias upon the acropolis1 the ,erechtheion4 ,the construction of the edifice seems to have been undertaken immediately after the burning of the ancient building by the ,persians1 in #dhj ,b4,c41 but1 in consequence of the miseries of the ,peloponnesian war1 its completion was delayed until eighty years after that date4 ,it was a combination of several shrines which1 necessarily constructed upon different levels1 rendered a perfect symmetry of plan impossible4 ,other double temples1 like those of ,leto and ,asclepios1 and of ,aphrodite and ,ares at ,mantinea1 or of ,apollo ,carneios and of ,hypnos at ,sikyon1 were not1 upon the exterior1 distinguishable from the common type1 as1 with an equal division of the cella1 entrances could be allowed upon either front4 ,in the ,erechtheion this simple arrangement was not practicable1 because of the complicated nature of the combined sanctuaries and the irregularity of the ground2 yet this did not prove a disadvantage3 to the architectural perfection of the monument was thus added a charm of picturesque composition usually foreign to the temple buildings of ,greek antiquity4 ,the plan given 7,fig4 #agc7 is according to ,boetticher's restoration1 but the mooted question of the interior division of the building is still far from being decided4 ,upon the principal eastern front was a hexastyle portico1 a1 through which entrance was given to the naos of ,athene ,polias1 b1 occupying nearly one half of the cella4 ,access to the other division was obtained through the tetrastyle hall1 c1 upon the northwestern corner1 opening directly into the narrow sanctuary of ,pandrosos1 d1 from which four portals led to as many chambers3 the first1 g1 to the ,chapel of ,boutes2 the second1 h1 by means of a short staircase1 to the ,crypt of ,poseidon1 e2 from the third1 i1 was a descent to a corridor leading to a space under the ,naos of ,athene ,polias2 while the last1 opposite the hall1 led to the ,porch of the ,caryatides1 f4 ,this complicated disposition was1 as has been said1 dependent upon the peculiar natural position of the ancient national shrines3 the tomb of ,cecrops and the memorials of the contest between ,poseidon and ,athene for the possession of ,athens1--the impression of the trident with which ,poseidon smote the cliff1 leaving a spring of salt water1 and the olive-tree which1 at the command of ,athene1 sprang from the same rock4 ,of the interior of the building there are almost no vestiges2 but the form of the exterior is1 in the main1 clear4 7,fig4 #agd47 ,the capitals upon the columns of the eastern portico 7,fig4 #age71 and upon the pilasters of the western wall1 which was pierced by windows1 are of almost excessive magnificence4 ,the outlines of the spirals are doubled1 the side-rolls are grooved1 and ornamented with astragals2 there is a band carved with a woven ornament above the egg-and-dart moulding of the echinos1 and an entirely new feature has been added to the capital--a broad and rich necking of carved anthemions4 ,the effect of this band was particularly favorable because the decoration upon it could be repeated beneath the capitals of the pilasters1 and a greater harmony of the corresponding members thus secured4 ,the columns of the northwestern porch are larger and even richer in detail1 especially the bases1 the upper tore being ornamented with a woven motive in place of the customary horizontal grooving4 ,the entablature1 from which the dentils are missing1 is of the utmost elegance of proportion1 the carving of its cyma-mouldings being the most delicate work of architectural carving known4 ,the reliefs upon the zophoros were not cut from its substance1 but were merely attached to its plane surface2 few fragments have1 consequently1 been preserved4 ,one of the most beautiful features of the building is the ,porch of the ,caryatides in the southwestern corner 7,f74 ,in place of columns1 the figures of virgins support the horizontal marble ceiling1 which is of no great weight4 ,the model for these was doubtless taken from the basket-bearing maidens of the ,panathenaic procession1 the ,canephor4 ,the origin of the term caryatides is not known4 ,both geographical and historical proofs are wanting to make probable the account given by ,vitruvius1--that the motive for these figures was derived from the women of the ,peloponnesian town ,carya1 who were condemned to slavery for treachery during the ,persian war4 ,from the baskets of the ,canephor has been developed a capital member1 like an echinos1 decorated with the egg-and-dart moulding and an astragal1 and provided with an abacus4 ,the frieze is lacking from the entablature1 in recognition of the fact that roof and ceiling are here one and the same member4 ,the dentils appear in the cornice1 it being possible for them to take their true position upon the epistyle4 ,the faultless beauty of the decorative carving is particularly evident upon the casings of the portals4 ,monuments of the ,ionic style1 not numerous in ,attica1 are rare in the ,peloponnesos1 and exceptional farther west1 where the ,doric element of the population predominated4 ,when ,ionic ruins are found in the latter districts1 they generally betray the influence of the ,attic school1 which is perceptible even in the ,ionic order of ,rome4 ,it is not strange that1 after the acquaintance of the ,romans with ,hellenic lands1 this method of building should1 in their universal eclecticism1 have been frequently adopted4 ,it will be seen in the following section how ,italy1 the heir of the decaying civilization of the ,east1 reduced the forms of ,ionic architecture to a facile and commonplace scheme4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,from ,bass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4--;,from the ,temple of ,apollo1 near ,miletos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4--;,from the ,tower of the ,winds1 ,athens4 ,during the age of ,pericles a foreign growth1 the ,corinthian capital1 had been engrafted upon the ,ionic style1 which changed the character of the whole1 the more decidedly because introduced upon the most prominent feature4 ,this 8,corinthian0 innovation affected the capital alone1 and cannot be considered as an order1 still less as a style1 when compared to the ,doric and ,ionic4 ,it was a mere variety of the latter1 which1 in all other respects than the capital1 remained unaltered4 ,the new form is mentioned as an innovation of ,callimachos1 a sculptor celebrated for the magnificent golden lamp and funnel made by him for the ,erechtheion4 ,the name of that artificer may have given authority to the first introduction of the ,corinthian capital into ,greek lands2 but the detailed account of ,vitruvius in regard to its origin can hardly be deemed more than a fable4 ,he relates that a loving nurse had placed a basket of toys1 covered with a tile1 upon the grave of a ,corinthian girl1 and that in the spring-time an acanthos-plant1 upon which it stood1 sent forth shoots covering the basket and curling beneath the tile1 thus providing a model directly imitated by ,callimachos4 ,the calyx capitals of ,egypt had long been known to the ,greeks4 ,in transferring this floral motive across the ,mediterranean1 the decorative foliage of papyrus and lotus had been given up1 those unknown plants not being adapted to ,hellenic conventionalization4 ,national art ever seeks the subjects for floral ornament from the growths of its native soil4 ,it was on this account that oak-leaves1 thistles1 grape-leaves1 and ivy were employed in ,gothic architecture2 and1 in a similar manner1 the ,greek could make no more fortunate choice than the ,hellenic thistle1 the acanthos1 the forms of which even surpass in beauty the serrated outline of the grape-leaf4 ,the ,corinthian capital suited well the prevalent tendency to attenuate the shaft1 and1 at the same time1 it furthered an harmonious agreement between the capitals of columns and of pilasters4 ,its forms presented a better solution of the problem of the capital1 and were more perfect in an abstract1 if not in an artistic1 point of view than any of the preceding varieties4 ,the two functions of the transitional member--the projection1 the oblique line between the vertical and the horizontal1 and the change from a circular to a rectangular plan--had1 in the ,doric and ,ionic capitals1 been effected by two separate bodies2 in the ,corinthian they were accomplished by one alone4 ,the kernel gave the projection1 considerably steeper1 according to its height1 than the ,doric or ,ionic echinos4 ,the oblique line1 convex in the former style1 is here slightly concave1 although still sufficiently vigorous in character to bear the light entablature4 ,the surrounding floral decoration effects the transition from the circle to the rectangle2 the upper leaves project towards the corners of the thin abacus1 under which they curl1 giving to the capital1 at some little distance below its plinth1 a section nearly square4 ,a canonical form of the ,corinthian capital did not exist in progressive ,hellenic art4 ,this does not appear until the order was reduced to a system by the thought-saving and practical ,romans4 ,the completed type1 so familiar in the monuments of ,italy1 and used for centuries since in all parts of the world1 does not occur in ,greece1 the creation of the ,corinthian order1 as such1 being emphatically a work of the ,romans4 ,the ,corinthian capital was1 in ,hellenic architecture1 merely a fanciful and ever-varied decoration of foliage around a concave calyx4 ,the before-mentioned example from the ,temple of ,apollo in ,bass shows how imperfect the arrangement was at first4 7,fig4 #agf47 ,the single row of leaves at its base does not sufficiently ornament the kernel2 the spirals upon the four corners and the anthemions between them leave too much of its surface uncovered4 ,the thin abacus is neither provided with a profile moulding1 nor at all carved2 upon its edge is painted a ,doric meander2 its sides are curved in plan1 advancing above the corner spirals so that these might project farther from the calyx4 ,a decided advance is shown by the capital of an engaged column employed within the ,temple of ,apollo ,didymaios at ,miletos 7,fig4 #agg71 which appears to be of more recent date4 ,a double wreath of acanthos-leaves surrounds the calyx1 those upon the corners being made sufficiently tall to support the spirals2 between them are anthemions4 ,fragments brought from the ruins of ,knidos to the ,british ,museum are of similar form4 ,these remains all resemble1 in a more or less marked degree1 the ultimate typical development of the ,corinthian capital4 ,others1 and among them some of a later period1 lack important constituent parts4 ,a second variety1 discovered in the ,didymaion1 had only one wreath of leaves1 and no connection with the square abacus by corner spirals4 ,the capitals of the so-called ,tower of the ,winds in ,athens 7,fig4 #agh7 resemble them4 ,behind the acanthos-leaves rises a simple row of lanceolate reeds1 which follows the outline of the calyx4 ,the ,choragic ,monument of ,lysicrates1 built more than a century previous1 in #ccd ,b4,c41 presents a beautiful instance of a fanciful ,corinthian capital4 ,between the shaft and the calyx there is a preparatory necking of small leaves1 similar to those which existed upon the example within the temple at ,bass4 ,above the low acanthos wreath rises a rich garland of foliage and flowers1 with a central anthemion rising to the top of the abacus4 ,the heavy corner volutes cannot compensate for the excessive contraction of the calyx1 which takes away from the unity and force of the main transitional curve4 ,the ,corinthian capital appears to have attained the form under which it is now known in the middle of the second century ,b4,c4 ,the ,temple of ,olympian ,zeus in ,athens received its peripteros of ,corinthian columns under ,antiochos ,epiphanes1 #agf-afd ,b4,c42 though its crepidoma1 probably intended for an edifice of the ,doric style1 had been prepared as early as the time of ,peisistratos4 ,the architectural direction of the building had been intrusted to a ,roman1 ,cossutius1 and it was1 in fact1 destined to provide material for ,rome itself1 as1 soon after its completion1 the columns were carried away by ,sulla and employed in the restoration of the temple upon the ,roman ,capitol1 shortly before destroyed by fire4 ,the capitals thus removed appear to have been regarded as models1 and to have exercised a great influence upon the development of the ,corinthian order1 as cultivated1 almost exclusively1 by the ,romans4 ,the calyx decorated with acanthos foliage corresponded to the taste of the imperial epoch for architectural magnificence1 and its employment was not embarrassed by the difficulties upon the corners of peripteral temples which have been discussed in the consideration of the ,doric frieze and the ,ionic capital4 ,the floral decoration soon extended to the entablature1 increasing the number and dimensions of its minor members4 ,the most striking result was the transformation of the dentils into the richly carved consoles of doubly spiral profile1 which were imitated from the parotides of the ,ionic portal coronation1 but were placed horizontally instead of vertically4 ,the use of both dentils and consoles is a barbaric duplication1 characteristic of the tasteless architectural magnificence of the ,roman decline4 ,the so-called ,corinthian base is no real characteristic of the order1 being only a combination of ,ionic and ,attic forms1 with a double scotia between the two tores4 ,hellenic architecture has thus far been considered exclusively in its relations to sacred edifices1 because the art of building1 among nations whose civilization has been influenced by religious conceptions1 is always best exemplified by temples4 ,but it was natural that ,doric and ,ionic forms should be employed1 though in a less conventional manner1 for all the buildings of ,greece1 being richly elaborated in monumental works1 and more or less simplified and adapted in structures intended for private or public usefulness1 as economy and civic destination alike forced restrictions upon the disposition and decoration of the design4 ,the sacred nature of monumental tombs allied them most nearly to the temples4 ,the conical tumulus had preceded the ,hellenic peripteros1 and when that helpless form was entirely given up1 after the perfection of the columnar temple1 the cinerary urn remained as a leading motive1 which excluded the lengthened plan of the peripteral temple and rather tended to increase the height of the monument--otherwise a subordinate dimension4 ,graves of less importance were marked by columns1 upright blocks of stone with an ornamental cap1 or by steles1 the angular termination of which often betrayed the influence of the temple gable1 while the shaft retained the nature of the pier4 ,more prominent sepulchres consisted of ranges of columns upon a cube1 which1 containing a sarcophagus1 took the place of the cylinder beneath the conical tumulus4 ,as the columns had1 in general1 only a decorative importance1 it was not necessary to construct a cella in connection with them4 ,this was only added when a chapel was required for funeral worship1 or when1 as in mausoleums of great dimensions1 inner walls were needed to provide a bearing for the ceiling beams4 ,the termination of these structures was characteristic4 ,the sacred gable was generally avoided1 in just appreciation of its significance1 and the form of the tumulus was retained1 so far as the rectangular plan would permit1 a pyramidal superstructure taking the place of the cone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,tomb at ,mylassa4 ,that this pyramid was constructed in steps is evident from a small tomb without a cella at ,mylassa 7,fig4 #agi71 and from that magnificent monument1 the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos1 one of the wonders of the antique world4 7,fig4 #ahj47 ,the latter was erected by ,artemisia1 the widow and successor of ,king ,mausolos1 who called to her assistance the most celebrated architects of the time1 ,satyros and ,pythios2 as well as the greatest sculptors1 ,scopas1 ,bryaxis1 ,leochares1 and ,timotheos4 ,it is known by the extensive ,english excavations of #ahef and #aheg4 ,although the opinions of prominent authorities differ greatly as to its design1 it is yet certain that upon the massive oblong foundation1 #cj m4 long1 #bd m4 broad1 and over #ae m4 high1 which contained the small sepulchral chamber1 there stood a cella surrounded by thirty-six ,ionic columns1 and terminated by a stepped pyramid1 the truncated apex of which bore a colossal marble quadriga1 with the statues of the queen and of a female charioteer1 the whole attaining a height of #db m4 ,the works of sculpture--the figures which stood in the intercolumniations and the reliefs upon the wall of the cella1 and perhaps also upon the substructure--will be considered in the next section4 ,it is possible that the destination of the edifice was not that usually attributed to it1 ,urlichs having argued that it was a heron1 and a memorial of victory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos4 ,the ,monument of the ,nereides at ,xanthos 7,fig4 #aha7 resembled the ,mausoleum in many respects4 ,it was a peristyle of sixteen ,ionic columns elevated upon a massive foundation4 ,statues stood in its intercolumniations1 while the zophoros and substructure were carved with reliefs4 ,a gabled roof seems1 however1 to have indicated the sacred character of the edifice4 ,the cella and the surrounding columns of this class of buildings were united in various manners1 a remarkable example of a pseudo-peripteros being offered by the so-called ,tomb of ,theron in ,acragas in ,sicily4 ,in other instances three stories resulted from a duplication of the foundations beneath the peripteros1 as in the alleged ,tomb of ,mikipsas at ,constantina1 the ancient ,cirta in ,numidia4 ,this multiplication was particularly frequent in the ,roman period4 ,the tomb of this nature at ,saint-,remi1 in ,southern ,france1 the ancient ,glanum1 built during the reign of ,augustus1 is one of the most beautiful ruins known4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4--,monument of the ,nereides at ,xanthos4 ,among the choragic monuments of ,greece1 the most interesting is that erected by ,lysicrates in commemoration of the victory gained by a chorus of boys of the ,phyle ,acamantis led by him4 ,it served as a pedestal for the prize bestowed1 a tripod1 and was a pseudo-monopteros of small dimensions and beautiful details4 ,engaged columns with ,corinthian capitals supported a monolithic ceiling1 the floral termination of which originally served as a base for the tripod4 ,the so-called ,tower of the ,winds was a clepsydra1 built by ,andronicos ,kyrrhestes1 and was also furnished outside with dials and a weathercock4 ,it is especially interesting on account of the peculiar forms of its ,corinthian capitals4 7,fig4 #agh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,stoa ,diple at ,thoricos4 ,the most extensive employment of columns in civic architecture was in the porticos1 the stoas1 which surrounded the market-places and extended through many streets1 being connected with baths1 gymnasions1 palaestras1 stadia1 and hippodromes1 and even appearing as independent buildings4 ,the market-place1 the agora1 was1 in ancient cities1 commonly of an irregular form2 when possible it was surrounded by colonnades4 ,in more recent settlements care was taken to provide a rectangular space for the purpose1 in which double porticos of considerable extent were built for shelter in bad weather4 ,in view of the effeminacy of the ,ionians1 it is easy to credit the account that this race first provided the chief places in towns with the protection of stoas1 introducing this custom in ,greece1 where it soon became general4 ,extended colonnades were frequently connected with them1 traversing the principal streets4 ,the independent stoas1 which were arranged in the greatest variety of combinations1 are of particular interest4 ,the ,stoa ,poikile 7the many-colored71 upon the market-place of ,athens1 was built by ,peisianax1 the brother-in-law of ,cimon1 this latter causing the walls to be decorated by ,polygnotos and his assistants--upon one wing with scenes from the battle of ,marathon1 upon the other from that of ,oinoe1 while the long background of the principal hall was similarly treated4 ,upon the market-places the porticos were often increased in width by a second row of columns1 and in later times a dividing-wall was frequently placed between these ranges as a spina4 ,according to ,pausanias1 this was the case with the so-called ,kerkyraion ,hall of ,elis4 ,the form of a stoa diple1 or double colonnade1 was more customary2 in it the central wall was replaced by a third range of columns1 as the case appears to have been at ,thoricos 7,fig4 #ahb71 where the entrance was provided in the middle of the longer sides by wider intercolumniations4 ,the enlargement was carried still farther by making the colonnade of three aisles1 with two inner ranges of columns1 as in the ,stoa of the ,hellanodik3 covered spaces of great breadth1 open upon all sides1 and admirably adapted to their purpose1 were thus provided4 ,it is natural to assume that the great grain market of the ,piraios was such an extended stoa1 as was likewise the so-called ,basilica of ,pstum1 a structure of three aisles1 lacking exterior enclosure4 ,the latter building is assuredly misnamed1 the nature of a basilica being dependent upon outer walls4 ,the prototype of the ,roman and ,christian basilicas is rather to be sought in the law courts of the ,archon ,basileus in ,athens1 a combination of enclosed halls and chambers1 which1 by their future development1 received an historical and practical importance exceeding that of any other work of ,hellenic architecture1 not excepting the temples1 which became useless with the extinction of ,hellenic religious conceptions4 ,the columns of stoas were multiplied above1 as well as beside1 one another1 analogous to the galleries over the side aisles of the larger temples4 ,this appears to have been the case upon the so-called ,persian ,hall at ,sparta1 where1 instead of upper shafts1 there were piers decorated with the statues of ,persians1 comparable to the corresponding architectural members of the ,incantada at ,thessalonica1 though the figures of gods and heroes were1 in the latter instance1 attached to the supports in three-quarter relief1 while the statues at ,sparta appear to have been in the full round4 ,it is evident from the ,roman basilicas1 to be considered in another section1 that the employment of galleries was general in the enclosed stoas of ,greece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,stadion at ,messene4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--;,hippodrome at ,olympia4 ,chief among the public buildings of ,hellas1 after the agoras and stoas1 were the arrangements for the festive games4 ,these were divided into two classes3 bodily exercises and scenic representations4 ,the former were the more important1 forming a prominent part in the education of every ,greek citizen4 ,palaistras and gymnasia were provided for the manuvres1 stadia and hippodromes for the public contests and races4 ,in primitive times the palaistras had no architectural character2 a meadow and a sandy reach1 generally upon the bank of a brook and shaded by trees1 sufficed as a training-ground4 ,the private palaistras seem never to have exceeded this simplicity2 but the great importance of drill for the military power of the ,state early demanded the erection of suitable structures1 and there resulted the gymnasion1 a combination of covered chambers and halls with open courts1 which provided separate and fitting spaces for the different gymnastic exercises and for the baths1 as well as for the higher intellectual entertainments of the philosophers1 rhetoricians1 and poets4 ,these structures were probably varied in character until the most suitable arrangement was decided by experience4 ,it seems early to have become customary to surround a rectangular space by colonnades1 to which were added extensive wings1 semicircular exedras1 and the like1 for scientific and sthetic instruction4 ,upon one side were grouped a number of chambers known as the ,ephebeion1 ,apodyterion1 ,elaiothesion1 ,conisterion1 ,corykeion1 ,laconicon1 ,lutron1 etc41 serving the youths as places of assemblage1 rooms for dressing and anointing1 hot and cold baths1 etc4 ,opposite to them extended the stadion1 while1 within the enclosure1 promenades between groups of trees and beds of flowers alternated with grounds for shorter races1 quoit-throwing1 wrestling1 and other contests4 ,some examples1 like those of ,ephesos1 ,hierapolis1 and ,alexandria1 still display in their ruins the chief features of this arrangement1 though more or less influenced by the customs of imperial ,rome1 where the baths had been in great measure separated from the gymnasia4 ,the spirit of emulation was excited by the publicity of these institutions1 and increased by the periodical festive competitions to a height far exceeding our modern conceptions4 ,a wreath of laurel or olive leaves1 a small quantity of oil1 a tripod1 or other similar rewards of victory1 such as were given as prizes in the games of ,olympia1 ,delphi1 ,nemea1 ,corinth1 and ,athens1 conferred almost divine honor1 even the years being known by the name of the temporary hero of ,olympia4 ,the five chief divisions of the gymnastic exercises1 the pentathlon--running1 jumping1 wrestling1 boxing1 and the throwing of the discos--were practised in the stadion1 a space from #ahj m4 to #cjj m4 long1 usually chosen close to the side of a hill1 which1 more or less prepared by terracing and grading1 provided seats for spectators4 ,if a narrow valley were near at hand1 as in the case of the ,athenian stadion of the suburb ,agrae1 the opposite slopes were thus occupied4 ,the seats near the goal were naturally the more desirable1 and it was here that the architectural features were concentrated1 terraces being carried in a semicircle around this centre4 ,examples are not wanting1 as in ,aphrodisias in ,asia ,minor1 where both ends were thus terminated1 and the space for spectators carried around the entire race-course1 thus pointing the way to a building of this form1 the amphitheatre1 which was to become the delight of the ,roman world4 ,the stadion of ,messene 7,fig4 #ahc7 shows how natural inclinations were followed and utilized1 though at the expense of a symmetrical disposition2 yet this example dates from the later extravagant period of ,greek history1 and is far removed from the patriarchal simplicity of primitive times4 ,the stadion did not suffice for the races of horses and chariots which had been favorites with the ,greeks since the ,trojan war4 ,in such early ages1 any goal chosen in the plain was sufficient1 like the oak-trunk mentioned by ,homer2 but it could not have been long before the need was manifest of a sloping stand for the spectators and an enclosure for the contestants1 and thus the hippodrome1 the race-course1 was developed similarly to the smaller stadion4 ,the most celebrated1 and perhaps the oldest1 hippodrome of ,greece1 that of ,olympia1 is described by ,pausanias4 ,the right side1 the longer1 consisted of an artificial embankment of earth1 while the slope of a hill was employed for the left2 at the entrance was a colonnade devoted to the preparations of the charioteers4 ,the starting-point1 the aphesis1 had1 according to the expression of ,pausanias1 a form like the prow of a vessel--that is1 advanced in a pointed form--to facilitate the start4 ,the plan here given1 ,fig4 #ahd1 is altered from ,visconti's restoration by these gates being opened towards the first turning-point1 the taraxippos1 or terror of the horses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,scheme of the ,greek ,theatre1 according to ,vitruvius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,restored ,view of the ,theatre of ,segesta4 ,the theatres1 as enclosures for musical and scenic representations1 offered greater scope for architectural development4 ,when possible1 the auditorium was in a situation where a natural semicircular inclination served instead of the immense foundations which would otherwise have been necessary for the elevated seats2 the stage and surrounding buildings were1 however1 free-standing works of architecture4 ,the arrangement of the ,greek theatre is described by ,vitruvius3 three squares were inscribed in a circle1 thus forming a twelve-pointed star 7,fig4 #ahe72 one of the sides1 a b1 served as the line of the front foundation of the stage4 ,this platform1 the logeion1 was closed at the rear by a wall1 treated like a faade1 and forming a background1 the skene2 its position being decided by the tangent c d1 parallel to the front side4 ,the remainder of the circle1 the orchestra1 was reserved for the evolutions of the chorus and for the stand of the musicians1 the thymele2 it was not until the development of the ,roman theatre that spectators were admitted to this enclosure4 ,its extent was slightly increased by drawing the outline from the diameter1 e f1 to the stage with a doubled radius4 ,around seven twelfths of the original circle was constructed the concentrical auditorium of ascending seats1 divided by a platform at half-height1 the diazoma1 into two parts1 and accessible by radial passages4 ,the statement of ,vitruvius1 who1 as usual1 substitutes a thought-saving canon for the living individuality of ,hellenic art1 is not borne out by the numerous remains of ,greek theatres4 ,the orchestra and auditorium exceed the semicircle in every instance where local conformations have not rendered this impossible2 but they either do this by elongating the arc with tangents1 as in the theatres of ,segesta 7,fig4 #ahf71 ,syracuse1 ,tyndaris1 and ,tauromenion1 or by continuing the circumference of the original circle without deviation1 as in those of ,athens1 ,epidauros1 ,megalopolis1 ,delos1 ,melos1 ,cnidos1 ,laodikeia1 ,side1 ,myra1 ,telmissos1 ,patara1 ,aizanis1 etc4 ,among all known ,greek theatres only two1 those at ,mantinea and ,alabanda1 are situated in the plain and entirely built of masonry2 the others1 contrary to ,roman custom1 utilize natural inclinations1 as before explained4 ,the seats were either cut in the native rock1 or were walled and reveted with slabs of marble2 when the slope was of earth1 important foundations were undertaken4 ,the arrangements of odeions1 or partially covered theatres for festive musical representations1 appear to have preceded1 and in some degree influenced1 the architecture of the theatres4 ,the oldest known example of these structures is the ,skias in ,sparta1 a circular building provided with a pitched roof1 which was probably built in accordance with forms customary in ,asia ,minor1 as a ,samian architect 7,theodoros1 the son of ,telecles7 was called from ,samos to superintend its erection4 ,the odeion upon the ,ilissos near ,athens appears to have been of similar disposition1 and1 like the former1 constructed chiefly of wood4 ,the private dwellings of ,greece stood in no relation to the monumental public buildings4 ,that we are acquainted with no ,greek house is a proof that these were of the same subordinate importance as was the family in the ,hellenic state4 ,the house was nothing more than the scene of the family labors1 and turned modestly inward1 confined and simple chambers being grouped around a central court4 ,the life of the ,greeks was1 for the most part1 spent away from home1 upon the market-places and in the gymnasia and stoas2 it was only at meal-times and for repose that he sought the retirement of his house4 ,this was completely separated from the outer world1 the dwelling-chambers having no windows upon the street and the faade being unimportant4 ,the rooms1 with the exception1 perhaps1 of the dining-hall1 were but little developed1 being generally lighted through the door alone4 ,their windowless walls presented no opportunity for architectural treatment1 this being restricted to the court1 a space of considerable size1 surrounded by a colonnade4 ,for centuries there was nothing to lead to any increase of this simple dwelling1 or to the development of a palace architecture2 in the ages of the heroes and tyrants the constructive ability was insufficient1 and later republican equality was inimical to all individual ostentation4 ,it was not until royal power had1 in the ,macedonian epoch1 taken the place of democracy that private architecture made a decided advance1--less1 however1 in monumental importance than in luxury and display4 ,the chambers were multiplied by a repetition of the courts1 the rooms still remaining small2 while a refined extravagance1 borrowing its decoration from the sister arts1 took the place of architectural invention4 ,notwithstanding the ,greek terms applied to various forms of rooms by ,vitruvius1 they appear to have been comparatively restricted in size4 ,the so-called ,corinthian hall1 covered with a barrel-vault1 is specifically a ,roman creation2 the ,egyptian hall1 with a clerestory over the central aisle1 may have been built in remembrance of ,alexandrian models1 while that of ,kyzicos is illustrative of methods customary in ,asia ,minor1 and especially in ,pergamon4 ,the three chief cities of the ,diadochi must have presented imposing monuments of private and palatial architecture3 ,alexandria1 the ,egyptian residence of the ,ptolemies1 had been founded by ,alexander himself1 and in great part designed by his architect1 ,deinocrates2 ,antioch1 upon the ,orontes in ,syria1 was built by ,seleucos ,nicator1 with the aid of the architect ,xenaios1 and rapid increase soon quadrupled its original extent2 ,pergamon had been restored and enlarged by ,eumenes4 ,the wonderful works of that time show architecture to have lost all earnestness and truthfulness through the extravagant demands created by the luxurious courts of the ,ptolemies1 ,seleucid1 and ,attalid2 their sham theatrical pomp was surpassed only by the ,oriental costliness and splendor of the materials4 ,the monuments were expressive of the weakness and superficiality into which the ,eastern ,hellenic world had fallen1 and for which the forms of ,greek art were employed only as a transparent varnish4 ,alexander the ,great had himself led the way to this profusion of monumental and private buildings4 ,it was he1 for instance1 who had caused ,deinocrates to erect a pyramidal pyre for the burning of the body of his favorite ,hephaisteion1 which was a marvel of tastelessness and extravagance3 the square substructure of brick masonry1 with sides one stadion long1 each ornamented with two hundred and forty golden prows of vessels and nine hundred and sixty statues1 bore a second terrace decorated with golden wreathed torches2 the third and fourth stages were reveted with reliefs of gold representing hunting scenes and the battles of the centaurs2 the fifth with golden lions and bulls1 upon which followed ,macedonian arms and trophies taken from the barbarians4 ,the whole was terminated by golden figures of sirens1 the hollow bodies of which accommodated the singers of the funeral chant4 ,a similar piece of display was the magnificent wagon for the funeral procession of ,alexander4 ,other works were the gigantic tent for the ,dionysian procession of ,ptolemy ,,ii41 ,philadelphos1 with its supports formed like palms and thyrses1 with its cupola-shaped roof1 secret grottoes1 etc42 and the ,thalamegos1 or colossal ,nile bark1 a floating palace built by ,ptolemy ,,iv41 ,philopator1 with its ,temple of ,aphrodite and many halls1 one of which had chryselephantine ,corinthian columns1 and was decorated by a frieze of reliefs executed in ivory and affixed to a golden ground4 ,a dining-saloon was built in the ,egyptian manner1 as a hypostyle1 and the hall of ,dionysos was provided with an apse formed like a grotto4 ,at the same time1 wonders of technical and mechanical skill divided attention with these works of barbarous luxury4 ,as early as the time of ,hiero ,,ii4 of ,syracuse1 ,archimedes and ,archias built a monstrous ship1 intended for the transportation of grain1 which is said to have comprised an entire city1 with a gymnasion1 a public park1 towers1 reception-rooms1 dining-halls1 etc4 ,it had three decks1 and was propelled by twenty rows of oarsmen4 ,even this was surpassed by ,ptolemy ,,iv41 who built a vessel with forty rows of oars4 ,in short1 gigantic dimensions and tasteless magnificence1 favored by the insane competition among the followers of ,alexander1 extinguished true art1 the more rapidly as works of these later ages were not executed with the solidity which preserved ,roman architecture from similar decline1 even though it accepted many unsound artistic influences from these ,hellenic and barbarian despots4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sculpture deserves even more unlimited admiration than the architecture of ,greece4 ,hellenic building shows monumental ideals such as the creative power of no other people has attained2 yet the problems which presented themselves for solution were of a limited nature4 ,in sculpture1 on the other hand1 a height was reached which the artists of all later times have scarcely been able to comprehend1 far less to equal4 ,for centuries cultivated nations have drawn from this inexhaustible fountain1 in unconditional admiration1--learning from ,greek statues1 and acknowledging their matchless perfection4 ,although it may justly be concluded that a direct reconstruction of the architectural remains1 as a whole1 were it possible1 is not to be recommended1 still no one can hesitate to regard the best examples of ,hellenic sculpture as a model worthy of direct emulation1 the controlling influence of which upon the present age is only to be desired4 ,and though the ,gothic cathedral may appear to some a higher artistic conception than the ,doric peripteros1 no one would give preference to the sculptures of the ancient ,orientals1 of the ,medival ,christians1 or even of the great masters of the ,renaissance1 over the marble treasures gathered in any of the larger collections of antiques4 ,as1 among all the works of antiquity1 it is to ,hellenic sculpture that the undisputed palm of precedence is given1 it is befitting that particular attention should be devoted to it--that it should be treated as the central point1 the focus1 of the history of ancient art4 ,this is made possible by the accounts of classic authors handed down concerning it1 and by the multitudinous remains preserved and accessible in the museums of all great cities2 it is rendered easy by the circumstance that the attention and industry of the archological explorer and of the student of art have been directed to no other field of antique life with equal zeal and with equally important results4 ,the history of the development of ,hellenic sculpture thus lies1 in its main features1 more clearly before us than does that of any other ancient art4 ,although different views still exist in regard to many particulars1 the arguments advanced in their support only serve for greater general enlightenment4 ,the lively discussion which the question of the beginnings of ,greek sculpture has called forth may be considered as terminated1 since the ,egyptian origin1 advocated by ,thiersch1 ,ross1 ,feurbach1 ,julius ,braun1 ,stahr1 and others1 has been refuted1 or at least reduced to the secondary and later influence assumed by ,friedrichs4 ,indeed1 the oldest ,grecian sculptures1 when compared with those of ,egypt1 display a complete contrast1 and prove that such a connection1 if it existed at all1 was by no means intimate4 ,egyptian art worked upon purely mechanical principles1 according to a typical network of lines4 ,sculpture was drawn into the province of architecture1 and slavishly subordinated to it2 carved figures became little else than architectural members through uniformity1 symmetrical regularity1 and multiplicity of repetition4 ,piers masked by the form of ,osiris were thus substituted for columns1 and long rows of sphinxes or colossal statues were set1 like the obelisks1 to decorate the avenues leading to the temples4 ,the fixed standard after which the heads of such figures were patterned--more like the capitals of columns than imitations of life--and the members1 without action1 and constructed according to an established height or breadth1 like the shafts of pillars1 and similarly regulated in proportions by their diameter--took away all independence as works of sculpture1 and caused the statues rather to appear as parts of an architectural composition4 ,the ordinary ,egyptian stone-cutter knew of only two positions1 well established by custom2 he renounced fundamentally the countless different appearances of life1 and1 with this1 all representation of action and of individuality4 ,primitive ,greek sculpture1 on the contrary1 arose from a sound naturalism1 which directed the eye of the artist to real and peculiar appearances from the outset1 often neglecting the proportions of the whole in the desire characteristically to express important details4 ,the first ,hellenic figures are wanting in that which was so prominent in the ,egyptian3 a correct1 or at least a schooled1 outline and modelling2 while the pleasing imitation of life in detail1 utterly foreign to ,egyptian sculptures1 is most forcibly presented4 ,this naturalistic tendency prevented ,hellenic sculpture from degenerating into an ,egyptian formalism2 the ,greek artist did not blindly attach himself to a hieratic model1 but studied organic life1 thus keeping his works free from that ossified conventionalism common to all ,eastern civilization4 ,the very first carvings of ,greece had a power of development which was wanting in all the other nations of that period4 ,to these differences of artistic principle must be added differences in characteristic forms1 dependent partly upon race and partly upon the different conceptions of the two nations--differences so marked as to enable us to distinguish their works without hesitation4 ,the ,egyptian head differs decidedly from the ,greek head in the high position of the ear1 the long1 narrow1 and somewhat obliquely placed eyes1 the wide flat nose1 and the thick lips4 7,fig4 #bh47 ,the ,egyptian figure is slim1 the primitive ,greek almost stunted2 in the former the shoulders are high and broad1 in the latter sloping and narrow2 there the hips are small1 here large4 ,the garments of ,egyptian works are either elastic1 without natural folds1 clinging so closely to the body as often to be recognizable only at the borders1 or are heavily pressed together in broad and angular masses4 ,the scanty clothing introduced into ancient ,hellenic sculptures shows throughout a close observation of nature2 and the drapery is pleasing even in unsuccessful imitations1 because it betrays the loving care of the artist4 ,in the oldest productions of ,greece we perceive a slumbering genius and capacity for development which were wholly lacking in the trained handiwork of ,egyptian art1--as the faulty free-hand drawing of an intelligent boy1 who tries to show what he has seen1 awakens greater interest and hope than do the labored copies and tracings of an illiterate mechanic4 ,when compared with these weighty reasons against the dependence of primitive ,grecian sculpture upon that of ,egypt1 the arguments adduced in favor of the supposition seem insufficient4 ,chief among these is the opinion of several ancient writers who vaguely imply that the oldest sculpture of the ,greeks was related to that of the ,egyptians1 and derived from it as a later production4 ,but it is well known that ,pausanias and ,diodoros were not exacting as to proofs of their opinions in regard to the history of art4 ,in this instance1 they were deluded by the same outward resemblance which has been so deceptive in modern times1--a similarity dependent upon that stiffness of archaic statues common to every primitive art1 and to the attenuation and union of the extremities1 which resulted from the economy of material and labor natural to both countries4 ,but though1 in the beginning of ,greek sculpture1 certain difficulties of execution were avoided in the same manner as in ,egypt1 and the material of the carved figures1 whether wood or stone1 was meted out as scantily as possible1 it does not follow that they were directly dependent upon the ,egyptian works which were influenced by like considerations4 ,it is otherwise with the relations between ,western ,asiatic art and the early sculpture of ,greece4 ,the preceding section has made it evident that the most prominent characteristics of the ,ionic style were developed from this root1 and the influence of ,asiatic motives was as marked in regard to the sculpture as to the architecture of ,hellas4 ,the fully perfected flower1 however1 but little betrays an ,oriental derivation in either province4 ,the art of ,asia ,minor and of ,syria had taken an essentially different starting-point from that of ,egypt--one more nearly allied to the ,greek point of view4 ,instead of formulating the human figure by a fixed canon after the manner of the ,egyptians1 it looked to nature itself1 with a decided realistic tendency4 ,but in its later development1 as already shown1 ,mesopotamian art went as much too far beyond reality as that of ,egypt had remained behind it2 and the self-sufficiency of the ,eastern despotisms resulted in that utter standstill which checked the life of art in ,assyria1 ,persia1 and ,phnicia4 ,the acquired forms1 as upon the ,nile1 stiffened into conventional types1 with the difference that those of ,egypt took more the character of a written chronicle1 those of ,mesopotamia and its dependencies more that of ornament4 ,hellenic genius could only remain upon such a low level during its immaturity2 there are1 therefore1 almost no traces of direct ,asiatic influence evident in the sculptures of ,greece after the most primitive period1 although in this it is unmistakable4 ,we may call this period of development the heroic age1 and understand by it the epoch from the earliest times to the first ,olympiad1 #ggf ,b4,c4 ,even the native legends concerning the beginning of ,greek art point towards the ,east4 ,the mythical founders of monumental buildings1 the ,cyclops1 to whom were ascribed the oldest stone sculptures1 like those upon the ,lions' ,gate of ,myken1 came from ,lycia4 ,the ,dactyl appear in groups upon the mountains of ,phrygia and ,crete often bearing names characteristic of their significance as cunning artisans--,kelmis1 ,damnameneus1 and ,acmon 7hammer1 tongs1 and anvil72 while the ,telchin--,chryson1 ,argyron1 and ,chalkon 7workers in gold1 silver1 and copper7--inhabited ,rhodes4 ,the personification of various metal-workers in these mythical guilds is unequivocal1 and the attributed locality of their dwellings has a corresponding meaning1 pointing to the coasts of ,western ,asia1 where the process of overlaying wooden carvings with beaten metal was predominant1 as in ,phnicia and the intermediate island of ,cyprus4 ,this empaistic work1 of plates shaped upon a model by hammer and punch1 presupposes the carving of the model itself1 without which the creation of the sphyrelaton was obviously impossible4 ,the gold overlaying of ,solomon's ,temple was formed upon reliefs carved in cedar-wood1 and was1 perhaps1 beaten over them3 before the discovery of bronze-casting1 we may conclude this also to have been the case with works of statuary in the round4 ,the art of sculpture in wood seems to have been native among the early ,greeks2 carved idols1 xoana1 soon appearing as substitutes for those stones and trunks of trees 7,paus4 vii4 #bb71 which1 provided at times with the attributes of trident1 caduceus1 lance1 or sceptre1 were at first worshipped as divine symbols4 ,these were frequently so old that no account could be given of their origin1 and they were consequently said to have fallen from the skies4 ,it is difficult adequately to conceive the rudeness of these most ancient xoana4 ,the arms were not at all separated from the body1 and were indicated only in as far as was necessary to attach to them characteristic attributes1 like the garment and spindle in one hand1 and the lance in the other1 of the ,trojan ,athene described by ,homer4 ,the sacred figure was frequently quite covered with real doll-like clothing1 as is the ,virgin or the ,bambino in many modern places of pilgrimage provided by the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the difficulty of representing the hair of these puppets appears1 from the later treatment of the heads in marble1 as seen in the ,apollo of ,tenea1 to have been evaded by the use of a woolly covering like a wig4 ,the want of definition in the faces is evident from the statement that some xoana had closed eyes4 ,this is not to be explained by the pious legends of antiquity that the image had refused to look upon some deed of sacrilege1--such1 for instance1 as the rape of ,cassandra1--but by the fact that the eye was indicated only by a horizontal painted line4 ,it was from such rude figures that ,daidalos advanced4 ,it was not only said that he was the inventor of various instruments for wood-working1 such as the axe1 saw1 auger1 and plummet2 but certain improvements in the shaping of the statues were also ascribed to him1 such as the opening--that is to say1 the formation--of the eye1 and the separating of feet1 as if in the act of stepping4 ,the progress cannot1 in fact1 have been great4 ,the traditional account that the images had to be bound after the freeing of their legs1 to prevent their running away1 must not lead us to imagine an ideal perfection1 or1 indeed1 any striking resemblance to life4 ,the classical authorities who knew the works attributed to ,daidalos say1 indeed1 that they were 8wonderful to look upon10 and that 8the master would have made himself ridiculous by such works in our day40 ,the personality of ,daidalos is hardly better assured than that of the mythical workers in metal1 the ,dactyl and ,telchin2 the name itself1 signifying the cunning workman1 is nothing else than a personification of artistic skill1 a collective term for all primitive skill and activity in wood-carving4 ,as this had developed from handiwork1 the legend calls the father of ,daidalos1 ,palamaon1 the contriver1 or ,eupalamos1 the skilful artisan4 ,the travels which ,daidalos is said to have made from ,athens to ,crete1 ,sicily1 ,thebes1 ,pisa1 ,egypt1 etc41 merely result from the appearance of so-called ,daidalian works in those places4 ,in the time of ,homer1 the ninth century ,b4,c41 these images were already regarded as of great age2 so that the period of the beginning of ,greek sculpture must be at least as remote as the tenth century ,b4,c4 ,the one statue directly mentioned in the ,iliad1 the sitting ,athene at ,troy1 upon whose knees the ,trojan women laid a garment1 appeared to the author of the ,homeric epics to be a work in the manner of ,daidalos4 ,if another passage 7,iliad1 i4 #ad7 may be understood as referring to an image of ,apollo1 this must1 like the ,athene1 have been at least partially covered with real clothing4 ,such figures were also overlaid with metal2 it is not to be doubted that the gold and silver dogs1 and the youthful torch-bearers of gold1 in the ,palace of ,alkinoos were carved models of wood covered with beaten plate4 ,the empaistic process1 native to ,phncian countries1 was early imitated in heroic ,greece4 ,though the island of the ,phacians was idealized by the fancy of the poet1 he yet cannot be supposed to have invented new technical processes in an account which was to be generally intelligible4 ,it seems1 however1 that sculptural art had no great range during the heroic ages2 perhaps the works overlaid with beaten metal1 which were known to ,homer1 may have been the results of an accidental and superficial knowledge gained by intercourse with the ,oriental peoples inhabiting the coasts of ,western ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--;,cover of ,dodwell's ,vase1 in ,munich4 ,full size4 ,the manufacture of furniture and smaller decorative objects was probably more important4 ,homer was acquainted with the use of the lathe2 while relief-carving in wood1 and inlaying of metal1 ivory1 and amber1 were early practised4 ,the latter process can also be referred to ,phnician influence1 in consideration both of the materials employed and of historical analogy4 ,even kings busied themselves with such handiwork1 as the building of his nuptial couch by ,odysseus proves2 and royal ladies1 such as ,penelope1 ,andromache1 and ,helen1 embroidered and wove elaborate textures4 ,professional workmen are also mentioned3 ,icmalios was the maker of ,penelope's seat2 and some productions of this nature1 like the chest of ,kypselos1 were as late as the beginning of the historical ages of ,greece4 ,sculptured utensils of metal1 vessels1 tripods1 and weapons1 are particularly and distinctly described in the ,homeric epics4 ,the jars and vases described as 8embossed with flowers0 may be imagined as decorated with wreaths1 like those found in ,assyria and on ,cyprus1 and as similar to the early ,italian bronzes4 ,cups with knobs 7,iliad1 xi4 #fcc7 were discovered in the excavations at ,nineveh2 conventionalized animals1 serpents and birds 7,iliad1 xi4 #ag and #fcd2 ,odyssey1 xi4 #faj1 and xix4 #bbg71 are to be found upon many primitive vases1 and may be supposed to have existed as handles to vessels as well as upon clasps1 sword-belts1 and armor4 ,references to the ,asiatic derivation of the bronze-works known in prehistoric ,greece are given by ,homer1 who mentions craters from ,sidon and a ,cyprian coat of mail4 ,the shields were especially rich1 being formed by several thin plates of metal secured one over the other2 every disk was of greater circumference than that above it1 only a narrow concentric rim of each thus remaining visible4 ,the inner circle alone upon the comparatively simple shield of ,agamemnon 7,iliad1 xi4 #cb7 was ornamented with sculpture1 in this case a ,gorgoneion1 the outer edges being provided with ten knobs of tin2 upon the handle was a three-headed dragon4 ,the shield of ,achilles 7,iliad1 xviii4 #dfh7 was wonderfully elaborate1 and1 as the work of ,hephaistos1 probably exceeded by far the ordinary ornamentation of heroic arms2 but it does not1 on this account1 give less reliable information concerning the general form and nature of prehistoric armor4 ,five layers of metal were superimposed1--two of bronze1 two of tin1 perhaps alternating1 that in the centre being of gold2 four rings were thus formed around the inner circle1 each covered with rich sculptural decoration4 ,symbols of earth1 sea1 and sky1 with the sun1 moon1 and stars1 were within the golden disk4 ,upon one side of the first concentric band was shown a city in time of peace1 with a wedding procession and a court of justice2 upon the other a besieged city1 with a sally of the defenders and a general engagement4 ,upon the second ring were the four seasons1 indicated by ploughing1 harvesting1 the vintage1 and by a herd of peacefully grazing cattle attacked by lions4 ,a harvest dance of youths and maidens1 before whom was a singer with a harp1 decorated the third ring2 while the fourth and outermost1 probably narrower than the others1 was ornamented by waves representing the sea1 which1 according to the conception of the ancients1 surrounded the circular land of the earth4 ,the figures were cut from thin sheets of different metals1 and were riveted to the ground2 it is uncertain whether these were first beaten to a relief1 or were left flat1 giving the effect of a silhouette4 ,the metals were naturally chosen of colors different from that of the band to which they were affixed1 and the treatment1 in principle1 thus somewhat approached the art of painting4 ,the ground and the vineyards1 in the pictures of the seasons1 were of gold1 yet 8the grapes shone blackish20 the poles appear to have been of silver1 the trenches of iron1 and the hedges of tin1 while upon the dancers 8hung golden daggers upon silver straps40 ,such empaistic work must have been more closely related to surfaces of inlaid metal upon wooden forms than to the statuesque ,phnician sphyrelaton4 ,homer's account of the shield of ,achilles should be considered not from a technical1 but from an artistic1 point of view4 ,the vivid description is1 of course1 due altogether to poetical license2 but we may well believe that subjects like the harvest dances1 festive processions1 warlike scenes1 symbols of the seasons1 etc41 may have been attempted upon utensils and weapons1 though in a more simple and decorative manner1 their object not being an artistic setting-forth of details1 but an intelligible indication of the whole4 ,with what limited means this is possible is proved by ,egyptian coilanaglyphics1 ,assyrian reliefs1 and the paintings upon ,greek vases of the most primitive style4 7,fig4 #ahg47 ,the artist of the heroic age cut his figures from thin sheets of metal1 just as children snip paper1 and set them together upon the background1 filling up the intervening spaces as best he might with ornaments and names4 ,direct ,oriental models were hardly needed for this2 but it is probable that1 as in the sphyrelaton1 the influence of ,asia ,minor was felt3 the conventional character of the types painted upon the oldest ,greek vases bears distinct evidence of a ,phnician impulse4 ,there was little that was artistic in the details of such early decorations1 but all the more in the conception as a whole3 the manner of expression was weak1 but the thought was admirable4 ,figures appear upon ,assyrian sculptures1 so similar to those described by the poet that by their help one might almost reconstruct the ,homeric shield2 in ,mesopotamia1 however1 the representations lacked unity in the fundamental conception1 they were not well grouped in the given space1 and appear1 as ,brunn says1 like a chronicle written in figures when compared with such a poem as the artistic compositions1 made up1 perhaps1 of the same elements1 described by ,homer4 ,the pseudo-,hesiodic shield of ,heracles resembled that of ,achilles1 the chief difference in outward form being that the three inner of the five circular layers were bordered upon the outer edges by narrow rings of steel4 ,the middle plate was decorated with the head of ,phoibos1 encircled by twelve serpents like a ,gorgon4 ,the next band displayed a warlike scene and one of peace3 the combat of the ,lapith and ,centaurs in one half1 and ,apollo among the ,muses in the other4 ,the third had a like contrast between a besieged and a peaceful city1 similar in composition to those upon the shield of ,achilles2 while the fourth was also a representation of the seasons1 chiefly distinguished from those of ,homer by the substitution of a hare-hunt as the symbol of winter4 ,the reliefs upon the four narrow steel rings must have differed in action from the larger groups2 in the latter the radial lines of the upright figures prevailed1 in the former a contrary movement was predominant4 ,on the innermost steel ring boars and lions moved concentrically around the shield2 upon the next following was an arm of the sea1 over which flew ,perseus1 pursued by the ,gorgons4 ,the third was a chariot-race at full speed2 and upon the outer rim were conventionalized waves1 with fishes and swans1 forming an ornamental band similar to the border of the ,homeric shield4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,relief from the ,gate of the ,lions at ,myken4 ,our knowledge of the sculptural activity of ,greece in the heroic ages has1 up to the most recent times1 been derived almost entirely from the poets1 whose idealized descriptions are supported1 in regard to form1 only by the analogy of ,assyrian reliefs and the paintings upon archaic vases4 ,works of a primitive period have1 indeed1 not been entirely wanting2 but it being impossible to date them1 they lend no aid to an historical consideration4 ,the derivation and age of only two are assured1 and the characteristic forms of one of these--the ,niobe upon ,mt4 ,sipylos1 near ,magnesia1 mentioned in the ,iliad1 xxiv4 #fac--;are entirely obliterated4 ,it is so rudely executed1 or so weather-beaten1 that even in antiquity it appeared to ,pausanias1 even when seen from the immediate vicinity1 as but a shapeless rock1 in which the human figure was scarcely to be recognized1 while1 at a distance1 it resembled a woman bowed down with grief and weeping4 ,the account has been verified in recent times by the discovery of a rock-cut relief of three times the size of life1 so disintegrated that satisfactory drawings of its human forms could not be made4 ,this renders the other pre-,homeric monument1 the most ancient known sculpture of ,greece and of ,europe1 all the more important--namely1 the relief over the gate of ,myken1 called by the poet that of the ,lions--the chief portal of the fortress of the ,atrid1 the witness of the departure of ,agamemnon for the ,trojan war1 and of the downfall of his house on his return4 7,figs4 #ahh and #abf47 ,the structure has been already described from an architectural point of view4 ,the relief upon the slab which closes the triangle above the lintel represents two lions standing upright upon either side of a column2 their heads1 turned outward1 were separate pieces1 fastened with dowels to the background1 and have disappeared4 ,the designation of these animals need not be deemed erroneous because they have no manes4 ,pausanias speaks of them as lions 7though this in itself may not be of great weight71 and in the ,phnician examples of beaten metal-work1 as in the archaic paintings upon ,greek vases1 the indication of hair is always wanting4 ,the ,asiatic influence which1 in architectural respects1 had made itself felt upon the ,tholos of ,atreus1 must be acknowledged here also2 thus alone is it possible to account for a peculiar modelling of the forms1 entirely foreign to sculpture in stone4 ,the resemblance of these lions to the animal figures of ,assyria is readily recognizable2 it is the same resemblance as that which the art industry of the ,syrian coasts showed to that of ,mesopotamia4 ,the ,phnician tradespeople1 themselves skilled in many novel technical processes1 formed the medium between the cultured countries upon the ,tigris and the gean ,sea4 ,the ,lycian ,cyclops had also borrowed from these neighbors1 and to them was traditionally attributed this wonderful stone carving at ,myken1 a work which1 from all appearance1 was an isolated attempt4 ,such sculptures could not become national and native so long as the requirements of the heroic ,greeks were satisfied with the mere decoration of useful objects4 ,the impulse towards monumental art seems first to have been awakened with the introduction of the columnar temple4 ,schliemann's excavations upon the ,acropolis of ,myken in #ahgf have brought to light some few works of sculpture which deserve to be considered4 ,prominent among them are the memorial stones1 two of which are shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 ,they are remarkable for a nave primitiveness of conception and the desire to display the subject chosen as distinctly as possible4 ,a vigorous action and a certain observation of nature are not lacking1 though the forms are incorrect1 both in general effect and in detail4 ,the similarity of these works to ,asiatic sculptures is marked2 but no trace of ,egyptian influence is to be recognized in the attenuated figures4 ,the same derivation is evident in the spiral ornaments1 which closely resemble those upon the faade of the ,tholos of ,atreus1 and upon ,phnician and ,cyprian remains4 ,all the reliefs imply models of beaten metal1 and lend further support to the hypothesis which connects the heroic age of ,greece with the civilization of ,western ,asia1 through the medium of ,phnician traders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,steles from the ,acropolis of ,myken4 ,the golden masks found in the graves are not less interesting1 whether the assignment of these to the ,homeric worthies--,agamemnon1 ,eurymedon1 etc4--be accepted or not4 7,fig4 #aij47 ,it is at least certain that they are memorials of the heroic age1 and the great quantities of gold found in the sepulchres make it probable that they appertained to a royal race1 and were buried at a time when the prosperity of ,myken was great and its power extensive4 ,the masks1 like the grave-stones1 are formed with the helpless realism peculiar to the art of ,western ,asia1 and entirely foreign to that of ,egypt4 ,it is easy to believe that they were imported directly from ,phnicia4 ,this must certainly have been the case with the beautifully executed ornaments of gold--disks1 diadems1 stars1 etc4--the beaten workmanship of which is of a perfection only possible to trained and practised manufacturers4 ,the spirals and other linear designs are executed with exceeding accuracy1 by peculiar instruments4 ,their motives are taken from the animal and vegetable world1 from cuttle-fishes1 butterflies1 and various forms of leaves and flowers4 ,it is certain that the perforated cylinders1 cut1 like gems1 in intaglio1 with scenes of war and hunting1 were introduced directly from ,asia2 they are strikingly similar to the rolling seals of carnelian and agate found in ,mesopotamia4 ,a small model of a temple is peculiarly ,phnician1 like that repeated upon ,paphian coins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,golden ,mask from ,myken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,from the ,vase of ,clitias and ,ergotimos4 ,during the first two historical centuries1 after the commencement of reckoning time by ,olympiads1 the direction of activity in art appears to have changed but little4 ,sculpture1 represented by guilds1 or families1 of handicraftsmen in ,athens1 ,argos1 and ,sikyon1 remained little else than decoration1 though1 at least in the selection of subjects1 it opened for itself new fields4 ,in the heroic ages the scenes were limited to the most immediate realities2 but1 after the ,homeric epics had become the property of the nation1 the picturesque treasures of many legends became available4 ,arctinos of ,miletos1 in the middle of the eighth century1 and1 somewhat later1 ,lesches of ,lesbos1 continuing the ,iliad1 sang of the downfall of ,troy4 ,stasimos of ,cyprus chose preceding events as his theme2 while the myths of the ,seven against ,thebes1 of the ,titanomachia1 and of the exploits of ,heracles and ,theseus found similar epic illustration4 ,these poems not only provided the subjects for sculpture1 but described them with plastic vividness4 ,this is shown by the two chief works of this period1--the ,chest of ,kypselos and the ,throne of ,apollo at ,amycl4 ,the first was an oblong shrine of cedar-wood1 which ,kypselos1 tyrant of ,corinth1 consecrated in the ,heraion of ,olympia1 in memory of his preservation as a child1 when1 hidden in a fruit-box1 he had escaped from the persecution of the ,bacchiad4 ,this chest1 either upon three sides--the fourth standing against the wall--or upon the long front side alone1 was ornamented with carvings1 in five bands1 one over the other1 probably of unequal height4 ,the reliefs1 partly inlaid with ivory and gold1 must have been of a workmanship similar to that customary in the heroic ages4 ,the uncommonly rich and varied representations1 almost exclusively mythological and heroic1 were taken from the before-mentioned cyclic poems 7,pausanias1 v4 #ag to #ai74 ,the figures appear to have somewhat resembled in style those upon the ,vase of ,clitias and ,ergotimos in ,florence 7,fig4 #aia71 which1 on account of its banded arrangement and the similarity of its mythical subject1 deserves1 rather than the cover of ,dodwell's vase given above 7,fig4 #ahg71 to be compared to the ,chest of ,kypselos4 ,the ,throne of ,apollo at ,amycl1 near ,sparta1 has been connected with the name of one of the oldest artists known1 ,bathycles of ,magnesia1 who lived half a century later than the maker of the ,chest of ,kypselos4 ,this throne also has been minutely described by ,pausanias 7iii4 #ah to #ai74 ,in regard to its sculptured decoration1 his account of its construction is unintelligible2 it is only clear that the framework was colossal1 and that the ancient doll-like image stood within it1 without any seat4 ,not less than forty-one scenes1 besides the larger compositions upon the pedestal of the statue1 covered the outer and inner sides of the throne with carvings in low-relief1 similar in style to those of the ,chest of ,kypselos4 ,upon the legs in full1 or at least in three-quarter1 relief were figures of the ,graces1 the ,hours1 ,tritons1 etc42 upon the back were portraits of the master and of his ,magnesian assistants1 besides sphinxes1 panthers1 and lions4 ,these works were still chiefly of a decorative character4 ,monumental sculpture had not yet freed itself from the trammels of inadequately developed technical processes4 ,so long as the artisan had no choice other than the sphyrelaton and the xoanon1 a material foundation was wanting for the development of an independently artistic sculpture4 ,even when isolated works of a higher order were attempted1 as in the colossal ,zeus1 of beaten gold-plate over a wooden form1 dedicated in ,olympia by ,kypselos or his son ,periander1 they can be considered1 like the other sphyrelata of this and of the heroic age1 only as figures of great material value but of little artistic importance4 ,want of skill in execution favored that clinging to old honored types of devotional figures inherent in the nature of all religions4 ,these influences stood in such close1 interchangeable relations that it is impossible to say whether1 in the province of sculptured images1 the slowness of progress should be placed more to the account of religious prejudices and the difficulties thrown in the way of all change by hieratic institutions1 or of the technical limitations of doll-like xoana and sphyrelata4 ,new mechanical acquirements were needed for the furtherance of the art4 ,three great discoveries1 or1 to speak more correctly1 the extended application of known processes1 date from the beginning of the sixth century ,b4,c43 the casting of bronze1 the sculpture of marble1 and chryselephantine work 7the inlaying of gold and ivory upon a wooden kernel74 ,each of these had its gradual development1 at least the first and the last being furthered by auxiliary inventions4 ,it was indispensable for the casting of bronze that modelling in clay should have attained a certain perfection4 ,the name of the ,sikyonian potter ,boutades is connected with the introduction of this branch of art2 it appears to have been in the middle of the seventh century ,b4,c4 that he ornamented the acroteria and antefixes of the temple roof1 first with low-relief 7prostypon7 and then with high-relief 7ectypon74 ,he also left a portrait panel in terra-cotta1 shown in the ,nymphaion of ,corinth until the destruction of that city as the first work of its kind4 ,in connection with it was told the pleasing anecdote that the daughter of ,boutades1 in taking leave of her lover1 sketched his shadow upon the wall with charcoal1 the father afterwards filling out the outline with clay and burning the relief thus produced4 ,neither of these accounts are of great direct value1 but that a potter could achieve a lasting reputation as an artist may perhaps show that modelling in clay had already made essential progress1 and thus prepared the way for brass-founding1 which requires an original and mould of this more plastic material4 ,the discovery of soldering was also not without significance2 it formed1 in metal work1 a connecting link between the riveting of the sphyrelaton and casting1 even indispensable to larger statues of the latter process1 which1 at least in the beginning1 were executed in pieces4 ,soldering seems first to have been employed upon iron4 ,glaucos of ,chios attained great results by this means1 and attracted general attention to it in the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,his iron crater-stand1 dedicated at ,delphi by ,alyattes1 was an elaborate work1 ornamented upon the legs and clasps with sculptured animals and plants4 ,the way was thus prepared for monumental bronze-founding1 which was not1 indeed1 discovered by the ,samians ,rhoicos and ,theodoros1 the sons of ,phileas and ,telecles1 to whom it was attributed by antiquity1--for1 as has been seen1 it was practised by the ,phnicians1--but was by them first introduced into ,greek art4 ,the dates assigned to their epoch vary from the beginning of the seventh to the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c42 but it is the more reasonable to place them1 with ,brunn1 at the close of this period1 without supposing that there were two masters by the name of ,theodoros1 a father and a son4 ,the innovation probably began with the solid casting of smaller works1 but whether ,rhoicos and ,theodoros were limited to this is at least doubtful4 ,economy of material and the lessening of weight in figures of great dimensions must soon have led to hollow casting upon a fire-proof kernel2 it is possible that it was this very progress that made the two artists celebrated as discoverers4 ,the development of their technical improvements seems at first to have impaired the artistic aspects of the works2 ,pausanias says of a female statue by ,rhoicos1 probably in the ,temple of ,artemis at ,ephesos1 that it was even more archaic and rude than a figure of ,athene in ,amphissa which was there held to be ,trojan4 ,that the two ,samians also practised in beaten metal work is clear from the colossal silver mixing-vessel1 containing six hundred amphoras 7about #bjj1jjj litres71 executed by ,theodoros and dedicated at ,delphi by ,crsus1 from a golden vine with grapes of mounted jewels1 and a golden plane-tree in the possession of the ,persian kings2 the latter works remind us of examples of similar workmanship in the ,assyrian palaces1 the existence of which has been proved by the fragments of palms in gold-plate1 lately found by ,place upon a portal in the palace of ,sargon1 at ,corsabad4 ,if ,theodoros worked thus extensively in the precious metals1 it is not surprising that he produced such small toreutic objects as those indicated by the legend of the ring of ,polycrates1 ascribed to him1 and the fabulous portrait statue of a man1 with a quadriga in his hand which a fly might have covered with its wings4 ,a still more brilliant future was open to the second innovation1 that of sculpture in marble4 ,chios was the birthplace of ,hellenic marble statuary1 as ,samos had been of bronze-casting4 ,coarse stone had been employed from the earliest times1 in isolated instances like the relief over the ,gate of the ,lions at ,myken1 for figures and for small images2 and the introduction of marble statuary was older than bronze-founding1 for ,melas1 ancestor of a long race of sculptors in ,chios1 lived about the middle of the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,of ,melas himself and his son ,mickiades little except the names are known2 an artist of the third generation1 ,achermos1 could venture to represent a winged ,victory1 yet even he was surpassed by his sons ,boupalos and ,athenis4 ,it is evident1 from several notices1 that marble sculpture flourished greatly under these latter1 who1 living about #edj ,b4,c41 had become very particular in the choice of material--using only the fine-grained and translucent ,parian lychnites4 ,no one venturing to dispute their precedence1 they could place upon their sculptures1 exhibited in ,delos1 the self-conscious inscription3 8,chios is celebrated1 not alone for its vineyards1 but for the works of the sons of ,achermos40 ,numerous works by them are mentioned by ancient visitors1 being collected in later times by princely dilettanti4 ,augustus employed such sculptures upon the exterior of many of his buildings1 notably in the gable of the ,palatine temple of ,apollo2 he had an especial and1 as it appears1 a not ill-founded liking for them1 and these works could not have been a disfigurement1 even to the universal magnificence of imperial ,rome4 ,an explanation of this marked advance at so early a date is given by this very fancy of ,augustus3 the works thus architecturally utilized could not have been devotional images of the deities2 they must have been decorative sculptures4 ,the former class1 from reasons already touched upon1 were hindered in artistic progress2 the latter being beyond the jurisdiction of hieratic institutions1 developed untrammelled4 ,it was only in ornamental figures that the assiduous and talented sculptors of early times found free scope1 and it was fortunate that the demand for these architectural and decorative works must naturally have been greater than for the more rare devotional images1 which were piously transferred from the older sanctuaries to the new buildings which took their place4 ,the gable groups of gina show how unequally art advanced in these different and distinct fields4 ,during the time of ,boupalos and ,athenis1 art began to flourish in other places than ,chios4 ,first in ,sikyon1 with the two ,cretans ,dipoinos and ,skyllis1 who may have been even older than the last ,chian masters4 ,they were called1 it seems1 to ,sikyon1 and there chiefly employed their energies in founding a school1 changing at times the site of their labors to ,argos1 ,cleon1 and ,ambrakia4 ,like the masters of ,chios1 they chiefly employed the marble of ,paros1 and it appears1 from the accounts of a group representing ,apollo1 ,artemis1 ,athene1 and ,heracles1 that they too sought their fame less in devotional images for the interior of temples than in monumental compositions for architectural ornament4 ,although these ,cretan sculptors1 according to the testimony of ,pliny1 acquired great celebrity in marble working1 they are more important as the founders of the third among the statuesque arts above mentioned--that process of gold and ivory overlaying which culminated in the greatest masterpieces of ,pheidias4 ,it seems to have originated from the native xoana of early times1 by transferring the inlaid decoration observed upon the furniture of the heroic ages to sculpture in the round4 ,it developed in plainly distinguishable stages4 ,dipoinos and ,skyllis still only in part covered the carved core of wood1 and restricted this overlaying to ivory4 ,this is illustrated by the accounts of a group of the mounted ,dioscuri1 with their mistresses ,hilasia and ,phbe1 and their sons ,anaxis and ,mnasinos1 in the ,temple of the ,isius at ,argos1 which was cut out of common wood and ebony1 the former being covered with ivory4 ,statues were made by ,hegylos and his son ,theocles1 scholars of ,dipoinos and ,skyllis1 for the treasure-house of the ,epidamnians in ,olympia1 which represented ,heracles with the ,nymphs of the ,hesperides1 and ,atlas bearing the heavenly globe2 ,pausanias describes this work as cut from cedar-wood1 and the serpent and the tree with the golden apples of the ,hesperides must certainly have required the inlaying of gold1 if not of ivory4 ,the author particularly mentions the employment of gold upon another group3 the struggle of ,heracles with ,acheloos for ,deianeira1 the work of ,donycleidas and ,dontas of ,lacedmonia1 also scholars of the ,cretan masters4 ,the perfection of the chryselephantine process seems early to have been obtained1 the wood1 before in great part visible1 was by the latter artists used only as a kernel1 being completely covered with ivory and gold4 ,this was1 at least1 the case with the ,themis of ,donycleidas in the ,temple of ,hera at ,olympia4 ,that ,pausanias considers these statues extremely archaic must be understood as a relative judgment2 it is to be borne in mind that works by which a new process is introduced are always of a primitive and imperfect appearance1 if not artistically backward4 ,a sphyrelaton of beaten copper-plates riveted together was still possible to this school1 for a figure of ,athene ,chalkioicos at ,sparta was the work of ,clearchos of ,rhegion1 a member of this guild4 ,the sphyrelaton was1 indeed1 nearly related to chryselephantine work which was virtually a combination of the sphyrelaton with the ancient xoanon4 ,the ginetan ,smilis1 of this group of scholars1 was celebrated as the first great artist of his island4 ,his connection with the ,cretans is more certain than with the later sculptors of gina2 if he should prove to be older than the native ,sikyonian masters1 as has recently been asserted1 this would add another site to the primitive schools of ,greek art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--,metope ,relief from the ,middle ,temple of the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,the history of sculpture1 drawn from the remarks of ancient writers1 would bear only upon the development of these technical processes1 and would give but little information concerning the style of this period1 if it were not possible to compare their accounts with several ancient monuments which by great good-fortune have been preserved to our own time4 ,but it is necessary here not to overlook one point which is frequently lost sight of altogether--namely1 the local differences betrayed by works of one or the same epoch4 ,examples of archaic stone sculpture are presented by ,european ,greece1 by the ,hellenic colonies of the ,east in ,asia ,minor1 and by those of the ,west in ,sicily1 which show the two latter provinces to have followed a somewhat different course of artistic development1 and even the works of the ,peloponnesos early to have betrayed considerable variations1 in conception and in principle1 from those of the more northern tracts of the ,continent4 ,among the provincial monuments1 the first to be noted1 because the oldest known1 are the metope reliefs upon the middle temple of the ,acropolis of ,selinous in ,sicily4 ,the city was founded about #fbh ,b4,c41 and1 though this temple may not have been the first built in the new colony1 it must be considered as dating at least from the first half of the sixth century4 ,among numerous fragments of the metope sculptures two tablets have been preserved almost uninjured which are of the greatest value from the plainness with which they express both the artistic advance and the imperfections of this early age4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to see in them representatives of the sculptural style of ,greece proper1 for they betray in many respects the peculiar influences of ,sicilian ,doric4 ,in as far as the artistic understanding of the works permitted1 they evince a fresh and sound naturalism1 and a careful observation of the living model4 ,but this did not extend beyond the more independent members2 while arms and legs1 hands and feet1 are relatively excellent1 the body and head are disagreeably heavy1 rude1 and ill-proportioned4 ,this contrast is particularly noticeable in that of the two reliefs which represent ,heracles carrying upon his bow the two ,kercopes4 ,the more successful modelling of the details of the limbs shows it to have been the work of an abler artist than the other 7,fig4 #aib71 where ,perseus1 in the presence of ,athene1 cuts off the head of ,medusa4 ,the deity1 with nave helplessness1 turns her right foot sideways1 though otherwise facing entirely towards the front2 the insufficient depth rendered it impossible otherwise to give the foot its full length1 and the artist was perhaps withheld from a more correct form by an unconscious dependence upon the more familiar style of low relief4 ,the left leg of the ,medusa appears1 on account of the confining frame1 too short by half1 and the little ,pegasos stands upon long1 kangaroo-like hinder legs1 in order that the body may come within reach of the arm of ,medusa4 ,yet the weakness of the transition from the front view of the upper body to the profile of the legs is less striking than in the ,egyptian and ,assyrian sculptures1 and both ,perseus and ,heracles are wholly free from that typical petrifaction which characterized the art of the ,nile and of the ,tigris4 ,in spite of the first impression made by the monstrous and disproportioned figures1 these works have1 with all their imperfections1 the peculiar charm of earnest effort1 which is the guarantee of ultimate success4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--,statues from ,miletos4 ,british ,museum4 ,the most ancient ,hellenic sculptures of ,asia ,minor do not show the same self-reliance and direct study of nature4 ,there the influence of ,mesopotamia1 ,phnicia1 ,cyprus1 and even of ,egypt was so strongly felt that art could not remain wholly free from canonical tendencies1 and did not develop simply and directly from natural models4 ,the sitting colossal statues which flanked the sacred way from the port of ,panormos to the ,temple of ,apollo ,didymaios near ,miletos1 and1 according to the characters of the inscriptions1 date from about #edj ,b4,c41 show the naturalistic elements of ,greek work in the treatment of the bodies1 and especially in the garments1 with their scanty but correct folds2 though it is not to be denied that the arrangement in rows like the avenues of sphinxes1 and the enthroned1 ,memnon-like position of the priests and priestesses betray reminiscences of ,egyptian conceptions1--while the fulness of the bodies and the technical details of the seats are more similar to the traditional forms of ,assyria and ,phnicia4 ,the ,asiatic influence is still more evident in the epistyle and metope reliefs of the remarkable ,doric temple at ,assos1 now in the ,louvre2 though the rudeness of their forms may be in part owing to the loss of the stucco coating with which the coarse and excessively hard stone was doubtless overlayed and in which many of the finer details may have been executed4 ,a similarity to the beaten work of metal plate peculiar to ,phnicia is easily recognizable1 and reliefs analogous in style1 and even in subject1 to the sculptures of ,assos are offered by the ,etruscan bronze-work of a chariot found in ,perugia1 now in the ,munich ,glyptothek4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,apollo of ,thera4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,archaic ,relief from ,sparta4 ,a number of sculptures found in various parts of ,european ,greece are wholly different from these provincial works4 ,chief among them are entirely nude youthful figures standing in a stiff position1 the arms hanging close to the body1 and the legs separated--the left being generally a little advanced2 the head1 with receding brow1 is slightly inclined1 and looks directly forward2 the eyes are large and protruding2 the smiling mouth drawn outward at the corners2 while the wig-like hair falls low over the shoulders4 ,they are commonly designated as statues of ,apollo1 although the want of all attributes1 such as were so universally employed by primitive art for the figures of deities1 and which were so necessary for their characterization1 makes this more than uncertain4 ,moreover1 according to ,plutarch1 a ,delian statue of ,apollo1 the work of ,tectaios and ,angelion1 teachers of the ginetan ,callon1 and consequently of this period1 showed the god with outstretched hands2 a position which was typical in early antiquity1 and seems long to have been retained1 as in the ,milesian ,apollo of ,canachos1 and the small bronze figure in the ,louvre4 ,the supposition appears plausible that these figures are those of victors in the national games of ,greece2 such votive offerings are known to have been carved of wood in the earliest times1 but1 after #efj ,b4,c41 they appear to have been of stone1 like that of ,arrhachion in ,phigalia1 described by ,pausanias 7viii4 #dj74 ,the ,apollo of ,thera1 now in ,athens 7,fig4 #aid71 is one of the more ancient of these works2 the soft and yet not voluptuous forms of the body1 the beauty of outline1 united with an evident uncertainty1 do not denote a later phase of artistic development than the hard sharpness and strict conventionalism of the greater number of archaic statues4 ,the beginning of this discipline is shown by the ,apollo of ,tenea1 now at ,munich1 in which there is but little grace and artistic beauty1 but all the more an earnest striving after close correctness of modelling1 which is more successfully attained in the limbs than in the trunk4 ,of this epoch1 and similar in style1 though approaching more nearly to the ,apollo of ,thera1 are the marble statues of ,orchomenos1 preserved only to the knees1 and the torsos of ,megara and ,naxos1 now in ,athens4 ,the more ancient sculptures found in ,greece proper are less antique in style than the sculptures and reliefs already mentioned1 with the exception of some marble steles from ,sparta1 the most important of which represents upon the one side the meeting of ,orestes and ,iphigenia1 upon the other the murder of ,clytaimnestra 7,fig4 #aie74 ,the rude1 short figures are somewhat similar to those in the metopes of the middle temple upon the ,acropolis of ,selinous4 ,this excessive heaviness and awkwardness appears almost entirely overcome in the stele of ,aristion1 found in northern ,attica1 and now in ,athens4 ,the low relief 7,fig4 #aif71 designated as the work of ,aristocles1 represents a man armed as a hoplite1 and is similar1 in many important respects1 to the ,apollo of ,tenea1 though a decided advance beyond that work4 ,the ,attic relief of a woman mounting a chariot1 notwithstanding a primitive harshness of form1 shows1 in the graceful drapery1 the inclination of the head and the position of the arms1 as well as in the greater certainty of the drawing1 qualities which cannot be ascribed exclusively to the superior perception of the inhabitants of ,attica1 but must be due1 at least in part1 to a later and more advanced stage of development4 ,with these works may be compared the so-called ,leucothea relief in the ,villa ,albani1 which does not1 indeed1 equal them in composition1 but is superior in grace of bearing and beauty of detail4 ,another sculpture represents the bringing of a child to a female figure seated upon a throne1 perhaps the dead mother1 and is similar in subject to the celebrated reliefs of the ,monument of the ,harpies at ,xanthos1 now in the ,british ,museum1 where the ,harpies bear children or souls to the deities of the lower world4 ,the former1 by greater fulness and softness1 as also by less clearness and understanding in the general treatment1 seems to precede the latter in point of time1 dating from the period between the ,milesian colossal figures and the ,attic reliefs described1 that is to say1 from #ebj to #ejj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,stele of ,aristion1 by ,aristocles4 ,the older metopes of ,selinous1 the statues of ,miletos1 the reliefs of ,assos1 and even the so-called figures of ,apollo from ,thera1 ,naxos1 ,orchomenos1 and ,tenea1 betray great looseness and uncertainty of form2 like the productions of every period of experiment1 they give no evidence of systematical and accepted principles--the canonical establishment of a certain degree of perfection4 ,in the subsequent period there was1 in various cities1 an earnest endeavor to make an end to this want of training by thorough and academic discipline4 ,these efforts could not1 in ,greece1 result in that typical lifelessness1 that faulty execution and mannerism1 universal in ,egypt and the despotic lands of the ,east1 which operated against all direct study of nature2 but1 by the combination of individual observations and improvements1 they increased and purified the artistic appreciation1 no longer restricting it to details1 to the partial1 but directing it to the complete4 ,athens was most active in this advance1 as is evident from several ancient works closely related to that of the woman mounting the chariot4 ,the progress is illustrated by the statue of ,athene found upon the northern side of the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,a strict treatment of details1 like the aigis1 the folds of the garments1 the hair1 etc41 is united to a considerable understanding of the forms of the body and the functions of the limbs1 which are sharply and perhaps a little hardly modelled2 while the work has in great measure freed itself from the exactions of conventional symmetry1 so markedly exemplified by the sitting statues of ,miletos and the ,apollo of ,tenea4 ,the figure of ,hermes bearing a calf1 found in ,athens1 is a somewhat similar work2 its head and hair are hard even to ugliness1 but decided ability is shown in the formation of the back and hams1 and in the truth to nature of the calf1 held by the legs and pressed close to the neck4 ,the progress is not less plain in the bronze statuette of ,apollo in the ,louvre1 nearly one meter high1 with the ,greek inscription 8to ,athene from the tithes20 provided1 indeed1 that the period of its origin is certain1 and the work does not belong to the extensive group of archaistic imitations4 ,the reliefs from the beginning of the fifth century are similar in character4 ,that upon a marble fountain-drum from ,corinth represents the meeting of ,heracles and ,hebe2 it still preserves the silhouette-like outline1 the small parallel folds and general ornamental style of the drapery1 and the stepping of both feet flatly upon the soles2 while the unschooled endeavor and evident embarrassment of the artist does not give an unpleasing expression of awkwardness to the figures1 which have a certain dignity and grace1 especially remarkable in the garments and in the action of the extremities4 ,here is attained at last that strict and completed style which has cast off all loose uncertainty1 and has adopted a conventional form for accessories in order to secure the harmonious execution of the whole4 ,this is also noticeable upon a relief discovered in ,thasos1 now in the ,louvre1 which1 when compared with the before-mentioned ,corinthian relief1 and with the monument of the ,harpies1 displays the influence of the neighboring coasts of northern ,asia ,minor1 together with a certain picturesqueness of conception peculiar to northern ,greece4 ,a beautiful stele1 found in ,orchomenos1 the work of ,alxenor1 an artist from ,naxos1 instead of giving to the portrait figure the stiff position of parade1 formerly universal1 represents it with crossed legs1 lazily leaning upon a gnarled stick4 ,the archaic meagreness is1 however1 still to be seen in the form of the hand1 and in the folds of the cloak 7,fig4 #aig74 ,the stele from the ,borgia collection1 at present in ,naples1 resembles it in general style4 ,all the merits and defects of the period are to be seen also in a number of terra-cotta reliefs from ,melos1 not to mention some small figures in clay and bronze1 for the most part superficially executed1 the clumsiness of which may be ascribed to the maker's individual want of ability4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,stele by ,alxenor1 found in ,orchomenos4 ,the growth of art in ,asia ,minor1 ,sicily1 and ,lower ,italy1 in so far as these lands were ,hellenic1 does not appear to have kept equal pace with that of ,greece proper2 yet the intercourse1 during the last decades of the sixth century1 was so active that they could not remain far behind4 ,the most remarkable examples of the sculptures of this class1 perhaps of a little later date than the ,attic works described1 are the metope reliefs from the ,middle ,temple of the ,eastern ,plateau at ,selinous1 representing the gigantomachia1 as preserved in scanty fragments4 ,although the crudeness of outline and modelling in the bodies of the fallen giants in many respects recalls the older metopes of the corresponding temple of the acropolis1 the draperies of the goddesses1 on the other hand1 show a skill exceeding in truth and beauty many of the archaic works of ,greece itself4 ,the one remaining head of a giant1 wounded and outstretched in death 7,fig4 #aih71 shows1 in spite of the antique hardness in the form of the face and treatment of the hair1 an expression which could have resulted only from the intelligent study of nature4 ,a relief from ,aricia1 now in ,palma1 upon the island of ,mallorca1 representing the murder of gisthos by ,orestes1 is known only through insufficient representations2 it shows weakness in composition and inequality in rendering1 the garments being sensibly inferior to the treatment of the nude4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--;,head from a ,metope of the ,middle ,temple upon the ,eastern ,plateau of ,selinous4 ,before mentioning by name those artists who carried art beyond this stage of development1 another class of monuments1 numerically very important1 should be considered4 ,it is well known that in all ages antiquity has had a certain charm1 either as appearing strange and interesting in comparison with existing circumstances1 or from religious associations4 ,when a devotional figure1 with which many legends have become associated1 as is the case to-day with the altar-pieces of our churches1 was particularly reverenced on account of its antiquity1 there was a desire to preserve its primitive type1 even from recognized improvements4 ,hence arose an imitation of the original work1 called archaistic in contradistinction from the archaic1 or really old4 ,this imitative style became fashionable in later times2 while an amateur with the means of the ,emperor ,augustus was able to acquire an original ,boupalos or ,athenis1 other lovers of the antique were obliged to content themselves with copies1 or with works conventionalized after the manner of the early masters4 ,these products are not always to be distinguished from the truly archaic1 as is also the case with some modern imitations2 but usually some conventional1 technical1 or circumstantial oversight or anachronism furnishes an easy criterion4 ,there can be no doubt1 for example1 concerning the age of a work of sculpture in which a ,roman ,corinthian temple stands in the background1 as upon a well-known relief representing ,victory filling a cup for ,apollo ,kitharoidos1 who is followed by ,artemis and ,leto4 ,in other cases the head1 hands1 or feet1--the expression or gesture1--or the step1 which in ancient works characteristically rests upon both soles1--betray a much later period than the hard or regular folds of the drapery1 as is the case with the ,artemis at ,naples4 7,fig4 #aii47 ,sometimes the accessories are of a later style1 as in the ten scenes from the ,gigantomachia upon the border of the garment of ,athene in ,dresden2 or1 finally1 the drapery upon one figure of a group is strictly antique1 while that of the others is free1 as upon a tripod of the same museum1--not to mention other less important inconsistencies4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,archaistic ,artemis from ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--;,central ,figures of the ,western ,gable1 ,temple of ,athene upon gina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--;,harmodios and ,aristogeiton4 7,copies in ,naples47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,apollo after ,canachos4 7,british ,museum47 ,an established conventionalism1--that contentment with the mere handiwork of acquired forms which existed for centuries in the lands of the ,nile and ,tigris1--was not possible in the early art of progressive ,greece4 ,upon the foundation of the artistic ability already attained at this period1 various local schools and individual sculptors rose to a higher level1 and effected an advance1 partly by opening new channels for the artistic industry of all ,hellas1 partly by pursuing paths which remained peculiar to themselves4 ,athens and gina are especially prominent in this activity2 but1 notwithstanding many scholarly researches1 the history of art is not able to distinguish with certainty between the works of the two cities1 an ,attic example analogous to the chief work of the island being wanting for instructive comparison4 ,the chief difference between the two may have been that the former school had a less strict and trained execution than the latter1 with more grace of form and nobility of bearing4 ,callon and ,onatas were prominent artists of gina1 the latter seeming to have been the more celebrated4 ,on account of the hardness of their work1 both were considered inferior to ,calamis4 ,onatas is particularly interesting from our knowledge of two of his chief sculptures--extensive dedicatory offerings to ,olympia and ,delphi1 one of which represented the ,greeks before ,troy1 casting lots to determine upon an opponent for ,hector1 and the other the combat over the fallen ,king of the ,tapygians1 ,opis4 ,the subjects of these works1 especially the latter1 and the peculiarity emphasized by ,pausanias that the heroes before ,troy were represented armed only with helmet1 spear1 and shield1 probably to give scope for the display of the artist's skill in the treatment of the nude1 remind us of the two well-preserved groups from the gables of the ,temple of ,athene at gina1 which1 in point of style1 must have been closely allied to those of ,onatas4 ,these priceless marbles were discovered in #ahaa1 and the next year1 by a chain of fortunate circumstances1 came into the possession of ,louis ,i41 then ,crown-prince of ,bavaria4 ,ten of the remaining statues belong to the western gable1 and five to the eastern2 the greater part of the former group is thus preserved1 and1 as the scenes in both gables are almost entirely alike1 their general arrangement may be restored with reasonable certainty4 ,that over the chief front represents the struggle for a fallen hero1 probably ,oicles in the contest of ,heracles and the ginetan ,telamon with ,laomedon of ,troy4 ,in the rear tympanon the scene is the recovery of the body of ,achilles or of ,patroclos4 ,subjects so closely allied could lead to no great difference of composition1 at most to such slight variations as the characterization of ,heracles in the first group or of ,paris in the second1 if this latter be considered an episode in which that hero took part4 ,in both gables the fallen warrior lay at the feet of the protecting ,athene 7,fig4 #bjj71 while on each side1 symmetrically disposed1 a combatant of either party endeavors to seize the body and drag it forth from the fray4 ,above these stooping figures warriors threaten each other with lances2 but it is not certain whether there were two or four of these actively engaged4 ,the latter number has been recently assumed from numerous fragmentary remains1 which1 if appertaining to the group at all1 it is impossible otherwise to locate2 the refutation of this theory of ,lange1 which has been attempted by ,julius1 does not terminate the vexed question4 ,these warriors were followed1 according to ,brunn's arrangement1 by two kneeling lance-bearers1 perhaps protecting the two archers in similar position with their shields4 ,one of the archers is shown by a leathern cuirass and the so-called ,phrygian cap to be an ,oriental1 perhaps ,paris4 ,with the exception of ,heracles in the eastern gable1 who is characterized by his lion's skin1 none of the other combatants are personally distinguishable4 ,the corners of the triangle are filled by two fallen warriors4 ,the whole group is thus composed with strict reference to symmetrical correspondence1 and to the conditions imposed by the gable2 all attempt to attain relative action and realism is abandoned1 and the impression of a pantomime is inevitable4 ,the outlines of the bodies1 their position and action1 are correct even to the minutest details1 and show a certainty of form and a technical perfection1 which1 in the absence of all support for the bodies1 or for the extreme thinness of the shields1 is truly astonishing4 ,the figures of the eastern gable appear particularly perfect1 and are apparently the works of later sculptors1 less limited1 in point of style and artistic ability1 than the master1 or masters1 of the western group4 ,if in the latter1 as before remarked1 it is natural to think of ,onatas1 the former is correspondingly attributable to ,calliteles1 the son1 scholar1 and assistant of ,onatas1 who worked in great measure like his father1 but also under the progressive influence of a younger generation4 ,in remarkable contrast to the excellent and1 in formal characterization1 almost faultless1 anatomical treatment of the bodies1 two things appear particularly important as indicating the limits of the artistic ability of the time--namely1 all the heads and the two statues of the deity ,athene4 ,the former are without ideal beauty or expression1 for which the sculptor evidently felt himself incapable4 ,he therefore carved the features according to a certain formula1 and the apparent smile1 resulting from the mouth being drawn outward and the corners of the eyelids extended1 is to be regarded as a meaningless reminiscence of the older style4 ,the eyes are too protruding and the chin too pointed and small1 defects of the earlier practice1 not as yet entirely overcome4 ,the ,athene shows how obstinately the devotional images were denied the advances made in other sculptures1 so that the traditional and hallowed type might be preserved1 as much as possible1 from change4 ,while for the other statues the artist had before his eyes the living combatants of the palaistra1 his model for this was the sacred image standing within the temple4 ,the evident contrast between the stiff bearing and archaic garments of the ,athene and the rest of the group is thus more naturally explained than by the view that1 in the artist's conception1 the goddess did not need any real action1 that a slight lifting of the shield1 as a divine 8thus far and no farther10 was sufficient to show her supernatural power and to protect the fallen4 ,the awkward turn of the feet1 which was owing less to the limitations of space than to the reminiscence of an antique devotional image1 might the more safely be ventured1 because it could not be seen at all from below4 ,that the sculptor1 however1 in his loving devotion to his work1 took small advantage of this last consideration1 is clear from the fact that the bodies are as carefully finished upon the back as upon the front1 although one half of this labor could never have been appreciated from the first installation of the figures until their discovery among the overthrown ruins and their reception in the ,munich ,glyptothek4 ,the effect of the whole was essentially heightened by the bronze accessories1 such as lances1 belts with swords1 bows1 arrows1 a ,gorgoneion and serpents upon the aigis of ,athene1 etc42 and even more by the intense red1 blue1 and other colors upon the helmets and waving crests1 shields1 and borders of the garments1 sandals1 and leather-work1 as well as by the tinting of the hair1 eyes1 and lips--all which painting was probably in strict harmony with the neighboring architectural members1 which were doubtless treated with similar pigments4 ,of other statues of archaic stamp only one has proved to be contemporaneous with1 and of the same school as1 the gable sculptures of gina--namely1 the so-called ,strangford youth in the ,british ,museum4 ,the work is more closely allied to the statues of the western than to those of the later eastern gable of the temple2 but1 notwithstanding a marked similarity in the treatment of the torso1 the formation of the features differs so distinctly that the figure can hardly be ascribed to the same master4 ,when ,pausanias says of ,onatas that1 although belonging to gina1 he still does not rank him below any contemporaneous sculptor of ,attica1 this summary praise speaks less directly for the individuality of ,onatas than for the decided relative position of the two schools4 ,it shows that in general the style of gina was esteemed inferior4 ,it may be concluded that there were at least three ,athenian sculptors of this time who surpassed the artists of the gable groups of the temple upon gina1 namely1 ,hegias 7,hegesias71 ,critios1 and ,nesiotes1 not to mention the somewhat older ,endoios1 ,antenor1 and ,amphicrates4 ,literary notices of their works do not convey any valuable information2 but ,friedrichs has discovered in the sculptures of the ,museum of ,naples which hitherto had passed under the name of the ,gladiators1 copies from one of the best works of ,critios and ,nesiotes4 7,fig4 #bja47 ,they represent ,harmodios and ,aristogeiton1 the assassins of the tyrant ,hipparchos1--a group recognized by an ,attic tetradrachm1 by the relief ornamenting a marble seat at ,athens1 and by a weaker reproduction now in the ,giardino ,boboli at ,florence4 ,as copies of this kind do not allow definite conclusions concerning the style of celebrated monuments1 we must regard in them only the general composition4 ,they suffice1 however1 to show that the figures1 which are of a free and bold action1 cannot be referred to the ,monument of ,antenor1 built as early as #eji ,b4,c4 ,besides the schools of gina and ,athens1 there were at this period sculptural workshops of good repute in ,sikyon1 ,argos1 ,corinth1 and ,thebes4 ,as early as the time of the ,cretan ,daidalid ,dipoinos and ,skyllis1 ,sikyon was one of the chief cities of artistic industry2 and at the beginning of the fifth century two celebrated brothers1 ,canachos and ,aristocles1 stood at the head of a local school which lasted for seven generations4 ,the chief work of ,canachos1 the colossal ,apollo of the ,branchid sanctuary in ,miletos1 holding a movable1 probably automatic1 stag in the outstretched right hand1 is known only by representations upon coins1 and by a bronze statuette in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #bjb72 the latter shows that the master was but little removed from the archaic hardness of earlier times1 though endeavoring to attain greater power and nobility of form1 particularly in the head and features4 ,another colossal ,apollo by ,canachos in ,thebes differed from the figure in ,miletos in being made of wood4 ,the chryselephantine ,aphrodite in ,sikyon1 represented with the polos upon the head and with poppy flower and apples in the hands1 must have been particularly archaic in conception4 ,two other works1 more removed from hieratic influences and limitations1 were probably of a less restricted style2 namely1 the ,muse with the ,syrinx1 executed with two others by the master's brother1 ,aristocles1 and the ,young ,racers4 ,the school of ,argos is celebrated by one great name1 immediately connected with the highest development of art1 ,ageladas1 the contemporary of the masters of gina1 ,athens1 and ,sikyon previously mentioned4 ,from the silence of ancient authors in regard to this master's style1 little information can be given concerning it2 it is only known that the ,muse with the ,barbiton1 his many figures of ,zeus and ,heracles1 various statues of victors1 quadrigas1 and groups of votive offerings in ,delphi1 were of bronze4 ,ageladas was the teacher of three of the greatest sculptors of ,greece--,myron1 ,polycleitos1 and ,pheidias2 and he must1 if on this account alone1 be ranked above his contemporaries4 ,the history of art would receive but little furtherance by a detailed consideration of the other ,argive sculptors1 ,aristomedon1 ,glaucos1 and ,dionysios2 of the ,corinthians1 ,diyllos1 ,amyclaios1 and ,chionis2 of the ,thebans1 ,aristomedos1 ,socrates1 and others2 of ,callon of ,elis2 or of the ,spartan ,gitiades4 ,prominent as these must have been1 they appear rather to have demonstrated the vigor of their schools1 and the influence of those of gina and ,athens1 than by individual gifts to have raised themselves above the academic art of their time4 ,as masters of personal importance1 in whom the progress made by their own genius far exceeded their early training1 may be mentioned three younger sculptors3 ,calamis1 probably of ,athens2 ,pythagoras of ,rhegion1 in ,magna ,grcia2 and ,myron of ,eleuther1 on the borders of ,botia4 ,calamis worked chiefly in devotional figures1 and in these could not entirely throw off the hieratic limitations in regard to position and treatment of details4 ,he was accounted somewhat less hard in style than ,canachos or ,callon1 but inferior to ,myron in truthfulness to nature4 ,this master seems to have made little advance in the modelling of the body as a whole1 though ,lucian praises the rhythmical position of the feet and the beauty of the joints of his ,sosandra2 but in the representation of the head he succeeded in making decided progress when compared with the artists of the gable groups of gina4 ,in this respect his ,alcmene must have been highly important2 but chief among the works of ,calamis was the ,sosandra1 probably an ,aphrodite1 which became proverbial on account of its grace and beauty4 ,lucian1 when comparing the most distinguished examples among all the works of art to illustrate perfect beauty1 did this with the significant words1 8,calamis may ornament our ideal with chaste modesty1 and its smile may be honorable and unconscious as that of ,sosandra40 ,in view of this judgment1 it is plain that the stiff1 ugly heads of the ginetan marbles are not to be imputed to the works of ,calamis2 that the graceful and beautiful formation of the features was one of the chief improvements effected by him4 ,the limitations of his art are indicated by another notice4 ,pliny relates that ,calamis was unsurpassed in his representations of horses2 but ,praxiteles removed a charioteer from one of the older quadrigas1 and created another in its place1 8that the men of ,calamis might not appear inferior to his animals40 ,his charioteer must consequently have contrasted unfavorably with the horses and disturbed the harmony of the whole2 this need by no means be considered as contradictory to the accounts of the beauty of his devotional images1 for the charming grace which distinguished the quiet figures of deities and heroes was to be exchanged in the charioteer for an athletic life1 corresponding1 in position and action1 to the exciting situation1 and such representations evidently were beyond the powers of the otherwise able master4 ,examples authentically referable to ,calamis do not exist1 though the statue of ,apollo upon the ,omphalos1 found in ,athens1 shows at once the archaic limitations and the advancing mastery which may be ascribed to this period of ,greek sculpture2 while the so-called ,vesta1 now in the possession of ,torlonia1 may have preserved reminiscences of the ,sosandra4 ,both these works are evidently the products of artists who did not conceive the gods as merely graceful and pleasing1 but as strict and serious beings4 ,statues of ,apollo by ,calamis are known to have been brought from the ,kerameicos in ,athens1 and from a city upon the shores of the ,pontos1 to the ,roman capitol2 but this can hardly be adduced as an argument in favor of the authenticity of the figure upon the ,omphalos4 ,to those very points in which ,calamis failed1 the two other artists named devoted themselves with signal success4 ,the works of ,pythagoras of ,rhegion1 who limited himself to bronze as a material1 while ,calamis worked in marble1 gold1 and ivory1 betray no connection with those of the latter in regard to subjects1 for the greater number were statues of victors and representations of heroes in somewhat genre-like conception4 ,of the former1 ,pausanias and ,pliny praise the ,enthymos as one of the most excellent among the forest of images dedicated at ,olympia2 of the latter1 the limping ,philoctetes was celebrated by many epigrams1 as causing the observer to himself feel the pain of the wounded foot4 ,to attain such an expression1 it is not sufficient to characterize the suffering in the affected limb alone1 but the pain must be evident in the entire body1 in bearing as well as in step2 in the continued tension of all the muscles1 and in the one-sided strain upon the sound leg4 ,the ,philoctetes illustrates an otherwise incomprehensible account of the master's ability4 ,diogenes of ,laerte says that ,pythagoras1 of all sculptors1 first regarded rhythm and symmetry4 ,this unity of motion or rhythm1 with the equipoise or symmetry which alone lends a feeling of security and harmonious perfection to the different members of figures under excitement1 is that which made the work so effective4 ,the same principles must have distinguished the statues of victors1 which were apparently intended rather as examples of the various modes of combat1 or the preparations therefor1 than as individual portraits4 ,the chief merit of this master appears1 according to this1 to have consisted in the organic truthfulness to nature of his figures1 and this is by no means contradicted by the rather trivial judgment of ,pliny that ,pythagoras was the first to indicate sinews and veins1 and to more carefully model the hair2 for increased anatomical correctness came naturally with the organic action and realism of these works4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,marble ,copy of the ,discos-thrower by ,myron4 7,in the ,palazzo ,massimi alle ,colonne in ,rome47 ,in this expression of the movement by every part of the body exercised1 ,pythagoras was still surpassed by ,myron4 ,a founder of metal1 like the former1 he acquired his fame chiefly as a maker of the statues of victors1 although1 with acknowledged versatility1 he executed numerous images of deities and heroes4 ,two of the first were highly celebrated--the ,runner ,ladas and the ,discos-thrower2 both of them belonging to that class of works which illustrated the nature of the game itself4 ,for ,ladas was shown at the moment when1 after overstrained effort1 he had reached the goal1 and there1 as victor1 had fallen dead3 according to the expression of an epigram upon the work1 it was as if the last breath from the empty lungs were passing his lips4 ,for such a creation even the most perfect position of running1 and indication of relative action in trunk and arms1 were not sufficient2 the great point lay in the panting breast and the open mouth and nostrils3 the last effort of the lungs must have been wonderfully shown4 ,another epigram speaks of the 8breather10 not of the runner1 ,ladas4 ,that this marvellous representation of concentrated action was not to the disadvantage of the outer members is shown by the other victor before mentioned1 the discos-thrower1 the fame of which is demonstrated not only by the praise of ,lucian1 but by the numerous copies made during antiquity4 ,many of the latter have been preserved1 marbles of the size of the original1 and bronze statuettes1 giving evidence of the fascinating action in the swing of the discos2 the athletic body of the youth bending forward to gain greater impetus2 the toes of one foot clinging to the ground1 those of the other slid along its surface2 and everything prepared for the fling which is instantly to follow4 ,and yet the best-preserved copy1 that in the ,palazzo ,massimi 7,fig4 #bjc71 must certainly be in every respect inferior to the original4 ,a mythological genre-group by ,myron appears from existing copies to have been equally effective3 it illustrated the legend of the flute1 invented and cast away with a curse by ,athene1 and found by the unfortunate ,marsyas4 ,statues in the ,lateran and ,british ,museum show the ,satyr starting back in surprise1 the momentary action of desire and fear being seized and expressed with as consummate mastery as were the athletic movements of the runner and the discos-thrower4 ,it was this same spirit of life that caused ,myron's cow to be so celebrated in antiquity that no less than thirty-six epigrams have been handed down concerning it4 ,petronius1 in praising this master1 says that1 in representing animals1 ,myron seemed to enclose the very breath of life in the bronze2 and when ,pliny says that he multiplied nature1 he can have no other meaning than that the artist attained so life-like an effect that his works appeared rather to have grown than to have been an artistic creation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--,statuette of the ,athene ,parthenos1 ,athens4 ,illustration3 ,head of ,pheidias4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,fragment in the ,british ,museum1 imitated from the ,shield of the ,athene ,parthenos4 ,the schools of gina1 ,athens1 ,sikyon1 ,argos1 ,rhegion1 and the other cities where art had chiefly centred1 flourished during the ,persian wars--that greatest period of ,greece1 from #dij to #dej ,b4,c41 when ,myron1 the scholar of ,ageladas1 was still young4 ,the unequalled grandeur of this age1 which resulted in the splendid culmination of all ,hellenic life1 must have furthered art1 all the more as the devastation of the war1 and the subsequent enrichment of the victors1 offered full opportunity and means for monumental activity4 ,what influence this had upon architectural industry has been described in a foregoing section1 and it may be easily understood that sculpture went hand-in-hand with this2 the larger temples needed their images of the gods1 their gable groups1 metope reliefs1 and friezes1 as also their complement of sculptural votive offerings1 prompted by the gratitude of the victors4 ,athens1 more than any other place in ,greece1 found occasion and means for these works1 having been laid waste in #dhj and #dgi ,b4,c4 by ,xerxes and ,mardonios as no other large city of ,greece had been4 ,by means of the taxes levied upon the confederated states after the siege of ,mycale1 its possessions were greater than those of all the other ,hellenic republics together4 ,athens therefore saw the most perfect flower of ,grecian architecture come forth from the ashes of the ,persian catastrophe1 and by its side appeared the grandest creations of sculpture4 ,yet neither of these arose like magic from the wasted ground2 it was necessary that the nation should first take breath1 should recover from the almost supernatural exertions made during the war1 and provide for defence and shelter by the building of fortifications and dwellings4 ,it was not until after this that they could devote themselves to great monumental undertakings1 the perfect completion of which required more than one generation1 and sculptured ornamentation was thus still further postponed4 ,the older masters hitherto considered had little or no part in the chief works of this period4 ,the mind of ,themistocles was so practical1 and so much directed towards fortifications1 that he could have little thought for occupying the artists with monumental sculpture4 ,his successor1 ,kimon1 son of ,miltiades1 began to build anew the places of worship1 but did not go so far as to institute sculptural ornament1 at least in its chief constituent1 statuary4 ,this first ripened to perfection in the reign of ,pericles1 and a favorable fate ordained that1 just at this time1 when it was needed as never before1 a genius appeared under whose guidance the most complete development was attained4 ,this greatest of sculptors was ,pheidias1 the son of ,charmides1 an ,athenian by birth4 ,when a boy of ten years1 he had seen his countrymen1 under ,miltiades1 go forth to ,marathon1 and1 as a youth1 had shared in the rejoicing over the glorious victory of ,salamis4 ,at that time1 having probably left the school of ,hegias1 his first teacher1 he turned towards ,ageladas the ,argive1 who may have come to ,athens in order that1 in the rebuilding of the city1 he might employ his art in works which have remained unknown to us4 ,when ,pericles entered upon his much celebrated presidency 7#ddd ,b4,c471 ,pheidias1 already advanced in years1 enjoyed a fame so great throughout all ,greece that1 as soon as ,pericles had installed him at the head of the entire monumental work of ,athens1 artists of distinguished rank placed themselves1 without envy1 under his lead4 ,with only the scanty and scattered literary notices that we possess1 it is impossible1 from the works of this master1 to illustrate his life before the time of ,pericles1 these being not only imperfectly known1 but connected with but few chronological facts4 ,chief among his productions is to be mentioned a group in bronze consecrated at ,delphi by the ,athenians under ,kimon1 from a tithe of the booty taken at ,marathon4 ,it represented ,miltiades between ,athene and ,apollo1 surrounded by the ancestral heroes of the ten ,attic ,phyl4 ,in artistic respects nothing more is known of this than of the statue of a youth crowning himself with the victor's band in ,olympia2 of a wounded ,amazon1 a work prepared for a competition in which ,pheidias was surpassed by ,polycleitos2 of a marble ,hermes in ,thebes2 or of three draped statues of ,aphrodite1 one of which1 that in ,elis1 was chryselephantine1 the other two having been of marble4 ,the artist employed his powers mostly in a higher province--in figures of ,athene and of ,zeus4 ,six of the former are more or less known2 the most celebrated was the bronze ,athene of ,lemnos upon the ,acropolis of ,athens1 so called because dedicated by ,attic colonists from that place1 and distinguished by the name of 8the beautiful20 a second was the colossal statue1 likewise of bronze1 standing between the ,erechtheion and the ,propyla1 whose helmet-crest and lance-point gleamed above the roof of the ,parthenon1 twenty metres high1 and was visible at sea as far as the promontory of ,sunion4 ,the shield standing upon the ground--and perhaps a later creation--was ornamented by ,mys1 after a design by ,parrhasios1 with an embossed centauromachia4 ,not to speak of the ,athene ,areia at ,plata1 a colossal wooden figure with garments of gold1 the nude parts being of marble1 we come finally to the incomparable chryselephantine figure in the ,parthenon at ,athens1 in which the type of ,athene was forever firmly established4 ,some few accounts--a marble statuette lately found in ,athens 7,fig4 #bjd71 a miserably careless imitation2 and also a poor copy in marble of the shield1 discovered soon after1 in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #bje7--render it possible to understand the composition in its chief outlines4 ,standing erect1 the head slightly inclined forward1 clothed with the sleeveless chiton and the gis1 the helmet decorated with the sphinx1 she supported her left arm upon the shield1 at the same time holding the lance1 which leaned against her shoulder and bore the serpent of ,erichthonios1 coiling upward2 the right arm1 outstretched1 carried a figure of ,victory1 two metres in height1 which1 turned towards the goddess1 offered her a wreath of gold4 ,the base of the statue1 and even the rims of the thick-soled sandals1 were ornamented with reliefs4 ,the golden shield showed1 within1 the gigantomachia1 and1 without1 the battle of the ,amazons1 concerning which we have further information from the discovery above mentioned4 ,the fatal portrait of the artist himself may be plainly recognized in the strongly individualized features of a bald-headed man with the battle-axe in his uplifted hands1 prominent because of his almost entire nakedness among the completely equipped youths4 ,this portrait caused the merciless persecution of the sculptor and his patrons2 after the charge of embezzling the gold upon the garments of the ,athene had been proved groundless by the removal and weighing of the metal1 this figure gave opportunity for complaint of sacrilege1 and the artist was forced to pass the remainder of his life in a prison4 ,the ,athene ,parthenos was surpassed by the colossal statue of the ,panhellenic ,zeus in ,olympia1 likewise chryselephantine1 which exhibited the highest triumph of ,pheidias4 ,the god1 with a green enamelled olive-wreath crowning his golden locks1 and in garments brightly bordered with gold1 was seated upon a magnificent throne1 the legs of which were ornamented with figures of ,victory in two rows1 and the arms with sphinxes1 while the back was terminated with groups of ,hor and ,charites1 the steps1 cross-bars1 sheathing-boards1 etc41 of the support being decorated with many other sculptures in the round and in relief4 ,in his right hand1 turning towards him1 was a ,victory1 and in his left a sceptre1 tipped with the eagle1 formed from a combination of many metals4 ,this figure was majestic1 with an expression mild1 yet so powerful that a gesture would seem sufficient to make earth and heaven tremble4 ,the artist had made this double expression his aim1 guided in his creation by the lines of ,homer where he portrays the ,god of gods nodding in assent to ,thetis1 who begs for the glorification of her son ,achilles3 8,he said1 and nodded with his shadowy brows1 ,wav'd on th' immortal head th' ambrosial locks1 ,and all ,olympos trembled at his nod40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--;,coins of ,elis4 ,one third enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--;,from the ,eastern ,gable of the ,parthenon4 ,demeter and ,persephone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,from the ,eastern ,gable of the ,parthenon4 ,aphrodite and ,peitho4 ,that ,pheidias attained his ideal was unanimously attested by his own time1 and by the later world so long as it had opportunity to see this wonderful production4 ,even divinity itself must have approved1 since1 according to the beautiful legend1 as the master1 at the perfecting of his work1 prayed for a sign of favor from heaven1 a stroke of lightning entered the temple and fell upon the floor in a spot which was marked in later times as sacred4 ,a feeling pervaded all antiquity that the ,olympian ,zeus of ,pheidias was the grandest and most divine of all works of art1 which not to have seen was a misfortune to be lamented1 and the sight of which lifted from the soul its cares and sorrows4 ,instead1 therefore1 of dwelling upon the praises given by the ancients to the details1 we should seek rather to understand the principal traits which justified this opinion1 and which were characteristic of the master4 ,the archaic constraint prevalent in works of ,ageladas and ,calamis had been overcome2 but the combination of all previous results1 and a nearly absolute correctness of form1 united to an ideal beauty quite beyond any real experience1 could not have been the chief causes of this admiration4 ,these were1 indeed1 important1 especially in view of the enormous difficulties presented by the chryselephantine process--in the working of gold-plate2 in the preparation1 shaving1 and uniting of the ivory1 so unpliant to the chisel1 and1 finally1 in securing it to the wooden form4 ,but the essential and characteristic merit lay in the bodily incarnation of a grand and truly godlike ideal1 employing the human form only as a word through which the elevated thought found expression4 ,the artist had set before himself the most exalted aim--namely1 to present to the eyes of the world the highest conception of divinity as seen in ,athene1 the goddess of the mind1 and in ,zeus1 the king of gods4 ,hence the large number of ,athenes executed by ,pheidias1 and the ,aphrodite ,urania1 the great 8heavenly0 goddess1 the feminine principle of the universe2 hence1 also1 the fewer representations of masculine or heroic forms1 or of subordinate deities1 in which this master might be excelled--as by ,polycleitos in his ,amazon--because they did not accord with his nature1 or contain within themselves that ideal greatness which he wished to unfold4 ,although the two chryselephantine colossal statues1 notwithstanding the perishable nature of their construction1 were comparatively long preserved--being in existence at the end of the fourth century ,a4,d4--still1 there are no copies which show more than their general composition4 ,the marble statuette of ,athene 7,fig4 #bjd7 has already been mentioned2 in regard to the ,olympian ,zeus1 a copy upon a coin of ,hadrian1 which shows the usual carelessness and weakness 7,fig4 #bjf71 has in later times been justly preferred to the mask of ,zeus from ,otricoli1 formerly considered a copy after ,pheidias4 ,though the classical notices frequently give the only information concerning the masterpieces of ,pheidias1 numerous original remains from his workshop still exist4 ,we cannot adduce as examples the glorious metopes and frieze of the so-called ,theseion in ,athens1 perfect as appear these representations of the deeds of ,heracles and ,theseus upon the former1 and of the battle of the ,centaurs and ,titans upon the latter2 for as it is not known when this temple was dedicated1 it cannot be shown that its ornaments were executed in the period which came under the artistic direction of ,pheidias4 ,nor can we attribute to this school the sculptures of the ,erechtheion1 which were not completed until #djh--the beautiful caryatides of the portico1 or the remnants of relief from the frieze1 preserved1 unfortunately1 only in scanty fragments4 ,these figures1 indeed1 instead of being carved from the blocks of the frieze itself1 were formed piecewise of ,pentilic marble1 and fastened upon a dark ground of ,eleusinian stone1 probably for the effect of color4 ,as little may we cite the better-preserved reliefs upon the frieze and balustrade of the small temple of ,wingless ,victory before the ,propyla1 which1 from their great likeness to the sculptures upon the mausoleum of ,halicarnassus1 seem rather to belong to the following period4 ,overbeck thinks it probable that the frieze has reference to the battle at ,plata2 and the balustrade1 according to ,kekule1 may have something to do with the return of ,alkibiades4 ,in judging the ,pheidian school1 the ,parthenon offers1 however1 abundant material in the three kinds of sculpture--round statues1 high and low relief2 although the unhappy bombardment of ,athens by the ,venetians in #afhg1 when the bursting of a bomb in the beautiful temple1 then used as a powder-magazine1 and the succeeding explosion1 destroyed more than half the work4 ,the last two centuries also have not passed without leaving their mark2 so that ,lord ,elgin's robbery may1 after all1 have proved an advantage1 the greater part of the sculptures having been protected and rendered accessible1 since the beginning of this century1 in the halls of the ,british ,museum4 ,it is particularly unfortunate that the gable groups have suffered most2 for the perfection of these chief works must have appeared of the greatest importance to the artist1 and these colossal statues would have given the best exposition of his ability4 ,before the catastrophe above mentioned1 however1 these were badly injured in consequence of the ,temple of ,athene ,parthenos having been transformed into the ,church of ,maria ,parthenos1 and later into a mosque1 the destruction appearing also to have been aided by the wilful malice of ,christian and ,moslem fanatics4 ,they were still further reduced after the explosion by the unsuccessful attempt of the ,venetians to carry off as trophy a marble chariot and horses4 ,the few notes of ,pausanias upon the subjects of the gable groups1 the drawings of a ,french artist1 ,carrey 7taken not long before the bombardment71 and the remains preserved in the ,british ,museum are sufficient to convey a conception of the general composition4 ,the eastern gable represented the birth of ,athene2 not the unfortunate1 artificial scene where the goddess springs1 ready equipped1 from the head of ,zeus1 as frequently shown in pictures upon vases and bronze mirrors1 but the moment after1 when she appears before the deities of ,olympos4 ,the entire central part of the group including the highest deities1 the chief feature of the composition1 is lost2 the rest is in greater part preserved4 ,as the scene was in ,olympos1 ,helios and ,selene1 with their quadrigas1 were fittingly chosen as the limits of the composition2 the former rising from the sea1 in the left angle of the gable1 the latter sinking in the right2 night disappearing before the dawn4 ,the adjoining statues1 though much mutilated1 have been preserved4 ,next to ,helios was ,dionysos1 resting upon his tiger's skin2 with two sitting female figures1 ,demeter and ,persephone 7,fig4 #bjg71 to whom hastens ,iris1 announcing the birth of ,athene4 ,upon the other side1 next to ,selene1 lay ,aphrodite in the lap of ,peitho 7,fig4 #bjh72 and then ,hestia1 to whom ,hermes1 as the other messenger1 brings the glad tidings3 these latter sculptures were almost entirely destroyed in the time of ,carrey4 ,nike--,victory--remaining only as a torso1 appears to have followed with ,ares1 advancing towards the middle of the gable bringing greetings to the newly born goddess4 ,all the rest was destroyed before #afhj ,a4,d41 and the principal figures of the composition are consequently unknown2 but it is probable that between the ,victory and ,athene stood ,hephaistos1 recoiling after having delivered the blow upon the head of ,zeus4 ,athene stood beside her father1 but it is not certain whether the latter was exactly in the centre of the gable1 or whether the two figures were equally removed from it4 ,if this last were the case1 which is perhaps probable1 the division of the space would require still another deity upon the right side4 ,the remaining gods of ,olympos1 ,poseidon1 ,artemis1 and ,apollo1 were probably arranged in this order between ,zeus and ,iris4 ,the group of the western gable represented the contest of ,athene and ,poseidon for the ,attic land4 ,the composition is reasonably certain1 though the middle figures have here also disappeared4 ,the two chief deities1 standing at either side of the olive-tree in the centre1 turn towards their chariots1 that of ,athene being driven by ,victory1 that of ,poseidon by ,amphitrite2 horses were harnessed to both1 that of ,poseidon not having been drawn by dolphins or hippocamps1 as formerly supposed4 ,the consciousness of victory was expressed by the bearing of ,athene and of her steeds1 while the bowed head of ,poseidon acknowledged his defeat3 the exclusion of the salt waves of the sea from the blooming meadows and groves watered by the ,kephissos4 ,the angles of the gable beyond the chariots were occupied by the retinue of the contestants1 and by local deities2 the accurate determination of these is impossible1 though upon the side of ,athene may have been grouped the representatives of the ,athenian continent1 and upon that of ,poseidon those of the sea and the islands2 while the figure of ,kephissos is supposed to have filled the extreme corner at the left1 and ,ilissos with ,callirrhoe that of the right4 ,the scene was laid in ,attica2 and1 as the earthly locality was to be clearly characterized and populated1 it was advisable not to introduce again all the ,olympian deities of the eastern gable4 ,it is probable that during antiquity the landscape seen from this chief front of the ,acropolis was famous for many local myths no longer familiar to the scholar1 in ignorance of which an adequate explanation is impossible4 ,the compositions alone give evidence of the grandeur and elevation of the master who produced and arranged them1 in a truthfulness to nature at once ornamental and unconstrained4 ,the remains1 with great simplicity and breadth of detail1 show a force and majesty which raise them above all known works of sculpture4 ,in their loving and perfect modelling of the nude and of the drapery1 in their freedom from affectation of motive or of rendering1 and in their utter lack of any striving after meretricious effects1 they appear rather the creations of magic than the labored carvings of men4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,fragment from the ,frieze of the ,parthenon ,cella4 ,the glorious and celebrated frieze1 or1 to speak more correctly1 zophoros1 surrounded the entire cella4 ,it is preserved in nearly four fifths of its entire length1 the chief part of the remains being in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is evident that but little1 if any1 of this extensive decorative work could have been executed by the hand of ,pheidias himself2 but the grand design may be assumed to have been his1 and the carving was certainly done under his supervision4 ,the scene represented is the festive ,pan-,athenaic processions1 an imposing consecration of elaborate gifts to the guardian deity1 and probably also a division of prizes to the victors in the various hippic1 gymnastic1 and musical games4 ,the movement of the train commences upon the southwestern corner of the cella1 and advances thence to the east1 the entrance side of the temple4 ,it is thus naturally divided into two parts1 one of which occupies the western and northern1 the other the southern side of the cella2 these are united above the pronaos1 where the double procession is shown as having arrived at the temenos before the temple2 a priest and priestess1 with the persons directly employed in the sacrifice1 are preparing themselves for the sacred act--the former by laying aside his upper garment1 which he gives to the youth standing beside him1 the latter by taking a folding-seat from a female servant4 7,fig4 #bji47 ,between this central group and the remainder of the divided procession several deities1 turned from the former figures1 are watching the approach of the train4 ,at the left sits ,zeus1 enthroned1 beside the veiled ,hera2 these are followed by the ,winged ,victory1 ,ares clasping his right knee with both hands1 ,demeter with the torch1 and ,dionysos1 who rests his right arm carelessly upon the shoulder of ,hermes4 ,upon the right1 next to the high priest1 was naturally the place of ,athene1 and upon her left hand are still traces of the fallen gis2 beside her was ,hephaistos1 leaning upon his knotted stick2 then1 looking towards him1 ,apollo1 and further ,peitho1 ,aphrodite1 and ,eros1 the latter carrying a shade for the sun4 ,the gods sit comfortably as spectators who feel themselves to be invisible4 ,the first figures of the train1 the leaders1 have already attained their destination1 and stand quietly conversing1 supported upon their wands4 ,in the succeeding women and virgins1 who bear vases1 cups1 cooling-vessels1 braziers for incense1 and baskets--a wonderful train of perfectly beautiful forms--the advance decreases in movement as they approach the centre4 ,upon the two long sides follow herds of animals for sacrifice2 the cows1 proceeding quietly1 scarcely need guidance1 while the bulls are more or less restless1 reminding one1 in their forcible and momentary action1 of the life-like works of ,myron4 ,after them follows the music of the procession--players upon the flute and lyre and the festive chorus2 then begins the long line of chariots and of horses with their riders1 which fill the greater part of the zophoros upon the longer sides and all of that over the epinaos4 ,the beauty and truth in the action of these figures are unsurpassed2 the most manifold variation of position is combined with perfect adaptation to the peculiar style of low-relief1 and the wisest reference to the fitting of the composition within the space defined by the architectural lines4 ,while upon the eastern front the procession had arrived at its destination1 on the western the scene was still at the place of assemblage and marshalling4 ,here the horses are bridled and arranged in ranks2 but the groups of men and youths stand in disorder1 some hastily arming themselves1 others binding their sandals or adjusting their mantles4 ,every action and gesture is simple and full of meaning2 they never mar the unity of the whole nor interfere with the neighboring figures4 ,the nude forms and the drapery are most carefully and equally executed throughout2 the accessories are forcibly1 though less elaborately1 indicated4 ,when the ceremonial reliefs of ,assyria or ,persia are compared with the frieze of the ,parthenon1 it becomes strikingly evident that the magnificence of personal accoutrements and inanimate objects which was so painfully and minutely detailed by the ,asiatic sculptor1 and elevated even above his schematic representations of deities and human beings1 was as nothing to the ,greek artist in comparison with the intellectual and physical beauty to which the great ,hellenic race gave their chief interest4 ,the third group of ,parthenon sculptures1 the ornaments of the metopes1 must least have harmonized with the nature of ,pheidias4 ,the architectural framework must have become a hindrance and a fetter1 and the problem how to fill ninety-two square tablets of exactly the same size with similar representations must indeed have appeared a thankless task4 ,these reliefs are in greater part lost1 or so mutilated as to be unintelligible2 but as far as can be judged by the scanty remains1 the subject of the metopes upon the eastern side was the gigantomachia1 that of both long sides principally the ,centauromachia1 while that of the western side was either the battle of the ,amazons or of the ,persians4 ,in contrast to the low-relief of the frieze1 these1 originally colored1 were--on account of the conditions of light--worked in such high-relief as even1 in some parts1 to be freed from the ground4 ,the variation of subjects bearing so strong a resemblance is wonderful1 especially in the struggling ,centaurs and ,greeks1 where but little scope in the victory of one or the other combatant was possible3 these are interrupted by the rape of virgins and other scenes not surely to be determined4 ,naturally1 this desperate task would not have been completed without some few artistic inequalities1 repetitions1 and far-fetched modifications1 especially as much of the execution must necessarily have been submitted to inferior sculptors2 but some of the metope reliefs appear1 in point of composition within the given space1 and in grand1 characteristic drawing1 scarcely less admirable than the frieze of the cella4 ,from all these works the spirit of the school of ,pheidias is manifest in its imposing majesty and ideal simplicity2 at times1 also1 traces of the forcible action of ,myron may be observed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,from the ,eastern ,gable of the ,great ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia4 ,these extensive productions of the school and workshop of ,pheidias cannot be directly attributed to any of the known scholars and assistants of the master1 many of whom attained individual celebrity4 ,in the first rank of these should be mentioned ,agoracritos of ,paros1 the favorite pupil of ,pheidias1 whose works were so perfect that the ancients were frequently in doubt to which of these sculptors they should be ascribed2 it is possible1 however1 that this doubt may have arisen from the predominant impression left upon some of the statues by the guidance and assistance of the master4 ,the chief creations of ,agoracritos were two ,athenes1 a ,zeus1 and notably the colossal figure of ,nemesis at ,rhamnous1 supposed to have developed from the unsuccessful ,aphrodite prepared for the competition with ,alcamenes4 ,another scholar and assistant of ,pheidias was ,colotes of ,paros1 a sculptor who appears to have restricted himself to the chryselephantine process1 and who is especially noted for the part taken by him in the execution of the great ,olympian ,zeus4 ,other works in gold and ivory by ,colotes were the ,athene upon the ,acropolis of ,elis1 an ,asclepios erected in the vicinity1 and the sacred table in the great ,temple of ,zeus1 for the division of prizes after the ,olympic games1 the sides of which were ornamented with reliefs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--;,from the ,western ,gable of the ,great ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,head of ,apollo1 from the ,western ,gable of the ,great ,temple of ,zeus1 ,olympia4 ,alcamenes of ,athens1 or ,lemnos1 and ,paionios of ,mende have hitherto been considered as chief among the scholars of ,pheidias2 but the recent excavations at ,olympia have done much to refute this opinion1 unless1 as is very possible1 ,pausanias makes a mistake 7v4 #aj7 in assigning to ,alcamenes the sculptures in the front gable of the ,temple of ,zeus1 instead of the acroteria above them1 which alone is mentioned in an inscription as his work4 ,no one can detect in the discovered fragments of these gable sculptures1 more numerous than those of the ,parthenon1 the slightest dependence upon the art of ,pheidias1 which they appear to precede in point of development4 ,the group of the eastern front1 ascribed by ,pausanias to ,paionios1 represented the instant before the chariot race of ,oinomaos and ,pelops 7,fig4 #baj72 that of the western the struggle of the ,lapith and ,centaurs at the wedding of ,peirithoos4 7,figs4 #baa and #bab47 ,the character of these works seems rather to connect them with the school of ,calamis than with that of ,pheidias1 this being especially the case with the metopes4 7,fig4 #bac47 ,the question will hardly be decided until authenticated sculptures by ,calamis1 or remains of the gable groups of the temple at ,delphi1 which were the production of his scholars ,praxias and ,androsthenes of ,athens1 have become known to science4 ,in the meantime1 it is impossible to disprove the hypothesis of ,brunn1 who sees in those of ,olympia examples of an art peculiar to ,northern ,greece1 remarkable for its picturesque realism and lack of artistic and ideal conventionalization4 ,it is only certain that these groups are far inferior to those of the ,parthenon1 and1 indeed1 to those produced by any workshop of ,athens after the time of ,pheidias4 ,even if the questionable account of ,pausanias prove to be true1 it is certain that a judgment of the artistic style of ,alcamenes and ,paionios cannot be formed upon these decorative sculptures alone4 ,works of the stage of development shown by the western gable of ,olympia could not have ranked with the bronze ,pentathlos of the former artist1 which was known in antiquity by the predicate 8exemplary20 nor could an ,aphrodite of ,alcamenes have been preferred to a statue by ,agoracritos1 which had been retouched by ,pheidias himself4 ,the extensive employment of ,alcamenes in ,athens among the greatest successors of ,pheidias and ,myron would have been impossible had not his works been far higher in every respect than those attributed to him among the recent discoveries in ,olympia1 in view of which it is inconceivable how ,pausanias could speak of ,alcamenes and ,pheidias almost as equals4 ,the same argument applies to ,paionios1 of whose works a fortunate illustration has been provided by one of the most important discoveries made in the ,altis1 the ,victory 7,fig4 #bad71 authenticated by an inscription upon the high triangular pedestal4 ,this figure does indeed recall the spirit and methods of the ,pheidian sculpture1 and differs greatly from the remains of the eastern gable1 as may readily be seen by comparison of ,figs4 #baj and #bad4 ,this contrast is only to be explained by a gigantic and almost inconceivable progress1 or by the assumption that they were the works of different artists and periods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--,metope from the ,cella of the ,great ,temple of ,olympia4 ,atlas1 ,heracles1 and the ,nymph of the ,hesperides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,victory of ,paionios1 from ,olympia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--;,from the ,frieze of the ,temple of ,phigalia4 ,if the ,attic artists of this age be likened to planets revolving about the ,pheidian sun1 there were not wanting stars of the second magnitude1 belonging to other systems and moving in other circles4 ,especially prominent among these latter was the direct and indirect school of ,myron1 an artist so pronounced in his wonderful naturalism that his style could not be extinguished even by the dominating idealism of ,pheidias4 ,lykios1 son of ,myron1 appears1 from two celebrated works1 to have followed closely in the footsteps of his father4 ,these were the statues upon the ,acropolis of ,athens representing two boys1 one of whom bore a basin for holy-water1 while the other blew the coals in a censer into a lively glow4 ,the latter reminds one of ,myron's ,breathing ,ladas2 in this1 as in the ,runner1 the quickened breath was the essential thing1 and was not confined alone to the swollen cheeks1 but must have been evident in the breast and body4 ,the figure bearing the font was a zealous choir-boy1 panting under a too heavy burden2 and this also recalls the ,ladas4 ,still another statue1 the ,pancratiast ,autolicos1 claimed by ,urlich for ,lykios1 seems to have resembled the ,discos-thrower of ,myron4 ,that ,lykios did not confine himself to such genre-like specialties is shown by groups like the ,argonauts1 and by the votive offering of the citizens of ,apollonia at ,olympia1 a truly grand composition representing ,zeus deciding the result of the strife between ,memnon and ,achilles1 according to the thiopis of ,arctinos4 ,in connection with ,lykios may be mentioned ,styppax of ,cyprus1 whose masterpiece1 the ,splanchnoptes--the entrail-roaster1 a man fanning a fire--recalls in turn the choir-boy blowing the coals4 ,similar to the ,dying ,ladas1 though less directly connected than these last examples1 was the mortally wounded warrior of ,cresilas1 in which1 according to classical accounts1 the last moments of life could be measured2 his wounded ,amazon also appears to have been more in the style of ,myron and ,pythagoras than of ,pheidias4 ,no works by the immediate followers of ,myron now remain1 nor any attested copy2 still there can be little hesitation in ascribing to this school an important achievement1 not perhaps belonging to it so fully as do the architectural sculptures of the ,parthenon to the workshop of ,pheidias1 yet having more in common with the school of ,myron than with that of any previous master4 ,this is the frieze of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,phigalia--now in the ,british ,museum--the architectural position of which has already been defined4 ,the temple is said to have been built under the direction of an ,athenian architect2 it is probable1 therefore1 that ,attic sculptors were employed for its ornamentation1 especially as the sculptures betray no trace of the ,argive influence which prevailed elsewhere in the ,peloponnesos1 and which will be further treated below4 ,though the subjects were ,attic1 as battles of ,amazons and ,centaurs1 they cannot be likened to the school of ,pheidias1 for1 instead of the passionless grandeur and ideal simplicity which characterized the sculptures of the ,parthenon1 there is in them a vehemence and excitement known at this period only in the works influenced by ,myron4 ,it is not strange that this excessively passionate action should sometimes be wanting in beauty2 the power of execution at command in the remote city among the ,arcadian mountains was not of the first rank1 and the guidance of a master1 like him who directed the sculptural work of the ,parthenon1 was wanting4 ,two artists of this period were entirely independent1 proceeding in degenerate directions2 first1 ,callimachos1 noted as an artisan in metal-work1 who executed the rich and elegant lamp of the ,erechtheion1 and was said to have originated the ,corinthian capital2 but who1 as a sculptor1 carried a refined delicacy and formal perfection even to an extreme4 ,this won for him the cognomen of ,catatexitechnos--the unreasonably careful4 ,callimachos did not1 like ,apelles1 know when to withdraw his hand from his work1 which agrees with ,pliny's judgment concerning him1 that1 by over-exactness in execution1 all grace was lost4 ,a still more questionable tendency is shown by ,demetrios of ,alopeke1 in ,attica1 the first realist4 ,pre-eminently a sculptor of portraits1 he affected striking characteristics at the expense of beauty1 and made it his specialty to represent the likenesses of decrepit men and women4 ,a priestess sixty-four years old1 and an aged ,corinthian field-officer1 ,pelichos--8a bald-head with a pot-belly1 tangled and flying beard1 and veins projecting roundly under the withered skin10 according to the description of ,lucian--must have been so far from ideal and refreshing beauty that it would seem rather to have been the aim of the artist to illustrate age as its destroyer4 ,thus1 in comparison with ,pheidias and ,myron1 ,demetrios resembled ,thersites among the heroes of ,troy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,copy of the ,doryphoros in the ,museum of ,naples4 ,argos deserves the second place as the site of the artistic industry of this period1 which had then been greatly advanced by ,polycleitos of ,sikyon1 a fourth scholar of ,ageladas1 and somewhat younger contemporary of ,pheidias1 but in a direction different from that of the ,attic school4 ,myron had characterized intense and momentary animal life1 ,pheidias that of absolutely ideal and divine being4 ,polycleitos chose as his aim the artistic representation of the highest human beauty--a positive type of bodily perfection4 ,the ,doryphoros1 known in antiquity as the masterpiece of the latter1 and celebrated as a canon1 was a youth in a quiet position1 bearing a lance2 it was considered the embodiment of perfect form1 the master himself having written a treatise upon the proportions of the human figure in illustration of this statue4 ,it is not improbable that ,polycleitos1 in this work1 desired to set a pattern before his numerous scholars2 that he was himself too dependent upon this academical tendency may be judged from the slightly disparaging words of ,pliny that 8his works were almost as if taken from one model40 ,according to the intention of the artist and to the general conviction of his time1 the ,doryphoros represented absolute perfection of the human body2 and this left the master but little scope for the varying of his model1 if he would not prove untrue to that beauty which ,cicero has praised so highly in all his works4 ,the so-called ,apoxyomenos--an athlete scraping himself with a strigil--similar in subject to the statue of ,lysippos 7,fig4 #bbi71 was also a figure placed in the quiet attitude of parade1 if not1 like the ,doryphoros1 with an academic purpose4 ,a third work1 the so-called ,diadoumenos1 a boy binding his head with a fillet--sometimes considered as a companion piece to the ,doryphoros--appears to have shown a more youthful and less athletic development of form4 ,it is not strange that archaeologists have taken great pains to identify1 among the numberless works of ,roman sculptors1 imitations of these two canonical figures1 the existence of which was naturally assumed from the great celebrity of the ,greek originals4 ,the scholars ,friederichs1 ,schwabe1 ,michaelis1 ,helbig1 ,kekule1 and ,benndorf have accordingly discovered six repetitions of the ,doryphoros1 preserved in ,cassel1 ,naples1 ,florence1 the ,vatican1 and the ,villa ,medici2 while several other statues in ,dresden1 the ,louvre1 the ,vatican1 and the ,villa ,albani have been recognized as variations differing more or less from this type 7,fig4 #baf74 ,in like manner1 copies of the ,diadoumenos have been found in ,madrid1 in two marbles of the ,british ,museum1 in a bronze statuette of the ,national ,library of ,paris1 and in a relief of the ,vatican3 all of which are allied in point of conception and artistic character4 ,still it is inexplicable how these thick-set and muscular forms could be spoken of by ,pliny as viriliter puer and as molliter juvenis1 or by ,lucian as graceful dancers2 though it is possible that1 in these academical studies1 the canonical perfection of form decided by ,polycleitos was not so well embodied as in the bronze ,idolino of the ,florentine ,museum4 ,the question is far from settled1 and it should not be forgotten that eminent authorities doubt this origin1 ,conze imputing them rather to the school of ,cresilas1 while ,petersen even maintains the type to have been a ,roman invention4 ,an ,amazon in a quiet pose gave ,polycleitos an opportunity for portraying a female form of muscular development1 yet of typical beauty4 ,it is not difficult to believe that this statue was adjudged even superior to the similar productions of ,pheidias1 ,cresilas1 and ,phradmon1 which could hardly have been the case if the subject treated had been a deity or a figure of momentary action4 7,fig4 #bag47 ,the artist could even better follow his academic aim in the two ,canephor--basket-bearers--whose quiet pose and want of inner expression were so well suited to display an outward1 formal beauty and correctness of modelling4 ,but the ,astragalizontes--the boy throwing dice of knuckle-bones--which1 according to ,pliny1 was the most perfect work of art in ,greece1 should not be imagined in an excited1 striking situation1 or as a street scene conceived with a truthfulness to nature characteristic of ,murillo1 but as representing the consummation of boyish beauty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4--;,amazon1 after ,polycleitos4 ,when ,quintilian says that ,polycleitos elevated the human figure above what is seen in nature1 and yet1 contrary to ,pheidias in his statues of the deities1 had not attained to the majesty of the gods1 this signifies that he had not so fully represented the divine nature4 ,his devotional images are few and without especial fame1 with exception of the colossal chryselephantine ,hera in the temple between ,argos and ,myken4 ,the goddess1 seated upon a throne1 was draped in garments of gold1 with only the head and arms bare2 the sceptre in her right hand was crowned with the cuckoo1 symbol of conjugal fidelity1 and in her left was a pomegranate2 at her side stood ,hebe1 the work of ,naukydes1 the master's best assistant4 ,as the ,pheidian head of ,zeus has been recognized in the mask of ,otricoli1 so the splendid colossal mask of the ,ludovisi ,juno 7,fig4 #bai7 has been referred to an original by ,polycleitos4 ,but it is probable that the head of ,hera1 in the museum at ,naples 7,fig4 #bah7 came nearer to this original 7,brunn74 ,though it be asserted that all the heads of ,zeus may be referred to the complete and established type of ,pheidias1 the ideal of ,polycleitos1 by no means divine1 renders it doubtful whether his ,hera acquired a similar position among the succeeding representations of that goddess4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,head of ,hera1 in ,naples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,so-called ,juno ,ludovisi1 in ,rome4 ,the effort after perfection of form sufficed to make the master of ,argos a pre-eminent teacher2 yet none of his many direct scholars1 with the exception perhaps of the before-mentioned ,naukydes1 acquired such fame as the associates of ,pheidias1 perhaps on account of this very schooling and discipline1 the rigid constraint of a canon fettering the wings of artistic individuality4 ,we are not able to judge how far this tendency was furthered during the short period of ,theban ascendency by the somewhat later branch of the ,theban school1 although1 among many others1 the ,theban artists ,hypatodoros and ,aristogeiton were of considerable importance4 ,the groups consecrated at ,delphi about #chj ,b4,c4 were of particular interest2 they represented the advance of the ,seven against ,thebes1 and the successful repetition of the invasion by the sons of those warriors4 ,it was not until ,lysippos1 an indirect scholar of ,polycleitos1 in his desire to represent men as they should be1 had raised himself entirely above the canon of his master1 who aimed to show them as they are1 that another artist of the first rank appeared4 ,examples from the workshop of ,polycleitos still exist1 though unfortunately scarcely recognizable in the mutilated fragments of sculpture from the ,temple of ,hera1 discovered by ,rangabe and ,bursian in #ahed--works which were doubtless executed under the direct guidance of the ,argive master1 as those of the ,parthenon were under that of ,pheidias4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,metope of the ,southern ,temple upon the ,eastern ,plateau of ,selinous4 ,the influence of ,attica and ,argos not only prevailed in ,greece proper1 but made itself felt even in the most remote colonies4 ,the ,zeus upon one of the metopes of the southern temple on the eastern plateau of ,selinous 7,fig4 #bbj7 may have been developed from the figures of ,zeus by ,ageladas1 and suggests the sculptures of the ,olympian temple which was completed about the same time4 ,this metope represents ,zeus fascinated by ,hera upon ,mount ,ida 7,il4 xiv4 #cjj71 and the artist1 in his figure of the god1 has surpassed his former efforts1 but the ,hera is harder and more antique4 ,the other well-preserved metopes of this temple--one of which shows a ,heracles in strife with ,amazons1 and the other ,actaion lacerated by dogs--though not without provincial weakness1 have an unmistakable affinity to those of the ,theseion4 ,these were nearly contemporaneous1 but an entire generation later there appeared at ,messene1 in the most remote part of the ,peloponnesos1 the sculptor ,damophon1 an artist decidedly of the ,pheidian style1 on account of which he was called to restore the ,olympian statue1 already warped and disjointed4 ,although a sculptor of ability1 it would seem that he did not entirely withstand the current of a new direction in art2 besides the statues in the ,pheidian circle of divinities1 others were ascribed to him1 of a nature similar to those cultivated by preference during the succeeding period of ,attic sculpture4 ,the progressive force inherent in the people and in the art of ,greece did not rest until the highest point had everywhere been reached4 ,this impulse afterwards led to excess and decadence1 permitting no lasting enjoyment of the previous gains4 ,the art of ,polycleitos prevailed somewhat longer in the ,peloponnesos1 the ,dorians being by nature conservative1 but in ,attica the new elements early obtained a sway which could not but essentially change the character of all ,hellenic sculpture4 ,the frieze upon the ,temple of the ,wingless ,victory in ,athens1 and the somewhat coarser one within the naos of ,phigalea1 began already to give evidence of an inclination towards the pathetic and passionate2 the sculptures also upon the balustrade of the ,athenian temple1 executed probably about #cij to #chj ,b4,c41 appear to be the unmistakable forerunners of a new style4 ,the ,athenian ,kephisodotos the elder stood1 so to speak1 upon the threshold of this transformation4 ,his position in the history of art is assured by the fortunate discovery of a copy of his ,eirene with ,ploutos1 now in the ,glyptothek at ,munich 7,fig4 #bba74 ,this work combined the tendencies of the new ,attic style with those of ,pheidias4 ,though the noble simplicity and grandeur1 the earnestness and strictness1 of the earlier period still remained1 there had already dawned an expression of deeper feeling1 and of a more spiritual life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4--;,eirene and ,ploutos1 after ,kephisodotos4 ,the representation1 as ,friederichs says1 of the deep interchange of affection between mother and child1 as shown in the ,eirene of ,kephisodotos1 united with much of the hardness of the older works1 culminated in two masters--the ,parian ,scopas and the ,athenian ,praxiteles1 the latter possibly the son of ,kephisodotos4 ,their productions were so nearly related that1 even in antiquity1 it was doubtful whether a work of celebrity should be ascribed to one or to the other4 ,the chief creations of both were statues of the deities1 both worked in marble1 choosing this material not by chance1 but from the nature of their subjects4 ,with the exception of such colossal figures1 of a highly monumental character1 as the chryselephantine statues of ,zeus and ,athene ,parthenos by ,pheidias1 and the ,hera by ,polycleitos1 the delicate beauty of soft and transparent stone was best fitted for the images of deities enshrined within the temple2 bronze1 on the contrary1 is peculiarly suited to statues of victors and athletes intended for outdoor exposure4 ,it was on this account that it had been so largely employed by ,myron and ,polycleitos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,apollo ,kitharoidos4 7,vatican47 ,the ,raging ,bacchante1 designated by epigrams and descriptions as the most celebrated work of ,scopas1 was one of the first masterpieces of antiquity4 ,the head was thrown back in an ecstasy of passion1 the hair loosened1 and the long garment fluttering in the wind2 thus did the ,mainad appear rushing to the heights of ,kithairon1 holding in her hands the kid rent in her fury4 ,if the rhetor ,kallistratos was1 as he says1 speechless at sight of the countenance1 admiring particularly the expression of a soul stung into madness1 we can well believe that passion itself was embodied in this work4 ,the excitement was more moderate in the ,apollo of the ,temple of ,nemesis at ,rhamnous1 brought by ,augustus to the ,palatine1 playing the lyre and singing with lyric inspiration4 ,it is not improbable that the motive of the ,apollo in the ,vatican1 with the long flowing garments 7,fig4 #bbb71 may be referred to this original4 ,the entire bearing more closely resembles that of the figures of the children of ,niobe4 ,we can hardly think without enthusiasm of the ,bithynian ,achilles group1 placed in later times in the ,temple of ,neptune1 near the ,circus ,flaminius in ,rome1 which1 according to ,pliny1 would have made the master celebrated even though he had created nothing else during his lifetime4 ,it represented ,achilles upon the island of ,leuke after his death1 and his reception among the deities1 and displayed1 besides ,thetis and ,poseidon1 numerous fantastic creatures of the sea4 ,some idea of these last may be gained from a magnificent frieze found in the vicinity of the ,temple of ,neptune1 and now in the ,glyptothek at ,munich4 ,but it cannot belong to this group1 and1 in its main features1 has no close relations with it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,central ,figure of the ,niobids4 7,florence47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,head of ,niobe4 ,delicate beauty and warmth of feeling must be ascribed to the works of ,scopas1 otherwise ,pliny could not have placed the ,aphrodite found in the ,temple of ,mars1 near the ,circus ,flaminius1 above that of ,praxiteles4 ,nor can we imagine the groups at ,megara--,eros1 ,himeros1 and ,pothos 7,love1 ,yearning1 and ,desire7--described by ,pausanias2 or ,aphrodite1 with her priestly lover ,phaethon2 or ,pothos1 in ,samothrace1 to have been without these traits4 ,the group of ,leto with the nurse ,ortygia carrying the children1 ,apollo and ,artemis1 as the personification of a mother's joy and pride1 must have been full of deep meaning4 ,it is evident1 from the long list of his works1 that his power was many-sided3 his peculiar style is best exemplified in a grand composition1 the group of the ,niobids1 though ,pliny is in doubt whether it should be ascribed to ,scopas or to ,praxiteles4 ,the original of this no longer exists1 and even the very unequally executed pieces--to be found chiefly in the ,uffizi at ,florence1 and in various repetitions in different museums--are not complete2 still even thus they betray the greatness and individuality of this wonderful work4 ,niobe1 wife of ,king ,amphion of ,thebes1 and mother of fourteen children1 in a boastful spirit1 inherited from her father ,tantalos1 compared herself with ,leto1 who had only two1 and ordered sacrifices to be made to herself rather than to that goddess4 ,for this she was terribly chastised by ,apollo and ,artemis1 her children being all slain before her eyes by the avenging arrows of the two deities4 ,she herself1 trying in vain to protect her youngest daughter1 pressing against her1 makes an attempt to draw her mantle over her head to hide the expression of despairing woe which1 according to the legend1 in a few moments turned her to stone4 ,the figure1 in its royal nobility and motherly despair1 yet so free from contortion1 has wonderful effect4 7,figs4 #bbc and #bbd47 ,the children1 already wounded and hurrying towards her1 show pain1 fear1 and need of help in different degrees1 but with that dignity and fine control which render it a tragedy in the highest sense4 ,the various struggles of feeling in the beautiful young faces2 the excited wrestling with an invisible1 unconquerable1 relentless power1 in every gesture1 and in every motion of the swaying garments2 the plaintive character of the lines throughout the whole composition1 entirely opposed to the vertical tendency of the statuesque1 and especially of the architectural art2 the wavy flow which distinguishes it from the group at gina1 and even from the quiet action of the figures in the gables of the ,parthenon--are all so peculiar to this pathetic school1 and so characteristic of its productions1 that the ,niobe will ever be considered the greatest example of its style4 ,in a study of the artistic character of ,scopas1 we must content ourselves1 for the most part1 with a few copies1 and some not very full accounts4 ,still1 original remains from his hand are not altogether wanting4 ,we have seen that he was engaged in the sculptural ornamentation upon the eastern side of the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos2 while upon the south and north sides his younger associates were employed--,timotheos1 ,bryaxis1 and ,leochares1 the latter known to us by a copy in the ,vatican of his ,ganymede ,carried ,away by the ,eagle of ,zeus4 ,but the greater part of the recognizable reliefs upon the frieze1 the most important group of which represents the so often recurring battle of the ,amazons1 notwithstanding the wonderful beauty and pathos of the action1 peculiar to the sculptured art of this period1 is the work of artisans1 and certainly not by the hand of a master of the first rank4 7,fig4 #bbe47 ,among the numerous fragments of the statues found in the ,english excavations of #ahef1 which1 from analogy with the mausoleums of the ,roman emperors1 may have stood between the columns1 one at least1 a well-preserved torso1 probably of ,zeus1 found upon the eastern side1 has been ascribed to ,scopas4 ,the others are1 unfortunately1 too much mutilated to allow of any reliable judgment1 as the varying views of different authorities testify4 ,at all events1 these decorative works cannot be ranked with the more celebrated examples of this master4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,fragment of the ,frieze from the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos4 ,an acquaintance with the art of ,scopas is extended by the study of his younger and still more important contemporary ,praxiteles4 ,the masterpieces of this artist are similar in character1 and betray all the preference of the former for the ideal beauty of youth4 ,not less than five statues of ,aphrodite by ,praxiteles are known to have existed1 among which the famous statue at ,cnidos was regarded as one of the wonders of the world1 and was ranked with the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,it was so highly prized among lovers of art that ,king ,nicomedes of ,bithynia1 for instance1 in vain offered to the people of ,cnidos the entire amount of their ,state debt in exchange for it4 ,the brow1 the moist glowing eyes1 and soft smile of the slightly parted lips are described as wonderful2 the whole figure being so executed as to cause the marble to be forgotten and the goddess of love to appear a reality4 ,coins of ,cnidos show the figure to have been entirely nude1 the left hand holding her drapery1 partly lying upon a vase1 and the right shielding herself in modesty4 ,the best in this style among the numerous remaining statues were the ,braschi ,aphrodite1 now in the ,glyptothek at ,munich1 and that of the ,vatican1 which is1 however1 inferior in execution1 and is1 unfortunately1 disfigured in the lower part by hard1 modern drapery4 ,next to that of ,cnidos in nobility and beauty must have been a draped ,aphrodite from ,cos1 provided the people of that place had any understanding of art2 for1 when the choice between the two was offered them by the artist1 they gave the preference to this4 ,of the three others1 less known1 the ,thespian was placed next to the statue of ,phryne1 as contrasting divine with human beauty4 ,to ,praxiteles were ascribed1 also1 at least two representations of ,eros--blooming1 youthful figures1 of which the most celebrated seems to have been the ,thespian or ,botian one1 which was installed between the ,phryne and the ,aphrodite4 ,epigrams and accounts describing the god as wounding not with the arrow1 but the eye1 appear to relate to this figure2 for the second statue from ,parion1 in ,mysia1 according to the coins1 showed the god unarmed1 and with head uplifted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--;,head of ,eros4 7,vatican47 ,a tender and almost effeminate character was exhibited in these beautiful figures of youth1 similar to which were the ,sauroctonos--the lizard-killer--the best copy of which is in the ,louvre2 the dreamily reposing ,satyr1 of which there are copies in various museums2 and the smiling1 sentimental ,dionysos with the doeskin1 leaning upon the thyrsos4 ,great depth of suffering and sorrow is the fundamental feature of two groups1 one representing the rape of ,proserpine1 the other her delivery by ,demeter to the lower world1 to which she returned after every harvest1 as a symbol of the following fruitless season4 ,this last was as pathetic an illustration of a sorely tested mother as could be found in any other work of ,praxiteles4 ,the mild ,demeter was not less frequently presented by this master than was ,aphrodite4 ,that greatest of all modern discoveries1 the ,hermes with the infant ,dionysos1 found in the ,heraion at ,olympia 7,figs4 #bbg and #bbh71 has proved the error of imputing to all the works of ,praxiteles a delicate gracefulness verging upon weakness1 which had arisen from the study of the only examples hitherto known--the copies of the ,sauroctonos1 the ,satyr1 and the ,aphrodite4 ,the manly force of this statue1 in character midway between the conceptions of ,pheidias and ,lysippos1 is1 indeed1 so surprising that some scholars have even been inclined to assume a second sculptor by the name of ,praxiteles1 there being no reason to doubt the direct testimony of ,pausanias as to the authorship of this work4 ,the beauty of this torso exceeds that of all other antique statues known2 the expression of the head conveys that intense sympathy between the loving protector and the child which must have characterized the work of ,kephisodotos referred to above4 ,it is possible that the ,hermes was the product of an earlier period of the sculptor's development1 more closely related to the tendency and ideals of ,pheidian art4 ,when it is considered that this torso is the only surely authenticated original production of any great master of ,greek sculpture--for it is by no means certain that the gable groups of the ,parthenon are by the hand of ,pheidias himself--there is no need for further discussion of the fundamental importance of this most fortunate discovery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--;,hermes with the ,infant ,dionysos4 7,from the ,heraion at ,olympia47 ,notwithstanding the astonishing many-sided genius and productivity of ,praxiteles1 nearly all the ,olympian deities appearing in the half hundred of his works1 it must still be acknowledged that1 besides his pathetic tendency1 he particularly affected that province in which the figures of maidens or youths gave opportunity for the development of the greatest charms4 ,his works portray a sensual loveliness distinguished alike from that hard and abstract beauty1 that outward perfection of form sought and attained by ,polycleitos1 and from that elevated1 godlike being ideally embodied by ,pheidias in his ,zeus and his ,athene4 ,neither entirely human1 as with ,polycleitos1 nor divine1 as with ,pheidias1 this emotional loveliness seemed created for the world of gods1 but little raised above the sight and experience of men2 and this type appears to have been as well established by ,praxiteles as that of the higher deities by ,pheidias4 ,its examples are the ,aphrodite and ,eros1 the youthful ,dionysos with his train1 the ,demeter1 and the ,eleusinian circle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--;,head of the ,hermes of ,praxiteles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,venus of ,melos4 7,louvre47 ,however important the school of these two masters of pathos may have been1 but few among the numerous names that have been preserved became prominent4 ,the chief exceptions are the above-mentioned assistants of ,scopas upon the mausoleum1 and the two sons of ,praxiteles1 ,kephisodotos the younger1 and ,timarchos4 ,two of the greatest works of statuary1 however1 may be ascribed to their most vigorous scholars--the ,venus of ,melos in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #bbi7 and the so-called ,ilioneus in the ,glyptothek at ,munich4 ,if the doubtful inscription of the artist upon the former be credited1 which1 in characters of the first century ,b4,c41 designated it as the production of ,alexandros1 son of ,menides of ,antioch upon the ,meander1 but which1 together with the corresponding part of the plinth1 has disappeared1 we should possess in this work an inexplicable anachronism1 a creation of the highest rank in art produced during a period of decided decadence4 ,as1 however1 through this loss1 this assumption cannot be verified1 science must proceed to judge it by its style alone4 ,its grandeur and dignity1 in contrast to the immodest coquetry of later works2 the fulness of the flesh in this body of ever-blooming youth1 in comparison with their attenuated grace2 the mild softness of the surface beside the cold polish of the other figures of ,aphrodite--would place this statue between the period of highest perfection at the time of ,praxiteles1 and that of the ,roman reproductions4 ,the reference of the ,venus of ,melos to the school of ,praxiteles has found a justification not to be undervalued in the discovery of the ,hermes at ,olympia1 this figure of manly youth forming as complete a pendant to the maidenly ,venus as could be imagined4 ,in artistic character this is far more nearly related to the ,hermes than is any other statue of ,aphrodite1 not excepting the undoubted ,roman reproduction of that of ,cnidos4 ,at any rate1 it is clearly an ,hellenic original1 not belonging to the period of later ,hellenistic art4 ,unfortunately1 no explanation of this statue hitherto advanced has been entirely satisfactory4 ,the two arms are wanting1 and the fallen drapery covering the lower limbs has hidden from us the only accessory evidence--namely1 the object upon which the lifted left leg is supported2 so that even the name of ,venus is not to be applied with the usual certainty4 ,the ,roman types of ,victory1 also half nude1 with the same garments and position1 and with the shield upon which the conquest is inscribed1 suggest an ,aphrodite-,victory analogous to the ,attic ,athene-,victory4 ,the restorations all present points of difficulty2 among them may be mentioned that commonly received1 where the goddess contemplates herself in the shield of ,ares1 supported by the analogy of a statue mentioned by ,pausanias 7ii4 #e71 an interpretation equally applicable to the ,venus of ,capua1 now in ,naples2 that also of ,wiesler1 with the lance in the uplifted left hand2 and the combination of the goddess in a group with ,ares by ,quatremre de ,quincy4 ,it is even less easy to find a reliable explanation of the beautiful torso in the ,glyptothek at ,munich1 formerly held1 falsely1 to be ,ilioneus among the ,niobids1 and even believed to be an original4 ,as the ,venus of ,melos is an illustration of ripened womanly beauty1 the entirely nude1 cowering figure1 without head or arms1 represents the perfection of youth2 and the position suggests a subject equal in pathetic import to that of the children of ,niobe4 ,as the works of ,scopas and ,praxiteles frequently found their way to the islands of the gean ,sea1 and as the former1 at least1 had certainly dwelt for some time in ,asia ,minor1 the influence of these two masters appears to have extended eastward1 and their style to have had decided sway even longer there than in ,greece proper4 ,the farthest outlying examples are presented by the fragmentary statues of the ,nereids from the ,monument of ,xanthos1 to which they have given the name4 ,at that period1 even in ,athens1 some highly esteemed artists not only partially followed their own ways1 but in these surpassed the former masters1 and pursued aims which did not become generally prevalent until the middle of the fourth century1 and then in quite other localities4 ,these were ,silanion of ,athens and ,euphranor of the ,isthmos4 ,the first devoted himself chiefly to portraits and representations of victors1 and was so especially successful in the former as to make them a real embodiment of personal character2 as1 for instance1 the portrait of the passionate sculptor ,apollodoros was made to appear a personification of sudden rage4 ,silanion distinguished himself from ,praxiteles in the subjects of his art1 in which he had much in common with ,lysippos4 ,euphranor was also1 perhaps in a still greater degree1 a painter1 and1 in the coarser power of his creations1 was opposed to the delicate style of ,praxiteles1 showing more affinity with ,lysippos1 so far1 at least1 as we can judge of his sculptures by the accounts of his paintings4 ,similar to the transitional position between ,pheidias and ,scopas1 held by the elder ,kephisodotos1 was the position taken by these two sculptors between the art of ,scopas and ,praxiteles and that of ,lysippos1 for whom the studies and innovations in the canons of human proportions prepared the way4 ,though self-taught1 for as a youth he had been a hand-worker in brass1 and from this had raised himself to the position of an artist1 he was still not without connection with the schools1 since he took as his model the ,doryphoros of ,polycleitos1 the academic pattern mentioned above1 and also worked in bronze1 the material most favored by ,polycleitos and the artists of the ,peloponnesos4 ,he cannot1 however1 be called a direct scholar of ,polycleitos1 whose canon he corrected and even replaced by a new one1 better adapted to the artistic aims of the younger masters4 ,the model of ,polycleitos was the human body1 but ,lysippos felt that he must set his ideal of humanity higher than in the average of real examples1 because he considered these1 in comparison with the perfect figure1 to be degenerate and dwarfed4 ,although he worked with reference to this view1 still he developed his types from the real appearances of nature2 and when asked by the painter ,eupompos of ,sikyon for advice as to the best teacher1 he pointed to an assemblage of people4 ,he wished to represent man1 however1 not as he is1 but as he should be1 and employed only those features which did not fall below the average determined by ,polycleitos4 ,his ideal type of the human body became more slender and larger1 the size being especially apparent because the head and extremities1 which take their proportions from the whole1 were made smaller4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,marble ,copy of the ,apoxyomenos of ,lysippos4 7,in the ,vatican47 ,lysippos1 however1 followed the footsteps of ,polycleitos in considering the establishment of a canon as the greatest essential in art1 and exercised his powers chiefly in the province of humanity4 ,his ,apoxyomenos--the athlete scraping himself with the strigil1 a marble copy of which is in the ,vatican--is the most celebrated among his statues of athletes and victors4 7,fig4 #bcj47 ,in this he seems to have set forth his new confession of faith1 in opposition to that of ,polycleitos4 ,this aim must have had the most important influence upon portrait-sculpture1 the chief field of his activity4 ,it is clear from the accounts of some likenesses of persons long dead1 or even legendary1 that he fully expressed the character in the features1 as in the ,apollodoros of ,silanion1 and did not aim at that over-scrupulous reproduction of details and attention to circumstantial matters which endeavor to attain a likeness by sharp observation of external things1 unessential to the whole4 ,this inferior style of portraiture was pursued by ,lysistratos1 the brother of ,lysippos1 who formed his figures after plaster casts from nature4 ,although earlier portraits might have informed the sculptor in regard to the true features of some historical personages1 certainly this could not have been the case with sop1 or the ,seven ,wise ,men1 for whose individuality and intellectual tendencies he was obliged to create a characteristic type4 ,in the portrait which he most frequently executed1 that of ,alexander the ,great1 it was of especial importance to illuminate the ugly and faulty formation of the monarch's face by the expression of his powerful character1 and to execute it so appropriately that even the likeness was increased by such depth of appreciation4 ,the artist thus produced portraits of the conqueror which differed as much1 and as favorably1 from the realistic and chance appearance of the king as the historic illustration of a great personage does from the knowledge of that individual in every-day life4 ,alexander1 accordingly1 would be represented in sculpture by no one except ,lysippos1 as he would be painted by none but ,apelles4 ,even that best-preserved portrait of ,alexander1 the bust in the ,capitol1 does not suffice to make clear the whole conception of ,lysippos4 ,how grand such monumental portraitures really were may be gathered from the account of the group at ,dium--afterwards transferred to the ,portico of ,octavia in ,rome--illustrating a scene from the battle upon the ,granicos1 where twenty-five warriors on horseback and nine on foot were grouped about the king1 to which many of the enemy may doubtless be added4 ,the work next in importance after this was the representation of ,heracles by this master4 ,not in the elevation of the ideal above the human1 but rather in the emphasizing of this latter quality1 did the ,heracles of ,lysippos stand in distinct opposition alike to the merely human model of ,polycleitos1 to the superhuman and godlike beings of ,pheidias1 and especially to the divinely charming beauty of the ,aphrodite and the ,eros1 as seen in the best creations of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the ,heracles of ,lysippos1 the embodiment of strength developed beyond human possibility1 appeared colossal1 whether the absolute dimensions were really great--like the statue from ,tarention which represented him resting upon a basket after the labor of cleansing the ,augean stables--or whether in miniature1 suitable for a table ornament--like the celebrated ,epitrapezios1 showing the hero as a drinker4 ,copies1 in part1 still remain of the ,labors of ,heracles1 executed in twelve groups for ,alyzia1 in ,acarnania4 ,they show the same type that is reproduced in the affected1 overstrained statue of the later ,athenian artist ,glycon--the so-called ,farnese ,hercules in ,naples4 7,fig4 #bca47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4--;,farnese ,hercules of ,glycon4 7,in the ,museum of ,naples47 ,besides these prominent groups by ,lysippos1 evidences of his creative energy1 the figures of the deities appear to have been few in number4 ,that examples from the circle of young and beautiful divinities1 which formed the principal field for the art of ,praxiteles1 should be almost entirely wanting1 was to be expected1 he who had perfected the type of ,heracles naturally preferring a powerful figure4 ,four statues of ,zeus are mentioned4 ,though the colossal size of these seems to have been a prominent feature--the ,zeus of ,tarention measuring eighteen metres in height--still they should not be considered as executed after a conventional pattern1 and consequently offering nothing worthy of remark4 ,in view of all that is known of ,lysippos1 it seems not improbable that the ,zeus of ,otricoli 7,fig4 #bcb71 formerly referred to the ,pheidian type1 may be more nearly related to its modification by ,lysippos4 ,the ,helios upon the quadriga in ,rhodes1 besides its human beauty1 may possibly have been of great importance in type and conception2 but this is not assured by the fact that ,nero prized it highly1 and ordered it to be gilded4 ,if it be added that ,lysippos worked more industriously and rapidly than any other known sculptor--provided the account be true that the number of his productions amounted to fifteen hundred--it cannot be supposed that the time required for new conception and careful execution would be given to them all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,zeus of ,otricoli4 7,vatican47 ,the school of ,lysippos was not wanting in names of renown4 ,his most gifted son1 ,euthycrates1 appears to have equalled his father in groups of portrait statues1 like the ,gathering of ,riders and a ,hunt of ,alexander in ,thespia2 while another son1 ,boidas1 awakens our interest from the circumstance that the celebrated ,praying ,boy1 in the museum at ,berlin1 may possibly be referred to him4 ,chares of ,lindos produced the greatest known work of ,greek sculpture in regard to size--namely1 the colossal statue of the sun at ,rhodes1 over thirty metres high4 ,pliny describes it as already fallen and in ruins1 therefore his words give us no information as to the conception and style2 and the current account of its having stood so high above the entrance to the harbor that vessels sailed between the legs is a fabulous reminiscence of the figure projected at ,mount ,athos by ,deinocrates4 ,among the scholars of ,lysippos1 ,eutychides seems to have been the most independent2 the goddess ,anticheia1 a copy of which is in the ,vatican1 was distinguished by excellence in the motive1 ease of position1 and effective drapery2 but1 in its genre-like treatment1 it excluded all thought of religious art1 to which a certain strictness and dignity should pertain4 ,this goddess was seated with dignity1 like a city itself1 while another personification--the river-god--appeared 8more flowing than water40 ,this marked significance in both cannot be ascribed to a happy chance1 but must be regarded as evidence of that highly developed characterization by which the great ,sikyonian master endeavored to conceive the whole being and to embody it in his portraits and representative figures4 ,among the nameless works from the school of ,lysippos1 creations are to be found of the highest merit4 ,the originator of the ,barberini ,faun1 now in the ,glyptothek at ,munich1 whoever he may have been1 should be ranked among the greatest masters of all times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--;,boreas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,notos4 ,from the ,tower of the ,winds1 ,athens4 ,with ,lysippos the development of art in its principal directions was terminated4 ,as ,overbeck says1 8the summit lies behind us2 we descend1 and our way downwards may still lead through charming landscapes2 but the pure1 clear ether soon ceases to surround us1 and1 before the far-reaching glance1 rises from the mist of centuries the flat and endless desert1 in the sands of which the stream of ,grecian art is quenched40 ,alexander himself was the patron of the last of the seven great masters of sculpture2 with him ended the fresh directness of ,hellenic creations1 as well as the greatness of ,greece itself4 ,he and his successors built temples afterwards to be furnished1 as before1 with statues of the deities and outwardly ornamented with sculptures2 but they took their models from those earlier works which1 elevated to a typical and canonical importance1 were not to be surpassed1 and employed themselves simply in reproducing4 ,they followed more willingly the easy path open to them because1 in the ,alexandrian period1 scepticism1 empty formalism1 and chilling indifference had already laid the ravaging axe to the ,hellenic religion4 ,with the spread of ,hellenic power into the heart of ,asia1 its art1 like its polity1 lost its individuality1 becoming expansive instead of intense1 in decorative subjection to the requirements of elegance and use4 ,losing its former independent nobility1 sculpture soon fell from the height which it had occupied for a century and a half4 ,athens1 ,sikyon1 and ,argos1 hitherto central points of development1 where art had brought forth its richest fruits as a model for the entire ,hellenic world1 now became provincial cities of the ,macedonian kingdom1 and lost their glory--some for a long period1 and others forever4 ,following the example of ,lysippos1 artists preferred wandering from court to court of ,alexander's successors2 and in ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 ,seleucia1 in ,nicomedia1 ,pergamon1 ,ambrakia1 mostly new and elegant cities of royal residence1 occupation could not have been wanting1 though the quantity of work may have tended to hasten the decline4 ,how extensive and extravagant were the artistic requirements of the ,diadochi1 how excessive the incense of flattery offered them1 is shown in the description of the luxurious works of the ,ptolemies and of the ,seleucid1 and by the three hundred statues erected to ,demetrius ,phalereus in ,athens alone4 ,these last may have been somewhat better than the representation of the winds upon the clepsydra and vane of ,andronicos ,kyrrhestios 7,figs4 #bcc and #bcd71 but even they must be classed as mere artisan-work4 ,much was done in portrait-statuary after the time of ,alexander1 who turned art in this direction2 and the successive dynasties also encouraged it1 as may easily be imagined4 ,this is evident from the statues still preserved1 from the ,ptolemaic cameos1 and especially the coins of the ,diadochi4 ,the heads of these kings have never been equalled1 for fine and lifelike characterization and modelling1 in all the portrait coins and medallions which have been struck down to the present time4 7,fig4 #bce47 ,though a great deal was produced in the period of the ,diadochi1 and1 in the line of portraiture1 much that was good1 still there must have been truth in the saying of ,pliny that 8after the #abast ,olympiad 7#bij ,b4,c47 art ceased1 and revived again only in the #aefth 7#aej ,b4,c4740 ,it ceased1 namely1 in so far as it was made subservient to courts and decoration2 but upon the soil of ,greece itself1 and among the people1 it grew1 and strove after higher aims4 ,the production continued1 but its artisan-like elaboration did not make good the lost artistic originality4 ,men of vigorous talent followed in the paths of ,praxiteles and ,lysippos1 producing works which are the ornaments of our antique collections2 but the character of reproductions1 clinging to their creations1 robs them of the name of artist in the full sense of the word4 ,the scanty notices of ,pliny are1 in general1 correct2 but he omits to mention some exceptions which represent a further development of sculpture1 not quite unimportant1 though questionable in principle4 ,illustration3 ,antiochos ,i4 of ,syria4 #bha to #bfb4 ,philip ,v4 of ,macedon4 #bbj to #agh4 ,perseus of ,macedon4 #agh to #afh4 ,fig4 #bce4--;,coins of the ,diadochi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,the ,so-called ,dying ,gladiator4 ,school of ,pergamon4 ,in two places1 at the royal court of ,pergamon and in the republic of ,rhodes1 productive art rose again to a certain independence and originality4 ,pliny himself1 in another place1 says that 8several artists illustrated the battles of ,attalos and ,eumenes against the ,gauls2 namely1 ,isigonos1 ,phycomachos1 ,stratonicos1 and ,antigonos40 ,the great victory over these barbarians was fought in #bbi ,b4,c4 by ,attalos1 with which ,eumenes1 by a misunderstanding easily to be explained1 appears to have been connected4 ,attalos erected in his capital a grand monument to his victory1 and1 not contenting himself with this1 consecrated another upon the ,acropolis at ,athens1 perhaps in part a copy of that in ,pergamon4 ,remnants of both monuments still exist which give a comparatively good knowledge of the artistic peculiarities of this school4 ,the investigations upon this site1 now approaching completion1 have unearthed hundreds of fragments in high-relief1 part of a gigantomachia originally forming the decoration of an altar4 ,the altar was surrounded by ,ionic colonnades1 the high stereobate of which was ornamented with sculptures in high-relief1 the whole being elevated upon a gigantic terrace1 #ch m4 long1 and #cd m4 broad4 ,the frieze1 representing the gigantomachia1 stands midway between the works of ,lysippos and the ,laocoon1 and forms the most extensive and important monument of sculpture remaining from the time of the ,diadochi2 it is in many respects a parallel to that of the ,mausoleum of ,halicarnassos which represents the decorative work of the school of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,these works have now found their way to ,berlin1 but a critical account of them will be possible only when they shall have been made generally accessible by an official publication4 ,the statue of the so-called ,dying ,gladiator of the ,capitol belonged to the group in ,pergamon already known 7,fig4 #bcf72 as did the two figures in the ,villa ,ludovisi1 representing a ,gaul who1 to escape the shame of slavery1 has stabbed his wife1 who sinks beside him1 and is about to thrust the sword into his own neck4 ,in the so-called ,dying ,gladiator1 the rough hair growing low upon the neck1 the strongly marked indentation between the brow and the projecting ,northern nose1 the beard shorn to the upper lip1 the heavy cheek-bones1 the fleshy and somewhat clumsily formed body1 the hard and calloused skin upon the hands and feet1 the twisted neckband1 and the curved battle-horn have long since shown the meaning of this statue4 ,in the group in the ,ludovisi ,villa1 the same marble1 a like and peculiar treatment of the forms1 with the same type of head1 leave no doubt that this also belonged to a large group representing a victory over the ,gauls4 ,from its style1 it cannot be considered as a ,roman monument1 particularly as some notices of the ,athenian ,votive ,offering of ,attalos clearly identify it4 ,the most striking novelty in these monuments1 and also in the school of art at ,pergamon1 is the characteristic following-out of ethnographical differences4 ,previously1 when artists would distinguish barbarians1 they were content to make the nationality clear by costume and accessories2 but this could not suffice for ,lysippos1 who had carried individual characterization to such a height in his portrait-statues1 and who probably1 in his group of the battle upon the ,granicos1 illustrated the peculiarities of the ,persian race4 ,in groups of portrait-statues it was necessary to treat the action with absolute truthfulness1 thus leading the way to historic art4 ,this is perfected in the monument in question1 the ideal battle scene being based upon real details2 it was not merely a strife among men1 but ,greeks and ,celts stood opposed1 each nation with its marked features and peculiarities1 the barbarians distinguished not outwardly alone1 but by their natural wildness4 ,this is evident from a number of figures of the ,athenian votive offering of ,attalos1 still preserved2 our knowledge of their connection with the ,dying ,gladiator and the school of ,pergamon is due to ,brunn4 ,according to ,pausanias1 this votive offering consisted of figures half the size of life1 in four groups1 showing the gigantomachia1 the combat of the ,amazons1 the battle of ,marathon1 and the victory of ,attalos4 ,figures exist from them all2 from the first1 a giant1 dead and outstretched1 is in the museum at ,naples1 as also one of the second1 a fallen ,amazon2 from the third1 a dead body clad in breeches1 and two nude ,persians kneeling1 are in ,naples1 the ,vatican1 and in the possession of ,signor ,castellani4 ,from the fourth1 a kneeling figure1 at ,paris1 and one kneeling and one falling backward1 at ,venice1 are unmistakable ,gauls2 while a sitting figure1 wounded1 also at ,venice1 and a youthful one1 dead1 at ,naples1 are probably also of that race4 ,judging from these remains1 the composition must have included numerous figures1 as the five existing ,gauls--perhaps also several more--bespeak a corresponding number at ,pergamon1 and forty is the lowest that can be reckoned for the whole4 ,their position was probably upon the steps of the monument1 which possibly bore the statue of the founder4 ,it must have stood near the wall of the ,acropolis1 since it has been said that a figure from the gigantomachia was thrown by a storm into the theatre which stood at the foot of this fortress4 ,that only the conquered are found among the pieces preserved seems to be an evidence that these remnants are from the original rather than from any copy1 because1 aside from the improbability that so extensive a work would have been copied in later times1 the effect of the storm suggests the thought that the erect statues of the victors would have been less likely to last through so many centuries than the lying and cowering figures1 not so easily injured on account of their closer connection with the base4 ,notwithstanding their relation in style to the ,capitoline statue and to the group in the ,ludovisi ,villa1 these are distinctly inferior and harder4 ,brunn is probably right in his supposition that they are the work of scholars1 and a contemporaneous reproduction from the studio of that master1 who himself executed the monument at ,pergamon1 the figures of which ranked in merit with the ,dying ,gladiator4 ,many deficiencies may be accounted for by its reduction to half life-size2 its repetition at this scale1 for the ,athenian votive offering1 appearing to have satisfied the king4 ,the work most nearly related to this1 also in marble1 and perfectly similar in conception1 is a figure of the ,marsyas group1 the celebrated ,knife-sharpener in the ,uffizi at ,florence4 ,this is also a representative of barbarism1 probably a ,scythian1 the others having been ,gauls2 but1 artistically1 this makes no difference4 ,no originals remain of the other figures in the group1 of which the barbarian1 cowering upon the ground and sharpening the knife for the flaying of ,marsyas1 probably formed no very important part4 ,another aim1 the careful anatomical treatment of the body1 is ostentatiously displayed in the copies of this work now in ,berlin and ,florence4 ,the group suggests another locality1 and forms a connecting medium between those two most important centres of art in that period1 ,pergamon and ,rhodes4 ,among the few republics of the time1 the island of ,rhodes was able to rival the brilliant courts of kings1 in regard to artistic treasures1 by its wealth of commerce and its political neutrality--the latter being rendered possible1 as nowhere else1 by its situation and importance4 ,that the influence of ,lysippos prevailed there is clear from the fact that1 after this master had sent thither his ,phoibos upon the quadriga1 the ,rhodian ,chares went to learn of him1 and afterwards executed for his native city the above-mentioned colossus4 ,this was followed in the same place by a hundred other colossal figures1 which were probably related1 in point of style1 to the works of ,lysippos4 ,the statement of ,pliny that each1 singly1 would have sufficed to make the place of its exposition famous is hardly intelligible4 ,numerous names of artists1 mostly of ,rhodes1 found partly in inscriptions upon the bases1 and partly mentioned by ,pliny1 might here be mentioned4 ,the multiplied productions of colossal works1 however1 would not suffice to give a very favorable idea of the state of art in ,rhodes1 were it not for the preservation of two examples1 prominent among many1 which were famous even in antiquity4 ,these were the group of the ,laocoon1 in the ,vatican1 and the so-called ,farnese ,bull1 in ,naples4 ,the first 7,fig4 #bcg71 which ,pliny1 with extravagant praise1 calls the work of three ,rhodians1 ,agesandros1 ,athanodoros1 and ,polydoros1 was found in #aejf--not in one piece1 as he describes it1 but in six--among the ruins of the house of ,titus1 in whose palace ,pliny says it was placed4 ,it represents the priest ,laocoon1 who sinned at the altar through love1 and whom ,apollo chastised by means of two serpents4 ,this expiation became tragic1 from its having taken place at the moment when ,laocoon had resolved to save his native city1 ,troy2 and also from the suffering of the children1 innocent1 though born in sin4 ,the serpents have encircled the three figures2 the youngest is falling from the deadly sting2 the father1 sinking upon the altar after a desperate defence1 is no longer able to protect himself2 while the elder son1 not yet threatened with instant death1 but hopelessly entangled in the coils of the serpent1 turns upon his father a look of despairing horror4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--;,group of ,laocoon and his ,sons1 by ,agesandros1 ,athanodoros1 and ,polydoros4 7,vatican47 ,this grand work1 though from ,pliny down to later times esteemed beyond its real merit1 still makes evident to us peculiarities in the art of ,rhodes which1 in many respects1 render it of independent value4 ,we find in it a choice of subject new in sculpture1 the technical and artistic difficulties of which appear almost insurmountable1 so that it could only be treated by ability well trained and long experienced4 ,it gave opportunity to surpass all existing productions in its display of artistic technical superiority4 ,when the body of the ,laocoon is compared with the type of ,heracles1 it cannot be doubted that the canon of ,lysippos was followed2 but the forms1 which with him were developed from the living model1 in this1 as in the ,marsyas of ,pergamon1 are taken from anatomical studies1 and are wanting in fulness of life3 the overdetailed muscles are too studied1 distinct1 and separated2 they are marble1 and not flesh4 ,the composition would1 in real life1 be impracticable2 the action is visibly so ordered that it never could be possible1 and is throughout developed with an aim towards the greatest effect4 ,but this effect is by no means merely formal1 limited to the restless and disquieting play of the lines of the limbs and trunks1 and of the coils of the serpents4 ,it is in the highest degree pathetic4 ,thus this element of the school of ,praxiteles existed in this work1 both the leading characteristics of that master being here displayed with an excessive ostentation4 ,the pathos confronts us too exclusively1 not modified by any ethic principle4 ,the work does not1 therefore1 have the tragic power which lies in the descriptions of ,sophocles1 because1 in the group1 only the effect is to be seen2 we have no hint as to the cause4 ,the pathetic blends far more with the pathological event than with the ethical4 ,the mastery of rendering1 the composition1 the effect--everything is wonderful2 but it all lies in the realm of display3 our admiration is given to the artist rather than to the work4 ,it cannot be denied that this effective treatment was the dominant feature in the art of ,rhodes2 but it set technical mastery in the foreground1 to the neglect of absolute and intrinsic merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--,the ,farnese ,bull of ,apollonios and ,tauriscos4 7,in ,naples47 ,this applies equally to the second great work1 the so-called ,farnese ,bull 7,fig4 #bch71 the creation of two artists from ,tralles1 ,apollonios and ,tauriscos1 who may have worked in ,rhodes1 as1 according to ,pliny1 the group was to be seen there before it was brought to ,rome under ,augustus4 ,this large group was found in the ,baths of ,caracalla soon after the discovery of the ,laocoon1 and was transported to ,naples1 where it now stands in the ,museo ,nazionale4 ,the scene is probably taken from the ,antiope1 a tragedy of ,euripides1 and an understanding of the story is necessary to its comprehension4 ,antiope was the daughter of ,king ,nycteus of ,thebes2 he being angry with her because of the love of ,zeus1 and incredulous as to the cause of her pregnancy1 she fled to ,mount ,kithairon1 where she bore the twins ,zethos and ,amphion4 ,having given these to the care of a shepherd1 she was received by ,king ,epopeus of ,sikyon2 but ,lycos1 the brother and successor of ,nycteus1 carried on the hateful persecution1 even to the extent of making war against her protector4 ,sikyon was destroyed1 and ,antiope returned as a slave to ,thebes1 where the ill-treatment of ,dirke1 wife of ,lycos1 obliged her to fly once more to the mountains4 ,there1 at a festival of ,bacchus1 she was found again by her persecutor1 and1 for her flight1 was given the terrible punishment of being dragged to death by a bull4 ,zethos and ,amphion were ready to execute the command when a recognition took place1 and a just vengeance brought the fate intended for ,antiope upon the head of ,dirke4 ,this moment forms the imposing scene of the group4 ,the raging bull is only with difficulty held by the avenging sons2 ,dirke1 a most beautiful woman1 praying in vain for grace1 clasps the knee of one while the other is ready to throw around her the noose by which she is to be dragged over the rough ground of ,kithairon4 ,the passion of the avenging sons1 and the fear of ,dirke1 make the work highly pathetic and impressive2 but it is not so really tragic as the ,laocoon1 because the motive of the evidently brutal deed1 though not entirely neglected1 as in the former1 is still not entirely comprehensible4 ,antiope1 the heroine of the tragedy1 is indeed present4 ,but she is not brought into the action1 and stands1 in fact1 behind the principal characters4 ,she is therefore hardly more than a lay figure1 expressing nothing4 ,it might perhaps have been better to omit ,antiope altogether1 and to leave the action without any motive at all4 ,the figure has1 however1 an interest of its own1 being in an excellent state of preservation1 while the others have suffered by restoration and by retouching4 ,the composition1 with its numerous figures1 admirably executed1 has a picturesque effect which is somewhat new in the history of ,greek sculpture4 ,this is enhanced by the accessories of the story1 the rocky ground1 and many local details symbolical of the occasion4 ,besides a fine large dog1 really belonging to the group1 there are a chaplet and a basket1 a disproportionately small boy ornamented with a wreath1 and1 still more inferior in size1 two lions seizing a bull and a horse4 ,there are also two boars coming out from a grotto1 a lioness1 a stag1 a hind1 a ram1 an eagle with a snake1 and a falcon over a dead bird2 even turtles1 snakes1 and snails are represented4 ,the mastery over the technical and artistic difficulties in this work is scarcely less admirable than in the ,laocoon1 and it gives the same impression of a successful piece of bravura1 astonishing and quite fascinating for its novelty1 boldness1 and versatile power4 ,the age1 indeed1 satiated with the best products of various schools1 demanded the stimulus of an excessive appeal to superficial sources of interest4 ,the group of the ,marsyas is attributed to artists of ,pergamon1 and the ,wrestlers in the ,uffizi at ,florence 7,fig4 #bci7 may1 with greater certainty1 be ascribed to those of ,rhodes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--,the ,wrestlers4 7,in the ,uffizi1 ,florence47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--;,apollo ,belvedere4 7,in the ,vatican47 ,before we pass to the last active period of ,hellenic art1 one other work1 preserved from this age1 the ,apollo ,belvedere of the ,vatican 7,fig4 #bdj71 still claims our consideration4 ,though without the name of the artist1 or of the place of its origin1 and not1 perhaps1 to be classed directly with the greatest productions of ,pergamon and ,rhodes1 it is yet not unworthy to rank by their side4 ,it is1 like the ,laocoon1 one of the best-known statues among the existing treasures of antiquity1 and scarcely needs a minute description4 ,the splendid triumphant head looking into the distance1 the slender figure1 as fine in modelling as it is noble1 the pleasing grace of the light step1 assure for it an admiration1 the more universal as these beauties--the combined result of the schools of ,lysippos and of ,praxiteles--are just those which are the most generally recognized4 ,it is not an original work1 in the full sense of the word1 but an early ,roman copy from the bronze1 and seems to bear a closer relation to it than does the lately discovered head which is now in the museum at ,basle4 ,this latter has lost the characteristic features of the bronze style1 and from the greater freedom of its treatment may be called a translation into marble1 in distinction from the copy in the ,vatican4 ,another reproduction of this work recently made known by ,stephani1 a bronze statuette in the ,strogonoff collection1 at ,st4 ,petersburg1 has given an additional explanation of the action in which the god was represented4 ,in the marble the left hand was wanting1 and in the restoration this was supplied with a bow2 but in the ,strogonoff ,apollo remains are still to be seen of the gis1 held in the hand1 with which the deity drove back the ,greeks1 as described by ,homer1 ,il4 xv4 #cjf4 ,if the far-shooter be thus changed into the gis-bearer1 the shaking of the gis symbolizing the storm1 a plain reference may be found to the original motive of the work4 ,when the ,gauls threatened ,delphi in #bgi ,b4,c41 the defence of the ,greeks was effectively assisted by a terrible storm1 which threw the barbarians into a fearful panic1 and which was regarded by the ,greeks as caused by the personal intervention of ,apollo1 ,athene1 and ,artemis4 ,this might well have had an effect upon art similar to that of the victory of ,attalos over the ,gauls in ,asia ,minor4 ,the tolians1 indeed1 proposed to erect at ,delphi a votive offering1 with figures of field-officers and of the three gods1 while a statue of ,apollo was erected in ,patrae from a similar reason4 ,in view of this1 ,overbeck has ventured to combine the ,apollo ,belvedere1 the ,artemis of ,versailles 7,fig4 #bda71 and the striding ,athene of the ,capitoline ,museum into one group1 to which ideal union the unsimilarity of the workmanship1 and even of the scale of the three statues1 is not so much opposed--since these are all copies that have come down to us from different times--as is the movement of the ,apollo1 the middle figure1 towards the right4 ,this difficulty might be met by changing the positions1 so that ,athene should stand at the right and ,artemis at the left1 whereby the action of the figures might be from1 rather than towards1 each other1 ,artemis being turned decidedly more towards the front4 ,if1 however1 this work originated in consequence of the victory in #bgi ,b4,c41 it shows that a generation before the time of ,attalos1 at least in ,greece proper1 although attention had already been devoted to momentary action1 art nevertheless still stood upon an ideal height1 and could still delineate gods worthy of admiration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--;,artemis of ,versailles4 ,these artistic efforts do not1 on the whole1 refute the opinion of ,pliny that art ceased from the #abast to the #aefth ,olympiad--that is1 from #cjj to #aej ,b4,c4 ,the chief localities of its activity1 ,pergamon and ,rhodes1 may be considered only as asylums found by the higher sculpture after it had lost all foothold in its native home4 ,but when he says it took a new flight at the close of that period1 we must acknowledge that the result was not of that kind which could charm us as it did the ,roman narrator4 ,as ,brunn remarks1 the date of ,pliny agrees with that period when ,hellenic art attained a decided mastery in ,rome4 ,scarcely any evidences of the monumental art of ,greece were to be recognized in ,rome before the conquest of ,syracuse in #bab ,b4,c4 ,after this time the ,roman triumphs brought forth1 one after another1 an almost oppressive number of productions1 so that the art of the ,greek colonies1 and of ,greece itself1 overflowed ,rome in a broad stream4 ,not to mention the plundering of ,capua1 ,tarention1 and numerous ,grecian cities in ,lower ,italy1 we have an example in the triumphs of ,quintius ,flaminius1 the conqueror of ,kynoskephal1 #aig ,b4,c41 when the transportation of the statues lasted an entire day4 ,the booty taken from ,western ,greece by ,m4 ,fulvius ,nobilior1 in #ahi ,b4,c41 also contained not less than five hundred and fifteen statues4 ,these extensive plunderings were at least equalled by the triumphs of ,l4 ,cornelius ,scipio1 the victor over ,antiochos2 of milius ,paulus1 conqueror of ,perseus2 of ,metellus ,macedonicus1 and of the destroyer of ,corinth1 ,mummius1 who has become proverbial for his barbarous robberies4 ,it was not strange that at last a living art followed the triumphal chariot of ,roman victories4 ,metellus employed many ,grecian artists in the erection and ornamentation of his new buildings in ,rome4 ,the scene of artistic industry thus became changed1 and ,rome1 a foreign city1 became the central point--first of possession1 and afterwards of artistic activity4 ,it might therefore be questioned whether what follows were not better suited to the chapter upon ,rome2 but it must be considered that the ,romans were1 from our present point of view1 only wealthy collectors and patrons of art1 and that the artists employed were still ,grecian1 and of the ,hellenic school4 ,this was not altered by their working in ,rome1 or even by their learning from the numberless productions accumulated there4 ,roman grandeur was long contented with artistic booty for the ornamenting of its forums1 temples1 and public buildings2 the immense wealth of the empire and proconsulate giving opportunity for procuring celebrated works by force1 by purchase1 or as honorary gifts4 ,this brought forth dilettanteism1 which led to the study of art1 and to a zeal for collecting which made every new acquisition an additional incentive to covetousness4 ,study choked that impulse which1 in a degenerate way1 had endeavored to outdo what had been done by masters of the best period1 and1 accounting their method to be exclusively good1 turned art back by a sort of reaction upon those earlier paths4 ,the passion for collecting was not limited to the works ready at hand1 but would have restorations and imitations by contemporary artists1 made in the spirit of the originals4 ,it could not have been otherwise than that art1 after having exhausted the originals1 and attained its aims in all directions1 should react upon itself2 but doubtless the circumstances of ,rome had an essential influence upon the manner in which this took place1 and greatly furthered this renaissance--to use a somewhat unsuitable term which1 in its restricted sense1 has been adopted for the far more original awakening of art at the close of the ,middle ,ages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,borghese ,gladiator of ,agasias4 7,in the ,louvre47 ,in the desire to enliven the different phases of artistic development1 it was natural not to return to first principles1 but rather to take those creations which lay near at hand1 and try to find in them the way to improvement4 ,the period under consideration1 up to the commencement of the empire1 offers examples of every stage of development1 the dates of which can only here and there be given2 but it seems that the way for an ,hellenic renaissance was1 during this period1 partially opened4 ,agasias of ,ephesos appears as successor to the master of the ,laocoon and of the ,farnese ,bull4 ,the celebrated ,borghese ,gladiator in the ,louvre1 which represents a warrior in fictitious battle with a horseman1 may be referred to the school of ,rhodes4 7,fig4 #bdb47 ,as the statue did not belong to a group1 but was independent1 we see in it nothing but a show figure1 in which the artist only sought for a position where he might outdo all that had gone before1 and give opportunity to parade his technical mastery and his anatomical knowledge4 ,that the work should be placed in this time1 and not in the best period of the ,rhodian school1 is plain from the later character of the writing in the artist's inscription1 from the inferior understanding of the mutual relations of the muscles1 and particularly from the insignificance of the idea1 and the entire lack of the pathetic1 all which elements lent to the works of ,rhodes an especial value4 ,as examples from ,rhodes and ,pergamon not only lay near at hand for the artists of ,asia ,minor1 but were germane to their civilization1 so the numerous ,attic masters of this period looked to the time of perfection in ,attica and ,sikyon4 ,the tenets of the school of ,lysippos still held sway there1 and what splendid fruit it bore1 even at this time1 notwithstanding the retrogression from its earlier overvalued merit1 is shown by the much admired torso1 now in the ,vatican ,belvedere1 by ,apollonios1 son of ,nestor of ,athens4 7,fig4 #bdc47 ,this must certainly have been a sitting ,heracles1 a motive repeatedly treated by ,lysippos1 though no restoration of it has yet been decidedly successful4 ,the most probable is the latest by ,petersen1 which represents him as playing the kithara4 ,the somewhat later statue by ,glycon of ,athens1 the ,heracles1 who stands leaning upon his club 7,fig4 #bca71 though approaching somewhat in conception to a work of ,lysippos1 is far inferior4 ,with this may be mentioned a still poorer repetition1 the ,heracles of the ,pitti ,palace in ,florence1 through a false inscription ascribed to ,lysippos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,belvedere ,torso1 by ,apollonios4 7,in the ,vatican47 ,besides ,apollonios1 who was distinguished also by his youthful satyr and an ,apollo1 which are too little known for a more minute description1 the school of ,scopas and ,praxiteles was followed by the son of ,apollodoros of ,athens1 ,cleomenes1 the sculptor of the ,venus de' ,medici4 ,when compared with the divine figure of the ,venus of ,melos1 though pleasing1 it appears degenerate4 ,the godlike beauty which we impute to the ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 and find in the ,venus of ,melos1 is lost by the continual emphasis of sensuous effects1 notwithstanding all the mastery and delicate feeling for beauty4 ,with the exception of the ,braschi ,venus at ,munich and the ,venus of the ,capitol1 which are more nearly related to that of ,cnidos1 nearly all the nude figures of ,venus in the various museums belong to the same circle and stage of development1 even when they betray later work4 ,the masters by no means appear to have been mere copyists2 but the works of ,praxiteles were altered1 to suit the taste of the times1 by artists in whom individuality was not quite extinct4 ,the school of ,pheidias1 with its high ideal1 of which the age in question had little understanding1 could never have become popular in the same degree4 ,rome possessed but few works of this master which could have served as examples1 and those not the most important4 ,still1 reminiscences of the best ,attic style were not wanting1 especially in those figures of the gods the type of which had been established by ,pheidias1 as in the statues of ,zeus and ,athene4 ,the chryselephantine ,zeus1 by ,polycles and ,dionysios1 in ,metellus's ,temple of ,jupiter1 as also the ,capitoline of the same material by ,apollonios1 may justly be referred to the ,olympian original2 the former at least with the more certainty1 when it is considered that the sons of ,polycles--,timocles and ,timarchides--copied the sculptures upon a shield of the ,parthenos for an ,athene1 designed for ,elateia in ,phokis4 ,it is possible--and this may1 perhaps1 be still further established by ,brunn1 who has pointed out this connection--that the ,pallas in the ,villa ,ludovisi1 by ,antiochos of ,athens1 which has been estimated below its worth1 may be a reproduction of the ,parthenos1 modified and perhaps formed from memory4 ,the treatment of the garments1 and the whole position of this otherwise ill-executed figure1 remind us of the chryselephantine works1 and possess something of the dignity and nobility of the better period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,group by ,menelaos4 7,in the ,villa ,ludovisi47 ,at a time when ,cicero could say that in his opinion 8the works of ,polycleitos were perfectly beautiful0 the master from ,argos must have come into fashion4 ,the artistic representative of this stage of appreciative development was ,pasiteles1 who worked in the time of ,pompey1 and whose important school has left traces of this influence in examples that have been preserved4 ,the pathetic tendency was not entirely to be avoided1 and1 though not so evident in the academic male figure of the ,villa ,albani1 which bears the name of ,stephanos1 the scholar of ,pasiteles1 is yet undeniable in the groups of ,orestes and ,electra in ,naples1 and of ,orestes and ,pylades in the ,louvre4 ,this trait is still more marked in a work of ,menelaos1 the scholar of ,stephanos1 the beautiful and celebrated group in the ,villa ,ludovisi 7,fig4 #bdd71 designated by ,winckelmann and ,welcker as ,electra and ,orestes2 by ,jahn1 as ,merope and ,cresphontes2 by ,kekul1 as ,deianeira and ,hyllos2 and by ,schulze and ,burckhardt1 as ,penelope and ,telemachos4 ,though the artist has here made concessions to more recent influences1 they did not give the work an eclectic character1 as asserted by ,kekul1 but rather displayed a somewhat archaistic conception1 and the short proportions of ,polycleitos1 long since abandoned for the canon of ,lysippos4 ,on the other hand1 the remark of ,kekul appears just1 that the characters do not seem conceived and modelled after nature1 but rather as seen through the medium of the tragedy of ,euripides4 ,when the reproductions had run through the entire circle of styles from the best period of art1 the archaic was at last brought forward4 ,it is known that ,augustus ornamented his buildings1 particularly the gable of the ,palatine ,temple of ,apollo1 with sculptures of the masters from ,chios1 ,boupalos and ,athenis1 and that he also carried away from ,tegea the ,athene of the old ,attic ,endoios4 ,archaic art1 always possessing a charm for devotional images which was doubled in a time of such satiety1 came thus into fashion4 ,a large number of archaistic works appeared1 imitated after the antique1 as has already been mentioned4 ,they not seldom betray the influence of single figures from larger compositions in relief1 as in the instance of the ,amphora of the ,athenian ,sosibios in the ,louvre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--;,capitoline ,centaur of ,aristeas and ,papias4 7,capitoline ,museum47 ,the more or less free reproductiveness of this period1 which we have to thank for a large proportion of the contents of our museums1 naturally came to a conclusion in that unbridled mixture of style which combined in the same relief not only the various aims of different schools1 but their well-known motives1 as is the case with the relief of the ,salpion upon the font of ,gaeta4 ,there was very little originality1 and that was limited to genre1 particularly to the idyllic1 as in the play of ,cupids1 the best of which might be referred to old models4 ,it is not known whether this was the case with the lioness of ,arkesilaos1 in the possession of ,varro1 which1 according to ,pliny's description1 bound by ,cupids1 was drinking from a horn1 with mittens upon the paws to render them harmless4 ,models for this may be sought in the paintings of ,alexandria4 ,it is certain that the centaurs1 bound and worried by ,cupids1 the best examples of which are preserved in the ,louvre1 the ,vatican1 the ,doria ,palace1 and the ,capitoline ,museum1 with that of ,aristeas and ,papias from ,aphrodisias1 are imitations of bronze originals4 7,fig4 #bde47 99 99 99 99 99 ,hellenic architecture and sculpture1 from their unsurpassed perfection1 require a more comprehensive treatment than that accorded to those arts in any other ancient nation4 ,this is especially the case with sculpture1 because1 in ,greece1 the demands of its nature were more completely fulfilled by the ,greeks than has ever happened1 at any time1 with any other people2 while ,grecian architecture1 notwithstanding its wonderful monumental perfection1 did not deal with all the possibilities of the art4 ,both1 however1 demand our attention in a greater degree than does ,hellenic painting4 ,architecture has left great masses of ruins1 and sculpture numerous collections of antique treasures2 but of ,grecian painting there are no remains2 its history is accordingly a history rather of artists than of art4 ,if this necessitates for painting a more limited treatment1 we must not therefore conclude that its development was1 in reality1 inferior to that of its sister arts1 since1 in fact1 it fully equalled that of architecture and sculpture4 ,this has often been unjustly doubted1 but it would be fully evident were nothing more known than the almost measureless fame of the first masters4 ,the course of development of ,grecian painting is by no means so obvious as that of sculpture3 we have no sure date of its beginning1 but it is at least equally remote4 ,conze shows painting to have been even the most primitive1 it having existed among the aborigines in the decoration of pottery and terra-cotta4 ,the notes of ,pliny upon the matter 7xxxv4 #ae7 appear to be hardly more than a supplementary reconstruction of a conjectured state of development1 garnished vaguely with the names of ancient artists4 ,the first stages1 the employment of a simple tone in the filling of outline figures with a color of brick-dust1 called monochromatic painting1 had long since been mastered by the neighboring peoples--the ,mesopotamians1 ,phnicians1 and ,egyptians1 who were acquainted also with the use of bright colors4 ,this work must early have been known to the ,greeks through imported articles--,homer mentioning vessels and fabrics--even though they could not apply it to the productions of their own land4 ,monochromatic painting upon pottery1 familiar to the primitive ,ionians1 seems to have originated upon the ,syro-,phnician coasts4 ,a faint reminiscence of the ancient1 widely extended employment of color may be found in ,pliny1 who designates an ,egyptian1 bearing the ,greek name of ,philocles1 as the discoverer of linear painting4 ,works of this kind1 however1 were purely decorative1 like the older ,greek vase-paintings 7,figs4 #ahg and #aia71 and of great similarity2 it seems unnecessary to offer conjectures as to the source whence this impulse came4 ,of still less significance are the names of artists which have been fabulously attached to the various inventions1 such as ,cleanthes1 ,aridikes1 and ,ecphantos1 of ,corinth2 ,telephanes and ,craton1 of ,sikyon2 and ,saurias1 of ,samos4 ,unless1 from the fact that several are mentioned as dwelling in ,corinth and ,sikyon1 it may be concluded that decorative painting probably flourished in those cities before the sixtieth ,olympiad 7#ecj ,b4,c474 ,what ,pliny says of ,eumaros of ,athens does not justify the supposition of any considerable progress1 although1 in figures1 he distinguished between male and female1 expressed in some slight degree age and characteristic peculiarities1 and1 at least1 made an end to that crudeness which found satisfaction in writing names over forms otherwise precisely alike4 ,greater progress was made by his successor1 ,kimon of ,cleon--#ejj to #dhj ,b4,c4--who improved the former sack-like garments 7,fig4 #aia7 by folds1 and gave a more detailed drawing to the nude1 placing the eye in a profile head also in profile1 instead of making it look towards the front1 as in the figure mentioned above4 ,with him began truthfulness to nature1 and correctness of drawing1 at a time when sculpture in gina1 ,athens1 ,sikyon1 and ,argos was preparing for that highest perfection attained afterwards by ,pheidias4 ,after the ,persian war1 through two generations1 the progress of painting was proportionate to its former backwardness1 until it attained a height little short of that reached by sculpture4 ,the first master worthy of mention--and likewise one of the greatest artists we know--demands particular attention1 from having been the founder of painting as an art4 ,polygnotos of ,thasos 7#dge to #dee ,b4,c471 the son of ,aglaophon1 who also is mentioned as a painter1 executed the greater number of his works in ,athens1 where he was much respected by ,kimon4 ,of the pictures in the ,stoa ,poikile1 painted under his direction1 at least the ,conquest of ,troy1 and the ,council of ,princes sitting in judgment upon the sacrilege committed by ,ajax against ,cassandra1 were by his hand4 ,the ,battle of the ,amazons was by ,micon1 the ,battle of ,marathon by ,panainos and ,micon2 the fourth1 perhaps the latest1 was the ,battle between the ,athenians and ,lacedmonians near ,oinoe3 the artist is not known4 ,polygnotos worked1 together with ,micon1 upon other ,athenian frescos1 scenes from the lives of heroes in the ,temple of ,theseus4 ,in the ,temple of the ,dioscuri he painted the ,rape of the ,daughters of ,leukippos1 next to which was the ,return of the ,argonauts1 by ,micon4 ,in the ,pinacotheca of the ,propyla was a series of representations1 among which ,brunn has recognized as companion pieces ,diomedes ,robbing ,philoctetes of his ,bow1 and ,odysseus ,seizing the ,palladion2 the ,murder of gisthos by ,orestes1 and the ,sacrifice of ,polyxena2 ,odysseus ,appearing before ,nausicaa and her ,companions1 and ,achilles among the ,daughters of ,lycomedes4 ,of the other works by this master may be mentioned those at ,thespeia and ,plataia2 that in the ,temple of ,athene at the latter place represented ,odysseus attacking the suitors4 ,the best of all the creations of ,polygnotos1 the paintings in the ,lesche of the ,cnidians at ,delphi1 illustrating the conquest of ,ilion and the nether world1 are so minutely described by ,pausanias 7x4 #be-ca7 that they furnish the most important material for an understanding of his art4 ,we should hardly be able justly to estimate this master were it not for the descriptions of ,pausanias2 for the other classic authors1 with some exceptions in ,aristotle1 deal only with secondary matters4 ,in regard to his coloring1 ,cicero1 in his 8,four ,colors10 says nothing1 speaking only of his drawing1 while ,quintilian merely wonders how1 in his time1 there could still be admirers of such primitive painting4 ,it was merely a coloring without light and shade1 a simple treatment by local tones of surfaces within outlines4 ,that these tones were not unbroken1 as upon the ,nile and ,tigris1 but finely graded and everywhere characteristic1 we learn from the special mention of the doves1 of the shaded coloring of the fish in the ,acheron1 of the blackish-blue color of the corpse-devouring ,eurynomos1 and of the gray of the shipwrecked ,ajax4 ,the red cheeks of ,cassandra1 admired by ,lucian1 give evidence of several colors within the same outline4 ,but though ,cicero praises the drawing1 the little which is intelligible in ,pliny's account of the master tends the other way4 ,still1 it must be acknowledged that more is implied by the motive of the ,olympian ,jupiter1 by the encomium upon ,cassandra's eyebrows by ,lucian1 and by the exaggerated expression of an epigram--8in the lids of ,polyxena lay the whole ,trojan war0--than the petty peculiarities with which ,pliny invests the painter would lead us to expect4 lian praises the strict carefulness and fineness of the outline drawing1 the expression1 and the garments4 ,but the most remarkable testimony concerning this master is that of ,aristotle1 who describes his figures as surpassing nature2 while artists like ,dionysios contented themselves with equalling it1 and others1 like ,pauson1 were content to remain below it4 ,elsewhere he calls him the painter of ethics--that is1 of character--in a grand style which the works of ,zeuxis failed to attain4 ,combining this judgment with that of lian1 who ascribes grandeur to ,polygnotos1 we may conclude that this artist drew in a broad and ideal style4 ,that to this were united an epic clearness and liveliness of treatment1 not only in the single figures and groups1 but in the entire composition1 is fully evident from the description which ,pausanias gives of the paintings in the ,lesche4 ,in short1 correctness1 richness1 and grandeur of composition must be accounted the chief merits of ,polygnotos--merits to which none of his successors attained1 though they may have far surpassed him in execution1 as painters in a more restricted sense4 ,less painter than artist1 he pursued1 in his wall decorations1 a thoroughly monumental direction1 which after his time1 through change of aim1 was neglected4 ,the most celebrated companions of ,polygnotos1 but1 as lian remarks1 not equalling him in greatness1 were ,micon of ,athens1 whose name has already been mentioned1 and ,panainos1 a cousin of ,pheidias1 who1 besides the battle of ,marathon in the ,poikile1 executed the paintings upon the throne of the ,pheidian ,zeus in ,olympia4 ,dionysios of ,colophon and ,pauson have already been spoken of4 ,the first seems to have carried out the strict carefulness of his model1 ,polygnotos1 to a degree which was naturally unfavorable alike to grace and to greatness of style4 ,pauson1 though accounted an artist by ,aristotle1 may be compared to ,buffalmacco1 scorned and derided1 among the companions of ,giotto2 not fitted for productions of a grand style1 he did not attempt them1 and his nude paintings1 without ethical significance1 were harmful to young observers4 ,among the other distinguished masters of this time1 ,calliphon appears most nearly to have followed in the footsteps of ,polygnotos2 but his brother ,aristophon1 who brought painting upon panels into general use1 pursued technical methods opposed to this school4 ,the style of ,polygnotos was also abandoned by the ,samian ,agatharchos1 a self-instructed decorator and scene-painter who1 in an essay upon scenographic painting1 established principles upon which1 after his time1 this art was further developed4 ,in scene-painting the indispensable aim after illusory appearances must have led to the observation and imitation of the effect of more or less light--that is to say1 of paler or deeper shades in the local color--and thus have brought painting to a point of development not hitherto attained by any nation of antiquity4 ,the important advance indicated by ,agatharchos in scenography was made in the painting of figures by ,apollodoros of ,athens4 ,the accounts of him are few1 and in part incomprehensible2 but ,plutarch says plainly that he discovered the mixing of colors and the variation of shade upon them1 and ,pliny calls him the first master of illusion4 ,strictly speaking1 he was not the sole author of the innovation1 since ,agatharchos went before him2 and if he received the cognomen of skiagraphos--painter in light and shade--it must be understood that the word skiagraphia was used to signify scenography4 ,but he was1 at all events1 the first to apply these principles to figure-painting1 developing a treatment quite different from that employed in the architectural painting so extensively in use for the stage4 ,the important result of this innovation may well be imagined1 and it is not strange that the ground thus gained should have been promptly occupied by other masters of the art1 who rapidly brought painting to a perfection almost equal to that of sculpture4 ,these were ,zeuxis of ,heraclea1 in ,lower ,italy1 and ,parrhasios of ,ephesos4 ,the teachers of the former are not of importance2 the impulse through which ,zeuxis became one of the most brilliant geniuses of ,greece not having been given by these1 but rather by ,apollodoros1 who is not mentioned among them4 ,his fame was at its height during the ,peloponnesian war1 and in the following ten years2 so that we can easily understand why ,zeuxis did not establish himself in ,athens1 where ,polygnotos and ,apollodoros had raised painting to an art1 but1 after many wanderings1 found an asylum in ,ephesos4 ,his works1 in contrast to the wall-paintings of ,polygnotos1 were chiefly upon panels1 as1 according to ,pliny1 we may suppose those of ,apollodoros to have been4 ,among those of ,zeuxis1 the ,olympos was exceptional in regard to subject2 of the deities1 ,zeus is particularly celebrated4 ,the only other representations of the deities we find are the ,rose-crowned ,eros1 and ,apollo ,chastising ,marsyas4 ,neither ,pan1 nor ,heracles ,strangling the ,serpents in his ,infancy1 can be reckoned in this category4 ,the ,trojan legends appear in three of his more celebrated pictures--,helen in ,crotona1 the ,weeping ,menelaos ,bringing his ,brother the ,offering for the ,dead1 and ,penelope1 8in whom propriety itself is embodied40 ,if we may connect with the ,odyssey1 the ,storm at ,sea1 in which ,boreas and ,triton are mentioned1 it will form a fourth4 ,in his athletes he seems to have intended to establish a canon for painting1 as ,polycleitos had done for sculpture4 ,two others1 the ,family of ,centaurs1 and the ,boy bearing ,grapes1 are genre pictures4 ,it is not by chance that we have the fullest accounts of ,zeuxis2 his aim not being so high as that of ,polygnotos1 he took his motives from other fields more favorable to the new methods4 ,historic painting1 the foundation of that higher kind of monumental art which gives grand representations of character1 was forsaken2 as ,aristotle expresses it1 the works of ,zeuxis were wanting in ethic significance4 ,excessive striving after illusion1 after the semblance of reality1 brings forward outward and momentary appearances1 supplanting the inwardly essential and lasting4 ,penelope seems to speak1 and yet we know not in what situation she is delineated2 the weeping of ,menelaos certainly does not give his character2 and as little does the merry play of the ,centaurs with their young1 go charmingly described by ,lucian1 represent the mythological nature of these monsters4 ,still less can we rank the ,helen of ,zeuxis1 in conception1 upon a level with the female figures in the ,conquest of ,troy by ,polygnotos1 since we know that ,zeuxis chose as models the loveliest virgins of ,crotona2 that is to say1 sought after perfect outward female beauty in truthfulness to nature1 but not after that breadth and grandeur expressed in the brow of ,cassandra1 or which spoke in the glance of ,polyxena4 ,if1 at times1 ,zeuxis took a higher flight1 he still differed from the epic character of ,polygnotos in his tendency to dramatic effect1 which1 according to its nature1 is transient4 ,this is shown1 for example1 by the celebrated play of countenance in the ,family of ,centaurs1 the weeping of ,menelaos1 the horror of ,alcmene and ,amphitryon at sight of the serpents encircling the young ,heracles1 and by the actors as well as spectators in the chastisement of ,marsyas3 these are all scenes which1 with slight modification1 might be shown in dramatic action upon the stage4 ,with ,zeuxis1 contrary to ,polygnotos1 the subject was of less importance than the manner of presenting it1 the what less than the how2 in short1 the composition1 in which the picturesque sufficed1 was subordinate to the painting4 ,the master himself was displeased when the novelty of the subject1 in his family of ,centaurs1 caused the technical finish to be overlooked4 ,the expression of ,pliny was therefore a just one1 that ,zeuxis had given great glory to the brush4 ,the judgment of ,quintilian that ,zeuxis originated the correct application of light and shade is not to be disputed1 in so far as this refers to the consequent achievement of expression4 ,the degree of perfection he attained in illusive effects1 by chiaroscuro1 reflections1 and the like1 is illustrated by the anecdote of the boy with grapes1 so deceptive that the birds flew towards them2 at the same time1 the limitation is shown1 as the artist himself acknowledged1 in that the illusion had not succeeded in making the boy capable of frightening the birds4 ,it was because of the painter's power in this realism that his contemporaries regarded him with almost boundless admiration4 ,his fame was exceeded only by his vanity4 ,in later years he presented his pictures as gifts1 because it was impossible to recompense them with money2 he appeared at ,olympia clothed with a garment upon which his name was embroidered in golden letters4 ,the history of ,greek sculpture has no parallel to such conceits4 ,zeuxis himself1 notwithstanding his pride1 was forced to acknowledge that he was excelled by his contemporary ,parrhasios of ,ephesos1 who1 in regard to style1 was akin to him in many respects4 ,in subject the works of ,parrhasios may be divided like those of ,zeuxis4 ,the deities were seldom chosen2 his ,dionysios with ,arete was not one of his most celebrated productions1 and his ,hermes was really a portrait of the artist himself4 ,among the heroes represented were ,prometheus1 ,heracles1 ,meleager1 ,perseus1 and ,theseus4 ,the greater part of his productions refer to the ,trojan epics1 as the ,assumed ,madness of ,odysseus1 the ,healing of ,telephos1 the ,strife of ,ajax with ,odysseus for the ,armor of ,achilles1 ,philoctetes upon ,lemnos1 and neas4 ,the others are the ,demos of ,athens1 and portraits like the comedian ,philiscos1 the ,archigallos1 a ship-captain1 a ,thracian nurse with a child2 and1 finally1 pictures like the priest with a temple-boy1 two boys1 two heavily armed warriors1 and lewd genre paintings1 closing with the celebrated 8curtain0 of the master4 ,in many respects these betray a relationship to ,zeuxis1 and yet much that is independent4 ,there are numerous characteristic heads illustrative of temperament1 and other psychological subjects1 among the fore-most of which should be named the ,demos1 who1 according to ,pliny1 was shown as changeable1 angry1 unjust1 inconstant2 also as exorable1 kind1 compassionate1 boastful1 sublime1 low1 undisciplined1 and fickle4 ,this would be so impossible in a single head1 without making it a chaotic1 incomprehensible caricature1 that the author has no hesitation in describing the painting as a group1 in each figure of which one of the characteristics named was expressed4 ,that representing the assumed madness of ,odysseus must have had great psychological meaning1 as also the ,prometheus1 ,philoctetes upon ,lemnos1 and the ,telephos4 ,parrhasios had by these works placed himself above ,zeuxis through more correct and careful drawing1 and a marked technical progress in the art4 ,pliny says that1 according to the judgment of artists1 ,parrhasios had reached the highest perfection in the representation of figures2 that previously painters had succeeded in giving only to the outlines of the figure a truthful appearance and action1 but that the edges of color should be so rounded that one might be led to imagine the continuation of the body upon the other side1 suggesting what could not be seen4 ,this may be conceived to mean that1 by attention to chiaroscuro and reflections1 the illusive effect was increased from that of a relief to that of a figure in the round1 whereby figures first appeared to free themselves from the background2 that1 for instance1 he made clear to the observer the distinction between a globe1 only one side of which is seen1 and a hemisphere affixed to a plane4 ,the illusion consequently became more perfect1 the capacity for motion being thus brought into the 8outstepping0 figures4 ,the grapes of ,zeuxis did not need this power of action to tempt the birds as did the boy in order to frighten them4 ,the curtain of ,parrhasios possessed this capacity for movement1 with the freeing of the objects from the background1 and could therefore deceive even ,zeuxis himself1 who thought it possible really to withdraw it from the panel4 ,if his proud rival ,zeuxis bowed before this skill1 it cannot be thought strange that such a result should have moved ,parrhasios to outdo his competitor in arrogance also4 ,among other follies1 he proclaimed himself a descendant of ,apollo2 as ,king of ,art he was crowned with a diadem and golden wreath1 and donned the purple mantle of royalty4 ,by adopting the cognomen of ,habrodiaitos1 or high-liver1 he brought upon himself the nickname of ,rhabdodiaitos1 or brush-man4 ,parrhasios also was surpassed by a younger contemporary1 though1 as it appears1 only in a single instance4 ,timanthes of ,kythnos won the victory in a competition--the ,strife of ,ajax and ,odysseus for the ,armor of ,achilles4 ,pliny gives preference to the latter1 because his compositions were so arranged that more might be perceived in them than at first sight appeared4 ,there was withal a deeper motive than ,zeuxis and ,parrhasios had shown2 this was evident in the sacrifice of ,iphigeneia1 in which every degree of suffering was presented3 ,calchas being sad1 ,odysseus painfully moved1 ,ajax crying aloud1 ,menelaos in an ecstasy of grief2 but1 as the expression of anguish could not be carried beyond that of the latter1 the father1 ,agamemnon1 was shown hiding his face4 ,the murder of ,palamedes1 perhaps1 gave scope for the same depth of motive4 ,a small genre picture was conceived in a more jesting tone1 representing a sleeping ,cyclops1 and a satyr measuring the length of the giant's thumb with a thyrsos1 thus adding a living scale of comparative dimensions4 ,the hero of ,timanthes and the athlete of ,zeuxis were equally celebrated among ,grecian paintings as ideals of manly form4 ,it would seem that ,timanthes passed the latter part of his life in ,sikyon4 ,the art of painting found a home in ,ephesos during the ,peloponnesian war1 but did not connect itself with any school1 and returned to ,greece after the close of that disastrous conflict4 ,athens could not at once recover the commanding position it had held under ,polygnotos and ,apollodoros2 but artistic activity1 with its increasing requirements1 was concentrated in ,sikyon and ,thebes1 where flourishing academies were established with different aims4 ,eupompos appeared about this time in the former city1 as the founder of an important school1 but1 with the exception of a few superficial notices1 we know nothing of him4 ,his pupil1 ,pamphilos of ,amphipolis or ,nicopolis1 flourishing from #cij to #cfj ,b4,c41 was at the head of this school4 ,his works are little known1 having been described only by ,pliny1 so scantily and unintelligibly that one may be taken for a family picture1 another as the appearance of ,leucothea to ,odysseus after the shipwreck near the island of the ,phacians1 and a third possibly as the victory of the ,athenians at ,phlious4 ,pliny is more to the point when he relates that ,pamphilos considered education in science1 particularly in mathematics and geometry1 indispensable to artistic work4 ,as he thought drawing an essential part of cultivation1 he exerted himself1 with good result1 to have it taught in the higher schools4 ,he believed that from this alone could proceed a rational conception of art grounded upon science1 in which the mutual relations of teacher and scholar should be considered2 and that ,sikyon was the place best adapted to this purpose4 ,at a somewhat earlier period ,polycleitos had established a canon for sculpture by his system of proportions4 ,pamphilos1 following in the footsteps of ,eupompos1 now took the same position in respect to ,greek painting1 with1 perhaps1 even greater success4 ,he was pre-eminently a teacher1 and1 as such1 appears to have striven after correctness in composition1 drawing1 and painting1 to the disadvantage1 it may be1 of freedom in artistic development4 ,but this aim1 which won for the school of ,sikyon the name of ,chrestographia 7correct drawing71 operating upon the pupil from the beginning to the close of his scholarship1 must have been serviceable both in laying a foundation and in purifying and restraining4 ,it certainly was for the advantage of ,apelles to have finished his studies in this school1 which must indeed have had a salutary influence upon the general development of ,grecian painting4 ,the element of degeneracy in the tone of ,zeuxis and ,parrhasios was long held in restraint among their followers by the academic authority of ,sikyon4 ,pamphilos turned his attention chiefly towards correctness of execution in details1 and1 following ,polycleitos1 towards the human figure4 ,his pupil ,melanthios was a master of composition2 this1 however1 in accordance with the whole character of the school1 seems to have consisted less in the choice of scenic situation and action than in a formal distribution and balance of the grouping4 ,pausias1 a fellow-pupil of ,melanthios1 distinguished himself from this somewhat doctrinal art by greater freedom of creation4 ,the subjects of his works show this by their individuality1 as1 for instance1 the ,boy1 painted in a day1 the ,girl ,binding a ,wreath1 ,methe ,drinking from a ,glass1 and a flower piece1 which1 from the descriptions1 appears to have resembled our still-life pictures4 ,his ,sacrifice of a ,bull displayed a new mastery2 the animal1 foreshortened from the front1 as ,pliny remarks1 showed his entire length4 ,pausias was the first to win fame in encaustic painting1 although its technical processes had for some time been known4 ,of this it is only certain that the colors1 mixed with wax1 were melted by a rod of metal1 and thus affixed to the ground4 ,this process1 because of the more brilliant1 transparent1 and deeper hue given by the wax1 was as far superior to the former distemper as our own more convenient oil-painting is to every other method4 ,that such peculiarities of subject and treatment did not lead the master to renounce the artistic earnestness of the school of ,sikyon is shown in the direction imparted to his pupils4 ,the works of the most celebrated among these1 ,nicophanes1 were extremely labored2 but1 from the predominant brown1 hard in color4 ,aristolaos1 the son of ,pausias1 was rigid and academical4 ,during this period a second school of painting1 not less prominent1 flourished in ,thebes1 and1 after the hastily acquired importance of this city had as rapidly declined1 was transferred to ,athens4 ,at its head was ,nicomachos--#cfj ,b4,c4--son and pupil of the otherwise unknown artist1 ,aristios4 ,eight of his pictures are mentioned2 but1 though he was accounted one of the greatest masters1 we have little information in regard to the painter himself4 ,as contrasted with the quiet1 stately works of the ,sikyonians1 we may conclude1 from the subjects1 that there was greater excitement and action in those of ,nicomachos1 among which are mentioned the ,rape of ,proserpine1 ,victory ,ascending with a ,quadriga1 and ,bacchantins ,surprised by ,satyrs4 ,his unsurpassed rapidity in painting was praiseworthy only because united to great talents1 with an unusual and masterly sureness of hand4 ,the character of his pupil ,aristides is more intelligible1 and more important4 ,if ever there was a painter whose subjects alone sufficed to give an idea of his chief aim1 it was ,aristides4 ,one of his most celebrated works was the ,conquest of a ,city3 a wounded mother1 lying upon the ground1 sees her infant creeping towards her breast1 and visibly betrays the fear that1 when the milk fails1 the child will take the blood4 ,another1 a woman who1 8for love of her brother1 gives herself up to death40 ,a third1 according to ,pliny most highly prized1 represented a sick man4 ,in these1 and in one more1 perhaps also to be ascribed to ,aristides1 the ,heracles ,suffering from the ,poisoned ,garment of ,deianeira1 a fundamental tone of great pathos is unmistakable4 ,in the praying man1 whose voice one almost seemed to hear1 and in the old man teaching a boy to play upon the harp1 the predominant expression of feeling was unmistakable4 ,the latter reminds us of that beautiful ,pompeian wall-painting of the ,centaur ,cheiron instructing the boy ,achilles4 ,pliny distinctly says that ,aristides aimed at the pathetic1 by which is meant the expression of tender as well as painful and passionate emotions4 ,in this master1 therefore1 may be recognized one whose aims were similar to those of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,euphranor1 a pupil of ,aristides--#cfj to #ccj ,b4,c4--was a remarkable phenomenon in the domain of art4 ,few1 either in sculpture or in painting1 have been so many-sided1 and yet1 though standing in the first rank1 the insufficient accounts of his pictures that have come down to us prevent our forming any positive judgment about them4 ,a certain indication1 however1 lies in the remark of the artist himself1 that the ,theseus of ,parrhasios looked as if fed upon roses2 his own1 on the contrary1 as though nourished by the flesh of oxen4 ,this comparison must have included two points1 color and drawing2 the likeness to roses would have been inapt if ,parrhasios had not failed in depth of flesh-tint2 on the other hand1 besides the healthy color1 the strong nourishment suggested by the ,theseus of ,euphranor proved an energetic development of muscles4 ,it was probably a somewhat massive figure1 characteristic of ,euphranor1 and1 with certain limitations1 reminding us of the ,heracles of ,lysippos4 ,it may be understood1 from the noble expression of the ,theseus1 how ,euphranor brought his heroes to a typical perfection4 ,in a similar sense he had raised his ,poseidon to such power that there remained no further means at his command for surpassing it in his conception of ,zeus4 ,the remark of ,euphranor expressed not only the difference1 and his own superiority to ,parrhasios1 but suggested a certain relationship in subject and aim1 both masters having painted the ,theseus1 and the ,assumed ,madness of ,odysseus4 ,the ,isthmian ,euphranor had changed the scene of his labors1 and1 at the same time1 the centre of the entire school1 to ,athens1 which continued to be the artistic metropolis for his scholars and successors4 ,among the latter1 ,nikias is especially celebrated--#cdj to #cjj ,b4,c4 ,he devoted his attention chiefly to feminine beauty1 somewhat influenced1 perhaps1 by his older contemporary ,praxiteles1 in connection with whom he is mentioned4 ,his taste was for extensive compositions1 surprising for their novelty of conception1 and1 like ,parrhasios1 he endeavored to give roundness to his figures4 ,the lack in the ,theban-,attic school of that individuality which existed in the ,sikyonian was completely overcome by ,euphranor1 and gave place to a more universal aim4 ,he and ,nikias were artists whose tone came less from their school than from their own personal convictions4 ,they early learned to understand technical and artistic acquisitions of all kinds1 and to carry them forward independently4 ,we may conceive them as holding the same loose relations towards their teachers which existed between the ,sikyonian master ,pamphilos and their contemporary ,apelles4 ,apelles was destined to bear away the palm from all his predecessors and successors4 ,although three cities--,colophon1 ,ephesos1 and ,cos--claimed the honor of calling him their own1 it is reasonably certain that the first was the place of his birth1 the second that where his labors commenced1 and the third may not improbably have been that of his death4 ,the ,ephesian ,euphoros is named as his first teacher1 but his fame dates from the time when he left the academy of ,pamphilos for that of ,sikyon4 ,perhaps the fact that ,pamphilos was a ,macedonian by birth may have paved the way for ,apelles to the royal court at ,pella1 whence he appears to have returned to ,ephesos among the followers of ,alexander the ,great4 ,he seems never to have founded a permanent school2 at least1 we gather from classical notices that he worked transiently at ,athens1 ,corinth1 ,rhodes1 and even in ,alexandria4 ,we learn also that he outlived1 by a considerable time1 his great patron ,alexander4 ,his works are to be divided into three groups--paintings of gods and heroes1 allegories1 and portraits2 these were also sometimes combined4 ,at the head of the first group stands the ,aphrodite ,anadyomene1 one of the most celebrated pictures of antiquity4 ,it was transferred to ,augustus for the remission of one hundred talents of taxes2 by him carried to ,rome and placed in ,csar's ,temple of ,venus1 where it became so much injured--thus obtaining the sobriquet ,monocmenon1 one-legged--that ,nero had it taken away and replaced by a copy4 ,she was represented as the 8sea-born10 nude1 and pressing with her hands her dripping hair4 ,far from being an ideal figure1 it was rather patterned after the celebrated courtesans of the time1 two of whom are named--,pancaste1 or ,pancaspe1 the paramour of ,alexander1 who afterwards presented her to the artist himself2 and ,cratine1 or ,phryne1 mistress of ,apelles1 who may have been the more direct model for the ,venus1 as1 at the festival of ,poseidon at ,eleusis1 she bathed1 naked1 in the sea before the eyes of the assemblage4 ,a second ,aphrodite1 in which ,apelles hoped to surpass the first1 remained unfinished at his death4 ,of these representations the first was certainly without any devotional or even ethic character2 but the ,artemis1 in the ,sacrifice of the ,virgins1 was something more than a genre piece with a mythological motive2 and his heroes1 who1 according to ,pliny1 challenged nature itself1 were more than mere stately portraits4 ,the ,heracles may be regarded as a study4 ,charis and ,tyche were allegories1 the latter having been represented sitting 8because happiness does not stand fast40 ,the most celebrated of them all1 ,calumny1 is minutely described by ,lucian4 ,it portrayed a man1 whose inclination to credit evil reports was characterized by large ears1 sitting between two women1 ,ignorance and ,mistrust1 and receiving ,calumny1 a magnificent woman excited with passion1 preceded by ,envy2 she drags in a youth by the hair1 who vainly1 with hands uplifted1 calls the gods to witness4 ,behind the train advances ,repentance1 a mourning female figure in black1 looking back with pain and shame upon the tardy appearance of ,truth4 ,similar in character is the picture of the chained war demon1 belonging partly to the group of portraits4 ,a third allegory1 of little intrinsic worth1 is set forth with great artistic ability--,bronte1 ,astrape1 and ,keraunobolia--thunder1 with the flash and stroke of lightning4 ,among the portraits1 allegorical in nature1 was the famous picture in which ,alexander1 with lightning in his right hand1 was represented as ,jupiter4 ,the monarch himself was so well pleased with this that he said there were two ,alexanders--one the unconquered son of ,philip1 the other the inimitable creation of ,apelles4 ,but little is known of the king's portraits1 whether equestrian1 in triumphal chariots1 or surrounded by deities and allegorical figures2 nor of those of ,philip and his generals1 of the tragic actor ,gorgosthenes of ,habron1 nor of that of the artist himself4 ,if ,apelles be scrutinized more closely in order to make clear the chief characteristics by which he won such brilliant renown1 it will be found that it was not in composition4 ,in this1 as in treatment of perspective1 he gave precedence to his fellow-pupils ,melanthios and ,asclepiodoros4 ,that he was aware of this weakness1 and avoided occasion for manifesting it1 is shown by the fact that most of his paintings contained few figures4 ,when more appeared1 instead of being picturesquely grouped and treated1 they were ranged in rows1 almost like reliefs1 better suited to the allegorical subjects so prevalent with ,apelles1 and so common in his time1 than to mythological and historical representations4 ,though allegory may1 in great measure1 be unfavorable to true art1 because1 as ,winckelmann says1 it forces the painter 8to tint his brush with reason10 still that of ,apelles has lately been too much depreciated4 ,the ,calumny has been pronounced an error of fancy1 rough symbolism1 and an inharmonious assemblage of persons and personifications4 ,but these were the legitimate materials of the artist1 and he succeeded1 at least1 in the representation of character and in truthfulness of drawing4 ,the lightning group was something more than a piece of technical bravura4 ,who would prize the picture less because thunder and lightning were represented instead of ,zeus1 a deity who would have been attempted by no painter of antiquity1 or1 indeed1 of later times8 ,though his motive may have been purely intellectual1 the painter remained the same1 whether he portrayed a ,cassandra or a ,diabole--whether he more or less displayed his astounding mastery4 ,apelles will be more rightly judged if he be treated as a painter rather than an artist2 as such we recognize in him a technical and many-sided perfection4 ,different accounts speak of him as rapid and sure in drawing1 his lines being not only correct1 but in the highest degree characteristic4 ,the maxim of ,apelles 8,no day without a line0--that is1 without exercise in drawing--has become a proverb1 if not quite in its original sense4 ,through this incessant practice his hand acquired such sureness that it followed the will implicitly1 and made possible even the hair-splitting execution related in an anecdote which has been unjustly discredited by critics4 ,apelles entered one day the workshop of ,protogenes1 in the absence of the latter1 and made known his visit by drawing a line upon a tablet at hand with such swing and surety1 such purity and smoothness1 that the ,rhodian master1 upon his return1 recognized the hand of ,apelles4 ,in order to show himself equal1 ,protogenes split the line by a second one in a different color1 but acknowledged himself defeated when ,apelles divided this through its entire length by a third4 ,an evidence of the sharpness and certainty of his characterization with simple lines is given in the story of a servant who had injured him1 and whom ,apelles1 though he had seen him only once1 so sketched with charcoal upon the wall that the likeness was recognized by ,king ,ptolemy after the first strokes4 ,it will readily be understood that such capacity must have fitted the artist especially for portraiture2 and his portraits attained such striking likeness and truthfulness that a physiognomist assumed to be able1 by them1 to discern not only the exact age of the subject1 but even the time of his future death4 ,no further testimony is needed than the ,anadyomene to prove that his works were perfect in correctness and expression as well as in beauty4 ,the employment of color had fully kept pace with this matchless drawing1 though ,apelles seems to have been limited to painting in distemper1 without the use of encaustic4 ,the softened glazings are particularly mentioned1 which made the unbroken light all the more brilliant4 ,in the portrait of ,alexander1 the hand1 outstretched with the lightning1 appeared to stand quite out from the panel1 a result perhaps equally owing to masterly foreshortening in the drawing4 ,the beauty of his color was noted1 and especially its vigor2 the fame of the ,aphrodite cannot be understood without the former1 nor that of the ,alexander and the ,lightning without the latter4 ,this many-sided1 technical perfectness1 unattained before ,apelles1 and in which ,pliny says that he excelled all other painters together1 may have had its germ in the school of ,pamphilos1 as the ,sikyonians devoted especial attention to artistic execution4 ,to these eminent qualities1 however1 were added the intrinsic merits of the master himself1 upon which he laid the greatest stress1 and which he ascribed to that charm understood by the ,greeks in the word charis4 ,that this was chiefly to be found in the just measure of completeness was explained by ,apelles when he declared himself to have been surpassed by ,protogenes in all but the knowledge of the right moment to lay aside the brush1 without which this charm1 through overmuch care1 is lost4 ,by this technical mastery1 clearness of characterization and grace1 ,apelles so delighted all who saw his works that1 according to the numerous anecdotes that illustrate his position1 he was the most popular artist of all antiquity4 ,in face of such authority1 it would be unjust to see in him1 as some have done1 the beginnings of the decline of art4 ,though his artistic efforts may not have equalled those of ,polygnotos1 because he could more easily satisfy the ethical demands of his time1 still it must be acknowledged that1 as a painter1 he surpassed him as far as1 in sculpture1 ,praxiteles surpassed ,calamis and the other predecessors of ,pheidias4 ,but in ,pheidias a high ideal was united to an absolute perfection of execution which1 in painting1 ,polygnotos was far from having attained4 8,in the history of painting10 says ,brunn1 8each of these two fields has its separate point of greatest elevation2 the fame1 therefore1 which1 in sculpture1 undoubtedly raised ,pheidias above all others1 appeared1 in painting1 divided between ,polygnotos and ,apelles40 ,protogenes of ,caunos1 or rather1 with reference to his work1 of ,rhodes1 was a rival of ,apelles4 ,he seems to have been self-taught1 or1 at least1 to have been the pupil of an entirely obscure master4 ,the admiration of ,apelles for ,protogenes was so great that he expressed a desire to buy up his works and publish them as his own2 but numerous anecdotes show that ,apelles was in the way of bestowing his flattery upon every great and celebrated man4 ,protogenes is said to have painted over his ,ialysos four times1 the better to secure it from destruction1 so that1 on the peeling of the outer layer of pigment1 the surface below might present the same color4 ,but this can only be a foolish legend1 invented to illustrate his extreme care4 ,similar tales of a later time reported him to have worked upon the ,ialysos seven or eleven years1 and to have fed upon nothing but lupines1 for fear that luxury might blunt the acuteness of his senses4 ,perhaps this means that the painter's genius was not recognized until late in life1 up to which time he had lived in great poverty4 ,of his picture in the ,propyla at ,athens1 representing ,paralos and ,hammonias--personifications of ,athenian ships--there is an equally idle story that he did not paint the ships themselves because1 until his fifteenth year1 he had earned his bread as a ship-painter4 ,in ,protogenes we may conceive a perfection such as only the most unwearied care could attain4 ,this perfection was neither in the ideas nor in the composition2 for the subjects of his pictures1 known to us as heroic or historical portraits1 or1 at most1 as groups of few persons without action1 were in themselves far less important than those of ,apelles4 ,but the illusive effect must have been complete if1 as ,petronius says1 one could not look even at the sketches without a feeling of awe on account of their truthfulness to nature4 ,this carefulness extended even to the smallest accessories1 like the wonder of the partridge at the reclining satyr1 and the foam on the mouth of the dog in the ,ialysos2 an effect which1 it is said1 was at last accomplished by the pressure--not the throwing--of a sponge4 ,yet the wearisomeness of this perfection was not to be denied1 and here1 in the eyes of ,apelles1 lay the weakness of this master4 ,the relations of ,apelles with another rival1 the ,egyptian ,antiphilos1 were not so friendly4 ,the great celebrity of this painter rested upon a peculiarity directly contrary to that of ,protogenes1 designated by ,quintilian as facility2 that is1 a freshness and genial security of conception and treatment in everything which his brush touched4 ,his range of subjects exceeded that of ,protogenes1 or even of ,apelles2 for he painted with equal excellence pictures of the deities1 mythological scenes1 portraits1 genre pieces1 such as the ,wool-comber and the ,boy ,blowing the ,fire2 and even caricatures1 such as that of ,gryllos1 with a face reminding one of the significance of his own name--the ,porker2 whence it comes that all caricatures were1 in antiquity1 called ,grylli4 ,that he was fond of startling effects of light is evident from the ,boy ,blowing the ,fire1 the glow of which was reflected upon his face2 also from his renowned satyr ,aposcopeuon--the ,gazer--whose glance the shielding hand seemed at once to intensify and to conceal4 ,aetion1 according to ,brunn1 also belongs to the group of artists contemporary with ,apelles4 ,his importance can be measured only by the esteem of antiquity1 and by the minute descriptions of one of his pictures4 ,this represented the marriage of ,alexander and ,roxana2 the latter1 sitting modestly upon a couch1 is served by ,cupids1 who take the veil from her head and loosen her sandals4 ,the king1 accompanied by ,hephaistion as attendant1 with torches1 is led towards the bride by an ,eros2 two more1 panting under the weight of the shaft1 bear the lance of the conqueror1 while others carry by the handles a shield2 and one ,cupid1 who has crept into a coat of mail1 seems1 from his hiding-place1 to lie in wait for those about to pass4 ,it is not strange that this composition1 so charming in the description of ,lucian1 should have led modern painters to attempt to reproduce it2 as in the frescos of ,raphael in the ,borghese ,gallery1 and those of ,razzi in the ,farnesina4 ,among other masters of the time of ,alexander were the ,athenian ,asclepiodoros1 of whom we know little more than that ,apelles gave him the preference in composition2 and ,theon of ,samos1 whose works degenerated into an attempt to secure a theatrical rather than a natural effect4 ,besides tragic scenes1 like the murder of his mother by ,orestes1 and the blinding of the singer ,thamyris1 this is shown in the heavily armed warrior called by ,quintilian his masterpiece--a man in the violence of attack with a drawn sword4 ,to increase the theatrical effect1 this picture was exhibited by the artist accompanied with the flourish of trumpets4 ,if we here bear in mind the so-called ,borghese warrior of ,agasias--that sculptural cousin of the ,hoplite--we cannot mistake the spirit of a time which1 after the inner significance had perished1 clung entirely to the external1 and1 renouncing truthfulness in composition1 which here would have demanded a group1 was satisfied with a theatrical sham4 ,the farthest remove from the conceptions of ,polygnotos had now been reached4 ,hellenism1 by which is meant the civilization of the period after ,alexander1 when the ,grecian kingdom had become cosmopolitan1 satisfied its artistic requirements by a repetition of what the previous centuries had produced4 ,the attempt was made1 in sculpture and in painting1 to combine results already won1 generally in a shallow eclecticism4 ,of the numerous painters in that decorative period few names have been handed down4 ,the most was accomplished by the masters of ,sikyon where the tradition of the energetic school of ,pamphilos was not yet lost4 ,protogenes in ,rhodes1 and ,antiphilos in ,egypt1 also had some followers who were not quite without fame4 ,timomachos of ,byzantion1 at least1 was equal to his great predecessors of the time of ,alexander4 ,his ,medea was purchased by ,csar for eighty talents1 and his other works are not less praised2 among them one1 perhaps historical1 showing two men in conversation1 and the ,gorgo1 may be connected with an event related by ,herodotos 7v4 #ea74 ,if1 as we are told1 there was a ,medea represented before the murder of her children1 in a struggle between hatred of her husband and motherly love--a subject treated in a ,pompeian wall-painting in the museum at ,naples2 an ,ajax1 after his fury1 meditating suicide2 and an ,iphigeneia in ,tauris1 perhaps recognizing her brother1 we may conclude that ,timomachos had returned to the pathetic element1 and that he united with it1 so far as possible1 the technical perfection of the ,alexandrian period4 ,it is possible that the painter stood in the same artistic relation to the sculptors ,pasiteles1 ,stephanos1 and ,menelaos as did ,theon to ,agasias4 ,after ,parrhasios1 side by side with the grander style had developed a species of cabinet-painting which seems to have been devoted especially to obscene subjects 7,pornographia74 ,already in the time of ,alexander1 pictures of a small size were much in favor2 besides the ,egyptian ,antiphilos already mentioned as celebrated in this direction1 ,callicles and ,calates worked in it exclusively1 and ,peiricos had great fame as a painter of this kind4 ,his subjects were not of a lewd nature1 but were taken from the lower ranks of life1 such as booths of barbers and cobblers1 donkeys1 eatables1 etc42 by which one is reminded of the genre pieces and still-life paintings of the ,netherlands4 ,pornographia was thus changed to ,rhopographia1 painting of small wares4 ,in later times the term employed for obscene painting seems to have been ,rhyparographia4 ,this trivial painting naturally continued to be prevalent in the periods of the ,diadochi and the ,romans1 since art1 when reduced to mere decoration1 cultivated by preference graceful and lively subjects4 ,it was extended even to the floors1 for which mosaic had been used as early as the time of the royal court of ,pergamon4 ,if the decoration of walls is based upon tapestry1 as ,semper has made evident1 this is especially the case with colored floors4 ,the effect of mosaic1 in which form painting now took possession of the pavement1 differed little from that of weaving and embroidery4 ,sosos was considered as the oldest and most celebrated master of this process1 perhaps because he first carried it beyond simple patterns4 ,he represented1 in the so-called 8unswept hall0 at ,pergamon1 remnants of food1 fruit-rinds1 etc41 as if scattered upon the floor2 also a dove drinking from a shell4 ,the celebrity of these works makes it natural that several repetitions of the dove should have been found4 ,it seems1 however1 that the practice of this art was not in extensive use before the time of the ,roman empire1 when it spread over all the floors1 as painting did over all the walls4 ,the mosaics in the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia1 which are composed of rough pebbles1 may1 however1 be even more ancient than the works of ,sosos in ,pergamon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,the ,campana ,tomb at ,veii4 ,,etruria4 ,at the time when ,hellenic influence had developed to its fullest extent in ,magna ,grcia1 the ,etruscans had long passed their highest point of perfection4 ,roman tradition gives no little significance to their civilization1 in its artistic as well as in its political aspects1 though it was far less grand and brilliant than that of their neighbors in the south of the ,italian peninsula4 ,but as ,rome rose1 ,etruria fell2 and in the time of the ,peloponnesian war it had but a shadow of its former dominant position in ,italy4 ,whether this people were related to the ancient ,greeks1 or merely mixed with the ,pelasgic and ,hellenic element through emigration from the western coasts of ,greece1 it is certain that the older culture of the nation shows a great resemblance to that of the countries beyond the ,adriatic4 ,this may have been owing partly to common ,oriental prototypes1 and to native imitation of these1 and partly to the fact that certain primitive results of civilization1 under like material premises1 naturally assume a more or less similar form without any real historical connection4 ,the method of building the ,etruscan walls is particularly a case in point4 ,the resemblance of these to the most ancient fortifications of ,greece makes possible1 though it does not establish1 an intimate communication between the two races1 to which also the use of ,greek letters for the strange ,etruscan language certainly points4 ,the so-called ,cyclopean jointing1 however1 presents itself in every civilized land where rock is found which naturally breaks in polygonal forms4 ,so also square-stone masonry early appears wherever the material1 quarried without difficulty in rectangular forms1 favors this more satisfactory method4 ,besides both these varieties1 the ,etruscans made use of bricks1 as shown by the foundations of the walls of ,veii1 which above-ground are mainly built of cut stone4 ,these are at least as ancient as the time of the later kings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,gate of ,falerii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--;,canal of the ,marta4 ,some of the remaining ruins of ,etruria1 and of ,central ,italy--for the peculiar civilization of that region is not strictly confined to the limits of the ,etruscan language--show in the building of gates a new technical element4 ,it has been seen how the ,greeks in vain sought a substitute for the arch1 to them an inadmissible1 if not an unattainable1 feature2 and exhausted every conceivable method of horizontal stone-laying in order to cover their gateways4 ,similar evasive attempts are not wanting in ,etruria2 the ,cyclopean walls1 especially1 present portal constructions similar to those of ,myken4 ,but through the perfection of stone-cutting1 and building with rectangular blocks1 the ceiling of the passage by means of the arch was early attained4 ,that this step was taken before the invasion of the ,gauls is shown by the still remaining ,gate of ,falerii 7,fig4 #bdg71 which city1 as is well known1 lost its importance under ,camillus4 ,it is not certain whence the people of ,central ,italy attained their knowledge of the arch4 ,though it had been familiar to the ,assyrians as early as the ninth century ,b4,c41 it is possible that they made this important discovery independently1 perhaps somewhat later than the ,mesopotamians4 ,the vault of the ,cloaca ,maxima in ,rome dates from the sixth century ,b4,c41 but it shows1 even at this early period1 a perfection which gives evidence of long previous use4 ,canal-building was one of the first conditions of existence on the western coast of ,central ,italy1 where the drainage of the swamps--the neglect of which1 since the ,middle ,ages1 has reduced the once populous ,maremma to a pestilential desert--the discharge of the mountain lakes1 which otherwise overflow from time to time1 desolating the lower country1 and the regulation of the river-courses1 alone made possible the settlement of a people and the founding of flourishing cities west of the ,apennines4 ,it is therefore not improbable that the great canal discovered by ,dennis1 which once drained the swampy ,valley of the ,marta1 preceded the ,cloaca ,maxima1 and1 indeed1 antedated the ,roman period altogether4 7,fig4 #bdh47 ,the enormous stones employed in its construction1 and its great extent1 display1 even in this primitive age1 that marked inclination for works of general usefulness which distinguished the people of ,italy above all others of antiquity4 ,of the long-forgotten cities1 discovered in the present century by their walls1 little else remains than extensive cemeteries1 which1 as repeatedly happens among the ruined places of the earth1 have outlasted by more than two thousand years the dwellings of the living4 ,the streets and buildings of these settlements1 already in ruins under the ,romans1 have disappeared almost without a trace2 while the monuments of the dead are so well preserved as frequently to give information concerning even the domestic architecture of their builders4 ,by far the greater number of the tombs were tumuli1 conical hills of earth1 which generally1 as in ,lydia1 were elevated upon a low cylinder and reveted by an outer course of stone4 ,these have now almost all been reduced to the appearance of natural mounds4 ,their dimensions in some instances are almost as great as those of the smaller ,egyptian pyramids4 ,the base of the monument at ,poggio ,gajella1 near ,chiusi1 formerly falsely held to be the tomb of ,porsena1 measures #bef m4 in its circumference1 while that at ,monteroni1 between ,rome and ,civita ,vecchia1 is #aie m4 ,these gigantic foundations at times bore several cones4 ,this appears to have been the case with the so-called tomb of ,cucumella at ,vulci1 where two tall tower-like elevations still remain1 which doubtless served as substructures for the terminating piers4 ,the cippus may be imagined to have been analogous to the upper members of the tombs in ,lydia1 or1 perhaps1 to have resembled a pear-shaped capital1 like the fragment found near the ruins of the so-called tomb of ,pythagoras1 or the imitations upon terra-cotta reliefs--similar to the cone which so generally terminated ,roman tholos roofs4 ,when several cones were placed upon one base1 the angle of elevation was made steeper1 as may probably have been the case with the tomb of ,porsena at ,clusium1 the description of which is given by ,pliny 7xxxvi4 #c7 after ,varro4 ,if the tombs called those of the ,horatii and ,curiatii at ,albano1 which display many ,etruscan reminiscences1 be compared with this account1 it is possible to present a restoration of the structure1 correct in at least its principal aspects4 ,upon the corners of the triply stepped1 diminishing substructure stood twelve cones1 the thirteenth being in the centre of the upper terrace4 7,fig4 #bdi47 ,the fundamental idea of the ,etruscan tombs was not alone the creation of a monument which1 covering the remains and protecting them from desecration1 should plainly mark the place of interment1 but the survivors sought1 at the same time1 to provide a room in which the dead might dwell in a manner corresponding to their circumstances during life4 ,this conception was foreign to the ,greeks1 who seldom employed burial chambers of great size2 but it was prevalent among the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 ,lycians1 and other nations of antiquity1 though not by them carried out so logically as by the ,etruscans1 who usually placed the bodies upon stone benches1 shaped like a bed1 as if sleeping4 ,sarcophagi1 when existing at all1 appear to have been added upon further use of the sepulchre4 ,it is thus1 for instance1 with the tomb of ,veii--of which ,fig4 #bdf1 at the head of this section1 gives an inner view--with the tomb called that of ,regulini-,galassi at ,cre1 and with numerous other sepulchres discovered in various cemeteries1 notably of ,southern ,etruria4 ,there1 however1 the chambers have mostly proved to have been plundered in former centuries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--,restored ,plan and ,elevation of the ,tomb of ,porsena4 ,the dwelling-rooms represented are as diverse as those of the living must naturally have been4 ,no great width of these spaces was possible1 because of the imposed weight of the tumulus2 and the apartments consequently became narrow passages1 ceiled by stone lintels1 by blocks leaning against each other as a gable1 or by the gradual approach of the horizontal courses by the projection of each over that beneath it4 ,examples of all these methods are provided by the tombs of ,alsium1 the present ,monteroni2 and the before-mentioned ,regulini-,galassi tomb of ,cre1 the present ,cervetri4 ,the latter1 so called after its discoverers1 has furnished numerous treasures to the ,etruscan ,museum of the ,vatican2 it consisted of a corridor separated by a wall into compartments1 with rock-cut lateral chambers of oval plan4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4--;,ceiling of a ,tomb at ,cervetri4 ,when the burial-chamber was a grotto--that is to say1 was wholly excavated from the native rock--a greater width could be obtained4 ,the ceiling was then carved1 either to the outline of a low vault1 as in the ,campana tomb at ,veii1 or1 more commonly1 in imitation of the beams of a wooden ceiling4 ,in the latter case various forms appear2 for small inner chambers a simple horizontal ceiling sufficed1 and a simple cross-timbering1 overlaid with boards1 was chosen as a pattern4 ,the spacious vestibules frequently have an inclined roof1 when ridge-beams1 rafters1 and the slats laid upon them are carefully and truthfully imitated4 7,fig4 #bej47 ,a noteworthy example at ,corneto 7,fig4 #bee7 shows in its outer room a plain imitation of the ,italian atrium1 or court1 of the kind termed by ,vitruvius cavdia displuviata4 ,it is roofed by four main beams1 laid diagonally and inclined outward1 which support the framework of a middle orifice for light and air1 and shed the water without instead of within4 ,from this instance it appears that the fundamental idea of the chief sepulchral chamber was the atrium1 which was the common gathering-place of the ,italian house1 as was the peristyle of the ,greek2 while the inner chambers represented the various rooms4 ,this imitation of an ,etruscan dwelling--a remarkable counterpart1 in architectural respects1 to the copies of the exterior of wooden houses in the ,lycian rock-cut tombs--was further carried out by a corresponding ornamentation of the rooms4 ,the couches hewn from the rock1 upon which the bodies rested1 were at times a close imitation of cushions and pillows2 the supports beneath were sculptured like bedsteads1 while stone easy-chairs and footstools stood near to increase the apparent comfort4 ,the apertures in the wall which separates the two spaces are reproductions of the framework of doors and windows4 7,fig4 #bea47 ,the sides of the chambers are stuccoed with plaster of ,paris1 and covered with cheerful paintings1 illustrating feasts1 dances1 sacred festivals1 and games4 ,every conceivable variety of household utensils hang upon the walls or stand leaning against them1 with great numbers of the well-known painted vases and other works of pottery4 ,these objects1 when not provided in reality1 are imitated in stucco-relief and brilliantly painted1 as in a tomb at ,cervetri 7,fig4 #beb71 where walls and piers are covered with the representations of familiar household articles and weapons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,plan and ,section of a ,tomb at ,cervetri4 ,although the tumuli were the more common funeral monuments1 there were parts of ,etruria1 among the ,apennines1 where the limited extent of the level ground offered no spacious cemetery for the mounds1 and where rocky mountains and abrupt cliffs led to a different form of sepulchre4 ,a faade was cut upon the background provided by nature1 where the appearance of a dwelling could be imitated with little expenditure of labor4 ,the most numerous examples of these fronts are in the cemeteries of ,castel d',asso1 near ,viterbo4 ,the forms are plain1 and not particularly characteristic2 a blind niche1 the only architectural feature of the lower surface1 was substituted for a door1 the real entrance being through an insignificant shaft beneath the earth2 and the faade was terminated by a complicated cornice--a confused mass of roundlets1 cyma-mouldings1 and rectangular bands1 almost without projection4 ,a stairway was often cut upon one or both sides of the tomb1 leading to a platform or to other sepulchres situated upon a higher level4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4--;,interior of a ,tomb at ,cervetri4 ,more remarkable than these monuments at ,castel d',asso are the rock-cut faades of ,norchia1 to the west of ,viterbo1 upon which are imitated the fronts of temples4 ,the four columns or pilasters1 now destroyed1 were placed wide apart1 according to the proportions of the ,tuscan order4 ,the entablature consists of a narrow epistyle and a frieze decorated with clumsy triglyphs1 or rather diglyphs1 with pointed trunnels under the regula1 above which follows a weak cornice with dentils4 ,the gable is still more peculiar4 ,its outer ends curl into a volute1 with a ,gorgoneion in its centre1 which originally served as a base for the acroteria2 the triangle is filled with reliefs4 ,the whole front gives the impression of a barbarous mixture of indigenous elements with ,grecian forms1 ill understood and roughly rendered4 7,fig4 #bec47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--,temple ,tomb at ,norchia4 ,these remains are interesting1 but elements seem to have crept in which could not originally have belonged to the ,etruscan style1 and the faades of ,norchia can hence be deemed of but secondary importance in the study of the temple structures4 ,the plan of these was quite different from that of the ,doric temple4 ,instead of the length being at least double the width of the front1 as in ,greece1 the breadth was here to the length as five to six4 ,the cella did not form a centre around which stood the columns1 but it entirely occupied the rear half of the area1 while the front remained open as a columned porch4 ,three cellas1 with the images of nearly related deities1 were usually grouped together1 the middle one being the largest1 and also of the greatest hieratic importance4 ,in some instances rows of columns were ranged upon the two long sides of a cella2 but the rear wall was always bare4 ,all artistic effect was here abandoned1 and the building was1 on this account1 often so placed as to abut immediately against an enclosing rampart1 or against a natural cliff4 ,the plan and general arrangement were thus entirely different from those of the ,greek temple4 ,but the same thing is by no means to be said in regard to the architectural details and members of the building4 ,the ,etruscan column was closely allied to the ,doric1 and greatly resembled it1 in spite of some marked variations arising from the lingering influence of the original timbered construction1 and the inferior perception of artistic proportions4 ,the ,etruscan shaft1 in contrast to the ,doric1 had a base consisting of a circular plinth and a tore1 both of equal height4 ,the capital was formed of three parts1 equally high1 of which the two upper1 the echinos and abacus1 were similar to the ,doric4 ,the third beneath--the necking of the column--which1 in the ,greek prototype1 was divided from the shaft only by slight incisions or an apophyge1 was in this separated by a roundlet2 what in ,greek architecture was based upon technical necessities1 in ,etruria became an unmeaning decoration4 ,the shaft1 apparently not channelled1 rose in a lightness akin to the ,ionic1 tapering to three quarters of its lower diameter1 and reached a height of seven diameters4 ,the unusually wide distance between the columns--seven times the lower diameter of the shaft--in contrast to that in the intercolumniation of the ,doric style1 which rarely equalled two diameters1 had its origin in the light wooden beams1 which did not require such frequent and powerful supports as did the stone epistyle of the ,greeks4 ,the entablature consisted of wooden epistyle beams placed one over another1 fastened together by iron clamps1 in at least two courses4 ,from the text of ,vitruvius--from whom the entire description must be taken1 since1 on account of the wooden beams1 there are no remains of ,etruscan temples--we cannot learn whether these smooth layers took the place of both architrave and frieze1 or whether the upper member resembled the ,doric frieze with triglyphs4 ,from a remark of this writer1 the former appears more probable1 as many epistyle timbers being fastened one above another as the size of the building seemed to require2 moreover1 notwithstanding the ,hellenic influence1 triglyphs were not always introduced into the ,roman ,tuscan order4 ,the arrangement of the roof rafters was doubtless such that their support upon the beams of the epistyle beneath was hidden1 and perhaps rendered more solid by mortising or dovetailing4 ,upon the longer sides the roof projected considerably1 fully one quarter of the height of the columns4 ,by this means the size of the gable was decidedly increased4 ,these gables may have been decorated with sculptural ornament in the tympanon1 of clay or bronze1 and with acroteria1 as may be gathered from several notices1 as well as from the rock-tombs of ,norchia4 ,concerning these decorations ,vitruvius is silent2 but they could not have altered the heavy1 low1 and clumsy character of which he complains1 and which is apparent in the restorations that have been made according to his theory4 7,fig4 #bed47 ,the ,etruscan temple could not become really monumental so long as it retained the wooden construction in its most essential constituents1 and this seems never to have been given up in the entablature1 even when the direct ,grecian influence first made itself felt among the ,romans4 ,how this ultimately changed the fundamental architectural forms of ,central ,italy will be explained in the section upon ,roman building1 which united the traditions of ,etruscan and ,hellenic art4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--;,elevation of the ,etruscan ,temple according to ,vitruvius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,tomb at ,corneto4 ,one of the chief features of the ,etruscan or primitive ,italian dwelling-house1 the inner court1 has already been mentioned in the consideration of the tombs4 ,as in ,hellenic architecture1 so here this formed the central point1 the chief space of the dwelling1 around which were grouped the ceiled chambers1 subordinate in dimensions and in importance4 ,as the court was intended to be the chief gathering-place1 a partial covering could not have sufficed in these northern ,apennines1 as did the ,grecian peristyle2 for continued rain1 snow1 and piercing winter frost were not so rare here as in the lands upon the ,kephissos and ,meander4 ,the central aperture was diminished1 and the effect of storms or cold more completely excluded4 ,the ,italian atrium1 or cavdium1 acquired thus a form essentially different from the ,grecian court4 ,if the aperture open to the sky were reduced to a small orifice for light and air1 only large enough to carry off the smoke from the hearth and provide sufficient illumination1 columnar supports would not be needed1 the rafters being inclined outward1 and framed into the square of the opening1 as is conspicuously the case in the tomb at ,corneto 7,fig4 #bee71 and as is also described by ,vitruvius 7vi4 #c74 ,vertical props obstructing the space would be the less necessary1 inasmuch as the dimensions of the court were small1 on account of the lower temperature of the region4 ,the ,italian court thus differed from that of ,greece by an entire absence of columns1 as well as by the outward inclination of the roof4 ,the latter peculiarity had the advantage that1 notwithstanding the restriction of the central aperture1 more light was admitted1 the slanting rays of the sun falling high upon the walls2 while1 on the other hand1 the interior of the house was free from the objectionable rain-drip1 and1 by covering the orifice in bad weather or at night1 could be entirely isolated and protected4 ,a remarkable copy of a roof upon an ,etruscan clay sarcophagus 7,fig4 #bef7 shows the outward aspects of the dwellings of ,central ,italy1 as the tomb at ,corneto 7,fig4 #bee7 does the interior4 ,the roof of the atrium1 rising like a clere-story1 inclined outward1 while the covering of the chambers surrounding this space carried the drip still farther from the central aperture4 ,the practical sense of the ,italians was thus expressed1 as opposed to the more cheerful and elevated ideals of form among the ,greeks4 ,these constructive advantages were attained1 however1 at the cost of that artistic1 or at least tasteful1 development of the whole which was characteristic of the ,greeks1 even when striving mainly after public usefulness or private comfort4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--;,etruscan ,sarcophagus4 ,the remaining monuments of ,etruria are almost entirely limited to tombs1 among which it is not possible to recognize progressive stages of architectural design4 ,still it is evident that examples like the ,regulini-,galassi tomb of ,cre1 which shows a most primitive covering of the chambers1 and that of ,alsium1 or the ,campana tomb at ,veii1 must belong to an earlier period than do those sepulchres in which the imitation of a dwelling-house1 particularly in regard to the roof-timbering1 shows an advanced intelligence and great technical skill4 ,this skill is equally evident in the decorative members3 pilasters before the piers1 the carvings of the coffin-benches1 and utensils upon the walls1 with ,hellenic features of a late and advanced period4 ,a further division of ,etruscan monuments into chronological periods is not possible2 it is only to be concluded that the most primitive are less ancient than has usually been supposed1 and are probably to be referred to the seventh century ,b4,c41 while the later and more perfected tombs may date from #bej to #aej ,b4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the numerous sculptural productions of ,etruria may be better grouped4 ,they are preserved in the ,gregorian ,museum of the ,vatican1 the ,british ,museum1 the earlier ,campana collection in the ,louvre1 and special collections in various towns in ,tuscany1 particularly at ,perugia4 ,others are scattered among the many museums of ,europe4 ,as the practical character of the ,italians might lead us to expect1 the greater part of these works consist of utensils and implements2 those which bear the stamp of the greatest antiquity belonging almost exclusively to this class4 ,the earliest period may be called the decorative1 in which art was employed only for the ornamentation of useful articles4 ,the most ancient specimens of this handiwork are those in the ,british ,museum1 found in the ,grotto dell' ,iside of ,vulci1 and those in the ,gregorian ,museum of the ,vatican1 from the ,regulini-,galassi tomb at ,cre4 ,the material is gold1 silver1 and bronze--occasionally amber and ivory2 the objects are ornaments1 such as breastplates1 ear-rings1 bracelets of gold wire and thinly beaten gold2 also golden and amber necklaces1 silver bowls1 candelabra1 kettles1 tripods1 couches1 censers1 and shields of bronze4 ,all these are evident imitations of imported wares4 ,the beaten figures of the breast ornaments remind one of the vessels excavated at ,nineveh1 ,cyprus1 and ,myken2 the decorations of the silver bowls are more like the discoveries in ,cyprus and ,phnicia2 the bulb-like candelabra are similar to the ,cyprian bronze utensils1 and also to the seven-armed candlestick of the ,temple of ,jerusalem4 ,having already designated the vessels of ,nineveh and those of ,myken as of ,phnician workmanship1 and the ,egyptianized ivoryware found upon the ,tigris as having been brought into ,mesopotamia by the ,phnicians as an article of trade1 there can be no hesitation in referring the objects discovered in ,etruria to the same origin4 ,the beaten work in sheet-metal was among the best-executed productions of the ,phnicians1 and among their most important articles of commerce2 and intercourse between the ,phnicians and the ,etruscans is known to have been active4 ,through this current of trade must also have come the vials and alabasters with ,egyptian hieroglyphics and symbols2 the gilded bronze birds with the pshent upon their heads1 like those from the ,grotto dell' ,iside2 and the beetle-shaped bodies of clay1 like the scarabus1 found in different places1 for the ,etruscans had no direct intercourse with ,egypt4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some of the objects which bear the characteristic forms of those countries are to be regarded as ,etruscan manufactures1 adhering closely to the imported patterns4 ,the era next following is distinguished as being emancipated from the earlier dependence upon the ,east1 the ,asiatic influence being gradually replaced by that of ,hellas4 ,here may be mentioned the half-mythical report that1 about #fej ,b4,c41 the ,corinthian artists ,eucheir1 ,diopos1 and ,eugrammos--whose names1 as personification of handiwork in art1 give little confidence--emigrated to ,italy and there introduced sculpture4 ,though this may be taken to indicate an active artistic impulse1 it cannot alone explain the great and decided advance that we find4 ,in ,southern ,etruria monumental sculpture must early have attained a certain importance1 since ,tarquinius ,priscus ordered from ,vulca1 or ,vulcanius of ,veii1 a statue of the ,capitoline ,jupiter1 and a quadriga for the gable ridge of his temple4 ,the material for such colossal works was terra-cotta with a painting1 perhaps monochromatic2 at least1 the nude parts of the image of ,jupiter were repeatedly tinted with a red color4 ,the roughness of such conventionalized work can hardly be conceived2 the trunk1 in a sitting figure1 was not detailed2 the extremities1 on the contrary1 had all the ugliness of realism2 the head was sharply individualized1 verging upon portraiture4 ,as the oldest example of this treatment of the head may be mentioned the bust found in the ,grotto dell' ,iside at ,vulci 7,fig4 #beg71 which shows1 at the same time1 that the germ of that specific ,etruscan motive--the conception of the individual1 to the neglect of the general or ideal--existed even in the period of dependence upon ,asiatic influence4 ,this characteristic ,etruscan formation of the head1 though in a less artistic and more superficial style1 is also shown in the so-called canopi of ,chiusi--jugs with portrait heads upon the lids4 ,these are distantly related to the ,egyptian jars of the kind1 but show scarcely a trace of the early conventional influence of ideal ,greek sculpture2 the heads1 of extreme rudeness1 are yet sharp and hard in modelling2 coarse caricatures of the round skull and low1 retreating forehead1 which yet betray a certain observation of nature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4--;,bust from the ,grotto dell' ,iside in ,vulci4 ,greek influence is first apparent1 though still overbalanced by native individualization and realistic elements1 in a somewhat later sarcophagus of terra-cotta1 found in ,cre1 now one of the chief treasures of the ,campana collection in the ,louvre4 7,fig4 #beh47 ,the sarcophagus itself shows a draped couch with technical and ornamental details similar to those found upon the furniture of ,assyrian1 ,xanthian1 and ancient ,greek reliefs1 and particularly upon archaic vase-paintings4 ,a man and woman of life-size1 leaning with their left elbows upon leathern cushions1 form the lid4 ,if1 at first sight1 this group has a somewhat frightful and repellent character1 not felt in the most shocking distortions of primitive art1 the cause lies in its prosaic realism1 strikingly heightened by color4 ,notwithstanding many failures in point of detail1 the effect of life was given by the artist without additions or idealizations4 ,rather inclined to caricature--that is1 to the exaggeration of individual characteristics--the ,etruscan artist sensibly failed in the reproduction of the head1 because wanting in that training in fundamental correctness1 through the canonical formation of a true type1 which preceded the ,grecian perfection4 ,the representation of the individual1 instead of being the first aim1 should have been left to the last1 and it was on this account that the skulls were deformed by various peculiar defects1 while the eyes and mouth were drawn upward in a manner that is natural only to the ,mongolian race4 ,the same is true in regard to the terra-cotta reliefs of this period1 in which the striving after action and naturalness of appearance caused an excessive restlessness in all the motions of the dislocated arms and hands1 particularly evident in the ivory reliefs upon a number of caskets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4--,sarcophagus of ,terra-cotta from ,cre4 7,louvre47 ,sculpture in marble at this period1 about #eej to #cjj ,b4,c41 was less developed2 single archaic reliefs in this material--of which ,southern ,etruria offers but few--appear flat1 and entirely under the influence of painting4 ,the inadequacy of the artistic ability of this time is shown1 for example1 in a relief of ,chiusi1 representing the lamentation for the dead1 where expression of sorrow is combined with caricatured individual features1 very rude in drawing and form4 7,fig4 #bei47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--;,etruscan ,relief4 ,the bronze-work1 which is closely connected with the terra-cotta work1 was of greater importance1 and betrays a more decided and enduring ,phnician influence than do the terra-cotta statues4 ,this is shown in the beaten bronzes1 thin plates of which were used to overlay wooden forms4 ,the most important example1 the remains of a chariot found at ,perugia1 is preserved in the ,glyptothek and ,antiquarium at ,munich4 ,the representations of a sea-horse1 a woman with fins1 sphinxes1 and a man who holds or strangles two lions1 give evidence rather of ,oriental than of ,hellenic prototypes4 ,the uncertainty in form and proportions1 the ungainliness of the figures1 and the awkwardness of the entire composition are in no wise compensated by the careful execution of the finely engraved details to be seen only upon close inspection4 ,a tripod1 found at the same time in ,perugia1 also now in ,munich1 shows a certain advance4 ,its three sides have representations of ,hercules1 and the ,italian ,juno ,sospita1 with the so-called ,botian shield and pointed shoes1 in somewhat higher beaten reliefs1 very carefully engraved4 ,this tripod is distinguished from the preceding examples as being the work of a more skilful artist1 but differs little1 or perhaps not at all1 in point of age4 ,the upper part of this vessel1 now lacking1 was mostly of bronze casting2 the borders of the seat and the ends of the shafts upon the ,perugian chariot were decorated with statuettes of solid metal2 but these1 as well as the handles upon utensils1 seem to have been mere artisan work1 not unlike the ornaments upon the handles1 the furniture1 chariots1 etc41 shown by the reliefs of ,nineveh4 ,works in bronze of considerable size must have been numerous at that period1 as1 in #bfj ,b4,c41 ,volsinii alone was in possession of two thousand bronze statues2 but only a single example remains of well-attested ,etruscan origin1 the ,capitoline ,wolf 7,fig4 #bfj72 probably the same which1 soon after #cjj ,b4,c41 was consecrated in ,rome under the ,ruminal fig-tree4 ,it is a hollow cast1 which1 with great hardness and carefulness of treatment1 gives the well-understood character of this animal excellently1 almost to the point of caricature4 ,it well illustrates the peculiarities of ,etruscan art above described1 inasmuch as it sacrifices to realism all artistic beauty4 ,the chimera of ,arezzo in ,florence1 and a griffin in ,leyden1 are similar in style2 but1 notwithstanding their ,etruscan inscriptions1 it is doubtful whether they are of ,tuscan workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--;,capitoline ,wolf4 ,here should be mentioned the bronze utensils ornamented by drawings--sgraffiti--particularly the mirrors1 generally in the form of plates1 one side of which had a polished surface1 while the other was engraved4 ,the handles upon these either represented figures like caryatides1 or1 more commonly1 ended in a deer's head4 ,toilet cistas1 a further variety of these works1 were of cylindrical form1 usually with the claws of animals for feet1 and a group of human figures upon the cover as a handle2 but these1 on account of their engravings1 should rather be considered in the section upon painting1 and are mentioned here merely because of the accompanying castings4 ,only a small part of them belongs to the archaic period4 ,about #cjj ,b4,c4 the art of ,etruria appears to have reached its highest point of independence and perfection1 which1 in sculpture1 is illustrated by the terra-cotta sarcophagus of ,cre in the ,louvre1 and by the ,capitoline ,wolf4 ,the old ignorance of proportions had disappeared1 and a tolerable correctness was attained2 the realistic tendency no longer struggled with unpliant forms1 as in the former period1 when it might have been likened to the lisping and stammering of children4 ,yet the ,etruscan artists never succeeded in harmonious combinations1 or in mastery and surety of form4 ,the stream of ,grecian art1 long restrained1 or1 so far as possible1 turned aside1 at length overcame all obstacles4 ,up to this time the taste of the ,etruscans for the archaic and the archaistic1 aided by the importations of that character1 had given to their art an antiquity of aspect in form and in painting far beyond its true age4 ,but when political ,etruria ceased to exist1 as its walls were destroyed at the opening of the cities by the ,romans1 ,grecian art1 of the period of the ,diadochi1 entered from the coasts of ,magna ,grcia4 ,this is first noticeable in the sculptured lids of the sarcophagi of this ,hellenistic period4 ,that of ,cre1 mentioned above1 was executed in almost entire independence of the influence of ,greece3 a copy was made directly from life1 with a prosaic realism which1 without restraint or culture1 and with no feeling for the beautiful1 was still fascinating from its naturalness4 ,in later times this unpoetical sobriety and truthfulness to individual peculiarities still existed2 but they were affected by ,hellenic forms and formulas1 which1 being without organic unity or intrinsic significance1 and void of capacity for development1 were merely an exterior varnish4 ,this period is most clearly represented by the lids of three sarcophagi carved in alabaster and a soft stone4 ,of these1 one bears a reclining image with five statues in the full round at the head and feet 7,fig4 #bfa72 the two others1 from ,vulci1 represent a man and woman upon the marriage bed1 wrought in high-relief4 ,the portraiture of the chief personages is by no means limited to the heads4 ,apart from the accessories1 chosen from the purely human sphere of daily existence1 the position and modelling of the nude portions of the body were evidently taken from living models4 ,the secondary figures and the drapery show a decided ,grecian influence1 in visible contrast to the inherent realism4 ,organic connection and unity of style are wanting1 and this want leaves it to be regretted that ,greek forms should ever have found admission into ,etruria1 for by them the native tendency towards the realistic was checked1 while the originality sacrificed was not compensated by a merely external ,greek formalism1 never essentially understood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--;,etruscan ,stone ,sarcophagus4 ,this condition of things is most strikingly exemplified by the reliefs upon the two sarcophagi of ,vulci1 the lids of which have been referred to above4 ,upon the front of one is shown a wedding procession1 and upon the end a funeral chariot drawn by mules1 with the married pair seated under a canopy4 ,in the arrangement and drapery they somewhat resemble ,grecian sculptures1 but the heads1 especially of the important figures1 are portraits1 with traits of realistic coarseness in all the nude parts4 ,even in subject1 as ,brunn remarks1 this naturalism is apparent4 ,while the ,greeks would have chosen to represent a mythological wedding like that of ,heracles1 ,peleus1 or ,cadmus1 and the ,romans would have illustrated the bridal pair--in a conception more theological than mythological--by ,victory1 ,juno1 and ,venus1 with the ,graces in their train1 the ,etruscans show the marriage in a literal manner1 the united pair being followed by servants1 with couch1 sun-shade1 wash-basin1 crook1 horn1 flutes1 and harp4 ,in the reliefs upon the other sarcophagus the subjects selected offered no opportunity for purely ,etruscan motives2 battles of the ,amazons1 and heroic encounters of naked youths1 on foot and upon horse1 gave no scope to realistic treatment4 ,they consequently appear almost entirely ,greek1 but clumsy and superficial1 justifying1 by the slavishness of their imitation and the weakness of their composition1 the suggestion of ,brunn1 that the ,etruscan artists not only made use of ,hellenic designs as a kind of pattern-book1 but1 when they would illustrate some scene for which they had no complete guide1 combined separate groups from different examples4 ,in the steer seized by lions1 and the horse lacerated by griffins1 upon the small sides of the same sarcophagus1 may be recognized not only ,oriental conceptions1 but an ,asiatic treatment4 ,the terra-cotta sculptures of this period show the same ,hellenic tendency1 with1 the same superficiality and relation to the late ,greek degeneracy4 ,examples of this are to be found in the antefixes of a sarcophagus from ,vulci1 and some fine urns belonging particularly to ,northern ,etruria--,volterra1 ,clusium1 and ,perugia--which appear in tufa and travertine1 and represent the latest period--#aej to #ajj ,b4,c4 ,grecian legendary scenes have been observed upon earlier works1 and afterwards they became more general2 but a certain preference for particular and better known fables is evident1 and native additions are easily recognized4 ,not to speak of later examples in bronze1 and the engraved drawings upon cistas and mirrors1 which will be treated of below1 the most important statue is the so-called ,mars from ,todi1 now in the ,vatican museum4 ,according to its inscription1 it is ,umbrian1 but it is properly to be considered here1 because for the too limited term ,etruscan art might well be substituted ,italian1 or at least ,central ,italian4 ,vigorous in all its details1 and betraying throughout the later ,hellenic style1 the ,mars is yet stiff1 heavy1 and without organic understanding4 ,similar to it are other figures of warriors2 but the ,boy with the ,duck1 in the museum at ,leyden1 in spite of the stiff and hard features1 would1 perhaps1 not be recognized as ,etruscan at all1 were it not for the inscription upon his right leg1 and the bulla upon his neck-band4 ,the life-like statue of an orator in ,florence might1 in like manner1 pass for ,roman1 were there not something in the head1 and in the lame position of the legs1 particularly hard and commonplace1 a quality which1 in the ,roman works of this kind1 is always tempered by some degree of heroic conception4 ,the difference is less evident because the primitive art of the ,romans and ,etruscans was much the same1 and the ,greek influence the same in both1 though this was earlier and more active in ,rome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,painting from ,cre4 ,the painting of ,etruria naturally followed a process of development similar to that of the sculpture4 ,in the earliest times it appears that painting was rare in comparison with the decorative works of beaten metal plate1 and that the little there was followed ,phnician and ,egyptian models1 in so far1 at least1 as may be judged from the few utensils which have been found in the so-called ,grotto dell' ,iside in ,vulci4 ,these are ornamented partly with painting1 partly with colored enamel4 ,this decorative and dependent period lasted at least until the beginning of the sixth century2 and the ,oriental tendency towards decoration was by no means lost with its transition into the independent monumental and realistic style1 as is proved by the pictures of the ,campana tomb at ,veii1 with their attenuated animal figures4 ,but the obtrusive archaistic ornament upon the human figures began already to show the native realistic tendency1 which obtained complete mastery in the two tombs of ,corneto1 called the ,tomba del ,morto1 and ,tomba delle ,inscrizioni1 of about the same date4 ,a painting upon slabs of terra-cotta from ,cre 7,fig4 #bfb7 is perhaps still older4 ,in the former examples1 though known to be antique1 the treatment was more archaistic than archaic1 and the monstrous decorative style of ,asia was apparent1 like that upon ancient vase-paintings4 ,but in the ,cre slabs the fundamental principle was realistic imitation of the life4 ,the influence of ,hellenic art1 increasing because of the importation of ,greek vases1 is first evident upon a number of clay figures from ,cre4 ,there is little unity in the subjects3 they appear to be devotional and ceremonial rather than mythological1 the demoniacal and funereal elements predominating4 ,the colors are sombre1 with no decided blue1 red1 or green2 only brown1 yellow1 reddish brown1 gray1 and black were employed upon a white ground4 ,no trace of shading is perceptible1 and the drawing1 with exception of the outline1 is limited to the indication of the almond-shaped eyes1 and to slight suggestions of the knees1 elbows1 and nails4 ,the forms are heavy and without dignity1 the motions stiff1 and the step as though climbing1 with the arms thrown violently upward1 as if running in the greatest haste4 ,still1 they give evidence of great observation of nature1 with the avoidance of a systematic uniformity in drawing1 motion1 and gesture2 but the imitation is hardly successful1 though in the reclining figures1 for which a living model was most easily obtained1 there is a certain degree of truthfulness4 ,in the picture from ,cre the many-colored altar1 with its peculiar top reminding one of the profiles of ,castel d',asso1 is very characteristic4 ,the wall-paintings in the older tombs of ,corneto1 already mentioned1 are somewhat more advanced in regard to understanding of form and truthfulness in the expression of the heads2 also in the soles of the feet being no longer so flatly set4 ,at the same time1 ,grecian influence is very distinctly visible4 ,one of these1 the ,tomba del ,morto1 represents a death-bed and its surroundings1 with a group of dancers and drinkers2 the other1 the ,tomba delle ,inscrizioni1 shows racing1 boxing1 wrestling1 and preparations for a feast4 ,a third sepulchre at ,corneto1 the so-called ,tomba del ,barone1 is1 perhaps1 still further developed1 with the strictness of the archaic ,hellenic vase-painting4 ,youthful riders1 men and women with bowls1 and finely modelled garments are separated by small trees4 ,this archaic hardness was again modified in the next later group of four tombs3 the ,grotto delle ,bighe1 the ,grotto del ,citharedo1 the ,grotto ,marzi1 or del ,triclinio1 and the ,grotto ,querciola1 mostly named from some chief motive of the representation within4 ,the garments allow the outlines of the figure to be seen3 the forms have become more slender1 the position of the limbs1 step1 and action more correct2 while the color1 from the use of red and green1 is brighter4 ,although the archaic tendency still prevails1 as may be seen from the more marked ,hellenic influence1 a decided effort to develop the native realism is evident in the contemporary paintings from ,chiusi1 of the ,tomba ,ciaja1 the ,tomba di #ahcc1 and the ,tomba ,franois4 ,these certainly do not show the fine modulation and clearness of the ,corneto paintings1 but1 instead1 a greater variety1 originality1 and truth4 ,in the ,tomba di #ahcc1 for example1 the eye appears drawn in profile4 ,these works are the perfection of the second period1 the time of independent realistic development1 dating from the fifth to the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,the last phase of ,etruscan painting1 when the ,hellenic influence predominated as largely as in the sculptural works of the third and second centuries ,b4,c41 commenced with the extensive adoption of the ,greek myths1 previously but seldom employed4 ,this epoch is illustrated by coins1 occasionally found in tombs1 which still show the native naturalistic traits1 and a certain quaint sobriety not overcome by the exaggeration of gesture4 ,the effect is far more picturesque than that of the older works1 from a very moderate but still appreciative use of light and shade4 ,the close of the period is marked by a novelty of subject1 the introduction of ,italian legends1 such as the half-historical personifications of ,mastarna 7or ,servius ,tullius7 and ,clius ,vibenna4 ,the art1 which1 more or less substantially1 outlived the independence of its narrow home1 thus acquired a ,roman character4 99 99 99 99 99 ,numerous and varied products testify to the ,etruscan industry in artistic manufactures2 the bronze utensils in the tombs1 with sgraffiti1 or engraved drawings1 bore the same historical relation to ancient paintings that copper-plate engraving does to the modern4 ,of the thousand hand-mirrors known1 only a few belong to the earlier period2 but in the subjects of the more developed archaic examples1 ,greek character predominates4 ,the frequently recurring representations of ,bacchus and ,eros and of the ,judgment of ,paris remind one of the festival and morning toilets2 ,ariadne and the female deities suggest womanly customs4 ,a great portion of the ,greek mythology is illustrated upon the mirrors of the third period1 which show extreme ,hellenic influence4 ,most of these productions are naturally mere handiwork1 and artistically valueless2 but single specimens1 from their extraordinary beauty1 might pass for ,grecian work did not the inscriptions and accessories1 specifically ,etruscan1 like the bull1 prevent this assumption4 ,for example1 the unequalled mirror1 in which ,semele embraces the youthful ,dionysos in so charming a manner1 represents the heroine in such noble proportions that it may1 without hesitation1 be reckoned among the most beautiful results of artistic industry4 ,similar in character are the engraved cistas1 cylindrical toilet-cases1 which illustrated ,grecian myths1 like those of ,perseus and ,prometheus1 the ,judgment of ,paris1 and the rites over the body of ,patroclos1 in a careful manner and with vigorous drawing1 but not without the hardness peculiar to ,etruscan composition4 ,italian myths also appear1 like that of neas2 and ,latin inscriptions1 as those upon the magnificent cista of ,ficoroni1 ornamented with illustrations of the legend of the ,argonauts1 show that this process of engraving was also employed with success by the early ,romans4 ,a consideration of ,etruscan art is important1 because1 without it1 an understanding of ,roman art is not possible1 at least in the fields of architecture and sculpture4 ,up to a certain point of time1 ,roman art was entirely developed from ,etruscan art1 or1 perhaps1 went hand in hand with it1 as will be more particularly shown in the following section4 ,the subject should be more closely investigated1 especially in the province of painting1 with the hope that1 from analogous illustrations1 much which still remains dark in primitive ,hellenic art may also be made clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--;,janus ,quadrifrons in the ,forum ,boarium4 ,,rome4 ,it has been remarked in the preceding section that the term 8,etruscan art0 admits1 in many respects1 of no definite restriction4 ,the southern boundaries of the country between the ,po and the ,gulf of ,tarention had early been colonized by the ,greeks1 but its artistic industry was1 in the primitive historical ages1 chiefly in the hands of the ,etruscans1 and their name alone has on this account been applied to the architecture1 sculpture1 and painting of all ,central ,italy4 ,but neighboring races1 notably the ,umbrians1 ,latins1 and ,sabines1 also took part in the development of this artistic civilization--advancing1 in great measure1 from common starting-points1 and with like results4 ,the migrations and commerce of the nations inhabiting the ,italian peninsula were not less extended and active than were those of the people occupying the ,peloponnesos and the islands of the gean ,sea3 the relations to the ,orient1 through the medium of ,phnician traders1 were much the same in both cases1 and it is not strange that similar phases of advance are noticeable1 though restricted in rapidity and degree1 among tribes dwelling in the regions more remote from the sea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--;,gate of the ,walls of ,norba4 ,between the ,tiber and ,garigliano1 as well as between the ,arno and ,tiber1 there exist extensive remains of ,cyclopean masonry1 as well as walls of hewn and squared stones4 ,the former were predominant in the mountainous interior1 as at ,alatrium1 ,arpinum1 ,aurunca1 ,cora1 ,cures1 ,ecetr1 ,ferentinum1 ,medullia1 ,norba1 ,prneste1 ,signia1 ,sora1 ,tibur1 ,verul1 etc42 the latter in the low rolling land between the ,apennines and the ,tyrrhenian ,sea1 as at sernia1 ,antium1 ,ardea1 ,aricia1 ,aufidena1 ,lavinium1 ,politorium or ,apiol1 ,satricum1 ,scaptia1 ,tellen1 ,tusculum1 and ,rome4 ,they frequently occur in contemporary works1 as1 for example1 in the well-preserved polygonal ruins of ,norba and ,signia 7the present ,norma and ,segni7 and the horizontal courses of the ,servian fortification1 both of which constructions date from the period of the later kings4 ,the age of these works can usually be roughly estimated3 the ,cyclopean walls of ,olevano1 of enormous unhewn boulders1 like the fortifications of ,tiryns1 are evidently of greater antiquity than the carefully fitted polygonal masonry of ,norba and ,signia 7,fig4 #bfd71 where the separate stones are tooled to plane faces and sides2 while the irregular horizontal courses of unequal thickness1 which form the older ,latin ramparts1 precede1 in point of time1 the exactly jointed blocks of the ,servian walls of ,rome4 ,a more exact classification or chronological determination is not possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--,remains of the ,servian ,wall upon the ,aventine4 ,among all the remains of primitive walls in ,italy1 those of ,rome are naturally the most interesting4 ,it unfortunately cannot be definitely proved that a part of a rampart upon the western corner of the ,palatine1 excavated thirty years ago from the rubbish and brick revetment of the imperial period1 appertained to the fortifications which surrounded the city of ,romulus4 ,but this masonry1 though not perhaps attributable to the eighth century1 is certainly of an early age of ,roman history4 ,it is formed of oblong stones1 exactly hewn1 and laid in courses of stretchers and headers1 without the use of mortar1 the careful jointing showing a high degree of technical perfection4 ,the better-authenticated remains of the circuit wall of ,servius ,tullius are similar in character4 ,they have been best preserved upon the southern slope of the ,aventine1 east of the ,via di ,s4 ,prisca1 where they attain a height of #aj m41 with a length of #cj m4 7,fig4 #bfe47 ,the arrangement of the jointing1 however1 is not so well considered as that in the former example1 the vertical interstices of adjoining courses being frequently continuous4 ,the passage formed a small vestibule or chamber in the thickness of the wall1 which required inner and outer portals1 like those of the ,temple of ,janus upon the ,velabrum1 which1 long after the ruin of the ,servian fortifications1 and even down to the time of the empire1 were sacredly preserved as relics4 ,a similar arrangement existed in ,etruria even more frequently than in the ,latin cities4 ,the ,roman gates were so doubled as to form two passages side by side--one for entrance1 the other for exit2 a comparatively narrow opening could thus provide ample space for those moving only in the same direction4 ,it is not certainly known how these ,roman gates were covered4 ,the oldest vestiges of masonry in ,latium show no traces of vaulting1 while other means of accomplishing the connection have been preserved almost intact1 such as the heavy lintels upon vertical or inclined jambs1 as at ,segni1 ,circello1 ,alatri1 and ,olevano2 or the gradual projection of the horizontal courses beyond those beneath them1 as at ,arpino4 ,the primitive houses for springs1 and the so-called ,mamertine ,prison1 show that vaulting was not practised in ,rome or the neighboring ,latin cities during the early ages2 the ,prison1 probably built in the time of ,servius ,tullius1 appears to have been somewhat similar in construction to the ,greek tholos4 ,a further example of this kind is the chamber for a fountain in ,tusculum1 where the stone slabs of the ceiling lean so as to form a sort of continuous gable4 ,rome owed more to the last fifty years of its hated kings than to the two following centuries4 ,from the royal period dates one of the most important monuments of vaulted construction1 the ,cloaca ,maxima of ,rome1 built in the reign of ,tarquinius ,superbus1 and probably under the direction of engineers from his native ,etruria4 ,to this gigantic work1 admired even in the time of the magnificent ,roman empire1 is undoubtedly owing the preservation of the ,eternal ,city1 which it has secured from the swamping that has befallen its neighboring plains4 ,its quarried stones are still visible beneath the later brick arches in the vicinity of ,s4 ,giorgio in ,velabro4 7,fig4 #bff47 ,the building of drains naturally led to extensive works upon the banks of the river1 which protected the thickly populated city2 it was forgotten that1 in earlier ages1 it had often been necessary to traverse the ,velabrum in boats1 and that the spring freshets had extended a sheet of water between the ,palatine and ,capitoline hills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4--;,cloaca ,maxima4 ,all these structures were emphatically works of engineering2 the building of walls1 gateways1 drains1 and vaulted roofs presented nothing to elevate them into independent and artistic monuments of architecture4 ,among the ,roman temples of this period only two appear to have been of importance for the history of art--the national shrine of ,diana upon the ,aventine1 and the ,temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus2 both built by the last three kings1 ,tarquinius ,priscus1 ,servius ,tullius1 and ,tarquinius ,superbus4 ,the first of these structures has been compared to the ,artemesion at ,ephesos1 the national sanctuary of the ,ionians2 but it would be wrong to draw from this a conclusion in regard to the style of the ,latin temple of the same goddess1 which was most probably ,tuscan1 as that of the ,temple of ,jupiter is known to have been1 from descriptions given by ancient writers as well as from the recent excavations of ,jordan4 ,according to ,dionysios of ,halicarnassos1 the substructure of this latter building--eight hundred ,roman feet in circumference--was only fifteen feet greater in length than in width2 these dimensions agree well with the proportion of five to six given by ,vitruvius for the temple architecture of the ,etruscans4 ,the cella of the ,capitoline temple was divided into three dicul1 another peculiarity assigned by the ,roman writer to the sacred edifices of ,etruria2 it had three ranges of columns1 of six each1 before the cella1 which provided a portico equal in depth to half the entire length of the building4 ,the ornamentation1 which will be treated more fully in the section upon ,roman sculpture1 was wholly the work of the ,etruscans4 ,this race had1 indeed1 settled in ,rome between the ,capitol and the ,palatine1 where the name of ,vicus ,tuscus preserved1 until late historical times1 the memory of their settlement and of the considerable part taken by them in the peopling of ancient ,rome4 ,it is even stated by ,pliny 7xxxv4 #ab1 #de1 and #aed7 that1 for seventeen years after the expulsion of the kings--namely1 until the building of the ,temple of ,ceres upon the ,circus--all the sanctuaries of ,rome were ,etruscan2 that is to say1 were not only built in the ,tuscan style1 which might more properly be called the ancient ,italian1 but were erected by ,etruscan artificers1 or1 at least1 under the direction of ,etruscan artists4 ,even the ,temple of ,ceres appears to have been ,tuscan in general disposition1 its cella having been triply divided and its intercolumniations excessively great1 as may be seen by the remains of a later restoration still existing in ,s4 ,maria in ,cosmedin4 ,in this temple1 however1 the influence of ,greek architecture1 introduced through the ,hellenic colonies of ,magna ,grcia1 had already begun to gain ground in the arrangement and the details1 though the ancient ,italian traditions were too deeply rooted to permit it essentially to alter the original distribution4 ,the structure remained nearly square1 being equally divided between the portico and the cella4 ,this is illustrated by the ,temple of ,concord1 erected by ,camillus upon the ,forum at the foot of the ,capitol in #cfg ,b4,c4 ,the limited area1 defined by the neighboring buildings and by the steep slope of the hill against which it stood1 prevented even later restorations from elongating its plan4 ,the extended oblong of the ,hellenic temple was naturally adopted1 in place of the heavy proportions of the ,tuscan temples1 as soon as the execution of the entablature in stone rendered the excessively wide intercolumniations impossible1 and placed insurmountable difficulties in the way of the broad front4 ,still1 the ,etruscan or ancient ,italian division of the building was retained1 inasmuch as the columns were usually restricted to a pronaos of great depth1 such as is shown by the ruins of four temples in the ,forum ,romanum4 ,the ,roman prostylos1 as ,vitruvius terms a temple thus planned1 may be regarded as the first compromise effected between the ancient ,italian and the ,hellenic disposition4 7,figs4 #bfg and #bga47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--,temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina4 ,the early ,italian manner of abutting the undeveloped back of the building upon the circuit wall of the temenos1 or against a cliff1 seems to have long remained in practice2 but1 in cases where this was impossible1 the bare sides and rear of the cella appeared intolerable when compared with the outstanding wings of the ,greek peripteros4 ,although1 in some instances1 the prostylos plan was adopted in later ages1 as in the ,temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina 7,fig4 #bfh7 in the ,forum1 where the enclosing walls of the cella are treated with pilasters1 this was only in cases where the sanctuary was so crowded by adjoining buildings that little else than the portico could be seen4 ,in completely isolated structures the desire of approaching the peripteral effect led to the application of engaged columns to the side and rear walls of the cella1 thus attaining1 in the so-called prostylos pseudoperipteros1 the highest stage of that development of sacred architecture which was peculiar to ,rome4 ,the purely peripteral form was naturally adopted in later times1 primitive cellas being enclosed by outstanding ranges of columns2 but two fundamental peculiarities were always retained3 the pronaos always formed a deep portico1 and the naos always remained a spacious hall1 the peripteral columns being fitted to it1 and made of subordinate importance4 ,the dimensions of the cella were thus not restricted by the pteroma1 as was the case in the temples of ,greece1 and especially in those of ,sicily2 for the chief difference between the architectural tendencies of the ,greeks and the ,romans was that the former devoted their attention almost exclusively to the perfection of external appearance1 creating monuments of unequalled beauty1 while the latter held material usefulness to be of the first importance1 assigning to technical excellence a second place1 and to artistic design but a third1 thus creating imposing interiors admirably adapted to their purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--;,engaged ,tuscan ,column from the ,flavian ,amphitheatre ,the details of their architecture were with the ,romans purely decorative and applied4 ,the ,doric style1 which had predominated in ,lower ,italy and ,sicily1 and must have offered the most numerous models near at hand1 was nevertheless least employed4 ,it would be difficult to decide whether this is to be ascribed to the similarity of the ,tuscan and ,doric styles1 and their derivation from a common prototype1 or to the development of the two manners of building in different directions2 certain it is that the channelled shaft was not employed1 and the ,doric entablature appeared only in an attenuated and purely ornamental imitation1 above the wide intercolumniations of the ancient ,italian faade4 ,the ,tuscan 7,fig4 #bfi7 became somewhat higher in proportion to its diameter1 and was slightly altered in detail4 ,the epistyle was diminished to a narrow band1 and1 in the smaller temples1 was usually carved from one stone with the frieze of triglyphs1 thus destroying the separate importance of these two members4 ,the diminutive triglyphs were frequently increased in number above the intercolumniations2 the chamferings were terminated above by a straight line1 while the gutt were lengthened and had a more marked conical form4 ,the proportionally small metopes were either entirely without sculptured ornament1 or were provided with rosettes1 disks1 and the heads of oxen2 which last were introduced as a reminiscence of the barbaric custom1 prevalent in early times1 of affixing the skulls of the sacrificed animals to the wooden entablature4 ,the corona was usually not inclined like this member in the ,doric cornice2 the mutules lost their gutt1 and became simplified to plain consoles4 7,fig4 #bgj47 ,in some instances ,ionic elements were introduced into the ,doric entablature1 as in the sarcophagus--now in the ,vatican--of ,l4 ,corn4 ,scipio ,barbatus1 who was consul in #bih ,b4,c41 where an ,ionic cornice surmounts the frieze of triglyphs1 and ,ionic spirals decorate the lid4 ,the ,theatre of ,marcellus displays a similar combination2 and1 in other cases1 ,doric forms are entirely supplanted by simplified ,ionic members4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--,temple at ,cori4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--,temple of ,fortuna ,virilis4 ,towards the end of the third century ,b4,c4 the ,ionic style was generally introduced2 yet1 according to the nature of ,roman architecture1 which did but borrow external features from foreign nations1 itself supplying the general disposition and constructive forms1 it became nothing more than a decorative adjunct3 the ,grecian style became a ,roman order4 ,attic ,ionic influences were naturally more prevalent than those of ,asia ,minor4 ,this was particularly fortunate1 because a canon of mathematical rules early took the place of independent development1 hardening the forms into formulas4 ,this mechanical method of design was favored by the extended application of engaged columns and pilasters which did not require the complete execution of the elaborate capital1 while1 in the decoration of colossal buildings of several stories1 the distance from the eye rendered a simplification of the ,ionic helices natural1 as well as more suitable to the coarse and porous stone employed by the ,roman builders4 7,fig4 #bga47 ,the complicated corner capital of the ,ionic style could not1 however1 be avoided upon the free-standing columns of the temple fronts1 and the execution of this member must have been exceedingly troublesome to artisans accustomed to work everything after one model4 ,it is therefore to be regarded as a direct consequence of the ,roman architectural system that a variety of the ,ionic capitals appeared in later times which omitted the rolls and displayed the spirals upon all four sides4 ,this form1 as exemplified by the ,temple of ,saturn upon the ,clivus ,capitolinus1 seems to have arisen by repeating the two outer sides of the corner capital upon those remaining4 ,the entablature was of great simplicity1 perhaps because the comparatively rare employment of this order left it undeveloped4 ,before the ,roman had decided upon the practical but inartistic repetition of the volutes upon all four sides--by which the nature of the ,ionic capital was destroyed1 and the spiral treated in the early ,asiatic manner as mere ornament--the ,corinthian capital had come into general and popular use4 ,it has already been explained1 in the section upon ,hellenic architecture1 that the ,corinthian capital attained no typical form in its native country1 and could not be ranked with the ,doric and ,ionic styles1 being a mere variety of the ,ionic capital without any individual formation of the shaft and entablature4 ,the ,corinthian columns of the uncompleted ,temple of the ,olympian ,zeus at ,athens1 which ,sulla transported to ,rome about the year #hd ,b4,c4 for the rebuilding of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 were1 if not the first in ,rome1 at least those which were in later times taken by ,roman architects as typical examples of their style4 ,the ,roman architect justly preferred the ,corinthian capital because of its capacity for more varied application1 without that fatal difficulty at the corners inherent in the ,ionic style1 and because of its rich effect1 even when less carefully and delicately detailed4 ,the preference for the ,corinthian may be justifiable1 but that form of ,composite capital into which it developed1 by a multiplication of its ornaments and the addition of four spirals upon the corners1 must be regarded as a debasement4 7,fig4 #bgc47 ,the fact should not be overlooked that this arrangement of acanthus around a concave kernel best solves the problem of the capital as a mediating member between the vertical support and the horizontal entablature1 as well as between the circular plan of the shaft and the rectangle of the epistyle4 7,fig4 #bgb47 ,the leaves and tendrils of the capital were at last introduced into the entablature1 which thereby assumed a peculiar character1 and permitted the ,romans1 for whom the forms of ,hellenic architecture were nothing more than a decorative mask1 to place the ,corinthian1 as an independent order1 by the side of the ,ionic and the ,tuscan or ,doric4 ,as the ,corinthian base had been formed by a combination of the ,ionic and ,attic mouldings1 the consoles of the cornice resulted from a fusion of ,ionic dentils and ,doric mutules4 ,the simplicity and slight projection of the dentils did not suffice for the requirements of florid ,roman architecture2 the horizontal mutules without gutt1 characteristic of the later ,tuscan style1 consequently took their place1 supported by the spiral brackets which had been already employed as the parotides beneath the cornices over ,ionic doorways4 ,a richly foliated ornamentation fully harmonized these new members with the acanthus capital1 and gave to the entire cornice an independent importance and a certain lavish elegance1 soon1 however1 debased by the extravagance of the decorators4 ,continued increase of ornament resulted in a want of attention to the general composition--a loss which the multiplication of the details could ill supply1 especially as they were without even formal beauty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--;,corinthian ,capital from the ,pantheon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,composite ,capital4 ,the sacred buildings of the ,romans have been considered thus at length because offering the best opportunity for a characterization of the orders2 yet the significance of their national architecture is not to be found in the temples1 but rather in their structures for public utility and comfort4 ,in these the technical naturally far exceeded the artistic element1 and it is consequently in points of construction that the great advances of the ,romans appear4 ,in these methods they were almost wholly independent1 and were by far the most important people of antiquity4 ,masonry of brick and hewn stones early attained great extent and perfection1 furthered by the excellent materials at hand--the hard ,tiburtine and ,travertine limestones1 the tufa so easily carved1 the unequalled clay for bricks1 and the famous volcanic sand and pozzuolana which1 when combined with lime1 harden to the firmest stone4 ,vaulting was generally introduced as early as the time of the kings1 the walls and ceiling forming an uninterrupted mass of homogeneous materials2 the vertical and horizontal members1 support and covering1 being blended together without marked transition4 ,before this system of construction was invented the spacious and monumental development of protected rooms had been possible only under great limitations2 without it these chief ends of ,roman architecture could not have been attained4 ,the building of barrel vaults with hewn stones1 as observed in the ,cloaca ,maxima1 was attended with certain difficulties2 the great weight of the masonry permitted a moderately large span only when immense and cumbrous buttresses were provided4 ,this objection was1 in a great degree1 obviated by the employment of bricks1 but the size of the spaces covered was limited by the necessity of heavy supporting-walls at the sides4 ,the full scope of vaulted construction was not recognized until the introduction1 by the ,romans1 of the intersecting or cross vaults1 or the so-called groined arch4 ,this replaced the two side walls previously necessary to support the barrel vault1 by piers upon the four corners1 at the same time opening the covered space on all four sides4 ,the way was thus prepared for an indefinite series of such quadrangular compartments1 or bays1 covering a continuous space4 ,a third development of this principle1 the hemispherical vault or cupola1 was of more restricted application1 having been employed only for circular buildings1 or1 when bisected1 for apses1 or semicircular additions to the plans of rectangular temples and halls4 ,the date of the first appearance of the cross-vault can hardly have been earlier than the second century ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,section of the ,aqua ,marcia ,tepula and ,julia1 near the ,porta ,san ,lorenzo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--,section of the ,pantheon1 in its ,present ,condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--,section of the ,pantheon4 ,restoration by ,adler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--,plan of the ,baths of ,caracalla4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--;,chief ,hall of the ,baths of ,caracalla4 ,the first secular buildings which attained monumental importance were undoubtedly those erected for public usefulness1 like the extensive covered canals so requisite to the very existence of ,rome4 ,on the one hand1 it was necessary1 by means of gigantic sewers1 to drain the low land1 which was not only full of springs1 but was periodically flooded by the ,tiber2 on the other1 to provide the metropolis with good water by aqueducts extending to great distances4 ,still1 it was not until the year #cab ,b4,c41 more than two centuries after the building of the ,cloaca ,maxima1 that the first work of this kind1 the ,aqua ,appia1 was completed1 simultaneously with the first great military road1 by the famous censor ,appius ,claudius ,ccus4 ,this entirely subterranean aqueduct1 eight ,roman miles long1 was followed1 down to the time of ,diocletian1 by no less than thirteen similar constructions of increased dimensions and magnificence4 7,fig4 #bgd47 ,almost all extended to the mountains which surround the ,campagna1 even reaching a length of forty-two ,roman miles4 ,they provided so great a quantity of excellent water that one third part of it would have been more than sufficient for the real necessities of the city4 ,stupendous arches raised the conduits high above the ground1 while valleys and ravines were spanned by mighty works of engineering1 even rivalling the bridges upon the great military roads4 ,the greater part of the water thus obtained was used for the baths1 which were increased under the emperors to a measureless luxury1 and provided the chief means by which these rulers purchased the favor of the populace4 ,there were in ,rome no less than eight hundred and fifty-six private baths open to the use of every citizen for a certain price1 besides the great imperial structures which were free to the public4 ,the first founder of these free baths was ,agrippa1 in #be ,b4,c41 who appears to have followed1 in their general arrangement1 the type of a ,greek gymnasion4 ,the bodily exercises of early times1 by which the military power of the ,state had been trained1 were succeeded under the empire by a luxurious care for physical well-being2 gymnastic drill appeared unnecessary to the sovereigns of all the known world1 while the bath and the toilet became more and more important4 ,thus1 in the ,roman baths1 the spaces for serious athletic contests1 which had formed the principal part of the ,greek gymnasion1 were wholly subordinated to the departments for indolent luxury and light amusements4 ,the primitive bathing-chambers were enlarged to magnificent halls1 which offered the greatest scope for the development of that interior architecture which was cultivated with such great success by the ,romans4 ,this grandeur is evident in the imposing rotunda still remaining from the ,baths of ,agrippa1 the remarkable circular structure which1 because of its beauty1 was transformed by ,agrippa himself into a temple--the ,pantheon--by the addition of ,corinthian columns4 7,figs4 #bge and #bgf47 ,the building1 not having been originally planned for an isolated position1 is wholly undeveloped upon the exterior1 but its massive construction and harmonious proportions have merited the admiration accorded to it in all ages4 ,from the existing remains it cannot be surely determined whether the ,baths of ,nero1 ,titus1 ,trajan1 and ,commodus1 which followed the great creation of ,agrippa1 surpassed it in dimensions and magnificence2 but it is certain that this was the case with the enormous structures of ,caracalla and of ,diocletian1 as the entire plan of the former1 with parts of the mosaic pavements1 still remains2 while the main hall of the latter1 in almost perfect preservation1 forms the chief part of the ,church of ,s4 ,maria degli ,angeli4 ,the principal structure was usually surrounded by an extensive enclosure1 which1 in the case of the ,baths of ,caracalla 7,fig4 #bgg71 was formed upon the front 7a7 by a series of separate cabinets4 ,upon the sides were segmental projections1 or exedras 7b71 with various chambers 7c71 probably intended for intellectual entertainments1 such as rhetorical and poetical dissertations1 etc42 while the rectangle was closed by a one-sided stadion1 with spaces for gymnastic purposes 7d71 and a reservoir for water 7e74 ,the central building provided upon either side enormous halls for games1 preparatory to the ablutions 7g1 p71 between them 7i1 k1 l7 the spaces for the cold1 tepid1 and hot baths2 while the adjoining smaller chambers served as rooms for dressing and the manifold processes of the toilet4 ,between this chief structure and the enclosure race-courses and promenades1 with fountains and beds of flowers1 added the charms of nature to the magnificence of architecture4 ,the public ,baths of ,alexander ,severus1 ,decius1 and ,constantine appear to have been less extended2 but these were far surpassed in size by the constructions of ,diocletian1 which could accommodate three thousand bathers4 ,the ,roman buildings for the circus1 the theatres1 and amphitheatres were of scarcely less importance4 ,the extreme simplicity of the ,circus ,maximus recalls the early ,greek hippodrome2 the slopes of the ,palatine and ,aventine served as a station for the spectators1 while the level ground in the valley between formed the arena4 ,it was not until #cbg ,b4 ,c4 that the barriers 7carceres7 were architecturally embellished1 and even the rebuilding of the whole by ,csar was limited to the erection of the lower stories of the auditorium in stone4 ,the wooden superstructure was not replaced by a more permanent and monumental construction until the time of ,domitian and ,trajan4 ,the general plan was adopted from the ,greek model1 the peculiarities of the ,roman arrangement being a low division wall1 or spina1 the position of the barriers1 and the moat which surrounded the arena 7euripis71 intended to protect the lower tiers of spectators during the combats of wild beasts4 ,the spina1 connecting the two turning-posts 7met71 was ornamented with memorial columns1 altars1 diculas1 statues1 obelisks1 and the like2 it did not follow a direction precisely parallel to the side seats1 but allowed a considerably broader space upon the right than upon the left1 so that the many chariots here crowded together early in the race might not be too greatly impeded4 ,that all the competitors might have an equally favorable position when brought into line1 it was necessary that the starting-points should be arranged in the segment of a circle1 the centre of which was a little to the right of the spina4 ,this plan may be recognized in the best-preserved ,roman circuses1 as1 for instance1 in that at ,bovill1 near ,albano1 and that of ,romulus1 the son of ,maxentius1 upon the ,via ,appia4 7,fig4 #bgi47 ,the ,circus ,maximus1 like all the other structures of its kind in ,rome1 has been entirely destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--,plan of the ,circus of ,romulus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--,scheme of the ,roman ,theatre1 according to ,vitruvius4 ,in the earlier periods of ,roman history1 the theatre did not receive the recognition and assistance of the government2 and the law in force until the end of the republic1 which permitted no theatre with seats to be constructed within the limits of the city1 prevented any monumental development in this direction4 ,dramatic representations1 however1 were not to be suppressed after an acquaintance with the ,greek drama had once been formed4 ,comedy was especially popular1 and ,roman authors devoted their attention to it with success4 ,but these plays were performed only upon festival days1 and were undertaken by individuals4 ,the creation of the improvised stage1 for transient usage1 thus fell to the lot of those politicians whose desire it was to win the favor of the populace4 ,in the latter days of the republic structures were reared which equalled the extravagant magnificence of the ,diadochi2 the dile ,m4 ,scaurus1 for instance1 erected a gigantic theatre1 to stand only a few days1 which provided seats for no less than eighty thousand spectators1 the stage being ornamented by three hundred and sixty marble columns and three thousand bronze statues4 ,this boundless waste was brought to an end through the building of the first stone theatre in ,rome1 by ,pompey1 who1 notwithstanding his great political power1 could succeed in silencing the objections made by the conservative party against this innovation only by the pretence that the stone seats were the steps of a temple1 which he erected upon the summit of the cavea4 ,this first permanent structure was succeeded during the reign of ,augustus by two other theatres1 those of ,marcellus and of ,balbus2 the first could seat but a quarter as many spectators as did the theatre of ,pompey--namely1 twenty thousand--while that of ,balbus provided places for only eleven thousand six hundred4 ,in later imperial times even this capacity was found too great4 ,the theatre lost much of its attraction after the ,roman people had once seen blood flow in the arena4 ,yet in all the ,roman empire there was scarcely a city of importance where a stone theatre was not erected during the reign of ,augustus2 even small towns like ,tusculum1 where the remains are particularly well preserved1 boasted of these monuments4 ,the characteristic differences between the ,roman theatre and the ,greek1 its prototype1 were that the orchestra did not exceed a semicircle1 the front of the stage 7,a ,a7 being so advanced as to form its diameter1 which thus brought the actors nearer to the spectators4 7,fig4 #bhj47 ,the open half of the circle was not1 as in ,greece1 reserved for the evolutions of the chorus1 but was occupied by the senators and the higher classes of citizens1 who brought thither their own seats4 ,the auditorium1 which1 with the orchestra1 had been restricted to a semicircle1 assumed a peculiar form upon the exterior1 the entire building standing in a plain1 and only rarely1 as in ,tusculum1 occupying a natural slope4 ,with the introduction of vaulting1 massive foundations of masonry were rendered unnecessary4 ,barrel vaults were placed one above another1 terminating upon the exterior in a series of arcades1 the decorative features of ,roman architecture being usually so applied that the lower story displayed engaged ,tuscan columns1 the second ,ionic1 and the third ,corinthian pilasters1 with their respective entablatures4 ,this treatment of the exterior is shown in the best preservation by the remaining amphitheatres2 but vestiges of theatres may still be seen sufficient to serve as illustrations1 like that of ,marcellus 7,fig4 #bha71 and those at ,orange in ,southern ,france1 at ,aspendos in ,asia ,minor1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4--,theatre of ,marcellus1 ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--,plan of the ,flavian ,amphitheatre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--,section of the ,auditorium of the ,flavian ,amphitheatre4 ,imposing as the architectural appearance of the ,roman theatre was1 magnificently and suitably as it was planned1 it could never attain great national1 and consequently historical1 importance1 because tragedy was never popular and comedy never political4 ,the warlike and bloody scenes presented by the mortal combats of gladiators and wild beasts had a far greater attraction for a people who1 by nature1 felt more reverence for ,mars than for the ,muses4 ,it was long1 however1 before these exhibitions were provided with especial arenas4 ,after the introduction of the gladiatorial contests by ,marcus and ,decius ,brutus1 in #bfd ,b4,c41 upon the occasion of funeral games1 the prisoners of war had fought together upon the ,forum2 and the slaughter of powerful animals1 inaugurated under ,metellus by the killing of elephants taken from the ,carthaginians in #beb ,b4,c41 and continued under milius ,paullus by the sacrifice of deserters to beasts of prey1 had taken place in the ,circus4 ,but this could not have been well suited to the purpose1 as its limited width was impeded by the spina1 and its side barriers could not have offered sufficient protection to the spectators from the desperate attempts of the infuriated animals to escape4 ,as early as #ei ,b4,c41 ,caius ,curio had surprised the ,roman people with two wooden theatres1 built back to back1 and arranged so as to turn bodily upon their axes after the conclusion of the scenic performances1 so that the two auditories faced one another1 and left between them an arena for the succeeding combats of gladiators4 ,it is not certain whether this was the original of the amphitheatre1 or whether the oval plan arose from simply giving broader proportions to that form of stadion1 like the one at ,aphrodisias in ,caria1 which was terminated by a semicircle at each end4 ,but it is scarcely to be doubted that the wooden ,theatrum ,venatorium of ,csar had the disposition which was repeated1 with but few alterations1 in the stone amphitheatre of ,statilius ,taurus1 built during the reign of ,augustus1 and in those of wood erected by ,augustus1 ,tiberius1 and ,nero4 ,by the time of the ,flavians it was recognized that no gift was so acceptable to the ,roman populace as the provision of a magnificent place fitted for these inhuman games1 and thus arose that most gigantic edifice of all ages--the ,colosseum4 7,figs4 #bhb and #bhc47 ,even provincial towns like ,reggio1 ,pompeii1 ,herculaneum1 ,albanum1 ,tusculum1 ,sutri1 ,pola1 ,verona1 ,nismes1 ,treves1 ,constantine1 etc41 were provided with edifices of this kind1 fully as important in proportion to the number of their inhabitants4 ,the mausoleums and monuments erected in honor of prominent citizens constitute an important class in the architectural history of ,rome4 ,in early times a tumulus form1 similar to that of the ,etruscan tombs1 seems to have predominated4 ,the older monuments in the vicinity of ,rome were thus constructed4 ,a tumulus1 the lower cylinder of which appears to have been elevated upon a square substructure decorated with ,tuscan pilasters1 may be assumed to have existed above the remarkable sepulchral labyrinth of the ,scipios1 outside the ,porta ,appia1 and within the present ,porta ,s4 ,sebastiano4 ,in course of time the circular drum of masonry increased1 while the original cone was diminished to a pointed roof2 the magnificent tombs of ,ccilia ,metella1 the wife of ,crassus1 and of the ,plautii upon the ,via ,appia and ,via ,tiburtina1 show it as already preponderating4 ,the tumulus of ,augustus upon the ,via ,flaminia1 at present within the ,porta del ,popolo1 displays a cylinder of #bd m4 in diameter1 decorated by thirteen niches once provided with statues2 while the cone of earth above1 which was archaistic agreeably to the affectation of ,augustus1 was planted with cyprus-trees and terminated by a colossal image of the imperial builder4 ,even more gigantic was the mausoleum built by ,hadrian1 the lower portion of which now forms the substructure of the ,castle of ,s4 ,angelo4 ,it was once surmounted by a second smaller cylinder bearing a conical roof4 ,when the area at disposal was too limited for the adoption of so extended a base1 the monument rose1 like a tower1 to a great height1 in successive stories of decreasing dimensions1 with or without columns1 as in the fine example of ,st4 ,remy in ,southern ,france4 ,the endless rows of tombs upon the ,via ,appia vary from simple piers and subterranean burial-chambers 7called columbaria1 from the thousands of niches for funeral urns resembling the nests of doves7 to colossal mausoleums4 ,the remains of bulwarks prove that many of these elevations were utilized for medival fortresses4 ,even foreign forms were employed2 the so-called ,tomb of the ,horatii at ,albano resembles that of ,porsena1 while the ,egyptian pyramid is reproduced in the mausoleum of ,c4 ,cestius near the ,porta di ,s4 ,paolo4 ,the conformation of the land presented but little opportunity for the execution of rock-cut tombs with a front carved in the cliff2 but one remarkable example has been preserved upon the ,lake of ,albano1 called1 from the twelve fasces introduced in its decoration1 the ,tomb of the ,consuls4 ,in the mountainous provinces of the ,east these sepulchres were more common1 as1 for instance1 in ,petra1 where numbers of faades hewn in the rock1 with a kind of decorative temple-like architecture1 betray magnificence rather than good taste4 7,fig4 #bhd47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--;,faade and ,section of a ,rock-cut ,tomb at ,petra4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--,triumphal ,arch of ,titus4 ,the monuments commemorative of individuals do not1 as in ,greece1 deserve to be treated in the section upon sculpture2 in ,rome the architectural pedestal was more important than the statuesque carving1 and1 indeed1 the image was frequently supplanted altogether by inscriptions4 ,statues were often placed upon columns4 ,these were often provided with characteristic decorations--as is the case with the prows of vessels upon the shaft of ,duilius1 erected in #bfj ,b4,c4--and were often of gigantic dimensions1 thus withdrawing the figures upon their summits from close inspection4 ,the most sumptuous example of these monuments is presented by ,trajan's ,column1 the base of which contained the sarcophagus of that emperor4 ,the surface of the shaft was either covered with reliefs of many figures which1 like the interior staircase1 ascended spirally upward1 as upon the ,columns of ,trajan and of ,marcus ,aurelius1 or were merely treated with architectural forms like the granite column of ,antoninus ,pius1 the relief upon the pedestal of which is given below4 7,fig4 #cjd47 ,there are similar shafts1 dating from the ,roman occupation1 at ,cussi in ,france1 at ,alexandria1 ,constantinople1 and ,ancyra4 ,in all these works the portrait was far exceeded in importance by the monument2 sculpture was rendered subordinate to architecture4 ,this was the case in a still greater degree in the triumphal and commemorative arches4 ,as the equestrian statues and quadrigas have disappeared from all the works of this kind now preserved1 it might easily be forgotten that these figures were in reality the principal part of the composition1 and the arches beneath them little else than pedestals placed above the streets1 and consequently provided with passages4 ,festive portals constructed of light timbers and decorated for gala-days doubtless afforded the prototype for these works4 ,triumphal arches were comparatively rare in the time of the republic1 but very common under the emperors4 ,they express the nature of ,roman art better1 perhaps1 than any other class of structures3 the mass of masonry1 encased in columns and entablatures which were merely ornamental features without constructive functions2 the reliefs of small figures crowded together as in a chronicle2 the numerous decorative statues above the columns as well as upon the top2 the extended inscriptions upon the attic above the arches1 which thus formed1 in a more restricted sense1 the pedestal of the crowning group--these all express characteristic tendencies1 and present the best example of the solid but ostentatious construction which predominated in ,roman architecture1 subordinating ideal beauty to the temporary purpose4 ,augustus1 ,trajan1 and ,hadrian were the chief builders of these monuments1 which have remained in all the provinces of ,rome3 at ,benevento1 ,ancona1 ,rimini1 ,susa1 and ,aosta in ,italy2 at ,st4 ,remy1 ,orange1 ,besanon1 ,cavaillon1 and ,rheims in ,france2 at ,alcantara1 ,merida1 ,bara1 and ,caparra in ,spain2 at ,theveste and ,el ,casr in ,africa1 etc4 ,there are four of these arches in ,rome--two with a single passage 7those of ,drusus and of ,titus ,fig4 #bhe71 and two 7those of ,septimius ,severus ,fig4 #bhf and of ,constantine7 with additional openings on either side4 ,the ,arch of ,constantine surpasses its known predecessors in beauty of composition and proportion only because it was patterned after an arch of ,trajan1 and even built with the same materials4 ,this arch is at once the memorial of one of the most important victories recorded by history1 the battle near the ,milvian ,bridge1 and of that unexampled poverty of artistic invention1 or rather want of productive energy1 which characterized all ,roman intellectual life after the time of ,constantine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--,triumphal ,arch of ,septimius ,severus4 ,the so-called ,janus portals were erected above the streets and squares of ,rome1 much in the same manner as the triumphal arches4 ,they were commonly simple1 like the three ,jani upon the ,forum ,romanum1 but were increased at street-crossings to extensive quadrifrontes1 or structures presenting the same face upon all four sides4 ,the former bore two-faced ,jani upon their summits1 the latter a four-faced combination like that upon some figures of ,hermes--an image well adapted to represent the watcher over the crowded thoroughfares4 ,the ,janus ,quadrifrons upon the ,forum ,boarium 7,fig4 #bfc7 is1 with exception of the attic1 particularly well preserved2 it was richly ornamented by the statues of deities1 no less than thirty-two niches being provided upon its walls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--,section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--,plan of the ,primitive ,roman ,basilica4 ,restoration by ,reber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--,plan of the ,basilica of ,maxentius4 ,the buildings which surrounded the public squares corresponded in lavish magnificence to the altars1 statues1 dedicatory columns1 and triumphal arches4 ,broad colonnades with shops formed the enclosure1 interrupted by temples1 and courts of justice1 or curias1 which can have differed but little in external appearance from the sacred edifices4 ,most important among these public buildings were the basilicas1 which1 in name1 purpose1 and form1 were derived from ,greek prototypes4 ,as halls of justice and places for commercial traffic1 they may be regarded as covered extensions of the open squares4 ,several of these buildings1 erected during the imperial epoch1 are known by considerable remains1 but they deviate so greatly in disposition as to have no plan in common beyond that of a hall surrounded by narrow aisles4 ,the oldest ,roman structure of this kind1 the ,basilica ,porcia built by ,cato in #ahe ,b4,c41 was of an oblong shape1 abutting with one of its ends upon the ,forum1 while the other was enlarged by a small exedra1 or apse4 7,figs4 #bhg and #bhh47 ,the chief space was surrounded upon all four sides by two-storied aisles1 the central hall1 however1 not rising above them1 as in the ,christian basilica1 this being difficult of construction because of the slightness of the shafts1 and not necessary for the introduction of light4 ,a portico with a flat roof was erected above the entrance1 enlivening the bare and extended front wall4 ,thus the ,basilica ,porcia did not differ in principle from the early ,christian church1 and the similarity appears also in the other basilicas of the ,roman republic1 all of which had their front upon the smaller side4 ,in the courts of the imperial epoch1 however1 this primitive type was treated with great freedom1 and nothing remained of the original arrangement but a large central hall surrounded by a double passage of arcades upon piers1 without columns and without an apse4 ,the normal basilica1 described by ,vitruvius1 with two-storied side aisles1 faced with its greatest length upon the public square1 and had an apse2 the basilica at ,fanum1 built by the ,roman writer1 was similarly arranged upon the facade1 but a clere-story supported upon gigantic columns rose above the lateral passages4 ,these passages opened1 from the end opposite the entrance1 into an adjoining temple1 the pronaos of which served as the tribune of the forensic court4 ,the basilica at ,pompeii1 of which the narrow side was the front1 had no apse1 while the ,basilica ,ulpia had great exedras upon both ends1 with the entrance portal upon the longer side4 ,the ,basilica of ,maxentius 7,fig4 #bhi71 which was completed by ,constantine1 was an exception in every respect1 being entirely vaulted1 and having two apses upon adjoining sides opposite to the two chief entrances4 ,the whole formed one of the most remarkable and important halls of antiquity1 with the consideration of which the history of ,roman architecture may well be terminated4 ,the original type of the basilica was wholly neglected by later architects1 who treated the problem of a forensic hall without restrictions1 utilizing the accidental formations of the ground1 while endeavoring to combine suitability and the display of ingenious constructions with magnificent novelties of their own invention4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4--,section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,plan of the ,house of ,pansa in ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4--;,flavian ,palace4 ,a4 ,tablinum2 ,b4 ,lavarium2 ,c4 ,basilica2 ,d4 ,atrium2 ,e4 ,dining-hall 7cus72 ,f4 ,nymphum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4--;,court of the ,palace of ,diocletian at ,spalatro4 ,the ,roman dwelling-house was1 in the earliest ages1 identical with that of ,etruria1 and1 indeed1 of all ,central ,italy4 ,although related to ,hellenic prototypes1 the peculiarly ,italian atrium1 without columnar supports for the roof1 remained in use even after the general introduction of the ,greek peristyle4 ,at ,pompeii a combination of these two varieties of court is met with1 the front space being a simple atrium1 and that further within a peristyle4 ,each enclosure was surrounded by chambers4 7,figs4 #bij and #bia47 ,the mosaic and painted decoration of the floors and walls will be treated in a later section4 ,the small chambers were lighted only through doors opening from the inner courts1 and did not share in the architectural importance assigned to the larger halls1 which1 in the last years of the republic and in the imperial period1 transformed the houses of the wealthy into veritable palaces4 ,with the luxury of the table1 the magnificence of the dining-room was increased2 and1 with the growing taste for literature and art1 extensive libraries and galleries of pictures became prominent features4 ,many of the forms adopted for this palatial architecture appear to have been derived from the later ,greeks2 the designation of halls1 as those of ,egypt and of ,kyzicos1 employed by ,vitruvius1 pointing to the sovereignties of the ,diadochi4 ,this enlargement of extensive rooms by columns was1 however1 in a great degree supplanted by vaulting1 in which case the columns were introduced merely as decorative members4 ,much attention was devoted to a lavish enrichment of these rooms1 the shafts being colored marble monoliths1 the lacun of the vaulted ceilings overlaid with bronze or richly gilded1 and the capitals being sometimes formed of solid metal4 ,one of the halls in these palatial residences1 the private basilica1 though it may not have been universal1 deserves especial consideration because of its great importance in later times4 ,such courts of justice are mentioned by writers of the ,augustan age as forming part of the dwellings of men of condition1 8because in their houses councils were held upon public and private matters1 and civil cases decided40 ,these halls were naturally modelled in a great degree after the public basilicas upon the forums1 such as the ,porcian1 milian1 ,sempronian1 and ,opimian basilicas1 which had been built during the republic2 but they appear1 when compared with the primitive type of the ,roman basilica1 to have differed fundamentally in two respects4 ,in the first place1 the hall1 being surrounded by the chambers of the dwelling1 could not be provided with windows like the free-standing1 forensic basilicas1 and a clerestory rising above the adjoining rooms was consequently adopted4 ,this rendered necessary a second modification4 ,to impose a heavy wall of masonry1 besides the timbered ceiling and roof1 upon a double story of columns must have seemed inadmissible to the ,roman taste for substantial construction4 ,the aisles upon the front and rear were consequently given up1 the columns and galleries remaining upon the sides only1 the massive masonry of the enclosure thus receiving the thrust of the clere-story wall1 and greatly increasing its stability4 7,fig4 #bib47 ,this loss of continuity could have been of no great disadvantage in the private basilica1 as it did not serve1 like the free-standing public structures1 for traffic and promenades1 as well as for sessions of justice4 ,the galleries over the side aisles were frequently omitted1 and it appears to have been in these halls that the connection of columns by arches1 in the place of lintels1 was first introduced4 ,such archivolts are first known by examples built during the reign of ,diocletian1 as at ,spalatro 7,fig4 #bic72 but they soon came into general usage1 their practical advantages outweighing the want of sthetic fitness inherent in such curved entablatures4 ,it was from these private basilicas that the first ,christian churches were architecturally developed4 ,the believers had assembled1 during the imperial ages1 in the houses of wealthy converts2 and as these halls of justice had been used for religious services during times of persecution1 it is not strange that1 after the recognition of ,christianity by the ,roman government1 their arrangement and even their name should have been retained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4--;,fragment of the ,cista ,prnestina4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,roman architecture were found great intelligence in the solution of the constructive problems involved in the enclosing of large spaces1 great independence in the development of technical perfection1 and a masterly conformity to the purpose of the structure2 but ,roman sculpture1 although of very extended application1 had less independence and significance4 ,the ,romans1 originally too practical to provide a place for the beautiful beside the useful1 first gave decided admission to this art when the political growth of the world's metropolis had reached the acme of its power2 and even then they transferred the question of sculpture to foreign artists in their employ4 ,in the earlier republican period1 their practice of this art was scarcely worthy of mention2 in the time of the kings1 or1 at least1 until the year #agj of the city1 sculpture seems not to have existed in ,rome1 or only to have been employed in the ornamentation of utensils like the ,cista ,prnestina 7,fig4 #bid7 with ,phnician-,etruscan anthemions and figures of animals riveted on4 ,if these may be considered rather as a direct importation from ,etruria and the neighboring ,grecian and ,phoenician colonies than as their own work1 it may be said that the ,romans of this period had no images of the gods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4--;,janus ,bifrons upon an ,ancient ,roman ,coin4 ,the first work of statuary which appears to have been exhibited in ,rome was by an ,etruscan1 ,volcanius1 or ,volca1 from ,veii4 ,this was the colossal ,jupiter sitting upon a throne1 ordered by ,tarquinius ,priscus for the ,capitoline ,temple4 ,formed of terra-cotta1 the face colored red1 and wearing upon the head a chaplet of oak-leaves--originally1 perhaps1 of bronze1 but afterwards of gold--it appears1 with the exception of the head1 to have been but slightly modelled1 as it was covered with an embroidered garment4 ,a ,hercules within1 and the quadriga upon the gable of the same temple1 both also of terra-cotta1 are ascribed to this artist4 ,the chariot was1 in #bif ,b4,c41 replaced by a bronze1 which ninety years later was gilded4 ,even from the beginning the tone of ,roman sculpture was affected by ,grecian as well as by ,etruscan influences4 ,the image in the ,temple of ,diana built by ,servius ,tullius upon the ,aventine was a xoanon--a rude puppet of wood imitated from the ,artemis of ,massalia 7,marseilles7--a work after the manner of the ,ephesian ,artemis1 and consequently still undeveloped1 and1 at the best1 ,daidalian4 ,two generations later a more advanced ,hellenic style obtained1 when1 in #dic ,b4,c41 two ,greeks of ,lower ,italy1 ,gorgasos and ,damophilos1 decorated the ,temple of ,ceres with paintings and figures of terra-cotta4 ,eight years later1 these were followed by the three divinities of the temple--,ceres1 ,liber1 and ,libera--which were the first bronze statues in ,rome4 ,but1 at the same time with the work of the ,grecian artists1 and as if to prevent a decided ,hellenic preponderance1 the wooden image of ,juno ,regina was brought from ,veii to ,rome2 and this cannot have been without effect upon the figures of ,fortuna ,muliebris1 consecrated four or five years later1 in #dhg or #dhf ,b4,c4 ,in the epoch next following1 rife with civil wars and misfortunes of every kind1 the pursuit of art seems to have languished1 and its necessities to have been met chiefly by booty from the conquered cities of ,etruria1 though many of the subjects were ,roman1 like the ,janus ,geminus1 copies of which have been preserved upon coins4 7,fig4 #bie47 ,of this period are the ,vertumnus and the ,lavinian ,penates1 and especially the first portrait statues of heroes like those of the ,ephesian ,hermodorus1 the interpreter among the lawgivers of the ,decemvirate1 in #dej ,b4,c42 of ,ahala and ,l4 ,minucius1 as protectors from usurpation1 in #dci ,b4,c42 and of the four ambassadors murdered by the ,fidenates1 in #dch ,b4,c4 ,art first became more active when1 at the close of the ,samnite war1 in #bhh ,b4,c41 the ,roman authority began to make itself felt in the ,grecian towns of ,lower ,italy4 ,then originated the rich sculptured ornaments of the ,forum--the statues in honor of ,mnius1 ,camillus1 ,tremulus1 and ,duilius1 and also of the ,greeks ,pythagoras and ,alkibiades1 commanded by the oracle2 further1 as shown by ,detlefsen to be probable1 portraits of the ,sibyls1 and of ,attus ,navius1 ,horatius ,cocles1 ,m4 ,scvola1 and ,porsena1 falsely attributed to earlier times4 ,the ,capitol was decorated by statues of the seven kings1 and of ,tatius and ,brutus2 and the ,via ,sacra1 besides those of ,romulus and ,tatius1 with an equestrian statue of ,cllia4 ,nothing remains of these works1 which were almost exclusively of bronze1 and only one sacred figure gives any illustration of their technicalities and style--the ,wolf--now preserved in the ,capitol4 ,although the two sucking children are lost1 it is probably the one consecrated by ,ogulnius under the ,ruminal fig-tree1 in #bie ,b4,c4 7,fig4 #bfj47 ,without doubt1 the characteristics of this period were more ,italian1 or1 according to the usual term1 ,etruscan1 than ,greek2 and1 in considering the sculptures generally1 the predominant influence in the portrait-statues may be ascribed to the ,etruscans1 and1 in those of a devotional character1 to the ,greeks1 since it was from the ,greeks that the ,romans chiefly borrowed this type4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4--,statue of ,isis4 7,museum of ,naples47 ,two other works preserved from the third century ,b4,c41 and designated in the inscription as by ,roman artists1 show plainly the conflict of the two tendencies4 ,the first of these is the celebrated ,cista of ,ficoroni1 made in ,rome1 with the inscription of ,novius ,plautius engraved in the ancient character1 found near ,palestrina 7the ancient ,prneste71 and now in the ,kircherian ,museum in ,rome4 ,its chief feature1 an episode from the legend of the ,argonauts1 represented in sgraffito upon the vessel1 is so purely ,greek that it might be regarded as imported ware were it not for the accessories--the bulla1 bracelet1 and shoes--which point to ,italy1 perhaps to ,lower ,italy4 ,according to ,mommsen1 ,plautius was from ,campania4 ,the handle and feet1 on the contrary1 are entirely ,etruscan1 and exhibit quite a different tendency4 ,though the name of the artist and the dedicatory inscription are placed upon the handle1 they cannot relate to these castings1 which are of quite ordinary manufacture1 but rather to the engraving1 ,plautius having obtained the vessel ready-made in ,rome1 where he worked4 ,the second of these works1 nearly contemporary with the other1 is a small head of ,medusa1 in high-relief1 with the artist's name upon it1 ,c4 ,ovius1 from the ,tribus ,aufentina4 ,in this the two factors1 ,grecian and ancient ,italian1 which formerly stood side by side1 appear to blend1 and thus to perfect what must be designated as the specifically ,roman style4 ,but at the close of the second ,punic war1 about #bjj ,b4,c41 began the extensive importation of statues1 first from the ,grecian cities of ,italy1 afterwards from ,greece proper4 ,it has been related how ,rome1 in #aej ,b4,c41 became the central point of ,grecian activity in art1 and the seat of that renaissance which followed the past stages of ,hellenic artistic development in reversed succession4 ,as the ,roman deities had become throughout almost identical with those of the ,greeks1 and as the statuary that ornamented the squares1 streets1 gardens1 baths1 fountains1 houses1 and villas were either ,grecian spoil or copied from celebrated ,hellenic originals1 there remained for the peculiarly ,roman art1 as it had arisen from the combination of ,etruscan and ,hellenic elements1 only a comparatively small field4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4--,relief of ,mithras4 7,in the ,louvre47 ,the ,grecian stamp was given1 so far as might be1 even to those deities1 such as ,juno ,lanuvina1 who1 on account of their decided individuality1 could not be exchanged with those of the ,greeks1 nor with the gods borrowed from the ,oriental mythology4 ,this did not1 indeed1 flourish in the ,west until the late times of ,hellenism1 two centuries ,b4,c41 and appeared1 for the most part1 still later in ,rome1 as shown by the worship of ,isis1 and the frequent statues of that goddess 7,fig4 #bif7 and of ,harpocrates1 and by the ,persian homage to ,mithras1 with its sacrifice of bulls4 7,fig4 #big47 ,it was the same with the uncommonly numerous ,roman personifications and allegories1 the individual type of which was1 as a rule1 quite commonplace and without expression1 the intention of the artist being recognizable only by attributes4 ,a draped female figure1 such as the ,flora or ,pudicitia1 might be a ,concordia1 ,constantia1 or ,fides2 a ,pax1 ,libertas1 or ,securitas2 a ,virtus1 ,justitia1 or quitas2 a ,salus1 ,pietas1 or ,annona--according to what was placed in the hand1 upon the head1 or at the feet2 the age1 garments1 or position being rarely taken into consideration4 ,with the male representations the difference in regard to nudity and manner of clothing 7,figs4 #bih and #bii7 was greater1 and the interchange of related deities facilitated1 as in the use of ,hermes for ,bonus ,eventus4 ,in personifications the character1 garments1 and attributes were doubtless more marked4 ,to the most celebrated works of this kind belong the figures of the fourteen nations conquered by ,pompey in the ,porticus ad ,nationes4 ,these were executed by ,coponius1 the only distinguished sculptor certainly known with a ,roman name4 ,we may1 perhaps1 consider these as analogous to the ,germania ,devicta 7,thusnelda7 in ,florence1 but probably1 after the manner of representations of ,asiatic cities upon the base of ,puteolani1 they were more varied and less cold than the mere allegories of abstract ideas4 ,generally1 in carrying out these conceptions1 individuality of characterization in the figure or the action was not attempted1 a certain common correctness1 grace1 and superficial beauty being held to suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4--,vertumnus 7,silvanus74 7,in ,berlin47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4--,relief of ,bonus ,eventus4 7,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--,statue of ,augustus4 7,in the ,vatican47 ,in portraiture1 the ,roman sculpture developed far more speciality and meaning4 ,the early tendency of ancient ,italian art towards the individual has already been described1 and it may easily be understood that1 in the line of portraiture1 this had an important influence1 even after ,hellenic art had completely established itself upon the ,tiber4 ,in this province it best served its purpose4 ,still1 it is evident that the vacant1 external individualization peculiar to the primitive works of ,etruria and ,rome1 such as the wax masks of their ancestors1 required improvement by greater expression of life and character1 for which ,lysippos1 in portrait-sculpture1 had so decidedly opened the way4 ,by the combination of these two elements1 the portraits became the most successful works of ,roman sculpture4 ,the ,hellenic tendency to idealize prevailed in those statues which presented the person heroically--as ,achilles1 for instance--or were rendered divine by attributes of ,zeus1 or ,apollo1 ,juno1 ,ceres1 ,venus1 and others4 ,the figure was then usually nude1 and was only so far imitated from life as to give to the head the true features1 with a certain transfiguration4 ,this treatment1 exemplified in many of the statues of ,antinous1 had prevailed in ,hellenic art since the time of ,lysippos1 the great master of portrait-sculpture4 ,the native ,italian tendency1 on the contrary1 had sway in the so-called 8iconic0 statues2 in those1 namely1 in which the personal and human character was carried out4 ,in these the clothing was given with more detail and significance2 as1 for example1 in the figures of the emperors wearing the toga 7statu togat71 or the presidents of the senate4 ,others are represented as high-priests1 with the drapery drawn over the back of the head2 others 7statu thoracat7 as field-officers1 in coats of mail1 as1 among many examples1 in the celebrated ,augustus of the ,vatican1 found1 in #ahfc1 before the ,porta del ,popolo4 7,fig4 #cjj47 ,in these the action generally chosen seems to have been that of address to the senate or to the army4 ,equestrian statues belonged chiefly to the thoracat1 though they appear also in conception like ,achilles1 nude1 or clothed only with the himation4 ,as they were all of bronze1 few remain2 so that the ,marcus ,aurelius upon the ,capitoline1 notwithstanding its hardness and other faults1 is the most celebrated1 and has become the standard for countless modern statues4 ,the figures upon chariots1 on the contrary1 and especially those which ornamented the triumphal arches1 were1 for the most part1 togat4 ,the mention of triumphal groups with six pairs of horses1 or of elephants1 shows to what extreme of tastelessness ,roman art had become debased in the time of the emperors4 ,the better works of this class are most suitably represented by the four bronze horses1 falsely ascribed to ,lysippos1 which were brought by the ,venetians from ,constantinople in #abjd1 and which have been placed over the portal of ,st4 ,mark's ,church in ,venice4 ,iconic female statues are distinguished by careful imitation of garments falling in rich folds1 and1 even in the early times1 by exaggerated head-dresses1 which gave them the appearance of fashion-plates4 ,noble ladies1 sitting comfortably1 and with dignity1 in arm-chairs1 are among the most successful of ,roman works4 ,yet there is in all these portrait-statues1 especially in the usual oratorical gestures1 a typical character as little to be mistaken as is the softening influence of ,hellenic idealism in most of the heads4 ,without injuring the individuality1 it increases the beauty and heroic elevation of the entire figure4 ,not unfrequently1 however1 instead of inner significance1 we find merely richness of drapery and detailed accessories1 particularly in reliefs upon coats of mail1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cja4--;,equestrian ,statue of ,nonius ,balbus1 ,jun4 7,sculptor unknown47 ,the same combination of native ,italian tendency with ,hellenic enlightenment1 found in portrait-sculpture1 is shown in the reliefs which thereby became specifically ,roman4 ,these appear to have been very numerous1 as it pleased this people to leave few vacant surfaces upon their monuments1 which were not only ornamented1 but literally covered with reliefs and inscriptions4 ,thus sculpture became as much a written chronicle as a decoration4 ,in limited spaces1 such as pedestals and capitals1 and the key-stones of arches1 it became merely ornamental2 the subjects of the ornamentation1 in keeping with the style1 being chiefly allegorical1 such as ,victories bearing trophies1 the ,seasons1 etc4 ,upon large surfaces sculpture completely took the nature of chronicles and inscriptions1 and thus were developed the truly ,roman historical reliefs in connection with inscriptions4 ,these1 in accordance with the ,italian view of art in general1 rested almost entirely upon a realistic foundation4 ,mythology disappeared1 and allegory alone still exercised a small influence2 as1 for example1 the ,genius of ,immortality bearing upward a deified emperor1 ,roma with the triumphal quadriga1 ,victory upon a shield perpetuating the memory of conquest2 while personifications of cities or rivers1 and even of swamps1 indicated the locality of the action1 or ,jupiter ,pluvius signified the coming of the saving rain4 ,after the ,antonines1 the events are related with simple truth to nature1 as a mere chronicle1 without any idealization at all4 ,the subjects of ,roman reliefs are distinguished from the ,grecian only by the ,greeks having substituted1 whenever possible1 mythological for human or common events2 and there was no less difference in the artistic treatment4 ,the ,greek never lost sight of that conventional law in sculptural reliefs by which the figures are conceived in a situation to give the most pleasing outline4 ,the whole procession of persons1 one behind the other1 excluding all effect of foreshortening and perspective1 was displayed upon a surface1 and developed1 so far as the figure would permit1 in harmonious unity1 and1 whether represented sitting on horseback1 or on foot1 occupying the same space in regard to height and in regard to the depth of relief4 ,it resulted that the design was arranged in reference to two planes only--the original surface of the stone1 which disappeared with the work 7except in the highest points71 and the common background4 ,roman sculpture1 on the other hand1 freed itself from all such laws of style4 ,the profile position no longer predominated1 and the figures in the mutilated remnants1 where the details are lost1 appear like formless masses1 which1 in the ,hellenic system1 would have been impossible4 ,the outline loses its significance1 and the figures are arranged with such disregard of the surface upon which they are placed that they rather resemble portions of statues4 ,the projection from the background also varies1 many parts1 particularly the head and arms1 standing entirely disengaged4 ,in the arrangement of several figures1 one behind another1 against a landscape or architectural background1 an attempt was made to distinguish the forms in front from those behind by higher or lower relief1 with something of the effect of perspective4 7,fig4 #cjb47 ,from this ensued a confusion of lines and a want of clearness1 atmospheric effect not assisting in sculpture1 as in painting1 to separate the farther object from the nearer1 and thus to define the distance4 ,this crowding was still more objectionable when1 besides being grouped one behind another1 the figures were placed one over another1 representing the scene as if from a bird's-eye view4 ,it thus happened that ,roman sculpture in relief was characterized rather by a realistic and picturesque tendency than by well-conventionalized composition4 ,but the forms remained ,hellenic1 at least so far as the circumstances represented in ,grecian examples would permit4 ,when1 however1 a river was to be represented1 for which the ,greeks always placed a local deity as symbol1 or when the besieging of towns1 castles1 or bridges was given1 the ,romans approached more nearly to the conception of ,oriental nations4 ,as the subject was of more importance than the composition1 the deed than the artistic illustration1 a certain common and formal correctness sufficed--an artistic handwriting1 so to speak1 which might be easily read4 ,their work might be termed an unconscious translation from the ,assyrian or ,egyptian into the ,roman language4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--,relief from the ,arch of ,titus in ,rome4 ,it does not appear that the sculpture of historical reliefs was developed much before the time of the ,empire2 at least1 not more of these remain than of the ,roman portrait-statues that can be imputed to a more remote period4 ,historic sculpture was best exhibited in triumphal monuments4 ,to this class belong the two world-renowned columns of ,trajan and of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,with more than five thousand figures and over two hundred scenes1 they are among the most magnificent sculptural representations of all times4 ,upon these ascending spiral reliefs are unrolled the chronicles of the ,dacian and ,marcomannic wars4 ,the main events are recognizable throughout1 and the barbaric tribes may be distinguished by their costumes1 arms1 and physiognomy2 so that if written history were wanting1 the reliefs upon ,trajan's ,column would be an important source of information in regard to the biography of this emperor and ,roman imperial history4 ,vigorous in treatment and skilful in drawing as it must be admitted that they are1 still their artistic value1 from want of style in composition1 is very small4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--,relief of ,trajan1 from the ,arch of ,constantine in ,rome4 ,the oblong tablets of relief upon the triumphal arches occupy a somewhat more favorable position1 because the frame led to a more formal1 and the duplication to a more harmonious1 composition4 ,the reliefs upon the ,arch of ,titus1 particularly those on the sides of the two large passages1 notwithstanding the ignorance which they betray1 are of far higher importance in art2 and the same may be said of the reliefs upon the monuments of ,hadrian and ,trajan4 7,fig4 #cjc47 ,how far the graces of form and order1 inherited from the ,greeks and hitherto prevalent1 had disappeared even in the time of the ,antonines1 and given place to a formal and vacant hardness1 is shown by the relief upon the pedestal of the lost statue of ,antoninus ,pius4 7,fig4 #cjd47 ,this represents the apotheosis of ,antoninus and ,faustina1 who appear seated upon the back of a stiff1 floating ,genius of ,immortality1 in the weakest of compositions1 while cold and all-controlling ,allegory places by the side of ,roma a personification of the ,campus ,martius1 recognizable by the attribute of the obelisk which was erected there by ,augustus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--,relief upon the ,pedestal of the ,column of ,antoninus ,pius4 ,roman sculpture reached its highest point under ,hadrian4 ,this emperor filled all spaces with sculpture1 as ,trajan covered them with inscriptions commemorating his restorations1 acquiring thus1 in later times1 the nickname of the 8,lichen40 ,even the golden house of ,nero was1 in this respect1 surpassed by the ,villa of ,hadrian at ,tibur1 where it pleased him to reproduce all the wonderful works of architecture and of sculpture which he had noticed in his extended travels through the ,roman world4 ,after the death of ,hadrian1 however1 who1 as an enthusiastic admirer of ,greek art1 naturally directed the artistic industry of his time to the best possible reproductions of the highest products of ,hellenic art1 the ,romans began to follow the works of the later ages4 ,the lower they placed their aim1 and the farther they were removed from the original source of inspiration the more rapid was their decline4 ,ideal art degenerated into increasing formalism1 carelessness1 weakness of sentiment1 and shallowness1 though still retaining much that was good1 because the originals1 though copied and recopied1 still dated back to the best periods4 ,portraiture naturally retained more independence2 but this also would have been stifled by the enormous requirements1 even if the declining art had possessed fresh vigor4 ,to understand this excessive demand1 it is only necessary to bear in mind the rapid succession of emperors after ,antoninus1 with the consequent changing of imperial statues in all the cities of the ,roman empire4 ,with the ,antonines expired the ideal element in sculptural portraits2 and prosaic realism1 as it had existed in ancient ,italian art1 obtained exclusive mastery4 ,anxious struggles after external likeness in small and inartistic details1 like wrinkles1 and abnormities such as the curly and frizzled hair of the ,antonines1 and of ,l4 ,verus1 with locks like porous pumice-stone1 took the place of the lost ideal--remarkable examples1 which failed to preserve the lifelike expression4 ,within a century art had altogether lost the capacity for characterization1 even in portraiture2 and the numerous busts of the later empire can hardly be distinguished one from another4 ,they are mostly portraits of emperors1 empresses1 and princes1 whose heads are stiffened and hardened into a common type4 ,previously1 with a change of the sovereign1 they had altered the heads of the ,achilleic and iconic imperial statues2 but it now sufficed merely to vary the inscription1 and1 at most1 the accessories4 ,but it was not difficult to change the face also1 since it pleased them1 in making busts1 to combine marbles of different hues1 so as to realize the local colors4 ,thus the mask was of simple white1 the hair of dark marble1 the garments of red1 green1 and gray marble or granite1 and even the band for the forehead and the clasp for the toga were of a suitable hue4 ,in the heads of ladies this disagreeable polychromy had the advantage that1 upon the portrait of the same sovereign1 not only the mask1 but the wig1 could be altered1 which1 according to the fashion of the day1 might be blond1 red1 or dark1 with any desired mode of dressing the hair4 ,carving in relief1 after the ,antonines1 suffered a similar decline4 ,the sculptures upon the ,column of ,marcus ,aurelius1 in comparison with those of ,trajan's ,column1 notwithstanding their unmistakable dependence upon the older example1 show the want of energy1 of appreciation of form1 of variety1 and of technical ability which characterizes the loss of creative power1 and the mere reproduction of models4 ,the reliefs of the ,arch of ,marcus ,aurelius1 once upon the ,corso at ,rome1 now in the palace of the ,capitol1 betray the same vacuity of expression and hardness of form1 in comparison with the illustrations from the life of ,trajan upon the ,arch of ,constantine2 even when compared with the sculptures upon the pedestal of the ,column of ,antoninus ,pius1 a decline is visible from the time of the older to the younger ,antoninus4 ,but even these are superior to the reliefs upon the ,arch of ,septimius ,severus1 erected in #bja ,b4,c41 which1 in the main parts1 have a fourfold division1 in order to gain space for the utmost possible number of representations4 ,from the nature of the design1 the spiral reliefs upon the columns of ,trajan and of ,marcus ,aurelius exhibited such parallel rows1 one above another2 but here the same method is employed upon a plane surface1 although it crowds the subject to such an extent that the figures become insignificant and1 at a little distance1 indistinct4 ,in these four lines are given scenes of war1 not1 apparently1 so much to celebrate combat and victory in general as to register especial facts1 battles fought with various weapons1 sieges1 capitulations1 and the transport of booty4 ,though many of the details were vigorous1 the forms in general tolerably correct1 and the technical ability considerable1 yet the composition appears barbaric1 the grouping awkward1 and the filling of the given space1 the composition1 and the artistic construction altogether unfortunate4 ,after ,septimius ,severus1 statuesque art degenerated into mere stone-cutting2 the portraits are unrecognizable1 the reliefs without expression or effect1 except1 as in ,egyptian art1 from the number of figures and accessories4 ,in religious sculptures1 finally reduced to bungling artisan work1 the last spark of ,hellenic tradition died out in continued weak copies4 ,in historical reliefs the impulse to create perished with the artistic ability4 ,when large monumental constructions were required1 the material was frequently drawn from the works of former emperors2 and even in triumphal memorials1 like the ,arch of ,constantine1 there was no hesitation in inserting reliefs unmistakably celebrating the deeds of ,trajan1 or installing statues connected with his conquests upon the ,danube1 the builders contenting themselves with filling out what was lacking1 as in the case of the ,victories upon the pedestals of the columns 7,fig4 #cje71 and the narrow frieze of reliefs over the side passages4 ,the figures err greatly in proportions3 dumpy1 formless1 and awkward1 appearing incapable of motion1 they already exemplify that perfect rigidity which1 in the following centuries1 was to hold sculpture in bondage4 ,even where the nature of the representations permitted the influence of the old models1 the decline of technical ability is striking1 as may be seen by comparing these figures with the ,victories upon the pedestals of the ,arch of ,septimius ,severus1 which1 though superficial1 are not without a certain style4 ,the folds1 for example1 look like the holes and lines of the wood-worm2 they are simple stripes cut into the garment1 without movement or purpose1 hard1 rough1 and hasty1 as is the entire treatment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cje4--,victory1 from the ,arch of ,constantine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if in ,roman art the province of architecture is the most important1 and that of sculpture the most richly represented1 that of painting is the most charming4 ,in this1 as in sculpture1 the decorative character predominated4 ,traces of that monumental art which creates for itself1 and for its own sake1 are found only in works of the earlier time1 and even then in few and isolated instances4 ,even more than sculpture1 painting appears dependent and imitative1 vacillating in the first five centuries between the influence of ancient ,italy and of ,greece2 later1 in close subjection to the latter1 as developed in the ,hellenistic period after ,alexander4 ,the earliest notice of monumental painting in ,rome relates to the decoration of the temples of ,ceres1 ,liber1 and ,libera by the ,greek artists of ,lower ,italy1 ,gorgasos and ,damophilos1 in #dic ,b4,c41 of which mention has already been made4 ,although they made use of four colors1 their method was that of the time before ,polygnotos1 and their work was little distinguished from the older painting upon vases1 such as those of ,ergotimos and ,clitias in ,florence1 the surfaces within the outlines being treated in color1 without gradation of light or shade4 ,it may therefore be concluded that1 in the two chief temples of the last period of the kings1 colored ornament1 whether upon the plaster itself1 or upon a revetment of terra-cotta slabs1 as in the tomb at ,cre 7,fig4 #bfb71 was as little wanting as in the temples and tombs of ,etruria4 ,it may be judged that in ,rome this was specifically ,etruscan1 since ,pliny refers to the ornamentation of the ,temple of ,ceres only because in this ,grecian artists first appear to have taken part1 while before 8everything in the ,roman temple had been ,etruscan40 ,much as we may be inclined to regard the primitive art of ,etruria as dependent upon that of ,greece1 the difference must have been considerable2 and the ,grecian wall-paintings in the ,temple of ,ceres must have been held in great estimation1 since1 according to ,pliny1 they were protected when the temple was restored1 being removed from the walls with great care1 framed upon tablets1 and replaced4 ,it can scarcely be doubted that these wall-paintings opened the way to ,hellenic influence1 although a guild of ,etruscan artists for a long time worked by the side of the ,greeks in ,rome1 for purposes of ordinary decoration4 ,if1 according to ,pliny1 8art came early to be honored in ,rome10 and even patricians did not hesitate to devote themselves to it1 it would seem that this must have been brought about through ,grecian methods4 ,fabius ,pictor1 whose wall-paintings1 according to ,dionysios of ,halicarnassos1 were carefully drawn1 of a fresh1 agreeable color1 and composed in a grand historical style1 acquired his sobriquet and his great fame by his paintings in the ,temple of ,salus1 executed in the year #cjd ,b4,c4 ,his rank in regard to drawing may be exemplified by the wonderful sgraffiti of the ,cista of ,novius ,plautius in ,rome1 although the latter1 having flourished half a century later1 may take a somewhat higher rank4 ,the paintings of the tragic poet ,pacuvius1 from #bbj to #acj ,b4,c41 were still more advanced4 ,among these a picture1 probably upon a panel1 in the ,temple of ,hercules in the ,forum ,boarium1 was very celebrated2 and it may be assumed that1 in order to obtain renown1 the artist adopted with success the technical refinements of the period of the ,diadochi4 ,the aged artist1 before his death1 must have witnessed the extensive robberies which brought to the metropolis1 besides the sculptural works1 the most distinguished pictures of ,greece1 it having happened in his prime that the ,athenian painter and philosopher ,metrodoros was called to ,rome by milius ,paulus--as a philosopher to educate his children1 and as an artist to illustrate his triumphs4 ,metrodoros1 who1 in his artistic and scholarly versatility1 had written a book upon architecture1 gave assistance even in the construction of triumphal arches4 ,still1 milius ,paulus may well have wished to glorify his deeds by historical paintings1 as had been customary with the conquerors for a century4 ,in #bic ,b4,c41 ,m4 ,valerius ,maximus ,messala had placed a battle-scene in the ,curia ,hostilia1 illustrating his victory over the ,carthaginians and ,hiero of ,syracuse--an example which was followed by ,l4 ,scipio1 in #aij ,b4,c41 with a representation of his success at ,magnesia over ,antiochus of ,syria4 ,these1 however1 must be regarded less as works of art than as realistic delineations of the events1 analogous to the ,roman historical reliefs in the time of the ,empire2 at least1 great importance was given to details in the picture representing the ,conquest of ,carthage which ,l4 ,hostilius ,mancinus1 in #adf ,b4,c41 exhibited upon the ,forum and explained to the people1 and which especially showed the ,roman preparations for a siege4 ,such works1 the background of which was probably treated more or less as a landscape1 like the topographical representations of earlier antiquity1 must have been similar in conception and composition to the ,assyrian reliefs that represent battles and sieges1 and to the pictures of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of the ,christian era4 ,in the notices of these panel-paintings there are no names of artists to assist in their classification2 but it may be concluded that ,metrodoros was encouraged in this work1 and ,serapion1 in #ajj ,b4,c41 really distinguished himself in such historical scenes4 ,the artists of importance in the last century of the republic1 like ,sopolis1 ,dionysios1 and their pupil ,antiochus ,gabinius1 found themselves forced into portraiture2 the specialty of ,iaia1 or ,laia1 of ,kyzicos was the painting of women upon ivory1 and ,arellius portrayed his mistresses as goddesses4 ,but in the beginning of the empire1 tablet-painting seems to have been entirely abandoned1 being supplanted by a new decorative tendency which again1 in quite an unmonumental manner1 led back to mural painting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--,wall-painting1 from the ,aurea ,domus of ,nero4 ,it is clear from the term 8,pinacotheca10 applied to certain halls in the city palaces1 that the eagerness for collecting among the ,roman emperors and nobles extended as well to the paintings of ,greece as to the statues4 ,in sculpture copies were substituted when originals were wanting1 but this seems to have been rarely the case with panel-paintings4 ,as the statues were employed for decoration1 originality in these was not so important2 but with paintings preserved in cabinets1 genuineness was more imperative4 ,painting upon panels1 however1 became less frequent when pictures came to be imitated upon the wall itself and brought into harmony with the remainder of the mural ornamentation1 as1 according to ,helbig1 was customary1 particularly in ,alexandria1 even in the time of the ,diadochi4 ,this is shown1 not only by the new discoveries among the buildings of ,tiberius upon the ,palatine1 but also in the frescos of those subterranean baths of ,titus which may be regarded as part of the ruins of the ,golden ,house of ,nero4 7,fig4 #cjf47 ,ornaments1 garlands1 and architectural designs divide the walls into many spaces1 within which groups or single figures 7,fig4 #cjg71 often dancing or floating1 are placed directly against a ground of intense color1 sometimes black--the paintings of ,campania showing unsurpassed lightness and charm in the lines4 7,fig4 #cjh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--;,ceres4 ,pompeian ,wall-painting4 ,sometimes they are ornamented with imitations of framed panel-pictures1 mostly containing mythological groups1 and scenes in small genre4 ,to these was generally given a background of landscape1 so that the figures represented were little more than picturesque accessories2 and this custom seems to have led1 perhaps even in the ,hellenistic period1 to true landscape-painting4 7,fig4 #cji47 ,according to ,pliny1 ,ludius1 or ,studius1 introduced this style in the time of ,augustus1 of which1 besides those of ,campania1 the frieze decorations of the newly discovered house of ,tiberius upon the ,palatine give the best representations1 and form an illustrated commentary upon the descriptions of the works of ,ludius4 ,these are characterized as showing 8villas and halls1 artificial gardens1 hedges1 woods1 hills1 water-basins1 tombs1 rivers1 shores1 in as great a variety as could be desired20 besides 8figures sitting at ease1 mariners1 and those who1 riding upon donkeys or in wagons1 look after their farms2 fishermen1 snarers of birds1 hunters1 and vine-dressers2 also swampy passages before beautiful villas1 and women borne by men who stagger under the burden1 and other witty things of this nature2 finally1 views of seaports1 everything charming and suitable20 that is to say1 of a certain facility and shallowness4 ,the aim was to give an open and cheerful effect1 and this could be attained without correct and naturalistic method or unity of idea2 on the contrary a fantastic unreality1 and even impossibility1 was its chief charm1 like the painting upon ,japanese lacquered wares4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--,wall-painting from ,herculaneum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4--,landscape-painting from ,pompeii4 ,the case was similar with architectural ornamentation1 another branch of ,roman decorative painting1 generally known under the name of the ,pompeian style4 7,fig4 #caj47 ,even in the time of ,augustus1 ,vitruvius complains of a blind seeking after scenic effect1 which1 in disdain of all constructive laws1 and in a manner quite impossible1 piled heavy gables and upper stories upon reed-like columns of no supporting power4 ,his blame1 however1 seems unjustifiable4 ,that architectural painting which aims at illusion should be condemned as worthless2 but this is not the case with that which1 after the analogy of conventional landscape-painting1 renounces all semblance of reality and assiduously avoids all illusion4 ,spaces may be apparently extended by an architectural painting which1 not deceptively1 but poetically1 opens the narrow walls of small rooms1 and carries the eye dreamily through a wide perspective4 ,hence the fresh and by no means realistic colors1 which1 tapestry-like1 are not intended to deceive1 but to ornament and please4 ,they bear witness to the deep feeling for polychromy1 inherited from ,hellenic1 or at least ,hellenistic1 predecessors1 which was characteristic of the ,romans even after their decline4 ,what delight must there have been in a work so extended1 and yet free from all slavish copying6 ,not only ,amulius1 who1 by compulsion1 painted the ,golden ,house of ,nero1 and was celebrated by ,pliny for his valuable and finely colored pictures1 but countless other artists were everywhere busily employed in covering the walls with paintings and ornaments--a work now intrusted to common decorators4 ,in the time of ,nero the activity in ornamental painting1 judged by the discoveries among the ruined cities of ,campania1 must have been greater than has ever been known at any other period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #caj4--,wall-painting of ,decorative ,architecture1 ,pompeii4 ,in the consideration of ,hellenic painting1 mention has been made of the origin of floor-decorations in mosaic by ,sosos at the royal court of ,pergamon4 ,by this is only meant mosaic painting with illusory effects1 as practised by him2 imitations of tapestry patterns and merely ornamental mosaic-work must have been older4 ,his drinking-doves in the 8unswept hall0 appear to have continued a favorite subject1 judging from three well-known imitations2 one of which1 found upon the ,aventine1 now in the ,museum of the ,lateran1 bears the inscription of the artist ,heraclitos4 ,though the names of other workers in mosaic are known1 they as little deserve mention here as do the numerous vase-painters1 their mosaic being almost wholly a technical process2 its very laboriousness rendered a truly artistic activity almost impossible4 ,unfortunately1 no name is attached to the most important work of this kind1 over four meters long and two wide1 apparently representing an ,alexandrian battle-scene4 ,this is also the best-preserved historical painting of antiquity1 but it is related rather to the ,grecian types than to the ,roman battle-pieces above mentioned4 ,the greater part of the well-known mosaics1 being from ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 may be referred to the time of ,nero2 but those of ,prneste with the ,egyptianized conventional landscapes may date back to the time of ,sulla1 while the extensive example with figures of athletes from the ,baths of ,caracalla--now in the ,lateran--belongs to the time of that emperor4 ,many others1 however1 especially those discovered in the distant provinces1 are of later times4 ,vigorous as are some of the representations of landscapes and of animals among them1 it is not to be denied that1 as ,semper says1 mosaic oversteps its boundary in going beyond the patterns of woven tapestry1 and trying to make us forget that it is outstretched like a level floor upon which we would walk without hindrance4 8,it would be difficult1 connectedly1 to pursue the history of ancient painting later than the eruption of ,vesuvius1 which1 in the year #gi ,a4,d41 by a wonderful fortune1 preserved for the later world the artistic treasures of three cities of ,campania--,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 and ,stabi--and1 at the same time1 cost the life of ,pliny1 whom we have to thank for the greatest completeness of written description40 ,thus ,brunn rightly concludes his 8,history of the ,grecian ,painters10 for the works of succeeding generations1 even when names of artists are attached1 do not deserve to be called art1 being nothing more than hasty and crude decorations2 such1 for example1 are the servants' rooms in the ,vigna ,nussiner1 upon the southern slope of the ,palatine1 which1 in recent times1 have acquired some celebrity by the careless scratches of the slaves found upon their walls4 ,the most important illustrations that have been preserved of the shallowness and roughness of this lingering art are in the tombs2 and with these in painting1 with the basilica in architecture1 and the sarcophagi in sculpture1 the boundaries of the antique and of the ,christian era flow into each other1 and are scarcely distinguishable4 ,when ,christianity arose from the sepulchre1 it allied itself in monumental art to that stage of debasement which painting had reached in the heathen and the ,christian catacombs of the fourth century2 indeed1 art continued still to decline through ages1 until the ,northern races and the life of the common people breathed into it the spirit of a new life4 ,,glossary4 ,it has been the translator's endeavor to avoid technical terms wherever this was possible without detracting from exactness of expression4 ,of those which it has proved necessary to introduce into the present ,history1 it is intended in this glossary to define neither words in common usage1 like basilica1 battlement1 column1 etc41 nor those designations of infrequent occurrence which should be interpreted whenever employed1 like the ,greek and ,latin names of the many divisions of the ancient theatre1 bath1 and gymnasion4 ,a few of the former--as1 for instance1 the too often interchanged channel1 flute1 and reed--have1 however1 been given for the sake of discrimination4 ,in these cases1 and in the case of some other words which are often employed in senses too widely extended to allow of their being used without qualification in careful architectural descriptions1 it has been attempted to make some advance towards precision of usage4 ,abacus 7,gr4 -4 ,lat4 abax and abacus1 a slab4 ,possibly in its architectural signification from 1 to lift up1 to bear74 ,the plinth which forms the upper part of the capital--supporting the entablature by bearing the lower surface of the epistyle beam4 ,the abacus is the crowning member of the capital1 as the capital is of the column4 ,in the ,doric style it is thick and of square plan1 in the ,corinthian order thin and curved upon the sides4 ,acroterion1 pl4 acroteria 7,gr4 from 1 outermost74 ,the ornaments1 such as statues or anthemion shields1 placed upon the angles of the gable--whether of the outer corners or of the apex4 ,the term is also applied to the pedestals of these ornaments4 ,agonal1 adj4 7from ,gr4 1 festive gathering1 especially an assembly met to see games2 also the place of contest itself74 ,pertaining to a festive destination4 ,the word agones is used for the arena itself by ,grote4 7,for the hypothetical distinction between agonal temples and those consecrated alone to the worship of a deity1 introduced by ,boetticher1 see p4 #bad47 ,agora 7,gr4 an assemblage of the people2 hence1 the place where such meetings were commonly held74 ,a public square or marketplace4 ,synonymous with the more familiar ,latin forum4 ,amphiprostylos1 adj4 amphiprostyle 7from ,gr4 1 on both sides2 1 in front of2 and 1 column74 ,a term applied to a temple having a columned portico at the rear 7epinaos71 as well as at the front 7pronaos71 but without lateral columns4 ,annulet 7,lat4 annulus1 or1 according to the best manuscripts1 anulus1 ring1 terminated by ,ital4 diminutive74 ,a small fillet encircling the base of the ,doric echinos4 ,the number of annulets is commonly three4 ,anta1 pl4 ant 7,lat474 ,terminations similar to pilasters upon the ends of the lateral walls of the cella1 in pronaos and epinaos4 ,though a corresponding member1 the anta is in form but little allied to the column1 because its individual function is so different4 ,antefix 7from ,lat4 ante1 before1 and fixus1 fixed74 ,an upright ornament like a small shield1 placed above the corona when the gutter is omitted1 to hide the end of the jointing tile ridge4 ,anthemion 7,gr4 patterned with flowers1 from 1 to blossom74 ,the so-called palmetto or honeysuckle ornament1 employed on acroteria and antefixes1 and also as a continuous decoration on bands1 gutters1 etc41 and the necking of some ,ionic capitals4 ,in antis 7,lat474 ,the simplest variety of temple plan1 so called by ,vitruvius because the pronaos or portico is formed by the projection of the side walls1 terminated by ant1 between which stand columns4 ,apophyge 7,gr4 escape2 from 1 from1 and 1 to flee4 ,in its technical employment1 of the same significance as the ,fr4 cong and ,ger4 ,ablauf74 ,the hollow1 or scotia1 beneath the ,doric echinos1 the juncture between shaft and capital1 occurring in archaic examples of the style1 and relinquished with its advance4 ,arris 7,lat4 arista1 beard of an ear of grain1 bone of a fish4 ,old ,fr4 areste74 ,the sharp edge formed by two surfaces meeting at an exterior angle4 ,particularly the ridge between the hollows of ,doric channellings4 ,astragal 7,gr4 1 knuckle-bone1 one of the vertebr of the neck1 the bone of the ankle-joint74 ,a roundlet moulding carved into the form of beads2 employed on the ,ionic capital1 and to separate the projecting faces of the epistyle and coffering beams4 ,atlas1 pl4 ,atlantes 7,gr4 the fabled upholder of the heavens74 ,figures of male human beings1 generally of colossal size1 carved either in the full or half round1 and employed in the place of columns or pilasters to support an entablature4 ,atrium 7,lat42 from ,gr4 1 open sky874 ,the chief space of the ,roman dwelling-house2 an inner court usually surrounded by columns4 ,attica 7from ,gr4 1 pertaining to ,attica74 ,the upright portion of a building above the main cornice4 ,barbiton 7,gr474 ,an ancient ,greek musical instrument of many strings1 resembling a lyre4 ,caryatid1 pl4 caryatides 7,gr4 pl4 priestesses of ,artemis at ,cary in ,laconia1 the connection of which with the architectural support has not as yet been satisfactorily explained74 ,figures of female human beings employed in the place of columns to support an entablature4 ,cella 7,lat42 from celare1 to hide74 ,all that portion of the temple structure within the walls4 ,the term cella is comprehensive1 including pronaos1 naos1 and1 if such there be1 opisthodomos and epinaos4 ,chamfer 7,fr4 chamfrein1 ,old ,engl4 chanfer74 ,a slope or small splay formed by cutting off the edges of an angle4 ,channel 7a modification of canal1 from ,lat4 canna1 reed74 ,a curved furrow1 immediately adjoining its repetition1 and separated from it only by an arris1 as in the ,doric column4 ,choragic 7,gr4 or 1 from 1 chorus1 and 1 to lead74 ,pertaining to1 or in honor of1 a choregos1 i4 e4 one who superintended a musical or theatrical entertainment among the ,greeks1 and provided a chorus at his own expense4 ,chryselephantine 7,gr4 1 from 1 gold1 and 1 ivory74 ,a kind of sculpture in gold and ivory overlaying a wooden kernel--the drapery and ornaments being of the former1 the exposed flesh of the latter1 material4 ,clere-story 7,fr4 clair-tage1 claire-voie1 from clair1 light74 ,that portion of a central aisle which is so raised above the surrounding parts of the building as to permit the illumination of the interior through windows in its side walls4 ,coilanaglyphic 7from ,gr4 1 hollow1 and 1 carving74 ,that species of carving in relief in which no part of the figure represented projects beyond the surrounding plane1 the relief being effected by deeply incising the outlines4 ,cornice 7,gr4 1 ,lat4 coronis1 terminating curved line2 flourish with the pen at the end of a book74 ,the uppermost division of the entablature--the representative of the roof--consisting of projecting mouldings and blocks1 usually divisible into bed-moulding1 corona1 and gutter4 ,hence1 in general usage1 any moulded projection which crowns and terminates the part upon which it is employed4 ,corona 7,lat4 crown74 ,the chief member of the cornice1 directly beneath the gutter1 by its great projection and rectilinear faces forming the drip4 ,crepidoma 7,gr4 from -1 boot74 ,the entire foundation of the temple1 including the stereobate1 the stylobate1 and the remaining steps4 ,cyma 7,gr4 wave74 ,a moulding composed of two distinct curves4 ,the ,doric cyma is commonly called the beak-moulding1 the ,lesbian cyma the cyma reversa4 ,dentil 7,lat4 denticulus1 from dens1 dentis1 tooth74 ,small rectangular blocks in the bed-moulding of a cornice1 originally representing the ends of the slats which formed the ceiling4 ,diadochi 7,gr4 successors1 from 1 to receive from another71 a term applied to the successors of ,alexander4 ,diminution4 ,in architectural usage1 the continued contraction of the diameter of the shaft as it ascends4 ,dipteros1 adj4 dipteral 7from ,gr4 1 double1 and 1 wing74 ,that variety of a temple plan which has two ranges of columns entirely surrounding the cella4 ,dromos 7,gr4 course74 ,a road2 particularly applied to the entrance-passages to subterranean treasure-houses4 ,echinos1 pl4 echini 7,gr4 hedgehog1 so called from the resemblance of the member to the shell of the sea-urchin74 ,the curved and projecting moulding which supports the abacus in the ,doric capital4 ,egg-and-dart moulding4 ,term applied to the well-known carving of the roundel common in the ,ionic style4 ,empaistic 7,gr4 2 from 1 in1 and 1 to stamp74 ,stamped and embossed work of metal2 also sheets of metal applied or inlaid4 ,entablature 7,lat4 intabulamentum2 from tabula1 board1 table74 ,in the ,greek styles the whole of the structure above the columns1 excepting the gable4 ,the entablature consists of three members3 the epistyle1 or architrave1 joining the columns and taking the place of the wall2 the frieze1 standing before1 and in the ,doric style imitating1 the ceiling and its beams2 and the terminal cornice1 the representative of the ends of the roof rafters4 ,entasis 7,gr42 from 1 to bend a bow74 ,the swelling of the column towards its middle1 the object of which is to counteract an optical delusion causing the diminished shaft1 when formed with absolutely straight lines1 to appear hollowed in the centre4 ,epinaos 7formed by analogy with pronaos2 from ,gr4 1 after1 behind1 and 1 naos74 ,the open vestibule behind the naos4 ,epistyle 7,gr4 2 from 1 after1 upon1 and 1 column74 ,the lower member of the entablature1 the representative of the wall1 consisting1 as the name imports1 of beams laid horizontally upon the capitals of the columns4 ,the epistyle is commonly spoken of by its ,roman name1 architrave4 ,fascine 7,lat4 fascina2 from fascis1 bundle74 ,a bundle of long1 thin sticks employed in military engineering for filling ditches1 raising parapets1 etc4 ,fillet 7,fr4 filet1 thread2 from ,lat4 filum74 ,a ribbon2 a narrow1 flat band used in the separation of one moulding from another4 ,especially the ridge between the flutes of the ,ionic shaft4 ,flute4 ,in architectural usage1 a curved and usually semicircular furrow1 separated from its repetition by a narrow fillet1 as in the ,ionic column4 ,so called from its similarity to the musical instrument4 ,frieze 7,ital4 freggio1 adorned874 ,the second member of the entablature4 ,when enriched by carvings of men or animals in relief1 as is common in the ,ionic style1 and as occurs upon the cella wall of the ,doric ,parthenon1 the frieze is in classic architecture called zophoros4 ,gargoyle 7,fr4 gargouille2 from gargouiller1 to dabble1 to paddle74 ,a carved waterspout projecting from the gutter4 ,gymnasion 7,gr42 from 1 naked74 ,originally an open space1 but in later times extensive courts and buildings1 devoted to mental as well as bodily instruction and exercises4 ,helix1 pl4 helices 7,gr4 anything twisted or spiral2 from 1 to turn around74 ,a spiral1 particularly the volutes of the ,ionic capital and the corner leaves and tendrils of the ,corinthian4 ,hexastylos1 adj4 hexastyle 7from ,gr4 1 six1 and 1 column74 ,a building1 particularly a temple1 upon the front of which are six columns4 ,hippodrome 7,gr4 2 from 1 horse1 and 1 way74 ,a course prepared for the races of horses and chariots4 ,hypthron1 adj4 hypthral 7,lat4 hypthrus2 from ,gr4 1 under1 and 1 clear sky74 ,term applied to a temple supposed by some writers on ,greek architecture to have been lighted from above1 by an orifice through roof and ceiling4 ,hyperon 7,gr474 ,the upper stories of a house2 particularly the galleries above the side-aisles in the interior of the ,greek temple4 ,hypostyle 7,gr4 2 from 1 under1 and 1 column74 ,a space1 with or without lateral enclosure1 the ceiling of which rests upon columns4 ,incision4 ,in architectural usage1 the deep groove which separates the necking of the column from the upper drum of the shaft beneath4 ,at times repeated to emphasize this separation4 ,intercolumniation 7from ,lat4 inter1 between1 and columna1 column74 ,the open space between two columns1 measured at the base4 ,the measures are often taken from centre to centre of the columns4 ,lacuna1 pl4 lacun 7,lat42 from ,gr4 1 pit1 originally anything hollow74 ,a sunken panel in the under surface of any constructive feature1 particularly of a horizontal ceiling4 ,loggia 7,ital42 from ,lat4 locus1 place74 ,a covered space enclosed by walls1 but with one or1 in exceptional instances1 two sides entirely open to the air4 ,lychnites 7,gr4 2 from 1 light74 ,a variety of fine-grained marble from the island of ,paros1 probably so called because quarried by torchlight4 ,metope 7,gr42 from 1 between1 and 1 opening74 ,originally the orifice between the beam-ends of the ,doric ceiling2 hence1 in later times1 the stones which were employed to close these openings4 ,the nearly square slabs between the triglyphs4 ,monopteros 7from ,gr4 1 alone1 single1 and 1 wing74 ,a circular structure of outstanding columns1 commonly without a cella enclosed by walls4 ,mutule 7,lat4 mutulus74 ,a projection upon the soffit of the ,doric corona1 which originally marked the position of the rafter-ends beneath the sheathing4 ,naos 7,gr474 ,the innermost chamber of the ,greek temple4 ,necking4 ,in architectural usage1 the space1 if such be separated1 between the top of the shaft and the projecting members of the capital4 ,in the ,doric style1 for instance1 the continuation of the channellings above the incision or incisions to the annulets of the echinos1 including the hypophyge1 when this occurs4 ,octostylos1 adj4 octostyle 7from ,gr4 1 eight1 and 1 column74 ,a building1 particularly a temple1 upon the front of which are eight columns4 ,odeion 7,gr42 from 1 song74 ,a hall1 similar to a modern theatre1 devoted to the production of the lyric works of poets and musicians4 ,ogive 7,fr474 ,the pointed arch4 ,opisthodomos 7,gr4 from 1 behind1 and 1 house74 ,an enclosed chamber in a temple1 entered from the epinaos1 commonly employed to contain the treasure of the temple or of the state4 ,palaistra 7,gr42 from 1 wrestler74 ,a building or enclosure devoted to wrestling1 boxing1 and kindred gymnastic exercises2 commonly1 also1 containing baths4 ,peripteros1 adj4 peripteral 7,gr42 from 1 around1 and 1 wing74 ,a temple entirely surrounded by columns4 ,peristyle1 noun and adj4 7from ,gr4 1 around1 and 1 column74 ,a term applied to a secular building1 or a court1 which is entirely or for the greater part surrounded by a colonnade4 ,pis 7,fr42 from piser1 to build with stamped clay74 ,a species of tenacious clayey earth1 employed for walls and pavement by being rammed down4 ,plinth 7,lat4 plinthus1 from ,gr4 1 tile74 ,any rectangular and projecting member of considerable size4 ,a narrow and long plinth is a fillet4 ,poros 7,gr474 ,a light1 coarse tufa-limestone almost exclusively employed during the earliest ages of ,greek architecture4 ,pronaos 7,gr42 from 1 before1 and 74 ,the open vestibule before the naos4 ,propylon1 pl4 propyla 7,gr42 from 1 before1 and 1 gate74 ,the portal structure before the entrance to a ,greek temenos4 ,prostylos1 adj4 prostyle 7from ,gr4 1 before1 and 1 column74 ,that variety of temple plan in which the projecting wall and pilasters of the temple in antis have been transformed to corner columns1 thus altering the pronaos from a loggia to an open portico4 ,pseudodipteros 7pseudo from ,gr4 1 false2 dipteros1 see above74 ,a temple planned upon the dipteral arrangement1 in which the inner rank of columns surrounding the cella is wanting4 ,pseudoperipteros 7pseudo from ,gr4 1 false2 peripteros1 see above74 ,a temple in which the columns surrounding the cella are engaged upon a continuous enclosure wall1 as in the great temple of ,acragas 7,agrigentum74 ,pteroma 7,gr42 from 1 wing74 ,the passage surrounding the cella of a peripteral temple4 ,pylon 7,gr42 from 1 gate74 ,the towers of truncated pyramidal form on either side of the gateways of ,egyptian temples4 ,quirk4 ,in architectural usage1 a moulding formed by a sharp turn in a continuous line4 ,reed4 ,in architectural usage1 a small convex moulding applied to a regular surface and frequently repeated4 ,the term is commonly employed for the ornamentation of columns by reversed channels or flutes4 ,regula 7,lat4 any straight piece of wood1 a ruler74 ,the short band1 corresponding to the triglyph1 beneath the tnia moulding which crowns the epistyle2 the listel4 ,originally determined by the slat of wood which strengthened the wall-plate at the point of its perforation by the trunnels4 ,revetment1 vb4 to revete 7,fr4 revtement1 from revtir1 to clothe74 ,a facing of metal1 stone1 or wood encasing a kernel--usually of some less firm or sightly material4 ,roundel1 dim4 roundlet4 ,a moulding of semicircular profile4 ,scamillus 7,lat4 little bench1 foot-stool74 ,a slight projection1 cut by means of a joggle1 upon a constructive feature in such a manner as to prevent its adjacent edges from touching and possibly chipping those of the next block4 ,a scamillus thus creates the incision between the upper drum of the shaft and the necking of the ,doric capital1 and is also occasionally inserted between the top of the abacus and the soffit of the epistyle4 ,scotia 7,gr4 darkness74 ,a hollow curved moulding1 so called from the deep line of shadow which it casts4 ,socle 7,lat4 socculus1 dim4 of soccus1 low shoe1 slipper74 ,the low1 plain foundation of a pedestal or building4 ,soffit 7,ital4 soffitta2 from ,lat4 suffigere1 to fasten beneath74 ,the under side of any part of a building1 particularly of lintels1 epistyles1 and coronas4 ,sphyrelaton 7,gr42 from 1 hammer1 and 1 to drive74 ,metal-work beaten to the shape of a carved kernel by a hammer4 ,spina 7,lat42 from ,gr4 1 lean1 thin74 ,the barrier dividing the race-course longitudinally into two tracks4 ,stadion 7,gr42 from 1 standing firm74 ,a race-course of fixed dimensions1 whence a measure of length1 #fjj ,greek feet4 ,stele 7,gr474 ,an upright stone employed as a monument4 ,stereobate 7,gr4 2 from 1 firm1 solid1 and 1 base74 ,the substructure of rough masonry beneath a temple4 ,stoa 7,gr474 ,an extended colonnade1 usually adjoining a public place1 and affording protection against the heat of the sun4 ,stylobate 7,gr4 2 from 1 column1 and 1 to light up1 support74 ,the uppermost step of the peripteros1 which forms a continuous base beneath the columns4 ,tnia 7,gr4 ribbon74 ,the continuous fillet which crowns the epistyle1 representative of the wall-plate of the original timbered ,doric construction4 ,talus 7,lat4 ankle74 ,the slope or angle of inclination of the sides of a wall4 ,taraxippos 7,gr4 adj4 frightening the horses74 ,an altar upon the turning-point of the ,greek race-course4 ,telamon 7,gr4 bearer74 ,in architectural usage of the same significance as ,atlas1 which see above4 ,temenos 7,gr42 from 1 to cut1 to draw a line74 ,a piece of land marked off from common usages and dedicated to a deity4 ,the sacred enclosure around the temple4 ,tetrastylos1 adj4 tetrastyle 7from ,gr4 1 four1 and 1 column74 ,a building1 particularly a temple1 upon the front of which are four columns4 ,thalamos 7,gr474 ,term applied by ,homer to inner rooms or chambers1 especially those of women4 ,in the usage of ,xenophon a store-room4 ,tholos 7,gr474 ,a chamber of circular plan1 generally subterranean1 approaching in interior form that of a pointed vault4 ,tore 7,lat4 torus1 swelling1 protuberance74 ,a large roundel moulding4 ,tracery4 ,a patterning of thin bars1 usually of stone1 in a window or other opening4 ,triglyph 7,gr4 2 from 1 three1 and 1 carving1 because of the three slats originally chamfered74 ,the most prominent member of the ,doric frieze1 originally significant of the ends of the ceiling beams4 ,a rectangular tablet slightly projecting beyond the face of the metopes1 with which it alternates1 and emphasized by vertical grooves and chamfers4 ,trunnel 7allied etymologically to tree-nail and trunnion74 ,a wooden pin or peg4 ,carved in stone beneath the regulas and mutules of the ,doric entablature1 the trunnels mark the position of these primitive constructive features4 ,in form they are commonly the frustum of a cone4 ,tympanon 7,gr4 drum74 ,the triangular space enclosed by the inclined mouldings of the gable and the horizontal cornice of the entablature beneath4 ,velarium 7,lat474 ,the great curtain1 or awning1 extended above the auditories of the ,roman theatre and amphitheatre to protect the spectators from the sun and rain4 ,volute 7,lat4 voluta2 from volvere1 to roll74 ,a spiral scroll4 ,the term is particularly employed for such features in the ,ionic and ,corinthian capitals4 ,xoanon1 pl4 xoana 7,gr42 from 1 to work in wood by scraping74 ,a rude and primitive image carved in wood2 particularly antique statues of the deities4 ,zophoros 7,gr42 from 1 being1 figure1 and 1 to bear74 ,a continuous frieze1 sculptured in relief with the forms of human beings and animals4 ,,index4 7,the names of places are in common print1 those of artists in italics47 ,abou-,roash1 #ab4 ,abousere1 #c1 #aa4 ,abou-,sharein1 #ej-eb1 #ed4 ,achermos1 #bhj4 ,ackercuf1 #ej4 ,acragas1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bec4 gina1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bhb1 #bic-bif1 #bih1 #cjc4 sernia1 #dad4 ,aetion1 #chd4 ,agasias1 #cfa1 #cfb4 ,agatharchos1 #cgj4 ,ageladas1 #bii1 #cjd4 ,agesandros1 #cea4 ,aglaophon1 #cfh4 ,agoracritos1 #caf1 #cag4 ,agrae1 #beg4 ,agrigentum4 ,see ,acragas4 ,aizanis1 #bfj4 ,alabanda1 #bfj4 ,alatrium 7,alatri71 #dad1 #daf4 ,albanum 7,albano71 #cij1 #dcf1 #dcg4 ,alcamenes1 #cag-cai4 ,alcantara1 #dci4 ,alexandria1 #bef1 #bfa1 #cdf1 #dch4 ,alexandros1 #cch4 ,algiers1 #ahe4 ,alopeke1 #cbb4 ,alsium1 #cii4 ,alxenor1 #bij4 ,alyzia1 #cdc4 ,ambrakia1 #bha1 #cdf4 ,amphicrates1 #big4 ,amphipolis1 #cge4 ,amphissa1 #bgi4 ,amran-ibn-,ali1 #eg4 ,amrith1 #acc1 #ace-acg1 #ada1 #adi4 ,amulius1 #dgj4 ,amycl1 #agi1 #ahd1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,amyclaios1 #bii4 ,ancona1 #dci4 ,ancyra1 #dch4 ,androsthenes1 #cah4 ,angelion1 #bhf4 ,antaradus1 #acc4 ,antenor1 #big1 #bih4 ,antigonos1 #cdg4 ,antioch1 #bfa1 #cdf4 ,antiochos1 #cfc4 ,antiochos ,gabinius1 #dff4 ,antiphillos1 #aff1 #afh4 ,antiphilos1 #chd1 #chf4 ,antium1 #dad4 ,aosta1 #dci4 ,apelles1 #cgi-chb4 ,aphrodisias1 #bdj1 #beg1 #cff1 #dcf4 ,apiol1 #dad4 ,apollodoros1 sculptor1 #cfj2 painter1 #cgj4 ,apollonios1 #cec1 #cfb1 #cfc4 ,aradus1 #acc4 ,arbola1 #fb4 ,ardea1 #dad4 ,archias1 #bfb4 ,archimedes1 #bfb4 ,arellius1 #dff4 ,argos1 #ahf1 #bgf1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjc4 ,aricia1 #bia1 #dad4 ,aridikes1 #cfg4 ,aristeas1 #cff4 ,aristios1 #cgg4 ,aristides1 #cgg4 ,aristocles1 #bhg1 #bih1 #bii4 ,aristogeiton1 #cbg4 ,aristolaos1 #cgf4 ,aristomedon1 #bii4 ,aristomedos1 #bii4 ,aristophon1 #cgj4 ,arkesilaos1 #cff4 ,arpinum1 #dad4 ,arrhachion1 #bhi4 ,asclepiodoros1 #chj1 #chd4 ,asoka1 #acb4 ,aspendos1 #dcc4 ,assos1 #baf1 #bhf1 #bhh4 ,assur1 #fb4 ,athanadoros1 #cea4 ,athenis1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bia1 #cfe4 ,athens1 #aia1 #bba-bbg1 #bda-bde1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bfj1 #bgf1 #bhi1 #bic1 #bih1 #cjc1 #cdf1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ,aufidena1 #dad4 ,aurunca1 #dad4 ,babil1 #eh4 ,babylon1 #ej1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei1 #ha1 #hb4 ,bagdad1 #eg4 ,balaneia1 #acc4 ,baphio1 #ahd4 ,bara1 #dci4 ,bass1 #bbg1 #bcf1 #bda1 #bdg1 #bdi4 ,bathycles1 #bgg4 ,beni-hassan1 #ad-ah4 ,besanon1 #dci4 ,beyrout1 #acc4 ,biban-el-,moluk1 #bb4 ,bi-,sueton1 #abh4 ,boghaz-kieni1 #agc4 ,boidas1 #cdd4 ,bolymnos1 #aii4 ,bors-,nimrud1 #eg-ei4 ,borsippa1 #ee-eg4 ,boulac1 #da4 ,boutades1 #bgh4 ,boupalos1 #bha1 #bia1 #cfe4 ,bovill1 #dca4 ,bryaxis1 #bea1 #ccc4 ,byblus1 #acc1 #adh4 ,byrsa1 #afb4 ,cadacchio1 #baf4 ,ca-dimirra1 #ec4 ,cre1 #cia1 #cib1 #djf1 #dji4 ,cairo1 #d4 ,calah1 #fa1 #fb4 ,calamis1 #bic1 #bii1 #cja1 #cah4 ,calates1 #chf4 ,callicles1 #chf4 ,callimachos1 #bdf1 #cbb1 #chf4 ,calliphon1 #cgj4 ,calliteles1 #bie4 ,callon1 #bhf1 #bic1 #bii4 ,calydon1 #aia4 ,canachos1 #bhf1 #bih4 ,caparra1 #dci4 ,capua1 #cci1 #cei4 ,carnac1 #bd-bh4 ,carnek1 #acc4 ,carpentras1 #dci4 ,carthage1 #aci1 #aei1 #afb4 ,casr1 #eg4 ,castel d',asso1 #cid4 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#acc4 ,pamphilos1 #cge1 #chb4 ,panainos1 #cfh1 #cfi4 ,paphos1 #afj4 ,papias1 #cff4 ,paros1 #cag4 ,parrhasios1 #cje1 #cga1 #cgc1 #cgd4 ,pasargad1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #aah1 #abj1 #abc4 ,pasiteles1 #cfd4 ,patara1 #bfj4 ,pausias1 #cgf4 ,pauson1 #cgj4 ,peiricos1 #chf4 ,pergamon1 #bfa1 #cdf-cej1 #cec1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cfb4 ,persepolis1 #ajj-ajb1 #ajg1 #aag1 #abj1 #abb1 #abc4 ,perugia1 #bhf1 #djj1 #djd4 ,pessinus1 #bdj4 ,petra1 #dcg1 #dch4 ,pharsalos1 #agi4 ,pheidias1 #bbe1 #bii1 #cjd-cbb4 ,phellos1 #afg4 ,pheneos1 #ahe4 ,phigalia1 #aij1 #bbg1 #bhg1 #cba4 ,phil1 #cj1 #dg1 #aje1 #ace4 ,phileas1 #bgi4 ,philocles1 #cfg4 ,phokis1 #cfc4 ,phycomachos1 #cdg4 ,piraios1 #bee4 ,plataia1 #cje1 #cfh4 ,pola1 #dcf4 ,politorium1 #dad4 ,polycleitos1 #bii1 #cbc1 #cbh4 ,polycles1 #cfc4 ,polydoros1 #cea4 ,polygnotos1 #bed1 #cfh-cgj1 #chc4 ,pompeii1 #dcf1 #ddb1 #ddd1 #dfh1 #dga4 ,prneste1 #dad1 #dej1 #dga4 ,praxias1 #cah4 ,praxiteles1 #cjj1 #ccj1 #ccb-ccf1 #cch1 #cdj4 ,priene1 #bch4 ,protogenes1 #chc1 #chd4 ,pythagoras1 #bii1 #cja4 ,pythios1 #bch1 #bea4 ,redesie1 #cj4 ,reggio1 #dcf4 ,reson1 #fb4 ,rhamnous1 #bbh1 #ccj4 ,rhegion1 #bhb1 #bii1 #cja1 #cjc4 ,rheims1 #dch4 ,rhodes1 #bfg1 #cdd1 #cea1 #cec1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cfb1 #cfc4 ,rhoicos1 #bgi4 ,rimini1 #dci4 ,ruad1 #acc1 #adh4 ,saccara1 #i4 ,saida1 #acc1 #ach1 #ada1 #adi4 ,saint-,remi1 #bec1 #dcg1 #dci4 ,samos1 #ada1 #aij1 #bch1 #bfj1 #bhj4 ,sarbistan1 #aca1 #aga4 ,sardinia1 #afc4 ,sardis1 #agd4 ,satricum1 #dad4 ,satyros1 #bea4 ,sauiet-el-,meytin1 #af4 ,saurias1 #cfg4 ,scaptia1 #dad4 ,scopas1 #bea1 #ccj-ccc4 ,scythopolis1 #adh4 ,segesta1 #baa1 #bbb1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,segni1 #dad1 #daf4 ,seid-el-,ar1 #agb4 ,selamiyeh1 #fb4 ,seleucia1 #eh1 #aca1 #cdf4 ,selinous1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bhc1 #bhh1 #bij1 #cbg4 ,serapion1 #dff4 ,serpul-,zohab1 #aba4 ,side1 #bfj4 ,sidon1 #acc1 #ach4 ,signia1 #dad1 #dae4 ,sikyon1 #bdc1 #bgf1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjc1 #cbb1 #cdj1 #cge-cgh4 ,silanion1 #cdj1 #cda4 ,siloam1 #aeb4 ,silsilis1 #cj4 ,sipylos1 #agc1 #bgb4 ,sivrihissar1 #aga4 ,skyllis1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bih4 ,smilis1 #bhb4 ,smyrna1 #agc4 ,socrates1 #bii4 ,soleb1 #bg4 ,sopolis1 #dff4 ,sora1 #dad4 ,sosibios1 #cfe4 ,sosos1 #chf1 #dgj4 ,spalatro1 #ddg4 ,sparta1 #ahc1 #bee1 #bfj1 #bhb1 #bhg1 #bii4 ,stabi1 #dga4 ,stephanos1 #cfd4 ,stoura1 #aic4 ,stratonicos1 #cdg4 ,studius1 #dfg4 ,styppax1 #cba4 ,sunion1 #bbh4 ,sur1 #acc1 #ach4 ,sura1 #ej4 ,susa1 ,italy1 #dci4 ,susa1 ,persia1 #ajj4 ,sutri1 #dcf4 ,syracuse1 #bag1 #bfj1 #bfb4 ,tak-i-,gero1 #acb4 ,tarention1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdi4 ,tauriscos1 #cec4 ,tauromenium1 #bfj4 ,tectaios1 #bhf4 ,telchin1 #bff4 ,telecles1 #bfj1 #bgi4 ,telen1 #dad4 ,telephanes1 #cfg4 ,telmissos1 #bfj4 ,tel-,sifr1 #ej4 ,tenea1 #bfg1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,teos1 #bdj4 ,thabarieh1 #adf4 ,thasos1 #bhi1 #cfh4 ,thebes1 ,egypt1 #bb1 #dg4 ,thebes1 ,greece1 #aia1 #bih1 #bii1 #cge1 #cgg4 ,theocles1 #bhb4 ,theodoros1 #bch1 #bfj1 #bgi1 #bhj4 ,theon1 #chf4 ,thera1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,thespeia1 #cfh4 ,thessalonica1 #bee4 ,theveste1 #dci4 ,thoricos1 #bed4 ,tibur1 #dad4 ,timanthes1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,timarchides1 #cfc4 ,timarchos1 #cch4 ,timocles1 #cfc4 ,timomachos1 #che4 ,timotheos1 #bea1 #ccc4 ,tiryns1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aib4 ,todi1 #djh4 ,tortosa1 #acc4 ,tourah1 #aa4 ,tralles1 #cec4 ,treves1 #dcf4 ,troezen1 #aii4 ,troy1 #ahe1 #aia1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,tusculum1 #dad1 #dcc1 #dcf4 ,tyndaris1 #bfj4 ,tyre1 #acc1 #ach1 #adj4 ,um-el-,auamid1 #acc1 #ach1 #ade4 ,ur1 #dh1 #ej1 #ec1 #hj4 ,veii1 #chh1 #cia1 #dja1 #ddh4 ,velabro1 #daf4 ,venice1 #dej4 ,verul1 #dad4 ,viterbo1 #cid4 ,volca 7,vulcanius71 #dja1 #ddh4 ,volsinii1 #dje4 ,volterra1 #djh4 ,vulci1 #cij1 #dja1 #djf1 #djg4 ,warka1 #ej1 #eb1 #ed1 #hj4 ,xanthos1 #afg1 #agj1 #beb1 #bhh1 #cci4 ,xenaios1 #bfa4 ,zeuxis1 #cga-cgd4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,valuable ,,and ,,interesting ,,works ,,for ,,students ,,of ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,art4 ,,harper ,,brothers will send any of the following works by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada1 on receipt of the price4 ,for a full list of works published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 see ,,harper',s ,,enlarged ,,catalogue1 #cfj pp41 #hvo1 which will be sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 on receipt of ,ten ,cents4 ,history of ,medival ,art4 ,by ,dr4 ,,franz ,,von ,,reber1 ,author of 8,a ,history of ,ancient ,art10 c4 ,translated and ,augmented by ,,joseph ,,thacher ,,clarke4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,history of ,ancient ,art4 ,by ,dr4 ,,franz ,,von ,,reber1 ,director of the ,bavarian ,royal and ,state ,galleries of ,paintings1 ,professor in the ,university and ,polytechnic of ,munich4 ,revised by the ,author1 and ,translated and ,augmented by ,,joseph ,,thacher ,,clarke4 ,with #cjh ,illustrations1 and a ,glossary of ,technical ,terms4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,ilios4 ,ilios1 the ,city and ,country of the ,trojans4 ,the results of ,researches and ,discoveries on the ,site of ,troy and throughout the ,troad in the years #ahga-'gb-'gc-'gh-'gi4 ,including an ,autobiography of the ,author4 ,by ,dr4 ,,henry ,,schliemann1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with a ,preface1 ,appendices1 and ,notes by ,professors ,,rudolf ,,virchow1 ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce1 ,j4 ,p4 ,,mahaffy1 ,h4 ,,brugsch-,,bev1 ,p4 ,,ascherson1 ,m4 ,a4 ,,postolaccas1 ,m4 ,e4 ,,burnouf1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,,calvert1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,,duffield4 ,with ,illustrations representing nearly #bjjj ,types of the ,objects found in the ,excavations of the ,seven ,cities on the ,site of ,ilios4 ,maps1 ,plans1 and ,illustrations4 ,imperial #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #ae #jj4 ,troja4 ,troja4 ,results of the ,latest ,researches and ,discoveries on the ,site of ,homer's ,troy1 and in the ,heroic ,tumuli and other ,sites1 made in the year #ahhb1 and a ,narrative of a ,journey in the ,troad in #ahha4 ,by ,dr4 ,,henry ,,schliemann1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,preface by ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce4 ,with #aej ,wood-cuts and #d ,maps and ,plans4 pp4 xl41 #dcd4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #ej2 ,half ,morocco1 #aj #jj4 ,a ,history of ,wood-,engraving4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,,woodberry4 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,south ,kensington4 ,travels in ,south ,kensington4 ,with ,notes on ,decorative ,art and ,architecture in ,england4 ,by ,,moncure ,,daniel ,,conway4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,the ,land and the ,book4 ,by ,,william ,m4 ,,thomson1 ,d4,d4 ,in ,three ,volumes4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 ,square #hvo1 ,ornamental ,cloth1 #f #jj2 ,sheep1 #g #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #ej2 ,full ,morocco1 ,gilt ,edges1 #aj #jj per ,volume4 7,the ,volumes sold separately47 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,southern ,,palestine ,,and ,,jerusalem4 7#adj ,illustrations and ,maps47 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,central ,,palestine ,,and ,,ph,,nicia4 7#acj ,illustrations and ,maps47 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,lebanon1 ,,damascus1 ,,and ,,beyond ,,jordan4 7#adg ,illustrations and ,maps47 ,popular ,edition1 ,copiously ,illustrated1 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 ,cyprus3 its ,ancient ,cities1 ,tombs1 and ,temples4 ,a ,narrative of ,researches and ,excavations during ,ten ,years' ,residence in that ,island4 ,by ,general ,,louis ,,palma ,,di ,,cesnola1 ,mem4 of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 ,turin2 ,hon4 ,mem4 of the ,royal ,society of ,literature1 ,london1 c4 ,with ,appendix1 containing a ,treatise on 8,the ,rings and ,gems in the ,treasure of ,kurium10 by ,c4 ,w4 ,,king1 ,m4,a42 a 8,list of ,engraved ,gems found at ,different ,places in ,cyprus20 a ,treatise 8,on the ,pottery of ,cyprus10 by ,a4 ,s4 ,,murray2 ,lists of 8,greek ,inscriptions10 8,inscriptions in the ,cypriote ,character10 and 8,inscriptions in the ,phnician ,character40 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and #djj ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,gilt ,tops and ,uncut ,edges1 #g #ej4 ,caricature and other ,comic ,art4 ,in all ,times and ,many ,lands4 ,by ,,james ,,parton4 ,with #bjc ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,gilt ,tops and ,uncut ,edges1 #e #jj4 ,spanish ,vistas4 ,by ,,george ,,parsons ,,lathrop4 ,illustrated by ,,charles ,s4 ,,reinhart4 #hvo1 ,ornamental ,cover1 ,gilt ,edges1 #c #jj4 ,peru4 ,incidents of ,travel and ,exploration in the ,land of the ,incas4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,,squier1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 late ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner to ,peru2 ,author of 8,the ,states of ,central ,america10 8,nicaragua3 its ,people1 ,scenery1 ,monuments1 ,resources1 ,condition1 and ,proposed ,canal10 c4 ,with ,map and #beh ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,the ,mikado's ,empire4 ,book ,i4 ,history of ,japan1 from #ffj ,b4,c4 to #ahgb ,a4,d4--,book ,,ii4 ,personal ,experiences1 ,observations1 and ,studies in ,japan1 #ahgj-ahgd4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,elliot ,,griffis1 ,a4,m41 late of the ,imperial ,university of ,tki1 ,japan4 ,fifth ,edition1 revised4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,a ,hand-,book of ,pottery ,painting4 ,by ,,john ,c4 ,l4 ,,sparkes4 #cbmo1 ,paper1 #bj cts42 ,cloth1 #ce cts4 ,atlantis3 ,the ,antediluvian ,world4 ,by ,,ignatius ,,donnelly4 ,illustrated4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,bible ,lands3 ,their ,modern ,customs and ,manners ,illustrative of ,scripture4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,henry ,j4 ,,van-,,lennep1 ,d4,d4 ,illustrated with upward of #cej ,wood-engravings and ,two ,colored ,maps4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #jj4 ,ancient ,america1 ,in ,notes on ,american ,archology4 ,by ,,john ,d4 ,,baldwin1 ,a4,m4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,fresh ,discoveries at ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,fresh ,discoveries at ,nineveh and ,babylon2 with ,travels in ,armenia1 ,kurdistan1 and the ,desert3 being the ,result of a ,second ,expedition undertaken for the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum4 ,by ,,austen ,,henry ,,layard1 ,m4,p4 ,with all the ,maps and ,illustrations in the ,english ,edition4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,from ,egypt to ,palestine1 ,through ,sinai1 the ,wilderness1 and the ,south ,country4 ,by ,s4 ,c4 ,bartlett1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,the ,north ,americans of ,antiquity4 ,their ,origin1 ,migrations1 and ,type of ,civilization ,considered4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,short4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,the ,ceramic ,art3 ,a ,compendium of the ,history and ,manufacture of ,pottery and ,porcelain4 ,by ,,jennie ,j4 ,,young4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,the ,china ,hunters ,club4 ,by the ,youngest ,member4 ,illustrated4 ,post #hvo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,art ,education ,applied to ,industry4 ,by ,,geo4 ,,ward ,,nichols4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,illuminated and ,gilt1 #d #jj4 ,art ,decoration ,applied to ,furniture4 ,by ,,harriet ,,prescott ,,spofford4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,historical ,studies of ,church-,building ,in the ,middle ,ages4 ,venice1 ,siena1 ,florence4 ,by ,,charles ,,eliot ,,norton4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,sketches and ,studies in ,southern ,europe4 ,by ,,john ,,addington ,,symonds4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,post #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,the ,mythology of ,greece and ,rome1 ,with ,special ,reference to its ,use in ,art4 ,from the ,german of ,o4 ,seemann4 ,edited by ,g4 ,h4 ,,bianchi1 ,b4,a41 late ,scholar of ,st4 ,peter's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,brotherton ,sanskrit ,prizeman1 #ahge4 ,with #fd ,illustrations4 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,the ,student's ,history of ,greece4 ,a ,history of ,greece1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,roman ,conquest4 ,with ,supplementary ,chapters on the ,history of ,literature and ,art4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,smith1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustrated4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #be4 ,the ,student's ,history of ,rome4 ,a ,history of ,rome1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,establishment of the ,empire4 ,with ,chapters on the ,history of ,literature and ,art4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,liddell1 ,d4,d41 ,dean of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,illustrated4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #be4 ,carthage and ,her ,remains3 ,being an ,account of the ,excavations and ,researches on the ,site of the ,phnician ,metropolis1 in ,africa and other ,adjacent ,places4 ,conducted under the ,auspices of ,her ,majesty's ,government4 ,by ,dr4 ,n4 ,,davis1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,profusely ,illustrated with ,maps1 ,wood-cuts1 ,chromo-,lithographs1 c4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,art ,hints4 ,architecture1 ,sculpture1 and ,painting4 ,by ,,james ,,jackson ,,jarves4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,lessons from ,my ,masters3 ,carlyle1 ,tennyson1 and ,ruskin4 ,by ,,peter ,,bayne1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,author of 8,the ,chief ,actors in the ,puritan ,revolution10 8,life and ,letters of ,hugh ,miller10 c4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,she ,stoops to ,conquer2 or1 ,the ,mistakes of a ,night4 ,a ,comedy4 ,by ,dr4 ,,goldsmith4 ,with ,drawings by ,,edwin ,a4 ,,abbey1 ,decorations by ,,alfred ,,parsons1 and ,introduction by ,,austin ,,dobson4 ,folio1 ,illuminated ,calf1 ,gilt ,edges 7in a ,handsome ,box71 #bj #jj4 ,herrick's ,poems4 ,illustrated by ,abbey4 ,selections from the ,poems of ,robert ,herrick4 ,with ,drawings by ,,edwin ,a4 ,,abbey4 pp4 xviii41 #ahh4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #g #ej4 7,in a ,box47 ,sketching ,rambles in ,holland4 ,by ,,george ,h4 ,,boughton1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,beautifully and ,profusely ,illustrated with ,wood-engravings from ,drawings by the ,author and ,,edwin ,a4 ,,abbey1 pp4 xvi41 #cdb4 #hvo1 ,illuminated ,cloth and ,tile1 #e #jj2 ,gilt ,edges1 #e #be4 ,the ,raven4 ,illustrated by ,dor4 ,the ,raven4 ,by ,,edgar ,,allan ,,poe4 ,illustrated by ,,gustave ,,dor4 ,with ,comment by ,,edmund ,,clarence ,,stedman4 ,folio1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #aj #jj4 7,in a ,box47 ,the ,ancient ,mariner4 ,illustrated by ,dor4 ,the ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner4 ,by ,,samuel ,,taylor ,,coleridge4 ,illustrated by ,,dor4 ,folio1 ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #aj #jj4 7,in a ,box47 ,happy ,hunting-,grounds4 ,by ,w4 ,,hamilton ,,gibson4 ,illustrated by the ,author4 pp4 #bjb4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #g #ej4 7,in a ,box47 ,highways and ,byways4 ,by ,w4 ,,hamilton ,,gibson4 ,illustrated by the ,author4 pp4 #aeh4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #g #ej4 7,in a ,box47 ,pastoral ,days4 ,by ,w4 ,,hamilton ,,gibson4 ,illustrated by the ,author4 pp4 #aed4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #g #ej4 7,in a ,box47 ,nature's ,serial ,story4 ,by ,,edward ,p4 ,,roe4 ,beautifully and ,profusely ,illustrated with ,wood-engravings from ,drawings by ,w4 ,,hamilton ,,gibson and ,,frederic ,,dielman4 pp4 xvi41 #dcj4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,gilt ,edges1 #e #be4 ,the ,heart of the ,white ,mountains4 ,by ,,samuel ,,adams ,,drake4 ,illustrated by ,w4 ,,hamilton ,,gibson4 pp4 xvi41 #cah4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #g #ej4 7,in a ,box47 ,home ,fairies and ,heart ,flowers4 ,copiously ,illustrated with ,drawings and ,engravings by ,,frank ,,french4 ,with ,poems by ,,margaret ,e4 ,,sangster4 pp4 #if4 #dto1 ,illuminated ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #f #jj4 7,in a ,box47 ,higginson's ,larger ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,a ,larger ,history of the ,united ,states of ,america to the ,close of ,president ,jackson's ,administration4 ,by ,,thomas ,,wentworth ,,higginson4 ,illustrated by ,maps1 ,plans1 ,portraits1 and other ,engravings4 pp4 xii41 #dgj4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,the ,life and ,habits of ,wild ,animals4 ,illustrated from ,designs by ,,joseph ,,wolf4 ,engraved by ,j4 ,w4 and ,,edward ,,whymper4 ,with ,descriptive ,letter-press by ,,daniel ,,giraud ,,eliot1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,z4,s4 pp4 #abb4 #dto1 ,ornamental ,cloth1 ,gilt ,edges1 #e #jj4 ,life of ,benjamin ,robert ,haydon1 ,historical ,painter1 from his ,autobiography and ,journals4 ,edited and ,compiled by ,,tom ,,taylor4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 referred to the first dynasty of ,manetho referred to as the first dynasty of ,manetho pg #c ,the greatest diference ,the greatest difference pg #e ,mesopotomia ,mesopotamia pg #gh sepaated by sharp arrises separated by sharp arrises pg #ajd who had caused ,deionocrates who had caused ,deinocrates pg #bfa impression of a pantomine impression of a pantomime pg #bie ,temple of ,apollo at ,phigalea ,temple of ,apollo at ,phigalia pg #cba ,benihassan1 #ad-ah4 ,beni-hassan1 #ad-ah4 pg #dgi ,skyllis1 #bea1 #ccj-ccc4 ,skyllis1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bih4 pg #dha ,,footnotes3 ,a ,the measurements in the text are the mean of the results attained by the ,french academicians in #agii1 and by ,colonel ,howard ,vyse in #ahcg4 ,the recent measurements of ,mr4 ,thomas ,inglis make the north side #bca4fd m41 the south #bca4di m41 the east and west sides alike #bca4ai m41 or an average of #bca4ch m4 ,b ,according to ,piazzi ,smyth4 ,c ,the fellow of this monolith1 known as ,cleopatra's ,needle1 until recently stood at ,alexandria1 whither it had been moved from ,heliopolis2 but having been presented by the late ,khedive to the city of ,new ,york1 it has been shipped across the ,atlantic1 and erected in the ,central ,park of that city4 ,d ,discoveries1 p4 #ddd4 ,e ,nineveh and ,babylon1 p4 #ejh4 ,f 8,geschichte der ,baukunst im ,alterthum40 ,franz ,reber4 ,leipzig1 #ahfd-ahff4 ,g ,the modern hypothetical distinction between agonal1 or festal1 temples and those used only for worship is now generally regarded as erroneous2 while the existence of a so-called hypthron--an opening supposed to have existed in the roof and ceiling of the naos for the admission of daylight--is inadmissible from the point of view both of design and of structure4