,the ,golden ,bough                     
,a ,study in ,magic and ,religion       
,by                   ,james ,george    
,frazer1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,litt4,d4 
,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge
         ,professor of ,social          
,anthropology in the ,university of     
,liverpool                              
,vol4 ,,vii4 of ,,xii4                  
,part ,v3 ,spirits of the ,corn and of  
the ,wild4                              
,vol4 #a of #b4                         
,new ,york and ,london                  
,mac,millan and ,co4                    
#aiab            ,,contents             
,preface4  ,chapter ,i4 ,dionysus4      
,chapter ,,ii4 ,demeter ,and            
,persephone4  ,chapter ,,iii4 ,magical  
,significance of ,games in ,primitive   
,agriculture4  ,chapter ,,iv4 ,woman's  
,part in ,primitive ,agriculture4       
,chapter ,v4 ,the ,corn-,mother and the 
,corn-,maiden in ,northern ,europe4     
,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,corn-,mother in    
,many ,lands4      #a4 ,the ,corn-mother

 in ,america4      #b4 ,the             
,mother-cotton in the ,punjaub4      #c4
 ,the ,barley ,bride among the ,berbers4
      #d4 ,the ,rice-mother in the ,east
 ,indies4      #e4 ,the ,spirit of the  
,corn embodied in ,human ,beings4       
#f4 ,the ,double ,personification of the
 ,corn as ,mother and ,daughter4        
,chapter ,,vii4 ,lityerses4      #a4    
,songs of the ,corn ,reapers4      #b4  
,killing the ,corn-spirit4      #c4     
,human ,sacrifices for the ,crops4      
#d4 ,the ,corn-spirit slain in his      
,human ,representatives4  ,chapter      
,,viii4 ,the ,corn-,spirit as an        
,animal4      #a4 ,animal ,embodiments  
of the ,corn-spirit4      #b4 ,the      
,corn-spirit as a ,wolf or a ,dog4      
#c4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,cock4       
#d4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,hare4       
#e4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,cat4        
#f4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,goat4       
#g4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,bull1 ,cow1 
or ,ox4      #h4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a 
,horse or ,mare4      #i4 ,the          

,corn-spirit as a ,bird4      #aj4 ,the 
,corn-spirit as a ,fox4      #aa4 ,the  
,corn-spirit as a ,pig 7,boar or ,sow74 
#ab4 ,on the ,animal ,embodiments of the
 ,corn-spirit4  ,note4 ,the ,pleiades in
 ,primitive ,calendars4  ,footnotes     
,cover ,art    ,transcriber's ,note3    
,the above cover image was produced by  
the submitter  at ,distributed          
,proofreaders1 and is being placed into 
the public domain4            ,,preface4
      ,in the last part of this work we 
examined the figure of the ,dying and   
,reviving ,god as it appears in the     
,oriental religions of classical        
antiquity4 ,with the present instalment 
of ,the ,golden ,bough we pursue the    
same theme in other religions and among 
other races4 ,passing from the ,east  to
 ,europe we begin with the religion of  
ancient ,greece1 which embodies the  now
 familiar conception in two typical     
examples1 the vine-god ,dionysus and    
the corn-goddess ,persephone1 with her  
mother and duplicate ,demeter4 ,both  of

 these ,greek divinities are            
personifications of cultivated plants1  
and a  consideration of them naturally  
leads us on to investigate similar      
personifications elsewhere4 ,now of all 
the plants which men have  artificially 
reared for the sake of food the cereals 
are on the whole the  most important2   
therefore it is natural that the        
religion of primitive  agricultural     
communities should be deeply coloured by
 the principal  occupation of their     
lives1 the care of the corn4 ,hence the 
frequency with  which the figures of the
 ,corn-mother and ,corn-maiden1         
answering to the  ,demeter and          
,persephone of ancient ,greece1 meet us 
in other parts of the  world1 and not   
least of all on the harvest-fields of   
modern ,europe4 ,but  edible roots as   
well as cereals have been cultivated by 
many races1  especially in the tropical 
regions1 as a subsidiary or even as a   
principal  means of subsistence2 and    
accordingly they too enter largely into 

the  religious ideas of the peoples who 
live by them4 ,yet in the case of the   
roots1 such as yams1 taro1 and potatoes1
 the conception of the ,dying and       
,reviving ,god appears to figure less   
prominently than in the case of the     
cereals1 perhaps for the simple reason  
that while the growth and decay of  the 
one sort of fruit go on above ground for
 all to see1 the similar  processes of  
the other are hidden under ground and   
therefore strike the  popular           
imagination less forcibly4    ,having   
surveyed the variations of our main     
theme among the agricultural  races of  
mankind1 we prosecute the enquiry among 
savages who remain more  or less        
completely in the hunting1 fishing1 and 
pastoral stages of  society4 ,the same  
motive which leads the primitive        
husbandman to adore the  corn or the    
roots1 induces the primitive hunter1    
fowler1 fisher1 or  herdsman to adore   
the beasts1 birds1 or fishes which      
furnish him with the  means of          

subsistence4 ,to him the conception of  
the death of these  worshipful beings is
 naturally presented with singular force
 and  distinctness2 since it is no      
figurative or allegorical death1 no     
poetical  embroidery thrown over the    
skeleton1 but the real death1 the naked 
skeleton1 that constantly thrusts itself
 importunately on his attention4  ,and  
strange as it may seem to us civilised  
men1 the notion of the  immortality and 
even of the resurrection of the lower   
animals appears to  be almost as        
familiar to the savage and to be        
accepted by him with nearly  as         
unwavering a faith as the obvious fact  
of their death and destruction4  ,for   
the most part he assumes as a matter of 
course that the souls of dead  animals  
survive their decease2 hence much of the
 thought of the savage  hunter is       
devoted to the problem of how he can    
best appease the naturally  incensed    
ghosts of his victims so as to prevent  
them from doing him a  mischief4 ,this  

refusal of the savage to recognise in   
death a final  cessation of the vital   
process1 this unquestioning faith in the
 unbroken  continuity of all life1 is a 
fact that has not yet received the      
attention  which it seems to merit from 
enquirers into the constitution of the  
human  mind as well as into the history 
of religion4 ,in the following pages ,i 
have collected examples of this curious 
faith2 ,i must leave it to others  to   
appraise them4    ,thus on the whole we 
are concerned in these volumes with the 
reverence or  worship paid by men to the
 natural resources from which they draw 
their  nutriment1 both vegetable and    
animal4 ,that they should invest these  
resources with an atmosphere of wonder  
and awe1 often indeed with a halo  of   
divinity1 is no matter for surprise4    
,the circle of human knowledge1         
illuminated by the pale cold light of   
reason1 is so infinitesimally small1    
the dark regions of human ignorance     
which lie beyond that luminous ring  are

 so immeasurably vast1 that imagination 
is fain to step up to the  border line  
and send the warm1 richly coloured beams
 of her fairy lantern  streaming out    
into the darkness2 and so1 peering into 
the gloom1 she is  apt to mistake the   
shadowy reflections of her own figure   
for real beings  moving in the abyss4   
,in short1 few men are sensible of the  
sharp line that  divides the known from 
the unknown2 to most men it is a hazy   
borderland  where perception and        
conception melt indissolubly into one4  
,hence to the  savage the ghosts of dead
 animals and men1 with which his        
imagination  peoples the void1 are      
hardly less real than the solid shapes  
which the  living animals and men       
present to his senses2 and his thoughts 
and  activities are nearly as much      
absorbed by the one as by the other4 ,of
 him  it may be said with perhaps even  
greater truth than of his civilised     
brother1 8,what shadows we are1 and what
 shadows we pursue60    ,but having said

 so much in this book of the misty glory
 which the human  imagination sheds     
round the hard material realities of the
 food supply1 ,i  am unwilling to leave 
my readers under the impression1 natural
 but  erroneous1 that man has created   
most of his gods out of his belly4 ,that
 is  not so1 at least that is not my    
reading of the history of religion4     
,among  the visible1 tangible1          
perceptible elements by which he is     
surrounded--and  it is only of these    
that ,i presume to speak--there are     
others than the  merely nutritious which
 have exerted a powerful influence in   
touching his  imagination and           
stimulating his energies1 and so have   
contributed to build  up the complex    
fabric of religion4 ,to the preservation
 of the species the  reproductive       
faculties are no less essential than the
 nutritive2 and with  them we enter on a
 very different sphere of thought and   
feeling1 to wit1  the relation of the   
sexes to each other1 with all the depths

 of tenderness  and all the intricate   
problems which that mysterious relation 
involves4  ,the study of the various    
forms1 some gross and palpable1 some    
subtle and  elusive1 in which the sexual
 instinct has moulded the religious     
consciousness of our race1 is one of the
 most interesting1 as it is one of  the 
most difficult and delicate tasks1 which
 await the future historian of          
religion4    ,but the influence which   
the sexes exert on each other1 intimate 
and  profound as it has been and must   
always be1 is far indeed from exhausting
  the forces of attraction by which     
mankind are bound together in society4  
,the need of mutual protection1 the     
economic advantages of co-operation1    
the contagion of example1 the           
communication of knowledge1 the great   
ideas  that radiate from great minds1   
like shafts of light from high          
towers1--these and many other things    
combine to draw men into communities1   
to drill them into regiments1 and to set

 them marching on the road of  progress 
with a concentrated force to which the  
loose skirmishers of mere  anarchy and  
individualism can never hope to oppose a
 permanent resistance4  ,hence when we  
consider how intimately humanity depends
 on society for many  of the boons which
 it prizes most highly1 we shall        
probably admit that of  all the forces  
open to our observation which have      
shaped human destiny the  influence of  
man on man is by far the greatest4 ,if  
that is so1 it seems to  follow that    
among the beings1 real or imaginary1    
which the religious  imagination has    
clothed with the attributes of divinity1
 human spirits are  likely to play a    
more important part than the spirits of 
plants1 animals1  or inanimate objects4 
,i believe that a careful examination of
 the  evidence1 which has still to be   
undertaken1 will confirm this           
conclusion2  and that if we could       
strictly interrogate the phantoms which 
the human  mind has conjured up out of  

the depths of its bottomless ignorance  
and  enshrined as deities in the dim    
light of temples1 we should find that   
the  majority of them have been nothing 
but the ghosts of dead men4 ,however1 to
  say this is necessarily to anticipate 
the result of future research2 and  if  
in saying it ,i have ventured to make a 
prediction1 which like all  predictions 
is liable to be falsified by the event1 
,i have done so only  from a fear lest1 
without some such warning1 the numerous 
facts recorded  in these volumes might  
lend themselves to an exaggerated       
estimate of their  own importance and   
hence to a misinterpretation and        
distortion of history4    ,j4 ,g4       
,frazer4    ,,cambridge1 #dth ,may      
#aiab4            ,,chapter ,i4         
,,dionysus4      7,m#a7 ,in the         
preceding part of this work we saw that 
in antiquity the  civilised nations of  
western ,asia and ,egypt pictured to    
themselves the  changes of the seasons1 
and particularly the annual growth and  

decay of  vegetation1 as episodes in the
 life of gods1 whose mournful death and 
happy resurrection they celebrated with 
dramatic rites of alternate  lamentation
 and rejoicing4 ,but if the celebration 
was in form dramatic1 it  was in        
substance magical2 that is to say1 it   
was intended1 on the  principles of     
sympathetic magic1 to ensure the vernal 
regeneration of  plants and the         
multiplication of animals1 which had    
seemed to be menaced  by the inroads of 
winter4 ,in the ancient world1 however1 
such ideas and  such rites were by no   
means confined to the ,oriental peoples 
of ,babylon  and ,syria1 of ,phrygia and
 ,egypt2 they were not a product        
peculiar to the  religious mysticism of 
the dreamy ,east1 but were shared by the
 races of  livelier fancy and more      
mercurial temperament who inhabited the 
shores and  islands of the ,aegean4 ,we 
need not1 with some enquirers in ancient
 and  modern times1 suppose that these  
,western peoples borrowed from the older

  civilisation of the ,orient the       
conception of the ,dying and ,reviving  
,god1  together with the solemn ritual1 
in which that conception was            
dramatically  set forth before the eyes 
of the worshippers4 ,more probably the  
resemblance which may be traced in this 
respect between the religions of  the   
,east and the ,west is no more than what
 we commonly1 though  incorrectly1 call 
a fortuitous coincidence1 the effect of 
similar causes  acting alike on the     
similar constitution of the human mind  
in different  countries and under       
different skies4 ,the ,greek had no need
 to journey into  far countries to learn
 the vicissitudes of the seasons1 to    
mark the  fleeting beauty of the damask 
rose1 the transient glory of the golden 
corn1 the passing splendour of the      
purple grapes4 ,year by year in his own 
beautiful land he beheld1 with natural  
regret1 the bright pomp of summer       
fading into the gloom and stagnation of 
winter1 and year by year he hailed  with

 natural delight the outburst of fresh  
life in spring4 ,accustomed to          
personify the forces of nature1 to tinge
 her cold abstractions with the  warm   
hues of imagination1 to clothe her naked
 realities with the gorgeous  drapery of
 a mythic fancy1 he fashioned for       
himself a train of gods and  goddesses1 
of spirits and elves1 out of the        
shifting panorama of the  seasons1 and  
followed the annual fluctuations of     
their fortunes with  alternate emotions 
of cheerfulness and dejection1 of       
gladness and sorrow1  which found their 
natural expression in alternate rites of
 rejoicing and  lamentation1 of revelry 
and mourning4 ,a consideration of some  
of the ,greek  divinities who thus died 
and rose again from the dead may furnish
 us with  a series of companion pictures
 to set side by side with the sad       
figures of  ,adonis1 ,attis1 and        
,osiris4 ,we begin with ,dionysus4      
7,m#b7 ,the god ,dionysus or ,bacchus is
 best known to us as a personification  

of the vine and of the exhilaration     
produced by the juice of the grape47#a7 
,his ecstatic worship1 characterised by 
wild dances1 thrilling music1 and  tipsy
 excess1 appears to have originated     
among the rude tribes of ,thrace1  who  
were notoriously addicted to            
drunkenness47#b7 ,its mystic doctrines  
and  extravagant rites were essentially 
foreign to the clear intelligence and   
sober temperament of the ,greek race4   
,yet appealing as it did to that love   
of mystery and that proneness to revert 
to savagery which seem to be  innate in 
most men1 the religion spread like      
wildfire through ,greece until  the god 
whom ,homer hardly deigned to notice had
 become the most popular  figure of the 
pantheon4 ,the resemblance which his    
story and his ceremonies  present to    
those of ,osiris have led some enquirers
 both in ancient and  modern times to   
hold that ,dionysus was merely a        
disguised ,osiris1 imported  directly   
from ,egypt into ,greece47#c7 ,but the  

great preponderance of  evidence points 
to his ,thracian origin1 and the        
similarity of the two  worships is      
sufficiently explained by the similarity
 of the ideas and  customs on which they
 were founded4    7,m#c7 ,while the vine
 with its clusters was the most         
characteristic  manifestation of        
,dionysus1 he was also a god of trees in
 general4 ,thus we  are told that almost
 all the ,greeks sacrificed to          
8,dionysus of the  tree407#d7 ,in       
,boeotia one of his titles was          
8,dionysus in the tree407#e7 ,his  image
 was often merely an upright post1      
without arms1 but draped in a  mantle1  
with a bearded mask to represent the    
head1 and with leafy boughs  projecting 
from the head or body to shew the nature
 of the deity47#f7 ,on a  vase his rude 
effigy is depicted appearing out of a   
low tree or bush47#g7  ,at ,magnesia on 
the ,maeander an image of ,dionysus is  
said to have been  found in a           
plane-tree1 which had been broken by the

 wind47#h7 ,he was the  patron of       
cultivated trees27#i7 prayers were      
offered to him that he would  make the  
trees grow27#aj7 and he was especially  
honoured by husbandmen1  chiefly        
fruit-growers1 who set up an image of   
him1 in the shape of a  natural         
tree-stump1 in their orchards47#aa7 ,he 
was said to have discovered  all        
tree-fruits1 amongst which apples and   
figs are particularly  mentioned27#ab7  
and he was referred to as               
8well-fruited10 8he of the green        
fruit10 and 8making the fruit to        
grow407#ac7 ,one of his titles was      
8teeming0 or 8bursting0 7as of sap or   
blossoms727#ad7 and there was a         
,flowery ,dionysus in ,attica and at    
,patrae in ,achaia47#ae7 ,the ,athenians
  sacrificed to him for the prosperity  
of the fruits of the land47#af7         
,amongst the trees particularly sacred  
to him1 in addition to the vine1 was    
the pine-tree47#ag7 ,the ,delphic oracle
 commanded the ,corinthians to worship  

a particular pine-tree 8equally with the
 god10 so they made two images of       
,dionysus out of it1 with red faces and 
gilt bodies47#ah7 ,in art a wand1       
tipped with a pine-cone1 is commonly    
carried by the god or his               
worshippers47#ai7 ,again1 the ivy and   
the fig-tree were especially  associated
 with him4 ,in the ,attic township of   
,acharnae there was a  ,dionysus        
,ivy27#bj7 at ,lacedaemon there was a   
,fig ,dionysus2 and in ,naxos1  where   
figs were called meilicha1 there was a  
,dionysus ,meilichios1 the  face of     
whose image was made of fig-wood47#ba7  
7,m#d7 ,further1 there are indications1 
few but significant1 that ,dionysus  was
 conceived as a deity of agriculture and
 the corn4 ,he is spoken of as  himself 
doing the work of a husbandman37#bb7 he 
is reported to have been  the first to  
yoke oxen to the plough1 which before   
had been dragged by  hand alone2 and    
some people found in this tradition the 
clue to the bovine  shape in which1 as  

we shall see1 the god was often supposed
 to present  himself to his worshippers4
 ,thus guiding the ploughshare and      
scattering  the seed as he went1        
,dionysus is said to have eased the     
labour of the  husbandman47#bc7         
,further1 we are told that in the land  
of the ,bisaltae1 a  ,thracian tribe1   
there was a great and fair sanctuary of 
,dionysus1 where at  his festival a     
bright light shone forth at night as a  
token of an abundant  harvest vouchsafed
 by the deity2 but if the crops were to 
fail that year1  the mystic light was   
not seen1 darkness brooded over the     
sanctuary as at  other times47#bd7      
,moreover1 among the emblems of         
,dionysus was the  winnowing-fan1 that  
is the large open shovel-shaped basket1 
which down to  modern times has been    
used by farmers to separate the grain   
from the chaff  by tossing the corn in  
the air4 ,this simple agricultural      
instrument  figured in the mystic rites 
of ,dionysus2 indeed the god is         

traditionally  said to have been placed 
at birth in a winnowing-fan as in a     
cradle3 in  art he is represented as an 
infant so cradled2 and from these       
traditions  and representations he      
derived the epithet of ,liknites1 that  
is1 8,he of  the ,winnowing-fan407#be7  
7,m#e7 ,at first sight this symbolism   
might be explained very simply and      
naturally by supposing that the divine  
infant cradled in the winnowing-fan  was
 identified with the corn which it is   
the function of the instrument to       
winnow and sift4 ,yet against this      
identification it may be urged with     
reason that the use of a winnowing-fan  
as a cradle was not peculiar to         
,dionysus2 it was a regular practice    
with the ancient ,greeks to place their 
infants in winnowing-fans as an omen of 
wealth and fertility for the  future    
life of the children47#bf7 ,customs of  
the same sort have been  observed1      
apparently for similar reasons1 by other
 peoples in other lands4  ,for example1 

in ,java it is or used to be customary  
to place every child at  birth in a     
bamboo basket like the sieve or         
winnowing-basket which ,javanese        
farmers use for separating the rice from
 the chaff47#bg7 ,it is the midwife  who
 places the child in the basket1 and as 
she does so she suddenly knocks  with   
the palms of both hands on the basket in
 order that the child may not  be timid 
and fearful4 ,then she addresses the    
child thus3 8,cry not1 for  ,nja-among  
and ,kaki-among0 7two spirits7 8are     
watching over you40 ,next she  addresses
 these two spirits1 saying1 8,bring not 
your grandchild to the  road1 lest he be
 trampled by a horse2 bring him not to  
the bank of the  river1 lest he fall    
into the river40 ,the object of the     
ceremony is said to  be that these two  
spirits should always and everywhere    
guard the  child47#bh7 ,on the first    
anniversary of a child's birthday the   
,chinese of  ,foo-,chow set the little  
one in a large bamboo sieve1 such as    

farmers  employ in winnowing grain1 and 
in the sieve they place along with the  
child a variety of articles1 such as    
fruits1 gold or silver ornaments1 a  set
 of money-scales1 books1 a pencil1 pen1 
ink1 paper1 and so on1 and they  draw   
omens of the child's future career from 
the object which it first  handles and  
plays with4 ,thus1 if the infant first  
grasps the money-scale1  he will be     
wealthy2 if he seizes on a book1 he will
 be learned1 and so  forth47#bi7 ,in the
 ,bilaspore district of ,india it is    
customary for  well-to-do people to     
place a newborn infant in a             
winnowing-fan filled with  rice and     
afterwards to give the grain to the     
nurse in attendance47#cj7 ,in  ,upper   
,egypt a newly-born babe is immediately 
laid upon a corn-sieve and  corn is     
scattered around it2 moreover1 on the   
seventh day after birth the  infant is  
carried on a sieve through the whole    
house1 while the midwife  scatters      
wheat1 barley1 pease and salt4 ,the     

intention of these ceremonies  is said  
to be to avert evil spirits from the    
child17#ca7 and a like motive  is       
assigned by other peoples for the       
practice of placing newborn infants  in 
a winnowing-basket or corn-sieve4 ,for  
example1 in the ,punjaub1 when  several 
children of a family have died in       
succession1 a new baby will  sometimes  
be put at birth into an old             
winnowing-basket 7chhaj7 along  with the
 sweepings of the house1 and so dragged 
out into the yard2 such a  child may1   
like ,dionysus1 in after life be known  
by the name of  ,winnowing-basket       
7,chhajju7 or ,dragged 7,ghasit747#cb7  
,the object of  treating the child in   
this way seems to be to save its life by
 deceiving  the spirits1 who are        
supposed to have carried off its elder  
brothers and  sisters2 these malevolent 
beings are on the look-out for the new  
baby1 but  they will never think of     
raking for it in the dust-bin1 that     
being the  last place where they would  

expect to find the hope of the family4  
,the  same may perhaps be the intention 
of a ceremony observed by the ,gaolis of
  the ,deccan4 ,as soon as a child is   
born1 it is bathed and then placed on a 
sieve for a few minutes4 ,on the fifth  
day the sieve1 with a lime and pan      
leaves on it1 is removed outside the    
house and then1 after the worship of    
,chetti has been performed1 the sieve is
 thrown away on the road47#cc7  ,again1 
the same notion of rescuing the child   
from dangerous spirits comes  out very  
clearly in a similar custom observed by 
the natives of ,laos1 a  province of    
,siam4 ,these people 8believe that an   
infant is the child1 not  of its        
parents1 but of the spirits1 and in this
 belief they go through the  following  
formalities4 ,as soon as an infant is   
born it is bathed and  dressed1 laid    
upon a rice-sieve1 and placed--by the   
grandmother if present1  if not1 by the 
next near female relative--at the head  
of the stairs or of  the ladder leading 

to the house4 ,the person performing    
this duty calls out  in a loud tone to  
the spirits to come and take the child  
away to-day1 or  for ever after to let  
it alone2 at the same moment she stamps 
violently on  the floor to frighten the 
child1 or give it a jerk1 and make it   
cry4 ,if it  does not cry this is       
regarded as an evil omen4 ,if1 on the   
other hand1 it  follows the ordinary    
laws of nature and begins to exercise   
its vocal  organs1 it is supposed to    
have a happy and prosperous life before 
it4  ,sometimes the spirits do come and 
take the infant away1 i4e4 it dies      
before it is twenty-four hours old1 but1
 to prevent such a calamity1  strings   
are tied round its wrists on the first  
night after its birth1 and  if it       
sickens or is feeble the spirit-doctors 
are called in to prescribe  certain     
offerings to be made to keep away the   
very spirits who1 only a few  hours     
previously1 were ceremoniously called   
upon to come and carry the  child off4  

,on the day after its birth the child is
 regarded as being the  property no     
longer of the spirits1 who could have   
taken it if they had  wanted it1 but of 
the parents1 who forthwith sell it to   
some relation for  a nominal sum--an    
eighth or a quarter of a rupee perhaps4 
,this again is a  further guarantee     
against molestation by the spirits1 who 
apparently are  regarded as honest folk 
that would not stoop to take what has   
been bought  and paid for407#cd7        
7,m#f7 ,a like intention of averting    
evil in some shape from a child is      
assigned in other cases of the same     
custom4 ,thus in ,travancore1 8if an    
infant is observed to distort its limbs 
as if in pain1 it is supposed to  be    
under the pressure of some one who has  
stooped over it1 to relieve  which the  
mother places it with a nut-cracker on a
 winnowing fan and  shakes it three or  
four times407#ce7 ,again1 among the     
,tanala people of  ,madagascar almost   
all children born in the unlucky month  

of ,faosa are  buried alive in the      
forest4 ,but if the parents resolve to  
let the child  live1 they must call in  
the aid of a diviner1 who performs a    
ceremony for  averting the threatened   
ill-luck4 ,the child is placed in a     
winnowing-fan  along with certain herbs4
 ,further1 the diviner takes herbs of   
the same  sort1 a worn-out spade1 and an
 axe1 fastens them to the father's      
spear1  and sets the spear up in the    
ground4 ,then the child is bathed in    
water  which has been medicated with    
some of the same herbs4 ,finally the    
diviner  says3 8,the worn-out spade to  
the grandchild2 may it 7the child7 not  
despoil its father1 may it not despoil  
its mother1 may it not despoil the      
children2 let it be good40 ,this        
ceremony1 we are told1 8puts an end to  
the  child's evil days1 and the father  
gets the spear to put away all evil4    
,the  child then joins its father and   
mother2 its evil days are averted1 and  
the  water and the other things are     

buried1 for they account them           
evil407#cf7  ,similarly the ancient     
,greeks used to bury1 or throw into the 
sea1 or  deposit at cross-roads1 the    
things that had been used in ceremonies 
of  purification1 no doubt because the  
things were supposed to be tainted by   
the evil which had been transferred to  
them in the rites47#cg7 ,another        
example of the use of a winnowing-fan in
 what may be called a purificatory      
ceremony is furnished by the practice of
 the ,chinese of ,foo-,chow4 ,a lad  who
 is suffering from small-pox is made to 
squat in a large winnowing  sieve4 ,on  
his head is placed a piece of red cloth1
 and on the cloth are  laid some parched
 beans1 which are then allowed to roll  
off4 ,as the name  for beans1 pronounced
 in the local dialect1 is identical with
 the common  name for small-pox1 and as 
moreover the scars left by the pustules 
are  thought to resemble beans1 it      
appears to be imagined that just as the 
beans roll off the boy's head1 so will  

the pustules vanish from his body       
without leaving a trace behind47#ch7    
,thus the cure depends on the principle 
of homoeopathic magic4 ,perhaps on the  
same principle a winnowing-fan is       
employed in the ceremony from a notion  
that it will help to waft or fan  away  
the disease like chaff from the grain4  
,we may compare a purificatory  ceremony
 observed by the ,karens of ,burma at   
the naming of a new-born  child4        
,amongst these people 8children are     
supposed to come into the world         
defiled1 and unless that defilement is  
removed1 they will be unfortunate1  and 
unsuccessful in their undertakings4 ,an 
,elder takes a thin splint of  bamboo1  
and1 tying a noose at one end1 he fans  
it down the child's arm1  saying3       
#8,fan away ill luck1 fan away ill      
success3      ,fan away inability1 fan  
away unskilfulness3      ,fan away slow 
growth1 fan away difficulty of growth3  
,fan away stuntedness1 fan away         
puniness3      ,fan away drowsiness1 fan

 away stupidity3      ,fan away         
debasedness1 fan away wretchedness3     
,fan away the whole completely4'        
8,the ,elder now changes his motion and 
fans up the child's arm1 saying3        
#8,fan on power1 fan on influence3      
,fan on the paddy bin1 fan on the paddy 
barn3      ,fan on followers1 fan on    
dependants3      ,fan on good things1   
fan on appropriate things4' 07#ci7      
7,m#g7 ,thus in some of the foregoing   
instances the employment of the         
winnowing-fan may have been suggested by
 the proper use of the implement  as a  
means of separating the corn from the   
chaff1 the same operation being         
extended by analogy to rid men of evils 
of various sorts which would  otherwise 
adhere to them like husks to the grain4 
,it was in this way that  the ancients  
explained the use of the winnowing-fan  
in the mysteries47#dj7  ,but one motive1
 and perhaps the original one1 for      
setting a newborn child  in a           
winnowing-fan and surrounding it with   

corn was probably the wish to           
communicate to the infant1 on the       
principle of sympathetic magic1 the     
fertility and especially the power of   
growth possessed by the grain4 ,this    
was in substance the explanation which  
,w4 ,mannhardt gave of the  custom47#da7
 ,he rightly insisted on the analogy    
which many peoples1 and in  particular  
the ancient ,greeks1 have traced between
 the sowing of seed and  the begetting  
of children17#db7 and he confirmed his  
view of the function  of the            
winnowing-fan in these ceremonies by    
aptly comparing a ,german  custom of    
sowing barley or flax seed over weakly  
and stunted children in  the belief that
 this will make them grow with the      
growth of the barley or  the flax47#dc7 
,an ,esthonian mode of accomplishing the
 same object is to set  the child in the
 middle of a plot of ground where a     
sower is sowing hemp  and to leave the  
little one there till the sowing is     
finished2 after that  they imagine that 

the child will shoot up in stature like 
the hemp which  has just been sown47#dd7
    7,m#h7 ,with the foregoing evidence 
before us of a widespread custom of     
placing newborn children in             
winnowing-fans we clearly cannot argue  
that  ,dionysus must necessarily have   
been a god of the corn because ,greek   
tradition and ,greek art represent him  
as an infant cradled in a               
winnowing-fan4 ,the argument would prove
 too much1 for it would apply  equally  
to all the infants that have been so    
cradled in all parts of the  world4 ,we 
cannot even press the argument drawn    
from the surname 8,he of the            
,winnowing-fan0 which was borne by      
,dionysus1 since we have seen that      
similar names are borne for similar     
reasons in ,india by persons who have   
no claim whatever to be regarded as     
deities of the corn4 ,yet when all      
necessary deductions have been made on  
this score1 the association of          
,dionysus with the winnowing-fan appears

 to be too intimate to be explained     
away as a mere reminiscence of a        
practice to which every ,greek baby1    
whether human or divine1 had to submit4 
,that practice would hardly account     
either for the use of the winnowing-fan 
in the mysteries or for the  appearance 
of the implement1 filled with fruitage  
of various kinds1 on the  monuments     
which set forth the ritual of           
,dionysus47#de7 ,this last emblem       
points plainly to a conception of the   
god as a personification of the  fruits 
of the earth in general2 and as if to   
emphasise the idea of  fecundity        
conveyed by such a symbol there         
sometimes appears among the  fruits in  
the winnowing-fan an effigy of the male 
organ of generation4 ,the  prominent    
place which that effigy occupied in the 
worship of ,dionysus7#df7  hints        
broadly1 if it does not strictly prove1 
that to the ,greek mind the  god stood  
for the powers of fertility in general1 
animal as well as  vegetable4 ,in the   

thought of the ancients no sharp line of
 distinction  divided the fertility of  
animals from the fertility of plants2   
rather the  two ideas met and blended in
 a nebulous haze4 ,we need not wonder1  
therefore1 that the same coarse but     
expressive emblem figured  conspicuously
 in the ritual of ,father ,liber1 the   
,italian counterpart of  ,dionysus1 who 
in return for the homage paid to the    
symbol of his creative  energy was      
believed to foster the growth of the    
crops and to guard the  fields against  
the powers of evil47#dg7    7,m#i7 ,like
 the other gods of vegetation whom we   
considered in the last  volume1         
,dionysus was believed to have died a   
violent death1 but to have  been brought
 to life again2 and his sufferings1     
death1 and resurrection  were enacted in
 his sacred rites4 ,his tragic story is 
thus told by the  poet ,nonnus4 ,zeus in
 the form of a serpent visited          
,persephone1 and she  bore him ,zagreus1
 that is1 ,dionysus1 a horned infant4   

,scarcely was he  born1 when the babe   
mounted the throne of his father ,zeus  
and mimicked the  great god by          
brandishing the lightning in his tiny   
hand4 ,but he did not  occupy the throne
 long2 for the treacherous ,titans1     
their faces whitened  with chalk1       
attacked him with knives while he was   
looking at himself in a  mirror4 ,for a 
time he evaded their assaults by turning
 himself into  various shapes1 assuming 
the likeness successively of ,zeus and  
,cronus1 of  a young man1 of a lion1 a  
horse1 and a serpent4 ,finally1 in the  
form of a  bull1 he was cut to pieces by
 the murderous knives of his            
enemies47#dh7 ,his  ,cretan myth1 as    
related by ,firmicus ,maternus1 ran     
thus4 ,he was said to  have been the    
bastard son of ,jupiter1 a ,cretan king4
 ,going abroad1 ,jupiter  transferred   
the throne and sceptre to the youthful  
,dionysus1 but1 knowing  that his wife  
,juno cherished a jealous dislike of the
 child1 he entrusted  ,dionysus to the  

care of guards upon whose fidelity he   
believed he could  rely4 ,juno1 however1
 bribed the guards1 and amusing the     
child with rattles  and a               
cunningly-wrought looking-glass lured   
him into an ambush1 where her           
satellites1 the ,titans1 rushed upon    
him1 cut him limb from limb1 boiled  his
 body with various herbs1 and ate it4   
,but his sister ,minerva1 who had       
shared in the deed1 kept his heart and  
gave it to ,jupiter on his return1      
revealing to him the whole history of   
the crime4 ,in his rage1 ,jupiter put   
the ,titans to death by torture1 and1 to
 soothe his grief for the loss of  his  
son1 made an image in which he enclosed 
the child's heart1 and then  built a    
temple in his honour47#di7 ,in this     
version a ,euhemeristic turn has  been  
given to the myth by representing       
,jupiter and ,juno 7,zeus and ,hera7 as 
a king and queen of ,crete4 ,the guards 
referred to are the mythical ,curetes   
who danced a war-dance round the infant 

,dionysus1 as they are said to have     
done round the infant ,zeus47#ej7 ,very 
noteworthy is the legend1 recorded  both
 by ,nonnus and ,firmicus1 that in his  
infancy ,dionysus occupied for a  short 
time the throne of his father ,zeus4 ,so
 ,proclus tells us that  8,dionysus was 
the last king of the gods appointed by  
,zeus4 ,for his father  set him on the  
kingly throne1 and placed in his hand   
the sceptre1 and made  him king of all  
the gods of the world407#ea7 ,such      
traditions point to a  custom of        
temporarily investing the king's son    
with the royal dignity as a  preliminary
 to sacrificing him instead of his      
father4 ,pomegranates were  supposed to 
have sprung from the blood of ,dionysus1
 as anemones from the  blood of ,adonis 
and violets from the blood of ,attis3   
hence women refrained  from eating seeds
 of pomegranates at the festival of the 
,thesmophoria47#eb7  ,according to some1
 the severed limbs of ,dionysus were    
pieced together1 at  the command of     

,zeus1 by ,apollo1 who buried them on   
,parnassus47#ec7 ,the  grave of         
,dionysus was shewn in the ,delphic     
temple beside a golden statue  of       
,apollo47#ed7 ,however1 according to    
another account1 the grave of  ,dionysus
 was at ,thebes1 where he is said to    
have been torn in pieces47#ee7  ,thus   
far the resurrection of the slain god is
 not mentioned1 but in other  versions  
of the myth it is variously related4    
,according to one version1  which       
represented ,dionysus as a son of ,zeus 
and ,demeter1 his mother pieced         
together his mangled limbs and made him 
young again47#ef7 ,in others it is      
simply said that shortly after his      
burial he rose from the dead and        
ascended up to heaven27#eg7 or that     
,zeus raised him up as he lay mortally  
wounded27#eh7 or that ,zeus swallowed   
the heart of ,dionysus and then begat   
him afresh by ,semele17#ei7 who in the  
common legend figures as mother of      
,dionysus4 ,or1 again1 the heart was    

pounded up and given in a portion to    
,semele1 who thereby conceived him47#fj7
    ,turning from the myth to the       
ritual1 we find that the ,cretans       
celebrated a  biennial7#fa7 festival at 
which the passion of ,dionysus was      
represented in  every detail4 ,all that 
he had done or suffered in his last     
moments was  enacted before the eyes of 
his worshippers1 who tore a live bull to
 pieces  with their teeth and roamed the
 woods with frantic shouts4 ,in front of
  them was carried a casket supposed to 
contain the sacred heart of  ,dionysus1 
and to the wild music of flutes and     
cymbals they mimicked the  rattles by   
which the infant god had been lured to  
his doom47#fb7 ,where the  resurrection 
formed part of the myth1 it also was    
acted at the rites17#fc7  and it even   
appears that a general doctrine of      
resurrection1 or at least  of           
immortality1 was inculcated on the      
worshippers2 for ,plutarch1 writing  to 
console his wife on the death of their  

infant daughter1 comforts her  with the 
thought of the immortality of the soul  
as taught by tradition and  revealed in 
the mysteries of ,dionysus47#fd7 ,a     
different form of the myth of  the death
 and resurrection of ,dionysus is that  
he descended into ,hades to  bring up   
his mother ,semele from the dead47#fe7  
,the local ,argive tradition  was that  
he went down through the ,alcyonian     
lake2 and his return from the  lower    
world1 in other words his resurrection1 
was annually celebrated on  the spot by 
the ,argives1 who summoned him from the 
water by trumpet  blasts1 while they    
threw a lamb into the lake as an        
offering to the warder  of the          
dead47#ff7 ,whether this was a spring   
festival does not appear1 but  the      
,lydians certainly celebrated the advent
 of ,dionysus in spring2 the god  was   
supposed to bring the season with       
him47#fg7 ,deities of vegetation1 who   
are supposed to pass a certain portion  
of each year under ground1  naturally   

come to be regarded as gods of the lower
 world or of the dead4  ,both ,dionysus 
and ,osiris were so conceived47#fh7     
7,m#aj7 ,a feature in the mythical      
character of ,dionysus1 which at first  
sight appears inconsistent with his     
nature as a deity of vegetation1 is     
that he was often conceived and         
represented in animal shape1 especially 
in  the form1 or at least with the      
horns1 of a bull4 ,thus he is spoken of 
as  8cow-born10 8bull10 8bull-shaped10  
8bull-faced10 8bull-browed10            
8bull-horned10 8horn-bearing10          
8two-horned10 8horned407#fi7 ,he was    
believed  to appear1 at least           
occasionally1 as a bull47#gj7 ,his      
images were often1 as  at ,cyzicus1 made
 in bull shape17#ga7 or with bull       
horns27#gb7 and he was  painted with    
horns47#gc7 ,types of the horned        
,dionysus are found amongst the         
surviving monuments of antiquity47#gd7  
,on one statuette he appears clad in  a 
bull's hide1 the head1 horns1 and hoofs 

hanging down behind47#ge7 ,again1  he is
 represented as a child with clusters of
 grapes round his brow1 and a  calf's   
head1 with sprouting horns1 attached to 
the back of his head47#gf7  ,on a       
red-figured vase the god is portrayed as
 a calf-headed child seated  on a       
woman's lap47#gg7 ,the people of        
,cynaetha in north-western ,arcadia held
  a festival of ,dionysus in winter1    
when men1 who had greased their bodies  
with oil for the occasion1 used to pick 
out a bull from the herd and carry  it  
to the sanctuary of the god4 ,dionysus  
was supposed to inspire their  choice of
 the particular bull17#gh7 which        
probably represented the deity  himself2
 for at his festivals he was believed to
 appear in bull form4 ,the  women of    
,elis hailed him as a bull1 and prayed  
him to come with his bull's  foot4 ,they
 sang1 8,come hither1 ,dionysus1 to thy 
holy temple by the sea2  come with the  
,graces to thy temple1 rushing with thy 
bull's foot1 ,o goodly  bull1 ,o goodly 

bull607#gi7 ,the ,bacchanals of ,thrace 
wore horns in imitation  of their       
god47#hj7 ,according to the myth1 it was
 in the shape of a bull  that he was    
torn to pieces by the ,titans27#ha7 and 
the ,cretans1 when they  acted the      
sufferings and death of ,dionysus1 tore 
a live bull to pieces  with their       
teeth47#hb7 ,indeed1 the rending and    
devouring of live bulls and  calves     
appear to have been a regular feature of
 the ,dionysiac rites47#hc7  ,when we   
consider the practice of portraying the 
god as a bull or with some  of the      
features of the animal1 the belief that 
he appeared in bull form to  his        
worshippers at the sacred rites1 and the
 legend that in bull form he  had been  
torn in pieces1 we cannot doubt that in 
rending and devouring a  live bull at   
his festival the worshippers of         
,dionysus believed themselves  to be    
killing the god1 eating his flesh1 and  
drinking his blood4    7,m#aa7 ,another 
animal whose form ,dionysus assumed was 

the goat4 ,one of his  names was        
8,kid407#hd7 ,at ,athens and at ,hermion
 he was worshipped under the  title of  
8the one of the ,black ,goatskin10 and a
 legend ran that on a  certain occasion 
he had appeared clad in the skin from   
which he took the  title47#he7 ,in the  
wine-growing district of ,phlius1 where 
in autumn the  plain is still thickly   
mantled with the red and golden foliage 
of the  fading vines1 there stood of old
 a bronze image of a goat1 which the    
husbandmen plastered with gold-leaf as a
 means of protecting their vines        
against blight47#hf7 ,the image probably
 represented the vine-god himself4  ,to 
save him from the wrath of ,hera1 his   
father ,zeus changed the youthful       
,dionysus into a kid27#hg7 and when the 
gods fled to ,egypt to escape the  fury 
of ,typhon1 ,dionysus was turned into a 
goat47#hh7 ,hence when his  worshippers 
rent in pieces a live goat and devoured 
it raw17#hi7 they must  have believed   
that they were eating the body and blood

 of the god4    7,m#ab7 ,the custom of  
tearing in pieces the bodies of animals 
and of men and  then devouring them raw 
has been practised as a religious rite  
by savages  in modern times4 ,we need   
not therefore dismiss as a fable the    
testimony of  antiquity to the          
observance of similar rites among the   
frenzied  worshippers of ,bacchus4 ,an  
,english missionary to the ,coast       
,indians of  ,british ,columbia has thus
 described a scene like the cannibal    
orgies of  the ,bacchanals4 ,after      
mentioning that an old chief had ordered
 a female  slave to be dragged to the   
beach1 murdered1 and thrown into the    
water1 he  proceeds as follows3 8,i did 
not see the murder1 but1 immediately    
after1 ,i  saw crowds of people running 
out of those houses near to where the   
corpse  was thrown1 and forming         
themselves into groups at a good        
distance away4  ,this ,i learnt was from
 fear of what was to follow4 ,presently 
two bands of  furious wretches appeared1

 each headed by a man in a state of     
nudity4 ,they  gave vent to the most    
unearthly sounds1 and the two naked men 
made  themselves look as unearthly as   
possible1 proceeding in a creeping kind 
of  stoop1 and stepping like two proud  
horses1 at the same time shooting       
forward each arm alternately1 which they
 held out at full length for a  little  
time in the most defiant manner4        
,besides this1 the continual  jerking   
their heads back1 causing their long    
black hair to twist about1  added much  
to their savage appearance4 ,for some   
time they pretended to be  seeking the  
body1 and the instant they came where it
 lay they commenced  screaming and      
rushing round it like so many angry     
wolves4 ,finally they  seized it1       
dragged it out of the water1 and laid it
 on the beach1 where ,i  was told the   
naked men would commence tearing it to  
pieces with their  teeth4 ,the two bands
 of men immediately surrounded them1 and
 so hid their  horrid work4 ,in a few   

minutes the crowd broke into two1 when  
each of the  naked cannibals appeared   
with half of the body in his hands4     
,separating a  few yards1 they          
commenced1 amid horrid yells1 their     
still more horrid  feast4 ,the sight was
 too terrible to behold4 ,i left the    
gallery with a  depressed heart4 ,i may 
mention that the two bands of savages   
just alluded  to belong to that class   
which the whites term #8medicine-men4' 0
 ,the same  writer informs us that at   
the winter ceremonials of these ,indians
 8the  cannibal1 on such occasions1 is  
generally supplied with two1 three1 or  
four human bodies1 which he tears to    
pieces before his audience4 ,several    
persons1 either from bravado or as a    
charm1 present their arms for him to    
bite4 ,i have seen several whom he has  
bitten1 and ,i hear two have died  from 
the effects40 ,and when corpses were not
 forthcoming1 these cannibals           
apparently seized and devoured living   
people4 ,mr4 ,duncan has seen hundreds  

of the ,tsimshian ,indians sitting in   
their canoes which they had just  pushed
 off from the shore in order to escape  
being torn to pieces by a  party of     
prowling cannibals4 ,others of these    
,indians contented themselves  with     
tearing dogs to pieces1 while their     
attendants kept up a growling  noise1 or
 a whoop1 8which was seconded by a      
screeching noise made from an           
instrument which they believe to be the 
abode of a spirit407#ij7    7,m#ac7 ,mr4
 ,duncan's account of these savage rites
 has been fully borne out  by later     
observation4 ,among the ,kwakiutl       
,indians the ,cannibals  7,hamatsas7 are
 the highest in rank of the ,secret     
,societies4 ,they devour  corpses1 bite 
pieces out of living people1 and        
formerly ate slaves who had  been killed
 for the purpose4 ,but when their fury  
has subsided1 they are  obliged to pay  
compensation to the persons whom they   
have bitten and to  the owners of slaves
 whom they have killed4 ,the indemnity  

consists  sometimes of blankets1        
sometimes of canoes4 ,in the latter case
 the tariff  is fixed3 one bite1 one    
canoe4 ,for some time after eating human
 flesh the  cannibal has to observe a   
great many rules1 which regulate his    
eating and  drinking1 his going out and 
his coming in1 his clothing and his     
intercourse with his wife47#ia7 ,similar
 customs prevail among other tribes  of 
the same coast1 such as the ,bella      
,coola1 the ,tsimshian1 the ,niska1 and 
the ,nootka4 ,in the ,nootka tribe      
members of the ,panther ,society tear   
dogs  to pieces and devour them4 ,they  
wear masks armed with canine teeth47#ib7
 ,so  among the ,haida ,indians of the  
,queen ,charlotte ,islands there is one 
religion of cannibalism and another of  
dog-eating4 ,the cannibals in a  state  
of frenzy1 real or pretended1 bite flesh
 out of the extended arms of  their     
fellow villagers4 ,when they issue forth
 with cries of ,hop-pop to  observe this
 solemn rite1 all who are of a different

 religious persuasion  make haste to get
 out of their way2 but men of the       
cannibal creed and of  stout hearts will
 resolutely hold out their arms to be   
bitten4 ,the sect of  dog-eaters cut or 
tear dogs to pieces and devour some of  
the flesh2 but  they have to pay for the
 dogs which they consume in their       
religious  enthusiasm47#ic7 ,in the     
performance of these savage rites the   
frenzied  actors are believed to be     
inspired by a ,cannibal ,spirit and a   
,dog-eating  ,spirit respectively47#id7 
,again1 in ,morocco there is an order of
 saints  known as ,isowa or ,asawa1     
followers of ,mohammed ben ,isa or ,asa 
of  ,mequinez1 whose tomb is at ,fez4   
,every year on their founder's birthday 
they assemble at his shrine or elsewhere
 and holding each other's hands  dance a
 frantic dance round a fire4 8,while the
 mad dance is still  proceeding1 a      
sudden rush is made from the sanctuary1 
and the dancers1  like men delirious1   
speed away to a place where live goats  

are tethered in  readiness4 ,at sight of
 these animals the fury of the savage   
and excited  crowd reaches its height4  
,in a few minutes the wretched animals  
are cut1  or rather torn to pieces1 and 
an orgy takes place over the raw and    
quivering flesh4 ,when they seem        
satiated1 the ,emkaddim1 who is         
generally  on horseback1 and carries a  
long stick1 forms a sort of procession1 
preceded by wild music1 if such         
discordant sounds will bear the name4   
,words can do no justice to the         
frightful scene which now ensues4 ,the  
naked  savages--for on these occasions a
 scanty piece of cotton is all their    
clothing--with their long black hair1   
ordinarily worn in plaits1 tossed  about
 by the rapid to-and-fro movements of   
the head1 with faces and hands  reeking 
with blood1 and uttering loud cries     
resembling the bleating of  goats1 again
 enter the town4 ,the place is now at   
their mercy1 and the  people avoid them 
as much as possible by shutting         

themselves up in their  houses4 ,a      
,christian or a ,jew would run great    
risk of losing his life if  either were 
found in the street4 ,goats are pushed  
out from the doors1 and  these the      
fanatics tear immediately to pieces with
 their hands1 and then  dispute over the
 morsels of bleeding flesh1 as though   
they were ravenous  wolves instead of   
men4 ,snakes also are thrown to them as 
tests of their  divine frenzy1 and these
 share the fate of the goats4 ,sometimes
 a luckless  dog1 straying as dogs will 
stray in a tumult1 is seized on4 ,then  
the  laymen1 should any be at hand1 will
 try to prevent the desecration of      
pious mouths4 ,but the fanatics         
sometimes prevail1 and the unclean      
animal1  abhorred by the mussulman1 is  
torn in pieces and devoured1 or         
pretended to  be devoured1 with         
indiscriminating rage407#ie7    7,m#ad7 
,the custom of killing a god in animal  
form1 which we shall examine  more in   
detail further on1 belongs to a very    

early stage of human culture1  and is   
apt in later times to be misunderstood4 
,the advance of thought  tends to strip 
the old animal and plant gods of their  
bestial and  vegetable husk1 and to     
leave their human attributes 7which are 
always the  kernel of the conception7 as
 the final and sole residuum4 ,in other 
words1  animal and plant gods tend to   
become purely anthropomorphic4 ,when    
they  have become wholly or nearly so1  
the animals and plants which were at    
first the deities themselves1 still     
retain a vague and ill-understood       
connexion with the anthropomorphic gods 
who have been developed out of  them4   
,the origin of the relationship between 
the deity and the animal or  plant      
having been forgotten1 various stories  
are invented to explain it4  ,these     
explanations may follow one of two lines
 according as they are based  on the    
habitual or on the exceptional treatment
 of the sacred animal or  plant4 ,the   
sacred animal was habitually spared1 and

 only exceptionally  slain2 and         
accordingly the myth might be devised to
 explain either why it  was spared or   
why it was killed4 ,devised for the     
former purpose1 the myth  would tell of 
some service rendered to the deity by   
the animal2 devised  for the latter     
purpose1 the myth would tell of some    
injury inflicted by  the animal on the  
god4 ,the reason given for sacrificing  
goats to ,dionysus  exemplifies a myth  
of the latter sort4 ,they were          
sacrificed to him1 it was  said1 because
 they injured the vine47#if7 ,now the   
goat1 as we have seen1  was originally  
an embodiment of the god himself4 ,but  
when the god had  divested himself of   
his animal character and had become     
essentially  anthropomorphic1 the       
killing of the goat in his worship came 
to be  regarded no longer as a slaying  
of the deity himself1 but as a sacrifice
  offered to him2 and since some reason 
had to be assigned why the goat in      
particular should be sacrificed1 it was 

alleged that this was a punishment      
inflicted on the goat for injuring the  
vine1 the object of the god's  especial 
care4 ,thus we have the strange         
spectacle of a god sacrificed to        
himself on the ground that he is his own
 enemy4 ,and as the deity is  supposed  
to partake of the victim offered to him1
 it follows that1 when  the victim is   
the god's old self1 the god eats of his 
own flesh4 ,hence the  goat-god         
,dionysus is represented as eating raw  
goat's blood27#ig7 and the  bull-god    
,dionysus is called 8eater of           
bulls407#ih7 ,on the analogy of these   
instances we may conjecture that        
wherever a deity is described as the    
eater of a particular animal1 the animal
 in question was originally  nothing but
 the deity himself47#ii7 ,later on we   
shall find that some  savages propitiate
 dead bears and whales by offering them 
portions of  their own bodies47#ajj7    
7,m#ae7 ,all this1 however1 does not    
explain why a deity of vegetation should

  appear in animal form4 ,but the       
consideration of that point had better  
be  deferred till we have discussed the 
character and attributes of ,demeter4   
,meantime it remains to mention that in 
some places1 instead of an animal1  a   
human being was torn in pieces at the   
rites of ,dionysus4 ,this was the       
practice in ,chios and ,tenedos27#aja7  
and at ,potniae in ,boeotia the         
tradition ran that it had been formerly 
the custom to sacrifice to the          
goat-smiting ,dionysus a child1 for whom
 a goat was afterwards                  
substituted47#ajb7 ,at ,orchomenus1 as  
we have seen1 the human victim was      
taken from the women of an old royal    
family47#ajc7 ,as the slain bull or     
goat represented the slain god1 so1 we  
may suppose1 the human victim also      
represented him4    7,m#af7 ,the legends
 of the deaths of ,pentheus and         
,lycurgus1 two kings who  are said to   
have been torn to pieces1 the one by    
,bacchanals1 the other by  horses1 for  

their opposition to the rites of        
,dionysus1 may be1 as ,i have  already  
suggested17#ajd7 distorted reminiscences
 of a custom of sacrificing  divine     
kings in the character of ,dionysus and 
of dispersing the fragments  of their   
broken bodies over the fields for the   
purpose of fertilising  them4 ,in regard
 to ,lycurgus1 king of the ,thracian    
tribe of the ,edonians1  it is expressly
 said that his subjects at the bidding  
of an oracle caused  him to be rent in  
pieces by horses for the purpose of     
restoring the  fertility of the ground  
after a period of barrenness and        
dearth47#aje7  ,there is no             
improbability in the tradition4 ,we have
 seen that in ,africa  and other parts  
of the world kings or chiefs have often 
been put to death  by their people for  
similar reasons47#ajf7 ,further1 it is  
significant that  ,king ,lycurgus is    
said to have slain his own son ,dryas   
with an axe in a fit  of madness1       
mistaking him for a vine-branch47#ajg7  

,have we not in this  tradition a       
reminiscence of a custom of sacrificing 
the king's son in  place of the father8 
,similarly ,athamas1 a ,king of         
,thessaly or ,boeotia1 is  said to have 
been doomed by an oracle to be          
sacrificed at the altar in  order to    
remove the curse of barrenness which    
afflicted his country2  however1 he     
contrived to evade the sentence and in a
 fit of madness killed  his own son     
,learchus1 mistaking him for a wild     
beast4 ,that this legend was  not a mere
 myth is made probable by a custom      
observed at ,alus down to  historical   
times3 the eldest male scion of the     
royal house was regularly  sacrificed in
 due form to ,laphystian ,zeus if he    
ever set foot within the                
town-hall47#ajh7 ,the close resemblance 
between the legends of ,king ,athamas   
and ,king ,lycurgus furnishes a ground  
for believing both legends to be  based 
on a real custom of sacrificing either  
the king himself or one of  his sons for

 the good of the country2 and the story 
that the king's son  ,dryas perished    
because his frenzied father mistook him 
for a vine-branch  fits in well with the
 theory that the victim in these        
sacrifices  represented the vine-god    
,dionysus4 ,it is probably no mere      
coincidence that  ,dionysus himself is  
said to have been torn in pieces at     
,thebes17#aji7 the  very place where    
according to legend the same fate befell
 king ,pentheus at  the hands of the    
frenzied votaries of the vine-god47#aaj7
    7,m#ag7 ,the theory that in         
prehistoric times ,greek and ,thracian  
kings or  their sons may have been      
dismembered in the character of the     
vine-god or  the corn-god for the       
purpose of fertilising the earth or     
quickening the  vines has received of   
late years some confirmation from the   
discovery that  down to the present time
 in ,thrace1 the original home of       
,dionysus1 a drama  is still annually   
performed which reproduces with         

remarkable fidelity some  of the most   
striking traits in the ,dionysiac myth  
and ritual47#aaa7 ,in a  former part of 
this work ,i have already called        
attention to this  interesting survival 
of paganism among a ,christian          
peasantry27#aab7 but it  seems desirable
 and appropriate in this place to draw  
out somewhat more  fully the parallelism
 between the modern drama and the       
ancient worship4    7,m#ah7 ,the drama1 
which may reasonably be regarded as a   
direct descendant  of the ,dionysiac    
rites1 is annually performed at the     
,carnival in all the  ,christian        
villages which cluster round ,viza1 the 
ancient ,bizya1 a town of  ,thrace      
situated about midway between           
,adrianople and ,constantinople4 ,in    
antiquity the city was the capital of   
the ,thracian tribe of the ,asti2 the   
kings had their palace there17#aac7     
probably in the acropolis1 of which     
some fine walls are still standing4     
,inscriptions preserved in the modern   

town record the names of some of these  
old kings47#aad7 ,the date of the       
celebration is ,cheese ,monday1 as it is
 locally called1 which is the ,monday   
of the last week of ,carnival4 ,at ,viza
 itself the mummery has been shorn of   
some of its ancient features1 but these 
have been kept up at the villages  and  
have been particularly observed and     
recorded at the village of ,st4  ,george
 7,haghios ,gheorgios74 ,it is to the   
drama as acted at that village  that the
 following description specially        
applies4 ,the principal parts in  the   
drama are taken by two men disguised in 
goatskins4 ,each of them wears  a       
headdress made of a complete goatskin1  
which is stuffed so as to rise a  foot  
or more like a shako over his head1     
while the skin falls over the  face1    
forming a mask with holes cut for the   
eyes and mouth4 ,their  shoulders are   
thickly padded with hay to protect them 
from the blows which  used to be rained 
very liberally on their backs4          

,fawnskins on their  shoulders and      
goatskins on their legs are or used to  
be part of their  equipment1 and another
 indispensable part of it is a number of
 sheep-bells  tied round their waists4  
,one of the two skin-clad actors carries
 a bow and  the other a wooden effigy of
 the male organ of generation4 ,both    
these  actors must be married men4      
,according to ,mr4 ,vizyenos1 they are  
chosen for  periods of four years4 ,two 
unmarried boys dressed as girls and     
sometimes  called brides also take part 
in the play2 and a man disguised as an  
old  woman in rags carries a mock baby  
in a basket2 the brat is supposed to be 
a seven-months' child born out of       
wedlock and begotten by an unknown      
father4 ,the basket in which the hopeful
 infant is paraded bears the  ancient   
name of the winnowing-fan 7likni1       
contracted from liknon7 and  the babe   
itself receives the very title 8,he of  
the ,winnowing-fan0  7,liknites7 which  
in antiquity was applied to ,dionysus4  

,two other actors1  clad in rags with   
blackened faces and armed with stout    
saplings1 play the  parts of a gypsy-man
 and his wife2 others personate         
policemen armed with  swords and whips2 
and the troupe is completed by a man who
 discourses  music on a bagpipe4        
7,m#ai7 ,such are the masqueraders4 ,the
 morning of the day on which they       
perform their little drama is spent by  
them going from door to door  collecting
 bread1 eggs1 or money4 ,at every door  
the two skin-clad maskers  knock1 the   
boys disguised as girls dance1 and the  
gypsy man and wife enact  an obscene    
pantomime on the straw-heap before the  
house4 ,when every house  in the village
 has been thus visited1 the troop takes 
up position on the  open space before   
the village church1 where the whole     
population has  already mustered to     
witness the performance4 ,after a dance 
hand in hand1  in which all the actors  
take part1 the two skin-clad maskers    
withdraw and  leave the field to the    

gypsies1 who now pretend to forge a     
ploughshare1  the man making believe to 
hammer the share and his wife to work   
the  bellows4 ,at this point the old    
woman's baby is supposed to grow up at a
  great pace1 to develop a huge appetite
 for meat and drink1 and to clamour  for
 a wife4 ,one of the skin-clad men now  
pursues one of the two pretended        
brides1 and a mock marriage is          
celebrated between the couple4 ,after   
these  nuptials have been performed with
 a parody of a real wedding1 the mock   
bridegroom is shot by his comrade with  
the bow and falls down on his face  like
 dead4 ,his slayer thereupon feigns to  
skin him with a knife2 but the  dead    
man's wife laments over her deceased    
husband with loud cries1  throwing      
herself across his prostrate body4 ,in  
this lamentation the slayer  himself and
 all the other actors join in3 a        
,christian funeral service is           
burlesqued2 and the pretended corpse is 
lifted up as if to be carried to  the   

grave4 ,at this point1 however1 the dead
 man disconcerts the  preparations for  
his burial by suddenly coming to life   
again and getting  up4 ,so ends the     
drama of death and resurrection4        
7,m#bj7 ,the next act opens with a      
repetition of the pretence of forging a 
ploughshare1 but this time the gypsy man
 hammers on a real share4 ,when the     
implement is supposed to have been      
fashioned1 a real plough is brought     
forward1 the mockery appears to cease1  
the two boys dressed as girls are  yoked
 to the plough and drag it twice round  
the village square contrary to  the way 
of the sun4 ,one of the two skin-clad   
men walks at the tail of the  plough1   
the other guides it in front1 and a     
third man follows in the rear           
scattering seed from a basket4 ,after   
the two rounds have been completed1  the
 gypsy and his wife are yoked to the    
plough1 and drag it a third time  round 
the square1 the two skin-clad men still 
playing the part of  ploughmen4 ,at     

,viza the plough is drawn by the        
skin-clad men themselves4  ,while the   
plough is going its rounds1 followed by 
the sower sowing the  seed1 the people  
pray aloud1 saying1 8,may wheat be ten  
piastres the  bushel6 ,rye five piastres
 the bushel6 ,amen1 ,o ,god1 that the   
poor may eat6  ,yea1 ,o ,god1 that poor 
folk be filled60 ,this ends the         
performance4 ,the  evening is spent in  
feasting on the proceeds of the         
house-to-house  visitation which took   
place in the morning47#aae7    7,m#ba7  
,a kindred festival is observed on the  
same day of the ,carnival at  ,kosti1 a 
place in the extreme north of ,thrace1  
near the ,black ,sea4 ,there a  man     
dressed in sheepskins or goatskins1 with
 a mask on his face1 bells  round his   
neck1 and a broom in his hand1 goes     
round the village collecting  food and  
presents4 ,he is addressed as a king and
 escorted with music4 ,with  him go boys
 dressed as girls1 and another boy1 not 
so disguised1 who  carries wine in a    

wooden bottle and gives of it to every  
householder to  drink in a cup1         
receiving a gift in return4 ,the king   
then mounts a  two-wheeled cart and is  
drawn to the church4 ,he carries seed in
 his hand1  and at the church two bands 
of men1 one of married men and the other
 of  unmarried men1 try each in turn to 
induce the king to throw the seed on    
them4 ,finally he casts it on the ground
 in front of the church4 ,the  ceremony 
ends with stripping the king of his     
clothes and flinging him into  the      
river1 after which he resumes his usual 
dress47#aaf7    7,m#bb7 ,in these       
ceremonies1 still annually held at and  
near an old capital  of ,thracian kings1
 the points of similarity to the ritual 
of the ancient  ,thracian deity         
,dionysus are sufficiently              
obvious47#aag7 ,the goatskins in  which 
the principal actors are disguised      
remind us of the identification  of     
,dionysus with a goat3 the infant1      
cradled in a winnowing-fan and taking   

its name from the implement1 answers    
exactly to the traditions and the       
monuments which represent the infant    
,dionysus as similarly cradled and      
similarly named3 the pretence that the  
baby is a seven-months' child born  out 
of wedlock and begotten by an unknown   
father tallies precisely with  the      
legend that ,dionysus was born          
prematurely in the seventh month as the 
offspring of an intrigue between a      
mortal woman and a mysterious divine    
father37#aah7 the same coarse symbol of 
reproductive energy which  characterised
 the ancient ritual of ,dionysus figures
 conspicuously in the  modern drama3 the
 annual mock marriage of the            
goatskin-clad mummer with  the pretended
 bride may be compared with the annual  
pretence of marrying  ,dionysus to the  
,queen of ,athens3 and the simulated    
slaughter and  resurrection of the same 
goatskin-clad actor may be compared with
 the  traditional slaughter and         
resurrection of the god himself4        

,further1 the  ceremony of ploughing1 in
 which after his resurrection the       
goatskin-clad  mummer takes a prominent 
part1 fits in well not only with the    
legend that  ,dionysus was the first to 
yoke oxen to the plough1 but also with  
the  symbolism of the winnowing-fan in  
his worship2 while the prayers for      
plentiful crops which accompany the     
ploughing accord with the omens of an   
abundant harvest which were drawn of old
 from the mystic light seen to  illumine
 by night one of his ancient sanctuaries
 in ,thrace4 ,lastly1 in the  ceremony  
as observed at ,kosti the giving of wine
 by the king's attendant  is an act     
worthy of the wine-god3 the throwing of 
seed by the king can  only be           
interpreted1 like the ploughing1 as a   
charm to promote the  fertility of the  
ground2 and the royal title borne by the
 principal masker  harmonises well with 
the theory that the part of the god of  
the corn and  the wine was of old       
sustained by the ,thracian kings who    

reigned at ,bisya4    7,m#bc7 ,if we    
ask1 ,to what ancient festival of       
,dionysus does the modern  celebration  
of the ,carnival in ,thrace most nearly 
correspond8 the answer  can be hardly   
doubtful4 ,the ,thracian drama of the   
mock marriage of the  goatskin-clad     
mummer1 his mimic death and             
resurrection1 and his subsequent        
ploughing1 corresponds both in date and 
in character most nearly to the         
,athenian festival of the ,anthesteria1 
which was celebrated at ,athens  during 
three days in early spring1 towards the 
end of ,february or the  beginning of   
,march4 ,thus the date of the           
,anthesteria could not fall far  from1  
and it might sometimes actually coincide
 with1 the last week of the  ,carnival1 
the date of the ,thracian celebration4  
,while the details of the  festival of  
the ,anthesteria are obscure1 its       
general character is well  known4 ,it   
was a festival both of wine-drinking and
 of the dead1 whose  souls were supposed

 to revisit the city and to go about the
 streets1 just  as in modern ,europe and
 in many other parts of the world the   
ghosts of the  departed are still       
believed to return to their old homes on
 one day of the  year and to be         
entertained by their relatives at a     
solemn ,feast of ,all  ,souls47#aai7    
,but the ,dionysiac nature of the       
festival was revealed not  merely by the
 opening of the wine-vats and the       
wassailing which went on  throughout the
 city among freemen and slaves alike2 on
 the second day of  the festival the    
marriage of ,dionysus with the ,queen of
 ,athens was  celebrated with great     
solemnity at the ,bucolium or           
,ox-stall47#abj7 ,it has  been suggested
 with much probability7#aba7 that at    
this sacred marriage in  the ,ox-stall  
the god was represented wholly or partly
 in bovine shape1  whether by an image  
or by an actor dressed in the hide and  
wearing the  horns of a bull2 for1 as we
 have seen1 ,dionysus was often supposed

 to  assume the form of a bull and to   
present himself in that guise to his    
worshippers4 ,if this conjecture should 
prove to be correct--though a           
demonstration of it can hardly be       
expected--the sacred marriage of the    
,queen to the ,bull-god at ,athens would
 be parallel to the sacred marriage  of 
the ,queen to the ,bull-god at ,cnossus1
 according to the interpretation  which 
,i have suggested of the myth of        
,pasiphae and the ,minotaur27#abb7 only 
whereas the bull-god at ,cnossus1 if ,i 
am right1 stood for the ,sun1 the       
bull-god at ,athens stood for the powers
 of vegetation1 especially the corn  and
 the vines4 ,it would not be surprising 
that among a cattle-breeding  people in 
early days the bull1 regarded as a type 
of strength and  reproductive energy1   
should be employed to symbolise and     
represent more  than one of the great   
powers of nature4 ,if ,dionysus did     
indeed figure as a  bull at his         
marriage1 it is not improbable that on  

that occasion his  representative1      
whether a real bull or a man dressed in 
a bull's hide1  took part in a ceremony 
of ploughing2 for we have seen that the 
invention  of yoking oxen to the plough 
was ascribed to ,dionysus1 and we know  
that  the ,athenians performed a sacred 
ceremony of ploughing1 which went by the
  name of the ,ox-yoked ,ploughing and  
took place in a field or other open     
piece of ground at the foot of the      
,acropolis47#abc7 ,it is a reasonable   
conjecture that the field of the        
,ox-yoked ,ploughing may have adjoined  
the  building called the ,ox-stall in   
which the marriage of ,dionysus with the
  ,queen was solemnised27#abd7 for that 
building is known to have been near  the
 ,prytaneum or ,town-,hall on the       
northern slope of the ,acropolis47#abe7 
7,m#bd7 ,thus on the whole the ancient  
festival of the ,anthesteria1 so far as 
its features are preserved by tradition 
or can be restored by the use of        
reasonable conjecture1 presents several 

important analogies to the modern       
,thracian ,carnival in respect of       
wine-drinking1 a mock marriage of       
disguised actors1 and a ceremony of     
ploughing4 ,the resemblance between the 
ancient and the modern ritual would be  
still closer if some eminent modern     
scholars1 who wrote before the discovery
 of the ,thracian ,carnival1 and  whose 
judgment was therefore not biassed by   
its analogy to the ,athenian  festival1 
are right in holding that another       
important feature of the  ,anthesteria  
was the dramatic death and resurrection 
of ,dionysus47#abf7 ,they  point out    
that at the marriage of ,dionysus       
fourteen ,sacred ,women  officiated at  
fourteen altars27#abg7 that the number  
of the ,titans1 who  tore ,dionysus in  
pieces1 was fourteen1 namely seven male 
and seven  female27#abh7 and that       
,osiris1 a god who in some respects     
corresponded  closely to ,dionysus1 is  
said to have been rent by ,typhon into  
fourteen  fragments47#abi7 ,hence they  

conjecture that at ,athens the body of  
,dionysus  was dramatically broken into 
fourteen fragments1 one for each of the 
fourteen altars1 and that it was        
afterwards dramatically pieced together 
and restored to life by the fourteen    
,sacred ,women1 just as the broken body 
of ,osiris was pieced together by a     
company of gods and goddesses and       
restored to life by his sister          
,isis47#acj7 ,the conjecture is         
ingenious and  plausible1 but with our  
existing sources of information it must 
remain a  conjecture and nothing more4  
,could it be established1 it would forge
  another strong link in the chain of   
evidence which binds the modern         
,thracian ,carnival to the ancient      
,athenian ,anthesteria2 for in that case
  the drama of the divine death and     
resurrection would have to be added to  
the other features which these two      
festivals of spring possess in common1  
and we should have to confess that      
,greece had what we may call its ,good  

,friday and its ,easter ,sunday long    
before the events took place in ,judaea 
which diffused these two annual         
commemorations of the ,dying and        
,reviving  ,god over a great part of the
 civilised world4 ,from so simple a     
beginning  may flow consequences so     
far-reaching and impressive2 for in the 
light of  the rude ,thracian ceremony we
 may surmise that the high tragedy of   
the  death and resurrection of ,dionysus
 originated in a rustic mummers' play   
acted by ploughmen for the purpose of   
fertilising the brown earth which  they 
turned up with the gleaming share in    
sunshiny days of spring1 as they        
followed the slow-paced oxen down the   
long furrows in the fallow field4       
,later on we shall see that a play of   
the same sort is still acted1 or was    
acted down to recent years1 by ,english 
yokels on ,plough ,monday4    7,m#be7   
,but before we pass from the tragic myth
 and ritual of ,dionysus to  the sweeter
 story and milder worship of ,demeter   

and ,persephone1 the true  ,greek       
deities of the corn1 it is fair to admit
 that the legends of human  sacrifice1  
which have left so dark a stain on the  
memory of the old  ,thracian god1 may   
have been nothing more than mere        
misinterpretations of a  sacrificial    
ritual in which an animal victim was    
treated as a human being4  ,for example1
 at ,tenedos the new-born calf          
sacrificed to ,dionysus was shod  in    
buskins1 and the mother cow was tended  
like a woman in child-bed47#aca7  ,at   
,rome a she-goat was sacrificed to      
,vedijovis as if it were a human        
victim47#acb7 ,yet on the other hand it 
is equally possible1 and perhaps  more  
probable1 that these curious rites were 
themselves mitigations of an  older and 
ruder custom of sacrificing human       
beings1 and that the later  pretence of 
treating the sacrificial victims as if  
they were human beings  was merely part 
of a pious and merciful fraud1 which    
palmed off on the  deity less precious  

victims than living men and women4 ,this
 interpretation  is supported by the    
undoubted cases in which animals have   
been substituted  for human             
victims47#acc7 ,on the whole we may     
conclude that neither the  polished     
manners of a later age1 nor the glamour 
which ,greek poetry and  art threw over 
the figure of ,dionysus1 sufficed to    
conceal or erase the  deep lines of     
savagery and cruelty imprinted on the   
features of this  barbarous deity4      
,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,demeter ,,and         
,,persephone4      7,m#bf7 ,dionysus was
 not the only ,greek deity whose tragic 
story and ritual  appear to reflect the 
decay and revival of vegetation4 ,in    
another form and  with a different      
application the old tale reappears in   
the myth of ,demeter  and ,persephone4  
,substantially their myth is identical  
with the ,syrian one  of ,aphrodite     
7,astarte7 and ,adonis1 the ,phrygian   
one of ,cybele and ,attis1  and the     
,egyptian one of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,in 

the ,greek fable1 as in its  ,asiatic   
and ,egyptian counterparts1 a goddess   
mourns the loss of a loved  one1 who    
personifies the vegetation1 more        
especially the corn1 which dies  in     
winter to revive in spring2 only whereas
 the ,oriental imagination  figured the 
loved and lost one as a dead lover or a 
dead husband lamented  by his leman or  
his wife1 ,greek fancy embodied the same
 idea in the  tenderer and purer form of
 a dead daughter bewailed by her        
sorrowing  mother4    7,m#bg7 ,the      
oldest literary document which narrates 
the myth of ,demeter and  ,persephone is
 the beautiful ,homeric ,hymn to        
,demeter1 which critics  assign to the  
seventh century before our era47#acd7   
,the object of the poem  is to explain  
the origin of the ,eleusinian mysteries1
 and the complete  silence of the poet  
as to ,athens and the ,athenians1 who in
 after ages took  a conspicuous part in 
the festival1 renders it probable that  
the hymn was  composed in the far off   

time when ,eleusis was still a petty    
independent  state1 and before the      
stately procession of the ,mysteries had
 begun to  defile1 in bright ,september 
days1 over the low chain of barren rocky
 hills  which divides the flat          
,eleusinian cornland from the more      
spacious  olive-clad expanse of the     
,athenian plain4 ,be that as it may1 the
 hymn  reveals to us the conception     
which the writer entertained of the     
character  and functions of the two     
goddesses3 their natural shapes stand   
out sharply  enough under the thin veil 
of poetical imagery4 ,the youthful      
,persephone1  so runs the tale1 was     
gathering roses and lilies1 crocuses and
 violets1  hyacinths and narcissuses in 
a lush meadow1 when the earth gaped and 
,pluto1 lord of the ,dead1 issuing from 
the abyss carried her off on his  golden
 car to be his bride and queen in the   
gloomy subterranean world4 ,her         
sorrowing mother ,demeter1 with her     
yellow tresses veiled in a dark         

mourning mantle1 sought her over land   
and sea1 and learning from the ,sun  her
 daughter's fate she withdrew in high   
dudgeon from the gods and took up  her  
abode at ,eleusis1 where she presented  
herself to the king's daughters  in the 
guise of an old woman1 sitting sadly    
under the shadow of an olive  tree      
beside the ,maiden's ,well1 to which the
 damsels had come to draw water  in     
bronze pitchers for their father's      
house4 ,in her wrath at her  bereavement
 the goddess suffered not the seed to   
grow in the earth but  kept it hidden   
under ground1 and she vowed that never  
would she set foot  on ,olympus and     
never would she let the corn sprout till
 her lost daughter  should be restored  
to her4 ,vainly the oxen dragged the    
ploughs to and fro  in the fields2      
vainly the sower dropped the barley seed
 in the brown  furrows2 nothing came up 
from the parched and crumbling soil4    
,even the  ,rarian plain near ,eleusis1 
which was wont to wave with yellow      

harvests1  lay bare and fallow47#ace7   
,mankind would have perished of hunger  
and the  gods would have been robbed of 
the sacrifices which were their due1 if 
,zeus in alarm had not commanded ,pluto 
to disgorge his prey1 to restore his    
bride ,persephone to her mother         
,demeter4 ,the grim lord of the ,dead   
smiled  and obeyed1 but before he sent  
back his queen to the upper air on a    
golden  car1 he gave her the seed of a  
pomegranate to eat1 which ensured that  
she  would return to him4 ,but ,zeus    
stipulated that henceforth ,persephone  
should  spend two thirds of every year  
with her mother and the gods in the     
upper  world and one third of the year  
with her husband in the nether world1   
from  which she was to return year by   
year when the earth was gay with spring 
flowers4 ,gladly the daughter then      
returned to the sunshine1 gladly her    
mother received her and fell upon her   
neck2 and in her joy at recovering  the 
lost one ,demeter made the corn to      

sprout from the clods of the  ploughed  
fields and all the broad earth to be    
heavy with leaves and  blossoms4 ,and   
straightway she went and shewed this    
happy sight to the  princes of ,eleusis1
 to ,triptolemus1 ,eumolpus1 ,diocles1  
and to the king  ,celeus himself1 and   
moreover she revealed to them her sacred
 rites and  mysteries4 ,blessed1 says   
the poet1 is the mortal man who has seen
 these  things1 but he who has had no   
share of them in life will never be     
happy in  death when he has descended   
into the darkness of the grave4 ,so the 
two  goddesses departed to dwell in     
bliss with the gods on ,olympus2 and the
  bard ends the hymn with a pious prayer
 to ,demeter and ,persephone that they  
would be pleased to grant him a         
livelihood in return for his song47#acf7
    7,m#bh7 ,it has been generally      
recognised1 and indeed it seems scarcely
 open  to doubt1 that the main theme    
which the poet set before himself in    
composing this hymn was to describe the 

traditional foundation of the           
,eleusinian mysteries by the goddess    
,demeter4 ,the whole poem leads up to   
the transformation scene in which the   
bare leafless expanse of the            
,eleusinian plain is suddenly turned1 at
 the will of the goddess1 into a  vast  
sheet of ruddy corn2 the beneficent     
deity takes the princes of  ,eleusis1   
shews them what she has done1 teaches   
them her mystic rites1 and  vanishes    
with her daughter to heaven4 ,the       
revelation of the mysteries is  the     
triumphal close of the piece4 ,this     
conclusion is confirmed by a more       
minute examination of the poem1 which   
proves that the poet has given1 not     
merely a general account of the         
foundation of the mysteries1 but also in
  more or less veiled language mythical 
explanations of the origin of           
particular rites which we have good     
reason to believe formed essential      
features of the festival4 ,amongst the  
rites as to which the poet thus  drops  

significant hints are the preliminary   
fast of the candidates for  initiation1 
the torchlight procession1 the all-night
 vigil1 the sitting of  the candidates1 
veiled and in silence1 on stools covered
 with sheepskins1  the use of scurrilous
 language1 the breaking of ribald jests1
 and the  solemn communion with the     
divinity by participation in a draught  
of  barley-water from a holy            
chalice47#acg7    7,m#bi7 ,but there is 
yet another and a deeper secret of the  
mysteries which  the author of the poem 
appears to have divulged under cover of 
his  narrative4 ,he tells us how1 as    
soon as she had transformed the barren  
brown expanse of the ,eleusinian plain  
into a field of golden grain1 she       
gladdened the eyes of ,triptolemus and  
the other ,eleusinian princes by        
shewing them the growing or standing    
corn4 ,when we compare this part of  the
 story with the statement of a          
,christian writer of the second century1
  ,hippolytus1 that the very heart of   

the mysteries consisted in shewing to   
the initiated a reaped ear of           
corn17#ach7 we can hardly doubt that the
 poet  of the hymn was well acquainted  
with this solemn rite1 and that he      
deliberately intended to explain its    
origin in precisely the same way as  he 
explained other rites of the mysteries1 
namely by representing ,demeter  as     
having set the example of performing the
 ceremony in her own person4  ,thus myth
 and ritual mutually explain and confirm
 each other4 ,the poet of  the seventh  
century before our era gives us the     
myth--he could not without  sacrilege   
have revealed the ritual3 the ,christian
 father reveals the  ritual1 and his    
revelation accords perfectly with the   
veiled hint of the  old poet4 ,on the   
whole1 then1 we may1 with many modern   
scholars1  confidently accept the       
statement of the learned ,christian     
father ,clement  of ,alexandria1 that   
the myth of ,demeter and ,persephone was
 acted as a  sacred drama in the        

mysteries of ,eleusis47#aci7    7,m#cj7 
,but if the myth was acted as a part1   
perhaps as the principal part1  of the  
most famous and solemn religious rites  
of ancient ,greece1 we have  still to   
enquire1 ,what was1 after all1 stripped 
of later accretions1 the  original      
kernel of the myth which appears to     
later ages surrounded and  transfigured 
by an aureole of awe and mystery1 lit up
 by some of the most  brilliant rays of 
,grecian literature and art8 ,if we     
follow the indications  given by our    
oldest literary authority on the        
subject1 the author of the  ,homeric    
hymn to ,demeter1 the riddle is not hard
 to read2 the figures of  the two       
goddesses1 the mother and the daughter1 
resolve themselves into                 
personifications of the corn47#adj7 ,at 
least this appears to be fairly  certain
 for the daughter ,persephone4 ,the     
goddess who spends three or1  according 
to another version of the myth1 six     
months of every year with  the dead     

under ground and the remainder of the   
year with the living above              
ground27#ada7 in whose absence the      
barley seed is hidden in the earth and  
the fields lie bare and fallow2 on whose
 return in spring to the upper  world   
the corn shoots up from the clods and   
the earth is heavy with leaves  and     
blossoms--this goddess can surely be    
nothing else than a mythical  embodiment
 of the vegetation1 and particularly of 
the corn1 which is  buried under the    
soil for some months of every winter and
 comes to life  again1 as from the      
grave1 in the sprouting cornstalks and  
the opening  flowers and foliage of     
every spring4 ,no other reasonable and  
probable  explanation of ,persephone    
seems possible47#adb7 ,and if the       
daughter goddess  was a personification 
of the young corn of the present year1  
may not the  mother goddess be a        
personification of the old corn of last 
year1 which  has given birth to the new 
crops8 ,the only alternative to this    

view of  ,demeter would seem to be to   
suppose that she is a personification of
 the  earth1 from whose broad bosom the 
corn and all other plants spring up1 and
  of which accordingly they may         
appropriately enough be regarded as the 
daughters4 ,this view of the original   
nature of ,demeter has indeed been      
taken by some writers1 both ancient and 
modern17#adc7 and it is one which  can  
be reasonably maintained4 ,but it       
appears to have been rejected by the    
author of the ,homeric hymn to ,demeter1
 for he not only distinguishes  ,demeter
 from the personified ,earth but places 
the two in the sharpest  opposition to  
each other4 ,he tells us that it was    
,earth who1 in accordance  with the will
 of ,zeus and to please ,pluto1 lured   
,persephone to her doom by  causing the 
narcissuses to grow which tempted the   
young goddess to stray  far beyond the  
reach of help in the lush meadow47#add7 
,thus ,demeter of the  hymn1 far from   
being identical with the ,earth-goddess1

 must have regarded  that divinity as   
her worst enemy1 since it was to her    
insidious wiles that  she owed the loss 
of her daughter4 ,but if the ,demeter of
 the hymn cannot  have been a           
personification of the earth1 the only  
alternative apparently  is to conclude  
that she was a personification of the   
corn4    7,m#ca7 ,with this conclusion  
all the indications of the hymn-writer  
seem to  harmonise4 ,he certainly       
represents ,demeter as the goddess by   
whose power  and at whose pleasure the  
corn either grows or remains hidden in  
the  ground2 and to what deity can such 
powers be so fittingly ascribed as to   
the goddess of the corn8 ,he calls      
,demeter yellow and tells how her yellow
  tresses flowed down on her            
shoulders27#ade7 could any colour be    
more  appropriate with which to paint   
the divinity of the yellow grain8 ,the  
same  identification of ,demeter with   
the ripe1 the yellow corn is made even  
more  clearly by a still older poet1    

,homer himself1 or at all events the    
author  of the fifth book of the ,iliad4
 ,there we read3 8,and even as the wind 
carries the chaff about the sacred      
threshing-floors1 when men are          
winnowing1 what time yellow ,demeter    
sifts the corn from the chaff on the    
hurrying blast1 so that the heaps of    
chaff grow white below1 so were the     
,achaeans whitened above by the cloud of
 dust which the hoofs of the horses     
spurned to the brazen heaven407#adf7    
,here the yellow ,demeter who sifts the 
grain from the chaff at the             
threshing-floor can hardly be any other 
than  the goddess of the yellow corn2   
she cannot be the ,earth-goddess1 for   
what  has the ,earth-goddess to do with 
the grain and the chaff blown about a   
threshing-floor8 ,with this             
interpretation it agrees that elsewhere 
,homer  speaks of men eating 8,demeter's
 corn027#adg7 and still more definitely 
,hesiod speaks of 8the annual store of  
food1 which the earth bears1  ,demeter's

 corn107#adh7 thus distinguishing the   
goddess of the corn from the  earth     
which bears it4 ,still more clearly does
 a later ,greek poet personify  the corn
 as ,demeter when1 in allusion to the   
time of the corn-reaping1 he  says that 
then 8the sturdy swains cleave ,demeter 
limb from limb407#adi7 ,and  just as the
 ripe or yellow corn was personified as 
the ,yellow ,demeter1 so  the unripe or 
green corn was personified as the ,green
 ,demeter4 ,in that  character the      
goddess had sanctuaries at ,athens and  
other places2  sacrifices were          
appropriately offered to ,green ,demeter
 in spring when the  earth was growing  
green with the fresh vegetation1 and the
 victims  included sows big with        
young17#aej7 which no doubt were        
intended not merely  to symbolise but   
magically to promote the abundance of   
the crops4    7,m#cb7 ,in ,greek the    
various kinds of corn were called by the
 general name  of 8,demeter's           
fruits107#aea7 just as in ,latin they   

were called the 8fruits  or gifts of    
,ceres107#aeb7 an expression which      
survives in the ,english word  cereals4 
,tradition ran that before ,demeter's   
time men neither cultivated  corn nor   
tilled the ground1 but roamed the       
mountains and woods in search  of the   
wild fruits which the earth produced    
spontaneously from her womb  for their  
subsistence4 ,the tradition clearly     
implies not only that ,demeter  was the 
goddess of the corn1 but that she was   
different from and younger  than the    
goddess of the ,earth1 since it is      
expressly affirmed that before          
,demeter's time the earth existed and   
supplied mankind with nourishment in    
the shape of wild herbs1 grasses1       
flowers and fruits47#aec7    7,m#cc7 ,in
 ancient art ,demeter and ,persephone   
are characterised as goddesses  of the  
corn by the crowns of corn which they   
wear on their heads and by  the stalks  
of corn which they hold in their        
hands47#aed7 ,theocritus  describes a   

smiling image of ,demeter standing by a 
heap of yellow grain on  a              
threshing-floor and grasping sheaves of 
barley and poppies in both her          
hands47#aee7 ,indeed corn and poppies   
singly or together were a frequent      
symbol of the goddess1 as we learn not  
only from the testimony of ancient      
writers7#aef7 but from many existing    
monuments of classical art47#aeg7 ,the  
naturalness of the symbol can be doubted
 by no one who has seen--and who  has   
not seen8--a field of yellow corn       
bespangled thick with scarlet  poppies2 
and we need not resort to the shifts of 
an ancient mythologist1  who explained  
the symbolism of the poppy in ,demeter's
 hand by comparing  the globular shape  
of the poppy to the roundness of our    
globe1 the  unevenness of its edges to  
hills and valleys1 and the hollow       
interior of  the scarlet flower to the  
caves and dens of the earth47#aeh7 ,if  
only  students would study the little   
black and white books of men less and   

the  great rainbow-tinted book of nature
 more2 if they would more frequently    
exchange the heavy air and the dim light
 of libraries for the freshness  and the
 sunshine of the open sky2 if they would
 oftener unbend their minds  by rural   
walks between fields of waving corn1    
beside rivers rippling by  under grey   
willows1 or down green lanes1 where the 
hedges are white with  the hawthorn     
bloom or red with wild roses1 they might
 sometimes learn more  about primitive  
religion than can be gathered from many 
dusty volumes1 in  which wire-drawn     
theories are set forth with all the     
tedious parade of  learning4    7,m#cd7 
,nowhere1 perhaps1 in the monuments of  
,greek art is the character of          
,persephone as a personification of the 
young corn sprouting in spring          
portrayed more gracefully and more truly
 than on a coin of ,lampsacus of  the   
fourth century before our era4 ,on it we
 see the goddess in the very  act of    
rising from the earth4 8,her face is    

upraised2 in her hand are three  ears of
 corn1 and others together with grapes  
are springing behind her  shoulder4     
,complete is here the identification of 
the goddess and her  attribute3 she is  
embowered amid the ears of growing corn1
 and like it  half buried in the ground4
 ,she does not make the corn and vine   
grow1 but  she is the corn and vine     
growing1 and returning again to the face
 of the  earth after lying hidden in its
 depths4 ,certainly the artist who      
designed  this beautiful figure         
thoroughly understood ,hellenic         
religion407#aei7    7,m#ce7 ,as the     
goddess who first bestowed corn on      
mankind and taught them to  sow and     
cultivate it17#afj7 ,demeter was        
naturally invoked and propitiated  by   
farmers before they undertook the       
various operations of the  agricultural 
year4 ,in autumn1 when he heard the     
sonorous trumpeting of the  cranes1 as  
they winged their way southward in vast 
flocks high overhead1  the ,greek       

husbandman knew that the rains were near
 and that the time of  ploughing was at 
hand2 but before he put his hand to the 
plough he prayed  to ,underground ,zeus 
and to ,holy ,demeter for a heavy crop  
of ,demeter's  sacred corn4 ,then he    
guided the ox-drawn plough down the     
field1 turning up  the brown earth with 
the share1 while a swain followed close 
behind with a  hoe1 who covered up the  
seed as fast as it fell to protect it   
from the  voracious birds that fluttered
 and twittered at the plough-tail47#afa7
 ,but  while the ordinary ,greek farmer 
took the signal for ploughing from the  
clangour of the cranes1 ,hesiod and     
other writers who aimed at greater      
exactness laid it down as a rule that   
the ploughing should begin with the     
autumnal setting of the ,pleiades in the
 morning1 which in ,hesiod's time  fell 
on the twenty-sixth of ,october47#afb7  
,the month in which the ,pleiades  set  
in the morning was generally recognised 
by the ,greeks as the month of  sowing2 

it corresponded apparently in part to   
our ,october1 in part to our  ,november4
 ,the ,athenians called it ,pyanepsion2 
the ,boeotians named it  significantly  
,damatrius1 that is1 ,demeter's month1  
and they celebrated a  feast of mourning
 because1 says ,plutarch1 who as a      
,boeotian speaks with  authority on such
 a matter1 ,demeter was then in mourning
 for the descent  of ,persephone47#afc7 
,is it possible to express more clearly 
the true  original nature of ,persephone
 as the corn-seed which has just been   
buried  in the earth8 ,the obvious1 the 
almost inevitable conclusion did not    
escape  ,plutarch4 ,he tells us that the
 mournful rites which were held at the  
time  of the autumn sowing nominally    
commemorated the actions of deities1 but
  that the real sadness was for the     
fruits of the earth1 some of which at   
that season dropped of themselves and   
vanished from the trees1 while  others  
in the shape of seed were committed with
 anxious thoughts to the  ground by men1

 who scraped the earth and then huddled 
it up over the seed1  just as if they   
were burying and mourning for the       
dead47#afd7 ,surely this  interpretation
 of the custom and of the myth of       
,persephone is not only  beautiful but  
true4    7,m#cf7 ,and just as the ,greek
 husbandman prayed to the ,corn ,goddess
 when he  committed the seed1 with      
anxious forebodings1 to the furrows1 so 
after he  had reaped the harvest and    
brought back the yellow sheaves with    
rejoicing  to the threshing-floor1 he   
paid the bountiful goddess her dues in  
the form  of a thank-offering of golden 
grain4 ,theocritus has painted for us in
  glowing colours a picture of a rustic 
harvest-home1 as it fell on a bright    
autumn day some two thousand years ago  
in the little ,greek island of          
,cos47#afe7 ,the poet tells us how he   
went with two friends from the city to  
attend a festival given by farmers1 who 
were offering first-fruits to  ,demeter 
from the store of barley with which she 

had filled their barns4  ,the day was   
warm1 indeed so hot that the very       
lizards1 which love to bask  and run    
about in the sun1 were slumbering in the
 crevices of the  stone-walls1 and not a
 lark soared carolling into the blue    
vault of  heaven4 ,yet despite the great
 heat there were everywhere signs of    
autumn4  8,all things10 says the poet1  
8smelt of summer1 but smelt of autumn   
too40  ,indeed the day was really       
autumnal2 for a goat-herd who met the   
friends on  their way to the rural      
merry-making1 asked them whether they   
were bound  for the treading of the     
grapes in the wine-presses4 ,and when   
they had  reached their destination and 
reclined at ease in the dappled shade of
  over-arching poplars and elms1 with   
the babble of a neighbouring fountain1  
the buzz of the cicadas1 the hum of     
bees1 and the cooing of doves in their  
ears1 the ripe apples and pears rolled  
in the grass at their feet and the      
branches of the wild-plum trees were    

bowed down to the earth with the  weight
 of their purple fruit4 ,so couched on  
soft beds of fragrant lentisk  they     
passed the sultry hours singing ditties 
alternately1 while a rustic  image of   
,demeter1 to whom the honours of the day
 were paid1 stood smiling  beside a heap
 of yellow grain on the threshing-floor1
 with corn-stalks and  poppies in her   
hands4    7,m#cg7 ,in this description  
the time of year when the harvest-home  
was  celebrated is clearly marked4      
,apart from the mention of the ripe     
apples1  pears1 and plums1 the reference
 to the treading of the grapes is       
decisive4  ,the ,greeks gather and press
 the grapes in the first half of        
,october17#aff7  and accordingly it is  
to this date that the harvest-festival  
described by  ,theocritus must be       
assigned4 ,at the present day in ,greece
 the  maize-harvest immediately precedes
 the vintage1 the grain being reaped and
  garnered at the end of ,september4    
,travelling in rural districts of       

,argolis  and ,arcadia at that time of  
the year you pass from time to time     
piles of  the orange-coloured cobs laid 
up ready to be shelled1 or again heaps  
of  the yellow grain beside the pods4   
,but maize was unknown to the ancient   
,greeks1 who1 like their modern         
descendants1 reaped their wheat and     
barley  crops much earlier in the       
summer1 usually from the end of ,april  
till  ,june47#afg7 ,however1 we may     
conclude that the day immortalised by   
,theocritus was one of those autumn days
 of great heat and effulgent beauty     
which in ,greece may occur at any time  
up to the very verge of winter4 ,i      
remember such a day at ,panopeus on the 
borders of ,phocis and ,boeotia4 ,it    
was the first of ,november1 yet the sun 
shone in cloudless splendour and  the   
heat was so great1 that when ,i had     
examined the magnificent remains of     
ancient ,greek fortification-walls which
 crown the summit of the hill1 it  was  
delicious to repose on a grassy slope in

 the shade of some fine  holly-oaks and 
to inhale the sweet scent of the wild   
thyme1 which perfumed  all the air4 ,but
 it was summer's farewell4 ,next morning
 the weather had  completely changed4 ,a
 grey ,november sky lowered sadly       
overhead1 and grey  mists hung like     
winding-sheets on the lower slopes of   
the barren mountains  which shut in the 
fatal plain of ,chaeronea4    7,m#ch7   
,thus we may infer that in the rural    
districts of ancient ,greece  farmers   
offered their first-fruits of the barley
 harvest to ,demeter in  autumn about   
the time when the grapes were being     
trodden in the  wine-presses and the    
ripe apples and pears littered the      
ground in the  orchards4 ,at first sight
 the lateness of the festival in the    
year is  surprising2 for in the lowlands
 of ,greece at the present day barley is
  reaped at the end of ,april and wheat 
in ,may17#afh7 and in antiquity the     
time of harvest would seem not to have  
been very different1 for ,hesiod  bids  

the husbandman put the sickle to the    
corn at the morning rising of  the      
,pleiades17#afi7 which in his time took 
place on the eleventh of  ,may47#agj7   
,but if the harvest was reaped in spring
 or early summer1 why  defer the        
offerings of corn to the ,corn ,goddess 
until the middle of  autumn8 ,the reason
 for the delay is not1 so far as ,i am  
aware1 explained  by any ancient author1
 and accordingly it must remain for us a
 matter of  conjecture4 ,i surmise that 
the reason may have been a calculation  
on the  part of the practical farmer    
that the best time to propitiate the    
,corn  ,goddess was not after harvest1  
when he had got all that was to be got  
out  of her1 but immediately before     
ploughing and sowing1 when he had       
everything to hope from her good-will   
and everything to fear from her         
displeasure4 ,when he had reaped his    
corn1 and the sheaves had been safely   
garnered in his barns1 he might1 so to  
say1 snap his fingers at the ,corn      

,goddess4 ,what could she do for him on 
the bare stubble-field which lay        
scorched and baking under the fierce    
rays of the sun all the long rainless   
summer through8 ,but matters wore a very
 different aspect when1 with the        
shortening and cooling of the days1 he  
began to scan the sky for  clouds7#aga7 
and to listen for the cries of the      
cranes as they flew  southward1         
heralding by their trumpet-like notes   
the approach of the  autumnal rains4    
,then he knew that the time had come to 
break up the ground  that it might      
receive the seed and be fertilised by   
the refreshing water  of heaven2 then he
 bethought him of the ,corn ,goddess    
once more and brought  forth from the   
grange a share of the harvested corn    
with which to woo her  favour and induce
 her to quicken the grain which he was  
about to commit to  the earth4 ,on this 
theory the ,greek offering of           
first-fruits was prompted  not so much  
by gratitude for past favours as by a   

shrewd eye to favours to  come1 and     
perhaps this interpretation of the      
custom does no serious  injustice to the
 cool phlegmatic temper of the bucolic  
mind1 which is more  apt to be moved by 
considerations of profit than by        
sentiment4 ,at all  events the reasons  
suggested for delaying the              
harvest-festival accord  perfectly with 
the natural conditions and seasons of   
farming in ,greece4  ,for in that       
country the summer is practically       
rainless1 and during the  long months of
 heat and drought the cultivation of the
 two ancient  cereals1 barley and wheat1
 is at a standstill4 ,the first rains of
 autumn  fall about the middle of       
,october17#agb7 and that was the ,greek 
farmer's  great time for ploughing and  
sowing47#agc7 ,hence we should expect   
him to  make his offering of            
first-fruits to the ,corn ,goddess      
shortly before he  ploughed and sowed1  
and this expectation is entirely        
confirmed by the date  which we have    

inferred for the offering from the      
evidence of ,theocritus4  ,thus the     
sacrifice of barley to ,demeter in the  
autumn would seem to have  been not so  
much a thank-offering as a bribe        
judiciously administered to  her at the 
very moment of all the year when her    
services were most  urgently wanted4    
7,m#ci7 ,when with the progress of      
civilisation a number of petty          
agricultural communities have merged    
into a single state dependent for its   
subsistence mainly on the cultivation of
 the ground1 it commonly happens  that1 
though every farmer continues to perform
 for himself the simple old  rites      
designed to ensure the blessing of the  
gods on his crops1 the  government      
undertakes to celebrate similar1 though 
more stately and  elaborate1 rites on   
behalf of the whole people1 lest the    
neglect of public  worship should draw  
down on the country the wrath of the    
offended deities4  ,hence it comes about
 that1 for all their pomp and splendour1

 the national  festivals of such states 
are often merely magnified and          
embellished copies  of homely rites and 
uncouth observances carried out by      
rustics in the open  fields1 in barns1  
and on threshing-floors4 ,in ancient    
,egypt the religion  of ,isis and       
,osiris furnishes examples of           
solemnities which have been thus  raised
 from the humble rank of rural          
festivities to the dignity of  national 
celebrations27#agd7 and in ancient      
,greece a like development may  be      
traced in the religion of ,demeter4 ,if 
the ,greek ploughman prayed to  ,demeter
 and ,underground ,zeus for a good crop 
before he put his hand to the  plough in
 autumn1 the authorities of the         
,athenian state celebrated about  the   
same time and for the same purpose a    
public festival in honour of  ,demeter  
at ,eleusis4 ,it was called the         
,proerosia1 which signifies 8,before    
the ,ploughing02 and as the festival was
 dedicated to her1 ,demeter herself     

bore the name of ,proerosia4 ,tradition 
ran that once on a time the whole  world
 was desolated by a famine1 and that to 
remedy the evil the ,pythian  oracle    
bade the ,athenians offer the sacrifice 
of the ,proerosia on behalf  of all men4
 ,they did so1 and the famine ceased    
accordingly4 ,hence to  testify their   
gratitude for the deliverance people    
sent the first-fruits  of their harvest 
from all quarters to ,athens47#age7     
7,m#dj7 ,but the exact date at which the
 ,proerosia or ,festival before         
,ploughing took place is somewhat       
uncertain1 and enquirers are divided in 
opinion as to whether it fell before or 
after the ,great ,mysteries1 which      
began on the fifteenth or sixteenth of  
,boedromion1 a month corresponding      
roughly to our ,september4 ,another name
 for the festival was ,proarcturia1     
that is1 8,before ,arcturus107#agf7     
which points to a date either before the
  middle of ,september1 when ,arcturus  
is a morning star1 or before the end of 

,october1 when ,arcturus is an evening  
star47#agg7 ,in favour of the earlier   
date it may be said1 first1 that the    
morning phase of ,arcturus was well     
known and much observed1 because it     
marked the middle of autumn1 whereas    
little use was made of the evening phase
 of ,arcturus for the purpose of        
dating27#agh7 and1 second1 that in an   
official ,athenian inscription the      
,festival before ,ploughing 7,proerosia7
 is mentioned immediately before  the   
,great ,mysteries47#agi7 ,on the other  
hand1 in favour of the later date1  it  
may be said that as the autumnal rains  
in ,greece set in about the  middle of  
,october1 the latter part of that month 
would be a more suitable  time for a    
ceremony at the opening of ploughing    
than the middle of  ,september1 when the
 soil is still parched with the summer  
drought2 and1  second1 that this date is
 confirmed by a ,greek inscription of   
the fourth  or third century ,b4,c41    
found at ,eleusis1 in which the         

,festival before  ,ploughing is         
apparently mentioned in the month of    
,pyanepsion immediately  before the     
festival of the ,pyanepsia1 which was   
held on the seventh day of  that        
month47#ahj7 ,it is difficult to decide 
between these conflicting  arguments1   
but on the whole ,i incline1 not without
 hesitation1 to agree  with some eminent
 modern authorities in placing the      
,festival before  ,ploughing in         
,pyanepsion 7,october7 after the        
,mysteries1 rather than in  ,boedromion 
7,september7 before the                 
,mysteries47#aha7 ,however1 we must bear
 in  mind that as the ,attic months1    
like the ,greek months generally1 were  
lunar17#ahb7 their position in the solar
 year necessarily varied from year  to  
year1 and though these variations were  
periodically corrected by               
intercalation1 nevertheless the         
beginning of each ,attic month sometimes
  diverged by several weeks from the    
beginning of the corresponding month to 

which we equate it47#ahc7 ,from this it 
follows that the ,great ,mysteries1     
which were always dated by the calendar 
month1 must have annually shifted  their
 place somewhat in the solar year2      
whereas the ,festival before            
,ploughing1 if it was indeed dated      
either by the morning or by the evening 
phase of ,arcturus1 must have occupied a
 fixed place in the solar year4  ,hence 
it appears to be not impossible that the
 ,great ,mysteries1  oscillating to and 
fro with the inconstant moon1 may       
sometimes have fallen  before and       
sometimes after the ,festival before    
,ploughing1 which apparently  always    
remained true to the constant star4 ,at 
least this possibility1  which seems to 
have been overlooked by previous        
enquirers1 deserves to be  taken into   
account4 ,it is a corollary from the    
shifting dates of the lunar  months that
 the official ,greek calendar1 in spite 
of its appearance of  exactness1 really 
furnished the ancient farmer with little

 trustworthy  guidance as to the proper 
seasons for conducting the various      
operations of  agriculture2 and he was  
well advised in trusting to various     
natural  timekeepers1 such as the rising
 and setting of the constellations1 the 
arrival and departure of the migratory  
birds1 the flowering of certain         
plants17#ahd7 the ripening of fruits1   
and the setting in of the rains1  rather
 than to the fallacious indications of  
the public calendar4 ,it is by  natural 
timekeepers1 and not by calendar months1
 that ,hesiod determines  the seasons of
 the farmer's year in the poem which is 
the oldest existing  treatise on        
husbandry47#ahe7    7,m#da7 ,just as the
 ploughman's prayer to ,demeter1 before 
he drove the share  through the clods of
 the field1 was taken up and            
reverberated1 so to say1  with a great  
volume of sound in the public prayers   
which the ,athenian  state annually     
offered to the goddess before the       
ploughing on behalf of  the whole world1

 so the simple first-fruits of barley1  
presented to the  rustic ,demeter under 
the dappled shade of rustling poplars   
and elms on the  threshing-floor in     
,cos1 were repeated year by year on a   
grander scale in  the first-fruits of   
the barley and wheat harvest1 which were
 presented to  the ,corn ,mother and the
 ,corn ,maiden at ,eleusis1 not merely  
by every  husbandman in ,attica1 but by 
all the allies and subjects of ,athens  
far and  near1 and even by many free    
,greek communities beyond the sea4 ,the 
reason  why year by year these offerings
 of grain poured from far countries into
  the public granaries at ,eleusis1 was 
the widespread belief that the gift  of 
corn had been first bestowed by ,demeter
 on the ,athenians and afterwards       
disseminated by them among all mankind  
through the agency of ,triptolemus1  who
 travelled over the world in his        
dragon-drawn car teaching all peoples   
to plough the earth and to sow the      
seed47#ahf7 ,in the fifth century before

  our era the legend was celebrated by  
,sophocles in a play called             
,triptolemus1 in which he represented   
,demeter instructing the hero to  carry 
the seed of the fruits which she had    
bestowed on men to all the  coasts of   
,southern ,italy17#ahg7 from which we   
may infer that the cities of  ,magna    
,graecia were among the number of those 
that sent the thank-offering  of barley 
and wheat every year to ,athens4 ,again1
 in the fourth century  before our era  
,xenophon represents ,callias1 the      
braggart ,eleusinian  ,torchbearer1     
addressing the ,lacedaemonians in a set 
speech1 in which he  declared that 8,our
 ancestor ,triptolemus is said to have  
bestowed the seed  of ,demeter's corn on
 the ,peloponese before any other land4 
,how then10 he  asked with pathetic     
earnestness1 8can it be right that you  
should come to  ravage the corn of the  
men from whom you received the          
seed807#ahh7 ,again1  writing in the    
fourth century before our era ,isocrates

 relates with a  swell of patriotic     
pride how1 in her search for her lost   
daughter  ,persephone1 the goddess      
,demeter came to ,attica and gave to the
 ancestors  of the ,athenians the two   
greatest of all gifts1 the gift of the  
corn and  the gift of the mysteries1 of 
which the one reclaimed men from the    
life of  beasts and the other held out  
hopes to them of a blissful eternity    
beyond  the grave4 ,the antiquity of the
 tradition1 the orator proceeds to say1 
was  no reason for rejecting it1 but    
quite the contrary it furnished a strong
  argument in its favour1 for what many 
affirmed and all had heard might be     
accepted as trustworthy4 8,and          
moreover10 he adds1 8we are not driven  
to  rest our case merely on the         
venerable age of the tradition2 we can  
appeal  to stronger evidence in its     
support4 ,for most of the cities send us
 every  year the first-fruits of the    
corn as a memorial of that ancient      
benefit1  and when any of them have     

failed to do so the ,pythian priestess  
has  commanded them to send the due     
portions of the fruits and to act       
towards  our city according to ancestral
 custom4 ,can anything be supported by  
stronger evidence than by the oracle of 
god1 the assent of many ,greeks1  and   
the harmony of ancient legend with the  
deeds of to-day807#ahi7    7,m#db7 ,this
 testimony of ,isocrates to the         
antiquity both of the legend and  of the
 custom might perhaps have been set     
aside1 or at least disparaged1  as the  
empty bombast of a wordy rhetorician1 if
 it had not happened by  good chance to 
be amply confirmed by an official decree
 of the ,athenian  people passed in the 
century before ,isocrates wrote4 ,the   
decree was found  inscribed on a stone  
at ,eleusis and is dated by scholars in 
the latter  half of the fifth century   
before our era1 sometime between #ddf   
and #dbj  ,b4,c47#aij7 ,it deals with   
the first-fruits of barley and wheat    
which were  offered to the ,two         

,goddesses1 that is1 to ,demeter and    
,persephone1 not only  by the ,athenians
 and their allies but by the ,greeks in 
general4 ,it  prescribes the exact      
amount of barley and wheat which was to 
be offered by  the ,athenians and their 
allies1 and it directs the highest      
officials at  ,eleusis1 namely the      
,hierophant and the ,torchbearer1 to    
exhort the other  ,greeks at the        
mysteries to offer likewise of the      
first-fruits of the corn4  ,the         
authority alleged in the decree for     
requiring or inviting offerings of      
first-fruits alike from ,athenians and  
from foreigners is ancestral custom  and
 the bidding of the ,delphic oracle4    
,the ,senate is further enjoined to     
send commissioners1 so far as it could  
be done1 to all ,greek cities           
whatsoever1 exhorting1 though not       
commanding1 them to send the            
first-fruits in compliance with         
ancestral custom and the bidding of the 
,delphic oracle1 and the state officials

 are directed to receive the  offerings 
from such states in the same manner as  
the offerings of the  ,athenians and    
their allies4 ,instructions are also    
given for the building  of three        
subterranean granaries at ,eleusis1     
where the contributions of  grain from  
,attica were to be stored4 ,the best of 
the corn was to be  offered in sacrifice
 as the ,eumolpids might direct3 oxen   
were to be bought  and sacrificed1 with 
gilt horns1 not only to the two         
,goddesses but also to  the ,god        
7,pluto71 ,triptolemus1 ,eubulus1 and   
,athena2 and the remainder of  the grain
 was to be sold and with the produce    
votive offerings were to be  dedicated  
with inscriptions setting forth that    
they had been dedicated  from the       
offerings of first-fruits1 and recording
 the names of all the  ,greeks who sent 
the offerings to ,eleusis4 ,the decree  
ends with a prayer  that all who comply 
with these injunctions or exhortations  
and render  their dues to the city of   

,athens and to the ,two ,goddesses1 may 
enjoy  prosperity together with good and
 abundant crops4 ,writing in the second 
century of our era1 under the ,roman    
empire1 the rhetorician ,aristides      
records the custom which the ,greeks    
observed of sending year by year the    
first-fruits of the harvest to ,athens  
in gratitude for the corn1 but he       
speaks of the practice as a thing of the
 past47#aia7    7,m#dc7 ,we may suspect 
that the tribute of corn ceased to flow 
from far  countries to ,athens1 when1   
with her falling fortunes and decaying  
empire1  her proud galleys had ceased to
 carry the terror of the ,athenian arms 
into  distant seas4 ,but if the homage  
was no longer paid in the substantial   
shape of cargoes of grain1 it continued 
down to the latest days of  paganism to 
be paid in the cheaper form of gratitude
 for that inestimable  benefit1 which   
the ,athenians claimed to have received 
from the ,corn  ,goddess and to have    
liberally communicated to the rest of   

mankind4 ,even  the ,sicilians1 who1    
inhabiting a fertile corn-growing       
island1 worshipped  ,demeter and        
,persephone above all the gods and      
claimed to have been the  first to      
receive the gift of the corn from the   
,corn ,goddess17#aib7  nevertheless     
freely acknowledged that the ,athenians 
had spread1 though  they had not        
originated1 the useful discovery among  
the nations4 ,thus the  patriotic       
,sicilian historian ,diodorus1 while    
giving the precedence to his            
fellow-countrymen1 strives to be just to
 the ,athenian pretensions in the       
following passage47#aic7                
8,mythologists10 says he1 8relate that  
,demeter1  unable to find her daughter1 
lit torches at the craters of           
,etna7#aid7 and  roamed over many parts 
of the world4 ,those people who received
 her best  she rewarded by giving them  
in return the fruit of the wheat2 and   
because  the ,athenians welcomed her    
most kindly of all1 she bestowed the    

fruit of  the wheat on them next after  
the ,sicilians4 ,wherefore that people  
honoured  the goddess more than any     
other folk by magnificent sacrifices and
 the  mysteries at ,eleusis1 which for  
their extreme antiquity and sanctity    
have  become famous among all men4 ,from
 the ,athenians many others received the
  boon of the corn and shared the seed  
with their neighbours1 till they  filled
 the whole inhabited earth with it4 ,but
 as the people of ,sicily1 on  account  
of the intimate relation in which they  
stood to ,demeter and the  ,maiden1 were
 the first to participate in the newly  
discovered corn1 they  appointed        
sacrifices and popular festivities in   
honour of each of the two  goddesses1   
naming the celebrations after them and  
signifying the nature of  the boons they
 had received by the dates of the       
festivals4 ,for they  celebrated the    
bringing home of the ,maiden at the time
 when the corn was  ripe1 performing the
 sacrifice and holding the festivity    

with all the  solemnity and zeal that   
might be reasonably expected of men who 
desired to  testify their gratitude for 
so signal a gift bestowed on them before
 all  the rest of mankind4 ,but the     
sacrifice to ,demeter they assigned to  
the  time when the sowing of the corn   
begins2 and for ten days they hold a    
popular festivity which bears the name  
of the goddess1 and is remarkable  as   
well for the magnificence of its pomp as
 for the costumes then worn in          
imitation of the olden time4 ,during    
these days it is customary for people   
to rail at each other in foul language1 
because when ,demeter was mourning  for 
the rape of the ,maiden she laughed at a
 ribald jest407#aie7 ,thus  despite his 
natural prepossession in favour of his  
native land1 ,diodorus  bears testimony 
both to the special blessing bestowed on
 the ,athenians by  the ,corn ,goddess1 
and to the generosity with which they   
had imparted the  blessing to others1   
until it gradually spread to the ends of

 the earth4  ,again1 ,cicero1 addressing
 a ,roman audience1 enumerates among the
 benefits  which ,athens was believed to
 have conferred on the world1 the gift  
of the  corn and its origin in ,attic   
soil2 and the cursory manner in which he
  alludes to it seems to prove that the 
tradition was familiar to his           
hearers47#aif7 ,four centuries later the
 rhetorician ,himerius speaks of        
,demeter's gift of the corn and the     
mysteries to the ,athenians as the      
source of the first and greatest service
 rendered by their city to              
mankind27#aig7 so ancient1 widespread1  
and persistent was the legend which     
ascribed the origin of the corn to the  
goddess ,demeter and associated it  with
 the institution of the ,eleusinian     
mysteries4 ,no wonder that the  ,delphic
 oracle called ,athens 8the ,metropolis 
of the ,corn407#aih7    7,m#dd7 ,from   
the passage of ,diodorus which ,i have  
quoted we learn that the  ,sicilians    
celebrated the festival of ,demeter at  

the beginning of sowing1  and the       
festival of ,persephone at harvest4     
,this proves that they  associated1 if  
they did not identify1 the ,mother      
,goddess with the  seed-corn and the    
,daughter ,goddess with the ripe ears4  
,could any  association or              
identification be more easy and obvious 
to people who  personified the processes
 of nature under the form of            
anthropomorphic  deities8 ,as the seed  
brings forth the ripe ear1 so the ,corn 
,mother ,demeter  gave birth to the     
,corn ,daughter ,persephone4 ,it is true
 that difficulties  arise when we       
attempt to analyse this seemingly simple
 conception4 ,how1  for example1 are we 
to divide exactly the two persons of the
 divinity8 ,at  what precise moment does
 the seed cease to be the ,corn ,mother 
and begins  to burgeon out into the     
,corn ,daughter8 ,and how far can we    
identify the  material substance of the 
barley and wheat with the divine bodies 
of the  ,two ,goddesses8 ,questions of  

this sort probably gave little concern  
to the  sturdy swains who ploughed1     
sowed1 and reaped the fat fields of     
,sicily4 ,we  cannot imagine that their 
night's rest was disturbed by uneasy    
meditations  on these knotty problems4  
,it would hardly be strange if the muzzy
 mind of  the ,sicilian bumpkin1 who    
looked with blind devotion to the ,two  
,goddesses  for his daily bread1 totally
 failed to distinguish ,demeter from the
 seed  and ,persephone from the ripe    
sheaves1 and if he accepted implicitly  
the  doctrine of the real presence of   
the divinities in the corn without      
discriminating too curiously between the
 material and the spiritual  properties 
of the barley or the wheat4 ,and if he  
had been closely  questioned by a rigid 
logician as to the exact distinction to 
be drawn  between the two persons of the
 godhead who together represented for   
him  the annual vicissitudes of the     
cereals1 ,hodge might have scratched his
  head and confessed that it puzzled him

 to say where precisely the one  goddess
 ended and the other began1 or why the  
seed buried in the ground  should figure
 at one time as the dead daughter       
,persephone descending into  the nether 
world1 and at another as the living     
,mother ,demeter about to  give birth to
 next year's crop4 ,theological         
subtleties like these have  posed longer
 heads than are commonly to be found on 
bucolic shoulders4    7,m#de7 ,the time 
of year at which the first-fruits were  
offered to ,demeter  and ,persephone at 
,eleusis is not explicitly mentioned by 
ancient  authorities1 and accordingly no
 inference can be drawn from the date of
  the offering as to its religious      
significance4 ,it is true that at the   
,eleusinian mysteries the ,hierophant   
and ,torchbearer publicly exhorted the  
,greeks in general1 as distinguished    
from the ,athenians and their allies1   
to offer the first-fruits in accordance 
with ancestral custom and the  bidding  
of the ,delphic oracle47#aii7 ,but there

 is nothing to shew that the  offerings 
were made immediately after the         
exhortation4 ,nor does any  ancient     
authority support the view of a modern  
scholar that the offering  of the       
first-fruits1 or a portion of them1 took
 place at the ,festival  before         
,ploughing 7,proerosia717#bjj7 though   
that festival would no doubt  be an     
eminently appropriate occasion for      
propitiating with such offerings  the   
goddess on whose bounty the next year's 
crop was believed to depend4    7,m#df7 
,on the other hand1 we are positively   
told that the first-fruits were  carried
 to ,eleusis to be used at the ,festival
 of the ,threshing-floor                
7,haloa747#bja7 ,but the statement1     
cursorily reported by writers of no     
very high authority1 cannot be          
implicitly relied upon2 and even if it  
could1 we should hardly be justified in 
inferring from it that all the          
first-fruits of the corn were offered to
 ,demeter and ,persephone at this       

festival4 ,be that as it may1 the       
,festival of the ,threshing-floor was   
intimately connected with the worship   
both of ,demeter and of ,dionysus1 and  
accordingly it deserves our attention4  
,it is said to have been sacred to  both
 these deities27#bjb7 and while the name
 seems to connect it rather  with the   
,corn ,goddess than with the ,wine ,god1
 we are yet informed that it  was held  
by the ,athenians on the occasion of the
 pruning of the vines and  the tasting  
of the stored-up wine47#bjc7 ,the       
festival is frequently  mentioned in    
,eleusinian inscriptions1 from some of  
which we gather that it  included       
sacrifices to the two goddesses and a   
so-called ,ancestral  ,contest1 as to   
the nature of which we have no          
information47#bjd7 ,we may  suppose that
 the festival or some part of it was    
celebrated on the ,sacred               
,threshing-floor of ,triptolemus at     
,eleusis27#bje7 for as ,triptolemus was 
the  hero who is said to have diffused  

the knowledge of the corn all over the  
world1 nothing could be more natural    
than that the ,festival of the          
,threshing-floor should be held on the  
sacred threshing-floor which bore  his  
name4 ,as for ,demeter1 we have already 
seen how intimate was her  association  
with the threshing-floor and the        
operation of threshing2  according to   
,homer1 she is the yellow goddess who   
parts the yellow grain  from the white  
chaff at the threshing1 and in ,cos her 
image with the  corn-stalks and the     
poppies in her hands stood on the       
threshing-floor47#bjf7 ,the festival    
lasted one day1 and no victims might be 
sacrificed at it27#bjg7 but special use 
was made1 as we have seen1 of the       
first-fruits of the corn4 ,with regard  
to the dating of the festival we are    
informed that it fell in the month      
,poseideon1 which corresponds roughly to
  our ,december1 and as the date rests  
on the high authority of the ancient    
,athenian antiquary ,philochorus17#bjh7 

and is1 moreover1 indirectly  confirmed 
by inscriptional evidence17#bji7 we are 
bound to accept it4 ,but  it is         
certainly surprising to find a ,festival
 of the ,threshing-floor held  so late  
in the year1 long after the threshing1  
which in ,greece usually  takes place   
not later than midsummer1 though on high
 ground in ,crete it is  sometimes      
prolonged till near the end of          
,august47#baj7 ,we seem bound to        
conclude that the ,festival of the      
,threshing-floor was quite distinct from
  the actual threshing of the           
corn47#baa7 ,it is said to have included
 certain  mystic rites performed by     
women alone1 who feasted and quaffed    
wine1 while  they broke filthy jests on 
each other and exhibited cakes baked in 
the  form of the male and female organs 
of generation47#bab7 ,if the latter     
particulars are correctly reported we   
may suppose that these indecencies1     
like certain obscenities which seem to  
have formed part of the ,great          

,mysteries at ,eleusis17#bac7 were no   
mere wanton outbursts of licentious     
passion1 but were deliberately practised
 as rites calculated to promote  the    
fertility of the ground by means of     
homoeopathic or imitative magic4 ,a     
like association of what we might call  
indecency with rites intended to        
promote the growth of the crops meets us
 in the ,thesmophoria1 a festival  of   
,demeter celebrated by women alone1 at  
which the character of the  goddess as a
 source of fertility comes out clearly  
in the custom of mixing  the remains of 
the sacrificial pigs with the seed-corn 
in order to obtain  a plentiful crop4   
,we shall return to this festival later 
on47#bad7    7,m#dg7 ,other festivals   
held at ,eleusis in honour of ,demeter  
and ,persephone  were known as the      
,green ,festival and the ,festival of   
the ,cornstalks47#bae7  ,of the manner  
of their celebration we know nothing    
except that they  comprised sacrifices1 
which were offered to ,demeter and      

,persephone4 ,but  their names suffice  
to connect the two festivals with the   
green and the  standing corn4 ,we have  
seen that ,demeter herself bore the     
title of ,green1  and that sacrifices   
were offered to her under that title    
which plainly  aimed at promoting       
fertility47#baf7 ,among the many        
epithets applied to  ,demeter which mark
 her relation to the corn may further be
 mentioned  8,wheat-lover107#bag7 8,she 
of the ,corn107#bah7                    
8,sheaf-bearer107#bai7 8,she of  the    
,threshing-floor107#bbj7 8,she of the   
,winnowing-fan107#bba7 8,nurse of the   
,corn-ears107#bbb7 8,crowned with ,ears 
of ,corn107#bbc7 8,she of the           
,seed107#bbd7  8,she of the ,green      
,fruits107#bbe7 8,heavy with ,summer    
,fruits107#bbf7  8,fruit-bearer107#bbg7 
8,she of the ,great ,loaf10 and 8,she of
 the ,great ,barley  ,loaf407#bbh7 ,of  
these epithets it may be remarked that  
though all of them  are quite           
appropriate to a ,corn ,goddess1 some of

 them would scarcely be  applicable to  
an ,earth ,goddess and therefore they   
add weight to the other  arguments which
 turn the scale in favour of the corn as
 the fundamental  attribute of ,demeter4
    7,m#dh7 ,how deeply implanted in the
 mind of the ancient ,greeks was this   
faith in ,demeter as goddess of the corn
 may be judged by the circumstance  that
 the faith actually persisted among     
their ,christian descendants at her  old
 sanctuary of ,eleusis down to the      
beginning of the nineteenth century4    
,for when the ,english traveller        
,dodwell revisited ,eleusis1 the        
inhabitants  lamented to him the loss of
 a colossal image of ,demeter1 which was
 carried  off by ,clarke in #ahjb and   
presented to the ,university of         
,cambridge1 where  it still remains4    
8,in my first journey to ,greece10 says 
,dodwell1 8this  protecting deity was in
 its full glory1 situated in the centre 
of a  threshing-floor1 amongst the ruins
 of her temple4 ,the villagers were     

impressed with a persuasion that their  
rich harvests were the effect of  her   
bounty1 and since her removal1 their    
abundance1 as they assured me1  has     
disappeared407#bbi7 ,thus we see the    
,corn ,goddess ,demeter standing on  the
 threshing-floor of ,eleusis and        
dispensing corn to her worshippers in   
the nineteenth century of the ,christian
 era1 precisely as her image stood  and 
dispensed corn to her worshippers on the
 threshing-floor of ,cos in the  days of
 ,theocritus4 ,and just as the people of
 ,eleusis last century  attributed the  
diminution of their harvests to the loss
 of the image of  ,demeter1 so in       
antiquity the ,sicilians1 a corn-growing
 people devoted to  the worship of the  
two ,corn ,goddesses1 lamented that the 
crops of many  towns had perished       
because the unscrupulous ,roman governor
 ,verres had  impiously carried off the 
image of ,demeter from her famous temple
 at  ,henna47#bcj7 ,could we ask for a  
clearer proof that ,demeter was indeed  

the  goddess of the corn than this      
belief1 held by the ,greeks down to     
modern  times1 that the corn-crops      
depended on her presence and bounty and 
perished when her image was removed8    
7,m#di7 ,in a former part of this work  
,i followed an eminent ,french scholar  
in concluding1 from various indications1
 that part of the religious drama       
performed in the mysteries of ,eleusis  
may have been a marriage between the    
sky-god ,zeus and the corn-goddess      
,demeter1 represented by the hierophant 
and the priestess of the goddess        
respectively47#bca7 ,the conclusion is  
arrived at by combining a number of     
passages1 all more or less vague and    
indefinite1 of late ,christian writers2 
hence it must remain to some extent     
uncertain and cannot at the best lay    
claim to more than a fair degree of     
probability4 ,it may be1 as ,professor  
,w4 ,ridgeway holds1 that this dramatic 
marriage of the god and goddess was an  
innovation foisted into the  ,eleusinian

 ,mysteries in that great welter of     
religions which followed the  meeting of
 the ,east and the ,west in the later   
ages of antiquity47#bcb7 ,if a  marriage
 of ,zeus and ,demeter did indeed form  
an important feature of the  ,mysteries 
in the fifth century before our era1 it 
is certainly remarkable1  as ,professor 
,ridgeway has justly pointed out1 that  
no mention of ,zeus  occurs in the      
public decree of that century which     
regulates the offerings  of first-fruits
 and the sacrifices to be made to the   
gods and goddesses of  ,eleusis47#bcc7  
,at the same time we must bear in mind  
that1 if the evidence  for the ritual   
marriage of ,zeus and ,demeter is late  
and doubtful1 the  evidence for the myth
 is ancient and indubitable4 ,the story 
was known to  ,homer1 for in the list of
 beauties to whom he makes ,zeus1 in a  
burst of  candour1 confess that he had  
lost his too susceptible heart1 there   
occurs  the name of 8the fair-haired    
,queen ,demeter027#bcd7 and in another  

passage  the poet represents the jealous
 god smiting with a thunderbolt the     
favoured lover with whom the goddess had
 forgotten her dignity among the        
furrows of a fallow field47#bce7        
,moreover1 according to one tradition1  
,dionysus himself was the offspring of  
the intrigue between ,zeus and          
,demeter47#bcf7 ,thus there is no       
intrinsic improbability in the view that
  one or other of these unedifying      
incidents in the backstairs chronicle of
  ,olympus should have formed part of   
the sacred peep-show in the ,eleusinian 
,mysteries4 ,but it seems just possible 
that the marriage to which the          
,christian writers allude with malicious
 joy may after all have been of a  more 
regular and orthodox pattern4 ,we are   
positively told that the rape of        
,persephone was acted at the            
,mysteries27#bcg7 may that scene not    
have been  followed by another          
representing the solemnisation of her   
nuptials with  her ravisher and husband 

,pluto8 ,it is to be remembered that    
,pluto was  sometimes known as a god of 
fertility under the title of            
,subterranean  ,zeus4 ,it was to him    
under that title as well as to ,demeter1
 that the ,greek  ploughman prayed at   
the beginning of the ploughing27#bch7   
and the people of  ,myconus used to     
sacrifice to ,subterranean ,zeus and    
,subterranean ,earth for  the prosperity
 of the crops on the twelfth day of the 
month ,lenaeon47#bci7  ,thus it may be  
that the ,zeus whose marriage was       
dramatically represented  at the        
,mysteries was not the sky-god ,zeus1   
but his brother ,zeus of the            
,underworld1 and that the writers who   
refer to the ceremony have confused  the
 two brothers4 ,this view1 if it could  
be established1 would dispose of  the   
difficulty raised by the absence of the 
name of ,zeus in the decree  which      
prescribes the offerings to be made to  
the gods of ,eleusis2 for  although in  
that decree ,pluto is not mentioned     

under the name of  ,subterranean ,zeus1 
he is clearly referred to1 as the       
editors of the  inscription have seen1  
under the vague title of 8the ,god10    
while his  consort ,persephone is       
similarly referred to under the title of
 8the  ,goddess10 and it is ordained    
that perfect victims shall be sacrificed
 to  both of them4 ,however1 if we thus 
dispose of one difficulty1 it must be   
confessed that in doing so we raise     
another4 ,for if the bridegroom in the  
,sacred ,marriage at ,eleusis was not   
the sky-god ,zeus1 but the earth-god    
,pluto1 we seem driven to suppose that1 
contrary to the opinion of the  reverend
 ,christian scandal-mongers1 the bride  
was his lawful wife  ,persephone and not
 his sister and mother-in-law ,demeter4 
,in short1 on the  hypothesis which ,i  
have suggested we are compelled to      
conclude that the  ancient busybodies   
who lifted the veil from the mystic     
marriage were  mistaken as to the person
 both of the divine bridegroom and of   

the divine  bride4 ,in regard to the    
bridegroom ,i have conjectured that they
 may have  confused the two brothers1   
,zeus of the ,upper ,world and ,zeus of 
the ,lower  ,world4 ,in regard to the   
bride1 can any reason be suggested for  
confounding  the persons of the mother  
and daughter8 ,on the view here taken of
 the  nature of ,demeter and ,persephone
 nothing could be easier than to confuse
  them with each other1 for both of them
 were mythical embodiments of the  corn1
 the mother ,demeter standing for the   
old corn of last year and the  daughter 
,persephone standing for the new corn of
 this year4 ,in point of  fact ,greek   
artists1 both of the archaic and of     
later periods1 frequently  represent the
 ,mother and ,daughter side by side in  
forms which resemble  each other so     
closely that eminent modern experts have
 sometimes differed  from each other on 
the question1 which is ,demeter and     
which is ,persephone2  indeed in some   
cases it might be quite impossible to   

distinguish the two  if it were not for 
the inscriptions attached to the        
figures47#bdj7 ,the  ancient sculptors1 
vase-painters1 and engravers must have  
had some good  reason for portraying the
 two goddesses in types which are almost
  indistinguishable from each other2 and
 what better reason could they have  had
 than the knowledge that the two persons
 of the godhead were one in  substance1 
that they stood merely for two different
 aspects of the same  simple natural    
phenomenon1 the growth of the corn8     
,thus it is easy to  understand why     
,demeter and ,persephone may have been  
confused in ritual as  well as in art1  
why in particular the part of the divine
 bride in a ,sacred  ,marriage may      
sometimes have been assigned to the     
,mother and sometimes to  the ,daughter4
 ,but all this1 ,i fully admit1 is a    
mere speculation1 and ,i  only put it   
forward as such4 ,we possess far too    
little information as to a  ,sacred     
,marriage in the ,eleusinian ,mysteries 

to be justified in speaking  with       
confidence on so obscure a subject4     
7,m#ej7 ,one thing1 however1 which we   
may say with a fair degree of           
probability is that1 if such a marriage 
did take place at ,eleusis1 no date  in 
the agricultural year could well have   
been more appropriate for it than  the  
date at which the ,mysteries actually   
fell1 namely about the middle of        
,september4 ,the long ,greek summer is  
practically rainless and in the  fervent
 heat and unbroken drought all nature   
languishes4 ,the river-beds  are dry1   
the fields parched4 ,the farmer awaits  
impatiently the setting-in  of the      
autumnal rains1 which begin in ,october 
and mark the great season  for ploughing
 and sowing4 ,what time could be fitter 
for celebrating the  union of the ,corn 
,goddess with her husband the ,earth    
,god or perhaps rather  with her        
paramour the ,sky ,god1 who will soon   
descend in fertilising  showers to      
quicken the seed in the furrows8 ,such  

embraces of the divine  powers or their 
human representatives might well be     
deemed1 on the  principles of           
homoeopathic or imitative magic1        
indispensable to the growth  of the     
crops4 ,at least similar ideas have been
 entertained and similar  customs have  
been practised by many peoples27#bda7   
and in the legend of  ,demeter's        
love-adventure among the furrows of the 
thrice-ploughed  fallow7#bdb7 we seem to
 catch a glimpse of rude rites of the   
same sort  performed in the fields at   
sowing-time by ,greek ploughmen for the 
sake of  ensuring the growth of the seed
 which they were about to commit to the 
bosom of the naked earth4 ,in this      
connexion a statement of ancient writers
  as to the rites of ,eleusis receives  
fresh significance4 ,we are told that   
at these rites the worshippers looked up
 to the sky and cried 8,rain60 and  then
 looked down at the earth and cried     
8,conceive607#bdc7 ,nothing could be    
more appropriate at a marriage of the   

,sky ,god and the ,earth or ,corn       
,goddess than such invocations to the   
heaven to pour down rain and to the     
earth or the corn to conceive seed under
 the fertilising shower2 in ,greece  no 
time could well be more suitable for the
 utterance of such prayers than  just at
 the date when the ,great ,mysteries of 
,eleusis were celebrated1 at  the end of
 the long drought of summer and before  
the first rains of  autumn4    7,m#ea7  
,different both from the ,great         
,mysteries and the offerings of         
first-fruits at ,eleusis were the games 
which were celebrated there on a  great 
scale once in every four years and on a 
less scale once in every two            
years47#bdd7 ,that the games were       
distinct from the ,mysteries is proved  
by  their periods1 which were           
quadriennial and biennial respectively1 
whereas  the ,mysteries were celebrated 
annually4 ,moreover1 in ,greek          
epigraphy1 our  most authentic evidence 
in such matters1 the games and the      

,mysteries are  clearly distinguished   
from each other by being mentioned      
separately in the  same                 
inscription47#bde7 ,but like the        
,mysteries the games seem to have been  
very ancient2 for the ,parian           
,chronicler1 who wrote in the year #bfd 
,b4,c41  assigns the foundation of the  
,eleusinian games to the reign of       
,pandion1  the son of ,cecrops4         
,however1 he represents them as of later
 origin than  the ,eleusinian           
,mysteries1 which according to him were 
instituted by  ,eumolpus in the reign of
 ,erechtheus1 after ,demeter had planted
 corn in  ,attica and ,triptolemus had  
sown seed in the ,rarian plain at       
,eleusis47#bdf7  ,this testimony to the 
superior antiquity of the ,mysteries is 
in harmony  with our most ancient       
authority on the rites of ,eleusis1 the 
author of the  ,hymn to ,demeter1 who   
describes the origin of the ,eleusinian 
,mysteries1  but makes no reference or  
allusion to the ,eleusinian ,games4     

,however1 the  great age of the games is
 again vouched for at a much later date 
by the  rhetorician ,aristides1 who even
 declares that they were the oldest of  
all  ,greek games47#bdg7 ,with regard to
 the nature and meaning of the games our
  information is extremely scanty1 but  
an old scholiast on ,pindar tells us    
that they were celebrated in honour of  
,demeter and ,persephone as a           
thank-offering at the conclusion of the 
corn-harvest47#bdh7 ,his testimony  is  
confirmed by that of the rhetorician    
,aristides1 who mentions the            
institution of the ,eleusinian games in 
immediate connexion with the  offerings 
of the first-fruits of the corn1 which  
many ,greek states sent to              
,athens27#bdi7 and from an inscription  
dated about the close of the third      
century before our era we learn that at 
the ,great ,eleusinian ,games           
sacrifices were offered to ,demeter and 
,persephone47#bej7 ,further1 we gather  
from an official ,athenian inscription  

of #cbi ,b4,c4 that both the ,great and 
the ,lesser ,games included athletic and
 musical contests1 a horse-race1 and  a 
competition which bore the name of the  
,ancestral or ,hereditary ,contest1  and
 which accordingly may well have formed 
the original kernel of the  games47#bea7
 ,unfortunately nothing is known about  
this ,ancestral ,contest4  ,we might be 
tempted to identify it with the         
,ancestral ,contest included in  the    
,eleusinian ,festival of the            
,threshing-floor17#beb7 which was       
probably  held on the ,sacred           
,threshing-floor of ,triptolemus at     
,eleusis47#bec7 ,if the  identification 
could be proved1 we should have another 
confirmation of the  tradition which    
connects the games with ,demeter and the
 corn2 for  according to the prevalent  
tradition it was to ,triptolemus that   
,demeter  first revealed the secret of  
the corn1 and it was he whom she sent   
out as  an itinerant missionary to      
impart the beneficent discovery of the  

cereals  to all mankind and to teach    
them to sow the seed47#bed7 ,on         
monuments of  art1 especially in        
vase-paintings1 he is constantly        
represented along with  ,demeter in this
 capacity1 holding corn-stalks in his   
hand and sitting in  his car1 which is  
sometimes winged and sometimes drawn by 
dragons1 and  from which he is said to  
have sowed the seed down on the whole   
world as he  sped through the air47#bee7
 ,at ,eleusis victims bought with the   
first-fruits  of the wheat and barley   
were sacrificed to him as well as to    
,demeter and  ,persephone47#bef7 ,in    
short1 if we may judge from the combined
 testimony of  ,greek literature and    
art1 ,triptolemus was the corn-hero     
first and  foremost4 ,even beyond the   
limits of the ,greek world1 all men1 we 
are told1  founded sanctuaries and      
erected altars in his honour because he 
had  bestowed on them the gift of the   
corn47#beg7 ,his very name has been     
plausibly explained both in ancient and 

modern times as 8,thrice-ploughed0  with
 reference to the ,greek custom of      
ploughing the land thrice a  year17#beh7
 and the derivation is said to be on    
philological principles  free from      
objection47#bei7 ,in fact it would seem 
as if ,triptolemus1 like  ,demeter and  
,persephone themselves1 were a purely   
mythical being1 an  embodiment of the   
conception of the first sower4 ,at all  
events in the  local ,eleusinian legend1
 according to an eminent scholar1 who   
has paid  special attention to ,attic   
genealogy1 8,triptolemus does not1 like 
his  comrade ,eumolpus or other founders
 of ,eleusinian priestly families1      
continue his kind1 but without leaving  
offspring who might perpetuate his      
priestly office1 he is removed from the 
scene of his beneficent activity4  ,as  
he appeared1 so he vanishes again from  
the legend1 after he has  fulfilled his 
divine mission407#bfj7    7,m#eb7       
,however1 there is no sufficient ground 
for identifying the ,ancestral  ,contest

 of the ,eleusinian games with the      
,ancestral ,contest of the              
,threshing-festival at ,eleusis1 and    
accordingly the connexion of the games  
with the corn-harvest and with the      
corn-hero ,triptolemus must so far      
remain uncertain4 ,but a clear trace of 
such a connexion may be seen in the     
custom of rewarding the victors in the  
,eleusinian games with measures of      
barley2 in the official ,athenian       
inscription of #cbi ,b4,c41 which       
contains  the accounts of the           
superintendents of ,eleusis and the     
,treasurers of the  ,two ,goddesses1 the
 amounts of corn handed over by these   
officers to the  priests and priestesses
 for the purposes of the games is       
exactly  specified47#bfa7 ,this of      
itself is sufficient to prove that the  
,eleusinian  games were closely         
connected with the worship of ,demeter  
and ,persephone4  ,the grain thus       
distributed in prizes was probably      
reaped on the ,rarian  plain near       

,eleusis1 where according to the legend 
,triptolemus sowed the  first           
corn47#bfb7 ,certainly we know that the 
barley grown on that plain was  used in 
sacrifices and for the baking of the    
sacrificial cakes17#bfc7 from  which we 
may reasonably infer that the prizes of 
barley1 to which no doubt  a certain    
sanctity attached in the popular mind1  
were brought from the  same holy fields4
 ,so sacred was the ,rarian plain that  
no dead body was  allowed to defile it4 
,when such a pollution accidentally took
 place1 it  was expiated by the         
sacrifice of a pig17#bfd7 the usual     
victim employed in  ,greek purificatory 
rites4    7,m#ec7 ,thus1 so far as the  
scanty evidence at our disposal permits 
us to  judge1 the ,eleusinian games1    
like the ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 would  
seem to  have been primarily concerned  
with ,demeter and ,persephone as        
goddesses of  the corn4 ,at least that  
is expressly affirmed by the old        
scholiast on  ,pindar and it is borne   

out by the practice of rewarding the    
victors with  measures of barley4       
,perhaps the ,ancestral ,contest1 which 
may well have  formed the original      
nucleus of the games1 was a contest     
between the  reapers on the sacred      
,rarian plain to see who should finish  
his allotted  task before his fellows4  
,for success in such a contest no prize 
could be  more appropriate than a       
measure of the sacred barley which the  
victorious  reaper had just cut on the  
barley-field4 ,in the sequel we shall   
see that  similar contests between      
reapers have been common on the harvest 
fields of  modern ,europe1 and it will  
appear that such competitions are not   
purely  athletic2 their aim is not      
simply to demonstrate the superior      
strength1  activity1 and skill of the   
victors2 it is to secure for the        
particular  farm the possession of the  
blooming young ,corn-maiden of the      
present year1  conceived as the         
embodiment of the vigorous grain1 and to

 pass on to  laggard neighbours the aged
 ,corn-mother of the past year1         
conceived as an  embodiment of the      
effete and outworn energies of the      
corn47#bfe7 ,may it not  have been so at
 ,eleusis8 may not the reapers have vied
 with each other for  possession of the 
young corn-spirit ,persephone and for   
avoidance of the  old corn-spirit       
,demeter8 may not the prize of barley1  
which rewarded the  victor in the       
,ancestral ,contest1 have been supposed 
to house in the ripe  ears no less a    
personage than the ,corn-maiden         
,persephone herself8 ,and if  there is  
any truth in these conjectures 7for     
conjectures they are and  nothing more71
 we may hazard a guess as to the other  
,ancestral ,contest  which took place at
 the ,eleusinian ,festival of the       
,threshing-floor4  ,perhaps it in like  
manner was originally a competition     
between threshers  on the sacred        
threshing-floor of ,triptolemus to      
determine who should  finish threshing  

his allotted quantity of corn before the
 rest4 ,such  competitions have also    
been common1 as we shall see presently1 
on the  threshing-floors of modern      
,europe1 and their motive again has not 
been  simple emulation between sturdy   
swains for the reward of strength and   
dexterity2 it has been a dread of being 
burdened with the aged and outworn      
spirit of the corn conceived as present 
in the bundle of corn-stalks which      
receives the last stroke at             
threshing47#bff7 ,we know that effigies 
of  ,demeter with corn and poppies in   
her hands stood on ,greek               
threshing-floors47#bfg7 ,perhaps at the 
conclusion of the threshing these       
effigies1 as representatives of the old 
,corn-spirit1 were passed on to         
neighbours who had not yet finished     
threshing the corn4 ,at least the       
supposition is in harmony with modern   
customs observed on the                 
threshing-floor4    7,m#ed7 ,it is      
possible that the ,eleusinian games were

 no more than a popular  merrymaking    
celebrated at the close of the harvest4 
,this view of their  character might be 
supported by modern analogies2 for in   
some parts of  ,germany it has been     
customary for the harvesters1 when their
 work is done1  to engage in athletic   
competitions of various kinds1 which    
have at first  sight no very obvious    
connexion with the business of          
harvesting4 ,for  example1 at ,besbau   
near ,luckau great cakes were baked at  
the  harvest-festival1 and the          
labourers1 both men and women1 ran races
 for  them4 ,he or she who reached them 
first received not only a cake1 but a   
handkerchief or the like as a prize4    
,again1 at ,bergkirchen1 when the       
harvest was over1 a garland was hung up 
and the harvesters rode at it on        
horseback and tried to bring it down    
with a stab or a blow as they  galloped 
past4 ,he who succeeded in bringing it  
down was proclaimed ,king4  ,again1 in  
the villages near ,frstenwald at harvest

 the young men used to  fetch a fir-tree
 from the wood1 peel the trunk1 and set 
it up like a mast  in the middle of the 
village4 ,a handkerchief and other      
prizes were  fastened to the top of the 
pole and the men clambered up for       
them47#bfh7  ,among the peasantry of    
,silesia1 we are told1 the harvest-home 
broadened  out into a popular festival1 
in which athletic sports figured        
prominently4  ,thus1 for example1 at    
,jrischau1 in the ,strehlitz district1 a
 scythe1 a  rake1 a flail1 and a        
hay-fork or pitchfork were fastened to  
the top of a  smooth pole and awarded as
 prizes1 in order of merit1 to the men  
who  displayed most agility in climbing 
the pole4 ,younger men amused themselves
  with running in sacks1 high jumps1 and
 so forth4 ,at ,prauss1 near ,nimptsch1 
the girls ran a race in a field for     
aprons as prizes4 ,in the central parts 
of ,silesia a favourite amusement at    
harvest was a race between girls for a  
garland of leaves or flowers47#bfi7 ,yet

 it seems probable that all such  sports
 at harvest were in origin not mere     
pastimes1 but that they were  serious   
attempts to secure in one way or another
 the help and blessing of  the          
corn-spirit4 ,thus in some parts of     
,prussia1 at the close of the           
rye-harvest1 a few sheaves used to be   
left standing in the field after all    
the rest of the rye had been carted     
home4 ,these sheaves were then made up  
into the shape of a man and dressed out 
in masculine costume1 and all the  young
 women were obliged to run a race1 of   
which the corn-man was the  goal4 ,she  
who won the race led off the dancing in 
the evening47#bgj7 ,here  the aim of the
 foot-race among the young women is     
clearly to secure the  corn-spirit      
embodied in the last sheaf left standing
 on the field2 for1 as  we shall see    
later on1 the last sheaf is commonly    
supposed to harbour the  corn-spirit and
 is treated accordingly like a man or a 
woman47#bga7    7,m#ee7 ,if the         

,ancestral ,contest at the ,eleusinian  
games was1 as ,i have  conjectured1 a   
contest between the reapers on the      
sacred barley-field1 we  should have to 
suppose that the games were celebrated  
at barley-harvest1  which in the        
lowlands of ,greece falls in ,may or    
even at the end of ,april4  ,this theory
 is in harmony with the evidence of the 
scholiast on ,pindar1  who tells us that
 the ,eleusinian games were celebrated  
after the  corn-harvest47#bgb7 ,no other
 ancient authority1 so far as ,i am     
aware1  mentions at what time of the    
year these games were held4 ,modern     
authorities1 arguing from certain slight
 and to some extent conjectural  data1  
have variously assigned them to         
,metageitnion 7,august7 and to          
,boedromion 7,september71 and those who 
assign them to ,boedromion  7,september7
 are divided in opinion as to whether   
they preceded or followed  the          
,mysteries47#bgc7 ,however1 the evidence
 is far too slender and uncertain  to   

allow of any conclusions being based on 
it4    7,m#ef7 ,but there is a serious  
difficulty in the way of connecting the 
,eleusinian games with the goddesses of 
the corn4 ,how is the quadriennial  or  
the biennial period of the games to be  
reconciled with the annual  growth of   
the crops8 ,year by year the barley and 
the wheat are sown and  reaped2 how then
 could the games1 held only every fourth
 or every second  year1 have been       
regarded as thank-offerings for the     
annual harvest8 ,on  this view of their 
nature1 which is the one taken by the   
old scholiast on  ,pindar1 though the   
harvest was received at the hands of the
 ,corn ,goddess  punctually every year1 
men thanked her for her bounty only     
every second  year or even only every   
fourth year4 ,what were her feelings    
likely to be  in the blank years when   
she got no thanks and no games8 ,she    
might  naturally resent such negligence 
and ingratitude and punish them by      
forbidding the seed to sprout1 just as  

she did at ,eleusis when she mourned    
the loss of her daughter4 ,in short1 men
 could hardly expect to reap crops  in  
years in which they offered nothing to  
the ,corn ,goddess4 ,that would  indeed 
appear to be the view generally taken by
 the ancient ,greeks2 for we  have seen 
that year by year they presented the    
first-fruits of the barley  and the     
wheat to ,demeter1 not merely in the    
solemn state ritual of  ,eleusis1 but   
also in rustic festivals held by farmers
 on their  threshing-floors4 ,the pious 
,greek husbandman would no doubt have   
been  shocked and horrified at a        
proposal to pay the ,corn ,goddess her  
dues only  every second or fourth year4 
8,no offerings1 no crops10 he would say 
to  himself1 and would anticipate       
nothing but dearth and famine in any    
year  when he failed to satisfy the just
 and lawful demands of the divinity on  
whose good pleasure he believed the     
growth of the corn to be directly       
dependent4 ,accordingly we may regard it

 as highly probable that from the  very 
beginning of settled and regular        
agriculture in ,greece men annually     
propitiated the deities of the corn with
 a ritual of some sort1 and  rendered   
them their dues in the shape of         
offerings of the ripe barley and  wheat4
 ,now we know that the ,mysteries of    
,eleusis were celebrated every  year1   
and accordingly1 if ,i am right in      
interpreting them as essentially a      
dramatic representation of the annual   
vicissitudes of the corn performed  for 
the purpose of quickening the seed1 it  
becomes probable that in some  form or  
another they were annually held at      
,eleusis long before the  practice arose
 of celebrating games there every fourth
 or every second  year4 ,in short1 the  
,eleusinian mysteries were in all       
probability far older  than the         
,eleusinian games4 ,how old they were we
 cannot even guess4 ,but  when we       
consider that the cultivation of barley 
and wheat1 the two cereals  specially   

associated with ,demeter1 appears to    
have been practised in  prehistoric     
,europe from the ,stone ,age            
onwards17#bgd7 we shall be disposed  to 
admit that the annual performance of    
religious or magical rites at  ,eleusis 
for the purpose of ensuring good crops1 
whether by propitiating  the ,corn      
,goddess with offerings of first-fruits 
or by dramatically  representing the    
sowing and the growth of the corn in    
mythical form1  probably dates from an  
extremely remote antiquity4    7,m#eg7  
,but in order to clear our ideas on this
 subject it is desirable to  ascertain1 
if possible1 the reason for holding the 
,eleusinian games at  intervals of two  
or four years4 ,the reason for holding a
 harvest festival  and thanksgiving     
every year is obvious enough2 but why   
hold games only  every second or every  
fourth year8 ,the reason for such       
limitations is by  no means obvious on  
the face of them1 especially if the     
growth of the  crops is deemed dependent

 on the celebration4 ,in order to find  
an answer  to this question it may be   
well at the outset to confine our       
attention to  the ,great ,eleusinian    
,games1 which were celebrated only every
 fourth year4  ,that these were the     
principal games appears not only from   
their name1 but  from the testimony of  
,aristotle1 or at least of the author of
 ,the  ,constitution of ,athens1 who    
notices only the quadriennial or1 as in 
accordance with ,greek idiom he calls   
it1 the penteteric celebration of the   
games47#bge7 ,now the custom of holding 
games at intervals of four years was    
very common in ,greece2 to take only a  
few conspicuous examples the ,olympic   
games at ,olympia1 the ,pythian games at
 ,delphi1 the ,panathenaic games at     
,athens1 and the ,eleutherian games at  
,plataea7#bgf7 were all celebrated at   
quadriennial or1 as the ,greeks called  
them1 penteteric periods2 and at a      
later time when ,augustus instituted1 or
 rather renewed on a more splendid      

scale1 the games at ,actium to          
commemorate his great victory1 he       
followed a  well-established ,greek     
precedent by ordaining that they should 
be  quadriennial47#bgg7 ,still later the
 emperor ,hadrian instituted            
quadriennial  games at ,mantinea in     
honour of his dead favourite            
,antinous47#bgh7 ,but in  regard to the 
two greatest of all the ,greek games1   
the ,olympian and the  ,pythian1 ,i have
 shewn reasons for thinking that they   
were originally  celebrated at intervals
 of eight instead of four years2        
certainly this is  attested for the     
,pythian games17#bgi7 and the mode of   
calculating the  ,olympiads by alternate
 periods of fifty and forty-nine lunar  
months17#bhj7  which added together make
 up eight solar years1 seems to prove   
that the  ,olympic cycle of four years  
was really based on a cycle of eight    
years1  from which it is natural to     
infer that in the beginning the         
,olympic1 like  the ,pythian1 games may 

have been octennial instead of          
quadriennial47#bha7  ,now we know from  
the testimony of the ancients themselves
 that the ,greeks  instituted the       
eight-years' cycle for the purpose of   
harmonising solar and  lunar time47#bhb7
 ,they regulated their calendar         
primarily by observation of  the moon   
rather than of the sun2 their months    
were lunar1 and their  ordinary year    
consisted of twelve lunar months4 ,but  
the solar year of  three hundred and    
sixty-five and a quarter days exceeds   
the lunar year of  twelve lunar months  
or three hundred and fifty-four days by 
eleven and a  quarter days1 so that in  
eight solar years the excess amounts to 
ninety  days or roughly three lunar     
months4 ,accordingly the ,greeks equated
 eight  solar years to eight lunar years
 of twelve months each by intercalating 
three lunar months of thirty days each  
in the octennial cycle2 they            
intercalated one lunar month in the     
third year of the cycle1 a second  lunar

 month in the fifth year1 and a third   
lunar month in the eighth  year47#bhc7  
,in this way they1 so to say1 made the  
sun and moon keep time  together by     
reckoning ninety-nine lunar months as   
equivalent to eight  solar years2 so    
that if1 for example1 the full moon     
coincided with the  summer solstice in  
one year1 it coincided with it again    
after the  revolution of the eight      
years' cycle1 but not before4 ,the      
equation was  indeed not quite exact1   
and in order to render it so the ,greeks
 afterwards  found themselves obliged1  
first1 to intercalate three days every  
sixteen  years1 and1 next1 to omit one  
intercalary month in every period of one
  hundred and sixty years47#bhd7 ,but   
these corrections were doubtless        
refinements of a later age2 they may    
have been due to the astronomer         
,eudoxus of ,cnidus1 or to ,cleostratus 
of ,tenedos1 who were variously1 but    
incorrectly1 supposed to have instituted
 the octennial cycle47#bhe7 ,there  are 

strong grounds for holding that in its  
simplest form the octennial  cycle of   
ninety-nine lunar months dates from an  
extremely remote antiquity  in ,greece2 
that it was in fact1 as a well-informed 
,greek writer tell  us17#bhf7 the first 
systematic attempt to bring solar and   
the lunar time  into harmony4 ,indeed1  
if the ,olympiads were calculated1 as   
they appear to  have been1 on the eight 
years' cycle1 this of itself suffices to
 place the  origin of the cycle not     
later than #ggf ,b4,c41 the year with   
which the  reckoning by ,olympiads      
begins4 ,and when we bear in mind the   
very remote  period from which1 judged  
by the wonderful remains of ,mycenae1   
,tiryns1  ,cnossus and other cities1    
civilisation in ,greek lands appears to 
date1 it  seems reasonable to suppose   
that the octennial cycle1 based as it   
was on  very simple observations1 for   
which nothing but good eyes and almost  
no  astronomical knowledge was          
necessary17#bhg7 may have been handed   

down among  the inhabitants of these    
countries from ages that preceded by    
many  centuries1 possibly by thousands  
of years1 the great period of ,greek    
literature and art4 ,the supposition is 
confirmed by the traces which the       
octennial cycle has left of itself in   
certain ancient ,greek customs and      
superstitions1 particularly by the      
evidence which points to the conclusion 
that at two of the oldest seats of      
monarchy in ,greece1 namely ,cnossus and
  ,sparta1 the king's tenure of office  
was formerly limited to eight           
years47#bhh7    7,m#eh7 ,we are         
informed1 and may readily believe1 that 
the motive which led  the ,greeks to    
adopt the eight years' cycle was        
religious rather than  practical or     
scientific3 their aim was not so much to
 ensure the punctual  despatch of       
business or to solve an abstract problem
 in astronomy1 as to  ascertain the     
exact days on which they ought to       
sacrifice to the gods4 ,for  the ,greeks

 regularly employed lunar months in     
their reckonings17#bhi7 and  accordingly
 if they had dated their religious      
festivals simply by the  number of the  
month and the day of the month1 the     
excess of eleven and a  quarter days of 
the solar over the lunar year would have
 had the effect of  causing the         
festivals gradually to revolve          
throughout the whole circle of  the     
seasons1 so that in time ceremonies     
which properly belonged to winter  would
 come to be held in summer1 and on the  
contrary ceremonies which were  only    
appropriate to summer would come to be  
held in winter4 ,to avoid this  anomaly1
 and to ensure that festivals dated by  
lunar months should fall at  fixed or   
nearly fixed points in the solar year1  
the ,greeks adopted the  octennial cycle
 by the simple expedient of             
intercalating three lunar  months in    
every period of eight years4 ,in doing  
so they acted1 as one of  their writers 
justly pointed out1 on a principle      

precisely the reverse of  that followed 
by the ancient ,egyptians1 who          
deliberately regulated their  religious 
festivals by a purely lunar calendar for
 the purpose of allowing  them gradually
 to revolve throughout the whole circle 
of the seasons47#bij7    7,m#ei7 ,thus  
at an early stage of culture the        
regulation of the calendar is  largely  
an affair of religion3 it is a means of 
maintaining the  established relations  
between gods and men on a satisfactory  
footing2 and  in public opinion the     
great evil of a disordered calendar is  
not so much  that it disturbs and       
disarranges the ordinary course of      
business and the  various transactions  
of civil life1 as that it endangers the 
welfare or  even the existence both of  
individuals and of the community by     
interrupting their normal intercourse   
with those divine powers on whose       
favour men believe themselves to be     
absolutely dependent4 ,hence in states  
which take this view of the deep        

religious import of the calendar its    
superintendence is naturally entrusted  
to priests rather than to  astronomers1 
because the science of astronomy is     
regarded merely as  ancillary to the    
deeper mysteries of theology4 ,for      
example1 at ,rome the  method of        
determining the months and regulating   
the festivals was a secret  which the   
pontiffs for ages jealously guarded from
 the profane vulgar2 and  in consequence
 of their ignorance and incapacity the  
calendar fell into  confusion and the   
festivals were celebrated out of their  
natural seasons1  until the greatest of 
all the ,roman pontiffs1 ,julius        
,caesar1 remedied the  confusion and    
placed the calendar of the civilised    
world on the firm  foundation on which1 
with little change1 it stands to this   
day47#bia7    7,m#fj7 ,on the whole1    
then1 it appears probable that the      
octennial cycle1  based on              
considerations of religion and on       
elementary observations of the  two     

great luminaries1 dated from a very     
remote period among the ancient         
,greeks2 if they did not bring it with  
them when they migrated southwards  from
 the oakwoods and beechwoods of ,central
 ,europe1 they may well have  taken it  
over from their civilised predecessors  
of different blood and  different       
language whom they found leading a      
settled agricultural life on  the lands 
about the ,aegean ,sea4 ,now we have    
seen reasons to hold that the  two most 
famous of the great ,greek games1 the   
,pythian and the ,olympian1  were both  
based on the ancient cycle of eight     
years1 and that the  quadriennial period
 at which they were regularly celebrated
 in historical  times was arrived at by 
a subdivision of the older octennial    
cycle4 ,it is  hardly rash1 therefore1  
to conjecture that the quadriennial     
period in  general1 regarded as the     
normal period for the celebration of    
great games  and festivals1 was         
originally founded on elementary        

religious and  astronomical             
considerations of the same kind1 that   
is1 on a somewhat crude  attempt to     
harmonise the discrepancies of solar and
 lunar time and thereby  to ensure the  
continued favour of the gods4 ,it is1   
indeed1 certain or  probable that some  
of these quadriennial festivals were    
celebrated in  honour of the dead27#bib7
 but there seems to be nothing in the   
beliefs or  customs of the ancient      
,greeks concerning the dead which would 
suggest a  quadriennial period as an    
appropriate one for propitiating the    
ghosts of  the departed4 ,at first sight
 it is different with the octennial     
period2  for according to ,pindar1 the  
souls of the dead who had been purged of
  their guilt by an abode of eight years
 in the nether world were born again  on
 earth in the ninth year as glorious    
kings1 athletes1 and sages47#bic7  ,now 
if this belief in the reincarnation of  
the dead after eight years were         
primitive1 it might certainly furnish an

 excellent reason for honouring  the    
ghosts of great men at their graves     
every eight years in order to           
facilitate their rebirth into the world4
 ,yet the period of eight years  thus   
rigidly applied to the life of          
disembodied spirits appears too         
arbitrary and conventional to be really 
primitive1 and we may suspect that  in  
this application it was nothing but an  
inference drawn from the old  octennial 
cycle1 which had been instituted for the
 purpose of reconciling  solar and lunar
 time4 ,if that was so1 it will follow  
that the quadriennial  period of funeral
 games was1 like the similar period of  
other religious  festivals1 obtained    
through the bisection of the octennial  
cycle1 and  hence that it was ultimately
 derived from astronomical              
considerations  rather than from any    
beliefs touching a quadriennial         
revolution in the  state of the dead4   
,yet in historical times it may well    
have happened that  these considerations

 were forgotten1 and that games and     
festivals were  instituted at           
quadriennial intervals1 for example at  
,plataea7#bid7 in  honour of the slain1 
at ,actium to commemorate the great     
victory1 and at  ,mantinea in honour of 
,antinous17#bie7 without any conscious  
reference to  the sun and moon1 and     
merely because that period had from time
 immemorial  been regarded as the proper
 and normal one for the celebration of  
certain  solemn religious rites4        
7,m#fa7 ,if we enquire why the ,greeks  
so often bisected the old octennial     
period into two quadriennial periods for
 purposes of religion1 the answer  can  
only be conjectural1 for no positive    
information appears to be given  us on  
the subject by ancient writers4 ,perhaps
 they thought that eight  years was too 
long a time to elapse between the solemn
 services1 and that  it was desirable to
 propitiate the deities at shorter      
intervals4 ,but it is  possible that    
political as well as religious motives  

may have operated to  produce the       
change4 ,we have seen reason to think   
that at two of the oldest  seats of     
monarchy in ,greece1 namely ,cnossus and
 ,sparta1 kings formerly  held office   
for periods of eight years only1 after  
which their sovereignty  either         
terminated or had to be formally        
renewed4 ,now with the gradual  growth  
of that democratic sentiment1 which     
ultimately dominated ,greek  political  
life1 men would become more and more    
jealous of the kingly power  and would  
seek to restrict it within narrower     
limits1 and one of the most  obvious    
means of doing so was to shorten the    
king's tenure of office4 ,we  know that 
this was done at ,athens1 where the     
dynasty of the ,medontids was  reduced  
from the rank of monarchs for life to   
that of magistrates holding  office for 
ten years only47#bif7 ,it is possible   
that elsewhere the king's  reign was cut
 down from eight years to four years2   
and if ,i am right in my  explanation of

 the origin of the ,olympic games this  
political revolution  actually took     
place at ,olympia1 where the victors in 
the chariot-race  would seem at first to
 have personated the ,sun-god and       
perhaps held office  in the capacity of 
divine kings during the intervals       
between successive  celebrations of the 
games47#big7 ,if at ,olympia and        
elsewhere the games were  of old        
primarily contests in which the king had
 personally to take part  for the       
purpose of attesting his bodily vigour  
and therefore his capacity  for office1 
the repetition of the test at intervals 
of four instead of  eight years might be
 regarded as furnishing a better        
guarantee of the  maintenance of the    
king's efficiency and thereby of the    
general welfare1  which in primitive    
society is often supposed to be         
sympathetically bound  up with the      
health and strength of the king4        
7,m#fb7 ,but while many of the great    
,greek games were celebrated at         

intervals  of four years1 others1 such  
as the ,nemean and the ,isthmian1 were  
celebrated at intervals of two years    
only2 and just as the quadriennial      
period seems to have been arrived at    
through a bisection of the octennial    
period1 so we may surmise that the      
biennial period was produced by a       
bisection of the quadriennial period4   
,this was the view which the  admirable 
modern chronologer ,l4 ,ideler took of  
the origin of the  quadriennial and     
biennial festivals respectively17#bih7  
and it appears far  more probable than  
the contrary opinion of the ancient     
chronologer  ,censorinus1 that the      
quadriennial period was reached by      
doubling the  biennial1 and the         
octennial period by doubling the        
quadriennial47#bii7 ,the  theory of     
,censorinus was that the ,greeks started
 with a biennial cycle of  twelve and   
thirteen lunar months alternately in    
successive years for the  purpose of    
harmonising solar and lunar time47#cjj7 

,but as the cycle so  produced exceeds  
the true solar time by seven and a half 
days17#cja7 the  discrepancy which it   
leaves between the two great celestial  
clocks1 the  sun and moon1 was too      
glaring to escape the observation even  
of simple  farmers1 who would soon have 
been painfully sensible that the times  
were  out of joint1 if they had         
attempted to regulate the various       
operations of  the agricultural year by 
reference to so very inaccurate an      
almanac4 ,it is  unlikely1 therefore1   
that the ,greeks ever made much use of a
 biennial  cycle of this sort4          
7,m#fc7 ,now to apply these conclusions 
to the ,eleusinian games1 which         
furnished the starting-point for the    
preceding discussion4 ,whatever the     
origin and meaning of these games may   
have been1 we may surmise that the      
quadriennial and biennial periods at    
which they were held were originally    
derived from astronomical               
considerations1 and that they had       

nothing to do  directly either with the 
agricultural cycle1 which is annual1 nor
 with the  worship of the dead1 which   
can scarcely be said to have any cycle  
at all1  unless indeed it be an annual  
one4 ,in other words1 neither the needs 
of  husbandry nor the superstitions     
relating to ghosts furnish any natural  
explanation of the quadriennial and     
biennial periods of the ,eleusinian     
games1 and to discover such an          
explanation we are obliged to fall back 
on  astronomy or1 to be more exact1 on  
that blend of astronomy with religion   
which appears to be mainly responsible  
for such ,greek festivals as exceed  a  
year in their period4 ,to admit this is 
not to decide the question  whether the 
,eleusinian games were agricultural or  
funereal in character2  but it is       
implicitly to acknowledge that the games
 were of later origin  than the annual  
ceremonies1 including the ,great        
,mysteries1 which were  designed to     
propitiate the deities of the corn for  

the very simple and  practical purpose  
of ensuring good crops within the year4 
,for it cannot  but be that men observed
 and laid their account with the annual 
changes of  the seasons1 especially as  
manifested by the growth and maturity of
 the  crops1 long before they attempted 
to reconcile the discrepancies of solar 
and lunar time by a series of           
observations extending over several     
years4    7,m#fd7 ,on the whole1 then1  
if1 ignoring theories1 we adhere to the 
evidence  of the ancients themselves in 
regard to the rites of ,eleusis1        
including  under that general term the  
,great ,mysteries1 the games1 the       
,festival  before ,ploughing            
7proerosia71 the ,festival of the       
,threshing-floor1 the  ,green ,festival1
 the ,festival of the ,cornstalks1 and  
the offerings of  first-fruits1 we shall
 probably incline to agree with the most
 learned of  ancient antiquaries1 the   
,roman ,varro1 who1 to quote            
,augustine's report of  his opinion1    

8interpreted the whole of the           
,eleusinian mysteries as  relating to   
the corn which ,ceres 7,demeter7 had    
discovered1 and to  ,proserpine         
7,persephone71 whom ,pluto had carried  
off from her4 ,and  ,proserpine herself1
 he said1 signifies the fecundity of the
 seeds1 the  failure of which at a      
certain time had caused the earth to    
mourn for  barrenness1 and therefore had
 given rise to the opinion that the     
daughter  of ,ceres1 that is1 fecundity 
itself1 had been ravished by ,pluto and 
detained in the nether world2 and when  
the dearth had been publicly  mourned   
and fecundity had returned once more1   
there was gladness at the  return of    
,proserpine and solemn rites were       
instituted accordingly4 ,after  that he 
says10 continues ,augustine1 reporting  
,varro1 8that many things  were taught  
in her mysteries which had no reference 
but to the discovery  of the            
corn407#cjb7    7,m#fe7 ,thus far ,i    
have for the most part assumed an       

identity of nature  between ,demeter and
 ,persephone1 the divine mother and     
daughter  personifying the corn in its  
double aspect of the seed-corn of last  
year  and the ripe ears of this1 and ,i 
pointed out that this view of the       
substantial unity of mother and daughter
 is borne out by their portraits  in    
,greek art1 which are often so alike as 
to be indistinguishable4 ,such a  close 
resemblance between the artistic types  
of ,demeter and ,persephone  militates  
decidedly against the view that the two 
goddesses are mythical  embodiments of  
two things so different and so easily   
distinguishable from  each other as the 
earth and the vegetation which springs  
from it4 ,had  ,greek artists accepted  
that view of ,demeter and ,persephone1  
they could  surely have devised types of
 them which would have brought out the  
deep  distinction between the goddesses4
 ,that they were capable of doing so is 
proved by the simple fact that they     
regularly represented the ,earth        

,goddess by a type which differed widely
 both from that of ,demeter and from    
that of ,persephone47#cjc7 ,not only so1
 but they sometimes set the two types   
of the ,earth ,goddess and the ,corn    
,goddess 7,demeter7 side by side as if  
on  purpose to demonstrate their        
difference4 ,thus at ,patrae there was a
  sanctuary of ,demeter1 in which she   
and ,persephone were portrayed standing1
  while ,earth was represented by a     
seated image27#cjd7 and on a            
vase-painting  the ,earth ,goddess is   
seen appropriately emerging from the    
ground with a  horn of plenty and an    
infant in her uplifted arms1 while      
,demeter and  ,persephone1 scarcely     
distinguishable from each other1 stand  
at full height  behind her1 looking down
 at her half-buried figure1 and         
,triptolemus in his  wheeled car sits   
directly above her47#cje7 ,in this      
instructive picture1  accordingly1 we   
see grouped together the principal      
personages in the myth  of the corn3 the

 ,earth ,goddess1 the two ,goddesses of 
the old and the new  corn1 and the hero 
who is said to have been sent forth by  
the ,corn ,goddess  to sow the seed     
broadcast over the earth4 ,such         
representations seem to  prove that the 
artists clearly distinguished ,demeter  
from the ,earth  ,goddess47#cjf7 ,and if
 ,demeter did not personify the earth1  
can there be any  reasonable doubt that1
 like her daughter1 she personified the 
corn which  was so commonly called by   
her name from the time of ,homer        
downwards8 ,the  essential identity of  
mother and daughter is suggested1 not   
only by the  close resemblance of their 
artistic types1 but also by the official
 title  of 8the ,two ,goddesses0 which  
was regularly applied to them in the    
great  sanctuary at ,eleusis without any
 specification of their individual      
attributes and titles17#cjg7 as if their
 separate individualities had  almost   
merged in a single divine               
substance47#cjh7    7,m#ff7 ,surveying  

the evidence as a whole1 we may say that
 from the myth of  ,demeter and         
,persephone1 from their ritual1 from    
their representations in  art1 from the 
titles which they bore1 from the        
offerings of first-fruits  which were   
presented to them1 and from the names   
applied to the cereals1  we are fairly  
entitled to conclude that in the mind of
 the ordinary ,greek  the two goddesses 
were essentially personifications of the
 corn1 and that  in this germ the whole 
efflorescence of their religion finds   
implicitly  its explanation4 ,but to    
maintain this is not to deny that in the
 long  course of religious evolution    
high moral and spiritual conceptions    
were  grafted on this simple original   
stock and blossomed out into fairer     
flowers than the bloom of the barley and
 the wheat4 ,above all1 the thought  of 
the seed buried in the earth in order to
 spring up to new and higher  life      
readily suggested a comparison with     
human destiny1 and strengthened  the    

hope that for man too the grave may be  
but the beginning of a better  and      
happier existence in some brighter world
 unknown4 ,this simple and  natural     
reflection seems perfectly sufficient to
 explain the association  of the ,corn  
,goddess at ,eleusis with the mystery of
 death and the hope of a  blissful      
immortality4 ,for that the ancients     
regarded initiation in the  ,eleusinian 
mysteries as a key to unlock the gates  
of ,paradise appears to  be proved by   
the allusions which well-informed       
writers among them drop to  the         
happiness in store for the initiated    
hereafter47#cji7 ,no doubt it is  easy  
for us to discern the flimsiness of the 
logical foundation on which  such high  
hopes were built47#caj7 ,but drowning   
men clutch at straws1 and we  need not  
wonder that the ,greeks1 like ourselves1
 with death before them  and a great    
love of life in their hearts1 should not
 have stopped to weigh  with too nice a 
hand the arguments that told for and    

against the prospect  of human          
immortality4 ,the reasoning that        
satisfied ,saint ,paul7#caa7 and has    
brought comfort to untold thousands of  
sorrowing ,christians1 standing by  the 
deathbed or the open grave of their     
loved ones1 was good enough to  pass    
muster with ancient pagans1 when they   
too bowed their heads under the  burden 
of grief1 and1 with the taper of life   
burning low in the socket1  looked      
forward into the darkness of the        
unknown4 ,therefore we do no  indignity 
to the myth of ,demeter and             
,persephone--one of the few myths in    
which the sunshine and clarity of the   
,greek genius are crossed by the  shadow
 and mystery of death--when we trace its
 origin to some of the most  familiar1  
yet eternally affecting aspects of      
nature1 to the melancholy  gloom and    
decay of autumn and to the freshness1   
the brightness1 and the  verdure of     
spring4            ,,chapter ,,iii4     
,,magical ,,significance ,,of ,,games   

,,in ,,primitive ,,agriculture4         
7,m#fg7 ,in the preceding chapter we saw
 that among the rites of ,eleusis were  
comprised certain athletic sports1 such 
as foot-races1 horse-races1  leaping1   
wrestling1 and boxing1 the victors in   
which were rewarded with  measures of   
barley distributed among them by the    
priests47#cab7 ,these  sports the       
ancients themselves associated with the 
worship of ,demeter and  ,persephone1   
the goddesses of the corn1 and strange  
as such an association  may seem to us1 
it is not without its analogy among the 
harvest customs of  modern ,european    
peasantry47#cac7 ,but to discover clear 
cases of games  practised for the       
express purpose of promoting the growth 
of the crops1 we  must turn to more     
primitive agricultural communities than 
the ,athenians of  classical antiquity  
or the peoples of modern ,europe4 ,such 
communities may  be found at the present
 day among the savage tribes of ,borneo 
and ,new  ,guinea1 who subsist mainly by

 tilling the ground4 ,among them we take
 the  ,kayans or ,bahaus of central     
,borneo as typical4 ,they are           
essentially an  agricultural people1 and
 devote themselves mainly to the        
cultivation of  rice1 which furnishes   
their staple food2 all other products of
 the ground  are of subordinate         
importance4 ,hence agriculture1 we are  
told1 dominates  the whole life of these
 tribes3 their year is the year of the  
cultivation  of the rice1 and they      
divide it into various periods which are
 determined  by the conditions necessary
 for the tilling of the fields and the  
manipulation of the rice4 8,in tribes   
whose thoughts are so much engrossed  by
 agriculture it is no wonder that they  
associate with it their ideas of  the   
powers which rule them for good or evil4
 ,the spirit-world stands in  close     
connexion with the agriculture of the   
,bahaus2 without the consent of  the    
spirits no work in the fields may be    
undertaken4 ,moreover1 all the  great   

popular festivals coincide with the     
different periods of the  cultivation of
 the rice4 ,as the people are in an     
unusual state of  affluence after       
harvest1 all family festivals which     
require a large outlay  are for         
practical reasons deferred till the ,new
 ,year festival at the end  of harvest4 
,the two mighty spirits ,amei ,awi and  
his wife ,buring ,une1 who1  according  
to the belief of the ,kayans1 live in a 
world under ground1  dominate the whole 
of the tillage and determine the issue  
of the harvest  in great measure by the 
behaviour of the owner of the land1 not 
so much by  his moral conduct1 as by the
 offerings he has made to the spirits   
and the  attention he has paid to their 
warnings4 ,an important part in         
agriculture  falls to the chief3 at the 
festivals he has1 in the name of the    
whole  tribe1 to see to it that the     
prescribed conjurations are carried out 
by  the priestesses4 ,all religious     
ceremonies required for the cultivation 

of  the ground take place in a small    
rice-field specially set apart for that 
purpose1 called luma lali3 here the     
chief's family ushers in every fresh    
operation in the cultivation of the     
rice1 such as sowing1 hoeing1 and       
reaping3 the solemn actions there       
performed have a symbolical             
significance407#cad7    7,m#fh7 ,not    
only the chief's family among the       
,kayans has such a consecrated  field2  
every family possesses one of its own4  
,these little fields are  never         
cultivated for the sake of their        
produce3 they serve only as the  scene  
of religious ceremonies and of those    
symbolical operations of  agriculture   
which are afterwards performed in       
earnest on the real  rice-fields47#cae7 
,for example1 at the festival before    
sowing a priestess  sows some rice on   
the consecrated field of the chief's    
family and then  calls on a number of   
young men and girls to complete the     
work2 the young  men then dig holes in  

the ground with digging-sticks1 and the 
girls come  behind them and plant the   
rice-seed in the holes4 ,afterwards the 
priestesses lay offerings of food1 wrapt
 in banana-leaves1 here and there  on   
the holy field1 while they croon prayers
 to the spirits in soft tones1  which   
are half drowned in the clashing music  
of the gongs4 ,on another day  women    
gather all kinds of edible leaves in    
their gardens and fields1 boil  them in 
water1 and then sprinkle the water on   
the consecrated rice-field4  ,but on    
that and other days of the festival the 
people attend also to their  own wants1 
banqueting on a favourite species of    
rice and other dainties4  ,the          
ceremonies connected with sowing last   
several weeks1 and during this  time    
certain taboos have to be observed by   
the people4 ,thus on the first  day of  
the festival the whole population1      
except the very old and the very  young1
 must refrain from bathing2 after that  
there follows a period of  rest for     

eight nights1 during which the people   
may neither work nor hold  intercourse  
with their neighbours4 ,on the tenth day
 the prohibition to  bathe is again     
enforced2 and during the eight following
 days the great  rice-field of the      
village1 where the real crops are       
raised1 is sowed47#caf7  ,the reason for
 excluding strangers from the village at
 these times is a  religious one4 ,it is
 a fear lest the presence of strangers  
might frighten  the spirits or put them 
in a bad humour1 and so defeat the      
object of the  ceremony2 for1 while the 
religious ceremonies which accompany the
  cultivation of the rice differ        
somewhat from each other in different   
tribes1 the ideas at the bottom of them1
 we are told1 are everywhere the  same3 
the aim always is to appease and        
propitiate the souls of the rice  and   
the other spirits by sacrifices of all  
sorts47#cag7    7,m#fi7 ,however1 during
 this obligatory period of seclusion and
 rest the  ,kayans employ themselves in 

various pursuits1 which1 though at first
 sight  they might seem to serve no     
other purpose than that of recreation1  
have  really in the minds of the people 
a much deeper significance4 ,for        
example1  at this time the men often    
play at spinning tops4 ,the tops are    
smooth1  flat pieces of wood weighing   
several pounds4 ,each man tries to spin 
his  own top so that it knocks down     
those of his neighbours and continues   
itself to revolve triumphantly4 ,new    
tops are commonly carved for the        
festival4 ,the older men sometimes use  
heavy tops of iron-wood4 ,again1  every 
evening the young men assemble in the   
open space before the chief's  house and
 engage in contests of strength and     
agility1 while the women  watch them    
from the long gallery or verandah of the
 house4 ,another popular  pastime during
 the festival of sowing is a masquerade4
 ,it takes place on  the evening of the 
tenth day1 the day on which1 for the    
second time1 the  people are forbidden  

to bathe4 ,the scene of the performance 
is again the  open space in front of the
 chief's house4 ,as the day draws       
towards  evening1 the villagers begin to
 assemble in the gallery or verandah of 
the  house in order to secure good      
places for viewing the masquerade4 ,all 
the  maskers at these ceremonies        
represent evil spirits4 ,the men wear   
ugly  wooden masks on their faces1 and  
their bodies are swathed in masses of   
slit banana leaves so as to imitate the 
hideous faces and hairy bodies of  the  
demons4 ,the young women wear on their  
heads cylindrical baskets1 which        
conceal their real features1 while they 
exhibit to the spectators  grotesque    
human faces formed by stitches on pieces
 of white cotton1 which  are fastened to
 the baskets4 ,on the occasion when ,dr4
 ,nieuwenhuis  witnessed the ceremony1  
the first to appear on the scene were   
some men  wearing wooden masks and      
helmets and so thickly wrapt in banana  
leaves  that they looked like moving    

masses of green foliage4 ,they danced   
silently1 keeping time to the beat of   
the gongs4 ,they were followed by  other
 figures1 some of whom executed         
war-dances2 but the weight of their     
leafy envelope was such that they soon  
grew tired1 and though they leaped      
high1 they uttered none of the wild     
war-whoops which usually accompany      
these martial exercises4 ,when darkness 
fell1 the dances ceased and were        
replaced by a little drama representing 
a boar brought to bay by a pack of      
hounds4 ,the part of the boar was played
 by an actor wearing a wooden  boar's   
head mask1 who ran about on all fours   
and grunted in a life-like  manner1     
while the hounds1 acted by young men1   
snarled1 yelped1 and made  dashes at    
him4 ,the play was watched with lively  
interest and peals of  laughter by the  
spectators4 ,later in the evening eight 
disguised girls  danced1 one behind the 
other1 with slow steps and waving arms1 
to the  glimmering light of torches and 

the strains of a sort of jew's          
harp47#cah7    7,m#gj7 ,the rites which 
accompany the sowing of the fields are  
no sooner  over than those which usher  
in the hoeing begin4 ,like the sowing   
ceremonies1 they are inaugurated by a   
priestess1 who hoes the sacred field    
round about a sacrificial stage and then
 calls upon other people to  complete   
the work4 ,after that the holy field is 
again sprinkled with a  decoction of    
herbs47#cai7    7,m#ga7 ,but the        
crowning point of the ,kayan year is the
 ,new ,year festival4  ,the harvest has 
then been fully housed3 abundance reigns
 in every family1  and for eight days   
the people1 dressed out in all their    
finery1 give  themselves up to mirth and
 jollity4 ,the festival was witnessed by
 the  ,dutch explorer ,dr4 ,nieuwenhuis4
 ,to lure the good spirits from the     
spirit  land baskets filled with        
precious objects were set out before the
 windows1  and the priestesses made long
 speeches1 in which they invited these  

beneficent beings to come to the chief's
 house and to stay there during  the    
whole of the ceremonies4 ,two days      
afterwards one of the priestesses       
harangued the spirits for three-quarters
 of an hour1 telling them who the       
,kayans were1 from whom the chief's     
family was descended1 what the tribe    
was doing1 and what were its wishes1 not
 forgetting to implore the  vengeance of
 the spirits on the ,batang-,lupars1 the
 hereditary foes of the  ,kayans4 ,the  
harangue was couched in rhyming verse   
and delivered in  sing-song tones4 ,five
 days later eight priestesses ascended a
 sacrificial  stage1 on which food was  
daily set forth for the spirits4 ,there 
they  joined hands and crooned another  
long address to the spirits1 marking the
  time with their hands4 ,then a basket 
containing offerings of food was  handed
 up to them1 and one of the priestesses 
opened it and invited the  spirits to   
enter the basket4 ,when they were       
supposed to have done so1 the  lid was  

shut down on them1 and the basket with  
the spirits in it was  conveyed into the
 chief's house4 ,as the priestesses in  
the performance of  the sacred          
ceremonies might not touch the ground1  
planks were cut from a  fruit-tree and  
laid on the ground for them to step on4 
,but the great  feature of the ,new     
,year festival is the sacrifice of pigs1
 of which the  spiritual essence is     
appropriately offered to the spirits1   
while their  material substance is      
consumed by the worshippers4 ,in        
carrying out this  highly satisfactory  
arrangement1 while the live pigs lay    
tethered in a row  on the ground1 the   
priestesses danced solemnly round a     
sacrificial stage1  each of them arrayed
 in a war-mantle of panther-skin and    
wearing a war-cap  on her head1 and on  
either side two priests armed with      
swords executed war  dances for the     
purpose of scaring away evil spirits4   
,by their  gesticulations the           
priestesses indicated to the powers     

above that the pigs  were intended for  
their benefit4 ,one of them1 a fat but  
dignified lady1  dancing composedly1    
seemed by her courteous gestures to     
invite the souls  of the pigs to ascend 
up to heaven2 but others1 not content   
with this too  ideal offering1 rushed at
 the pigs1 seized the smallest of them  
by the  hind legs1 and exerting all     
their strength danced with the squealing
  porker to and from the sacrificial    
stage4 ,in the evening1 before darkness 
fell1 the animals were slaughtered and  
their livers examined for omens3 if  the
 under side of the liver was pale1 the  
omen was good2 but if it was  dark1 the 
omen was evil4 ,on the last day of the  
festival one of the chief  priestesses1 
in martial array1 danced round the      
sacrificial stage1 making  passes with  
her old sword as if she would heave the 
whole structure  heavenward2 while      
others stabbed with spears at the foul  
fiends that might  be hovering in the   
air1 intent on disturbing the sacred    

ministers at their  holy work47#cbj7    
7,m#gb7 8,thus10 says ,dr4 ,nieuwenhuis1
 reviewing the agricultural rites which 
he witnessed among the ,kayans on the   
,mendalam river1 8every fresh  operation
 on the rice-field was ushered in by    
religious and culinary  ceremonies1     
during which the community had always to
 observe taboos for  several nights and 
to play certain definite games4 ,as we  
saw1 spinning-top  games and masquerades
 were played during the sowing festival3
 at the first  bringing in of the rice  
the people pelted each other with clay  
pellets  discharged from small          
pea-shooters1 but in former times sham  
fights took  place with wooden swords2  
while during the ,new ,year festival the
 men  contend with each other in        
wrestling1 high leaps1 long leaps1 and  
running4  ,the women also fight each    
other with great glee1 using bamboo     
vessels full  of water for their        
principal weapons407#cba7    7,m#gc7    
,what is the meaning of the sports and  

pastimes which custom  prescribes to the
 ,kayans on these occasions8 ,are they  
mere diversions  meant to while away the
 tedium of the holidays8 or have they a 
serious1  perhaps a religious or magical
 significance8 ,to this question it will
 be  well to let ,dr4 ,nieuwenhuis give 
his answer4 8,the ,kayans on the        
,mendalam  river10 he says1 8enjoy      
tolerably regular harvests1 and their   
agricultural  festivals accordingly take
 place every year2 whereas the ,kayans  
on the  ,mahakam river1 on account of   
the frequent failure of the harvests1   
can  celebrate a ,new ,year's festival  
only once in every two or three years4  
,yet  although these festivities are    
celebrated more regularly on the        
,mendalam  river1 they are followed on  
the ,mahakam river with livelier        
interest1 and  the meaning of all       
ceremonies and games can also be traced 
much better  there4 ,on the ,mendalam   
river ,i came to the false conclusion   
that the  popular games which take place

 at the festivals are undertaken quite  
arbitrarily at the seasons of sowing and
 harvest2 but on the ,mahakam  river1 on
 the contrary1 ,i observed that even the
 masquerade at the sowing  festival is  
invested with as deep a significance as 
any of the ceremonies  performed by the 
priestesses407#cbb7    8,the influence  
of religious worship1 which dominates   
the whole life of the  ,dyak tribes1    
manifests itself also in their games4   
,this holds good chiefly  of pastimes in
 which all adults take part together1   
mostly on definite  occasions2 it is    
less applicable to more individual      
pastimes which are not  restricted to   
any special season4 ,pastimes of the    
former sort are very  rarely indulged in
 at ordinary times1 and properly        
speaking they attain  their full        
significance only on the occasion of the
 agricultural festivals  which bear a   
strictly religious stamp4 ,even then the
 recreations are not  left to choice1   
but definite games belong to definite   

festivals2 thus at  the sowing festivals
 other amusements are in vogue than at  
the little  harvest festival or the     
great harvest festival at the beginning 
of the  reaping1 and at the ,new ,year  
festival4444 ,is this connexion between 
festivals and games merely an accidental
 one1 or is it based on a real          
affinity8 ,the latter seems to me the   
more probable view1 for in the case  of 
one of the most important games played  
by men ,i was able to prove  directly a 
religious significance2 and although ,i 
failed to do so in the  case of the     
others1 ,i conjecture1 nevertheless1    
that a religious idea lies  at the      
bottom of all other games which are     
connected with definite                 
festivals407#cbc7    7,m#gd7 ,if the    
reader should entertain any doubt on the
 subject1 and should  suspect that in   
arriving at this conclusion the ,dutch  
traveller gave the  reins to his fancy  
rather than followed the real opinion of
 the people1  these doubts and          

suspicions will probably be dispelled by
 comparing the  similar games which     
another primitive agricultural people   
avowedly play  for the purpose of       
ensuring good crops4 ,the people in     
question are the ,kai  of ,german ,new  
,guinea1 who inhabit the rugged1 densely
 wooded mountains  inland from ,finsch  
,harbour4 ,they subsist mainly on the   
produce of the taro  and yams which they
 cultivate in their fields1 though the  
more inland  people also make much use  
of sweet potatoes4 ,all their crops are 
root  crops4 ,no patch of ground is     
cultivated for more than a year at a    
time4 ,as  soon as it has yielded a     
crop1 it is deserted for another and is 
quickly  overgrown with rank weeds1     
bamboos1 and bushes4 ,in six or eight   
years1  when the undergrowth has died   
out under the shadow of the taller trees
  which have shot up1 the land may again
 be cleared and brought under           
cultivation4 ,thus the area of          
cultivation shifts from year to year2   

and  the villages are not much more     
permanent2 for in the damp tropical     
climate  the wooden houses soon rot and 
fall into ruins1 and when this happens  
the  site of the village is             
changed47#cbd7 ,to procure good crops of
 the taro and  yams1 on which they      
depend for their subsistence1 the ,kai  
resort to many  superstitious practices4
 ,for example1 in order to make the yams
 strike  deep roots1 they touch the     
shoots with the bone of a wild animal   
that has  been killed in the recesses of
 a cave1 imagining that just as the     
creature  penetrated deep into the      
earth1 so the shoots that have been     
touched with  its bone will descend deep
 into the ground4 ,and in order that the
 taro may  bear large and heavy fruit1  
they place the shoots1 before planting  
them1  on a large and heavy block of    
stone1 believing that the stone will    
communicate its valuable properties of  
size and weight to the future  fruit4   
,moreover1 great use is made of spells  

and incantations to promote  the growth 
of the crops1 and all persons who utter 
such magical formulas  for this purpose 
have to abstain from eating certain     
foods until the  plants have sprouted   
and give promise of a good crop4 ,for   
example1 they  may not eat young bamboo 
shoots1 which are a favourite article of
 diet  with the people4 ,the reason is  
that the young shoots are covered with  
fine  prickles1 which cause itching and 
irritation of the skin2 from which the  
,kai infer that if an enchanter of field
 fruits were to eat bamboo shoots1  the 
contagion of their prickles would be    
conveyed through him to the  fruits and 
would manifest itself in a pungent      
disagreeable flavour4 ,for a  similar   
reason no charmer of the crops who knows
 his business would dream  of eating    
crabs1 because he is well aware that if 
he were to do so the  leaves and stalks 
of the plants would be dashed in pieces 
by a pelting  rain1 just like the long  
thin brittle legs of a dead crab4       

,again1 were  such an enchanter to eat  
any of the edible kinds of locusts1 it  
seems  obvious to the ,kai that locusts 
would devour the crops over which the   
imprudent wizard had recited his spells4
 ,above all1 people who are  concerned  
in planting fields must on no account   
eat pork2 because pigs1  whether wild or
 tame1 are the most deadly enemies of   
the crops1 which they  grub up and      
destroy2 from which it follows1 as      
surely as the night does  the day1 that 
if you eat pork while you are at work on
 the farm1 your  fields will be         
devastated by inroads of pigs47#cbe7    
7,m#ge7 ,however1 these precautions are 
not the only measures which the ,kai    
people adopt for the benefit of the yams
 and the taro4 8,in the opinion of  the 
natives various games are important for 
a proper growth of the  field-fruits2   
hence these games may only be played in 
the time after the  work on the fields  
has been done4 ,thus to swing on a long 
,spanish reed  fastened to a branch of a

 tree is thought to have a good effect  
on the  newly planted yams4 ,therefore  
swinging is practised by old and young1 
by  men and women4 ,no one who has an   
interest in the growth of his crop in   
the  field leaves the swing idle4 ,as   
they swing to and fro they sing         
swing-songs4 ,these songs often contain 
only the names of the kinds of yams     
that have been planted1 together with   
the joyous harvest-cry repeated with    
variations1 #8,i have found a fine      
fruit6' ,in leaping from the swing1 they
  cry #8,kakulili6' ,by calling out the 
name of the yams they think to draw     
their shoots upwards out of the ground4 
,a small bow with a string1 on  which a 
wooden flag adorned with a feather is   
made to slide down 7the ,kai  call the  
instrument tawatawa71 may only be used  
when the yams are  beginning to wind up 
about their props4 ,the tender shoots   
are then touched  with the bow1 while a 
song is sung which is afterwards often  
repeated in  the village4 ,it runs thus3

 #8,mama gelo1 gelowaineja1 gelowaineja2
 kik  tambai1 kki tambai4' ,the meaning 
of the words is unknown4 ,the intention 
is to cause a strong upward growth of   
the plants4 ,in order that the  foliage 
of the yams may sprout luxuriantly and  
grow green and spread1 the  ,kai people 
play cat's cradle4 ,each of the         
intricate figures has a definite        
meaning and a name to match3 for example
 #8the flock of pigeons' 7,hulua71      
#8the ,star1' #8the ,flying ,fox1' #8the
 ,sago-palm ,fan1' #8the ,araucaria1'   
#8the  ,lizard and the ,dog1' #8the     
,pig1' #8the ,sentinel-box in the       
,fields1' #8the  ,rat's ,nest1' #8the   
,wasp's ,nest in the ,bamboo-thicket1'  
#8the ,kangaroo1' #8the  ,spider's      
,web1' #8the ,little ,children1' #8the  
,canoe1' #8,rain and ,sunshine1'  #8the 
,pig's ,pitfall1' #8the ,fish-spawn1'   
#8the ,two ,cousins1 ,kew and ,imbiw1   
carrying their dead ,mother to the      
,grave1' etc4 ,by spinning large native 
acorns or a sort of wild fig they think 

that they foster the growth of the      
newly-planted taro2 the plants will     
#8turn about and broaden4' ,the game    
must therefore only be played at the    
time when the taro is planted4 ,the     
same holds good of spearing at the      
stalks of taro leaves with the ribs of  
sago leaves used as miniature spears4   
,this is done when the taro leaves  have
 unfolded themselves1 but when the      
plants have not yet set any tubers4  ,a 
single leaf is cut from a number of     
stems1 and these leaves are brought     
into the village4 ,the game is played by
 two partners1 who sit down  opposite to
 each other at a distance of three or   
four paces4 ,a number of  taro stalks   
lie beside each4 ,he who has speared all
 his adversary's stalks  first is       
victor2 then they change stalks and the 
game begins again4 ,by  piercing the    
leaves they think that they incite the  
plants to set tubers4  ,almost more     
remarkable than the limitation of these 
games to the time when  work on the     

fields is going forward is the custom of
 the ,kai people which  only permits the
 tales of the olden time or popular     
legends to be told at  the time when the
 newly planted fruits are budding and   
sprouting407#cbf7 ,at  the end of every 
such tale the ,kai story-teller mentions
 the names of the  various kinds of yams
 and adds1 8,shoots 7for the new        
planting7 and fruits  7to eat7 in       
abundance60 8,from their concluding     
words we see that the ,kai  legends are 
only told for a quite definite purpose1 
namely1 to promote the  welfare of the  
yams planted in the field4 ,by reviving 
the memory of the  ancient beings1 to   
whom the origin of the field-fruits is  
referred1 they  imagine that they       
influence the growth of the fruits for  
good4 ,when the  planting is over1 and  
especially when the young plants begin  
to sprout1  the telling of legends comes
 to an end4 ,in the villages it is      
always only  a few old men who as good  
story-tellers can hold the attention of 

their  hearers407#cbg7    7,m#gf7 ,thus 
with these ,new ,guinea people the      
playing of certain games and  the       
recital of certain legends are alike    
magical in their intention2 they  are   
charms practised to ensure good crops4  
,both sets of charms appear to  be based
 on the principles of sympathetic magic4
 ,in playing the games the  players     
perform acts which are supposed to mimic
 or at all events to  stimulate the     
corresponding processes in the plants3  
by swinging high in  the air they make  
the plants grow high2 by playing cat's  
cradle they cause  the leaves of the    
yams to spread and the stalks to        
intertwine1 even as the  players spread 
their hands and twine the string about  
their fingers2 by  spinning fruits they 
make the taro plants to turn and        
broaden2 and by  spearing the taro      
leaves they induce the plants to set    
tubers47#cbh7 ,in  telling the legends  
the story-tellers mention the names of  
the powerful  beings who first created  

the fruits of the earth1 and the mere   
mention of  their names avails1 on the  
principle of the magical equivalence of 
names  and persons or things1 to        
reproduce the effect47#cbi7 ,the        
recitation of  tales as a charm to      
promote the growth of the crops is not  
peculiar to the  ,kai4 ,it is practised 
also by the ,bakaua1 another tribe of   
,german ,new  ,guinea1 who inhabit the  
coast of ,huon ,gulf1 not far from the  
,kai4 ,these  people tell stories in the
 evening at the time when the yams and  
taro are  ripe1 and the stories always  
end with a prayer to the ancestral      
spirits1  invoked under various more or 
less figurative designations1 such as 8a
  man0 or 8a cricket10 that they would  
be pleased to cause countless shoots  to
 sprout1 the great tubers to swell1 the 
sugar-cane to thrive1 and the  bananas  
to hang in long clusters4 8,from this we
 see10 says the missionary  who reports 
the custom1 8that the object of telling 
the stories is to  prove to the         

ancestors1 whose spirits are believed to
 be present at the  recitation of the   
tales which they either invented or     
inherited1 that  people always remember 
them2 for which reason they ought to be 
favourable  to their descendants1 and   
above all to bestow their blessings on  
the  shoots which are ready to be       
planted or on the plants already in the 
ground40 ,as the story-teller utters the
 prayer1 he looks towards the house  in 
which the young shoots ready for        
planting or the ripe fruits are         
deposited47#ccj7    7,m#gg7 ,similarly1 
the ,yabim1 a neighbouring tribe of     
,german ,new ,guinea1 at  the entrance  
to ,huon ,gulf1 tell tales for the      
purpose of obtaining a  plentiful       
harvest of yams1 taro1 sugar-cane1 and  
bananas47#cca7 ,they  subsist chiefly by
 the fruits of the earth which they     
cultivate1 and among  which taro1 yams1 
and sugar-cane supply them with their   
staple food47#ccb7  ,in their           
agricultural labours they believe       

themselves to be largely  dependent on  
the spirits of their dead1 the balum1 as
 they call them4  ,before they plant the
 first taro in a newly cleared field    
they invoke the  souls of the dead to   
make the plants grow and prosper2 and to
 propitiate  these powerful spirits they
 bring valuable objects1 such as boar's 
tusks  and dog's teeth1 into the field1 
in order that the ghosts may deck       
themselves with the souls of these      
ornaments1 while at the same time they  
minister to the grosser appetites of the
 disembodied spirits by offering  them a
 savoury mess of taro porridge4 ,later  
in the season they whirl  bull-roarers  
in the fields and call out the names of 
the dead1 believing  that this makes the
 crops to thrive47#ccc7    7,m#gh7 ,but 
besides the prayers which they address  
to the spirits of the  dead for the sake
 of procuring an abundant harvest1 the  
,yabim utter spells  for the same       
purpose1 and these spells sometimes take
 the form1 not of a  command1 but of a  

narrative4 ,here1 for instance1 is one  
of their spells3  8,once upon a time a  
man laboured in his field and complained
 that he had  no taro shoots4 ,then came
 two doves flying from ,poum4 ,they had 
devoured  much taro1 and they perched on
 a tree in the field1 and during the    
night  they vomited all the taro up4    
,thus the man got so many taro shoots   
that he  was even able to sell some of  
them to other people40 ,or1 again1 if   
the  taro will not bud1 the ,yabim will 
have recourse to the following spell3   
8,a  muraena lay at ebb-tide on the     
shore4 ,it seemed to be at its last     
gasp4  ,then the tide flowed on1 and the
 muraena came to life again and plunged 
into the deep water40 ,this spell is    
pronounced over twigs of a certain  tree
 7kalelong71 while the enchanter smites 
the ground with them4 ,after  that the  
taro is sure to bud47#ccd7 ,apparently  
the mere recitation of such  simple     
tales is thought to produce the same    
effect as a direct appeal1  whether in  

the shape of a prayer or a command1     
addressed to the spirits4  ,such        
incantations may be called narrative    
spells to distinguish them from  the    
more familiar imperative spells1 in     
which the enchanter expresses his       
wishes in the form of direct commands4  
,much use seems to be made of such      
narrative spells among the natives of   
this part of ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,for 
example1 among the ,bukaua1 who         
attribute practically boundless powers  
to  sorcerers in every department of    
life and nature1 the spells by which    
these wizards attempt to work their will
 assume one of two forms3 either  they  
are requests made to the ancestors1 or  
they are short narratives1  addressed to
 nobody in particular1 which the        
sorcerer mutters while he is  performing
 his magical rites47#cce7 ,it is true1  
that here the distinction  is drawn     
between narratives and requests rather  
than between narratives  and commands2  
but the difference of a request from a  

command1 though great  in theory1 may be
 very slight in practice2 so that prayer
 and spell1 in  the ordinary sense of   
the words1 may melt into each other     
almost  imperceptibly4 ,even the priest 
or the enchanter who utters the one may 
be  hardly conscious of the hairbreadth 
that divides it from the other4 ,in     
regard to narrative spells1 it seems    
probable that they have been used  much 
more extensively among mankind than the 
evidence at our disposal  permits us    
positively to affirm2 in particular we  
may conjecture that many  ancient       
narratives1 which we have been          
accustomed to treat as mere myths1  used
 to be regularly recited in magical     
rites as spells for the purpose of      
actually producing events like those    
which they describe4    7,m#gi7 ,the use
 of the bull-roarer to quicken the      
fruits of the earth is not  peculiar to 
the ,yabim4 ,on the other side of ,new  
,guinea the instrument is  employed for 
the same purpose by the natives of      

,kiwai1 an island at the  mouth of the  
,fly ,river4 ,they think that by        
whirling bull-roarers they  produce good
 crops of yams1 sweet potatoes1 and     
bananas2 and in accordance  with this   
belief they call the implement 8the     
mother of yams407#ccf7  ,similarly in   
,mabuiag1 an island in ,torres ,straits1
 the bull-roarer is  looked upon as an  
instrument that can be used to promote  
the growth of  garden produce1 such as  
yams and sweet potatoes2 certain spirits
 were  supposed to march round the      
gardens at night swinging bull-roarers  
for  this purpose47#ccg7 ,indeed a      
fertilising or prolific virtue appears  
to be  attributed to the instrument by  
savages who are totally ignorant of     
agriculture4 ,thus among the ,dieri of  
central ,australia1 when a young man    
had undergone the painful initiatory    
ceremony of having a number of gashes   
cut in his back1 he used to be given a  
bull-roarer1 whereupon it was  believed 
that he became inspired by the spirits  

of the men of old1 and  that by whirling
 it1 when he went in search of game     
before his wounds were  healed1 he had  
power to cause a good harvest of        
lizards1 snakes1 and other  reptiles4   
,on the other hand1 the ,dieri thought  
that if a woman were to see  a          
bull-roarer that had been used at the   
initiatory ceremonies and to learn  its 
secret1 the tribe would ever afterwards 
be destitute of snakes1  lizards1 and   
other such food47#cch7 ,it may very well
 be that a similar  power to fertilise  
or multiply edible plants and animals   
has been ascribed  to the bull-roarer by
 many other peoples who employ the      
implement in their  mysteries4          
7,m#hj7 ,further1 it is to be observed  
that just as the ,kai of ,new ,guinea   
swing to and fro on reeds suspended from
 the branches of trees in order to      
promote the growth of the crops1 in like
 manner ,lettish peasants in ,russia    
devote their leisure to swinging in     
spring and early summer for the  express

 purpose of making the flax grow as high
 as they swing in the  air47#cci7 ,and  
we may suspect that wherever swinging is
 practised as a  ceremony at certain    
times of the year1 particularly in      
spring and at  harvest1 the pastime is  
not so much a mere popular recreation as
 a magical  rite designed to promote the
 growth of the crops47#cdj7    ,with    
these examples before us we need not    
hesitate to believe that ,dr4           
,nieuwenhuis is right when he attributes
 a deep religious or magical            
significance to the games which the     
,kayans or ,bahaus of central ,borneo   
play at their various agricultural      
festivals4    7,m#ha7 ,it remains to    
point out how far the religious or      
magical practices  of these primitive   
agricultural peoples of ,borneo and ,new
 ,guinea appear to  illustrate by       
analogy the original nature of the rites
 of ,eleusis4 ,so far  as we can        
recompose1 from the broken fragments of 
tradition1 a picture of  the religious  

and political condition of the          
,eleusinian people in the  olden time1  
it appears to tally fairly well with the
 picture which ,dr4  ,nieuwenhuis has   
drawn for us of the ,kayans or ,bahaus  
at the present day in  the forests of   
central ,borneo4 ,here as there we see a
 petty agricultural  community ruled by 
hereditary chiefs who1 while they unite 
religious to  civil authority1 being    
bound to preside over the numerous      
ceremonies  performed for the good of   
the crops17#cda7 nevertheless lead      
simple  patriarchal lives and are so    
little raised in outward dignity above  
their  fellows that their daughters do  
not deem it beneath them to fetch water 
for the household from the village      
well47#cdb7 ,here as there we see a     
people whose whole religion is dominated
 and coloured by the main  occupation of
 their lives2 who believe that the      
growth of the crops1 on  which they     
depend for their subsistence1 is at the 
mercy of two powerful  spirits1 a divine

 husband and his wife1 dwelling in a    
subterranean world2  and who accordingly
 offer sacrifices and perform ceremonies
 in order to  ensure the favour of these
 mighty beings and so to obtain abundant
  harvests4 ,if we knew more about the  
,rarian plain at ,eleusis17#cdc7 we     
might  discover that it was the scene of
 many religious ceremonies like those   
which are performed on the little       
consecrated rice-fields 7the luma  lali7
 of the ,kayans1 where the various      
operations of the agricultural  year are
 performed in miniature by members of   
the chief's family before  the          
corresponding operations may be         
performed on a larger scale by common   
folk on their fields4 ,certainly we know
 that the ,rarian plain witnessed  one  
such ceremony in the year4 ,it was a    
solemn ceremony of ploughing1 one  of   
the three ,sacred ,ploughings which took
 place annually in various parts  of    
,attica47#cdd7 ,probably the rite formed
 part of the ,proerosia or  ,festival   

before ,ploughing1 which was intended to
 ensure a plentiful  crop47#cde7        
,further1 it appears that the priests   
who guided the sacred  slow-paced oxen  
as they dragged the plough down the     
furrows of the ,rarian  ,plain1 were    
drawn from the old priestly family of   
,bouzygai or 8,ox-yokers10  whose       
eponymous ancestor is said to have been 
the first man to yoke oxen  and to      
plough the fields4 ,as they performed   
this time-honoured ceremony1  the       
priests uttered many quaint curses      
against all churls who should  refuse to
 lend fire or water to neighbours1 or to
 shew the way to  wanderers1 or who     
should leave a corpse unburied47#cdf7   
,if we had a  complete list of the      
execrations fulminated by the holy      
ploughmen on these  occasions1 we might 
find that some of them were levelled at 
the impious  wretches who failed to keep
 all the rules of the ,sabbath1 as we   
may call  those periods of enforced rest
 and seclusion which the ,kayans of     

,borneo  and other primitive            
agricultural peoples observe for the    
good of the  crops47#cdg7    7,m#hb7    
,further1 when we see that many         
primitive peoples practise what we  call
 games but what they regard in all      
seriousness as solemn rites for the     
good of the crops1 we may be the more   
inclined to accept the view of the      
ancients1 who associated the ,eleusinian
 games directly with the worship of     
,demeter and ,persephone1 the ,corn     
,goddesses47#cdh7 ,one of the contests  
at  the ,eleusinian games was in        
leaping17#cdi7 and we know that even in 
modern  ,europe to this day leaping or  
dancing high is practised as a charm to 
make  the crops grow tall47#cej7 ,again1
 the bull-roarer was swung so as to     
produce a humming sound at the ,greek   
mysteries27#cea7 and when we find the   
same simple instrument whirled by       
savages in ,new ,guinea for the sake of 
ensuring good crops1 we may reasonably  
conjecture that it was whirled with  a  

like intention by the rude forefathers  
of the ,greeks among the  cornfields of 
,eleusis4 ,if that were so--though the  
conjecture is hardly  susceptible of    
demonstration--it would go some way to  
confirm the theory  that the ,eleusinian
 mysteries were in their origin nothing 
more than  simple rustic ceremonies     
designed to make the farmer's fields to 
wave with  yellow corn4 ,and in the     
practice of the ,kayans1 whose worship  
of the rice  offers many analogies to   
the ,eleusinian worship of the corn1 may
 we not  detect a hint of the origin of 
that rule of secrecy which always       
characterised the ,eleusinian mysteries8
 ,may it not have been that1 just as    
the ,kayans exclude strangers from their
 villages while they are engaged in  the
 celebration of religious rites1 lest   
the presence of these intruders  should 
frighten or annoy the shy and touchy    
spirits who are invoked at  these times1
 so the old ,eleusinians may have       
debarred foreigners from  participation 

in their most solemn ceremonies1 lest   
the coy goddesses of  the corn should   
take fright or offence at the sight of  
strange faces and  so refuse to bestow  
on men their annual blessing8 ,the      
admission of  foreigners to the         
privilege of initiation in the mysteries
 was probably a  late innovation        
introduced at a time when the fame of   
their sanctity had  spread far and wide1
 and when the old magical meaning of the
 ritual had  long been obscured1 if not 
forgotten4    7,m#hc7 ,lastly1 it may be
 suggested that in the masked dances and
 dramatic  performances1 which form a   
conspicuous and popular feature of the  
,sowing  ,festival among the            
,kayans17#ceb7 we have the savage       
counterpart of that  drama of divine    
death and resurrection which appears to 
have figured so  prominently in the     
mysteries of ,eleusis47#cec7 ,if my     
interpretation of that  solemn drama is 
correct1 it represented in mythical     
guise the various  stages in the growth 

of the corn for the purpose of magically
 fostering  the natural processes which 
it simulated4 ,in like manner among the 
,kaua  and ,kobeua ,indians of          
,north-western ,brazil1 who subsist     
chiefly by the  cultivation of manioc1  
dances or rather pantomimes are         
performed by masked  men1 who represent 
spirits or demons of fertility1 and by  
imitating the  act of procreation are   
believed to stimulate the growth of     
plants as well  as to quicken the wombs 
of women and to promote the             
multiplication of  animals4 ,coarse and 
grotesque as these dramatic performances
 may seem to  us1 they convey no        
suggestion of indecency to the minds    
either of the  actors or of the         
spectators1 who regard them in all      
seriousness as rites  destined to confer
 the blessing of fruitfulness on the    
inhabitants of the  village1 on their   
plantations1 and on the whole realm of  
nature47#ced7  ,however1 we possess so  
little exact information as to the rites

 of ,eleusis  that all attempts to      
elucidate them by the ritual of savages 
must  necessarily be conjectural4 ,yet  
the candid reader may be willing to     
grant  that conjectures supported by    
analogies like the foregoing do not     
exceed  the limits of a reasonable      
hypothesis4            ,,chapter ,,iv4  
,,woman',s ,,part ,,in ,,primitive      
,,agriculture4      7,m#hd7 ,if ,demeter
 was indeed a personification of the    
corn1 it is natural  to ask1 why did the
 ,greeks personify the corn as a goddess
 rather than a  god8 why did they       
ascribe the origin of agriculture to a  
female rather  than to a male power8    
,they conceived the spirit of the vine  
as masculine2  why did they conceive the
 spirit of the barley and wheat as      
feminine8 ,to  this it has been answered
 that the personification of the corn as
  feminine1 or at all events the        
ascription of the discovery of          
agriculture  to a goddess1 was suggested
 by the prominent part which women take 

in  primitive agriculture47#cee7 ,the   
theory illustrates a recent tendency of 
mythologists to explain many myths as   
reflections of primitive society  rather
 than as personifications of nature4    
,for that reason1 apart from its        
intrinsic interest1 the theory deserves 
to be briefly considered4    7,m#he7    
,before the invention of the plough1    
which can hardly be worked  without     
resort to the labour of men1 it was and 
still is customary in many  parts of the
 world to break up the soil for         
cultivation with hoes1 and  among not a 
few savage peoples to this day the task 
of hoeing the ground  and sowing the    
seed devolves mainly or entirely upon   
the women1 while the  men take little or
 no part in cultivation beyond clearing 
the land by  felling the forest trees   
and burning the fallen timber and       
brushwood which  encumber the soil4     
,thus1 for example1 among the ,zulus1   
8when a piece of  land has been selected
 for cultivation1 the task of clearing  

it belongs to  the men4 ,if the ground  
be much encumbered1 this becomes a      
laborious  undertaking1 for their axe is
 very small1 and when a large tree has  
to be  encountered1 they can only lop   
the branches2 fire is employed when it  
is  needful to remove the trunk4 ,the   
reader will therefore not be surprised  
that the people usually avoid bush-land1
 though they seem to be aware of  its   
superior fertility4 ,as a general rule  
the men take no further share in  the   
labour of cultivation2 and1 as the site 
chosen is seldom much  encumbered and   
frequently bears nothing but grass1     
their part of the work  is very slight4 
,the women are the real labourers2 for  
7except in some  particular cases7 the  
entire business of digging1 planting1   
and weeding  devolves on them2 and1 if  
we regard the assagai and shield as     
symbolical  of the man1 the hoe may be  
looked upon as emblematic of the        
woman4444 ,with  this rude and heavy    
instrument the woman digs1 plants1 and  

weeds her  garden4 ,digging and sowing  
are generally one operation1 which is   
thus  performed2 the seed is first      
scattered on the ground1 when the soil  
is dug  or picked up with the hoe1 to   
the depth of three or four inches1 the  
larger roots and tufts of grass being   
gathered out1 but all the rest left  in 
or on the ground407#cef7 ,a special term
 of contempt is applied to any  ,zulu   
man1 who1 deprived of the services of   
his wife and family1 is  compelled by   
hard necessity to handle the hoe        
himself47#ceg7 ,similarly  among the    
,baronga of ,delagoa ,bay1 8when the    
rains begin to fall1 sometimes  as early
 as ,september but generally later1 they
 hasten to sow4 ,with her  hoe in her   
hands1 the mistress of the field walks  
with little steps2 every  time she lifts
 a clod of earth well broken up1 and in 
the hole thus made  she plants three or 
four grains of maize and covers them up4
 ,if she has  not finished clearing all 
the patch of the bush which she         

contemplated1  she proceeds to turn up  
again the fields she tilled last year4  
,the crop  will be less abundant than in
 virgin soil1 but they plant three or   
four  years successively in the same    
field before it is exhausted4 ,as for   
enriching the soil with manure1 they    
never think of it407#ceh7 ,among the    
,barots1 who cultivate millet1 maize1   
and peas to a small extent and in a     
rudimentary fashion1 women alone are    
occupied with the field-work1 and  their
 only implement is a spade or hoe47#cei7
 ,of the ,matabel we are told  that     
8most of the hard work is performed by  
the women2 the whole of the  cultivation
 is done by them4 ,they plough with     
short spades of native  manufacture2    
they sow the fields1 and they clear them
 of weeds407#cfj7  ,among the ,awemba1  
to the west of ,lake ,tanganyika1 the   
bulk of the work in  the plantations    
falls on the women2 in particular the   
men refuse to hoe  the ground4 ,they    
have a saying1 8,is not each male child 

born for the axe  and each female child 
for the hoe807#cfa7    7,m#hf7 ,the     
natives of the ,tanganyika plateau      
8cultivate the banana1 and  have a      
curious custom connected with it4 ,no   
man is permitted to sow2 but  when the  
hole is prepared a little girl is       
carried to the spot on a man's          
shoulders4 ,she first throws into the   
hole a sherd of broken pottery1 and     
then scatters the seed over it407#cfb7  
,the reason of the latter practice  has 
been explained by more recent observers 
of these natives4 8,young  children1 it 
may here be noted1 are often employed to
 administer drugs1  remedies1 even the  
,poison ,ordeal1 and to sow the first   
seeds4 ,such acts1  the natives say1    
must be performed by chaste and innocent
 hands1 lest a  contaminated touch      
should destroy the potency of the       
medicine or of the  seedlings planted4  
,it used to be a very common sight upon 
the islands of  ,lake ,bangweolo to     
watch how a ,bisa woman would solve the 

problem of her  own moral unfitness by  
carrying her baby-girl to the           
banana-plot1 and  inserting seedlings in
 the tiny hands for dropping into the   
holes already  prepared407#cfc7         
,similarly among the people of the      
,lower ,congo 8women must  remain chaste
 while planting pumpkin and calabash    
seeds1 they are not  allowed to touch   
any pig-meat1 and they must wash their  
hands before  touching the seeds4 ,if a 
woman does not observe all these rules1 
she must  not plant the seeds1 or the   
crop will be bad2 she may make the      
holes1 and  her baby girl1 or another   
who has obeyed the restrictions1 can    
drop in the  seeds and cover them       
over407#cfd7 ,we can now perhaps        
understand why ,attic  matrons had to   
observe strict chastity when they       
celebrated the festival  of the         
,thesmophoria47#cfe7 ,in ,attica that   
festival was held in honour of  ,demeter
 in the month of ,pyanepsion1           
corresponding to ,october17#cff7 the    

season of the autumn sowing2 and the    
rites included certain ceremonies  which
 bore directly on the quickening of the 
seed47#cfg7 ,we may conjecture  that the
 rule of chastity imposed on matrons at 
this festival was a relic  of a time    
when they too1 like many savage women   
down to the present time1  discharged   
the important duty of sowing the seed   
and were bound for that  reason to      
observe strict continence1 lest any     
impurity on their part  should defile   
the seed and prevent it from bearing    
fruit4    7,m#hg7 ,of the ,caffres of   
,south ,africa in general we read that  
8agriculture  is mainly the work of the 
women1 for in olden days the men were   
occupied  in hunting and fighting4 ,the 
women do but scratch the land with hoes1
  sometimes using long-handled          
instruments1 as in ,zululand1 and       
sometimes  short-handled ones1 as above 
the ,zambesi4 ,when the ground is thus  
prepared1 the women scatter the seed1   
throwing it over the soil quite at      

random4 ,they know the time to sow by   
the position of the constellations1     
chiefly by that of the ,pleiades4 ,they 
date their new year from the time  they 
can see this constellation just before  
sunrise407#cfh7 ,in ,basutoland1  where 
the women also till the fields1 though  
the lands of chiefs are dug  and sowed  
by men1 an attempt is made to determine 
the time of sowing by  observation of   
the moon1 but the people generally find 
themselves out in  their reckoning1 and 
after much dispute are forced to fall   
back upon the  state of the weather and 
of vegetation as better evidence of the 
season of  sowing4 ,intelligent chiefs  
rectify the calendar at the summer      
solstice1  which they call the          
summer-house of the sun47#cfi7          
7,m#hh7 ,among the ,nandi of ,british   
,east ,africa 8the rough work of        
clearing  the bush for plantations is   
performed by the men1 after which nearly
 all  work in connexion with them is    
done by the women4 ,the men1 however1   

assist  in sowing the seed1 and in      
harvesting some of the crops4 ,as a rule
 trees  are not felled1 but the bark is 
stripped off for about four feet from   
the  ground and the trees are then left 
to die4 ,the planting is mostly1 if not 
entirely1 done during the first half of 
the ,kiptamo moon 7,february71  which is
 the first month of the year1 and when  
the ,iwat-kut moon rises  7,march7 all  
seed should be in the ground4 ,the chief
 medicine man is  consulted before the  
planting operations begin1 but the      
,nandi know by the  arrival in the      
fields of the guinea-fowl1 whose song is
 supposed to be1  ,o-kol1 o-kol2 mi-i   
tokoch 7,plant1 plant2 there is luck in 
it71 that the  planting season is at    
hand4 ,when the first seed is sown1 salt
 is mixed  with it1 and the sower sings 
mournfully3 ,ak o-siek-u o-chok-chi     
7,and  grow quickly71 as he sows4 ,after
 fresh ground has been cleared1 eleusine
  grain is planted4 ,this crop is       
generally repeated the second year1     

after  which millet is sown1 and finally
 sweet potatoes or some other product4  
,most fields are allowed to lie fallow  
every fourth or fifth year4 ,the  ,nandi
 manure their plantations with turf     
ashes4444 ,the eleusine crops are       
harvested by both men and women4 ,all   
other crops are reaped by the women     
only1 who are at times assisted by the  
children4 ,the corn is pounded and      
winnowed by the women and girls407#cgj7 
,among the ,suk and ,en-jemusi of       
,british ,east ,africa it is the women  
who cultivate the fields and milk the   
cows47#cga7 ,among the ,wadowe of       
,german ,east ,africa the men clear the 
forest  and break up the hard ground1   
but the women sow and reap the          
crops47#cgb7  ,so among the ,wanyamwezi1
 who are an essentially agricultural    
people1 to  the south of ,lake ,victoria
 ,nyanza1 the men cut down the bush and 
hoe the  hard ground1 but leave the rest
 of the labour of weeding1 sowing1 and  
reaping to the women47#cgc7 ,the        

,baganda of ,central ,africa subsist    
chiefly  on bananas1 and among them 8the
 garden and its cultivation have always 
been the woman's department4 ,princesses
 and peasant women alike looked  upon   
cultivation as their special work2 the  
garden with its produce was  essentially
 the wife's domain1 and she would under 
no circumstances allow  her husband to  
do any digging or sowing in it4 ,no     
woman would remain with  a man who did  
not give her a garden and a hoe to dig  
it with2 if these  were denied her1 she 
would seek an early opportunity to      
escape from her  husband and return to  
her relations to complain of her        
treatment1 and to  obtain justice or a  
divorce4 ,when a man married he sought a
 plot of land  for his wife in order    
that she might settle to work and       
provide food for  the household4444 ,in 
initial clearing of the land it was     
customary for the  husband to take part2
 he cut down the tall grass and shrubs1 
and so left  the ground ready for his   

wife to begin her digging4 ,the grass   
and the  trees she heaped up and burned1
 reserving only so much as she needed   
for  firewood4 ,a hoe was the only      
implement used in cultivation2 the blade
 was  heart-shaped with a prong at the  
base1 by which it was fastened to the   
handle4 ,the hoe-handle was never more  
than two feet long1 so that a woman  had
 to stoop when using it407#cgd7 ,in     
,kiziba1 a district immediately to the  
south of ,uganda1 the tilling of the    
soil is exclusively the work of the     
women4 ,they turn up the soil with hoes1
 make holes in the ground with          
digging-sticks or their fingers1 and    
drop a few seeds into each hole47#cge7  
,among the ,niam-,niam of ,central      
,africa 8the men most studiously devote 
themselves to their hunting1 and leave  
the culture of the soil to be  carried  
on exclusively by the women027#cgf7 and 
among the ,monbuttoo of the  same region
 in like manner1 8whilst the women      
attend to the tillage of the  soil and  

the gathering of the harvest1 the men1  
unless they are absent  either for war  
or hunting1 spend the entire day in     
idleness407#cgg7 ,as to  the ,bangala of
 the ,upper ,congo we read that 8large  
farms were made around  the towns4 ,the 
men did the clearing of the bush1       
felling the trees1 and  cutting down the
 undergrowth2 the women worked with     
them1 heaping up the  grass and         
brushwood ready for burning1 and helping
 generally4 ,as a rule  the women did   
the hoeing1 planting1 and weeding1 but  
the men did not so  despise this work as
 never to do it40 ,in this tribe 8the   
food belonged to  the woman who         
cultivated the farm1 and while she      
supplied her husband with  the vegetable
 food1 he had to supply the fish and    
meat and share them with  his wife or   
wives407#cgh7 ,amongst the ,tofoke1 a   
tribe of the ,congo ,state on  the      
equator1 all the field labour1 except   
the clearing away of the forest1  is    
performed by the women4 ,they dig the   

soil with a hoe and plant maize  and    
manioc4 ,a field is used only           
once47#cgi7 ,so with the ,ba-,mbala1 a  
,bantu  tribe between the rivers ,inzia 
and ,kwilu1 the men clear the ground for
  cultivation1 but all the rest of the  
work of tillage falls to the women1     
whose only tool is an iron hoe4 ,fresh  
ground is cleared for cultivation  every
 year47#chj7 ,the ,mpongwe of the       
,gaboon1 in ,west ,africa1 cultivate    
manioc 7cassava71 maize1 yams1          
plantains1 sweet potatoes1 and ground   
nuts4  ,when new clearings have to be   
made in the forest1 the men cut down and
  burn the trees1 and the women put in  
the crop4 ,the only tool they use is a  
dibble1 with which they turn up a sod1  
put in a seed1 and cover it  over47#cha7
 ,among the ,ashira of the same region  
the cultivation of the soil  is in the  
hands of the women47#chb7    7,m#hi7 ,a 
similar division of labour between men  
and women prevails among  many primitive
 agricultural tribes of ,indians in     

,south ,america4 8,in the  interior of  
the villages10 says an eminent authority
 on aboriginal ,south  ,america1 8the   
man often absents himself to hunt or to 
go into the heart of  the forest in     
search of the honey of the wild bees1   
and he always goes  alone4 ,he fells the
 trees in the places where he wishes to 
make a field  for cultivation1 he       
fashions his weapons1 he digs out his   
canoe1 while the  woman rears the       
children1 makes the garments1 busies    
herself with the  interior1 cultivates  
the field1 gathers the fruits1 collects 
the roots1  and prepares the food4 ,such
 is1 generally at least1 the respective 
condition of the two sexes among almost 
all the ,americans4 ,the ,peruvians     
alone had already1 in their             
semi-civilised state1 partially modified
 these  customs2 for among them the man 
shared the toils of the other sex or    
took  on himself the most laborious     
tasks407#chc7 ,thus1 to take examples1  
among  the ,caribs of the ,west ,indies 

the men used to fell the trees and leave
 the  fallen trunks to cumber the       
ground1 burning off only the smaller    
boughs4  ,then the women came and       
planted manioc1 potatoes1 yams1 and     
bananas  wherever they found room among 
the tree-trunks4 ,in digging the ground 
to  receive the seed or the shoots they 
did not use hoes but simply pointed     
sticks4 ,the men1 we are told1 would    
rather have died of hunger than         
undertake such agricultural             
labours47#chd7 ,again1 the staple       
vegetable food  of the ,indians of      
,british ,guiana is cassava bread1 made 
from the roots of  the manioc or cassava
 plant1 which the ,indians cultivate in 
clearings of  the forest4 ,the men fell 
the trees1 cut down the undergrowth1 and
 in dry  weather set fire to the fallen 
lumber1 thus creating open patches in   
the  forest which are covered with white
 ashes4 ,when the rains set in1 the     
women repair to these clearings1 heavily
 laden with baskets full of  cassava    

sticks to be used as cuttings4 ,these   
they insert at irregular  intervals in  
the soil1 and so the field is formed4   
,while the cassava is  growing1 the     
women do just as much weeding as is     
necessary to prevent the  cultivated    
plants from being choked by the rank    
growth of the tropical  vegetation1 and 
in doing so they plant bananas1 pumpkin 
seeds1 yams1 sweet  potatoes1           
sugar-cane1 red and yellow peppers1 and 
so forth1 wherever there  is room for   
them4 ,at last in the ninth or tenth    
month1 when the seeds  appearing on the 
straggling branches of the cassava      
plants announce that  the roots are     
ripe1 the women cut down the plants and 
dig up the roots1  not all at once1 but 
as they are required4 ,these roots they 
afterwards  peel1 scrape1 and bake into 
cassava bread47#che7    7,m#ij7 ,in like
 manner the cassava or manioc plant is  
cultivated generally  among all the     
,indian tribes of tropical ,south       
,america1 wherever the plant  will grow2

 and the cultivation of it is altogether
 in the hands of the  women1 who insert 
the sticks in the ground after the      
fashion already  described47#chf7 ,for  
example1 among the tribes of the ,uaupes
 ,river1 in the  upper valley of the    
,amazon1 who are an agricultural people 
with settled  abodes1 8the men cut down 
the trees and brushwood1 which1 after   
they have  lain some months to dry1 are 
burnt2 and the mandiocca is then planted
 by  the women1 together with little    
patches of cane1 sweet potatoes1 and    
various fruits4 ,the women also dig up  
the mandiocca1 and prepare from it  the 
bread which is their main               
subsistence4444 ,the bread is made fresh
  every day1 as when it gets cold and   
dry it is far less palatable4 ,the      
women thus have plenty to do1 for every 
other day at least they have to go  to  
the field1 often a mile or two distant1 
to fetch the root1 and every  day to    
grate1 prepare1 and bake the bread2 as  
it forms by far the greater  part of    

their food1 and they often pass days    
without eating anything else1           
especially when the men are engaged in  
clearing the forest407#chg7 ,among  the 
,tupinambas1 a tribe of ,brazilian      
,indians1 the wives 8had something  more
 than their due share of labour1 but    
they were not treated with  brutality1  
and their condition was on the whole    
happy4 ,they set and dug  the mandioc2  
they sowed and gathered the maize4 ,an  
odd superstition  prevailed1 that if a  
sort of earth-almond1 which the         
,portugueze call  amendoens1 was planted
 by the men1 it would not grow407#chh7  
,similar  accounts appear to apply to   
the ,brazilian ,indians in general3 the 
men  occupy themselves with hunting1    
war1 and the manufacture of their       
weapons1  while the women plant and reap
 the crops1 and search for fruits in the
  forest27#chi7 above all they cultivate
 the manioc1 scraping the soil clear  of
 weeds with pointed sticks and inserting
 the shoots in the earth47#cij7         

,similarly among the ,indians of ,peru1 
who cultivate maize in clearings of  the
 forest1 the cultivation of the fields  
is left to the women1 while the  men    
hunt with bows and arrows and blowguns  
in the woods1 often remaining  away from
 home for weeks or even months          
together47#cia7    7,m#ia7 ,a similar   
distribution of labour between the sexes
 prevails among  some savage tribes in  
other parts of the world4 ,thus among   
the ,lhoosai of  south-eastern ,india   
the men employ themselves chiefly in    
hunting or in  making forays on their   
weaker neighbours1 but they clear the   
ground and  help to carry home the      
harvest4 ,however1 the main burden of   
the bodily  labour by which life is     
supported falls on the women2 they fetch
 water1  hew wood1 cultivate the ground1
 and help to reap the crops47#cib7      
,among the  ,miris of ,assam almost the 
whole of the field work is done by the  
women4  ,they cultivate a patch of      
ground for two successive years1 then   

suffer it  to lie fallow for four or    
five4 ,but they are deterred by         
superstitious  fear from breaking new   
ground so long as the fallow suffices   
for their  needs2 they dread to offend  
the spirits of the woods by needlessly  
felling  the trees4 ,they raise crops of
 rice1 maize1 millet1 yams1 and sweet   
potatoes4 ,but they seldom possess any  
implement adapted solely for  tillage2  
they have never taken to the plough nor 
even to a hoe4 ,they use  their long    
straight swords to clear1 cut1 and dig  
with47#cic7 ,among the  ,korwas1 a      
savage hill tribe of ,bengal1 the men   
hunt with bows and arrows1  while the   
women till the fields1 dig for wild     
roots1 or cull wild  vegetables4 ,their 
principal crop is pulse 7,cajanus       
,indicus747#cid7 ,among  the ,papuans of
 ,ayambori1 near ,doreh in ,dutch ,new  
,guinea1 it is the men who  lay out the 
fields by felling and burning the trees 
and brushwood in the  forest1 and it is 
they who enclose the fields with fences1

 but it is the  women who sow and reap  
them and carry home the produce in sacks
 on their  backs4 ,they cultivate rice1 
millet1 and bananas47#cie7 ,so among the
 natives  of ,kaimani ,bay in ,dutch    
,new ,guinea the men occupy themselves  
only with  fishing and hunting1 while   
all the field work falls on the         
women47#cif7 ,in  the ,gazelle          
,peninsula of ,new ,britain1 when the   
natives have decided to  convert a piece
 of grass-land into a plantation1 the   
men cut down the long  grass1 burn it1  
dig up the soil with sharp-pointed      
sticks1 and enclose the  land with a    
fence of saplings4 ,then the women plant
 the banana shoots1  weed the ground1   
and in the intervals between the bananas
 insert slips of  yams1 sweet potatoes1 
sugar-cane1 or ginger4 ,when the produce
 is ripe1  they carry it to the village4
 ,thus the bulk of the labour of        
cultivation  devolves on the            
women47#cig7    7,m#ib7 ,among some     
peoples of the ,indian ,archipelago1    

after the land has  been cleared for    
cultivation by the men1 the work of     
planting and sowing  is divided between 
men and women1 the men digging holes in 
the ground with  pointed sticks1 and the
 women following them1 putting the seeds
 or shoots  into the holes1 and then    
huddling the earth over them2 for       
savages seldom  sow broadcast1 they     
laboriously dig holes and insert the    
seed in them4  ,this division of        
agricultural labour between the sexes is
 adopted by  various tribes of ,celebes1
 ,ceram1 ,borneo1 ,nias1 and ,new       
,guinea47#cih7  ,sometimes the custom of
 entrusting the sowing of the seed to   
women appears  to be influenced by      
superstitious as well as economic       
considerations4 ,thus  among the        
,indians of the ,orinoco1 who with an   
infinitude of pains cleared  the jungle 
for cultivation by cutting down the     
forest trees with their  stone axes1    
burning the fallen lumber1 and breaking 
up the ground with  wooden instruments  

hardened in the fire1 the task of sowing
 the maize and  planting the roots was  
performed by the women alone2 and when  
the ,spanish  missionaries expostulated 
with the men for not helping their wives
 in this  toilsome duty1 they received  
for answer that as women knew how to    
conceive  seed and bear children1 so the
 seeds and roots planted by them bore   
fruit  far more abundantly than if they 
had been planted by male hands47#cii7   
7,m#ic7 ,even among savages who have not
 yet learned to cultivate any plants    
the task of collecting the edible seeds 
and digging up the edible roots of  wild
 plants appears to devolve mainly on    
women1 while the men contribute  their  
share to the common food supply by      
hunting and fishing1 for which  their   
superior strength1 agility1 and courage 
especially qualify them4 ,for  example1 
among the ,indians of ,california1 who  
were entirely ignorant of  agriculture1 
the general division of labour between  
the sexes in the  search for food was   

that the men killed the game and caught 
the salmon1  while the women dug the    
roots and brought in most of the        
vegetable food1  though the men helped  
them to gather acorns1 nuts1 and        
berries47#djj7 ,among  the ,indians of  
,san ,juan ,capistrano in ,california1  
while the men passed  their time in     
fowling1 fishing1 dancing1 and lounging1
 8the women were  obliged to gather     
seeds in the fields1 prepare them for   
cooking1 and to  perform all the meanest
 offices1 as well as the most laborious4
 ,it was  painful in the extreme1 to    
behold them1 with their infants hanging 
upon  their shoulders1 groping about in 
search of herbs or seeds1 and exposed as
  they frequently were to the inclemency
 of the weather407#dja7 ,yet these  rude
 savages possessed a calendar containing
 directions as to the seasons  for      
collecting the different seeds and      
produce of the earth4 ,the calendar     
consisted of lunar months corrected by  
observation of the solstices1 8for  at  

the conclusion of the moon in ,december1
 that is1 at the conjunction1  they     
calculated the return of the sun from   
the tropic of ,capricorn2 and  another  
year commenced1 the ,indian saying #8the
 sun has arrived at his  home4' 444     
,they observed with greater attention   
and celebrated with more  pomp1 the     
sun's arrival at the tropic of          
,capricorn than they did his  reaching  
the tropic of ,cancer1 for the reason1  
that1 as they were situated  ten degrees
 from the latter1 they were pleased at  
the sun's approach  towards them2 for it
 returned to ripen their fruits and     
seeds1 to give  warmth to the           
atmosphere1 and enliven again the fields
 with beauty and  increase40 ,however1  
the knowledge of the calendar was       
limited to the  puplem or general       
council of the tribe1 who sent criers to
 make  proclamation when the time had   
come to go forth and gather the seeds   
and  other produce of the earth4 ,in    
their calculations they were assisted by

 a  pul or astrologer1 who observed the 
aspect of the moon47#djb7 ,when we      
consider that these rude ,californian   
savages1 destitute alike of  agriculture
 and of the other arts of civilised     
life1 yet succeeded in  forming for     
themselves a calendar based on          
observation both of the moon  and of the
 sun1 we need not hesitate to ascribe to
 the immeasurably more  advanced ,greeks
 at the dawn of history the knowledge of
 a somewhat more  elaborate calendar    
founded on a cycle of eight solar       
years47#djc7    7,m#id7 ,among the      
equally rude aborigines of ,australia1  
to whom agriculture  in every form was  
totally unknown1 the division of labour 
between the  sexes in regard to the     
collection of food appears to have been 
similar4  ,while the men hunted game1   
the labour of gathering and preparing   
the  vegetable food fell chiefly to the 
women4 ,thus with regard to the         
,encounter ,bay tribe of ,south         
,australia we are told that while the   

men  busied themselves1 according to the
 season1 either with fishing or with    
hunting emus1 opossums1 kangaroos1 and  
so forth1 the women and children        
searched for roots and plants47#djd7    
,again1 among the natives of ,western   
,australia 8it is generally considered  
the province of women to dig roots1  and
 for this purpose they carry a long1    
pointed stick1 which is held in  the    
right hand1 and driven firmly into the  
ground1 where it is shaken1 so  as to   
loosen the earth1 which is scooped up   
and thrown out with the  fingers of the 
left hand1 and in this manner they dig  
with great rapidity4  ,but the labour1  
in proportion to the amount obtained1 is
 great4 ,to get a  yam about half an    
inch in circumference and a foot in     
length1 they have to  dig a hole above a
 foot square and two feet in depth2 a   
considerable  portion of the time of the
 women and children is1 therefore1      
passed in  this employment4 ,if the men 
are absent upon any expedition1 the     

females  are left in charge of one who  
is old or sick2 and in traversing the   
bush  you often stumble on a large party
 of them1 scattered about in the forest1
  digging roots and collecting the      
different species of fungus407#dje7 ,in 
fertile districts1 where the yams which 
the aborigines use as food grow         
abundantly1 the ground may sometimes be 
seen riddled with holes made by  the    
women in their search for these edible  
roots4 ,thus to quote ,sir ,george      
,grey3 8,we now crossed the dry bed of a
 stream1 and from that emerged upon  a  
tract of light fertile soil1 quite      
overrun with warran yam plants1  the    
root of which is a favourite article of 
food with the natives4 ,this  was the   
first time we had yet seen this plant on
 our journey1 and now for  three and a  
half consecutive miles we traversed a   
fertile piece of land1  literally       
perforated with the holes the natives   
had made to dig this root2  indeed we   
could with difficulty walk across it on 

that account1 whilst  this tract        
extended east and west as far as we     
could see407#djf7 ,again1 in  the valley
 of the ,lower ,murray ,river a kind of 
yam 7,microseris ,forsteri7  grew       
plentifully and was easily found in the 
spring and early summer1 when  the roots
 were dug up out of the earth by the    
women and children4 ,the root  is small 
and of a sweetish taste and grows       
throughout the greater part of          
,australia outside the tropics2 on the  
alpine pastures of the high  ,australian
 mountains it attains to a much larger  
size and furnishes a not  unpalatable   
food47#djg7 ,but the women gather edible
 herbs and seeds as well  as roots2 and 
at evening they may be seen trooping in 
to the camp1 each  with a great bundle  
of sow-thistles1 dandelions1 or trefoil 
on her  head17#djh7 or carrying wooden  
vessels filled with seeds1 which they   
afterwards grind up between stones and  
knead into a paste with water or  bake  
into cakes47#dji7 ,among the aborigines 

of central ,victoria1 while the  men    
hunted1 the women dug up edible roots   
and gathered succulent  vegetables1 such
 as the young tops of the munya1 the    
sow-thistle1 and  several kinds of      
fig-marigold4 ,the implement which they 
used to dig up  roots with was a pole   
seven or eight feet long1 hardened in   
the fire and  pointed at the end1 which 
also served them as a weapon both of    
defence and  of offence47#daj7 ,among   
the tribes of ,central ,australia the   
principal  vegetable food is the seed of
 a species of ,claytonia1 called by     
white men  munyeru1 which the women     
gather in large quantities and winnow by
  pouring the little black seeds from   
one vessel to another so as to let the  
wind blow the loose husks away47#daa7   
7,m#ie7 ,in these customs observed by   
savages who are totally ignorant of     
agriculture we may perhaps detect some  
of the steps by which mankind have      
advanced from the enjoyment of the wild 
fruits of the earth to the  systematic  

cultivation of plants4 ,for an effect of
 digging up the earth in  the search for
 roots has probably been in many cases  
to enrich and  fertilise the soil and so
 to increase the crop of roots or herbs2
 and such  an increase would naturally  
attract the natives in larger numbers   
and  enable them to subsist for longer  
periods on the spot without being       
compelled by the speedy exhaustion of   
the crop to shift their quarters and    
wander away in search of fresh supplies4
 ,moreover1 the winnowing of the  seeds 
on ground which had thus been turned up 
by the digging-sticks of the  women     
would naturally contribute to the same  
result4 ,for though savages at  the     
level of the ,californian ,indians and  
the aborigines of ,australia have  no   
idea of using seeds for any purpose but 
that of immediate consumption1  and it  
has never occurred to them to incur a   
temporary loss for the sake  of a future
 gain by sowing them in the ground1 yet 
it is almost certain  that in the       

process of winnowing the seeds as a     
preparation for eating  them many of the
 grains must have escaped and1 being    
wafted by the wind1  have fallen on the 
upturned soil and borne fruit4 ,thus by 
the operations  of turning up the ground
 and winnowing the seed1 though neither 
operation  aimed at anything beyond     
satisfying the immediate pangs of       
hunger1 savage  man or rather savage    
woman was unconsciously preparing for   
the whole  community a future and more  
abundant store of food1 which would     
enable  them to multiply and to abandon 
the old migratory and wasteful manner of
  life for a more settled and economic  
mode of existence4 ,so curiously        
sometimes does man1 aiming his shafts at
 a near but petty mark1 hit a  greater  
and more distant target4    7,m#if7 ,on 
the whole1 then1 it appears highly      
probable that as a consequence  of a    
certain natural division of labour      
between the sexes women have            
contributed more than men towards the   

greatest advance in economic  history1  
namely1 the transition from a nomadic to
 a settled life1 from a  natural to an  
artificial basis of subsistence4        
7,m#ig7 ,among the ,aryan peoples of    
,europe the old practice of hoeing the  
ground as a preparation for sowing      
appears to have been generally replaced 
at a very remote period by the far more 
effective process of  ploughing27#dab7  
and as the labour of ploughing          
practically necessitates  the employment
 of masculine strength1 it is hardly to 
be expected that in  ,europe many traces
 should remain of the important part    
formerly played by  women in primitive  
agriculture4 ,however1 we are told that 
among the  ,iberians of ,spain and the  
,athamanes of ,epirus the women tilled  
the  ground17#dac7 and that among the   
ancient ,germans the care of the fields 
was  left to the women and old          
men47#dad7 ,but these indications of an 
age when  the cultivation of the ground 
was committed mainly to feminine hands  

are  few and slight2 and if the ,greek  
conception of ,demeter as a goddess of  
corn and agriculture really dates from  
such an age and was directly  suggested 
by such a division of labour between the
 sexes1 it seems clear  that its origin 
must be sought at a period far back in  
the history of the  ,aryan race1 perhaps
 long before the segregation of the     
,greeks from the  common stock and their
 formation into a separate people4 ,it  
may be so1 but  to me ,i confess that   
this derivation of the conception       
appears somewhat  far-fetched and       
improbable2 and ,i prefer to suppose    
that the idea of the  corn as feminine  
was suggested to the ,greek mind1 not by
 the position of  women in remote       
prehistoric ages1 but by a direct       
observation of nature1  the teeming head
 of corn appearing to the primitive     
fancy to resemble the  teeming womb of a
 woman1 and the ripe ear on the stalk   
being likened to a  child borne in the  
arms or on the back of its mother4 ,at  

least we know  that similar sights      
suggest similar ideas to some of the    
agricultural  negroes of ,west ,africa4 
,thus the ,hos of ,togoland1 who plant  
maize in  ,february and reap it in      
,july1 say that the maize is an image of
 a mother2  when the cobs are forming1  
the mother is binding the infant on her 
back1  but in ,july she sinks her head  
and dies and the child is taken away    
from  her1 to be afterwards multiplied  
at the next sowing47#dae7 ,when the rude
  aborigines of ,western ,australia     
observe that a seed-bearing plant has   
flowered1 they call it the ,mother of   
,so-and-so1 naming the particular kind  
of plant1 and they will not allow it to 
be dug up47#daf7 ,apparently they  think
 that respect and regard are due to the 
plant as to a mother and her  child4    
,such simple and natural comparisons1   
which may occur to men in any  age and  
country1 suffice to explain the ,greek  
personification of the corn  as mother  
and daughter1 and we need not cast about

 for more recondite  theories4 ,be that 
as it may1 the conception of the corn as
 a woman and a  mother was certainly not
 peculiar to the ancient ,greeks1 but   
has been  shared by them with many other
 races1 as will appear abundantly from  
the  instances which ,i shall cite in   
the following chapter4                  
,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,corn-,,mother     
,,and ,,the ,,corn-,,maiden ,,in        
,,northern ,,europe4      7,m#ih7 ,it   
has been argued by ,w4 ,mannhardt that  
the first part of ,demeter's  name is   
derived from an alleged ,cretan word    
deai1 8barley10 and that  accordingly   
,demeter means neither more nor less    
than 8,barley-mother0 or                
8,corn-mother027#dag7 for the root of   
the word seems to have been applied to  
different kinds of grain by different   
branches of the ,aryans47#dah7 ,as      
,crete appears to have been one of the  
most ancient seats of the worship of    
,demeter17#dai7 it would not be         
surprising if her name were of ,cretan  

origin4 ,but the etymology is open to   
serious objections17#dbj7 and it is     
safer therefore to lay no stress on it4 
,be that as it may1 we have found       
independent reasons for identifying     
,demeter as the ,corn-mother1 and of the
  two species of corn associated with   
her in ,greek religion1 namely barley   
and wheat1 the barley has perhaps the   
better claim to be her original         
element2 for not only would it seem to  
have been the staple food of the        
,greeks in the ,homeric age1 but there  
are grounds for believing that it is    
one of the oldest1 if not the very      
oldest1 cereal cultivated by the ,aryan 
race4 ,certainly the use of barley in   
the religious ritual of the ancient     
,hindoos as well as of the ancient      
,greeks furnishes a strong argument in  
favour of the great antiquity of its    
cultivation1 which is known to have     
been practised by the lake-dwellers of  
the ,stone ,age in ,europe47#dba7       
,analogies to the ,corn-mother or       

,barley-mother of ancient ,greece have  
been  collected in great abundance by   
,w4 ,mannhardt from the folk-lore of    
modern  ,europe4 ,the following may     
serve as specimens4    7,m#ii7 ,in      
,germany the corn is very commonly      
personified under the name of  the      
,corn-mother4 ,thus in spring1 when the 
corn waves in the wind1 the  peasants   
say1 8,there comes the ,corn-mother10 or
 8,the ,corn-mother is  running over the
 field10 or 8,the ,corn-mother is going 
through the  corn407#dbb7 ,when children
 wish to go into the fields to pull the 
blue  corn-flowers or the red poppies1  
they are told not to do so1 because the 
,corn-mother is sitting in the corn and 
will catch them47#dbc7 ,or again she  is
 called1 according to the crop1 the     
,rye-mother or the ,pea-mother1 and     
children are warned against straying in 
the rye or among the peas by  threats of
 the ,rye-mother or the ,pea-mother4 ,in
 ,norway also the ,pea-mother  is said  
to sit among the peas47#dbd7 ,similar   

expressions are current among  the      
,slavs4 ,the ,poles and ,czechs warn    
children against the ,corn-mother who   
sits in the corn4 ,or they call her the 
old ,corn-woman1 and say that she  sits 
in the corn and strangles the children  
who tread it down47#dbe7 ,the           
,lithuanians say1 8,the ,old ,rye-woman 
sits in the corn407#dbf7 ,again the     
,corn-mother is believed to make the    
crop grow4 ,thus in the neighbourhood   
of ,magdeburg it is sometimes said1 8,it
 will be a good year for flax2 the      
,flax-mother has been seen40 ,at        
,dinkelsbhl1 in ,bavaria1 down to the   
latter  part of the nineteenth century1 
people believed that when the crops on a
  particular farm compared unfavourably 
with those of the neighbourhood1 the    
reason was that the ,corn-mother had    
punished the farmer for his sins47#dbg7 
,in a village of ,styria it is said that
 the ,corn-mother1 in the shape of a    
female puppet made out of the last sheaf
 of corn and dressed in white1 may  be  

seen at midnight in the corn-fields1    
which she fertilises by passing  through
 them2 but if she is angry with a       
farmer1 she withers up all his          
corn47#dbh7    7,m#ajj7 ,further1 the   
,corn-mother plays an important part in 
harvest  customs4 ,she is believed to be
 present in the handful of corn which is
  left standing last on the field2 and  
with the cutting of this last handful   
she is caught1 or driven away1 or       
killed4 ,in the first of these cases1   
the  last sheaf is carried joyfully home
 and honoured as a divine being4 ,it is 
placed in the barn1 and at threshing the
 corn-spirit appears again47#dbi7  ,in  
the ,hanoverian district of ,hadeln the 
reapers stand round the last  sheaf and 
beat it with sticks in order to drive   
the ,corn-mother out of it4  ,they call 
to each other1 8,there she is6 hit her6 
,take care she doesn't  catch you60 ,the
 beating goes on till the grain is      
completely threshed out2  then the      
,corn-mother is believed to be driven   

away47#dcj7 ,in the  neighbourhood of   
,danzig the person who cuts the last    
ears of corn makes  them into a doll1   
which is called the ,corn-mother or the 
,old ,woman and is  brought home on the 
last waggon47#dca7 ,in some parts of    
,holstein the last  sheaf is dressed in 
woman's clothes and called the          
,corn-mother4 ,it is  carried home on   
the last waggon1 and then thoroughly    
drenched with water4  ,the drenching    
with water is doubtless a               
rain-charm47#dcb7 ,in the district  of  
,bruck in ,styria the last sheaf1 called
 the ,corn-mother1 is made up into  the 
shape of a woman by the oldest married  
woman in the village1 of an age  from   
fifty to fifty-five years4 ,the finest  
ears are plucked out of it and  made    
into a wreath1 which1 twined with       
flowers1 is carried on her head by  the 
prettiest girl of the village to the    
farmer or squire1 while the             
,corn-mother is laid down in the barn to
 keep off the mice47#dcc7 ,in other     

villages of the same district the       
,corn-mother1 at the close of harvest1  
is  carried by two lads at the top of a 
pole4 ,they march behind the girl who   
wears the wreath to the squire's house1 
and while he receives the wreath  and   
hangs it up in the hall1 the            
,corn-mother is placed on the top of a  
pile of wood1 where she is the centre of
 the harvest supper and dance4          
,afterwards she is hung up in the barn  
and remains there till the threshing  is
 over4 ,the man who gives the last      
stroke at threshing is called the son   
of the ,corn-mother2 he is tied up in   
the ,corn-mother1 beaten1 and carried   
through the village4 ,the wreath is     
dedicated in church on the following    
,sunday2 and on ,easter ,eve the grain  
is rubbed out of it by a                
seven-years-old girl and scattered      
amongst the young corn4 ,at ,christmas  
the straw of the wreath is placed in the
 manger to make the cattle              
thrive47#dcd7 ,here the fertilising     

power of the ,corn-mother is plainly    
brought out by scattering the seed taken
 from her body 7for the wreath is  made 
out of the ,corn-mother7 among the new  
corn2 and her influence over  animal    
life is indicated by placing the straw  
in the manger4 ,at  ,westerhsen1 in     
,saxony1 the last corn cut is made in   
the shape of a woman  decked with       
ribbons and cloth4 ,it is fastened to a 
pole and brought home  on the last      
waggon4 ,one of the people in the waggon
 keeps waving the pole1  so that the    
figure moves as if alive4 ,it is placed 
on the threshing-floor1  and stays there
 till the threshing is done47#dce7      
,amongst the ,slavs also  the last sheaf
 is known as the ,rye-mother1 the       
,wheat-mother1 the  ,oats-mother1 the   
,barley-mother1 and so on1 according to 
the crop4 ,in the  district of ,tarnow1 
,galicia1 the wreath made out of the    
last stalks is  called the              
,wheat-mother1 ,rye-mother1 or          
,pea-mother4 ,it is placed on a  girl's 

head and kept till spring1 when some of 
the grain is mixed with the             
seed-corn47#dcf7 ,here again the        
fertilising power of the ,corn-mother is
  indicated4 ,in ,france1 also1 in the  
neighbourhood of ,auxerre1 the last     
sheaf goes by the name of the ,mother of
 the ,wheat1 ,mother of the ,barley1    
,mother of the ,rye1 or ,mother of the  
,oats4 ,they leave it standing in the   
field till the last waggon is about to  
wend homewards4 ,then they make a       
puppet out of it1 dress it with clothes 
belonging to the farmer1 and adorn  it  
with a crown and a blue or white scarf4 
,a branch of a tree is stuck in  the    
breast of the puppet1 which is now      
called the ,ceres4 ,at the dance in  the
 evening the ,ceres is set in the middle
 of the floor1 and the reaper  who      
reaped fastest dances round it with the 
prettiest girl for his  partner4 ,after 
the dance a pyre is made4 ,all the      
girls1 each wearing a  wreath1 strip the
 puppet1 pull it to pieces1 and place it

 on the pyre1  along with the flowers   
with which it was adorned4 ,then the    
girl who was  the first to finish       
reaping sets fire to the pile1 and all  
pray that ,ceres  may give a fruitful   
year4 ,here1 as ,mannhardt observes1 the
 old custom has  remained intact1 though
 the name ,ceres is a bit of            
schoolmaster's  learning47#dcg7 ,in     
,upper ,brittany the last sheaf is      
always made into human  shape2 but if   
the farmer is a married man1 it is made 
double and consists  of a little        
corn-puppet placed inside of a large    
one4 ,this is called the  ,mother-sheaf4
 ,it is delivered to the farmer's wife1 
who unties it and  gives drink-money in 
return47#dch7    7,m#aja7 ,sometimes the
 last sheaf is called1 not the          
,corn-mother1 but the  ,harvest-mother  
or the ,great ,mother4 ,in the province 
of ,osnabrck1 ,hanover1  it is called   
the ,harvest-mother2 it is made up in   
female form1 and then  the reapers dance
 about with it4 ,in some parts of       

,westphalia the last  sheaf at the      
rye-harvest is made especially heavy by 
fastening stones in  it4 ,they bring it 
home on the last waggon and call it the 
,great ,mother1  though they do not     
fashion it into any special shape4 ,in  
the district of  ,erfurt a very heavy   
sheaf1 not necessarily the last1 is     
called the ,great  ,mother1 and is      
carried on the last waggon to the barn1 
where all hands  lift it down amid a    
fire of jokes47#dci7    7,m#ajb7        
,sometimes again the last sheaf is      
called the ,grandmother1 and is  adorned
 with flowers1 ribbons1 and a woman's   
apron4 ,in ,east ,prussia1 at  the rye  
or wheat harvest1 the reapers call out  
to the woman who binds the  last sheaf1 
8,you are getting the ,old              
,grandmother40 ,in the neighbourhood of 
,magdeburg the men and women servants   
strive who shall get the last sheaf1    
called the ,grandmother4 ,whoever gets  
it will be married in the next year1    
but his or her spouse will be old2 if a 

girl gets it1 she will marry a  widower2
 if a man gets it1 he will marry an old 
crone4 ,in ,silesia the  ,grandmother--a
 huge bundle made up of three or four   
sheaves by the person  who tied the last
 sheaf--was formerly fashioned into a   
rude likeness of the  human form47#ddj7 
,in the neighbourhood of ,belfast the   
last sheaf sometimes  goes by the name  
of the ,granny4 ,it is not cut in the   
usual way1 but all  the reapers throw   
their sickles at it and try to bring it 
down4 ,it is  plaited and kept till the 
7next87 autumn4 ,whoever gets it will   
marry in  the course of the year47#dda7 
7,m#ajc7 ,oftener the last sheaf is     
called the ,old ,woman or the ,old ,man4
 ,in  ,germany it is frequently shaped  
and dressed as a woman1 and the person  
who  cuts it or binds it is said to 8get
 the ,old ,woman407#ddb7 ,at ,altisheim1
 in  ,swabia1 when all the corn of a    
farm has been cut except a single strip1
  all the reapers stand in a row before 
the strip2 each cuts his share  rapidly1

 and he who gives the last cut 8has the 
,old ,woman407#ddc7 ,when the  sheaves  
are being set up in heaps1 the person   
who gets hold of the ,old  ,woman1 which
 is the largest and thickest of all the 
sheaves1 is jeered at  by the rest1 who 
call out to him1 8,he has the ,old      
,woman and must keep  her407#ddd7 ,the  
woman who binds the last sheaf is       
sometimes herself called  the ,old      
,woman1 and it is said that she will be 
married in the next  year47#dde7 ,in    
,neusaass1 ,west ,prussia1 both the last
 sheaf--which is dressed  up in jacket1 
hat1 and ribbons--and the woman who     
binds it are called the  ,old ,woman4   
,together they are brought home on the  
last waggon and are  drenched with      
water47#ddf7 ,in various parts of ,north
 ,germany the last sheaf  at harvest is 
made up into a human effigy and called  
8the ,old ,man02 and  the woman who     
bound it is said 8to have the ,old      
,man407#ddg7 ,at ,hornkampe1  near      
,tiegenhof 7,west ,prussia71 when a man 

or woman lags behind the rest in        
binding the corn1 the other reapers     
dress up the last sheaf in the form of  
a man or woman1 and this figure goes by 
the laggard's name1 as 8the old         
,michael10 8the idle ,trine40 ,it is    
brought home on the last waggon1 and1 as
  it nears the house1 the bystanders    
call out to the laggard1 8,you have got 
the ,old ,woman and must keep           
her407#ddh7 ,in ,brandenburg the young  
folks on  the harvest-field race towards
 a sheaf and jump over it4 ,the last to 
jump  over it has to carry a straw      
puppet1 adorned with ribbons1 to the    
farmer  and deliver it to him while he  
recites some verses4 ,of the person who 
thus  carries the puppet it is said that
 8he has the ,old ,man40 ,probably the  
puppet is or used to be made out of the 
last corn cut47#ddi7 ,in many  districts
 of ,saxony the last sheaf used to be   
adorned with ribbons and set  upright so
 as to look like a man4 ,it was then    
known as 8the ,old ,man10 and  the young

 women brought it back in procession to 
the farm1 singing as they  went1 8,now  
we are bringing the ,old ,man407#dej7   
7,m#ajd7 ,in ,west ,prussia1 when the   
last rye is being raked together1 the   
women and girls hurry with the work1 for
 none of them likes to be the last  and 
to get 8the ,old ,man10 that is1 a      
puppet made out of the last sheaf1      
which must be carried before the other  
reapers by the person who was the  last 
to finish47#dea7 ,in ,silesia the last  
sheaf is called the ,old ,woman or  the 
,old ,man and is the theme of many      
jests2 it is made unusually large and   
is sometimes weighted with a stone4 ,at 
,girlachsdorf1 near ,reichenbach1  when 
this heavy sheaf is lifted into the     
waggon1 they say1 8,that is the  ,old   
,man whom we sought for so long407#deb7 
,among the ,germans of ,west  ,bohemia  
the man who cuts the last corn is said  
to 8have the ,old ,man40 ,in  former    
times it used to be customary to put a  
wreath on his head and to  play all     

kinds of pranks with him1 and at the    
harvest supper he was given  the largest
 portion47#dec7 ,at ,wolletz in         
,westphalia the last sheaf at  harvest  
is called the ,old ,man1 and being made 
up into the likeness of a  man and      
decorated with flowers it is presented  
to the farmer1 who in  return prepares a
 feast for the reapers4 ,about ,unna1 in
 ,westphalia1 the  last sheaf at harvest
 is made unusually large1 and stones are
 inserted to  increase its weight4 ,it  
is called de greaute meaur 7the ,grey   
,mother871  and when it is brought home 
on the waggon water is thrown on the    
harvesters who accompany it47#ded7      
,among the ,wends the man or woman who  
binds the last sheaf at wheat harvest is
 said to 8have the ,old ,man40 ,a       
puppet is made out of the wheaten straw 
and ears in the likeness of a man  and  
decked with flowers4 ,the person who    
bound the last sheaf must carry  the    
,old ,man home1 while the rest laugh and
 jeer at him4 ,the puppet is hung  up in

 the farmhouse and remains till a new   
,old ,man is made at the next           
harvest47#dee7 ,at the close of the     
harvest the ,arabs of ,moab bury the    
last  sheaf in a grave in the cornfield1
 saying as they do so1 8,we are burying 
the ,old ,man10 or 8,the ,old ,man is   
dead407#def7    7,m#aje7 ,in some of    
these customs1 as ,mannhardt has        
remarked1 the person who  is called by  
the same name as the last sheaf and sits
 beside it on the  last waggon is       
obviously identified with it2 he or she 
represents the  corn-spirit which has   
been caught in the last sheaf2 in other 
words1 the  corn-spirit is represented  
in duplicate1 by a human being and by a 
sheaf47#deg7 ,the identification of the 
person with the sheaf is made still     
clearer by the custom of wrapping up in 
the last sheaf the person who cuts  or  
binds it4 ,thus at ,hermsdorf in        
,silesia it used to be the regular      
practice to tie up in the last sheaf the
 woman who had bound it47#deh7 ,at      

,weiden1 in ,bavaria1 it is the cutter1 
not the binder1 of the last sheaf  who  
is tied up in it47#dei7 ,here the person
 wrapt up in the corn represents  the   
corn-spirit1 exactly as a person wrapt  
in branches or leaves  represents the   
tree-spirit47#dfj7    7,m#ajf7 ,the last
 sheaf1 designated as the ,old ,woman1  
is often distinguished  from the other  
sheaves by its size and weight4 ,thus in
 some villages of  ,west ,prussia the   
,old ,woman is made twice as long and   
thick as a common  sheaf1 and a stone is
 fastened in the middle of it4          
,sometimes it is made  so heavy that a  
man can barely lift it47#dfa7 ,at       
,alt-,pillau1 in ,samland1  eight or    
nine sheaves are often tied together to 
make the ,old ,woman1 and  the man who  
sets it up grumbles at its weight47#dfb7
 ,at ,itzgrund1 in  ,saxe-,coburg1 the  
last sheaf1 called the ,old ,woman1 is  
made large with the  express intention  
of thereby securing a good crop next    
year47#dfc7 ,thus the  custom of making 

the last sheaf unusually large or heavy 
is a charm1  working by sympathetic     
magic1 to ensure a large and heavy crop 
at the  following harvest4 ,in ,denmark 
also the last sheaf is made larger than 
the  others1 and is called the ,old     
,rye-woman or the ,old ,barley-woman4   
,no one  likes to bind it1 because      
whoever does so will be sure1 they      
think1 to  marry an old man or an old   
woman4 ,sometimes the last wheat-sheaf1 
called  the ,old ,wheat-woman1 is made  
up in human shape1 with head1 arms1 and 
legs1  and being dressed in clothes is  
carried home on the last waggon1 while  
the  harvesters sit beside it drinking  
and huzzaing47#dfd7 ,of the person who  
binds the last sheaf it is said1 8,she  
or he is the ,old ,rye-woman407#dfe7    
7,m#ajg7 ,in ,scotland1 when the last   
corn was cut after ,hallowmas1 the      
female  figure made out of it was       
sometimes called the ,carlin or         
,carline1 that is1  the ,old ,woman4    
,but if cut before ,hallowmas1 it was   

called the ,maiden2 if  cut after       
sunset1 it was called the ,witch1 being 
supposed to bring bad  luck47#dff7      
,among the ,highlanders of ,scotland the
 last corn cut at harvest  is known     
either as the ,old ,wife 7,cailleach7 or
 as the ,maiden2 on the  whole the      
former name seems to prevail in the     
western and the latter in  the central  
and eastern districts4 ,of the ,maiden  
we shall speak presently2  here we are  
dealing with the ,old ,wife4 ,the       
following general account of  the custom
 is given by a careful and well-informed
 enquirer1 the ,rev4 ,j4  ,g4 ,campbell1
 minister of the remote ,hebridean      
island of ,tiree3 8,the  ,harvest ,old  
,wife 7a ,chailleach74--,in harvest1    
there was a struggle to  escape from    
being the last done with the            
shearing17#dfg7 and when tillage  in    
common existed1 instances were known of 
a ridge being left unshorn 7no  person  
would claim it7 because of it being     
behind the rest4 ,the fear  entertained 

was that of having the #8famine of the  
farm' 7gort a bhaile71  in the shape of 
an imaginary old woman 7cailleach71 to  
feed till next  harvest4 ,much emulation
 and amusement arose from the fear of   
this old  woman4444 ,the first done made
 a doll of some blades of corn1 which   
was  called the #8old wife1' and sent it
 to his nearest neighbour4 ,he in turn1 
when ready1 passed it to another still  
less expeditious1 and the person it     
last remained with had #8the old woman' 
to keep for that year407#dfh7           
7,m#ajh7 ,to illustrate the custom by   
examples1 in ,bernera1 on the west of   
,lewis1 the harvest rejoicing goes by   
the name of the ,old ,wife  7,cailleach7
 from the last sheaf cut1 whether in a  
township1 farm1 or  croft4 ,where there 
are a number of crofts beside each      
other1 there is  always great rivalry as
 to who shall first finish reaping1 and 
so have the  ,old ,wife before his      
neighbours4 ,some people even go out on 
a clear night  to reap their fields     

after their neighbours have retired to  
rest1 in order  that they may have the  
,old ,wife first4 ,more neighbourly     
habits1 however1  usually prevail1 and  
as each finishes his own fields he goes 
to the help  of another1 till the whole 
crop is cut4 ,the reaping is still done 
with the  sickle4 ,when the corn has    
been cut on all the crofts1 the last    
sheaf is  dressed up to look as like an 
old woman as possible4 ,she wears a     
white  cap1 a dress1 an apron1 and a    
little shawl over the shoulders fastened
  with a sprig of heather4 ,the apron is
 tucked up to form a pocket1 which is   
stuffed with bread and cheese4 ,a       
sickle1 stuck in the string of the apron
  at the back1 completes her equipment4 
,this costume and outfit mean that  the 
,old ,wife is ready to bear a hand in   
the work of harvesting4 ,at the  feast  
which follows1 the ,old ,wife is placed 
at the head of the table1 and  as the   
whisky goes round each of the company   
drinks to her1 saying1  8,here's to the 

one that has helped us with the         
harvest40 ,when the table  has been     
cleared away and dancing begins1 one of 
the lads leads out the  ,old ,wife and  
dances with her2 and if the night is    
fine the party will  sometimes go out   
and march in a body to a considerable   
distance1 singing  harvest-songs1 while 
one of them carries the ,old ,wife on   
his back4 ,when  the ,harvest-,home is  
over1 the ,old ,wife is shorn of her    
gear and used for  ordinary             
purposes47#dfi7 ,in the island of ,islay
 the last corn cut also goes  by the    
name of the ,old ,wife 7,cailleach71 and
 when she has done her duty  at harvest 
she is hung up on the wall and stays    
there till the time comes  to plough the
 fields for the next year's crop4 ,then 
she is taken down1 and  on the first day
 when the men go to plough she is       
divided among them by  the mistress of  
the house4 ,they take her in their      
pockets and give her to  the horses to  
eat when they reach the field4 ,this is 

supposed to secure  good luck for the   
next harvest1 and is understood to be   
the proper end of  the ,old ,wife47#dgj7
 ,in ,kintyre also the name of the ,old 
,wife is given to  the last corn        
cut47#dga7 ,on the shores of the        
beautiful ,loch ,awe1 a long  sheet of  
water1 winding among soft green hills1  
above which the giant ,ben  ,cruachan   
towers bold and rugged on the north1 the
 harvest custom is  somewhat different4 
,the name of the ,old ,wife 7,cailleach7
 is here  bestowed1 not on the last corn
 cut1 but on the reaper who is the last 
to  finish4 ,he bears it as a term of   
reproach1 and is not privileged to reap 
the last ears left standing4 ,on the    
contrary1 these are cut by the reaper   
who was the first to finish his spagh or
 strip 7literally 8claw071 and  out of  
them is fashioned the ,maiden1 which is 
afterwards hung up1  according to one   
statement1 8for the purpose of          
preventing the death of  horses in      
spring407#dgb7 ,in the north-east of    

,scotland 8the one who took  the last of
 the grain from the field to the        
stackyard was called the  #8winter4'    
,each one did what could be done to     
avoid being the last on the  field1 and 
when there were several on the field    
there was a race to get  off4 ,the      
unfortunate #8winter' was the subject of
 a good deal of teasing1  and was       
dressed up in all the old clothes that  
could be gathered about the  farm1 and  
placed on the #8bink' to eat his        
supper407#dgc7 ,so in ,caithness  the   
person who cuts the last sheaf is called
 ,winter and retains the name  till the 
next harvest47#dgd7    7,m#aji7 ,usages 
of the same sort are reported from      
,wales4 ,thus in ,north  ,pembrokeshire 
a tuft of the last corn cut1 from six to
 twelve inches long1  is plaited and    
goes by the name of the ,hag 7wrach72   
and quaint old  customs used to be      
practised with it within the memory of  
many persons  still alive4 ,great was   
the excitement among the reapers when   

the last  patch of standing corn was    
reached4 ,all in turn threw their       
sickles at it1  and the one who         
succeeded in cutting it received a jug  
of home-brewed ale4  ,the ,hag 7wrach7  
was then hurriedly made and taken to a  
neighbouring  farm1 where the reapers   
were still busy at their work4 ,this was
 generally  done by the ploughman2 but  
he had to be very careful not to be     
observed by  his neighbours1 for if they
 saw him coming and had the least       
suspicion of  his errand they would soon
 make him retrace his steps4 ,creeping  
stealthily  up behind a fence he waited 
till the foreman of his neighbour's     
reapers  was just opposite him and      
within easy reach4 ,then he suddenly    
threw the  ,hag over the fence and1 if  
possible1 upon the foreman's sickle1    
crying out          8,boreu y codais i1 
,hwyr y dilynais i1      ,ar ei gwar    
hi40      7,m#aaj7 ,on that he took to  
his heels and made off as fast as he    
could run1  and he was a lucky man if he

 escaped without being caught or cut by 
the  flying sickles which the infuriated
 reapers hurled after him4 ,in other    
cases the ,hag was brought home to the  
farmhouse by one of the reapers4 ,he    
did his best to bring it home dry and   
without being observed2 but he was  apt 
to be roughly handled by the people of  
the house1 if they suspected  his       
errand4 ,sometimes they stripped him of 
most of his clothes1 sometimes  they    
would drench him with water which had   
been carefully stored in  buckets and   
pans for the purpose4 ,if1 however1 he  
succeeded in bringing  the ,hag in dry  
and unobserved1 the master of the house 
had to pay him a  small fine2 or        
sometimes a jug of beer 8from the cask  
next to the wall10  which seems to have 
commonly held the best beer1 would be   
demanded by the  bearer4 ,the ,hag was  
then carefully hung on a nail in the    
hall or elsewhere  and kept there all   
the year4 ,the custom of bringing in the
 ,hag 7wrach7  into the house and       

hanging it up still exists in some farms
 of ,north  ,pembrokeshire1 but the     
ancient ceremonies which have just been 
described  are now discontinued47#dge7  
,similar customs at harvest were        
observed in ,south ,pembrokeshire within
  living memory4 ,in that part of the   
country there used to be a competition  
between neighbouring farms to see which 
would finish reaping first4 ,the        
foreman of the reapers planned so as to 
finish the reaping in a corner of  the  
field out of sight of the people on the 
next farm4 ,there1 with the  last       
handful of corn cut1 he would make two  
,old ,women or ,hags 7wrachs74  ,one of 
them he would send by a lad or other    
messenger to be laid secretly  in the   
field where the neighbours were still at
 work cutting their corn4  ,the         
messenger would disguise himself to look
 like a stranger1 and jumping  the fence
 and creeping through the corn he would 
lay the ,hag 7wrach7 in  a place where  
the reapers in reaping would be sure to 

find it4 ,having done  so he fled for   
dear life1 for were the reapers to catch
 him they would  shut him up in a dark  
room and not let him out till he had    
cleaned all the  muddy boots1 shoes1 and
 clogs in the house4 ,the second ,hag   
7wrach7 was  sent or taken by the       
foreman of the reapers to his master's  
farmhouse4  ,generally he tried to pop  
into the house unseen and lay the ,hag  
on the  kitchen table2 but if the people
 of the farm caught him before he laid  
it  down1 they used to drench him with  
water4 ,if a foreman succeeded in       
getting both the ,hags 7wrachs7 laid    
safe in their proper quarters1 one  at  
home1 the other on a neighbour's farm1  
without interruption1 it was  deemed a  
great honour47#dgf7 ,in ,county ,antrim1
 down to some years ago1 when  the      
sickle was finally expelled by the      
reaping machine1 the few stalks of  corn
 left standing last on the field were   
plaited together2 then the  reapers1    
blindfolded1 threw their sickles at the 

plaited corn1 and whoever  happened to  
cut it through took it home with him and
 put it over his door4  ,this bunch of  
corn was called the                     
,carley7#dgg7--probably the same word as
  ,carlin4    7,m#aaa7 ,similar customs 
are observed by ,slavonic peoples4 ,thus
 in ,poland  the last sheaf is commonly 
called the ,baba1 that is1 the ,old     
,woman4 8,in  the last sheaf10 it is    
said1 8sits the ,baba40 ,the sheaf      
itself is also  called the ,baba1 and is
 sometimes composed of twelve smaller   
sheaves  lashed together47#dgh7 ,in some
 parts of ,bohemia the ,baba1 made out  
of the  last sheaf1 has the figure of a 
woman with a great straw hat4 ,it is    
carried home on the last harvest-waggon 
and delivered1 along with a  garland1 to
 the farmer by two girls4 ,in binding   
the sheaves the women  strive not to be 
last1 for she who binds the last sheaf  
will have a child  next year47#dgi7 ,the
 last sheaf is tied up with others into 
a large bundle1  and a green branch is  

stuck on the top of it47#dhj7 ,sometimes
 the  harvesters call out to the woman  
who binds the last sheaf1 8,she has the 
,baba10 or 8,she is the ,baba40 ,she has
 then to make a puppet1 sometimes in    
female1 sometimes in male form1 out of  
the corn2 the puppet is  occasionally   
dressed with clothes1 often with flowers
 and ribbons only4  ,the cutter of the  
last stalks1 as well as the binder of   
the last sheaf1  was also called ,baba2 
and a doll1 called the ,harvest-woman1  
was made out  of the last sheaf and     
adorned with ribbons4 ,the oldest reaper
 had to  dance1 first with this doll1   
and then with the farmer's wife47#dha7  
,in the  district of ,cracow1 when a man
 binds the last sheaf1 they say1 8,the  
,grandfather is sitting in it02 when a  
woman binds it1 they say1 8,the ,baba   
is sitting in it10 and the woman herself
 is wrapt up in the sheaf1 so that  only
 her head projects out of it4 ,thus     
encased in the sheaf1 she is  carried on
 the last harvest-waggon to the house1  

where she is drenched  with water by the
 whole family4 ,she remains in the sheaf
 till the dance is  over1 and for a year
 she retains the name of ,baba47#dhb7   
7,m#aab7 ,in ,lithuania the name for the
 last sheaf is ,boba 7,old ,woman71     
answering to the ,polish name ,baba4    
,the ,boba is said to sit in the corn   
which is left standing last47#dhc7 ,the 
person who binds the last sheaf or  digs
 the last potato is the subject of much 
banter1 and receives and long  retains  
the name of the ,old ,rye-woman or the  
,old ,potato-woman47#dhd7 ,the  last    
sheaf--the ,boba--is made into the form 
of a woman1 carried solemnly  through   
the village on the last harvest-waggon1 
and drenched with water at  the farmer's
 house2 then every one dances with      
it47#dhe7    7,m#aac7 ,in ,russia also  
the last sheaf is often shaped and      
dressed as a  woman1 and carried with   
dance and song to the farmhouse4 ,out of
 the last  sheaf the ,bulgarians make a 
doll which they call the ,corn-queen or 

,corn-mother2 it is dressed in a woman's
 shirt1 carried round the village1  and 
then thrown into the river in order to  
secure plenty of rain and dew  for the  
next year's crop4 ,or it is burned and  
the ashes strewn on the  fields1        
doubtless to fertilise them47#dhf7 ,the 
name ,queen1 as applied to  the last    
sheaf1 has its analogies in central and 
northern ,europe4 ,thus1 in  the        
,salzburg district of ,austria1 at the  
end of the harvest a great  procession  
takes place1 in which a ,queen of the   
,corn-ears 7hrenknigin7  is drawn along 
in a little carriage by young           
fellows47#dhg7 ,the custom of  the      
,harvest ,queen appears to have been    
common in ,england4 ,brand quotes  from 
,hutchinson's ,history of               
,northumberland the following3 8,i have 
seen1  in some places1 an image         
apparelled in great finery1 crowned with
 flowers1  a sheaf of corn placed under 
her arm1 and a scycle in her hand1      
carried  out of the village in the      

morning of the conclusive reaping day1  
with  music and much clamour of the     
reapers1 into the field1 where it stands
  fixed on a pole all day1 and when the 
reaping is done1 is brought home in     
like manner4 ,this they call the        
,harvest ,queen1 and it represents the  
,roman  ,ceres407#dhh7 ,again1 the      
traveller ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke tells us 
that 8even in  the town of ,cambridge1  
and centre of our ,university1 such     
curious remains  of antient customs may 
be noticed1 in different seasons of the 
year1 which  pass without observation4  
,the custom of blowing horns upon the   
first of  ,may 7,old ,style7 is derived 
from a festival in honour of ,diana4 ,at
 the  ,hawkie1 as it is called1 or      
,harvest ,home1 ,i have seen a clown    
dressed in  woman's clothes1 having his 
face painted1 his head decorated with   
ears of  corn1 and bearing about him    
other symbols of ,ceres1 carried in a   
waggon1  with great pomp and loud       
shouts1 through the streets1 the horses 

being  covered with white sheets3 and   
when ,i inquired the meaning of the     
ceremony1 was answered by the people    
that they were drawing the ,morgay  7 7 
or ,harvest ,queen407#dhi7 ,milton must 
have been familiar with the  custom of  
the ,harvest ,queen1 for in ,paradise   
,lost7#dij7 he says3--                  
8,adam the while      ,waiting desirous 
her return1 had wove      ,of choicest  
flow'rs a garland to adorn      ,her    
tresses1 and her rural labours crown1   
,as reapers oft are wont their          
harvest-queen40      7,m#aad7 ,often    
customs of this sort are practised1 not 
on the harvest-field  but on the        
threshing-floor4 ,the spirit of the     
corn1 fleeing before the  reapers as    
they cut down the ripe grain1 quits the 
reaped corn and takes  refuge in the    
barn1 where it appears in the last sheaf
 threshed1 either to  perish under the  
blows of the flail or to flee thence to 
the still  unthreshed corn of a         
neighbouring farm47#dia7 ,thus the last 

corn to be  threshed is called the      
,mother-,corn or the ,old ,woman4       
,sometimes the person  who gives the    
last stroke with the flail is called the
 ,old ,woman1 and is  wrapt in the straw
 of the last sheaf1 or has a bundle of  
straw fastened on  his back4 ,whether   
wrapt in the straw or carrying it on his
 back1 he is  carted through the village
 amid general laughter4 ,in some        
districts of  ,bavaria1 ,thringen1 and  
elsewhere1 the man who threshes the last
 sheaf is  said to have the ,old ,woman 
or the ,old ,corn-woman2 he is tied up  
in straw1  carried or carted about the  
village1 and set down at last on the    
dunghill1  or taken to the              
threshing-floor of a neighbouring farmer
 who has not  finished his              
threshing47#dib7 ,in ,poland the man who
 gives the last stroke  at threshing is 
called ,baba 7,old ,woman72 he is wrapt 
in corn and wheeled  through the        
village47#dic7 ,sometimes in ,lithuania 
the last sheaf is not  threshed1 but is 

fashioned into female shape and carried 
to the barn of a  neighbour who has not 
finished his threshing47#did7           
7,m#aae7 ,at ,chorinchen1 near          
,neustadt1 the man who gives the last   
stroke at  threshing is said to 8get the
 ,old ,man407#die7 ,in various parts of 
,austrian  ,silesia he is called the    
corn-fool1 the oats-fool1 and so forth  
according  to the crop1 and retains the 
name till the next kind of grain has    
been  reaped4 ,sometimes he is called   
the ,klppel or mallet4 ,he is much      
ridiculed and in the ,bennisch district 
he is dressed out in the                
threshing-implements and obliged to     
carry them about the farmyard to the    
amusement of his fellows4 ,in           
,dobischwald the man who gives the last 
stroke  at threshing has to carry a log 
or puppet of wood wrapt in straw to a   
neighbour who has not yet finished his  
threshing4 ,there he throws his  burden 
into the barn1 crying1 8,there you have 
the ,mallet 7,klppel710 and  makes off  

as fast as he can4 ,if they catch him1  
they tie the puppet on his  back1 and he
 is known as the ,mallet 7,klppel7 for  
the whole of the year2  he may be the   
,corn-mallet or the ,wheat-mallet or so 
forth according to the  particular      
crop47#dif7    7,m#aaf7 ,about ,berneck1
 in ,upper ,franken1 the man who gives  
the last stroke  at threshing runs away4
 ,if the others catch him1 he gets 8the 
,old ,woman10  that is1 the largest     
dumpling1 which elsewhere is baked in   
human shape4  ,the custom of setting a  
dumpling baked in the form of an old    
woman before  the man who has given the 
last stroke at threshing is also        
observed in  various parts of ,middle   
,franken4 ,sometimes the excised        
genitals of a calf  are served up to him
 at table47#dig7 ,at ,langenbielau in   
,silesia the last  sheaf1 which is      
called 8the ,old ,man10 is threshed     
separately and the corn  ground into    
meal and baked into a loaf4 ,this loaf  
is believed to possess  healing virtue  

and to bring a blessing2 hence none but 
members of the  family may partake of   
it4 ,at ,wittichenau1 in the district of
 ,hoyerswerda  7,silesia71 when the     
threshing is ended1 some of the straw of
 8the ,old ,man0  is carried to a       
neighbour who has not yet finished his  
threshing1 and the  bearer is rewarded  
with a gratuity47#dih7 ,among the       
,germans of the  ,falkenauer district in
 ,west ,bohemia the man who gives the   
last stroke at  threshing gets 8the ,old
 ,man10 a hideous scarecrow1 tied on his
 back4 ,if  threshing is still          
proceeding at another farm1 he may go   
thither and rid  himself of his burden1 
but must take care not to be caught4 ,in
 this way a  farmer who is behind-hand  
with his threshing may receive several  
such  scarecrows1 and so become the     
target for many gibes4 ,among the       
,germans of  the ,planer district in    
,west ,bohemia1 the man who gives the   
last stroke at  threshing is himself    
called 8the ,old ,man40 ,similarly at   

flax-dressing in  ,silberberg 7,west    
,bohemia71 the woman who is the last to 
finish her task is  said to get the ,old
 ,man1 and a cake baked in human form is
 served up to  her at supper47#dii7 ,the
 ,wends of ,saxony say of the man who   
gives the last  stroke at threshing that
 8he has struck the ,old ,man0 7wn je   
stareho  bil71 and he is obliged to     
carry a straw puppet to a neighbour1 who
 has  not yet finished his threshing1   
where he throws the puppet unobserved   
over  the fence47#ejj7 ,in some parts of
 ,sweden1 when a stranger woman appears 
on  the threshing-floor1 a flail is put 
round her body1 stalks of corn are      
wound round her neck1 a crown of ears is
 placed on her head1 and the  threshers 
call out1 8,behold the ,corn-woman40    
,here the stranger woman1 thus  suddenly
 appearing1 is taken to be the          
corn-spirit who has just been  expelled 
by the flails from the                  
corn-stalks47#eja7 ,in other cases the  
farmer's wife represents the            

corn-spirit4 ,thus in the ,commune of   
,salign1  ,canton de ,poiret 7,vende71  
the farmer's wife1 along with the last  
sheaf1  is tied up in a sheet1 placed on
 a litter1 and carried to the threshing 
machine1 under which she is shoved4     
,then the woman is drawn out and the    
sheaf is threshed by itself1 but the    
woman is tossed in the sheet1 as if  she
 were being winnowed47#ejb7 ,it would be
 impossible to express more  clearly the
 identification of the woman with the   
corn than by this graphic  imitation of 
threshing and winnowing her4 ,mitigated 
forms of the custom  are observed in    
various places4 ,thus among the ,germans
 of ,schttarschen in  ,west ,bohemia it 
was customary at the close of the       
threshing to 8throttle0  the farmer's   
wife by squeezing her neck between the  
arms of a flail till  she consented to  
bake a special kind of cake called a    
drischala 7from  dreschen1 8to          
thresh0747#ejc7 ,a similar custom of    
8throttling0 the  farmer's wife at the  

threshing is practised in some parts of 
,bavaria1 only  there the pressure is   
applied by means of a straw rope instead
 of a  flail47#ejd7    7,m#aag7 ,in     
these customs the spirit of the ripe    
corn is regarded as old1 or  at least as
 of mature age4 ,hence the names of     
,mother1 ,grandmother1 ,old  ,woman1 and
 so forth4 ,but in other cases the      
corn-spirit is conceived as  young4     
,thus at ,saldern1 near ,wolfenbuttel1  
when the rye has been reaped1  three    
sheaves are tied together with a rope so
 as to make a puppet with  the corn ears
 for a head4 ,this puppet is called the 
,maiden or the  ,corn-maiden            
7,kornjungfer747#eje7 ,sometimes the    
corn-spirit is conceived  as a child who
 is separated from its mother by the    
stroke of the sickle4  ,this last view  
appears in the ,polish custom of calling
 out to the man who  cuts the last      
handful of corn1 8,you have cut the     
navel-string407#ejf7 ,in  some districts
 of ,west ,prussia the figure made out  

of the last sheaf is  called the        
,bastard1 and a boy is wrapt up in it4  
,the woman who binds the  last sheaf and
 represents the ,corn-mother is told    
that she is about to be  brought to bed2
 she cries like a woman in travail1 and 
an old woman in the  character of       
grandmother acts as midwife4 ,at last a 
cry is raised that the  child is born2  
whereupon the boy who is tied up in the 
sheaf whimpers and  squalls like an     
infant4 ,the grandmother wraps a sack1  
in imitation of  swaddling bands1 round 
the pretended baby1 who is carried      
joyfully to the  barn1 lest he should   
catch cold in the open air47#ejg7 ,in   
other parts of  ,north ,germany the last
 sheaf1 or the puppet made out of it1 is
 called the  ,child1 the                
,harvest-,child1 and so on1 and they    
call out to the woman who  binds the    
last sheaf1 8you are getting the        
child407#ejh7    7,m#aah7 ,in the north 
of ,england1 particularly in the        
counties of  ,northumberland1 ,durham1  

and ,yorkshire1 the last corn cut on the
 field at  harvest is or used to be     
variously known as the mell or the kirn1
 of  which kern and churn are merely    
local or dialectical variations4 ,the   
corn so cut is either plaited or made up
 into a doll-like figure1 which  goes by
 the name of the mell-doll or the       
kirn-doll1 or the kirn-baby1 and  is    
brought home with rejoicings at the end 
of the harvest47#eji7 ,in the  ,north   
,riding of ,yorkshire the last sheaf    
gathered in is called the  ,mell-sheaf1 
and the expression 8,we've gotten wer   
mell0 is as much as to  say 8,the       
,harvest is finished40 ,formerly a      
,mell-doll was made out of a  sheaf of  
corn decked with flowers and wrapped in 
such of the reapers'  garments as could 
be spared4 ,it was carried with music   
and dancing to the  scene of the        
harvest-supper1 which was called the    
mell-supper47#eaj7 ,in the  north of    
,yorkshire the mell-sheaf 8was          
frequently made of such dimensions  as  

to be a heavy load for a man1 and1      
within a few years comparatively1  was  
proposed as the prize to be won in a    
race of old women4 ,in other cases  it  
was carefully preserved and set up in   
some conspicuous place in the           
farmhouse407#eaa7 ,where the last sheaf 
of corn cut was called the kirn or  kern
 instead of the mell1 the customs       
concerned with it seem to have  been    
essentially similar4 ,thus we are told  
that in the north it was common  for the
 reapers1 on the last day of the        
reaping1 8to have a contention for      
superiority in quickness of dispatch1   
groups of three or four taking each  a  
ridge1 and striving which should soonest
 get to its termination4 ,in  ,scotland1
 this was called a kemping1 which simply
 means a striving4 ,in  the north of    
,england1 it was a mell4444 ,as the     
reapers went on during  the last day1   
they took care to leave a good handful  
of the grain uncut1  but laid down flat1
 and covered over2 and1 when the field  

was done1 the  #8bonniest lass' was     
allowed to cut this final handful1 which
 was presently  dressed up with various 
sewings1 tyings1 and trimmings1 like a  
doll1 and  hailed as a ,corn ,baby4 ,it 
was brought home in triumph1 with music 
of  fiddles and bagpipes1 was set up    
conspicuously that night at supper1 and 
was usually preserved in the farmer's   
parlour for the remainder of the  year4 
,the bonny lass who cut this handful of 
grain was deemed the ,har'st            
,queen047#eab7 ,to cut the last portion 
of standing corn in the harvest  field  
was known as 8to get the kirn0 or 8to   
win the kirn02 and as soon as  this was 
done the reapers let the neighbours know
 that the harvest was  finished by      
giving three cheers1 which was called   
8to cry or shout the  kirn407#eac7      
,where the last handful of standing corn
 was called the  churn1 the stalks were 
roughly plaited together1 and the       
reapers threw  their sickles at it till 
some one cut it through1 which was      

called  8cutting the churn40 ,the       
severed churn 7that is1 the plaited     
corn7 was  then placed over the kitchen 
door or over the hob in the chimney for 
good  luck1 and as a charm against      
witchcraft47#ead7 ,in ,kent the ,ivy    
,girl is1 or  used to be1 8a figure     
composed of some of the best corn the   
field  produces1 and made as well as    
they can into a human shape2 this is    
afterwards curiously dressed by the     
women1 and adorned with paper           
trimmings1 cut to resemble a cap1       
ruffles1 handkerchief1 etc41 of the     
finest lace4 ,it is brought home with   
the last load of corn from the field    
upon the waggon1 and they suppose       
entitles them to a supper at the expense
  of the employer407#eae7    7,m#aai7   
,in some parts of ,scotland1 as well as 
in the north of ,england1 the  last     
handful of corn cut on the harvest-field
 was called the kirn1 and  the person   
who carried it off was said 8to win the 
kirn40 ,it was then  dressed up like a  

child's doll and went by the name of the
 kirn-baby1 the  kirn-doll1 or the      
,maiden47#eaf7 ,in ,berwickshire down to
 about the middle of  the nineteenth    
century there was an eager competition  
among the reapers to  cut the last bunch
 of standing corn4 ,they gathered round 
it at a little  distance and threw their
 sickles in turn at it1 and the man who 
succeeded  in cutting it through gave it
 to the girl he preferred4 ,she made the
 corn  so cut into a kirn-dolly and     
dressed it1 and the doll was then taken 
to  the farmhouse and hung up there till
 the next harvest1 when its place was   
taken by the new kirn-dolly47#eag7 ,at  
,spottiswoode 7,westruther ,parish7 in  
,berwickshire the reaping of the last   
corn at harvest was called 8cutting  the
 ,queen0 almost as often as 8cutting the
 kirn40 ,the mode of cutting it  was not
 by throwing sickles4 ,one of the       
reapers consented to be  blindfolded1   
and having been given a sickle in his   
hand and turned twice  or thrice about  

by his fellows1 he was bidden to go and 
cut the kirn4 ,his  groping about and   
making wild strokes in the air with his 
sickle excited  much hilarity4 ,when he 
had tired himself out in vain and given 
up the task  as hopeless1 another reaper
 was blindfolded and pursued the quest1 
and so  on1 one after the other1 till at
 last the kirn was cut4 ,the successful 
reaper was tossed up in the air with    
three cheers by his brother  harvesters4
 ,to decorate the room in which the     
kirn-supper was held at  ,spottiswoode  
as well as the granary1 where the       
dancing took place1 two  women made     
kirn-dollies or ,queens every year2 and 
many of these rustic  effigies of the   
corn-spirit might be seen hanging up    
together47#eah7 ,at  ,lanfine in        
,ayrshire1 down to near the end of the  
nineteenth century1 the  last bunch of  
standing corn at harvest was1           
occasionally at least1 plaited          
together1 and the reapers tried to cut  
it by throwing their sickles at it2     

when they failed in the attempt1 a woman
 has been known to run in and  sever the
 stalks at a blow4 ,in ,dumfriesshire   
also1 within living memory1  it used to 
be customary to cut the last standing   
corn by throwing the  sickles at        
it47#eai7    7,m#abj7 ,in the north of  
,ireland the harvest customs were       
similar1 but  there1 as in some parts of
 ,england1 the last patch of standing   
corn bore  the name of the churn1 a     
dialectical variation of kirn4 8,the    
custom of  #8,winning the ,churn' was   
prevalent all through the counties of   
,down and  ,antrim fifty years ago4 ,it 
was carried out at the end of the       
harvest1 or  reaping the grain1 on each 
farm or holding1 were it small or large4
 ,oats  are the main crop of the        
district1 but the custom was the same   
for other  kinds of grain4 ,when the    
reapers had nearly finished the last    
field a  handful of the best-grown      
stalks was selected1 carefully plaited  
as it  stood1 and fastened at the top   

just under the ears to keep the plait in
  place4 ,then when all the corn was cut
 from about this1 which was known as    
,the ,churn1 and the sheaves about it   
had been removed to some distance1  the 
reapers stood in a group about ten yards
 off it1 and each whirled his  sickle at
 the ,churn till one lucky one succeeded
 in cutting it down1  when he was       
cheered on his achievement4 ,this person
 had then the right of  presenting it to
 the master or mistress of the farm1 who
 gave the reaper a  shilling40 ,a supper
 and a dance of the reapers in the      
farmhouse often  concluded the day4 ,the
 ,churn1 trimmed and adorned with       
ribbons1 was hung  up on a wall in the  
farmhouse and carefully preserved4 ,it  
was no uncommon  sight to see six or    
even twelve or more such ,churns        
decorating the walls  of a farmhouse in 
,county ,down or ,antrim47#ebj7         
7,m#aba7 ,in some parts of the          
,highlands of ,scotland the last handful
 of corn  that is cut by the reapers on 

any particular farm is called the       
,maiden1 or  in ,gaelic ,maidhdeanbuain1
 literally 8the shorn ,maiden40         
,superstitions  attach to the winning of
 the ,maiden4 ,if it is got by a young  
person1 they  think it an omen that he  
or she will be married before another   
harvest4  ,for that or other reasons    
there is a strife between the reapers as
 to who  shall get the ,maiden1 and they
 resort to various stratagems for the   
purpose of securing it4 ,one of them1   
for example1 will often leave a  handful
 of corn uncut and cover it up with     
earth to hide it from the other         
reapers1 till all the rest of the corn  
on the field is cut down4 ,several  may 
try to play the same trick1 and the one 
who is coolest and holds out  longest   
obtains the coveted distinction4 ,when  
it has been cut1 the ,maiden  is dressed
 with ribbons into a sort of doll and   
affixed to a wall of the  farmhouse4 ,in
 the north of ,scotland the ,maiden is  
carefully preserved till  ,yule morning1

 when it is divided among the cattle to 
make them thrive all  the year          
round47#eba7 ,in the island of ,mull and
 some parts of the mainland  of         
,argyleshire the last handful of corn   
cut is called the ,maiden               
7,maighdean-,bhuana74 ,near ,ardrishaig1
 in ,argyleshire1 the ,maiden is made   
up in a fanciful three-cornered shape1  
decorated with ribbons1 and hung  from a
 nail on the wall47#ebb7    7,m#abb7    
,the following account of the ,maiden   
was obtained in the summer of  #ahig    
from the manager of a farm near         
,kilmartin in ,argyleshire3 8,the       
,mhaighdean-,bhuana1 or ,reaping        
,maiden1 was the last sheaf of oats to  
be  cut on a croft or farm4 ,before the 
reaping-machine and binder took the     
place of the sickle and the scythe1 the 
young reapers of both sexes1 when  they 
neared the end of the last rig or field1
 used to manuvre to gain  possession of 
the ,mhaighdean-,bhuana4 ,the individual
 who was fortunate  enough to obtain it 

was ex officio entitled to be the ,king 
or the ,queen  of the ,harvest-,home    
festival4 ,the sheaf so designated was  
carefully  preserved and kept intact    
until the day they began leading home   
the corn4  ,a tuft of it was then given 
to each of the horses1 as they started  
from  the corn-field with their first   
load4 ,the rest of it was neatly made   
up1  and hung in some conspicuous corner
 of the farmhouse1 where it remained    
till it was replaced by a younger sister
 next season4 ,on the first day of      
ploughing a tuft of it was given 7as on 
the first day of leading home the  corn7
 as a ,sainnseal or handsel for luck to 
the horses4 ,the  ,mhaighdean-,bhuana so
 preserved and used was a symbol that   
the harvest  had been duly secured1 and 
that the spring work had been properly  
inaugurated4 ,it was also believed to be
 a protection against fairies and       
witchcraft407#ebc7    7,m#abc7 ,in the  
parish of ,longforgan1 situated at the  
south-eastern corner  of ,perthshire1 it

 used to be customary to give what was  
called the ,maiden  ,feast at the end of
 the harvest4 ,the last handful of corn 
reaped on the  field was called the     
,maiden1 and things were generally so   
arranged that it  fell into the hands of
 a pretty girl4 ,it was then decked out 
with ribbons  and brought home in       
triumph to the music of bagpipes and    
fiddles4 ,in the  evening the reapers   
danced and made merry4 ,afterwards the  
,maiden was  dressed out1 generally in  
the form of a cross1 and hung up1 with  
the date  attached to it1 in a          
conspicuous part of the house47#ebd7 ,in
 the  neighbourhood of ,balquhidder1    
,perthshire1 the last handful of corn is
 cut  by the youngest girl on the field1
 and is made into the rude form of a    
female doll1 clad in a paper dress1 and 
decked with ribbons4 ,it is called  the 
,maiden1 and is kept in the farmhouse1  
generally above the chimney1 for  a good
 while1 sometimes till the ,maiden of   
the next year is brought in4  ,the      

writer of this book witnessed the       
ceremony of cutting the ,maiden at      
,balquhidder in ,september #ahhh47ebe7  
,a lady friend7#ebf7 informed me that as
  a young girl she cut the ,maiden      
several times at the request of the     
reapers in the neighbourhood of ,perth4 
,the name of the ,maiden was given to   
the last handful of standing corn2 a    
reaper held the top of the bunch  while 
she cut it4 ,afterwards the bunch was   
plaited1 decked with ribbons1  and hung 
up in a conspicuous place on the wall of
 the kitchen till the  next ,maiden was 
brought in4 ,the harvest-supper in this 
neighbourhood was  also called the      
,maiden2 the reapers danced at it4      
7,m#abd7 ,in the ,highland district of  
,lochaber dancing and merry-making on   
the last night of harvest used to be    
universal and are still generally       
observed4 ,here1 we are told1 the       
festivity without the ,maiden would be  
like a wedding without the bride4 ,the  
,maiden is carried home with  tumultuous

 rejoicing1 and after being suitably    
decorated is hung up in the  barn1 where
 the dancing usually takes place4 ,when 
supper is over1 one of  the company1    
generally the oldest man present1 drinks
 a glass of whisky1  after turning to   
the suspended sheaf and saying1 8,here's
 to the ,maiden40  ,the company follow  
his example1 each in turn drinking to   
the ,maiden4 ,then  the dancing         
begins47#ebg7 ,on some farms on the     
,gareloch1 in ,dumbartonshire1  about   
the year #ahcj1 the last handful of     
standing corn was called the  ,maiden4  
,it was divided in two1 plaited1 and    
then cut with the sickle by a  girl1    
who1 it was thought1 would be lucky and 
would soon be married4 ,when  it was cut
 the reapers gathered together and threw
 their sickles in the  air4 ,the ,maiden
 was dressed with ribbons and hung in   
the kitchen near the  roof1 where it was
 kept for several years with the date   
attached4  ,sometimes five or six       
,maidens might be seen hanging at once  

on hooks4 ,the  harvest-supper was      
called the ,kirn47#ebh7 ,in other farms 
on the ,gareloch  the last handful of   
corn was called the ,maidenhead or the  
,head2 it was  neatly plaited1 sometimes
 decked with ribbons1 and hung in the   
kitchen for  a year1 when the grain was 
given to the poultry47#ebi7    7,m#abe7 
,in the north-east of ,aberdeenshire the
 customs connected with the  last corn  
cut at harvest have been carefully      
collected and recorded by the  late     
,rev4 ,walter ,gregor of ,pitsligo4 ,his
 account runs as follows3 8,the  last   
sheaf cut is the object of much care3   
the manner of cutting it1  binding it1  
and carrying it to the house varies a   
little in the different  districts4 ,the
 following customs have been reported to
 me by people who  have seen them or who
 have practised them1 and some of the   
customs have  now disappeared4 ,the     
information comes from the parishes of  
,pitsligo1  ,aberdour1 and ,tyrie1      
situated in the north-east corner of the

 county of  ,aberdeen1 but the customs  
are not limited to these parishes4      
8,some particulars relating to the sheaf
 may be noted as always the same2  thus 
7a7 it is cut and gathered by the       
youngest person present in the  field1  
the person who is supposed to be the    
purest2 7b7 the sheaf is not  allowed to
 touch the ground2 7c7 it is made up and
 carried in triumph to  the house2 7d7  
it occupies a conspicuous place in the  
festivals which  follow the end of the  
reaping2 7e7 it is kept till ,christmas 
morning1  and is then given to one or   
more of the horses or to the cattle of  
the  farm4    7,m#abf7 8,before the     
introduction of the scythe1 the corn was
 cut by the  sickle or heuck1 a kind of 
curved sickle4 ,the last sheaf was shorn
 or  cut by the youngest girl present4  
,as the corn might not touch the ground1
  the master or #8gueedman' sat down1   
placed the band on his knees1 and       
received thereupon each handful as it   
was cut4 ,the sheaf was bound1  dressed 

as a woman1 and when it had been brought
 to the house1 it was  placed in some   
part of the kitchen1 where everybody    
could see it during  the meal which     
followed the end of the reaping4 ,this  
sheaf was called the  clyack            
sheaf47#ecj7    8,the manner of         
receiving and binding the last sheaf is 
not always the  same4 ,here is another3 
three persons hold the band in their    
hands1 one of  them at each end1 while  
the third holds the knot in the middle4 
,each  handful of corn is placed so that
 the cut end is turned to the breast of 
those who support the ears on the       
opposite side4 ,when all is cut1 the    
youngest boy ties the knot4 ,two other  
bands are fastened to the sheaf1 one    
near the cut end1 the other near the    
ears4 ,the sheaf is carried to the      
house by those who have helped to cut or
 bind it 7,aberdour74    8,since the    
introduction of the scythe1 it is the   
youngest boy who cuts the  last sheaf2  
my informant 7a woman7 told me that when

 he was not strong  enough to wield the 
scythe1 his hand was guided by another4 
,the youngest  girl gathers it4 ,when it
 is bound with three bands1 it is cut   
straight1  and it is not allowed to     
touch the ground4 ,the youngest girls   
carry it to  the house4 ,my informant 7a
 woman7 told me that she had seen it    
decked and  placed at the head of the   
bed4 ,formerly1 and still sometimes1    
there was  always a bed in the kitchen  
7,tyrie74    8,the corn is not allowed  
to fall on the ground3 the young girls  
who gather  it take it by the ear and   
convey it handful by handful1 till the  
whole  sheaf is cut4 ,a woman who #8has 
lost a feather of her wing1' as an old  
woman put it to me1 may not touch it4   
,sometimes also they merely put the  two
 hands round the sheaf 7,new ,deer74    
7,m#abg7 8,generally a feast and dance  
follow when all the wheat is cut4 ,this 
feast and dance bear the name of clyack 
or #8meal and ale4' ,however1 some      
people do not give #8meal and ale' till 

all the cut corn has been got in3  then 
the feast is called #8the ,winter' and  
they say that a farmer #8has the        
,winter' when all his sheaves have been 
carried home4    8,at this feast two    
things are indispensable3 a cheese      
called the  clyack-kebback and #8meal   
and ale4'    8,the cheese clyack-kebback
 must be cut by the master of the house4
 ,the  first slice is larger than the   
rest2 it is known by the name of #8the  
kanave's faang1'--the young man's big   
slice--and is generally the share of    
the herd boy 7,tyrie74    8,the dish    
called #8meal and ale' is made as       
follows4 ,you take a suitable  vessel1  
whether an earthenware pot or a         
milk-bowl1 if the crockery is  scanty2  
but if on the contrary the family is    
well off1 they use other  special       
utensils4 ,in each dish ale is poured   
and treacle is added to  sweeten it4    
,then oatmeal is mixed with the         
sweetened ale till the whole is  of a   
sufficient consistency4 ,the cook adds  

whisky to the mixture in such           
proportion as she thinks fit4 ,in each  
plate is put a ring4 ,to allow the  meal
 time to be completely absorbed1 the    
dish is prepared on the morning  of the 
feast4 ,at the moment of the feast the  
dish or dishes containing the  strong   
and savoury mixture are set on the      
middle of the table4 ,but it is  not    
served up till the end4 ,six or seven   
persons generally have a plate to       
themselves4 ,each of them plunges his   
spoon into the plate as fast as         
possible in the hope of getting the     
ring2 for he who is lucky enough to  get
 it will be married within the year4    
,meantime some of the stuff is          
swallowed1 but often in the struggle    
some of it is spilt on the table or  the
 floor4    7,m#abh7 8,in some districts 
there used to be and still is dancing in
 the  evening of the feast4 #8,the      
sheaf' figured in the dances4 ,it was   
dressed as  a girl and carried on the   
back of the mistress of the house to the

 barn or  granary which served as a     
ballroom4 ,the mistress danced a reel   
with #8the  sheaf' on her back4         
7,m#abi7 8,the woman who gave me this   
account had been a witness of what she  
described when she was a girl4 ,the     
sheaf was afterwards carefully stored   
till the first day of ,christmas1 when  
it was given to eat to a mare in  foal1 
if there was one on the farm1 or1 if    
there was not1 to the oldest  cow in    
calf4 ,elsewhere the sheaf was divided  
between all the cows and  their calves  
or between all the horses and the cattle
 of the farm4  7,related by an          
eye-witness4707#eca7    7,m#acj7 ,in    
these ,aberdeenshire customs the        
sanctity attributed to the last  corn   
cut at harvest is clearly manifested1   
not merely by the ceremony with  which  
it is treated on the field1 in the      
house1 and in the barn1 but also  by the
 great care taken to prevent it from    
touching the ground or being  handled by
 any unchaste person4 ,the reason why   

the youngest person on the  field1      
whether a girl or a boy1 is chosen to   
cut the last standing corn  and         
sometimes to carry it to the house is no
 doubt a calculation that the  younger  
the person the more likely is he or she 
to be sexually pure4 ,we  have seen that
 for this reason some negroes entrust   
the sowing of the seed  to very young   
girls17#ecb7 and later on we shall meet 
with more evidence in  ,africa of the   
notion that the corn may be handled only
 by the pure47#ecc7  ,and in the gruel  
of oat-meal and ale1 which the          
harvesters sup with spoons  as an       
indispensable part of the harvest       
supper1 have we not the ,scotch         
equivalent of the gruel of barley-meal  
and water1 flavoured with  pennyroyal1  
which the initiates at ,eleusis drank as
 a solemn form of  communion with the   
,barley ,goddess ,demeter87#ecd7 ,may   
not that mystic  sacrament have         
originated in a simple harvest supper   
held by ,eleusinian  farmers at the end 

of the reaping8    ,according to a      
briefer account of the ,aberdeenshire   
custom1 8the last  sheaf cut1 or        
#8maiden1' is carried home in merry     
procession by the  harvesters4 ,it is   
then presented to the mistress of the   
house1 who dresses  it up to be         
preserved till the first mare foals4    
,the maiden is then taken  down and     
presented to the mare as its first food4
 ,the neglect of this  would have       
untoward effects upon the foal1 and     
disastrous consequences  upon farm      
operations generally for the            
season407#ece7 ,in ,fifeshire the last  
handful of corn1 known as the ,maiden1  
is cut by a young girl and made into    
the rude figure of a doll1 tied with    
ribbons1 by which it is hung on the     
wall of the farm-kitchen till the next  
spring47#ecf7 ,the custom of cutting    
the ,maiden at harvest was also observed
 in ,inverness-shire and                
,sutherlandshire47#ecg7    7,m#aca7 ,a  
somewhat maturer but still youthful age 

is assigned to the  corn-spirit by the  
appellations of ,bride1 ,oats-bride1 and
 ,wheat-bride1  which in ,germany are   
sometimes bestowed both on the last     
sheaf and on the  woman who binds       
it47#ech7 ,at wheat-harvest near        
,mglitz1 in ,moravia1 a  small portion  
of the wheat is left standing after all 
the rest has been  reaped4 ,this remnant
 is then cut1 amid the rejoicing of the 
reapers1 by a  young girl who wears a   
wreath of wheaten ears on her head and  
goes by the  name of the ,wheat-bride4  
,it is supposed that she will be a real 
bride that  same year47#eci7 ,in the    
upland valley of ,alpach1 in ,north     
,tyrol1 the person  who brings the last 
sheaf into the granary is said to have  
the ,wheat-bride  or the ,rye-bride     
according to the crop1 and is received  
with great  demonstrations of respect   
and rejoicing4 ,the people of the farm  
go out to  meet him1 bells are rung1 and
 refreshments offered to him on a       
tray47#edj7  ,in ,austrian ,silesia a   

girl is chosen to be the ,wheat-bride1  
and much  honour is paid to her at the  
harvest-festival47#eda7 ,near ,roslin   
and  ,stonehaven1 in ,scotland1 the last
 handful of corn cut 8got the name of   
#8the bride1' and she was placed over   
the bress or chimney-piece2 she had  a  
ribbon tied below her numerous ears1 and
 another round her  waist407#edb7       
7,m#acb7 ,sometimes the idea implied by 
the name of ,bride is worked out more   
fully by representing the productive    
powers of vegetation as bride and       
bridegroom4 ,thus in the ,vorharz an    
,oats-man and an ,oats-woman1 swathed in
  straw1 dance at the harvest           
feast47#edc7 ,in ,south ,saxony an      
,oats-bridegroom  and an ,oats-bride    
figure together at the harvest          
celebration4 ,the  ,oats-bridegroom is a
 man completely wrapt in oats-straw2 the
 ,oats-bride is  a man dressed in       
woman's clothes1 but not wrapt in straw4
 ,they are drawn  in a waggon to the    
ale-house1 where the dance takes place4 

,at the  beginning of the dance the     
dancers pluck the bunches of oats one by
 one  from the ,oats-bridegroom1 while  
he struggles to keep them1 till at last 
he  is completely stript of them and    
stands bare1 exposed to the laughter and
  jests of the company47#edd7 ,in       
,austrian ,silesia the ceremony of 8the 
,wheat-bride0 is celebrated by the young
 people at the end of the harvest4  ,the
 woman who bound the last sheaf plays   
the part of the ,wheat-bride1  wearing  
the harvest-crown of wheat ears and     
flowers on her head4 ,thus  adorned1    
standing beside her ,bridegroom in a    
waggon and attended by  bridesmaids1 she
 is drawn by a pair of oxen1 in full    
imitation of a  marriage procession1 to 
the tavern1 where the dancing is kept up
 till  morning4 ,somewhat later in the  
season the wedding of the ,oats-bride is
  celebrated with the like rustic pomp4 
,about ,neisse1 in ,silesia1 an         
,oats-king and an ,oats-queen1 dressed  
up quaintly as a bridal pair1 are       

seated on a harrow and drawn by oxen    
into the village47#ede7    7,m#acc7 ,in 
these last instances the corn-spirit is 
personified in double  form as male and 
female4 ,but sometimes the spirit       
appears in a double  female form as both
 old and young1 corresponding exactly to
 the ,greek  ,demeter and ,persephone1  
if my interpretation of these goddesses 
is right4  ,we have seen that in        
,scotland1 especially among the         
,gaelic-speaking  population1 the last  
corn cut is sometimes called the ,old   
,wife and  sometimes the ,maiden4 ,now  
there are parts of ,scotland in which   
both an ,old  ,wife 7,cailleach7 and a  
,maiden are cut at harvest4 ,as the     
accounts of  this custom are not quite  
clear and consistent1 it may be well to 
give  them first in the words of the    
original authorities4 ,thus the late    
,sheriff  ,alexander ,nicolson tells us 
that there is a ,gaelic proverb1 8,a    
balk  7lum-iochd7 in autumn is better   
than a sheaf the more02 and he explains 

it by saying that a lum-iochd or balk   
8is a strip of a corn-field left        
fallow4 ,the fear of being left with the
 last sheaf of the harvest1 called  the 
cailleach1 or gobhar bhacach1 always led
 to an exciting  competition among the  
reapers in the last field4 ,the reaper  
who came on a  lum-iochd would of course
 be glad to have so much the less to    
cut407#edf7 ,in further explanation of  
the proverb the writer adds3    8,the   
customs as to the ,cailleach and        
,maighdean-bhuana seem to have  varied  
somewhat4 ,two reapers were usually set 
to each rig1 and according  to one      
account1 the man who was first done got 
the ,maighdean-bhuana or                
#8,reaping-,maiden1' while the man who  
was last got the ,cailleach or #8old    
woman4' ,the latter term is used in     
,argyleshire2 the term ,gobhar-bhacach1 
the lame goat1 is used in ,skye4        
8,according to what appears to be the   
better version1 the competition to      
avoid the ,cailleach was not between    

reapers but between neighbouring        
crofters1 and the man who got his       
harvest done first sent a handful of    
corn called the ,cailleach to his       
neighbour1 who passed it on1 till it    
landed with him who was latest4 ,that   
man's penalty was to provide for the    
dearth of the township1 gort a' bhaile1 
in the ensuing season4    8,the         
,maighdean-bhuana1 again1 was the last  
cut handful of oats1 on a  croft or     
farm1 and was an object of lively       
competition among the reapers4  ,it was 
tastefully tied up with ribbons1        
generally dressed like a doll1 and  then
 hung up on a nail till spring4 ,on the 
first day of ploughing it was  solemnly 
taken down1 and given as a ,sainnseal   
7or handsel7 to the horses  for luck4   
,it was meant as a symbol that the      
harvest had been secured1 and  to ward  
off the fairies1 representatives of the 
ethereal and  unsubstantial1 till the   
time came to provide for a new          
crop407#edg7 ,again1  the ,rev4 ,mr4    

,campbell of ,kilchrenan1 on ,loch ,awe1
 furnished ,dr4 ,r4 ,c4  ,maclagan with 
the following account of the ,highland  
customs at harvest4  ,the recollections 
of ,mrs4 ,mac,corquodale1 then resident 
at ,kilchrenan1  refer to the customs   
practised about the middle of the       
nineteenth century  in the wild and     
gloomy valley of ,glencoe1 infamous in  
history for the  treacherous massacre   
perpetrated there by the ,government    
troops in #afib4  8,mrs4 ,mac,corquodale
 says that the rivalry was for the      
,maiden1 and for the  privilege she gave
 of sending the ,cailleach to the next  
neighbour4 ,the  ,maiden was represented
 by the last stalks reaped2 the         
,cailleach by a  handful taken at random
 from the field1 perhaps the last rig of
 the reaper  last to finish4 ,the       
,cailleach was not dressed but carried  
after binding to  the neighbour's field4
 ,the ,maiden was cut in the following  
manner4 ,all the  reapers gathered round
 her and kept a short distance from her4

 ,they then  threw their hooks sickles  
at her4 ,the person successful in       
cutting her  down in this manner was the
 man whose possession she became4 ,mrs4 
,mac,corquodale understood that the man 
of a township who got the ,cailleach    
finally was supposed to be doomed to    
poverty for his want of energy4         
7,gaelic3 treubhantas--valour47    8,a  
sample of the toast to the ,cailleach at
 the harvest entertainment was  as      
follows3 #8,the ,cailleach is with 444  
and is now with 7me7 since ,i was  the  
last4 ,i drink to her health4 ,since she
 assisted me in harvest1 it is  likely  
that it is with me she will abide during
 the winter4' ,in explaining  the above 
toast ,mr4 ,campbell says that it       
signifies that the ,cailleach is  always
 with agriculturists4 #8,she has been   
with others before and is now  with me  
7the proposer of the toast74 ,though ,i 
did my best to avoid her ,i  welcome her
 as my assistant1 and am prepared to    
entertain her during the  winter4'      

,another form of the toast was as       
follows3 #8,to your health1 good  wife1 
who for harvest has come to help us1 and
 if ,i live ,i'll try to  support you   
when winter comes4'    8,john           
,mac,corquodale1 ,kilchrenan1 says that 
at ,crianlarich in ,strath  ,fillan1    
they make a ,cailleach of sticks and a  
turnip1 old clothes and a  pipe4 ,in    
this case the effigy passed in          
succession to seven farms1 which  he    
mentioned1 and finally settled with an  
innkeeper4 ,the list suggested  that the
 upper farms stood a bad chance1 and    
perhaps that a prosperous  innkeeper    
could more easily bear up against the   
reproach and loss 787 of  supporting the
 ,cailleach4    8,duncan ,mac,intyre1   
,kilchrenan1 says that in one case where
 the last field  to be reaped was the   
most fertile land on the farm1 the corn 
first cut in  it1 which was taken near  
the edge1 was reserved to make a        
,cailleach1  should the owner be so     
happy as to be able to pass her on to   

his  neighbour4 ,the last blades cut    
were generally in the middle or best    
part  of the field4 ,these in any event 
became the ,maiden40 ,lastly1 ,dr4      
,maclagan  observes that 8having        
directed the attention of ,miss ,kerr1  
,port ,charlotte1  ,islay1 to the       
practice of having two different bunches
 on the mainland of  ,argyle1 she       
informs me that in ,islay and ,kintyre  
the last handful is the  ,cailleach1 and
 they have no ,maiden4 ,the same is the 
custom in ,bernara and  other parts of  
the ,western ,isles1 while in ,mull the 
last handful is the  ,maiden1 and they  
have no ,cailleach4 ,in ,north ,uist the
 habit still prevails  of putting the   
,cailleach over-night among the standing
 corn of lazy  crofters407#edh7         
7,m#acd7 ,the general rule to which     
these various accounts point seems to be
  that1 where both a ,maiden and an ,old
 ,wife 7,cailleach7 are fashioned out   
of the reaped corn at harvest1 the      
,maiden is always made out of the last  

stalks left standing1 and is kept by the
 farmer on whose land it was cut2  while
 the ,old ,wife is made out of other    
stalks1 sometimes out of the first      
stalks cut1 and is regularly passed on  
to a laggard farmer who happens to  be  
still reaping after his brisker         
neighbour has cut all his corn4 ,thus   
while each farmer keeps his own ,maiden1
 as the embodiment of the young and     
fruitful spirit of the corn1 he passes  
on the ,old ,wife as soon as he can  to 
a neighbour1 and so the old lady may    
make the round of all the farms in  the 
district before she finds a place in    
which to lay her venerable head4  ,the  
farmer with whom she finally takes up   
her abode is of course the one  who has 
been the last of all the countryside to 
finish reaping his crops1  and thus the 
distinction of entertaining her is      
rather an invidious one4  ,similarly we 
saw that in ,pembrokeshire1 where the   
last corn cut is called1  not the       
,maiden1 but the ,hag1 she is passed on 

hastily to a neighbour who  is still at 
work in his fields and who receives his 
aged visitor with  anything but a       
transport of joy4 ,if the ,old ,wife    
represents the  corn-spirit of the past 
year1 as she probably does wherever she 
is  contrasted with and opposed to a    
,maiden1 it is natural enough that her  
faded charms should have less           
attractions for the husbandman than the 
buxom form of her daughter1 who may be  
expected to become in her turn the      
mother of the golden grain when the     
revolving year has brought round        
another autumn4 ,the same desire to get 
rid of the effete ,mother of the  ,corn 
by palming her off on other people comes
 out clearly in some of the  customs    
observed at the close of threshing1     
particularly in the practice  of passing
 on a hideous straw puppet to a         
neighbour farmer who is still  threshing
 his corn47#edi7    7,m#ace7 ,the       
harvest customs just described are      
strikingly analogous to the  spring     

customs which we reviewed in the first  
part of this work4 7#a7 ,as in  the     
spring customs the tree-spirit is       
represented both by a tree and by a     
person17#eej7 so in the harvest customs 
the corn-spirit is represented both  by 
the last sheaf and by the person who    
cuts or binds or threshes it4 ,the      
equivalence of the person to the sheaf  
is shewn by giving him or her the  same 
name as the sheaf2 by wrapping him or   
her in it2 and by the rule  observed in 
some places1 that when the sheaf is     
called the ,mother1 it must  be made up 
into human shape by the oldest married  
woman1 but that when it  is called the  
,maiden1 it must be cut by the youngest 
girl47#eea7 ,here the  age of the       
personal representative of the          
corn-spirit corresponds with  that of   
the supposed age of the corn-spirit1    
just as the human victims  offered by   
the ,mexicans to promote the growth of  
the maize varied with the  age of the   
maize47#eeb7 ,for in the ,mexican1 as in

 the ,european1 custom the  human beings
 were probably representatives of the   
corn-spirit rather than  victims offered
 to it4 7#b7 ,again1 the same           
fertilising influence which the         
tree-spirit is supposed to exert over   
vegetation1 cattle1 and even            
women7#eec7 is ascribed to the          
corn-spirit4 ,thus1 its supposed        
influence on  vegetation is shewn by the
 practice of taking some of the grain of
 the  last sheaf 7in which the          
corn-spirit is regularly supposed to be 
present71  and scattering it among the  
young corn in spring or mixing it with  
the  seed-corn47#eed7 ,its influence on 
animals is shewn by giving the last     
sheaf  to a mare in foal1 to a cow in   
calf1 and to horses at the first        
ploughing47#eee7 ,lastly1 its influence 
on women is indicated by the custom  of 
delivering the ,mother-sheaf1 made into 
the likeness of a pregnant  woman1 to   
the farmer's wife27#eef7 by the belief  
that the woman who binds  the last sheaf

 will have a child next year27#eeg7     
perhaps1 too1 by the idea  that the     
person who gets it will soon be         
married47#eeh7    7,m#acf7 ,plainly1    
therefore1 these spring and harvest     
customs are based on  the same ancient  
modes of thought1 and form parts of the 
same primitive  heathendom1 which was   
doubtless practised by our forefathers  
long before  the dawn of history4       
,amongst the marks of a primitive ritual
 we may note  the following3--          
7,m#acg7 #a4 ,no special class of       
persons is set apart for the performance
 of  the rites2 in other words1 there   
are no priests4 ,the rites may be       
performed by any one1 as occasion       
demands4    #b4 ,no special places are  
set apart for the performance of the    
rites2 in  other words1 there are no    
temples4 ,the rites may be performed    
anywhere1 as  occasion demands4    #c4  
,spirits1 not gods1 are recognised4 7a7 
,as distinguished from gods1  spirits   
are restricted in their operations to   

definite departments of  nature4 ,their 
names are general1 not proper4 ,their   
attributes are generic1  rather than    
individual2 in other words1 there is an 
indefinite number of  spirits of each   
class1 and the individuals of a class   
are all much alike2  they have no       
definitely marked individuality2 no     
accepted traditions are  current as to  
their origin1 life1 adventures1 and     
character4 7b7 ,on the  other hand gods1
 as distinguished from spirits1 are not 
restricted to  definite departments of  
nature4 ,it is true that there is       
generally some  one department over     
which they preside as their special     
province2 but they  are not rigorously  
confined to it2 they can exert their    
power for good or  evil in many other   
spheres of nature and life4 ,again1 they
 bear individual  or proper names1 such 
as ,demeter1 ,persephone1 ,dionysus2 and
 their  individual characters and       
histories are fixed by current myths and
 the  representations of art4    #d4    

,the rites are magical rather than      
propitiatory4 ,in other words1 the      
desired objects are attained1 not by    
propitiating the favour of divine       
beings through sacrifice1 prayer1 and   
praise1 but by ceremonies which1 as  ,i 
have already explained17#eei7 are       
believed to influence the course of     
nature directly through a physical      
sympathy or resemblance between the     
rite and the effect which it is the     
intention of the rite to produce4       
7,m#ach7 ,judged by these tests1 the    
spring and harvest customs of our       
,european peasantry deserve to rank as  
primitive4 ,for no special class of     
persons and no special places are set   
exclusively apart for their             
performance2 they may be performed by   
any one1 master or man1 mistress or     
maid1 boy or girl2 they are practised1  
not in temples or churches1 but in  the 
woods and meadows1 beside brooks1 in    
barns1 on harvest fields and  cottage   
floors4 ,the supernatural beings whose  

existence is taken for  granted in them 
are spirits rather than deities3 their  
functions are  limited to certain       
well-defined departments of nature3     
their names are  general1 like the      
,barley-mother1 the ,old ,woman1 the    
,maiden1 not proper  names like         
,demeter1 ,persephone1 ,dionysus4 ,their
 generic attributes are  known1 but     
their individual histories and          
characters are not the subject  of      
myths4 ,for they exist in classes rather
 than as individuals1 and the  members  
of each class are indistinguishable4    
,for example1 every farm has  its       
,corn-mother1 or its ,old ,woman1 or its
 ,maiden2 but every ,corn-mother is     
much like every other ,corn-mother1 and 
so with the ,old ,women and ,maidens4   
,lastly1 in these harvest1 as in the    
spring customs1 the ritual is magical   
rather than propitiatory4 ,this is shewn
 by throwing the ,corn-mother into  the 
river in order to secure rain and dew   
for the crops27#efj7 by making  the ,old

 ,woman heavy in order to get a heavy   
crop next year27#efa7 by  strewing grain
 from the last sheaf amongst the young  
crops in spring27#efb7  and by giving   
the last sheaf to the cattle to make    
them thrive47#efc7            ,,chapter 
,,vi4 ,,the ,,corn-,,mother ,,in ,,many 
,,lands4           #a4 ,the ,corn-mother
 in ,america4      7,m#aci7 ,european   
peoples1 ancient and modern1 have not   
been singular in  personifying the corn 
as a mother goddess4 ,the same simple   
idea has  suggested itself to other     
agricultural races in distant parts of  
the  world1 and has been applied by them
 to other indigenous cereals than       
barley and wheat4 ,if ,europe has its   
,wheat-mother and its ,barley-mother1   
,america has its ,maize-mother and the  
,east ,indies their ,rice-mother4 ,these
  personifications ,i will now          
illustrate1 beginning with the ,american
  personification of the maize4         
7,m#adj7 ,we have seen that among       
,european peoples it is a common custom 

to  keep the plaited corn-stalks of the 
last sheaf1 or the puppet which is      
formed out of them1 in the farm-house   
from harvest to harvest47#efd7 ,the     
intention no doubt is1 or rather        
originally was1 by preserving the       
representative of the corn-spirit to    
maintain the spirit itself in life  and 
activity throughout the year1 in order  
that the corn may grow and the  crops be
 good4 ,this interpretation of the      
custom is at all events rendered  highly
 probable by a similar custom observed  
by the ancient ,peruvians1 and  thus    
described by the old ,spanish historian 
,acosta3--8,they take a certain  portion
 of the most fruitful of the maize that 
grows in their farms1 the  which they   
put in a certain granary which they do  
call ,pirua1 with  certain ceremonies1  
watching three nights2 they put this    
maize in the  richest garments they     
have1 and being thus wrapped and        
dressed1 they  worship this ,pirua1 and 
hold it in great veneration1 saying it  

is the  mother of the maize of their    
inheritances1 and that by this means the
  maize augments and is preserved4 ,in  
this month the sixth month1 answering   
to ,may they make a particular          
sacrifice1 and the witches demand of    
this  ,pirua if it hath strength        
sufficient to continue until the next   
year2  and if it answers no1 then they  
carry this maize to the farm to burn1   
whence they brought it1 according to    
every man's power2 then they make       
another ,pirua1 with the same           
ceremonies1 saying that they renew it1  
to  the end the seed of maize may not   
perish1 and if it answers that it hath  
force sufficient to last longer1 they   
leave it until the next year4 ,this     
foolish vanity continueth to this day1  
and it is very common amongst the       
,indians to have these ,piruas407#efe7  
7,m#ada7 ,in this description of the    
custom there seems to be some error4    
,probably it was the dressed-up bunch of
 maize1 not the granary 7,pirua71  which

 was worshipped by the ,peruvians and   
regarded as the ,mother of the  ,maize4 
,this is confirmed by what we know of   
the ,peruvian custom from  another      
source4 ,the ,peruvians1 we are told1   
believed all useful plants to  be       
animated by a divine being who causes   
their growth4 ,according to the         
particular plant1 these divine beings   
were called the ,maize-mother           
7,zara-mama71 the ,quinoa-mother        
7,quinoa-mama71 the ,coca-mother        
7,coca-mama71 and the ,potato-mother    
7,axo-mama74 ,figures of these divine   
mothers were made respectively of ears  
of maize and leaves of the quinoa  and  
coca plants2 they were dressed in       
women's clothes and worshipped4 ,thus   
the ,maize-mother was represented by a  
puppet made of stalks of maize  dressed 
in full female attire2 and the ,indians 
believed that 8as mother1  it had the   
power of producing and giving birth to  
much maize407#eff7  ,probably1          
therefore1 ,acosta misunderstood his    

informant1 and the ,mother of  the      
,maize which he describes was not the   
granary 7,pirua71 but the bunch  of     
maize dressed in rich vestments4 ,the   
,peruvian ,mother of the ,maize1 like   
the harvest-,maiden at ,balquhidder1 was
 kept for a year in order that by  her  
means the corn might grow and multiply4 
,but lest her strength might  not       
suffice to last till the next harvest1  
she was asked in the course of  the year
 how she felt1 and if she answered that 
she felt weak1 she was  burned and a    
fresh ,mother of the ,maize made1 8to   
the end the seed of maize  may not      
perish40 ,here1 it may be observed1 we  
have a strong confirmation  of the      
explanation already given of the custom 
of killing the god1 both  periodically  
and occasionally4 ,the ,mother of the   
,maize was allowed1 as a  rule1 to live 
through a year1 that being the period   
during which her  strength might        
reasonably be supposed to last          
unimpaired2 but on any  symptom of her  

strength failing she was put to death1  
and a fresh and  vigorous ,mother of the
 ,maize took her place1 lest the maize  
which depended  on her for its existence
 should languish and decay4    7,m#adb7 
,hardly less clearly does the same train
 of thought come out in the  harvest    
customs formerly observed by the        
,zapotecs of ,mexico4 ,at harvest  the  
priests1 attended by the nobles and     
people1 went in procession to the  maize
 fields1 where they picked out the      
largest and finest sheaf4 ,this  they   
took with great ceremony to the town or 
village1 and placed it in the  temple   
upon an altar adorned with wild flowers4
 ,after sacrificing to the  harvest god1
 the priests carefully wrapped up the   
sheaf in fine linen and  kept it till   
seed-time4 ,then the priests and nobles 
met again at the  temple1 one of them   
bringing the skin of a wild beast1      
elaborately  ornamented1 in which the   
linen cloth containing the sheaf was    
enveloped4  ,the sheaf was then carried 

once more in procession to the field    
from which  it had been taken4 ,here a  
small cavity or subterranean chamber had
 been  prepared1 in which the precious  
sheaf was deposited1 wrapt in its       
various  envelopes4 ,after sacrifice had
 been offered to the gods of the fields 
for  an abundant crop the chamber was   
closed and covered over with earth4     
,immediately thereafter the sowing      
began4 ,finally1 when the time of       
harvest  drew near1 the buried sheaf was
 solemnly disinterred by the priests1   
who  distributed the grain to all who   
asked for it4 ,the packets of grain so  
distributed were carefully preserved as 
talismans till the harvest47#efg7  ,in  
these ceremonies1 which continued to be 
annually celebrated long after  the     
,spanish conquest1 the intention of     
keeping the finest sheaf buried in  the 
maize field from seed-time to harvest   
was undoubtedly to quicken the  growth  
of the maize4    7,m#adc7 ,a fuller and 
to some extent different account of the 

ancient  ,mexican worship of the maize  
has been given us by the ,franciscan    
monk  ,bernardino de ,sahagun1 who      
arrived in ,mexico in #aebi1 only eight 
years  after its conquest by the        
,spaniards1 and devoted the remaining   
sixty-one  years of his long life to    
labouring among the ,indians for their  
moral and  spiritual good4 ,uniting the 
curiosity of a scientific enquirer to   
the zeal  of a missionary1 and adorning 
both qualities with the humanity and    
benevolence of a good man1 he obtained  
from the oldest and most learned of  the
 ,indians accounts of their ancient     
customs and beliefs1 and embodied  them 
in a work which1 for combined interest  
of matter and fulness of  detail1 has   
perhaps never been equalled in the      
records of aboriginal  peoples brought  
into contact with ,european             
civilisation4 ,this great  document1    
after lying neglected in the dust of    
,spanish archives for  centuries1 was   
discovered and published almost         

simultaneously in ,mexico  and ,england 
in the first half of the nineteenth     
century4 ,it exists in the  double form 
of an ,aztec text and a ,spanish        
translation1 both due to  ,sahagun      
himself4 ,only the ,spanish version has 
hitherto been published in  full1 but   
the original ,aztec text1 to judge by   
the few extracts of it  which have been 
edited and translated1 appears to       
furnish much more ample  details on many
 points1 and in the interest of learning
 it is greatly to  be desired that a    
complete edition and translation of it  
should be given  to the world4          
7,m#add7 ,fortunately1 among the        
sections of this great work which have  
been  edited and translated from the    
,aztec original into ,german by         
,professor  ,eduard ,seler of ,berlin is
 a long one describing the religious    
festivals of  the ancient ,mexican      
calendar47#efh7 ,from it we learn some  
valuable  particulars as to the worship 
of the ,maize-goddess and the ceremonies

  observed by the ,mexicans for the     
purpose of ensuring a good crop of      
maize4  ,the festival was the fourth of 
the ,aztec year1 and went by the name of
 the  ,great ,vigil4 ,it fell on a date 
which corresponds to the seventh of     
,april4  ,the name of the ,maize-goddess
 was ,chicome couatl1 and the ,mexicans 
conceived and represented her in the    
form of a woman1 red in face and arms   
and legs1 wearing a paper crown dyed    
vermilion1 and clad in garments of  the 
hue of ripe cherries4 ,no doubt the red 
colour of the goddess and her  garments 
referred to the deep orange hue of the  
ripe maize2 it was like  the yellow hair
 of the ,greek corn-goddess ,demeter4   
,she was supposed to  make all kinds of 
maize1 beans1 and vegetables to grow4   
,on the day of the  festival the        
,mexicans sent out to the maize-fields  
and fetched from every  field a plant of
 maize1 which they brought to their     
houses and greeted as  their maize-gods1
 setting them up in their dwellings1    

clothing them in  garments1 and placing 
food before them4 ,and after sunset they
 carried the  maize-plants to the temple
 of the ,maize-goddess1 where they      
snatched them  from one another and     
fought and struck each other with them4 
,further1 at  this festival they brought
 to the temple of the ,maize-goddess the
  maize-cobs which were to be used in   
the sowing4 ,the cobs were carried by   
three maidens in bundles of seven wrapt 
in red paper4 ,one of the girls was     
small with short hair1 another was older
 with long hair hanging down1 and  the  
third was full-grown with her hair wound
 round her head4 ,red feathers  were    
gummed to the arms and legs of the three
 maidens and their faces were  painted1 
probably to resemble the red            
,maize-goddess1 whom they may be        
supposed to have personated at various  
stages of the growth of the corn4  ,the 
maize-cobs which they brought to the    
temple of the ,maize-goddess were       
called by the name of the ,maize-god    

,cinteotl1 and they were afterwards     
deposited in the granary and kept there 
as 8the heart of the granary0 till  the 
sowing time came round1 when they were  
used as seed47#efi7    7,m#ade7 ,the    
eastern ,indians of ,north ,america1 who
 subsisted to a large  extent by the    
cultivation of maize1 generally         
conceived the spirit of the  maize as a 
woman1 and supposed that the plant      
itself had sprung originally  from the  
blood drops or the dead body of the     
,corn ,woman4 ,in the sacred  formulas  
of the ,cherokee the corn is sometimes  
invoked as 8the ,old ,woman10  and one  
of their myths relates how a hunter saw 
a fair woman issue from a  single green 
stalk of corn47#egj7 ,the ,iroquois     
believe the ,spirit of the  ,corn1 the  
,spirit of ,beans1 and the ,spirit of   
,squashes to be three sisters  clad in  
the leaves of their respective plants1  
very fond of each other1  and delighting
 to dwell together4 ,this divine trinity
 is known by the name  of ,de-o-ha'-ko1 

which means 8,our ,life0 or 8,our       
,supporters40 ,the three  persons of the
 trinity have no individual names1 and  
are never mentioned  separately except  
by means of description4 ,the ,indians  
have a legend that  of old the corn was 
easily cultivated1 yielded abundantly1  
and had a grain  exceedingly rich in    
oil1 till the ,evil ,one1 envious of    
this good gift of  the ,great ,spirit to
 man1 went forth into the fields and    
blighted them4 ,and  still1 when the    
wind rustles in the corn1 the pious     
,indian fancies he  hears the ,spirit of
 the ,corn bemoaning her blighted       
fruitfulness47#ega7 ,the  ,huichol      
,indians of ,mexico imagine maize to be 
a little girl1 who may  sometimes be    
heard weeping in the fields2 so afraid  
is she of the wild  beasts that eat the 
corn47#egb7           #b4 ,the          
,mother-cotton in the ,punjaub4         
7,m#adf7 ,in the ,punjaub1 to the east  
of the ,jumna1 when the cotton boles    
begin to burst1 it is usual to select   

the largest plant in the field1         
sprinkle it with butter-milk and        
rice-water1 and then bind to it pieces  
of  cotton taken from the other plants  
of the field4 ,this selected plant is   
called ,sirdar or ,bhogalda1 that is    
8mother-cotton10 from bhogla1 a  name   
sometimes given to a large cotton-pod1  
and da 7for daiya71 8a  mother10 and    
after it has been saluted1 prayers are  
offered that the other  plants may      
resemble it in the richness of their    
produce47#egc7           #c4 ,the       
,barley ,bride among the ,berbers4      
7,m#adg7 ,the conception of the         
corn-spirit as a bride seems to come out
  clearly in a ceremony still practised 
by the ,berbers near ,tangier1 in       
,morocco4 ,when the women assemble in   
the fields to weed the green barley or  
reap the crops1 they take with them a   
straw figure dressed like a woman1  and 
set it up among the corn4 ,suddenly a   
group of horsemen from a  neighbouring  
village gallops up and carries off the  

straw puppet amid the  screams and cries
 of the women4 ,however1 the ravished   
effigy is rescued by  another band of   
mounted men1 and after a struggle it    
remains1 more or less  dishevelled1 in  
the hands of the women4 ,that this      
pretended abduction is a  mimic marriage
 appears from a ,berber custom in       
accordance with which1 at a  real       
wedding1 the bridegroom carries off his 
seemingly unwilling bride on  horseback1
 while she screams and pretends to      
summon her friends to her  rescue4 ,no  
fixed date is appointed for the         
simulated abduction of the  straw woman 
from the barley-field1 the time depends 
upon the state of the  crops1 but the   
day and hour are made public before the 
event4 ,each village  used to practise  
this mimic contest for possession of the
 straw woman1 who  probably represents  
the ,barley ,bride1 but nowadays the    
custom is growing  obsolete47#egd7      
7,m#adh7 ,an earlier account of what    
seems to be the same practice runs as   

follows3 8,there is a curious custom    
which seems to be a relic of their      
pagan masters1 who made this and the    
adjoining regions of ,north ,africa the 
main granary of their ,latin empire4    
,when the young corn has sprung up1     
which it does about the middle of       
,february1 the women of the villages    
make  up the figure of a female1 the    
size of a very large doll1 which they   
dress  in the gaudiest fashion they can 
contrive1 covering it with ornaments to 
which all in the village contribute     
something2 and they give it a tall1     
peaked head-dress4 ,this image they     
carry in procession round their fields1 
screaming and singing a peculiar ditty4 
,the doll is borne by the foremost      
woman1 who must yield it to any one who 
is quick enough to take the lead  of    
her1 which is the cause of much racing  
and squabbling4 ,the men also  have a   
similar custom1 which they perform on   
horseback4 ,they call the  image ,mata4 
,these ceremonies are said by the people

 to bring good luck4  ,their efficacy   
ought to be great1 for you frequently   
see crowds of men  engaged in their     
performances running and galloping      
recklessly over the  young crops of     
wheat and barley4 ,such customs are     
directly opposed to the  faith of       
,islam1 and ,i never met with a ,moor   
who could in any way enlighten  me as to
 their origin4 ,the ,berber tribes1 the 
most ancient race now  remaining in     
these regions1 to which they give the   
name1 are the only ones  which retain   
this antique usage1 and it is viewed by 
the ,arabs and  dwellers in the town as 
a remnant of idolatry407#ege7 ,we may   
conjecture  that this gaudily dressed   
effigy of a female1 which the ,berber   
women carry  about their fields when the
 corn is sprouting1 represents the      
,corn-mother1  and that the procession  
is designed to promote the growth of the
 crops by  imparting to them the        
quickening influence of the goddess4 ,we
 can  therefore understand why there    

should be a competition among the women 
for  the possession of the effigy2 each 
woman probably hopes to secure for      
herself and her crops a larger measure  
of fertility by appropriating the  image
 of the ,corn-mother4 ,the competition  
on horseback among the men is no  doubt 
to be explained similarly2 they1 too1   
race with each other in their  eagerness
 to possess themselves of an effigy1    
perhaps of a male power of  the corn1 by
 whose help they expect to procure a    
heavy crop4 ,such contests  for         
possession of the corn-spirit embodied  
in the corn-stalks are common1  as we   
have seen1 among the reapers on the     
harvest fields of ,europe4  ,perhaps    
they help to explain some of the        
contests in the ,eleusinian games1      
among which horse-races as well as      
foot-races were included47#egf7         
#d4 ,the ,rice-mother in the ,east      
,indies4      7,m#adi7 ,if the reader   
still feels any doubts as to the meaning
 of the  harvest customs which have been

 practised within living memory by      
,european  peasants1 these doubts may   
perhaps be dispelled by comparing the   
customs  observed at the rice-harvest by
 the ,malays and ,dyaks of the ,east    
,indies4  ,for these ,eastern peoples   
have not1 like our peasantry1 advanced  
beyond  the intellectual stage at which 
the customs originated2 their theory and
  their practice are still in unison2   
for them the quaint rites which in      
,europe have long dwindled into mere    
fossils1 the pastime of clowns and the  
puzzle of the learned1 are still living 
realities of which they can render  an  
intelligible and truthful account4      
,hence a study of their beliefs and     
usages concerning the rice may throw    
some light on the true meaning of the   
ritual of the corn in ancient ,greece   
and modern ,europe4    7,m#aej7 ,now the
 whole of the ritual which the ,malays  
and ,dyaks observe in  connexion with   
the rice is founded on the simple       
conception of the rice as  animated by a

 soul like that which these people      
attribute to mankind4 ,they  explain the
 phenomena of reproduction1 growth1     
decay and death in the rice  on the same
 principles on which they explain the   
corresponding phenomena  in human       
beings4 ,they imagine that in the fibres
 of the plant1 as in the  body of a man1
 there is a certain vital element1 which
 is so far  independent of the plant    
that it may for a time be completely    
separated  from it without fatal        
effects1 though if its absence be       
prolonged beyond  certain limits the    
plant will wither and die4 ,this vital  
yet separable  element is what1 for the 
want of a better word1 we must call the 
soul of a  plant1 just as a similar     
vital and separable element is commonly 
supposed  to constitute the soul of man2
 and on this theory or myth of the      
plant-soul is built the whole worship of
 the cereals1 just as on the  theory or 
myth of the human soul is built the     
whole worship of the dead1--a  towering 

superstructure reared on a slender and  
precarious foundation4    7,m#aea7 ,the 
strict parallelism between the          
,indonesian ideas about the soul  of man
 and the soul of rice is well brought   
out by ,mr4 ,r4 ,j4 ,wilkinson in  the  
following passage3 8,the spirit of      
life1--which1 according to the  ancient 
,indonesian belief1 existed in all      
things1 even in what we should  now     
consider inanimate objects--is known as 
the smangat4 ,it was not a  #8soul' in  
the modern ,english sense1 since it was 
not the exclusive  possession of        
mankind1 its separation from the body   
did not necessarily  mean death1 and its
 nature may possibly not have been      
considered immortal4  ,at the present   
day1 if a ,malay feels faint1 he will   
describe his condition  by saying that  
his #8spirit of life' is weak or is     
#8flying' from his body2  he sometimes  
appeals to it to return3 #8,hither1     
hither1 bird of my soul4'  ,or again1 if
 a ,malay lover wishes to influence the 

mind of a girl1 he may  seek to obtain  
control of her smangat1 for he believes 
that this spirit  of active and vigorous
 life must quit the body when the body  
sleeps and so  be liable to capture by  
the use of magic arts4 ,it is1 however1 
in the  ceremonies connected with the   
so-called #8spirit of the rice-crops'   
that  the peculiar characteristics of   
the smangat come out most clearly4 ,the 
,malay considers it essential that the  
spirit of life should not depart  from  
the rice intended for next year's sowing
 as otherwise the dead seed  would fail 
to produce any crop whatever4 ,he1      
therefore1 approaches the  standing     
rice-crops at harvest-time in a         
deprecatory manner2 he addresses  them  
in endearing terms2 he offers           
propitiatory sacrifices2 he fears that  
he may scare away the timorous #8bird of
 life' by the sight of a weapon or  the 
least sign of violence4 ,he must reap   
the seed-rice1 but he does it  with a   
knife of peculiar shape1 such that the  

cruel blade is hidden away  beneath the 
reaper's fingers and does not alarm the 
#8soul of the rice4'  ,when once the    
seed-rice has been harvested1 more      
expeditious reaping-tools  may be       
employed1 since it is clearly           
unnecessary to retain the spirit of     
life in grain that is only intended for 
the cooking-pot4 ,similar rites  attend 
all the processes of                    
rice-cultivation--the sowing and the    
planting-out as well as the             
harvest1--for at each of these stages   
there is  a risk that the vitality of   
the crop may be ruined if the bird of   
life is  scared away4 ,in the language  
used by the high-priests of these very  
ancient ceremonies we constantly find   
references to ,sri 7the ,hindu ,goddess 
of the ,crops71 to the fruit of the     
,tree of ,knowledge1 and to ,adam who1  
according to ,moslem tradition1 was the 
first planter of cereals2--many of      
these references only represent the     
attempts of the conservative ,malays to 

make their old religions harmonize with 
later beliefs4 ,beneath successive      
layers of religious veneer1 we see the  
animism of the old ,indonesians1 the    
theory of a bird-spirit of life1 and the
 characteristic view that the best      
protection against evil lies in         
gentleness and courtesy to all animate  
and  inanimate things407#egg7           
7,m#aeb7 8,it is a familiar fact10 says 
another eminent authority on the ,east  
,indies1 8that the ,indonesian imagines 
rice to be animated1 to be provided     
with #8soul-stuff4' ,since rice is      
everywhere cultivated in the ,indian    
,archipelago1 and with some exceptions  
is the staple food1 we need not  wonder 
that the ,indonesian conceives the rice 
to be not merely animated in  the       
ordinary sense but to be possessed of a 
soul-stuff which in strength  and       
dignity ranks with that of man4 ,thus   
the ,bataks apply the same word  tondi  
to the soul-stuff of rice and the       
soul-stuff of human beings4  ,whereas   

the ,dyaks of ,poelopetak give the name 
of gana to the soul-stuff  of things1   
animals1 and plants1 they give the name 
of hambaruan to the  soul-stuff of rice 
as well as of man4 ,so also the         
inhabitants of ,halmahera  call the     
soul-stuff of things and plants giki and
 duhutu1 but in men  and food they      
recognise a gurumi4 ,of the ,javanese1  
,malays1 ,macassars1  ,buginese1 and the
 inhabitants of the island of ,buru we  
know that they  ascribe a sumang1       
sumangat1 or smangat to rice as well as 
to men4  ,so it is with the ,toradjas of
 ,central ,celebes2 while they          
manifestly  conceive all things and     
plants as animated1 they attribute a    
tanoana or  soul-stuff only to men1     
animals1 and rice4 ,it need hardly be   
said that  this custom originates in the
 very high value that is set on         
rice407#egh7    7,m#aec7 ,believing the 
rice to be animated by a soul like that 
of a man1 the  ,indonesians naturally   
treat it with the deference and the     

consideration  which they shew to their 
fellows4 ,thus they behave towards the  
rice in  bloom as they behave towards a 
pregnant woman2 they abstain from firing
  guns or making loud noises in the     
field1 lest they should so frighten the 
soul of the rice that it would miscarry 
and bear no grain2 and for the  same    
reason they will not talk of corpses or 
demons in the rice-fields4  ,moreover1  
they feed the blooming rice with foods  
of various kinds which  are believed to 
be wholesome for women with child2 but  
when the rice-ears  are just beginning  
to form1 they are looked upon as        
infants1 and women go  through the      
fields feeding them with rice-pap as if 
they were human  babes47#egi7 ,in such  
natural and obvious comparisons of the  
breeding plant  to a breeding woman1 and
 of the young grain to a young child1 is
 to be  sought the origin of the kindred
 ,greek conception of the ,corn-mother  
and  the ,corn-daughter1 ,demeter and   
,persephone1 and we need not go further 

afield to search for it in a primitive  
division of labour between the          
sexes47#ehj7 ,but if the timorous       
feminine soul of the rice can be        
frightened into a miscarriage even by   
loud noises1 it is easy to imagine  what
 her feelings must be at harvest1 when  
people are under the sad  necessity of  
cutting down the rice with the knife4   
,at so critical a season  every         
precaution must be used to render the   
necessary surgical operation  of reaping
 as inconspicuous and as painless as    
possible4 ,for that reason1  as we have 
seen17#eha7 the reaping of the seed-rice
 is done with knives of  a peculiar     
pattern1 such that the blades are hidden
 in the reapers' hands  and do not      
frighten the rice-spirit till the very  
last moment1 when her  head is swept off
 almost before she is aware2 and from a 
like delicate  motive the reapers at    
work in the fields employ a special form
 of speech1  which the rice-spirit      
cannot be expected to understand1 so    

that she has no  warning or inkling of  
what is going forward till the heads of 
rice are  safely deposited in the       
basket47#ehb7    7,m#aed7 ,among the    
,indonesian peoples who thus personify  
the rice we may  take the ,kayans or    
,bahaus of ,central ,borneo as typical4 
,as we have already  seen1 they are     
essentially an agricultural people      
devoted to the  cultivation of rice1    
which furnishes their staple food2 their
 religion is  deeply coloured by this   
main occupation of their lives1 and it  
presents  many analogies to the         
,eleusinian worship of the              
corn-goddesses ,demeter and             
,persephone47#ehc7 ,and just as the     
,greeks regarded corn as a gift of the  
goddess ,demeter1 so the ,kayans believe
 that rice1 maize1 sweet potatoes1      
tobacco1 and all the other products of  
the earth which they cultivate1  were   
originally created for their benefit by 
the spirits47#ehd7    7,m#aee7 ,in order
 to secure and detain the volatile soul 

of the rice the  ,kayans resort to a    
number of devices4 ,among the           
instruments employed for  this purpose  
are a miniature ladder1 a spatula1 and a
 basket containing  hooks1 thorns1 and  
cords4 ,with the spatula the priestess  
strokes the soul  of the rice down the  
little ladder into the basket1 where it 
is naturally  held fast by the hooks1   
the thorn1 and the cord2 and having thus
 captured  and imprisoned the soul she  
conveys it into the rice-granary4       
,sometimes a  bamboo box and a net are  
used for the same purpose4 ,and in order
 to ensure  a good harvest for the      
following year it is necessary not only 
to detain  the soul of all the grains of
 rice which are safely stored in the    
granary1  but also to attract and       
recover the soul of all the rice that   
has been  lost through falling to the   
earth or being eaten by deer1 apes1 and 
pigs4  ,for this purpose instruments of 
various sorts have been invented by the 
priests4 ,one1 for example1 is a bamboo 

vessel provided with four hooks  made   
from the wood of a fruit-tree1 by means 
of which the absent rice-soul  may be   
hooked and drawn back into the vessel1  
which is then hung up in the  house4    
,sometimes two hands carved out of the  
wood of a fruit-tree are used  for the  
same purpose4 ,and every time that a    
,kayan housewife fetches rice  from the 
granary for the use of her household1   
she must propitiate the  souls of the   
rice in the granary1 lest they should be
 angry at being  robbed of their        
substance4 ,to keep them in good humour 
a bundle of  shavings of a fruit-tree   
and a little basket are always hung in  
the  granary4 ,an egg and a small vessel
 containing the juice of sugar-cane are 
attached as offerings to the bundle of  
shavings1 and the basket contains a     
sacred mat1 which is used at fetching   
the rice4 ,when the housewife comes  to 
fetch rice from the granary1 she pours  
juice of the sugar-cane on the  egg1    
takes the sacred mat from the basket1   

spreads it on the ground1 lays  a stalk 
of rice on it1 and explains to the souls
 of the rice the object of  her coming4 
,then she kneels before the mat1 mutters
 some prayers or  spells1 eats a single 
grain from the rice-stalk1 and having   
restored the  various objects to their  
proper place1 departs from the granary  
with the  requisite amount of rice1     
satisfied that she has discharged her   
religious  duty to the spirits of the   
rice4 ,at harvest the spirits of the    
rice are  propitiated with offerings of 
food and water1 which are carried by    
children to the rice-fields4 ,at evening
 the first rice-stalks which have  been 
cut are solemnly brought home in a      
consecrated basket to the beating  of a 
gong1 and all cats and dogs are driven  
from the house before the  basket with  
its precious contents is brought        
in47#ehe7    7,m#aef7 ,among the ,kayans
 of the ,mahakam river in ,central      
,borneo the sowing  of the rice is      
immediately preceded by a performance of

 masked men1 which  is intended to      
attract the soul or rather souls of the 
rice and so to make  sure that the      
harvest will be a good one4 ,the        
performers represent  spirits2 for1     
believing that spirits are mightier than
 men1 the ,kayans  imagine that they can
 acquire and exert superhuman power by  
imitating the  form and actions of      
spirits47#ehf7 ,to support their assumed
 character they  wear grotesque masks   
with goggle eyes1 great teeth1 huge     
ears1 and beards  of white goat's hair1 
while their bodies are so thickly wrapt 
up in  shredded banana-leaves that to   
the spectator they present the          
appearance  of unwieldy masses of green 
foliage4 ,the leader of the band carries
 a long  wooden hook or rather crook1   
the shaft of which is partly whittled   
into  loose fluttering shavings4 ,these 
disguises they don at a little distance 
from the village1 then dropping down the
 river in boats they land and  march in 
procession to an open space among the   

houses1 where the people1  dressed out  
in all their finery1 are waiting to     
witness the performance4  ,here the     
maskers range themselves in a circle and
 dance for some time  under the burning 
rays of the midday sun1 waving their    
arms1 shaking and  turning their heads1 
and executing a variety of steps to the 
sound of a  gong1 which is beaten       
according to a rigidly prescribed       
rhythm4 ,after the  dance they form a   
line1 one behind the other1 to fetch the
 vagrant soul of  the rice from far     
countries4 ,at the head of the          
procession marches the  leader holding  
high his crook and behind him follow all
 the other masked  men in their leafy   
costume1 each holding his fellow by the 
hand4 ,as he  strides along1 the leader 
makes a motion with his crook as if he  
were  hooking something and drawing it  
to himself1 and the gesture is imitated 
by all his followers4 ,what he is thus  
catching are the souls of the rice1     
which sometimes wander far away1 and by 

drawing them home to the village  he is 
believed to ensure that the seed of the 
rice which is about to be  sown will    
produce a plentiful harvest4 ,as the    
spirits are thought not to  possess the 
power of speech1 the actors who         
personate them may not utter a  word1   
else they would run the risk of falling 
down dead4 ,the great field  of the     
chief is sown by representatives of all 
the families1 both free and  slaves1 on 
the day after the masquerade4 ,on the   
same day the free families  sacrifice on
 their fields and begin their sowing on 
one or other of the  following days4    
,every family sets up in its field a    
sacrificial stage or  altar1 with which 
the sowers must remain in connexion     
during the time of  sowing4 ,therefore  
no stranger may pass between them and   
the stage2 indeed  the ,kayans are not  
allowed to have anything to do with     
strangers in the  fields2 above all they
 may not speak with them4 ,if such a    
thing should  accidentally happen1 the  

sowing must cease for that day4 ,at the 
sowing  festival1 but at no other time1 
,kayan men of the ,mahakam river1 like  
their  brethren of the ,mendalam river1 
amuse themselves with spinning tops4    
,for  nine days before the masquerade   
takes place the people are bound to     
observe certain taboos3 no stranger may 
enter the village3 no villager may  pass
 the night out of his own house3 they   
may not hunt1 nor pluck fruits1  nor    
fish with the casting-net or the        
drag-net47#ehg7 ,in this tribe the      
proper day for sowing is officially     
determined by a priest from an          
observation of the sun setting behind   
the hills in a line with two stones     
which the priest has set up1 one behind 
the other4 ,however1 the official  day  
often does not coincide with the actual 
day of sowing47#ehh7    7,m#aeg7 ,the   
masquerade thus performed by the ,kayans
 of the ,mahakam river  before sowing   
the rice is an instructive example of a 
religious or rather  magical drama acted

 for the express purpose of ensuring a  
good crop4 ,as  such it may be compared 
to the drama of ,demeter and            
,persephone1 the  ,corn-mother and the  
,corn-maiden1 which was annually played 
at the  ,eleusinian mysteries shortly   
before the autumnal sowing of the corn4 
,if my  interpretation of these         
mysteries is correct1 the intention of  
the ,greek  and of the ,kayan drama was 
one and the same4    7,m#aeh7 ,at       
harvest the ,dyaks of ,northern ,borneo 
have a special feast1 the  object of    
which is 8to secure the soul of the     
rice1 which if not so  detained1 the    
produce of their farms would speedily   
rot and decay4 ,at  sowing time1 a      
little of the principle of life of the  
rice1 which at every  harvest is secured
 by their priests1 is planted with their
 other seeds1  and is thus propagated   
and communicated40 ,the mode of securing
 the soul of  the rice varies in        
different tribes4 ,in the ,quop district
 the ceremony is  performed by the chief

 priest alone1 first in the long broad  
verandah of  the common house and       
afterwards in each separate family      
apartment4 ,as a  preparation for the   
ceremony a bamboo altar1 decorated with 
green boughs  and red and white         
streamers1 is erected in the verandah1  
and presents a  very gay appearance4    
,here the people1 old and young1        
assemble1 the  priestesses dressed in   
gorgeous array and the elder men wearing
  bright-coloured jackets and trousers  
of purple1 yellow1 or scarlet hue1      
while the young men and lads beat gongs 
and drums4 ,when the priest1 with a     
bundle of charms in either hand1 is     
observed to be gazing earnestly in the  
air at something invisible to common    
eyes1 the band strikes up with          
redoubled energy1 and the elderly men in
 the gay breeches begin to shriek  and  
revolve round the altar in the dance4   
,suddenly the priest starts up  and     
makes a rush at the invisible object2   
men run to him with white  cloths1 and  

as he shakes his charms over the cloths 
a few grains of rice  fall into them4   
,these grains are the soul of the rice2 
they are carefully  folded up in the    
cloths and laid at the foot of the      
altar4 ,the same  performance is        
afterwards repeated in every family     
apartment4 ,in some  tribes the soul of 
the rice is secured at midnight4        
,outside the village a  lofty altar is  
erected in an open space surrounded by  
the stately forms of  the tropical      
palms4 ,huge bonfires cast a ruddy glow 
over the scene and  light up the dusky  
but picturesque forms of the ,dyaks as  
they move in slow  and solemn dance     
round the altar1 some bearing lighted   
tapers in their  hands1 others brass    
salvers with offerings of rice1 others  
covered  baskets1 of which the contents 
are hidden from all but the initiated4  
,the  corner-posts of the altar are     
lofty bamboos1 whose leafy tops are yet 
green and rustle in the wind2 and from  
one of them a long narrow streamer  of  

white cloth hangs down4 ,suddenly elders
 and priests rush at this  streamer1    
seize the end of it1 and amid the       
crashing music of drums and  gongs and  
the yells of the spectators begin       
dancing and swaying themselves          
backwards and forwards1 and to and fro4 
,a priest or elder mounts the altar     
amid the shouts of the bystanders and   
shakes the tall bamboos violently2  and 
in the midst of all this excitement and 
hubbub small stones1 bunches  of hair1  
and grains of rice fall at the feet of  
the dancers1 and are  carefully picked  
up by watchful attendants4 ,these grains
 are the soul of  the rice4 ,the        
ceremony ends with several of the oldest
 priestesses  falling1 or pretending to 
fall1 senseless to the ground1 where1   
till they  come to themselves1 their    
heads are supported and their faces     
fanned by  their younger colleagues4 ,at
 the end of the harvest1 when the year's
 crop  has been garnered1 another feast 
is held4 ,a pig and fowls are killed1   

and  for four days gongs are beaten and 
dancing kept up4 ,for eight days the    
village is tabooed and no stranger may  
enter it4 ,at this festival the         
ceremony of catching the soul of the    
rice is repeated to prevent the crop    
from rotting2 and the soul so obtained  
is mixed with the seed-rice of the  next
 year47#ehi7    7,m#aei7 ,the same need 
of securing the soul of the rice1 if the
 crop is to  thrive1 is keenly felt by  
the ,karens of ,burma4 ,when a          
rice-field does not  flourish1 they     
suppose that the soul 7kelah7 of the    
rice is in some way  detained from the  
rice4 ,if the soul cannot be called     
back1 the crop will  fail4 ,the         
following formula is used in recalling  
the kelah 7soul7 of the  rice3 8,o come1
 rice-kelah1 come6 ,come to the field4  
,come to the rice4  ,with seed of each  
gender1 come4 ,come from the river ,kho1
 come from the  river ,kaw2 from the    
place where they meet1 come4 ,come from 
the ,west1 come  from the ,east4 ,from  

the throat of the bird1 from the maw of 
the ape1 from  the throat of the        
elephant4 ,come from the sources of     
rivers and their  mouths4 ,come from the
 country of the ,shan and ,burman4 ,from
 the distant  kingdoms come4 ,from all  
granaries come4 ,o rice-kelah1 come to  
the  rice407#eij7    7,m#afj7 ,among the
 ,taungthu of ,upper ,burma it is       
customary1 when all the  rice-fields    
have been reaped1 to make a trail of    
unhusked rice 7paddy7 and  husks all the
 way from the fields to the farm-house  
in order to guide the  spirit or        
butterfly1 as they call it1 of the rice 
home to the granary4  ,care is taken    
that there should be no break in the    
trail1 and the  butterfly of the rice is
 invited with loud cries to come to the 
house4  ,were the spirit of the rice not
 secured in this manner1 next year's    
harvest would be bad47#eia7 ,similarly  
among the ,cherokee ,indians of ,north  
,america 8care was always taken to keep 
a clean trail from the field to the     

house1 so that the corn might be        
encouraged to stay at home and not go   
wandering elsewhere10 and 8seven ears   
from the last year's crop were  always  
put carefully aside1 in order to attract
 the corn1 until the new  crop was      
ripened407#eib7 ,in ,hsa ,mng ,hkam1 a  
native state of ,upper ,burma1  when two
 men work rice-fields in partnership1   
they take particular care as  to the    
division of the grain between them4     
,each partner has a basket made1  of    
which both top and bottom are carefully 
closed with wood to prevent the         
butterfly spirit of the rice from       
escaping2 for if it were to flutter     
away1 the next year's crop would be but 
poor47#eic7 ,among the ,talaings of     
,lower ,burma 8the last sheaf is larger 
than the rest2 it is brought home       
separately1 usually if not invariably on
 the morning after the remainder  of the
 harvest has been carted to the         
threshing-floor4 ,the cultivators  drive
 out in their bullock-cart1 taking with 

them a woman's comb1 a  looking-glass1  
and a woman's skirt4 ,the sheaf is      
dressed in the skirt1 and  apparently   
the form is gone through of presenting  
it with the glass and  comb4 ,it is then
 brought home in triumph1 the people    
decking the cart with  their silk       
kerchiefs1 and cheering and singing the 
whole way4 ,on their  arrival home they 
celebrate the occasion with a feast4    
,strictly speaking  the sheaf should be 
kept apart from the rest of the harvest2
 owing1  however1 to the high price of  
paddy it often finds its way to the     
threshing-floor4 ,even when this is not 
the case it is rarely tended so         
carefully as it is said to have been in 
former days1 and if not threshed  with  
the remaining crop is apt to be eaten by
 the cattle4 ,so far as ,i  could       
ascertain it had never been the custom  
to keep it throughout the  year2 but on 
the first ploughing of the ensuing      
season there was some  ceremony in      
connection with it4 ,the name of the    

sheaf was ,bonmagyi2 at  first ,i was   
inclined to fancy that this was a       
contraction of thelinbon ma  gyi1 #8the 
old woman of the threshing-floor4'      
,there are1 however1 various  reasons   
for discarding this derivation1 and ,i  
am unable to suggest any  other407#eid7 
,in this custom the personification of  
the last sheaf of rice  as a woman comes
 out clearly in the practice of dressing
 it up in female  attire4    7,m#afa7   
,the ,corn-mother of our ,european      
peasants has her match in the           
,rice-mother of the ,minangkabauers of  
,sumatra4 ,the ,minangkabauers          
definitely attribute a soul to rice1 and
 will sometimes assert that rice        
pounded in the usual way tastes better  
than rice ground in a mill1 because  in 
the mill the body of the rice was so    
bruised and battered that the soul  has 
fled from it4 ,like the ,javanese they  
think that the rice is under the        
special guardianship of a female spirit 
called ,saning ,sari1 who is  conceived 

as so closely knit up with the plant    
that the rice often goes by  her name1  
as with the ,romans the corn might be   
called ,ceres4 ,in particular  ,saning  
,sari is represented by certain stalks  
or grains called indoea  padi1 that is1 
literally1 8,mother of ,rice10 a name   
that is often given to  the guardian    
spirit herself4 ,this so-called ,mother 
of ,rice is the occasion  of a number of
 ceremonies observed at the planting and
 harvesting of the  rice as well as     
during its preservation in the barn4    
,when the seed of the  rice is about to 
be sown in the nursery or bedding-out   
ground1 where under  the wet system of  
cultivation it is regularly allowed to  
sprout before  being transplanted to the
 fields1 the best grains are picked out 
to form  the ,rice-mother4 ,these are   
then sown in the middle of the bed1 and 
the  common seed is planted round about 
them4 ,the state of the ,rice-mother is 
supposed to exert the greatest influence
 on the growth of the rice2 if she      

droops or pines away1 the harvest will  
be bad in consequence4 ,the woman  who  
sows the ,rice-mother in the nursery    
lets her hair hang loose and  afterwards
 bathes1 as a means of ensuring an      
abundant harvest4 ,when the  time comes 
to transplant the rice from the nursery 
to the field1 the  ,rice-mother receives
 a special place either in the middle or
 in a corner  of the field1 and a prayer
 or charm is uttered as follows3        
8,saning ,sari1  may a measure of rice  
come from a stalk of rice and a         
basketful from a  root2 may you be      
frightened neither by lightning nor by  
passers-by6  ,sunshine make you glad2   
with the storm may you be at peace2 and 
may rain  serve to wash your face60     
,while the rice is growing1 the         
particular plant  which was thus treated
 as the ,rice-mother is lost sight of2  
but before  harvest another ,rice-mother
 is found4 ,when the crop is ripe for   
cutting1  the oldest woman of the family
 or a sorcerer goes out to look for her4

 ,the  first stalks seen to bend under a
 passing breeze are the ,rice-mother1   
and  they are tied together but not cut 
until the first-fruits of the field     
have been carried home to serve as a    
festal meal for the family and their    
friends1 nay even for the domestic      
animals2 since it is ,saning ,sari's    
pleasure that the beasts also should    
partake of her good gifts4 ,after the   
meal has been eaten1 the ,rice-mother is
 fetched home by persons in gay  attire1
 who carry her very carefully under an  
umbrella in a neatly worked  bag to the 
barn1 where a place in the middle is    
assigned to her4 ,every one  believes   
that she takes care of the rice in the  
barn and even multiplies  it not        
uncommonly47#eie7    7,m#afb7 ,when the 
,tomori of ,central ,celebes are about  
to plant the rice1  they bury in the    
field some betel as an offering to the  
spirits who cause  the rice to grow4    
,over the spot where the offering is    
buried a small floor  of wood is laid1  

and the family sits on it and consumes  
betel together as  a sort of silent     
prayer or charm to ensure the growth of 
the crop4 ,the  rice that is planted    
round this spot is the last to be reaped
 at harvest4  ,at the commencement of   
the reaping the stalks of this patch of 
rice are  tied together into a sheaf1   
which is called 8the ,mother of the     
,rice0  7ineno pae71 and offerings in   
the shape of rice1 fowl's liver1 eggs1  
and  other things are laid down before  
it4 ,when all the rest of the rice in   
the  field has been reaped1 8the ,mother
 of the ,rice0 is cut down and carried  
with due honour to the rice-barn1 where 
it is laid on the floor1 and all  the   
other sheaves are piled upon it4 ,the   
,tomori1 we are told1 regard the        
,mother of the ,rice as a special       
offering made to the rice-spirit        
,omonga1  who dwells in the moon4 ,if   
that spirit is not treated with proper  
respect1  for example if the people who 
fetch rice from the barn are not        

decently  clad1 he is angry and punishes
 the offenders by eating up twice as    
much  rice in the barn as they have     
taken out of it2 some people have heard 
him  smacking his lips in the barn1 as  
he devoured the rice4 ,on the other hand
  the ,toradjas of ,central ,celebes1   
who also practise the custom of the     
,rice-mother at harvest1 regard her as  
the actual mother of the whole  harvest1
 and therefore keep her carefully1 lest 
in her absence the  garnered store of   
rice should all melt away and           
disappear47#eif7 ,among the  ,tomori1 as
 among other ,indonesian peoples1       
reapers at work in the field  make use  
of special words which differ from the  
terms in ordinary use2 the  reason for  
adopting this peculiar form of speech at
 reaping appears to be1  as ,i have     
already pointed out1 a fear of alarming 
the timid soul of the  rice by revealing
 the fate in store for it47#eig7 ,to the
 same motive is  perhaps to be ascribed 
the practice observed by the ,tomori of 

asking each  other riddles at           
harvest47#eih7 ,similarly among the     
,alfoors or ,toradjas of  ,poso1 in     
,central ,celebes1 while the people are 
watching the crops in the  fields they  
amuse themselves with asking each other 
riddles and telling  stories1 and when  
any one guesses a riddle aright1 the    
whole company cries  out1 8,let our rice
 come up1 let fat ears come up both in  
the lowlands and  on the heights40 ,but 
all the time between harvest and the    
laying out of  new fields the asking of 
riddles and the telling of stories is   
strictly  forbidden47#eii7 ,thus among  
these people it seems that the asking of
  riddles is for some reason regarded as
 a charm which may make or mar the      
crops4    7,m#afc7 ,among some of the   
,toradjas of ,celebes the ceremony of   
cutting and  bringing home the ,mother  
of the ,rice is observed as follows4    
,when the crop  is ripe in the fields1  
the ,mother of the ,rice 7nrong pre7    
must be  fetched before the rest of the 

harvest is reaped4 ,the ceremony is     
performed on a lucky day by a woman1 who
 knows the rites4 ,for three days       
previously she observes certain         
precautions to prevent the soul         
7soemangna se7 of the rice from escaping
 out of the field1 as it might  be apt  
to do1 if it got wind that the reapers  
with their cruel knives were  so soon to
 crop the ripe ears4 ,with this view she
 ties up a handful of  standing stalks  
of the rice into a bunch in each corner 
of the field1  while she recites an     
invocation to the spirits of the rice1  
bidding them  gather in the field from  
the four quarters of the heaven4 ,as a  
further  precaution she stops the       
sluices1 lest with the outrush of the   
water from  the rice-field the sly soul 
of the rice should make good its escape4
 ,and  she ties knots in the leaves of  
the rice-plants1 all to hinder the soul 
of  the rice from running away4 ,this   
she does in the afternoon of three      
successive days4 ,on the morning of the 

fourth day she comes again to the       
field1 sits down in a corner of it1 and 
kisses the rice three times1 again      
inviting the souls of the rice to come  
thither and assuring them of her        
affection and care4 ,then she cuts the  
bunch of rice-stalks which she had  tied
 together on one of the previous days4  
,the stalks in the bunch must be  nine  
in number1 and their leaves must be cut 
with them1 not thrown away4  ,as she    
cuts1 she may not look about her1 nor   
cry out1 nor speak to any  one1 nor be  
spoken to2 but she says to the rice1    
8,the prophet reaps you4 ,i  take you1  
but you diminish not2 ,i hold you in my 
hand and you increase4  ,you are the    
links of my soul1 the support of my     
body1 my blessing1 my  salvation4 ,there
 is no ,god but ,god40 ,then she passes 
to another corner of  the field to cut  
the bunch of standing rice in it with   
the same ceremony2  but before coming to
 it she stops half way to pluck another 
bunch of five  stalks in like manner4   

,thus from the four sides of the field  
she collects  in all fifty-six stalks of
 rice1 which together make up the       
,mother of the  ,rice 7nrong pre74 ,then
 in a corner of the field she makes a   
little  stage and lays the ,mother of   
the ,rice on it1 with the ears turned   
towards  the standing rice and the cut  
stalks towards the dyke which encloses  
the  field4 ,after that she binds the   
fifty-six stalks of the ,rice-mother    
into a  sheaf with the bark of a        
particular kind of tree4 ,as she does   
so1 she  says1 8,the prophet binds you  
into a sheaf2 the angel increases you2  
the  awlli cares for you4 ,we loved and 
cared for each other40 ,then1 after     
anointing the sheaf and fumigating it   
with incense1 she lays it on the  little
 stage4 ,on this stage she had          
previously placed several kinds of      
rice1 betel1 one or more eggs1          
sweetmeats1 and young coco-nuts1 all as 
offerings to the ,mother of the ,rice1  
who1 if she did not receive these       

attentions1 would be offended and visit 
people with sickness or even  vanish    
away altogether4 ,sometimes on large    
farms a fowl is killed and its  blood   
deposited in the half of a coco-nut on  
the stage4 ,the standing rice  round    
about the stage is the last of the whole
 field to be reaped4 ,when it  has been 
cut1 it is bound up with the ,mother of 
the ,rice into a single  sheaf and      
carried home4 ,any body may carry the   
sheaf1 but in doing so he  or she must  
take care not to let it fall1 or the    
,rice-mother would be  angry and might  
disappear47#fjj7    7,m#afd7 ,among the 
,battas or ,bataks of ,sumatra the rice 
appears to be  personified as a young   
unmarried woman rather than as a mother4
 ,on the  first day of reaping the crop 
only a few ears of rice are plucked and 
made  up into a little sheaf4 ,after    
that the reaping may begin1 and while it
 is  going forward offerings of rice and
 betel are presented in the middle of   
the field to the spirit of the rice1 who

 is personified under the name of  ,miss
 ,dajang4 ,the offering is accompanied  
by a common meal shared by the  reapers4
 ,when all the rice has been reaped1    
threshed and garnered1 the  little sheaf
 which was first cut is brought in and  
laid on the top of the  heap in the     
granary1 together with an egg or a      
stone1 which is supposed to  watch over 
the rice47#fja7 ,though we are not told1
 we may assume that the  personified    
spirit of the rice is supposed to be    
present in the first  sheaf cut and in  
that form to keep guard over the rice in
 the granary4  ,another writer1 who has 
independently described the customs of  
the  ,karo-,bataks at the rice-harvest1 
tells us that the largest sheaf1 which  
is  usually the one first made up1 is   
regarded as the seat of the rice-soul   
and is treated exactly like a person2 at
 the trampling of the paddy to  separate
 the grain from the husks the sheaf in  
question is specially  entrusted to a   
girl who has a lucky name1 and whose    

parents are both  alive47#fjb7          
7,m#afe7 ,in ,mandeling1 a district of  
,sumatra1 contrary to what seems to be  
the usual practice1 the spirit of the   
rice is personified as a male  instead  
of as a female and is called the ,rajah 
or ,king of the ,rice4 ,he is  supposed 
to be immanent in certain rice-plants1  
which are recognised by  their peculiar 
formation1 such as a concealment of the 
ears in the sheath1  an unusual         
arrangement of the leaves1 or a stunted 
growth4 ,when one or  more such plants  
have been discovered in the field1 they 
are sprinkled  with lime-juice1 and the 
spirits are invoked by name and informed
 that  they are expected at home and    
that all is ready for their reception4  
,then  the ,king of the ,rice is plucked
 with the hand and seven neighbouring   
rice-stalks cut with a knife4 ,he and   
his seven companions are then  carefully
 brought home2 the bearer may not speak 
a word1 and the children  in the house  
may make no noise till the ,king of the 

,rice has been safely  lodged in the    
granary and tethered1 for greater       
security1 with a grass  rope to one of  
the posts4 ,as soon as that is done1 the
 doors are shut to  prevent the spirits 
of the rice from escaping4 ,the person  
who fetches the  ,king of the ,rice from
 the field should prepare himself for   
the important  duty by eating a hearty  
meal1 for it would be an omen of a bad  
harvest if  he presented himself before 
the ,king of the ,rice with an empty    
stomach4  ,for the same reason the sower
 of rice should sow the seed on a full  
stomach1 in order that the ears which   
spring from the seed may be full        
also47#fjc7    7,m#aff7 ,again1 just as 
in ,scotland the old and the young      
spirit of the corn  are represented as  
an ,old ,wife 7,cailleach7 and a ,maiden
 respectively1 so  in the ,malay        
,peninsula we find both the ,rice-mother
 and her child  represented by different
 sheaves or bundles of ears on the      
harvest-field4  ,the following          

directions for obtaining both are       
translated from a native  ,malay work on
 the cultivation of rice3 8,when the    
rice is ripe all over1  one must first  
take the #8soul' out of all the plots of
 one's field4 ,you  choose the spot     
where the rice is best and where it is  
#8female' 7that is  to say1 where the   
bunch of stalks is big7 and where there 
are seven joints  in the stalk4 ,you    
begin with a bunch of this kind and clip
 seven stems to  be the #8soul of the   
rice'2 and then you clip yet another    
handful to be the  #8mother-seed' for   
the following year4 ,the #8soul' is     
wrapped in a white  cloth tied with a   
cord of trap bark1 and made into the    
shape of a  little child in swaddling   
clothes1 and put into the small basket4 
,the  #8mother-seed' is put into another
 basket1 and both are fumigated with    
benzoin1 and then the two baskets are   
piled the one on the other and taken    
home1 and put into the kpuk 7the        
receptacle in which rice is             

stored7407#fjd7 ,the ceremony of cutting
 and bringing home the ,soul of the     
,rice was witnessed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4     
,skeat at ,chodoi in ,selangor on the   
twenty-eighth of ,january #ahig4 ,the   
particular bunch or sheaf which was to  
serve as the ,mother of the ,rice-soul  
had previously been sought and          
identified by means of the markings or  
shape of the ears4 ,from this sheaf  an 
aged sorceress1 with much solemnity1 cut
 a little bundle of seven ears1         
anointed them with oil1 tied them round 
with parti-coloured thread1  fumigated  
them with incense1 and having wrapt them
 in a white cloth  deposited them in a  
little oval-shaped basket4 ,these seven 
ears were the  infant ,soul of the ,rice
 and the little basket was its cradle4  
,it was  carried home to the farmer's   
house by another woman1 who held up an  
umbrella to screen the tender infant    
from the hot rays of the sun4 ,arrived  
at the house the ,rice-child was        
welcomed by the women of the family1 and

  laid1 cradle and all1 on a new        
sleeping-mat with pillows at the head4  
,after that the farmer's wife was       
instructed to observe certain rules of  
taboo for three days1 the rules being in
 many respects identical with  those    
which have to be observed for three days
 after the birth of a real  child4 ,for 
example1 perfect quiet must be observed1
 as in a house where a  baby has just   
been born2 a light was placed near the  
head of the  ,rice-child's bed and might
 not go out at night1 while the fire on 
the  hearth had to be kept up both day  
and night till the three days were over2
  hair might not be cut2 and money1     
rice1 salt1 oil1 and so forth were      
forbidden to go out of the house1 though
 of course these valuable articles  were
 quite free to come in4 ,something of   
the same tender care which is  thus     
bestowed on the newly-born ,rice-child  
is naturally extended also to  its      
parent1 the sheaf from whose body it was
 taken4 ,this sheaf1 which  remains     

standing in the field after the         
,rice-soul has been carried home  and   
put to bed1 is treated as a newly-made  
mother2 that is to say1 young  shoots of
 trees are pounded together and         
scattered broadcast every evening  for  
three successive days1 and when the     
three days are up you take the  pulp of 
a coco-nut and what are called          
8goat-flowers10 mix them up1 eat  them  
with a little sugar1 and spit some of   
the mixture out among the rice4  ,so    
after a real birth the young shoots of  
the jack-fruit1 the rose-apple1  certain
 kinds of banana1 and the thin pulp of  
young coco-nuts are mixed  with dried   
fish1 salt1 acid1 prawn-condiment1 and  
the like dainties to  form a sort of    
salad1 which is administered to mother  
and child for three  successive days4   
,the last sheaf is reaped by the        
farmer's wife1 who  carries it back to  
the house1 where it is threshed and     
mixed with the  ,rice-soul4 ,the farmer 
then takes the ,rice-soul and its basket

 and deposits  it1 together with the    
product of the last sheaf1 in the big   
circular  rice-bin used by the ,malays4 
,some grains from the ,rice-soul are    
mixed with  the seed which is to be sown
 in the following year47#fje7 ,in this  
,rice-mother and ,rice-child of the     
,malay ,peninsula we may see the        
counterpart and in a sense the prototype
 of the ,demeter and ,persephone of     
ancient ,greece4    7,m#afg7 ,once more1
 the ,european custom of representing   
the corn-spirit in  the double form of  
bride and bridegroom7#fjf7 has its      
parallel in a  ceremony observed at the 
rice-harvest in ,java4 ,before the      
reapers begin to  cut the rice1 the     
priest or sorcerer picks out a number of
 ears of rice1  which are tied together1
 smeared with ointment1 and adorned with
 flowers4  ,thus decked out1 the ears   
are called the padi-pngantn1 that is1   
the  ,rice-bride and the                
,rice-bridegroom2 their wedding feast is
 celebrated1 and  the cutting of the    

rice begins immediately afterwards4     
,later on1 when the  rice is being got  
in1 a bridal chamber is partitioned off 
in the barn1 and  furnished with a new  
mat1 a lamp1 and all kinds of toilet    
articles4  ,sheaves of rice1 to         
represent the wedding guests1 are placed
 beside the  ,rice-bride and the        
,rice-bridegroom4 ,not till this has    
been done may the  whole harvest be     
housed in the barn4 ,and for the first  
forty days after  the rice has been     
housed1 no one may enter the barn1 for  
fear of  disturbing the newly-wedded    
pair47#fjg7    7,m#afh7 ,another account
 of the ,javanese custom runs as        
follows4 ,when the  rice at harvest is  
to be brought home1 two handfuls of     
common unhusked  rice 7paddy7 are tied  
together into a sheaf1 and two handfuls 
of a special  kind of rice 7kleefrijst7 
are tied up into another sheaf2 then the
 two  sheaves are fastened together in a
 bundle which goes by the name of 8the  
bridal pair0 7pn-gantenan74 ,the special

 rice is the bridegroom1 the  common    
rice is the bride4 ,at the barn 8the    
bridal pair0 is received on a           
winnowing-fan by a wizard1 who removes  
them from the fan and lays them on  the 
floor with a couch of kloewih leaves    
under them 8in order that the  rice may 
increase10 and beside them he places a  
kmiri nut1 tamarind  pips1 and a top and
 string as playthings with which the    
young couple may  divert themselves4    
,the bride is called ,emboq ,sri and the
 bridegroom  ,sadana1 and the wizard    
addresses them by name1 saying3 8,emboq 
,sri and  ,sadana1 ,i have now brought  
you home and ,i have prepared a place   
for you4  ,may you sleep agreeably in   
this agreeable place6 ,emboq ,sri and   
,sadana1 you  have been received by     
,so-and-,so 7the owner71 let ,so-and-,so
 lead a life  free from care4 ,may      
,emboq ,sri's luck continue in this very
 agreeable  place607#fjh7    7,m#afi7   
,the same idea of the rice-spirit as a  
husband and wife meets us  also in the  

harvest customs of ,bali and ,lombok1   
two islands which lie  immediately to   
the east of ,java4 8,the inhabitants of 
,lombok10 we are told1  8think of the   
rice-plant as animated by a soul4 ,they 
regard it as one with  a divinity and   
treat it with the distinction and honour
 that are shewn to  a very important    
person4 ,but as it is impossible to     
treat all the  rice-stalks in a field   
ceremoniously1 the native1 feeling the  
need of a  visible and tangible         
representative of the rice-deity and    
taking a part  for the whole1 picks out 
some stalks and conceives them as the   
visible  abode of the rice-soul1 to     
which he can pay his homage and from    
which he  hopes to derive advantage4    
,these few stalks1 the foremost among   
their many  peers1 form what is called  
the ninin pantun by the people of ,bali 
and  the inan par by the ,sassaks0 of   
,lombok47#fji7 ,the name ina par is     
sometimes translated ,rice-mother1 but  
the more correct translation is said  to

 be 8the principal rice40 ,the stalks of
 which this 8principal rice0  consists  
are the first nine shoots which the     
husbandman himself takes with  his own  
hands from the nursery or bedding-out   
ground and plants at the  upper end of  
the rice-field beside the inlet of the  
irrigation water4 ,they  are planted    
with great care in a definite order1 one
 of them in the middle  and the other   
eight in a circle about it4 ,when the   
whole field has been  planted1 an       
offering1 which usually consists of rice
 in many forms1 is  made to 8the        
principal rice0 7inan par74 ,when the   
rice-stalks begin to  swell the rice is 
said to be pregnant1 and the 8principal 
rice0 is treated  with the delicate     
attentions which are paid to a woman    
with child4 ,thus  rice-pap and eggs are
 laid down beside it1 and sour fruits   
are often  presented to it1 because     
pregnant women are believed to long for 
sour  fruit4 ,moreover the fertilisation
 of the rice by the irrigation water is 

compared to the union of the goddess    
,batari ,sri with her husband ,ida      
,batara 7,vishnu71 who is identified    
with the flowing water4 ,some people    
sprinkle the pregnant rice with water in
 which cooling drugs have been  infused 
or with water which has stood on a holy 
grave1 in order that the  ears may fill 
out well4 ,when the time of harvest has 
come1 the owner of  the field himself   
makes a beginning by cutting 8the       
principal rice0 7inan  par or ninin     
pantun7 with his own hands and binding  
it into two  sheaves1 each composed of  
one hundred and eight stalks with their 
leaves  attached to them4 ,one of the   
sheaves represents a man and the other a
  woman1 and they are called 8husband   
and wife0 7istri kakung74 ,the male     
sheaf is wound about with thread so that
 none of the leaves are visible1        
whereas the female sheaf has its leaves 
bent over and tied so as to  resemble   
the roll of a woman's hair4 ,sometimes1 
for further distinction1 a  necklace of 

rice-straw is tied round the female     
sheaf4 ,the two sheaves are  then       
fastened together and tied to a branch  
of a tree1 which is stuck in  the ground
 at the inlet of the irrigation water4  
,there they remain while  all the rest  
of the rice is being reaped4 ,sometimes1
 instead of being tied  to a bough1 they
 are laid on a little bamboo altar4 ,the
 reapers at their  work take great care 
to let no grains of rice fall on the    
ground1  otherwise the ,rice-goddess    
would grieve and weep at being parted   
from her  sisters1 who are carried to   
the barn4 ,if any portion of the field  
remains  unreaped at nightfall1 the     
reapers make loops in the leaves of some
 of the  standing stalks to prevent the 
evil spirits from proceeding with the   
harvest during the hours of darkness1   
or1 according to another account1  lest 
the ,rice-goddess should go astray4     
,when the rice is brought home from  the
 field1 the two sheaves representing the
 husband and wife are carried  by a     

woman on her head1 and are the last of  
all to be deposited in the  barn4 ,there
 they are laid to rest on a small       
erection or on a cushion of  rice-straw 
along with three lumps of nasi1 which   
are regarded as the  attendants or      
watchers of the bridal pair4 ,the whole 
arrangement1 we are  informed1 has for  
its object to induce the rice to        
increase and multiply  in the granary1  
so that the owner may get more out of it
 than he put in4  ,hence when the people
 of ,bali bring the two sheaves1 the    
husband and wife1  into the barn1 they  
say 8,increase ye and multiply without  
ceasing40 ,when a  woman fetches rice   
from the granary for the use of her     
household1 she has  to observe a number 
of rules1 all of which are clearly      
dictated by respect  for the spirit of  
the rice4 ,she should not enter the barn
 in the dark or  at noon perhaps because
 the spirit may then be supposed to be  
sleeping4  ,she must enter with her     
right foot first4 ,she must be decently 

clad with  her breasts covered4 ,she    
must not chew betel1 and she would do   
well to  rinse her mouth before         
repairing to the barn1 just as she would
 do if she  waited on a person of       
distinction or on a divinity4 ,no sick  
or menstruous  woman may enter the barn1
 and there must be no talking in it1    
just as  there must be no talking when  
shelled rice is being scooped up4 ,when 
all  the rice in the barn has been used 
up1 the two sheaves representing the    
husband and wife remain in the empty    
building till they have gradually       
disappeared or been devoured by mice4   
,the pinch of hunger sometimes drives   
individuals to eat up the rice of these 
two sheaves1 but the wretches who  do so
 are viewed with disgust by their       
fellows and branded as pigs and  dogs4  
,nobody would ever sell these holy      
sheaves with the rest of their  profane 
brethren47#faj7    7,m#agj7 ,the same   
notion of the propagation of the rice by
 a male and female  power finds         

expression amongst the ,szis of ,upper  
,burma4 ,when the paddy1  that is1 the  
rice with the husks still on it1 has    
been dried and piled in  a heap for     
threshing1 all the friends of the       
household are invited to the            
threshing-floor1 and food and drink are 
brought out4 ,the heap of paddy is      
divided and one half spread out for     
threshing1 while the other half is  left
 piled up4 ,on the pile food and spirits
 are set1 and one of the  elders1       
addressing 8the father and mother of the
 paddy-plant10 prays for  plenteous     
harvests in future1 and begs that the   
seed may bear many fold4  ,then the     
whole party eat1 drink1 and make merry4 
,this ceremony at the  threshing-floor  
is the only occasion when these people  
invoke 8the father  and mother of the   
paddy407#faa7           #e4 ,the ,spirit
 of the ,corn embodied in ,human        
,beings4      7,m#aga7 ,thus the theory 
which recognises in the ,european       
,corn-mother1  ,corn-maiden1 and so     

forth1 the embodiment in vegetable form 
of the  animating spirit of the crops is
 amply confirmed by the evidence of     
peoples in other parts of the world1    
who1 because they have lagged behind    
the ,european races in mental           
development1 retain for that very reason
 a  keener sense of the original motives
 for observing those rustic rites  which
 among ourselves have sunk to the level 
of meaningless survivals4 ,the  reader  
may1 however1 remember that according to
 ,mannhardt1 whose theory ,i  am        
expounding1 the spirit of the corn      
manifests itself not merely in          
vegetable but also in human form2 the   
person who cuts the last sheaf or  gives
 the last stroke at threshing passes for
 a temporary embodiment of  the         
corn-spirit1 just as much as the bunch  
of corn which he reaps or  threshes4    
,now in the parallels which have been   
hitherto adduced from the  customs of   
peoples outside ,europe the spirit of   
the crops appears only in  vegetable    

form4 ,it remains1 therefore1 to prove  
that other races besides  our ,european 
peasantry have conceived the spirit of  
the crops as  incorporate in or         
represented by living men and women4    
,such a proof1 ,i may  remind the       
reader1 is germane to the theme of this 
book2 for the more  instances we        
discover of human beings representing in
 themselves the life  or animating      
spirit of plants1 the less difficulty   
will be felt at  classing amongst them  
the ,king of the ,wood at ,nemi4        
7,m#agb7 ,the ,mandans and ,minnitarees 
of ,north ,america used to hold a       
festival in spring which they called the
 corn-medicine festival of the  women4  
,they thought that a certain ,old ,woman
 who ,never ,dies made the crops  to    
grow1 and that1 living somewhere in the 
south1 she sent the migratory  waterfowl
 in spring as her tokens and            
representatives4 ,each sort of bird     
represented a special kind of crop      
cultivated by the ,indians3 the wild    

goose stood for the maize1 the wild swan
 for the gourds1 and the wild duck  for 
the beans4 ,so when the feathered       
messengers of the ,old ,woman began to  
arrive in spring the ,indians celebrated
 the corn-medicine festival of the      
women4 ,scaffolds were set up1 on which 
the people hung dried meat and  other   
things by way of offerings to the ,old  
,woman2 and on a certain day  the old   
women of the tribe1 as representatives  
of the ,old ,woman who ,never  ,dies1   
assembled at the scaffolds each bearing 
in her hand an ear of maize  fastened to
 a stick4 ,they first planted these     
sticks in the ground1 then  danced round
 the scaffolds1 and finally took up the 
sticks again in their  arms4 ,meanwhile 
old men beat drums and shook rattles as 
a musical  accompaniment to the         
performance of the old women4 ,further1 
young women  came and put dried flesh   
into the mouths of the old women1 for   
which they  received in return a grain  
of the consecrated maize to eat4 ,three 

or four  grains of the holy corn were   
also placed in the dishes of the young  
women1  to be afterwards carefully mixed
 with the seed-corn1 which they were    
supposed to fertilise4 ,the dried flesh 
hung on the scaffold belonged to  the   
old women1 because they represented the 
,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4 ,a        
similar corn-medicine festival was held 
in autumn for the purpose of  attracting
 the herds of buffaloes and securing a  
supply of meat4 ,at that  time every    
woman carried in her arms an uprooted   
plant of maize4 ,they gave  the name of 
the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies both to
 the maize and to those  birds which    
they regarded as symbols of the fruits  
of the earth1 and they  prayed to them  
in autumn saying1 8,mother1 have pity on
 us6 send us not the  bitter cold too   
soon1 lest we have not meat enough6 let 
not all the game  depart1 that we may   
have something for the winter60 ,in     
autumn1 when the  birds were flying     
south1 the ,indians thought that they   

were going home to  the ,old ,woman and 
taking to her the offerings that had    
been hung up on the  scaffolds1         
especially the dried meat1 which she    
ate47#fab7 ,here then we  have the      
spirit or divinity of the corn conceived
 as an ,old ,woman and  represented in  
bodily form by old women1 who in their  
capacity of  representatives receive    
some at least of the offerings which are
 intended  for her4    7,m#agc7 ,the    
,miamis1 another tribe of ,north        
,american ,indians1 tell a tale in      
which the spirit of the corn figures as 
a broken-down old man4 ,they say  that  
corn1 that is1 maize1 first grew in     
heaven1 and that the ,good ,spirit      
commanded it to go down and dwell with  
men on earth4 ,at first it was          
reluctant to do so1 but the ,good       
,spirit prevailed on it to go by        
promising  that men would treat it well 
in return for the benefit they derived  
from  it4 8,so corn came down from      
heaven to benefit the ,indian1 and this 

is the  reason why they esteem it1 and  
are bound to take good care of it1 and  
to  nurture it1 and not raise more than 
they actually require1 for their own    
consumption40 ,but once a whole town of 
the ,miamis was severely punished  for  
failing in respect for the corn4 ,they  
had raised a great crop and  stored much
 of it under ground1 and much of it they
 packed for immediate  use in bags4 ,but
 the corn was so plentiful that much of 
it still remained  on the stalks1 and   
the young men grew reckless and played  
with the shelled  cobs1 throwing them at
 each other1 and at last they even broke
 the cobs  from the growing stalks and  
pelted each other with them too4 ,but a 
judgment soon followed on such wicked   
conduct4 ,for when the hunters went  out
 to hunt1 though the deer seemed to     
abound1 they could kill nothing4 ,so    
the corn was gone and they could get no 
meat1 and the people were hungry4       
,well1 one of the hunters1 roaming by   
himself in the woods to find  something 

to eat for his aged father1 came upon a 
small lodge in the  wilderness where a  
decrepit old man was lying with his back
 to the fire4  ,now the old man was no  
other than the ,spirit of the ,corn4 ,he
 said to the  young hunter1 8,my        
grandson1 the ,indians have afflicted me
 much1 and  reduced me to the sad state 
in which you see me4 ,in the side of the
 lodge  you will find a small kettle4   
,take it and eat1 and when you have     
satisfied  your hunger1 ,i will speak to
 you40 ,but the kettle was full of such 
fine  sweet corn as the hunter had never
 in his life seen before4 ,when he had  
eaten his fill1 the old man resumed the 
thread of his discourse1 saying1  8,your
 people have wantonly abused and reduced
 me to the state you now see  me in3 my 
back-bone is broken in many places2 it  
was the foolish young men  of your town 
who did me this evil1 for ,i am         
,mondamin1 or corn1 that came  down from
 heaven4 ,in their play they threw      
corn-cobs and corn-ears at one  another1

 treating me with contempt4 ,i am the   
corn-spirit whom they have  injured4    
,that is why you experience bad luck and
 famine4 ,i am the cause2  you feel my  
just resentment1 therefore your people  
are punished4 ,other  ,indians do not   
treat me so4 ,they respect me1 and so it
 is well with them4  ,had you no elders 
to check the youths at their wanton     
sport8 ,you are an  eye-witness of my   
sufferings4 ,they are the effect of what
 you did to my  body40 ,with that he    
groaned and covered himself up4 ,so the 
young hunter  returned and reported what
 he had seen and heard2 and since then  
the  ,indians have been very careful not
 to play with corn in the ear47#fac7    
7,m#agd7 ,in some parts of ,india the   
harvest-goddess ,gauri is represented at
  once by an unmarried girl and by a    
bundle of wild balsam plants1 which is  
made up into the figure of a woman and  
dressed as such with mask1  garments1   
and ornaments4 ,both the human and the  
vegetable representative  of the goddess

 are worshipped1 and the intention of   
the whole ceremony  appears to be to    
ensure a good crop of rice47#fad7       
#f4 ,the ,double ,personification of the
 ,corn as ,mother and ,daughter4        
7,m#age7 ,compared with the ,corn-mother
 of ,germany and the ,harvest-maiden of 
,scotland1 the ,demeter and ,persephone 
of ,greece are late products of         
religious growth4 ,yet as members of the
 ,aryan family the ,greeks must at  one 
time or another have observed harvest   
customs like those which are  still     
practised by ,celts1 ,teutons1 and      
,slavs1 and which1 far beyond the       
limits of the ,aryan world1 have been   
practised by the ,indians of ,peru1 the 
,dyaks of ,borneo1 and many other       
natives of the ,east ,indies--a         
sufficient  proof that the ideas on     
which these customs rest are not        
confined to any  one race1 but naturally
 suggest themselves to all untutored    
peoples  engaged in agriculture4 ,it is 
probable1 therefore1 that ,demeter and  

,persephone1 those stately and beautiful
 figures of ,greek mythology1 grew  out 
of the same simple beliefs and practices
 which still prevail among our  modern  
peasantry1 and that they were           
represented by rude dolls made out of   
the yellow sheaves on many a            
harvest-field long before their         
breathing  images were wrought in bronze
 and marble by the master hands of      
,phidias  and ,praxiteles4 ,a           
reminiscence of that olden time--a      
scent1 so to say1 of  the               
harvest-field--lingered to the last in  
the title of the ,maiden 7,kore7  by    
which ,persephone was commonly known4   
,thus if the prototype of ,demeter  is  
the ,corn-mother of ,germany1 the       
prototype of ,persephone is the         
,harvest-maiden1 which1 autumn after    
autumn1 is still made from the last     
sheaf on the ,braes of ,balquhidder4    
,indeed1 if we knew more about the      
peasant-farmers of ancient ,greece1 we  
should probably find that even in       

classical times they continued annually 
to fashion their ,corn-mothers          
7,demeters7 and ,maidens 7,persephones7 
out of the ripe corn on the             
harvest-fields47#fae7 ,but unfortunately
 the ,demeter and ,persephone whom we   
know were the denizens of towns1 the    
majestic inhabitants of lordly  temples2
 it was for such divinities alone that  
the refined writers of  antiquity had   
eyes2 the uncouth rites performed by    
rustics amongst the  corn were beneath  
their notice4 ,even if they noticed     
them1 they probably  never dreamed of   
any connexion between the puppet of     
corn-stalks on the  sunny stubble-field 
and the marble divinity in the shady    
coolness of the  temple4 ,still the     
writings even of these town-bred and    
cultured persons  afford us an          
occasional glimpse of a ,demeter as rude
 as the rudest that a  remote ,german   
village can shew4 ,thus the story that  
,iasion begat a child  ,plutus          
78wealth10 8abundance07 by ,demeter on a

 thrice-ploughed field17#faf7  may be   
compared with the ,west ,prussian custom
 of the mock birth of a child  on the   
harvest-field47#fag7 ,in this ,prussian 
custom the pretended mother  represents 
the ,corn-mother 7ytniamatka72 the      
pretended child represents  the         
,corn-baby1 and the whole ceremony is a 
charm to ensure a crop next  year47#fah7
 ,the custom and the legend alike point 
to an older practice of  performing1    
among the sprouting crops in spring or  
the stubble in autumn1  one of those    
real or mimic acts of procreation by    
which1 as we have seen1  primitive man  
often seeks to infuse his own vigorous  
life into the languid  or decaying      
energies of nature47#fai7 ,another      
glimpse of the savage under  the        
civilised ,demeter will be afforded     
farther on1 when we come to deal  with  
another aspect of these agricultural    
divinities4    7,m#agf7 ,the reader may 
have observed that in modern            
folk-customs the  corn-spirit is        

generally represented either by a       
,corn-mother 7,old ,woman1  etc47 or by 
a ,maiden 7,harvest-child1 etc471 not   
both by a ,corn-mother and  by a        
,maiden4 ,why then did the ,greeks      
represent the corn both as a mother  and
 a daughter8    7,m#agg7 ,in the ,breton
 custom the mother-sheaf--a large figure
 made out of  the last sheaf with a     
small corn-doll inside of it--clearly   
represents both  the ,corn-mother and   
the ,corn-daughter1 the latter still    
unborn47#fbj7  ,again1 in the ,prussian 
custom just referred to1 the woman who  
plays the  part of ,corn-mother         
represents the ripe grain2 the child    
appears to  represent next year's corn1 
which may be regarded1 naturally enough1
 as  the child of this year's corn1     
since it is from the seed of this year's
  harvest that next year's crop will    
spring4 ,further1 we have seen that     
among the ,malays of the ,peninsula and 
sometimes among the ,highlanders of     
,scotland the spirit of the grain is    

represented in double female form1  both
 as old and young1 by means of ears     
taken alike from the ripe crop3 in      
,scotland the old spirit of the corn    
appears as the ,carline or ,cailleach1  
the young spirit as the ,maiden2 while  
among the ,malays of the ,peninsula  the
 two spirits of the rice are definitely 
related to each other as mother  and    
child47#fba7 ,judged by these analogies 
,demeter would be the ripe crop  of this
 year2 ,persephone would be the         
seed-corn taken from it and sown in     
autumn1 to reappear in spring47#fbb7    
,the descent of ,persephone into the    
lower world would thus be a mythical    
expression for the sowing of the  seed2 
her reappearance in spring would signify
 the sprouting of the young  corn4 ,in  
this way the ,persephone of one year    
becomes the ,demeter of the  next1 and  
this may very well have been the        
original form of the myth4 ,but  when   
with the advance of religious thought   
the corn came to be  personified1 no    

longer as a being that went through the 
whole cycle of  birth1 growth1          
reproduction1 and death within a year1  
but as an immortal  goddess1 consistency
 required that one of the two           
personifications1 the  mother or the    
daughter1 should be sacrificed4         
,however1 the double  conception of the 
corn as mother and daughter may have    
been too old and  too deeply rooted in  
the popular mind to be eradicated by    
logic1 and so  room had to be found in  
the reformed myth both for mother and   
daughter4  ,this was done by assigning  
to ,persephone the character of the corn
 sown in  autumn and sprouting in       
spring1 while ,demeter was left to play 
the  somewhat vague part of the heavy   
mother of the corn1 who laments its     
annual disappearance underground1 and   
rejoices over its reappearance in       
spring4 ,thus instead of a regular      
succession of divine beings1 each living
  a year and then giving birth to her   
successor1 the reformed myth exhibits   

the conception of two divine and        
immortal beings1 one of whom annually   
disappears into and reappears from the  
ground1 while the other has little  to  
do but to weep and rejoice at the       
appropriate seasons47#fbc7    7,m#agh7  
,this theory of the double              
personification of the corn in ,greek   
myth  assumes that both personifications
 7,demeter and ,persephone7 are         
original4  ,but if we suppose that the  
,greek myth started with a single       
personification1 the after-growth of a  
second personification may perhaps  be  
explained as follows4 ,on looking over  
the harvest customs which have  been    
passed under review1 it may be noticed  
that they involve two distinct          
conceptions of the corn-spirit4 ,for    
whereas in some of the customs the      
corn-spirit is treated as immanent in   
the corn1 in others it is regarded  as  
external to it4 ,thus when a particular 
sheaf is called by the name of  the     
corn-spirit1 and is dressed in clothes  

and handled with  reverence17#fbd7 the  
spirit is clearly regarded as immanent  
in the corn4  ,but when the spirit is   
said to make the crops grow by passing  
through  them1 or to blight the grain of
 those against whom she has a           
grudge17#fbe7  she is apparently        
conceived as distinct from1 though      
exercising power  over1 the corn4       
,conceived in the latter way the        
corn-spirit is in a fair  way to become 
a deity of the corn1 if she has not     
become so already4 ,of  these two       
conceptions1 that of the corn-spirit as 
immanent in the corn is  doubtless the  
older1 since the view of nature as      
animated by indwelling  spirits appears 
to have generally preceded the view of  
it as controlled by  external deities2  
to put it shortly1 animism precedes     
deism4 ,in the  harvest customs of our  
,european peasantry the corn-spirit     
seems to be  conceived now as immanent  
in the corn and now as external to it4  
,in ,greek  mythology1 on the other     

hand1 ,demeter is viewed rather as the  
deity of the  corn than as the spirit   
immanent in it47#fbf7 ,the process of   
thought which  leads to the change from 
the one mode of conception to the other 
is  anthropomorphism1 or the gradual    
investment of the immanent spirits with 
more and more of the attributes of      
humanity4 ,as men emerge from savagery  
the tendency to humanise their          
divinities gains strength2 and the more 
human these become the wider is the     
breach which severs them from the       
natural objects of which they were at   
first merely the animating spirits  or  
souls4 ,but in the progress upwards from
 savagery men of the same  generation do
 not march abreast2 and though the new  
anthropomorphic gods  may satisfy the   
religious wants of the more developed   
intelligences1 the  backward members of 
the community will cling by preference  
to the old  animistic notions4 ,now when
 the spirit of any natural object such  
as the  corn has been invested with     

human qualities1 detached from the      
object1 and  converted into a deity     
controlling it1 the object itself is1 by
 the  withdrawal of its spirit1 left    
inanimate2 it becomes1 so to say1 a     
spiritual vacuum4 ,but the popular      
fancy1 intolerant of such a vacuum1 in  
other words1 unable to conceive anything
 as inanimate1 immediately creates  a   
fresh mythical being1 with which it     
peoples the vacant object4 ,thus the    
same natural object comes to be         
represented in mythology by two distinct
  beings3 first by the old spirit now   
separated from it and raised to the     
rank of a deity2 second1 by the new     
spirit1 freshly created by the popular  
fancy to supply the place vacated by the
 old spirit on its elevation to a       
higher sphere4 ,for example1 in         
,japanese religion the solar character  
of  ,ama-terasu1 the great goddess of   
the ,sun1 has become obscured1 and      
accordingly the people have personified 
the sun afresh under the name of        

,nichi-rin sama1 8sun-wheeling          
personage10 and ,o tent sama1           
8august-heaven-path-personage02 to the  
lower class of ,japanese at the  present
 day1 especially to women and children1 
,o tent sama is the  actual sun1        
sexless1 mythless1 and unencumbered by  
any formal worship1 yet  looked up to as
 a moral being who rewards the good1    
punishes the wicked1  and enforces oaths
 made in his name47#fbg7 ,in such cases 
the problem for  mythology is1 having   
got two distinct personifications of the
 same object1  what to do with them8    
,how are their relations to each other  
to be  adjusted1 and room found for both
 in the mythological system8 ,when the  
old  spirit or new deity is conceived as
 creating or producing the object in    
question1 the problem is easily solved4 
,since the object is believed to be     
produced by the old spirit1 and animated
 by the new one1 the latter1 as  the    
soul of the object1 must also owe its   
existence to the former2 thus  the old  

spirit will stand to the new one as     
producer to produced1 that is1  in      
mythology1 as parent to child1 and if   
both spirits are conceived as  female1  
their relation will be that of mother   
and daughter4 ,in this way1  starting   
from a single personification of the    
corn as female1 mythic fancy  might in  
time reach a double personification of  
it as mother and daughter4  ,it would be
 very rash to affirm that this was the  
way in which the myth of  ,demeter and  
,persephone actually took shape2 but it 
seems a legitimate  conjecture that the 
reduplication of deities1 of which      
,demeter and  ,persephone furnish an    
example1 may sometimes have arisen in   
the way  indicated4 ,for example1 among 
the pairs of deities dealt with in a    
former  part of this work1 it has been  
shewn that there are grounds for        
regarding  both ,isis and her companion 
god ,osiris as personifications of the  
corn47#fbh7 ,on the hypothesis just     
suggested1 ,isis would be the old       

corn-spirit1 and ,osiris would be the   
newer one1 whose relationship to the    
old spirit was variously explained as   
that of brother1 husband1 and           
son27#fbi7 for of course mythology would
 always be free to account for the      
coexistence of the two divinities in    
more ways than one4 ,it must not1       
however1 be forgotten that this proposed
 explanation of such pairs of  deities  
as ,demeter and ,persephone or ,isis and
 ,osiris is purely  conjectural1 and is 
only given for what it is worth4        
,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,lityerses4           
#a4 ,songs of the ,corn ,reapers4       
7,m#agi7 ,in the preceding pages an     
attempt has been made to shew that in   
the  ,corn-mother and ,harvest-maiden of
 ,northern ,europe we have the          
prototypes  of ,demeter and ,persephone4
 ,but an essential feature is still     
wanting to  complete the resemblance4 ,a
 leading incident in the ,greek myth is 
the  death and resurrection of          
,persephone2 it is this incident which1 

coupled  with the nature of the goddess 
as a deity of vegetation1 links the myth
  with the cults of ,adonis1 ,attis1    
,osiris1 and ,dionysus2 and it is in    
virtue  of this incident that the myth  
finds a place in our discussion of the  
,dying ,god4 ,it remains1 therefore1 to 
see whether the conception of the       
annual death and resurrection of a god1 
which figures so prominently in  these  
great ,greek and ,oriental worships1 has
 not also its origin or its  analogy in 
the rustic rites observed by reapers and
 vine-dressers amongst  the corn-shocks 
and the vines4    7,m#ahj7 ,our general 
ignorance of the popular superstitions  
and customs of  the ancients has already
 been confessed4 ,but the obscurity     
which thus  hangs over the first        
beginnings of ancient religion is       
fortunately  dissipated to some extent  
in the present case4 ,the worships of   
,osiris1  ,adonis1 and ,attis had their 
respective seats1 as we have seen1 in   
,egypt1  ,syria1 and ,phrygia2 and in   

each of these countries certain harvest 
and  vintage customs are known to have  
been observed1 the resemblance of which 
to each other and to the national rites 
struck the ancients themselves1  and1   
compared with the harvest customs of    
modern peasants and barbarians1  seems  
to throw some light on the origin of the
 rites in question4    7,m#aha7 ,it has 
been already mentioned1 on the authority
 of ,diodorus1 that  in ancient ,egypt  
the reapers were wont to lament over the
 first sheaf cut1  invoking ,isis as the
 goddess to whom they owed the discovery
 of corn47#fcj7  ,to the plaintive song 
or cry sung or uttered by ,egyptian     
reapers the  ,greeks gave the name of   
,maneros1 and explained the name by a   
story that  ,maneros1 the only son of   
the first ,egyptian king1 invented      
agriculture1  and1 dying an untimely    
death1 was thus lamented by the         
people47#fca7 ,it  appears1 however1    
that the name ,maneros is due to a      
misunderstanding of  the formula        

m-ne-hra1 8,come to the house10 which   
has been discovered  in various         
,egyptian writings1 for example in the  
dirge of ,isis in the ,book  of the     
,dead47#fcb7 ,hence we may suppose that 
the cry m-ne-hra was  chanted by the    
reapers over the cut corn as a dirge for
 the death of the  corn-spirit 7,isis or
 ,osiris7 and a prayer for its return4  
,as the cry was  raised over the first  
ears reaped1 it would seem that the     
corn-spirit was  believed by the        
,egyptians to be present in the first   
corn cut and to die  under the sickle4  
,we have seen that in the ,malay        
,peninsula and ,java the  first ears of 
rice are taken to represent either the  
,soul of the ,rice or  the ,rice-bride  
and the ,rice-bridegroom47#fcc7 ,in     
parts of ,russia the first  sheaf is    
treated much in the same way that the   
last sheaf is treated  elsewhere4 ,it is
 reaped by the mistress herself1 taken  
home and set in the  place of honour    
near the holy pictures2 afterwards it is

 threshed  separately1 and some of its  
grain is mixed with the next year's     
seed-corn47#fcd7 ,in ,aberdeenshire1    
while the last corn cut was generally   
used to make the clyack sheaf17#fce7 it 
was sometimes1 though rarely1 the  first
 corn cut that was dressed up as a woman
 and carried home with  ceremony47#fcf7 
7,m#ahb7 ,in ,phoenicia and ,western    
,asia a plaintive song1 like that       
chanted  by the ,egyptian corn-reapers1 
was sung at the vintage and probably 7to
  judge by analogy7 also at harvest4    
,this ,phoenician song was called by the
  ,greeks ,linus or ,ailinus and        
explained1 like ,maneros1 as a lament   
for the  death of a youth named         
,linus47#fcg7 ,according to one story   
,linus was  brought up by a shepherd1   
but torn to pieces by his dogs47#fch7   
,but1 like  ,maneros1 the name ,linus or
 ,ailinus appears to have originated in 
a verbal  misunderstanding1 and to be   
nothing more than the cry ai lanu1 that 
is  8,woe to us10 which the ,phoenicians

 probably uttered in mourning for       
,adonis27#fci7 at least ,sappho seems to
 have regarded ,adonis and ,linus as    
equivalent47#fdj7    7,m#ahc7 ,in       
,bithynia a like mournful ditty1 called 
,bormus or ,borimus1 was  chanted by    
,mariandynian reapers4 ,bormus was said 
to have been a handsome  youth1 the son 
of ,king ,upias or of a wealthy and     
distinguished man4 ,one  summer day1    
watching the reapers at work in his     
fields1 he went to fetch  them a drink  
of water and was never heard of more4   
,so the reapers sought  for him1 calling
 him in plaintive strains1 which they   
continued to chant  at harvest ever     
afterwards47#fda7           #b4 ,killing
 the ,corn-spirit4      7,m#ahd7 ,in    
,phrygia the corresponding song1 sung by
 harvesters both at  reaping and at     
threshing1 was called ,lityerses4       
,according to one story1  ,lityerses was
 a bastard son of ,midas1 ,king of      
,phrygia1 and dwelt at  ,celaenae4 ,he  
used to reap the corn1 and had an       

enormous appetite4 ,when a  stranger    
happened to enter the corn-field or to  
pass by it1 ,lityerses gave  him plenty 
to eat and drink1 then took him to the  
corn-fields on the banks  of the        
,maeander and compelled him to reap     
along with him4 ,lastly1 it was  his    
custom to wrap the stranger in a sheaf1 
cut off his head with a  sickle1 and    
carry away his body1 swathed in the corn
 stalks4 ,but at last  ,hercules        
undertook to reap with him1 cut off his 
head with the sickle1 and  threw his    
body into the river47#fdb7 ,as ,hercules
 is reported to have slain  ,lityerses  
in the same way that ,lityerses slew    
others 7as ,theseus treated  ,sinis and 
,sciron71 we may infer that ,lityerses  
used to throw the bodies of  his victims
 into the river4 ,according to another  
version of the story1  ,lityerses1 a son
 of ,midas1 was wont to challenge people
 to a reaping match  with him1 and if he
 vanquished them he used to thrash them2
 but one day he  met with a stronger    

reaper1 who slew him47#fdc7    7,m#ahe7 
,there are some grounds for supposing   
that in these stories of  ,lityerses we 
have the description of a ,phrygian     
harvest custom in  accordance with which
 certain persons1 especially strangers  
passing the  harvest field1 were        
regularly regarded as embodiments of the
 corn-spirit1  and as such were seized  
by the reapers1 wrapt in sheaves1 and   
beheaded1  their bodies1 bound up in the
 corn-stalks1 being afterwards thrown   
into  water as a rain-charm4 ,the       
grounds for this supposition are1 first1
 the  resemblance of the ,lityerses     
story to the harvest customs of         
,european  peasantry1 and1 second1 the  
frequency of human sacrifices offered by
  savage races to promote the fertility 
of the fields4 ,we will examine these   
grounds successively1 beginning with the
 former4    ,in comparing the story with
 the harvest customs of ,europe17#fdd7  
three  points deserve special attention1
 namely3 ,i4 the reaping match and the  

binding of persons in the sheaves2 ,,ii4
 the killing of the corn-spirit or  his 
representatives2 ,,iii4 the treatment of
 visitors to the harvest field  or of   
strangers passing it4    7,m#ahf7 ,i4   
,in regard to the first head1 we have   
seen that in modern ,europe  the person 
who cuts or binds or threshes the last  
sheaf is often exposed  to rough        
treatment at the hands of his           
fellow-labourers4 ,for example1 he  is  
bound up in the last sheaf1 and1 thus   
encased1 is carried or carted  about1   
beaten1 drenched with water1 thrown on a
 dunghill1 and so forth4  ,or1 if he is 
spared this horseplay1 he is at least   
the subject of ridicule  or is thought  
to be destined to suffer some misfortune
 in the course of  the year4 ,hence the 
harvesters are naturally reluctant to   
give the last  cut at reaping or the    
last stroke at threshing or to bind the 
last sheaf1  and towards the close of   
the work this reluctance produces an    
emulation  among the labourers1 each    

striving to finish his task as fast as  
possible1  in order that he may escape  
the invidious distinction of being      
last47#fde7  ,for example1 in the       
neighbourhood of ,danzig1 when the      
winter corn is cut  and mostly bound up 
in sheaves1 the portion which still     
remains to be  bound is divided amongst 
the women binders1 each of whom receives
 a swath  of equal length to bind4 ,a   
crowd of reapers1 children1 and idlers  
gather  round to witness the contest1   
and at the word1 8,seize the ,old ,man10
 the  women fall to work1 all binding   
their allotted swaths as hard as they   
can4  ,the spectators watch them        
narrowly1 and the woman who cannot keep 
pace  with the rest and consequently    
binds the last sheaf has to carry the   
,old  ,man 7that is1 the last sheaf made
 up in the form of a man7 to the        
farmhouse and deliver it to the farmer  
with the words1 8,here ,i bring you  the
 ,old ,man40 ,at the supper which       
follows1 the ,old ,man is placed at the 

table and receives an abundant portion  
of food1 which1 as he cannot eat  it1   
falls to the share of the woman who     
carried him4 ,afterwards the ,old  ,man 
is placed in the yard and all the people
 dance round him4 ,or the woman  who    
bound the last sheaf dances for a good  
while with the ,old ,man1 while  the    
rest form a ring round them2 afterwards 
they all1 one after the other1  dance a 
single round with him4 ,further1 the    
woman who bound the last sheaf  goes    
herself by the name of the ,old ,man    
till the next harvest1 and is  often    
mocked with the cry1 8,here comes the   
,old ,man407#fdf7 ,in the  ,mittelmark  
district of ,prussia1 when the rye has  
been reaped1 and the last  sheaves are  
about to be tied up1 the binders stand  
in two rows facing each  other1 every   
woman with her sheaf and her straw rope 
before her4 ,at a  given signal they all
 tie up their sheaves1 and the one who  
is the last to  finish is ridiculed by  
the rest4 ,not only so1 but her sheaf is

 made up  into human shape and called   
the ,old ,man1 and she must carry it    
home to the  farmyard1 where the        
harvesters dance in a circle round her  
and it4 ,then  they take the ,old ,man  
to the farmer and deliver it to him with
 the words1  8,we bring the ,old ,man to
 the ,master4 ,he may keep him till he  
gets a new  one40 ,after that the ,old  
,man is set up against a tree1 where he 
remains  for a long time1 the butt of   
many jests47#fdg7 ,at ,aschbach in      
,bavaria1 when  the reaping is nearly   
finished1 the reapers say1 8,now1 we    
will drive out  the ,old ,man40 ,each of
 them sets himself to reap a patch of   
corn as fast as  he can2 he who cuts the
 last handful or the last stalk is      
greeted by the  rest with an exulting   
cry1 8,you have the ,old ,man40         
,sometimes a black mask  is fastened on 
the reaper's face and he is dressed in  
woman's clothes2 or  if the reaper is a 
woman1 she is dressed in man's clothes4 
,a dance  follows4 ,at the supper the   

,old ,man gets twice as large a portion 
of food  as the others4 ,the proceedings
 are similar at threshing2 the person   
who  gives the last stroke is said to   
have the ,old ,man4 ,at the supper given
 to  the threshers he has to eat out of 
the cream-ladle and to drink a great    
deal4 ,moreover1 he is quizzed and      
teased in all sorts of ways till he     
frees himself from further annoyance by 
treating the others to brandy or        
beer47#fdh7    7,m#ahg7 ,these examples 
illustrate the contests in reaping1     
threshing1 and  binding which take place
 amongst the harvesters1 from their     
unwillingness  to suffer the ridicule   
and discomfort incurred by the one who  
happens to  finish his work last4 ,it   
will be remembered that the person who  
is last at  reaping1 binding1 or        
threshing1 is regarded as the           
representative of the                   
corn-spirit17#fdi7 and this idea is more
 fully expressed by binding him or  her 
in corn-stalks4 ,the latter custom has  

been already illustrated1 but a  few    
more instances may be added4 ,at        
,kloxin1 near ,stettin1 the harvesters  
call out to the woman who binds the last
 sheaf1 8,you have the ,old ,man1 and   
must keep him40 ,the ,old ,man is a     
great bundle of corn decked with flowers
  and ribbons1 and fashioned into a rude
 semblance of the human form4 ,it is    
fastened on a rake or strapped on a     
horse1 and brought with music to the    
village4 ,in delivering the ,old ,man to
 the farmer1 the woman says3--          
8,here1 dear ,sir1 is the ,old ,man4    
,he can stay no longer on the field1    
,he can hide himself no longer1      ,he
 must come into the village4            
,ladies and gentlemen1 pray be so kind  
,as to give the ,old ,man a present40   
,as late as the first half of the       
nineteenth century the custom was to tie
  up the woman herself in pease-straw1  
and bring her with music to the         
farmhouse1 where the harvesters danced  
with her till the pease-straw fell      

off47#fej7 ,in other villages round     
,stettin1 when the last harvest-waggon  
is  being loaded1 there is a regular    
race amongst the women1 each striving   
not  to be last4 ,for she who places the
 last sheaf on the waggon is called the 
,old ,man1 and is completely swathed in 
corn-stalks2 she is also decked with    
flowers1 and flowers and a helmet of    
straw are placed on her head4 ,in       
solemn procession she carries the       
harvest-crown to the squire1 over whose 
head she holds it while she utters a    
string of good wishes4 ,at the dance    
which follows1 the ,old ,man has the    
right to choose his1 or rather her1     
partner2 it is an honour to dance with  
him47#fea7 ,at ,blankenfelde1 in the    
district of ,potsdam1 the woman who     
binds the last sheaf at the rye-harvest 
is saluted with the cry1 8,you have the 
,old ,man40 ,a woman is then tied up  in
 the last sheaf in such a way that only 
her head is left free2 her hair  also is
 covered with a cap made of rye-stalks1 

adorned with ribbons and  flowers4 ,she 
is called the ,harvest-man1 and must    
keep dancing in front of  the last      
harvest-waggon till it reaches the      
squire's house1 where she  receives a   
present and is released from her        
envelope of corn47#feb7 ,at  ,gommern1  
near ,magdeburg1 the reaper who cuts the
 last ears of corn is  often wrapt up in
 corn-stalks so completely that it is   
hard to see whether  there is a man in  
the bundle or not4 ,thus wrapt up he is 
taken by another  stalwart reaper on his
 back1 and carried round the field      
amidst the joyous  cries of the         
harvesters47#fec7 ,at ,neuhausen1 near  
,merseburg1 the person who  binds the   
last sheaf is wrapt in ears of oats and 
saluted as the ,oats-man1  whereupon the
 others dance round him47#fed7 ,at      
,brie1 ,isle de ,france1 the  farmer    
himself is tied up in the first         
sheaf47#fee7 ,at the harvest-home  at   
,udvarhely1 ,transylvania1 a person is  
encased in corn-stalks1 and wears  on   

his head a crown made out of the last   
ears cut4 ,on reaching the village  he  
is soused with water over and           
over47#fef7 ,at ,dingelstedt1 in the    
district of ,erfurt1 down to the first  
half of the nineteenth century it  was  
the custom to tie up a man in the last  
sheaf4 ,he was called the ,old  ,man1   
and was brought home on the last waggon1
 amid huzzas and music4 ,on  reaching   
the farmyard he was rolled round the    
barn and drenched with  water47#feg7 ,at
 ,nrdlingen in ,bavaria the man who     
gives the last stroke at  threshing is  
wrapt in straw and rolled on the        
threshing-floor47#feh7 ,in  some parts  
of ,oberpfalz1 ,bavaria1 he is said to  
8get the ,old ,man10 is  wrapt in straw1
 and carried to a neighbour who has not 
yet finished his  threshing47#fei7 ,in  
,silesia the woman who binds the last   
sheaf has to  submit to a good deal of  
horse-play4 ,she is pushed1 knocked     
down1 and tied  up in the sheaf1 after  
which she is called the corn-puppet     

7,kornpopel747#ffj7 ,in ,thringen a     
sausage is stuck in the last sheaf at   
threshing1 and thrown1 with the sheaf1  
on the threshing-floor4 ,it is  called  
the ,barrenwurst or ,bazenwurst1 and is 
eaten by all the  threshers4 ,after they
 have eaten it a man is encased in      
pease-straw1 and  thus attired is led   
through the village47#ffa7    7,m#ahh7  
8,in all these cases the idea is that   
the spirit of the corn--the ,old  ,man  
of vegetation--is driven out of the corn
 last cut or last threshed1 and  lives  
in the barn during the winter4 ,at      
sowing-time he goes out again to  the   
fields to resume his activity as        
animating force among the sprouting     
corn407#ffb7    7,m#ahi7 ,ideas of the  
same sort appear to attach to the last  
corn in ,india4  ,at ,hoshangbd1 in     
,central ,india1 when the reaping is    
nearly done1 a patch  of corn1 about a  
rood in extent1 is left standing in the 
cultivator's last  field1 and the       
reapers rest a little4 ,then they rush  

at this remnant1 tear  it up1 and cast  
it into the air1 shouting victory to one
 or other of the  local gods1 according 
to their religious persuasion4 ,a sheaf 
is made out  of this corn1 tied to a    
bamboo1 set up in the last harvest cart1
 and  carried home in triumph4 ,here it 
is fastened up in the threshing-floor or
  attached to a tree or to the          
cattle-shed1 where its services are held
 to  be essential for the purpose of    
averting the evil-eye47#ffc7 ,a like    
custom  prevails in the eastern         
districts of the ,north-,western        
,provinces of ,india4  ,sometimes a     
little patch is left untilled as a      
refuge for the  field-spirit2 sometimes 
it is sown1 and when the corn of this   
patch has  been reaped with a rush and a
 shout1 it is presented to the priest1  
who  offers it to the local gods or     
bestows it on a beggar47#ffd7           
7,m#aij7 ,,ii4 ,passing to the second   
point of comparison between the         
,lityerses  story and ,european harvest 

customs1 we have now to see that in the 
latter  the corn-spirit is often        
believed to be killed at reaping or     
threshing4 ,in  the ,romsdal and other  
parts of ,norway1 when the haymaking is 
over1 the  people say that 8the ,old    
,hay-man has been killed40 ,in some     
parts of  ,bavaria the man who gives the
 last stroke at threshing is said to    
have  killed the ,corn-man1 the         
,oats-man1 or the ,wheat-man1 according 
to the  crop47#ffe7 ,in the ,canton of  
,tillot1 in ,lothringen1 at threshing   
the last  corn the men keep time with   
their flails1 calling out as they       
thresh1 8,we  are killing the ,old      
,woman6 ,we are killing the ,old        
,woman60 ,if there is an  old woman in  
the house she is warned to save herself1
 or she will be  struck dead47#fff7     
,near ,ragnit1 in ,lithuania1 the last  
handful of corn is  left standing by    
itself1 with the words1 8,the ,old      
,woman 7,boba7 is  sitting in there40   
,then a young reaper whets his scythe1  

and1 with a  strong sweep1 cuts down the
 handful4 ,it is now said of him that   
8he has  cut off the ,boba's head02 and 
he receives a gratuity from the farmer  
and a  jugful of water over his head    
from the farmer's wife47#ffg7 ,according
 to  another account1 every ,lithuanian 
reaper makes haste to finish his task2  
for the ,old ,rye-woman lives in the    
last stalks1 and whoever cuts the last  
stalks kills the ,old ,rye-woman1 and by
 killing her he brings trouble on       
himself47#ffh7 ,in ,wilkischken1 in the 
district of ,tilsit1 the man who cuts   
the last corn goes by the name of 8the  
killer of the ,rye-woman407#ffi7 ,in    
,lithuania1 again1 the corn-spirit is   
believed to be killed at threshing as   
well as at reaping4 ,when only a single 
pile of corn remains to be  threshed1   
all the threshers suddenly step back a  
few paces1 as if at the  word of        
command4 ,then they fall to work1 plying
 their flails with the  utmost rapidity 
and vehemence1 till they come to the    

last bundle4 ,upon  this they fling     
themselves with almost frantic fury1    
straining every  nerve1 and raining     
blows on it till the word 8,halt60 rings
 out sharply  from the leader4 ,the man 
whose flail is the last to fall after   
the command  to stop has been given is  
immediately surrounded by all the rest1 
crying  out that 8he has struck the ,old
 ,rye-woman dead40 ,he has to expiate   
the  deed by treating them to brandy2   
and1 like the man who cuts the last     
corn1  he is known as 8the killer of the
 ,old ,rye-woman407#fgj7 ,sometimes in  
,lithuania the slain corn-spirit was    
represented by a puppet4 ,thus a female 
figure was made out of corn-stalks1     
dressed in clothes1 and placed on the   
threshing-floor1 under the heap of corn 
which was to be threshed last4  ,whoever
 thereafter gave the last stroke at     
threshing 8struck the ,old ,woman       
dead407#fga7 ,we have already met with  
examples of burning the figure which    
represents the corn-spirit47#fgb7 ,in   

the ,east ,riding of ,yorkshire a custom
  called 8burning the ,old ,witch0 is   
observed on the last day of harvest4 ,a 
small sheaf of corn is burnt on the     
field in a fire of stubble2 peas are    
parched at the fire and eaten with a    
liberal allowance of ale2 and the  lads 
and lasses romp about the flames and    
amuse themselves by blackening  each    
other's faces47#fgc7 ,sometimes1 again1 
the corn-spirit is represented  by a    
man1 who lies down under the last corn2 
it is threshed upon his body1  and the  
people say that 8the ,old ,man is being 
beaten to death407#fgd7 ,we  saw that   
sometimes the farmer's wife is thrust1  
together with the last  sheaf1 under the
 threshing-machine1 as if to thresh her1
 and that  afterwards a pretence is made
 of winnowing her47#fge7 ,at ,volders1  
in the  ,tyrol1 husks of corn are stuck 
behind the neck of the man who gives the
  last stroke at threshing1 and he is   
throttled with a straw garland4 ,if he  
is tall1 it is believed that the corn   

will be tall next year4 ,then he is     
tied on a bundle and flung into the     
river47#fgf7 ,in ,carinthia1 the        
thresher  who gave the last stroke1 and 
the person who untied the last sheaf on 
the  threshing-floor1 are bound hand and
 foot with straw bands1 and crowns of   
straw are placed on their heads4 ,then  
they are tied1 face to face1 on a       
sledge1 dragged through the village1 and
 flung into a brook47#fgg7 ,the  custom 
of throwing the representative of the   
corn-spirit into a stream1  like that of
 drenching him with water1 is1 as usual1
 a rain-charm47#fgh7    7,m#aia7 ,,iii4 
,thus far the representatives of the    
corn-spirit have generally  been the man
 or woman who cuts1 binds1 or threshes  
the last corn4 ,we now  come to the     
cases in which the corn-spirit is       
represented either by a  stranger       
passing the harvest-field 7as in the    
,lityerses tale71 or by a  visitor      
entering it for the first time4 ,all    
over ,germany it is customary  for the  

reapers or threshers to lay hold of     
passing strangers and bind  them with a 
rope made of corn-stalks1 till they pay 
a forfeit2 and when  the farmer himself 
or one of his guests enters the field or
 the  threshing-floor for the first     
time1 he is treated in the same way4    
,sometimes the rope is only tied round  
his arm or his feet or his  neck47#fgi7 
,but sometimes he is regularly swathed  
in corn4 ,thus at ,solr in  ,norway1    
whoever enters the field1 be he the     
master or a stranger1 is tied  up in a  
sheaf and must pay a ransom4 ,in the    
neighbourhood of ,soest1 when  the      
farmer visits the flax-pullers for the  
first time1 he is completely  enveloped 
in flax4 ,passers-by are also surrounded
 by the women1 tied up in  flax1 and    
compelled to stand brandy47#fhj7 ,at    
,nrdlingen strangers are  caught with   
straw ropes and tied up in a sheaf till 
they pay a  forfeit47#fha7 ,among the   
,germans of ,haselberg1 in ,west        
,bohemia1 as soon as  a farmer had given

 the last corn to be threshed on the    
threshing-floor1 he  was swathed in it  
and had to redeem himself by a present  
of cakes47#fhb7 ,in  ,anhalt1 when the  
proprietor or one of his family1 the    
steward1 or even a  stranger enters the 
harvest-field for the first time after  
the reaping has  begun1 the wife of the 
chief reaper ties a rope twisted of     
corn-ears1 or a  nosegay made of        
corn-ears and flowers1 to his arm1 and  
he is obliged to  ransom himself by the 
payment of a fine47#fhc7 ,in the canton 
of ,putanges1  in ,normandy1 a pretence 
of tying up the owner of the land in the
 last  sheaf of wheat is still          
practised1 or at least was still        
practised some  quarter of a century    
ago4 ,the task falls to the women alone4
 ,they throw  themselves on the         
proprietor1 seize him by the arms1 the  
legs1 and the  body1 throw him to the   
ground1 and stretch him on the last     
sheaf4 ,then a  show is made of binding 
him1 and the conditions to be observed  

at the  harvest-supper are dictated to  
him4 ,when he has accepted them1 he is  
released and allowed to get up47#fhd7   
,at ,brie1 ,isle de ,france1 when any   
one  who does not belong to the farm    
passes by the harvest-field1 the reapers
  give chase4 ,if they catch him1 they  
bind him in a sheaf and bite him1 one   
after the other1 in the forehead1       
crying1 8,you shall carry the key of the
  field407#fhe7 8,to have the key0 is an
 expression used by harvesters          
elsewhere in the sense of to cut or bind
 or thresh the last sheaf27#fhf7  hence1
 it is equivalent to the phrases 8,you  
have the ,old ,man10 8,you are  the ,old
 ,man10 which are addressed to the      
cutter1 binder1 or thresher of  the last
 sheaf4 ,therefore1 when a stranger1 as 
at ,brie1 is tied up in a  sheaf and    
told that he will 8carry the key of the 
field10 it is as much as  to say that he
 is the ,old ,man1 that is1 an          
embodiment of the corn-spirit4  ,in     
hop-picking1 if a well-dressed stranger 

passes the hop-yard1 he is  seized by   
the women1 tumbled into the bin1 covered
 with leaves1 and not  released till he 
has paid a fine47#fhg7 ,in some parts of
 ,scotland1  particularly in the        
counties of ,fife and ,kinross1 down to 
recent times the  reapers used to seize 
and dump1 as it was called1 any stranger
 who  happened to visit or pass by the  
harvest field4 ,the custom was to lay   
hold  of the stranger by his ankles and 
armpits1 lift him up1 and bring the     
lower part of his person into violent   
contact with the ground4 ,women as  well
 as men were liable to be thus treated4 
,the practice of interposing a  sheaf   
between the sufferer and the ground is  
said to be a modern  refinement47#fhh7  
,comparing this custom with the one     
practised at ,putanges  in ,normandy1   
which has just been described1 we may   
conjecture that in  ,scotland the       
8dumping0 of strangers on the           
harvest-field was originally a          
preliminary to wrapping them up in      

sheaves of corn4    7,m#aib7 ,ceremonies
 of a somewhat similar kind are         
performed by the  ,tarahumare ,indians  
of ,mexico not only at harvest but also 
at hoeing and  ploughing4 8,when the    
work of hoeing and weeding is finished1 
the workers  seize the master of the    
field1 and1 tying his arms crosswise    
behind him1  load all the implements1   
that is to say1 the hoes1 upon his back1
  fastening them with ropes4 ,then they 
form two single columns1 the landlord   
in the middle between them1 and all     
facing the house4 ,thus they start      
homeward4 ,simultaneously the two men at
 the heads of the columns begin to  run 
rapidly forward some thirty yards1 cross
 each other1 then turn back1  run along 
the two columns1 cross each other again 
at the rear and take  their places each 
at the end of his row4 ,as they pass    
each other ahead and  in the rear of the
 columns they beat their mouths with the
 hollow of their  hands and yell4 ,as   
soon as they reach their places at the  

foot1 the next  pair in front of the    
columns starts off1 running in the same 
way1 and thus  pair after pair performs 
the tour1 the procession all the time   
advancing  toward the house4 ,a short   
distance in front of it they come to a  
halt1 and  are met by two young men who 
carry red handkerchiefs tied to sticks  
like  flags4 ,the father of the family1 
still tied up and loaded with the hoes1 
steps forward alone and kneels down in  
front of his house-door4 ,the           
flag-bearers wave their banners over    
him1 and the women of the household     
come out and kneel on their left knees1 
first toward the east1 and after a      
little while toward each of the other   
cardinal points1 west1 south1 and       
north4 ,in conclusion the flags are     
waved in front of the house4 ,the father
  then rises and the people untie him1  
whereupon he first salutes the women    
with the usual greeting1 #8,kwra6' or   
#8,kwirev6' ,now they all go into  the  
house1 and the man makes a short speech 

thanking them all for the  assistance   
they have given him1 for how could he   
have gotten through his  work without   
them8 ,they have provided him with a    
year's life 7that is1  with the         
wherewithal to sustain it71 and now he  
is going to give them  tesvino4 ,he     
gives a drinking-gourd full to each one 
in the assembly1 and  appoints one man  
among them to distribute more to all4   
,the same ceremony  is performed after  
the ploughing and after the harvesting4 
,on the first  occasion the tied man may
 be made to carry the yoke of the oxen1 
on the  second he does not carry        
anything407#fhi7 ,the meaning of these  
,mexican  ceremonies is not clear4      
,perhaps the custom of tying up the     
farmer at  hoeing1 ploughing1 and       
reaping is a form of expiation or       
apology offered  to the spirits of the  
earth1 who are naturally disturbed by   
agricultural  operations47#fij7 ,when   
the ,yabim of ,simbang in ,german ,new  
,guinea see that  the taro plants in    

their fields are putting forth leaves1  
they offer  sacrifice of sago-broth and 
pork to the spirits of the former owners
 of  the land1 in order that they may be
 kindly disposed and not do harm but    
let the fruits ripen47#fia7 ,similarly  
when the ,alfoors or ,toradjas of       
,central ,celebes are planting a new    
field1 they offer rice1 eggs1 and so    
forth to the souls of the former owners 
of the land1 hoping that1  mollified by 
these offerings1 the souls will make the
 crops to grow and  thrive47#fib7       
,however1 this explanation of the       
,mexican ceremonies at  hoeing1         
ploughing1 and reaping is purely        
conjectural4 ,in these ceremonies  there
 is no evidence that1 as in the parallel
 ,european customs1 the farmer  is      
identified with the corn-spirit1 since  
he is not wrapt up in the  sheaves4     
7,m#aic7 ,be that as it may1 the        
evidence adduced above suffices to prove
  that1 like the ancient ,lityerses1    
modern ,european reapers have been wont 

to lay hold of a passing stranger and   
tie him up in a sheaf4 ,it is not to  be
 expected that they should complete the 
parallel by cutting off his  head2 but  
if they do not take such a strong step1 
their language and  gestures are at     
least indicative of a desire to do so4  
,for instance1 in  ,mecklenburg on the  
first day of reaping1 if the master or  
mistress or a  stranger enters the      
field1 or merely passes by it1 all the  
mowers face  towards him and sharpen    
their scythes1 clashing their           
whet-stones against  them in unison1 as 
if they were making ready to mow4 ,then 
the woman who  leads the mowers steps up
 to him and ties a band round his left  
arm4 ,he  must ransom himself by payment
 of a forfeit47#fic7 ,near ,ratzeburg1  
when the  master or other person of mark
 enters the field or passes by it1 all  
the  harvesters stop work and march     
towards him in a body1 the men with     
their  scythes in front4 ,on meeting him
 they form up in line1 men and women4   

,the  men stick the poles of their      
scythes in the ground1 as they do in    
whetting  them2 then they take off their
 caps and hang them on the scythes1     
while  their leader stands forward and  
makes a speech4 ,when he has done1 they 
all  whet their scythes in measured time
 very loudly1 after which they put on   
their caps4 ,two of the women binders   
then come forward2 one of them ties  the
 master or stranger 7as the case may be7
 with corn-ears or with a  silken band2 
the other delivers a rhyming address4   
,the following are  specimens of the    
speeches made by the reaper on these    
occasions4 ,in some  parts of ,pomerania
 every passer-by is stopped1 his way    
being barred with a  corn-rope4 ,the    
reapers form a circle round him and     
sharpen their scythes1  while their     
leader says3--          8,the men are   
ready1      ,the scythes are bent1      
,the corn is great and small1      ,the 
gentleman must be mowed40      ,then the
 process of whetting the scythes is     

repeated47#fid7 ,at ,ramin1 in  the     
district of ,stettin1 the stranger1     
standing encircled by the reapers1  is  
thus addressed3--          8,we'll      
stroke the gentleman      ,with our     
naked sword1      ,wherewith we shear   
meadows and fields4      ,we shear      
princes and lords4      ,labourers are  
often athirst2      ,if the gentleman   
will stand beer and brandy      ,the    
joke will soon be over4      ,but1 if   
our prayer he does not like1      ,the  
sword has a right to strike407#fie7     
,that in these customs the whetting of  
the scythes is really meant as a        
preliminary to mowing appears from the  
following variation of the  preceding   
customs4 ,in the district of ,lneburg1  
when any one enters the  harvest-field1 
he is asked whether he will engage a    
good fellow4 ,if he  says yes1 the      
harvesters mow some swaths1 yelling and 
screaming1 and then  ask him for        
drink-money47#fif7    7,m#aid7 ,on the  
threshing-floor strangers are also      

regarded as embodiments  of the         
corn-spirit1 and are treated            
accordingly4 ,at ,wiedingharde in       
,schleswig when a stranger comes to the 
threshing-floor he is asked1 8,shall  ,i
 teach you the flail-dance80 ,if he says
 yes1 they put the arms of the          
threshing-flail round his neck as if he 
were a sheaf of corn1 and press  them   
together so tight that he is nearly     
choked47#fig7 ,in some parishes of      
,wermland 7,sweden71 when a stranger    
enters the threshing-floor where the    
threshers are at work1 they say that    
8they will teach him the                
threshing-song40 ,then they put a flail 
round his neck and a straw rope  about  
his body4 ,also1 as we have seen1 if a  
stranger woman enters the               
threshing-floor1 the threshers put a    
flail round her body and a wreath of    
corn-stalks round her neck1 and call    
out1 8,see the ,corn-woman6 ,see6 that  
is how the ,corn-maiden looks607#fih7   
7,m#aie7 ,in these customs1 observed    

both on the harvest-field and on the    
threshing-floor1 a passing stranger is  
regarded as a personification of  the   
corn1 in other words1 as the            
corn-spirit2 and a show is made of      
treating him like the corn by mowing1   
binding1 and threshing him4 ,if the     
reader still doubts whether ,european   
peasants can really regard a passing    
stranger in this light1 the following   
custom should set his doubts at  rest4  
,during the madder-harvest in the ,dutch
 province of ,zealand a  stranger       
passing by a field1 where the people are
 digging the  madder-roots1 will        
sometimes call out to them              
,koortspillers 7a term of  reproach74   
,upon this1 two of the fleetest runners 
make after him1 and1 if  they catch him1
 they bring him back to the madder-field
 and bury him in  the earth up to his   
middle at least1 jeering at him the     
while2 then they  ease nature before his
 face47#fii7    7,m#aif7 ,this last act 
is to be explained as follows4 ,the     

spirit of the corn  and of other        
cultivated plants is sometimes          
conceived1 not as immanent in  the      
plant1 but as its owner2 hence the      
cutting of the corn at harvest1 the     
digging of the roots1 and the gathering 
of fruit from the fruit-trees are  each 
and all of them acts of spoliation1     
which strip him of his property  and    
reduce him to poverty4 ,hence he is     
often known as 8the ,poor ,man0 or  8the
 ,poor ,woman40 ,thus in the            
neighbourhood of ,eisenach a small sheaf
 is  sometimes left standing on the     
field for 8the ,poor ,old ,woman407#gjj7
 ,at  ,marksuhl1 near ,eisenach1 the    
puppet formed out of the last sheaf is  
itself  called 8the ,poor ,woman40 ,at  
,alt ,lest in ,silesia the man who binds
 the last  sheaf is called the          
,beggar-man47#gja7 ,in a village near   
,roeskilde1 in  ,zealand 7,denmark71    
old-fashioned peasants sometimes make up
 the last sheaf  into a rude puppet1    
which is called the ,rye-beggar47#gjb7  

,in ,southern  ,schonen the sheaf which 
is bound last is called the ,beggar2 it 
is made  bigger than the rest and is    
sometimes dressed in clothes4 ,in the   
district  of ,olmtz the last sheaf is   
called the ,beggar2 it is given to an   
old  woman1 who must carry it home1     
limping on one foot47#gjc7 ,sometimes a 
little of the crop is left on the field 
for the spirit1 under other names  than 
8the ,poor ,old ,woman40 ,thus at       
,szagmanten1 a village of the ,tilsit   
district1 the last sheaf was left       
standing on the field 8for the ,old     
,rye-woman407#gjd7 ,in ,neftenbach      
7,canton of ,zurich7 the first three    
ears of  corn reaped are thrown away on 
the field 8to satisfy the ,corn-mother  
and  to make the next year's crop       
abundant407#gje7 ,at ,kupferberg1 in    
,bavaria1  some corn is left standing on
 the field when the rest has been cut4  
,of  this corn left standing they say   
that 8it belongs to the ,old ,woman10 to
  whom it is dedicated in the following 

words3--          8,we give it to the   
,old ,woman2      ,she shall keep it4   
,next year may she be to us      ,as    
kind as this time she has been407#gjf7  
,these words clearly shew that the ,old 
,woman for whom the corn is left on  the
 field is not a real personage1 poor and
 hungry1 but the mythical ,old  ,woman  
who makes the corn to grow4 ,at         
,schttarschen1 in ,west ,bohemia1 after 
the crop has been reaped1 a few stalks  
are left standing and a garland is      
attached to them4 8,that belongs to the 
,wood-woman10 they say1 and offer a     
prayer4 ,in this way the ,wood-woman1 we
 are told1 has enough to live on        
through the winter and the corn will    
thrive the better next year4 ,the same  
thing is done for all the different     
kinds of corn-crop47#gjg7 ,so in        
,thringen1 when the after-grass         
7,grummet7 is being got in1 a little    
heap  is left lying on the field2 it    
belongs to 8the ,little ,wood-woman0 in 
return for the blessing she has         

bestowed47#gjh7 ,in the ,frankenwald of 
,bavaria three handfuls of flax were    
left on the field 8for the              
,wood-woman407#gji7 ,at ,lindau in      
,anhalt the reapers used to leave some  
stalks standing in the last corner of   
the last field for 8the ,corn-woman  to 
eat407#gaj7 ,in some parts of ,silesia  
it was till lately the custom to  leave 
a few corn-stalks standing in the field1
 8in order that the next  harvest should
 not fail407#gaa7 ,in ,russia it is     
customary to leave patches  of unreaped 
corn in the fields and to place bread   
and salt on the ground  near them4      
8,these ears are eventually knotted     
together1 and the ceremony  is called   
#8the plaiting of the beard of ,volos1' 
and it is supposed that  after it has   
been performed no wizard or other       
evilly-disposed person will  be able to 
hurt the produce of the fields4 ,the    
unreaped patch is looked  upon as       
tabooed2 and it is believed that if any 
one meddles with it he  will shrivel up1

 and become twisted like the interwoven 
ears4 ,similar  customs are kept up in  
various parts of ,russia4 ,near ,kursk  
and ,voroneje1  for instance1 a patch of
 rye is usually left in honour of the   
,prophet  ,elijah1 and in another       
district one of oats is consecrated to  
,st4  ,nicholas4 ,as it is well known   
that both the ,saint and the ,prophet   
have  succeeded to the place once held  
in the estimation of the ,russian people
  by ,perun1 it seems probable that     
,volos really was1 in ancient times1 one
  of the names of the                   
thunder-god407#gab7 ,in the north-east  
of ,scotland a few  stalks were         
sometimes left unreaped on the field for
 the benefit of 8the  aul' man407#gac7  
,here 8the aul' man0 is probably the    
equivalent of the  harvest ,old ,man of 
,germany47#gad7 ,among the ,mohammedans 
of ,zanzibar it is  customary at sowing 
a field to reserve a certain portion of 
it for the  guardian spirits1 who at    
harvest are invited1 to the tuck of     

drum1 to come  and take their share2    
tiny huts are also built in which food  
is deposited  for their use47#gae7 ,in  
the island of ,nias1 to prevent the     
depredations of  wandering spirits among
 the rice at harvest1 a miniature field 
is  dedicated to them and in it are sown
 all the plants that grow in the real   
fields47#gaf7 ,the ,hos1 a ,ewe tribe of
 negroes in ,togoland1 observe a        
similar custom for a similar reason4 ,at
 the entrance to their yam-fields  the  
traveller may see on both sides of the  
path small mounds on which  yams1       
stock-yams1 beans1 and maize are planted
 and appear to flourish with  more than 
usual luxuriance4 ,these little gardens1
 tended with peculiar  care1 are        
dedicated to the 8guardian gods0 of the 
owner of the land2 there  he cultivates 
for their benefit the same plants which 
he cultivates for  his own use in the   
fields2 and the notion is that the      
8guardian gods0 will  content themselves
 with eating the fruits which grow in   

their little  private preserves and will
 not poach on the crops which are       
destined for  human use47#gag7          
7,m#aig7 ,these customs suggest that the
 little sacred rice-fields on which  the
 ,kayans of ,borneo perform the various 
operations of husbandry in  mimicry     
before they address themselves to the   
real labours of the  field17#gah7 may be
 dedicated to the spirits of the rice to
 compensate them  for the loss they     
sustain by allowing men to cultivate all
 the rest of the  land for their own    
benefit4 ,perhaps the ,rarian plain at  
,eleusis7#gai7 was a  spiritual preserve
 of the same kind set apart for the     
exclusive use of the  corn-goddesses    
,demeter and ,persephone4 ,it may even  
be that the law which  forbade the      
,hebrews to reap the corners and gather 
the gleanings of the  harvest-fields and
 to strip the vines of their last       
grapes7#gbj7 was  originally intended   
for the benefit1 not of the human poor1 
but of the  poor spirits of the corn and

 the vine1 who had just been despoiled  
by the  reapers and the vintagers1 and  
who1 if some provision were not made for
  their subsistence1 would naturally die
 of hunger before another year came     
round4 ,in providing for their wants the
 prudent husbandman was really          
consulting his own interests2 for how   
could he expect to reap wheat and       
barley and to gather grapes next year if
 he suffered the spirits of the  corn   
and of the vine to perish of famine in  
the meantime8 ,this train of  thought   
may possibly explain the wide-spread    
custom of offering the  first-fruits of 
the crops to gods or spirits37#gba7 such
 offerings may have  been originally not
 so much an expression of gratitude for 
benefits  received as a means of        
enabling the benefactors to continue    
their  benefactions in time to come4    
,primitive man has generally a shrewd   
eye to  the main chance3 he is more     
prone to provide for the future than to 
sentimentalise over the past4           

7,m#aih7 ,thus when the spirit of       
vegetation is conceived as a being who  
is  robbed of his store and impoverished
 by the harvesters1 it is natural that  
his representative--the passing         
stranger--should upbraid them2 and it is
  equally natural that they should seek 
to disable him from pursuing them  and  
recapturing the stolen property4 ,now1  
it is an old superstition that  by      
easing nature on the spot where a       
robbery is committed1 the robbers       
secure themselves1 for a certain time1  
against interruption47#gbb7 ,hence  when
 madder-diggers resort to this          
proceeding in presence of the stranger  
whom they have caught and buried in the 
field1 we may infer that they  consider 
themselves robbers and him as the person
 robbed4 ,regarded as  such1 he must be 
the natural owner of the madder-roots1  
that is1 their  spirit or demon2 and    
this conception is carried out by       
burying him1 like  the madder-roots1 in 
the ground47#gbc7 ,the ,greeks1 it may  

be observed1 were  quite familiar with  
the idea that a passing stranger may be 
a god4 ,homer  says that the gods in the
 likeness of foreigners roam up and down
  cities47#gbd7 ,once in ,poso1 a       
district of ,celebes1 when a new        
missionary  entered a house where a     
number of people were gathered round a  
sick man1  one of them addressed the    
newcomer in these words3 8,well1 sir1 as
 we had  never seen you before1 and you 
came suddenly in1 while we sat here by  
ourselves1 we thought it was a          
spirit407#gbe7    7,m#aii7 ,thus in     
these harvest-customs of modern ,europe 
the person who cuts1  binds1 or threshes
 the last corn is treated as an         
embodiment of the  corn-spirit by being 
wrapt up in sheaves1 killed in mimicry  
by  agricultural implements1 and thrown 
into the water47#gbf7 ,these            
coincidences with the ,lityerses story  
seem to prove that the latter is a      
genuine description of an old ,phrygian 
harvest-custom4 ,but since in the       

modern parallels the killing of the     
personal representative of the          
corn-spirit is necessarily omitted or at
 most enacted only in mimicry1 it  is   
desirable to shew that in rude society  
human beings have been commonly  killed 
as an agricultural ceremony to promote  
the fertility of the fields4  ,the      
following examples will make this plain4
           #c4 ,human ,sacrifices for   
the ,crops4      7,m#bjj7 ,the ,indians 
of ,guayaquil1 in ,ecuador1 used to     
sacrifice human blood  and the hearts of
 men when they sowed their fields47#gbg7
 ,the people of  ,caar 7now ,cuenca in  
,ecuador7 used to sacrifice a hundred   
children  annually at harvest4 ,the     
kings of ,quito1 the ,incas of ,peru1   
and for a long  time the ,spaniards were
 unable to suppress the bloody          
rite47#gbh7 ,at a  ,mexican             
harvest-festival1 when the first-fruits 
of the season were offered  to the sun1 
a criminal was placed between two       
immense stones1 balanced  opposite each 

other1 and was crushed by them as they  
fell together4 ,his  remains were       
buried1 and a feast and dance followed4 
,this sacrifice was  known as 8the      
meeting of the stones407#gbi7 8,tlaloc  
was worshipped in  ,mexico as the god of
 the thunder and the storm which        
precedes the  fertilising rain2         
elsewhere his wife ,xochiquetzal1 who at
 ,tlaxcallan was  called ,matlalcuy or  
the ,lady of the ,blue ,petticoats1     
shared these  honours1 and it was to her
 that many countries in ,central        
,america  particularly paid their       
devotions4 ,every year1 at the time when
 the cobs  of the still green and milky 
maize are about to coagulate and ripen1 
they  used to sacrifice to the goddess  
four young girls1 chosen among the      
noblest families of the country2 they   
were decked out in festal attire1       
crowned with flowers1 and conveyed in   
rich palanquins to the brink of the     
hallowed waters1 where the sacrifice was
 to be offered4 ,the priests1 clad  in  

long floating robes1 their heads        
encircled with feather crowns1 marched  
in front of the litters carrying censers
 with burning incense4 ,the town of     
,elopango1 celebrated for its temple1   
was near the lake of the same name1  the
 etymology of which refers to the       
sheaves of tender maize 7elotl1  #8sheaf
 of tender maize'74 ,it was dedicated to
 the goddess ,xochiquetzal1 to  whom the
 young victims were offered by being    
hurled from the top of a rock  into the 
abyss4 ,at the moment of consummating   
this inhuman rite1 the  priests         
addressed themselves in turn to the four
 virgins in order to  banish the fear of
 death from their minds4 ,they drew for 
them a bright  picture of the delights  
they were about to enjoy in the company 
of the  gods1 and advised them not to   
forget the earth which they had left    
behind1  but to entreat the divinity1 to
 whom they despatched them1 to bless the
  forthcoming harvest407#gcj7 ,we have  
seen that the ancient ,mexicans also    

sacrificed human beings at all the      
various stages in the growth of the     
maize1 the age of the victims           
corresponding to the age of the corn2   
for  they sacrificed new-born babes at  
sowing1 older children when the grain   
had sprouted1 and so on till it was     
fully ripe1 when they sacrificed old    
men47#gca7 ,no doubt the correspondence 
between the ages of the victims and  the
 state of the corn was supposed to      
enhance the efficacy of the  sacrifice4 
7,m#bja7 ,the ,pawnees annually         
sacrificed a human victim in spring when
 they  sowed their fields4 ,the         
sacrifice was believed to have been     
enjoined on  them by the ,morning ,star1
 or by a certain bird which the ,morning
 ,star had  sent to them as its         
messenger4 ,the bird was stuffed and    
preserved as a  powerful talisman4 ,they
 thought that an omission of this       
sacrifice would  be followed by the     
total failure of the crops of maize1    
beans1 and  pumpkins4 ,the victim was a 

captive of either sex4 ,he was clad in  
the  gayest and most costly attire1 was 
fattened on the choicest food1 and      
carefully kept in ignorance of his doom4
 ,when he was fat enough1 they  bound   
him to a cross in the presence of the   
multitude1 danced a solemn  dance1 then 
cleft his head with a tomahawk and shot 
him with arrows4  ,according to one     
trader1 the squaws then cut pieces of   
flesh from the  victim's body1 with     
which they greased their hoes2 but this 
was denied by  another trader who had   
been present at the ceremony4           
,immediately after the  sacrifice the   
people proceeded to plant their fields4 
,a particular account  has been         
preserved of the sacrifice of a ,sioux  
girl by the ,pawnees in  ,april #ahcg or
 #ahch4 ,the girl was fourteen or       
fifteen years old and had  been kept for
 six months and well treated4 ,two days 
before the sacrifice  she was led from  
wigwam to wigwam1 accompanied by the    
whole council of  chiefs and warriors4  

,at each lodge she received a small     
billet of wood and  a little paint1     
which she handed to the warrior next to 
her4 ,in this way  she called at every  
wigwam1 receiving at each the same      
present of wood and  paint4 ,on the     
twenty-second of ,april she was taken   
out to be sacrificed1  attended by the  
warriors1 each of whom carried two      
pieces of wood which he  had received   
from her hands4 ,her body having been   
painted half red and  half black1 she   
was attached to a sort of gibbet and    
roasted for some time  over a slow fire1
 then shot to death with arrows4 ,the   
chief sacrificer  next tore out her     
heart and devoured it4 ,while her flesh 
was still warm it  was cut in small     
pieces from the bones1 put in little    
baskets1 and taken  to a neighbouring   
corn-field4 ,there the head chief took a
 piece of the  flesh from a basket and  
squeezed a drop of blood upon the       
newly-deposited  grains of corn4 ,his   
example was followed by the rest1 till  

all the seed  had been sprinkled with   
the blood2 it was then covered up with  
earth4  ,according to one account the   
body of the victim was reduced to a kind
 of  paste1 which was rubbed or         
sprinkled not only on the maize but also
 on the  potatoes1 the beans1 and other 
seeds to fertilise them4 ,by this       
sacrifice  they hoped to obtain         
plentiful crops47#gcb7    7,m#bjb7 ,a   
,west ,african queen used to sacrifice a
 man and woman in the month  of ,march4 
,they were killed with spades and hoes1 
and their bodies buried  in the middle  
of a field which had just been          
tilled47#gcc7 ,at ,lagos in  ,guinea it 
was the custom annually to impale a     
young girl alive soon after  the spring 
equinox in order to secure good crops4  
,along with her were  sacrificed sheep  
and goats1 which1 with yams1 heads of   
maize1 and  plantains1 were hung on     
stakes on each side of her4 ,the victims
 were bred  up for the purpose in the   
king's seraglio1 and their minds had    

been so  powerfully wrought upon by the 
fetish men that they went cheerfully to 
their fate47#gcd7 ,a similar sacrifice  
used to be annually offered at ,benin1  
in ,guinea47#gce7 ,the ,marimos1 a      
,bechuana tribe1 sacrifice a human being
 for  the crops4 ,the victim chosen is  
generally a short1 stout man4 ,he is    
seized  by violence or intoxicated and  
taken to the fields1 where he is killed 
amongst the wheat to serve as 8seed0 7so
 they phrase it74 ,after his blood  has 
coagulated in the sun1 it is burned     
along with the frontal bone1 the  flesh 
attached to it1 and the brain2 the ashes
 are then scattered over the  ground to 
fertilise it4 ,the rest of the body is  
eaten47#gcf7 ,the ,wamegi of  the       
,usagara hills in ,german ,east ,africa 
used to offer human sacrifices of  a    
peculiar kind once a year about the time
 of harvest1 which was also the  time of
 sowing2 for the ,wamegi have two crops 
annually1 one in ,september  and one in 
,february4 ,the festival was usually    

held in ,september or  ,october4 ,the   
victim was a girl who had attained the  
age of puberty4 ,she  was taken to a    
hill where the festival was to be       
celebrated1 and there she  was crushed  
to death between two branches47#gcg7    
,the sacrifice was not  performed in the
 fields1 and my informant could not     
ascertain its object1  but we may       
conjecture that it was to ensure good   
crops in the following  year4           
7,m#bjc7 ,the ,bagobos of ,mindanao1 one
 of the ,philippine ,islands1 offer a   
human sacrifice before they sow their   
rice4 ,the victim is a slave1 who is    
hewn to pieces in the forest47#gch7 ,the
 natives of ,bontoc1 a province in  the 
interior of ,luzon1 one of the          
,philippine ,islands1 are passionate    
head-hunters4 ,their principal seasons  
for head-hunting are the times of       
planting and reaping the rice4 ,in order
 that the crop may turn out well1  every
 farm must get at least one human head  
at planting and one at sowing4  ,the    

head-hunters go out in twos or threes1  
lie in wait for the victim1  whether man
 or woman1 cut off his or her head1     
hands1 and feet1 and bring  them back in
 haste to the village1 where they are   
received with great  rejoicings4 ,the   
skulls are at first exposed on the      
branches of two or  three dead trees    
which stand in an open space of every   
village surrounded  by large stones     
which serve as seats4 ,the people then  
dance round them and  feast and get     
drunk4 ,when the flesh has decayed from 
the head1 the man who  cut it off takes 
it home and preserves it as a relic1    
while his companions  do the same with  
the hands and the feet47#gci7 ,similar  
customs are observed  by the ,apoyaos1  
another tribe in the interior of        
,luzon47#gdj7    7,m#bjd7 ,the ,wild    
,wa1 an agricultural tribe on the       
north-eastern frontier of  ,upper       
,burma1 still hunt for human heads as a 
means of promoting the  welfare of the  
crops4 ,the ,wa regards his skulls as a 

protection against  the powers of evil4 
8,without a skull his crops would fail2 
without a skull  his kine might die2    
without a skull the father and mother   
spirits would be  shamed and might be   
enraged2 if there were no protecting    
skull the other  spirits who are all    
malignant1 might gain entrance and kill 
the  inhabitants1 or drink all the      
liquor40 ,the ,wa country is a series of
  mountain ranges shelving rapidly down 
to narrow valleys from two to five      
thousand feet deep4 ,the villages are   
all perched high on the slopes1 some    
just under the crest of the ridge1 some 
lower down on a small projecting  spur  
of flat ground4 ,industrious cultivation
 has cleared away the jungle1  and the  
villages stand out conspicuously in the 
landscape as  yellowish-brown blotches  
on the hillsides4 ,each village is      
fortified by an  earthen rampart so     
thickly overgrown with cactuses and     
other shrubs as to  be impenetrable4    
,the only entrance is through a narrow1 

low and winding  tunnel1 the floor of   
which1 for additional security1 is      
thickly studded  with pegs to wound the 
feet of enemies who might attempt to    
force a way  in4 ,the ,wa depend for    
their subsistence mainly on their crops 
of  buckwheat1 beans1 and maize2 rice   
they cultivate only to distil a strong  
spirituous liquor from it4 ,they had    
need be industrious1 for no field can   
be reached without a climb up or down   
the steep mountain-side4 ,sometimes  the
 rice-fields lie three thousand feet or 
more below the village1 and  they       
require constant attention4 ,but the    
chief crop raised by the ,wa is  the    
poppy1 from which they make opium4 ,in  
,february and ,march the hill-tops  for 
miles are white with the blossom1 and   
you may travel for days through  nothing
 but fields of poppies4 ,then1 too1 is  
the proper season for  head-hunting4 ,it
 opens in ,march and lasts through      
,april4 ,parties of  head-hunters at    
that time go forth to prowl for human   

prey4 ,as a rule they  will not behead  
people of a neighbouring village nor    
even of any village  on the same range  
of hills4 ,to find victims they go to   
the next range or  at any rate to a     
distance1 and the farther the better1   
for the heads of  strangers are         
preferred4 ,the reason is that the      
ghosts of strangers1 being  unfamiliar  
with the country1 are much less likely  
to stray away from their  skulls2 hence 
they make more vigilant sentinels than  
the ghosts of people  better acquainted 
with the neighbourhood1 who are apt to  
go off duty  without waiting for the    
tedious formality of relieving guard4   
,when  head-hunters return to a village 
with human heads1 the rejoicing is      
uproarious4 ,then the great drum is     
beaten frantically1 and its deep hollow 
boom resounding far and wide through the
 hills announces to the  neighbourhood  
the glad tidings of murder successfully 
perpetrated4 ,then  the barrels1 or     
rather the bamboos1 of rice-spirit are  

tapped1 and while  the genial stream    
flows and the women and children dance  
and sing for  glee1 the men drink       
themselves blind and mad drunk4 ,the    
ghastly head1  which forms the centre of
 all this rejoicing1 is first taken to  
the  spirit-house1 a small shed which   
usually stands on the highest point of  
the village site4 ,there1 wrapt in grass
 or leaves1 it is hung up in a  basket  
to ripen and bleach4 ,when all the flesh
 and sinews have mouldered  away and    
nothing remains but the blanched and    
grinning skull1 it is put to  rest in   
the village ,golgotha4 ,this is an      
avenue of huge old trees1 whose         
interlacing boughs form a verdant       
archway overhead and1 with the dense    
undergrowth1 cast a deep shadow on the  
ground below4 ,every village has  such  
an avenue stretching along the hillside 
sometimes for a long  distance1 or even 
till it meets the avenue of the         
neighbouring village4 ,in  the solemn   
gloom of this verdurous canopy is the   

,place of ,skulls4 ,on one  side of the 
avenue stands a row of wooden posts1    
usually mere trunks of  trees with the  
bark peeled off1 but sometimes rudely   
carved and painted  with designs in red 
and black4 ,a little below the top of   
each post is cut  a niche1 and in front 
of the niche is a ledge4 ,on this ledge 
the skull is  deposited1 sometimes so   
that it is in full view of passers-by in
 the  avenue1 sometimes so that it only 
grins at them through a slit4 ,most     
villages count their skulls by tens or  
twenties1 but some of them have         
hundreds of these trophies1 especially  
when the avenue forms an unbroken       
continuity of shade between the         
villages4 ,the old skulls ensure peace  
to  the village1 but at least one new   
one should be taken every year1 that the
  rice may grow green far down in the   
depths of the valley1 that the maize    
may tinge with its golden hue the steep 
mountain-sides1 and that the  hilltops  
may be white for miles and miles with   

the bloom of the  poppy47#gda7          
7,m#bje7 ,the ,shans of ,indo-,china    
still believe in the efficacy of human  
sacrifice to procure a good harvest1    
though they act on the belief less  than
 some other tribes of this region4      
,their practice now is to poison        
somebody at the state festival1 which is
 generally held at some time  between   
,march and ,may47#gdb7 ,among the ,lhota
 ,naga1 one of the many savage  tribes  
who inhabit the deep rugged labyrinthine
 glens which wind into the  mountains   
from the rich valley of                 
,brahmapootra17#gdc7 it used to be a    
common custom to chop off the heads1    
hands1 and feet of people they met      
with1 and then to stick up the severed  
extremities in their fields to  ensure a
 good crop of grain4 ,they bore no      
ill-will whatever to the persons  upon  
whom they operated in this unceremonious
 fashion4 ,once they flayed a  boy      
alive1 carved him in pieces1 and        
distributed the flesh among all the     

villagers1 who put it into their        
corn-bins to avert bad luck and ensure  
plentiful crops of grain4 ,the ,angami1 
another tribe of the same region1  used 
also to relieve casual passers-by of    
their heads1 hands1 and feet1  with the 
same excellent intention47#gdd7 ,the    
hill tribe ,kudulu1 near  ,vizagapatam  
in the ,madras ,presidency1 offered     
human sacrifices to the god  ,jankari   
for the purpose of obtaining good crops4
 ,the ceremony was  generally performed 
on the ,sunday before or after the      
,pongal feast4 ,for  the most part the  
victim was purchased1 and until the time
 for the  sacrifice came he was free to 
wander about the village1 to eat and    
drink  what he liked1 and even to lie   
with any woman he met4 ,on the appointed
 day  he was carried before the idol    
drunk2 and when one of the villagers had
  cut a hole in his stomach and smeared 
the blood on the idol1 the crowds  from 
the neighbouring villages rushed upon   
him and hacked him to pieces4  ,all who 

were fortunate enough to secure morsels 
of his flesh carried them  away and     
presented them to their village         
idols47#gde7 ,the ,gonds of ,india1 a   
,dravidian race1 kidnapped ,brahman     
boys1 and kept them as victims to be    
sacrificed on various occasions4 ,at    
sowing and reaping1 after a triumphal   
procession1 one of the lads was slain by
 being punctured with a poisoned  arrow4
 ,his blood was then sprinkled over the 
ploughed field or the ripe  crop1 and   
his flesh was devoured47#gdf7 ,the      
,oraons or ,uraons of ,chota  ,nagpur   
worship a goddess called ,anna ,kuari1  
who can give good crops and  make a man 
rich1 but to induce her to do so it is  
necessary to offer human  sacrifices4   
,in spite of the vigilance of the       
,british ,government these  sacrifices  
are said to be still secretly           
perpetrated4 ,the victims are poor      
waifs and strays whose disappearance    
attracts no notice4 ,april and ,may are 
the months when the catchpoles are out  

on the prowl4 ,at that time  strangers  
will not go about the country alone1 and
 parents will not let  their children   
enter the jungle or herd the cattle4    
,when a catchpole has  found a victim1  
he cuts his throat and carries away the 
upper part of the  ring finger and the  
nose4 ,the goddess takes up her abode in
 the house of  any man who has offered  
her a sacrifice1 and from that time his 
fields  yield a double harvest4 ,the    
form she assumes in the house is that of
 a  small child4 ,when the householder  
brings in his unhusked rice1 he takes   
the goddess and rolls her over the heap 
to double its size4 ,but she soon  grows
 restless and can only be pacified with 
the blood of fresh human  victims47#gdg7
    7,m#bjf7 ,but the best known case of
 human sacrifices1 systematically       
offered  to ensure good crops1 is       
supplied by the ,khonds or ,kandhs1     
another  ,dravidian race in ,bengal4    
,our knowledge of them is derived from  
the  accounts written by ,british       

officers who1 about the middle of the   
nineteenth century1 were engaged in     
putting them down47#gdh7 ,the sacrifices
  were offered to the ,earth ,goddess1  
,tari ,pennu or ,bera ,pennu1 and were  
believed to ensure good crops and       
immunity from all disease and accidents4
  ,in particular1 they were considered  
necessary in the cultivation of         
turmeric1 the ,khonds arguing that the  
turmeric could not have a deep red      
colour without the shedding of          
blood47#gdi7 ,the victim or ,meriah1 as 
he was  called1 was acceptable to the   
goddess only if he had been purchased1  
or  had been born a victim--that is1 the
 son of a victim father1 or had been    
devoted as a child by his father or     
guardian4 ,khonds in distress often     
sold their children for victims1        
8considering the beatification of their 
souls certain1 and their death1 for the 
benefit of mankind1 the most  honourable
 possible40 ,a man of the ,panua tribe  
was once seen to load a  ,khond with    

curses1 and finally to spit in his face1
 because the ,khond had  sold for a     
victim his own child1 whom the ,panua   
had wished to marry4 ,a  party of       
,khonds1 who saw this1 immediately      
pressed forward to comfort the  seller  
of his child1 saying1 8,your child has  
died that all the world may  live1 and  
the ,earth ,goddess herself will wipe   
that spittle from your  face407#gej7    
,the victims were often kept for years  
before they were  sacrificed4 ,being    
regarded as consecrated beings1 they    
were treated with  extreme affection1   
mingled with deference1 and were        
welcomed wherever they  went4 ,a ,meriah
 youth1 on attaining maturity1 was      
generally given a wife1  who was herself
 usually a ,meriah or victim2 and with  
her he received a  portion of land and  
farm-stock4 ,their offspring were also  
victims4 ,human  sacrifices were offered
 to the ,earth ,goddess by tribes1      
branches of  tribes1 or villages1 both  
at periodical festivals and on          

extraordinary  occasions4 ,the          
periodical sacrifices were generally so 
arranged by tribes  and divisions of    
tribes that each head of a family was   
enabled1 at least  once a year1 to      
procure a shred of flesh for his fields1
 generally about  the time when his     
chief crop was laid down47#gea7         
7,m#bjg7 ,the mode of performing these  
tribal sacrifices was as follows4 ,ten  
or twelve days before the sacrifice1 the
 victim was devoted by cutting off  his 
hair1 which1 until then1 had been kept  
unshorn4 ,crowds of men and  women      
assembled to witness the sacrifice2 none
 might be excluded1 since  the sacrifice
 was declared to be for all mankind4 ,it
 was preceded by  several days of wild  
revelry and gross debauchery47#geb7 ,on 
the day before  the sacrifice the       
victim1 dressed in a new garment1 was   
led forth from the  village in solemn   
procession1 with music and dancing1 to  
the ,meriah grove1  a clump of high     
forest trees standing a little way from 

the village and  untouched by the axe4  
,there they tied him to a post1 which   
was sometimes  placed between two plants
 of the sankissar shrub4 ,he was then   
anointed  with oil1 ghee1 and turmeric1 
and adorned with flowers2 and 8a species
 of  reverence1 which it is not easy to 
distinguish from adoration10 was paid   
to him throughout the day4 ,a great     
struggle now arose to obtain the        
smallest relic from his person2 a       
particle of the turmeric paste with     
which he was smeared1 or a drop of his  
spittle1 was esteemed of sovereign      
virtue1 especially by the women47#gec7  
,the crowd danced round the post to     
music1 and1 addressing the earth1 said1 
8,o ,god1 we offer this sacrifice to    
you2 give us good crops1 seasons1 and   
health02 then speaking to the victim    
they said1 8,we bought you with a price1
 and did not seize you2 now we          
sacrifice you according to custom1 and  
no sin rests with us407#ged7    7,m#bjh7
 ,on the last morning the orgies1 which 

had been scarcely interrupted  during   
the night1 were resumed1 and continued  
till noon1 when they ceased1  and the   
assembly proceeded to consummate the    
sacrifice4 ,the victim was  again       
anointed with oil1 and each person      
touched the anointed part1 and  wiped   
the oil on his own head4 ,in some places
 they took the victim in  procession    
round the village1 from door to door1   
where some plucked hair  from his head1 
and others begged for a drop of his     
spittle1 with which  they anointed their
 heads47#gee7 ,as the victim might not  
be bound nor make  any show of          
resistance1 the bones of his arms and1  
if necessary1 his legs  were broken2 but
 often this precaution was rendered     
unnecessary by  stupefying him with     
opium47#gef7 ,the mode of putting him to
 death varied in  different places4 ,one
 of the commonest modes seems to have   
been  strangulation1 or squeezing to    
death4 ,the branch of a green tree was  
cleft  several feet down the middle2 the

 victim's neck 7in other places1 his    
chest7 was inserted in the cleft1 which 
the priest1 aided by his  assistants1   
strove with all his force to            
close47#geg7 ,then he wounded the       
victim slightly with his axe1 whereupon 
the crowd rushed at the wretch and      
hewed the flesh from the bones1 leaving 
the head and bowels untouched4          
,sometimes he was cut up alive47#geh7   
,in ,chinna ,kimedy he was dragged along
  the fields1 surrounded by the crowd1  
who1 avoiding his head and  intestines1 
hacked the flesh from his body with     
their knives till he  died47#gei7       
,another very common mode of sacrifice  
in the same district was  to fasten the 
victim to the proboscis of a wooden     
elephant1 which revolved  on a stout    
post1 and1 as it whirled round1 the     
crowd cut the flesh from  the victim    
while life remained4 ,in some villages  
,major ,campbell found as  many as      
fourteen of these wooden elephants1     
which had been used at                  

sacrifices47#gfj7 ,in one district the  
victim was put to death slowly by  fire4
 ,a low stage was formed1 sloping on    
either side like a roof2 upon it  they  
laid the victim1 his limbs wound round  
with cords to confine his  struggles4   
,fires were then lighted and hot brands 
applied1 to make him  roll up and down  
the slopes of the stage as long as      
possible2 for the more  tears he shed   
the more abundant would be the supply of
 rain4 ,next day the  body was cut to   
pieces47#gfa7    7,m#bji7 ,the flesh cut
 from the victim was instantly taken    
home by the  persons who had been       
deputed by each village to bring it4 ,to
 secure its  rapid arrival1 it was      
sometimes forwarded by relays of men1   
and conveyed  with postal fleetness     
fifty or sixty miles47#gfb7 ,in each    
village all who  stayed at home fasted  
rigidly until the flesh arrived4 ,the   
bearer  deposited it in the place of    
public assembly1 where it was received  
by the  priest and the heads of         

families4 ,the priest divided it into   
two portions1  one of which he offered  
to the ,earth ,goddess by burying it in 
a hole in  the ground with his back     
turned1 and without looking4 ,then each 
man added  a little earth to bury it1   
and the priest poured water on the spot 
from a  hill gourd4 ,the other portion  
of flesh he divided into as many shares 
as  there were heads of houses present4 
,each head of a house rolled his shred  
of flesh in leaves1 and buried it in his
 favourite field1 placing it in  the    
earth behind his back without           
looking47#gfc7 ,in some places each man 
carried his portion of flesh to the     
stream which watered his fields1 and    
there hung it on a pole47#gfd7 ,for     
three days thereafter no house was      
swept2 and1 in one district1 strict     
silence was observed1 no fire might be  
given out1 no wood cut1 and no strangers
 received4 ,the remains of the  human   
victim 7namely1 the head1 bowels1 and   
bones7 were watched by strong  parties  

the night after the sacrifice2 and next 
morning they were burned1  along with a 
whole sheep1 on a funeral pile4 ,the    
ashes were scattered over  the fields1  
laid as paste over the houses and       
granaries1 or mixed with the  new corn  
to preserve it from insects47#gfe7      
,sometimes1 however1 the head  and bones
 were buried1 not burnt47#gff7 ,after   
the suppression of the human            
sacrifices1 inferior victims were       
substituted in some places2 for         
instance1 in the capital of ,chinna     
,kimedy a goat took the place of a human
  victim47#gfg7 ,others sacrifice a     
buffalo4 ,they tie it to a wooden post  
in a  sacred grove1 dance wildly round  
it with brandished knives1 then1 falling
  on the living animal1 hack it to      
shreds and tatters in a few minutes1    
fighting and struggling with each other 
for every particle of flesh4 ,as  soon  
as a man has secured a piece he makes   
off with it at full speed to  bury it in
 his fields1 according to ancient       

custom1 before the sun has  set1 and as 
some of them have far to go they must   
run very fast4 ,all the  women throw    
clods of earth at the rapidly retreating
 figures of the men1  some of them      
taking very good aim4 ,soon the sacred  
grove1 so lately a  scene of tumult1 is 
silent and deserted except for a few    
people who remain  to guard all that is 
left of the buffalo1 to wit1 the head1  
the bones1 and  the stomach1 which are  
burned with ceremony at the foot of the 
stake47#gfh7    7,m#baj7 ,in these      
,khond sacrifices the ,meriahs are      
represented by our  authorities as      
victims offered to propitiate the ,earth
 ,goddess4 ,but from  the treatment of  
the victims both before and after death 
it appears that  the custom cannot be   
explained as merely a propitiatory      
sacrifice4 ,a part  of the flesh        
certainly was offered to the ,earth     
,goddess1 but the rest was  buried by   
each householder in his fields1 and the 
ashes of the other parts  of the body   

were scattered over the fields1 laid as 
paste on the  granaries1 or mixed with  
the new corn4 ,these latter customs     
imply that to  the body of the ,meriah  
there was ascribed a direct or intrinsic
 power of  making the crops to grow1    
quite independent of the indirect       
efficacy which  it might have as an     
offering to secure the good-will of the 
deity4 ,in  other words1 the flesh and  
ashes of the victim were believed to be 
endowed  with a magical or physical     
power of fertilising the land4 ,the same
  intrinsic power was ascribed to the   
blood and tears of the ,meriah1 his     
blood causing the redness of the        
turmeric and his tears producing rain2  
for it can hardly be doubted that1      
originally at least1 the tears were     
supposed to bring down the rain1 not    
merely to prognosticate it4 ,similarly  
the custom of pouring water on the      
buried flesh of the ,meriah was no doubt
  a rain-charm4 ,again1 magical power as
 an attribute of the ,meriah appears  in

 the sovereign virtue believed to reside
 in anything that came from his  person1
 as his hair or spittle4 ,the ascription
 of such power to the ,meriah  indicates
 that he was much more than a mere man  
sacrificed to propitiate a  deity4 ,once
 more1 the extreme reverence paid him   
points to the same  conclusion4 ,major  
,campbell speaks of the ,meriah as      
8being regarded as  something more than 
mortal107#gfi7 and ,major ,macpherson   
says1 8,a species of  reverence1 which  
it is not easy to distinguish from      
adoration1 is paid to  him407#ggj7 ,in  
short1 the ,meriah seems to have been   
regarded as divine4 ,as  such1 he may   
originally have represented the ,earth  
,goddess or1 perhaps1 a  deity of       
vegetation2 though in later times he    
came to be regarded rather  as a victim 
offered to a deity than as himself an   
incarnate god4 ,this  later view of the 
,meriah as a victim rather than a       
divinity may perhaps  have received     
undue emphasis from the ,european       

writers who have described  the ,khond  
religion4 ,habituated to the later idea 
of sacrifice as an  offering made to a  
god for the purpose of conciliating his 
favour1  ,european observers are apt to 
interpret all religious slaughter in    
this  sense1 and to suppose that        
wherever such slaughter takes place1    
there must  necessarily be a deity to   
whom the carnage is believed by the     
slayers to  be acceptable4 ,thus their  
preconceived ideas may unconsciously    
colour and  warp their descriptions of  
savage rites4    7,m#baa7 ,the same     
custom of killing the representative of 
a god1 of which  strong traces appear in
 the ,khond sacrifices1 may perhaps be  
detected in  some of the other human    
sacrifices described above4 ,thus the   
ashes of the  slaughtered ,marimo were  
scattered over the fields2 the blood of 
the  ,brahman lad was put on the crop   
and field2 the flesh of the slain ,naga 
was  stowed in the corn-bin2 and the    
blood of the ,sioux girl was allowed to 

trickle on the seed47#gga7 ,again1 the  
identification of the victim with the   
corn1 in other words1 the view that he  
is an embodiment or spirit of the  corn1
 is brought out in the pains which seem 
to be taken to secure a  physical       
correspondence between him and the      
natural object which he  embodies or    
represents4 ,thus the ,mexicans killed  
young victims for the  young corn and   
old ones for the ripe corn2 the ,marimos
 sacrifice1 as  8seed10 a short1 fat    
man1 the shortness of his stature       
corresponding to  that of the young     
corn1 his fatness to the condition which
 it is desired  that the crops may      
attain2 and the ,pawnees fattened their 
victims probably  with the same view4   
,again1 the identification of the victim
 with the corn  comes out in the        
,african custom of killing him with     
spades and hoes1 and  the ,mexican      
custom of grinding him1 like corn1      
between two stones4    ,one more point  
in these savage customs deserves to be  

noted4 ,the ,pawnee  chief devoured the 
heart of the ,sioux girl1 and the       
,marimos and ,gonds ate  the victim's   
flesh4 ,if1 as we suppose1 the victim   
was regarded as divine1  it follows that
 in eating his flesh his worshippers    
believed themselves to  be partaking of 
the body of their god4           #d4    
,the ,corn-spirit slain in his ,human   
,representatives4      7,m#bab7 ,the    
barbarous rites just described offer    
analogies to the harvest  customs of    
,europe4 ,thus the fertilising virtue   
ascribed to the corn-spirit  is shewn   
equally in the savage custom of mixing  
the victim's blood or  ashes with the   
seed-corn and the ,european custom of   
mixing the grain from  the last sheaf   
with the young corn in spring47#ggb7    
,again1 the  identification of the      
person with the corn appears alike in   
the savage  custom of adapting the age  
and stature of the victim to the age and
  stature1 whether actual or expected1  
of the crop2 in the ,scotch and         

,styrian rules that when the corn-spirit
 is conceived as the ,maiden the  last  
corn shall be cut by a young maiden1 but
 when it is conceived as the            
,corn-mother it shall be cut by an old  
woman27#ggc7 in the ,lothringian        
warning given to old women to save      
themselves when the ,old ,woman is being
  killed1 that is1 when the last corn is
 being threshed27#ggd7 and in the       
,tyrolese expectation that if the man   
who gives the last stroke at  threshing 
is tall1 the next year's corn will be   
tall also47#gge7 ,further1  the same    
identification is implied in the savage 
custom of killing the  representative of
 the corn-spirit with hoes or spades or 
by grinding him  between stones1 and in 
the ,european custom of pretending to   
kill him with  the scythe or the flail4 
,once more the ,khond custom of pouring 
water on  the buried flesh of the victim
 is parallel to the ,european customs of
  pouring water on the personal         
representative of the corn-spirit or    

plunging him into a stream47#ggf7 ,both 
the ,khond and the ,european customs    
are rain-charms4    7,m#bac7 ,to return 
now to the ,lityerses story4 ,it has    
been shewn that in  rude society human  
beings have been commonly killed to     
promote the growth  of the crops4 ,there
 is therefore no improbability in the   
supposition that  they may once have    
been killed for a like purpose in       
,phrygia and ,europe2  and when         
,phrygian legend and ,european          
folk-custom1 closely agreeing with  each
 other1 point to the conclusion that men
 were so slain1 we are bound1           
provisionally at least1 to accept the   
conclusion4 ,further1 both the          
,lityerses story and ,european          
harvest-customs agree in indicating that
 the  victim was put to death as a      
representative of the corn-spirit1 and  
this  indication is in harmony with the 
view which some savages appear to take  
of the victim slain to make the crops   
flourish4 ,on the whole1 then1 we may   

fairly suppose that both in ,phrygia and
 in ,europe the representative of  the  
corn-spirit was annually killed upon the
 harvest-field4 ,grounds have  been     
already shewn for believing that        
similarly in ,europe the  representative
 of the tree-spirit was annually slain4 
,the proofs of these  two remarkable and
 closely analogous customs are entirely 
independent of  each other4 ,their      
coincidence seems to furnish fresh      
presumption in favour  of both4         
7,m#bad7 ,to the question1 ,how was the 
representative of the corn-spirit       
chosen8 one answer has been already     
given4 ,both the ,lityerses story and   
,european folk-custom shew that passing 
strangers were regarded as              
manifestations of the corn-spirit       
escaping from the cut or threshed corn1 
and as such were seized and slain4 ,but 
this is not the only answer which  the  
evidence suggests4 ,according to the    
,phrygian legend the victims of         
,lityerses were not simply passing      

strangers1 but persons whom he had      
vanquished in a reaping contest and     
afterwards wrapt up in corn-sheaves  and
 beheaded47#ggg7 ,this suggests that the
 representative of the  corn-spirit may 
have been selected by means of a        
competition on the  harvest-field1 in   
which the vanquished competitor was     
compelled to accept  the fatal honour4  
,the supposition is countenanced by     
,european  harvest-customs4 ,we have    
seen that in ,europe there is sometimes 
a contest  amongst the reapers to avoid 
being last1 and that the person who is  
vanquished in this competition1 that is1
 who cuts the last corn1 is often       
roughly handled4 ,it is true we have not
 found that a pretence is made of       
killing him2 but on the other hand we   
have found that a pretence is made  of  
killing the man who gives the last      
stroke at threshing1 that is1 who is    
vanquished in the threshing             
contest47#ggh7 ,now1 since it is in the 
character of representative of the      

corn-spirit that the thresher of the    
last corn is slain in mimicry1 and since
 the same representative character      
attaches 7as we have seen7 to the cutter
 and binder as well as to the  thresher 
of the last corn1 and since the same    
repugnance is evinced by  harvesters to 
be last in any one of these labours1 we 
may conjecture that  a pretence has been
 commonly made of killing the reaper and
 binder as well  as the thresher of the 
last corn1 and that in ancient times    
this killing  was actually carried out4 
,this conjecture is corroborated by the 
common  superstition that whoever cuts  
the last corn must die soon47#ggi7      
,sometimes  it is thought that the      
person who binds the last sheaf on the  
field will  die in the course of next   
year47#ghj7 ,the reason for fixing on   
the reaper1  binder1 or thresher of the 
last corn as the representative of the  
corn-spirit may be this4 ,the           
corn-spirit is supposed to lurk as long 
as he  can in the corn1 retreating      

before the reapers1 the binders1 and the
  threshers at their work4 ,but when he 
is forcibly expelled from his refuge  in
 the last corn cut or the last sheaf    
bound or the last grain threshed1  he   
necessarily assumes some other form than
 that of the corn-stalks which  had     
hitherto been his garment or body4 ,and 
what form can the expelled  corn-spirit 
assume more naturally than that of the  
person who stands  nearest to the corn  
from which he 7the corn-spirit7 has just
 been  expelled8 ,but the person in     
question is necessarily the reaper1     
binder1 or  thresher of the last corn4  
,he or she1 therefore1 is seized and    
treated as  the corn-spirit himself4    
7,m#bae7 ,thus the person who was killed
 on the harvest-field as the            
representative of the corn-spirit may   
have been either a passing stranger  or 
the harvester who was last at reaping1  
binding1 or threshing4 ,but there  is a 
third possibility1 to which ancient     
legend and modern folk-custom  alike    

point4 ,lityerses not only put strangers
 to death2 he was himself  slain1 and   
apparently in the same way as he had    
slain others1 namely1 by  being wrapt in
 a corn-sheaf1 beheaded1 and cast into  
the river2 and it is  implied that this 
happened to ,lityerses on his own       
land47#gha7 ,similarly in  modern       
harvest-customs the pretence of killing 
appears to be carried out  quite as     
often on the person of the master       
7farmer or squire7 as on that  of       
strangers47#ghb7 ,now when we remember  
that ,lityerses was said to have  been a
 son of the ,king of ,phrygia1 and that 
in one account he is himself  called a  
king1 and when we combine with this the 
tradition that he was put  to death1    
apparently as a representative of the   
corn-spirit1 we are led to  conjecture  
that we have here another trace of the  
custom of annually  slaying one of those
 divine or priestly kings who are known 
to have held  ghostly sway in many parts
 of ,western ,asia and particularly in  

,phrygia4  ,the custom appears1 as we   
have seen17#ghc7 to have been so far    
modified in  places that the king's son 
was slain in the king's stead4 ,of the  
custom  thus modified the story of      
,lityerses would be1 in one version at  
least1 a  reminiscence4    7,m#baf7     
,turning now to the relation of the     
,phrygian ,lityerses to the  ,phrygian  
,attis1 it may be remembered that at    
,pessinus--the seat of a  priestly      
kingship--the high-priest appears to    
have been annually slain in  the        
character of ,attis1 a god of           
vegetation1 and that ,attis was         
described  by an ancient authority as 8a
 reaped ear of corn407#ghd7 ,thus       
,attis1 as an  embodiment of the        
corn-spirit1 annually slain in the      
person of his  representative1 might be 
thought to be ultimately identical with 
,lityerses1 the latter being simply the 
rustic prototype out of which the  state
 religion of ,attis was developed4 ,it  
may have been so2 but1 on the  other    

hand1 the analogy of ,european          
folk-custom warns us that amongst the   
same people two distinct deities of     
vegetation may have their separate      
personal representatives1 both of whom  
are slain in the character of gods  at  
different times of the year4 ,for in    
,europe1 as we have seen1 it appears    
that one man was commonly slain in the  
character of the tree-spirit in  spring1
 and another in the character of the    
corn-spirit in autumn4 ,it may  have    
been so in ,phrygia also4 ,attis was    
especially a tree-god1 and his          
connexion with corn may have been only  
such an extension of the power of a     
tree-spirit as is indicated in customs  
like the ,harvest-,may47#ghe7 ,again1   
the representative of ,attis appears to 
have been slain in spring2 whereas      
,lityerses must have been slain in      
summer or autumn1 according to the time 
of the harvest in ,phrygia47#ghf7 ,on   
the whole1 then1 while we are not       
justified in regarding ,lityerses as the

 prototype of ,attis1 the two may be    
regarded as parallel products of the    
same religious idea1 and may have  stood
 to each other as in ,europe the ,old   
,man of harvest stands to the ,wild     
,man1 the ,leaf ,man1 and so forth1 of  
spring4 ,both were spirits or deities   
of vegetation1 and the personal         
representatives of both were annually   
slain4 ,but whereas the ,attis worship  
became elevated into the dignity of a   
,state religion and spread to ,italy1   
the rites of ,lityerses seem never to   
have passed the limits of their native  
,phrygia1 and always retained their     
character of rustic ceremonies performed
 by peasants on the harvest-field4  ,at 
most a few villages may have clubbed    
together1 as amongst the ,khonds1  to   
procure a human victim to be slain as   
representative of the corn-spirit  for  
their common benefit4 ,such victims may 
have been drawn from the  families of   
priestly kings or kinglets1 which would 
account for the  legendary character of 

,lityerses as the son of a ,phrygian    
king or as  himself a king4 ,when       
villages did not so club together1 each 
village or  farm may have procured its  
own representative of the corn-spirit by
  dooming to death either a passing     
stranger or the harvester who cut1      
bound1 or threshed the last sheaf4      
,perhaps in the olden time the practice 
of head-hunting as a means of promoting 
the growth of the corn may have  been as
 common among the rude inhabitants of   
,europe and ,western ,asia as it  still 
is1 or was till lately1 among the       
primitive agricultural tribes of        
,assam1 ,burma1 the ,philippine         
,islands1 and the ,indian               
,archipelago47#ghg7 ,it  is hardly      
necessary to add that in ,phrygia1 as in
 ,europe1 the old  barbarous custom of  
killing a man on the harvest-field or   
the  threshing-floor had doubtless      
passed into a mere pretence long before 
the  classical era1 and was probably    
regarded by the reapers and threshers   

themselves as no more than a rough jest 
which the license of a  harvest-home    
permitted them to play off on a passing 
stranger1 a comrade1  or even on their  
master himself47#ghh7    7,m#bag7 ,i    
have dwelt on the ,lityerses song at    
length because it affords so  many      
points of comparison with ,european and 
savage folk-custom4 ,the other  harvest 
songs of ,western ,asia and ,egypt1 to  
which attention has been  called        
above17#ghi7 may now be dismissed much  
more briefly4 ,the similarity  of the   
,bithynian ,bormus7#gij7 to the         
,phrygian ,lityerses helps to bear out  
the interpretation which has been given 
of the latter4 ,bormus1 whose death  or 
rather disappearance was annually       
mourned by the reapers in a plaintive   
song1 was1 like ,lityerses1 a king's son
 or at least the son of a wealthy  and  
distinguished man4 ,the reapers whom he 
watched were at work on his own  fields1
 and he disappeared in going to fetch   
water for them2 according to  one       

version of the story he was carried off 
by the nymphs1 doubtless the  nymphs of 
the spring or pool or river whither he  
went to draw water47#gia7  ,viewed in   
the light of the ,lityerses story and of
 ,european folk-custom1  this           
disappearance of ,bormus may be a       
reminiscence of the custom of  binding  
the farmer himself in a corn-sheaf and  
throwing him into the  water4 ,the      
mournful strain which the reapers sang  
was probably a  lamentation over the    
death of the corn-spirit1 slain either  
in the cut  corn or in the person of a  
human representative2 and the call which
 they  addressed to him may have been a 
prayer that he might return in fresh    
vigour next year4    7,m#bah7 ,the      
,phoenician ,linus song was sung at the 
vintage1 at least in the  west of ,asia 
,minor1 as we learn from ,homer2 and    
this1 combined with the  legend of      
,syleus1 suggests that in ancient times 
passing strangers were  handled by      
vintagers and vine-diggers in much the  

same way as they are  said to have been 
handled by the reaper ,lityerses4 ,the  
,lydian ,syleus1 so  ran the legend1    
compelled passers-by to dig for him in  
his vineyard1 till  ,hercules came and  
killed him and dug up his vines by the  
roots47#gib7 ,this  seems to be the     
outline of a legend like that of        
,lityerses2 but neither  ancient writers
 nor modern folk-custom enable us to    
fill in the  details47#gic7 ,but1       
further1 the ,linus song was probably   
sung also by  ,phoenician reapers1 for  
,herodotus compares it to the ,maneros  
song1 which1  as we have seen1 was a    
lament raised by ,egyptian reapers over 
the cut  corn4 ,further1 ,linus was     
identified with ,adonis1 and ,adonis has
 some  claims to be regarded as         
especially a corn-deity47#gid7 ,thus the
 ,linus  lament1 as sung at harvest1    
would be identical with the ,adonis     
lament2  each would be the lamentation  
raised by reapers over the dead spirit  
of  the corn4 ,but whereas ,adonis1 like

 ,attis1 grew into a stately figure of  
mythology1 adored and mourned in        
splendid cities far beyond the limits of
  his ,phoenician home1 ,linus appears  
to have remained a simple ditty sung by 
reapers and vintagers among the         
corn-sheaves and the vines4 ,the analogy
 of  ,lityerses and of folk-custom1 both
 ,european and savage1 suggests that in 
,phoenicia the slain corn-spirit--the   
dead ,adonis--may formerly have been    
represented by a human victim2 and this 
suggestion is possibly supported  by the
 ,harran legend that ,tammuz 7,adonis7  
was slain by his cruel lord1 who  ground
 his bones in a mill and scattered them 
to the wind4 ,for in ,mexico1  as we    
have seen1 the human victim at harvest  
was crushed between two  stones2 and    
both in ,africa and ,india the ashes or 
other remains of the  victim were       
scattered over the fields47#gie7 ,but   
the ,harran legend may be  only a       
mythical way of expressing the grinding 
of corn in the mill and the  scattering 

of the seed4 ,it seems worth suggesting 
that the mock king who  was annually    
killed at the ,babylonian festival of   
the ,sacaea on the  sixteenth day of the
 month ,lous may have represented       
,tammuz himself4 ,for  the historian    
,berosus1 who records the festival and  
its date1 probably  used the ,macedonian
 calendar1 since he dedicated his       
history to ,antiochus  ,soter2 and in   
his day the ,macedonian month ,lous     
appears to have  corresponded to the    
,babylonian month ,tammuz47#gif7 ,if    
this conjecture is  right1 the view that
 the mock king at the ,sacaea was slain 
in the  character of a god would be     
established4 ,but to this point we shall
 return  later on4    7,m#bai7 ,there is
 a good deal more evidence that in      
,egypt the slain  corn-spirit--the dead 
,osiris--was represented by a human     
victim1 whom the  reapers slew on the   
harvest-field1 mourning his death in a  
dirge1 to which  the ,greeks1 through a 
verbal misunderstanding1 gave the name  

of  ,maneros47#gig7 ,for the legend of  
,busiris seems to preserve a            
reminiscence  of human sacrifices once  
offered by the ,egyptians in connexion  
with the  worship of ,osiris4 ,busiris  
was said to have been an ,egyptian king 
who  sacrificed all strangers on the    
altar of ,zeus4 ,the origin of the      
custom  was traced to a dearth which    
afflicted the land of ,egypt for nine   
years4 ,a  ,cyprian seer informed       
,busiris that the dearth would cease if 
a man were  annually sacrificed to      
,zeus4 ,so ,busiris instituted the      
sacrifice4 ,but when  ,hercules came to 
,egypt1 and was being dragged to the    
altar to be  sacrificed1 he burst his   
bonds and slew ,busiris and his         
son47#gih7 ,here  then is a legend that 
in ,egypt a human victim was annually   
sacrificed to  prevent the failure of   
the crops1 and a belief is implied that 
an omission  of the sacrifice would have
 entailed a recurrence of that          
infertility  which it was the object of 

the sacrifice to prevent4 ,so the       
,pawnees1 as we  have seen1 believed    
that an omission of the human sacrifice 
at planting  would have been followed by
 a total failure of their crops4 ,the   
name  ,busiris was in reality the name  
of a city1 pe-,asar1 8the house of      
,osiris107#gii7 the city being so called
 because it contained the grave of      
,osiris4 ,indeed some high modern       
authorities believe that ,busiris was   
the  original home of ,osiris1 from     
which his worship spread to other parts 
of  ,egypt47#hjj7 ,the human sacrifices 
were said to have been offered at his   
grave1 and the victims were red-haired  
men1 whose ashes were scattered  abroad 
by means of winnowing-fans47#hja7 ,this 
tradition of human sacrifices  offered  
at the tomb of ,osiris is confirmed by  
the evidence of the  monuments2 for 8we 
find in the temple of ,dendereh a human 
figure with a  hare's head and pierced  
with knives1 tied to a stake before     
,osiris  ,khenti-,amentiu1 and ,horus is

 shown in a ,ptolemaic sculpture at     
,karnak  killing a bound hare-headed    
figure before the bier of ,osiris1 who  
is  represented in the form of          
,harpocrates4 ,that these figures are   
really  human beings with the head of an
 animal fastened on is proved by another
  sculpture at ,dendereh1 where a       
kneeling man has the hawk's head and    
wings  over his head and shoulders1 and 
in another place a priest has the       
jackal's head on his shoulders1 his own 
head appearing through the  disguise4   
,besides1 ,diodorus tells us that the   
,egyptian kings in former  times had    
worn on their heads the fore-part of a  
lion1 or of a bull1 or of  a dragon1    
showing that this method of disguise or 
transformation was a  well-known        
custom407#hjb7    7,m#bbj7 ,in the light
 of the foregoing discussion the        
,egyptian tradition of  ,busiris admits 
of a consistent and fairly probable     
explanation4 ,osiris1  the corn-spirit1 
was annually represented at harvest by a

 stranger1 whose  red hair made him a   
suitable representative of the ripe     
corn4 ,this man1 in  his representative 
character1 was slain on the             
harvest-field1 and mourned  by the      
reapers1 who prayed at the same time    
that the corn-spirit might  revive and  
return 7m-ne-rha1 ,maneros7 with renewed
 vigour in the  following year4         
,finally1 the victim1 or some part of   
him1 was burned1 and  the ashes         
scattered by winnowing-fans over the    
fields to fertilise them4  ,here the    
choice of the victim on the ground of   
his resemblance to the corn  which he   
was to represent agrees with the        
,mexican and ,african customs  already  
described47#hjc7 ,similarly the woman   
who died in the character of  the       
,corn-mother at the ,mexican midsummer  
sacrifice had her face painted  red and 
yellow in token of the colours of the   
corn1 and she wore a  pasteboard mitre  
surmounted by waving plumes in imitation
 of the tassel of  the maize47#hjd7 ,on 

the other hand1 at the festival of the  
,goddess of the  ,white ,maize the      
,mexicans sacrificed lepers47#hje7 ,the 
,romans sacrificed  red-haired puppies  
in spring to avert the supposed         
blighting influence of  the ,dog-star1  
believing that the crops would thus grow
 ripe and  ruddy47#hjf7 ,the heathen of 
,harran offered to the sun1 moon1 and   
planets  human victims who were chosen  
on the ground of their supposed         
resemblance  to the heavenly bodies to  
which they were sacrificed2 for example1
 the  priests1 clothed in red and       
smeared with blood1 offered a           
red-haired1  red-cheeked man to 8the red
 planet ,mars0 in a temple which was    
painted red  and draped with red        
hangings47#hjg7 ,these and the like     
cases of  assimilating the victim to the
 god1 or to the natural phenomenon which
 he  represents1 are based ultimately on
 the principle of homoeopathic or       
imitative magic1 the notion being that  
the object aimed at will be most        

readily attained by means of a sacrifice
 which resembles the effect that  it is 
designed to bring about4    7,m#bba7    
,again1 the scattering of the ,egyptian 
victim's ashes over the  fields         
resembles the ,marimo and ,khond        
custom17#hjh7 and the use of            
winnowing-fans for the purpose is       
another hint of his identification with 
the corn4 ,so in ,vende a pretence is   
made of threshing and winnowing the     
farmer's wife1 regarded as an embodiment
 of the corn-spirit2 in ,mexico the     
victim was ground between stones2 and in
 ,africa he was slain with spades  and  
hoes47#hji7 ,the story that the         
fragments of ,osiris's body were        
scattered up and down the land1 and     
buried by ,isis on the spots where they 
lay17#haj7 may very well be a           
reminiscence of a custom1 like that     
observed  by the ,khonds1 of dividing   
the human victim in pieces and burying  
the  pieces1 often at intervals of many 
miles from each other1 in the           

fields47#haa7 ,however1 it is possible  
that the story of the dismemberment  of 
,osiris1 like the similar story told of 
,tammuz1 may have been simply a         
mythical expression for the scattering  
of the seed4 ,once more1 the legend     
that the body of ,osiris enclosed in a  
coffer was thrown by ,typhon into the   
,nile1 perhaps points to a custom of    
casting the body of the victim1 or at   
least a portion of it1 into the ,nile as
 a rain-charm1 or rather to make  the   
river rise4 ,for a similar purpose      
,phrygian reapers seem to have flung    
the headless bodies of their victims1   
wrapt in corn-sheaves1 into a river1    
and the ,khonds poured water on the     
buried flesh of the human victim4       
,probably when ,osiris ceased to be     
represented by a human victim1 an image 
of him was annually thrown into the     
,nile1 just as the effigy of his ,syrian
  counterpart1 ,adonis1 used to be cast 
into the sea at ,alexandria4 ,or water  
may have been simply poured over it1 as 

on the monument already  mentioned7#hab7
 a priest is seen pouring water over the
 body of ,osiris1  from which           
corn-stalks are sprouting4 ,the         
accompanying legend1 8,this is  ,osiris 
of the mysteries1 who springs from the  
returning waters10 bears out  the view  
that at the mysteries of ,osiris a charm
 to make rain fall or the  river rise   
was regularly wrought by pouring water  
on his effigy or  flinging it into the  
,nile4    7,m#bbb7 ,it may be objected  
that the red-haired victims were slain  
as  representatives1 not of ,osiris1 but
 of his enemy ,typhon2 for the victims  
were called ,typhonian1 and red was the 
colour of ,typhon1 black the colour  of 
,osiris47#hac7 ,the answer to this      
objection must be reserved for the      
present4 ,meantime it may be pointed out
 that if ,osiris is often  represented  
on the monuments as black1 he is still  
more commonly depicted  as green17#had7 
appropriately enough for a corn-god1 who
 may be conceived  as black while the   

seed is under ground1 but as green after
 it has  sprouted4 ,so the ,greeks      
recognised both a ,green and a ,black   
,demeter17#hae7  and sacrificed to the  
,green ,demeter in spring with mirth and
  gladness47#haf7    7,m#bbc7 ,thus1 if 
,i am right1 the key to the mysteries of
 ,osiris is  furnished by the melancholy
 cry of the ,egyptian reapers1 which    
down to  ,roman times could be heard    
year after year sounding across the     
fields1  announcing the death of the    
corn-spirit1 the rustic prototype of    
,osiris4  ,similar cries1 as we have    
seen1 were also heard on all the        
harvest-fields  of ,western ,asia4 ,by  
the ancients they are spoken of as      
songs2 but to judge  from the analysis  
of the names ,linus and ,maneros1 they  
probably consisted  only of a few words 
uttered in a prolonged musical note     
which could be  heard for a great       
distance4 ,such sonorous and long-drawn 
cries1 raised by  a number of strong    
voices in concert1 must have had a      

striking effect1 and  could hardly fail 
to arrest the attention of any wayfarer 
who happened to  be within hearing4 ,the
 sounds1 repeated again and again1 could
 probably be  distinguished with        
tolerable ease even at a distance2 but  
to a ,greek  traveller in ,asia or      
,egypt the foreign words would commonly 
convey no  meaning1 and he might take   
them1 not unnaturally1 for the name of  
some one  7,maneros1 ,linus1 ,lityerses1
 ,bormus7 upon whom the reapers were    
calling4  ,and if his journey led him   
through more countries than one1 as     
,bithynia  and ,phrygia1 or ,phoenicia  
and ,egypt1 while the corn was being    
reaped1 he  would have an opportunity of
 comparing the various harvest cries of 
the  different peoples4 ,thus we can    
readily understand why these harvest    
cries  were so often noted and compared 
with each other by the ,greeks4         
,whereas1  if they had been regular     
songs1 they could not have been heard at
 such  distances1 and therefore could   

not have attracted the attention of so  
many  travellers2 and1 moreover1 even if
 the wayfarer were within hearing of    
them1 he could not so easily have picked
 out the words4    7,m#bbd7 ,down to    
recent times ,devonshire reapers uttered
 cries of the same  sort1 and performed 
on the field a ceremony exactly         
analogous to that in  which1 if ,i am   
not mistaken1 the rites of ,osiris      
originated4 ,the cry and  the ceremony  
are thus described by an observer who   
wrote in the first half  of the         
nineteenth century4 8,after the wheat is
 all cut1 on most farms in  the north of
 ,devon1 the harvest people have a      
custom of #8crying the neck4'  ,i       
believe that this practice is seldom    
omitted on any large farm in that  part 
of the country4 ,it is done in this way4
 ,an old man1 or some one else  well    
acquainted with the ceremonies used on  
the occasion 7when the  labourers are   
reaping the last field of wheat71 goes  
round to the shocks  and sheaves1 and   

picks out a little bundle of all the    
best ears he can  find2 this bundle he  
ties up very neat and trim1 and plats   
and arranges  the straws very           
tastefully4 ,this is called #8the neck' 
of wheat1 or  wheaten-ears4 ,after the  
field is cut out1 and the pitcher once  
more  circulated1 the reapers1 binders1 
and the women stand round in a circle4  
,the person with #8the neck' stands in  
the centre1 grasping it with both his   
hands4 ,he first stoops and holds it    
near the ground1 and all the men        
forming the ring take off their hats1   
stooping and holding them with both     
hands towards the ground4 ,they then all
 begin at once in a very prolonged  and 
harmonious tone to cry #8,the neck6' at 
the same time slowly raising  themselves
 upright1 and elevating their arms and  
hats above their heads2  the person with
 #8the neck' also raising it on high4   
,this is done three  times4 ,they then  
change their cry to #8,wee yen6'--#8,way
 yen6'--which they  sound in the same   

prolonged and slow manner as before1    
with singular  harmony and effect1 three
 times4 ,this last cry is accompanied by
 the same  movements of the body and    
arms as in crying #8the neck4'444 ,after
 having  thus repeated #8the neck' three
 times1 and #8wee yen1' or #8way yen' as
  often1 they all burst out into a kind 
of loud and joyous laugh1 flinging  up  
their hats and caps into the air1       
capering about and perhaps kissing  the 
girls4 ,one of them then gets 'the neck'
 and runs as hard as he can  down to the
 farmhouse1 where the dairymaid1 or one 
of the young female  domestics1 stands  
at the door prepared with a pail of     
water4 ,if he who  holds #8the neck' can
 manage to get into the house1 in any   
way unseen1 or  openly1 by any other way
 than the door at which the girl stands 
with the  pail of water1 then he may    
lawfully kiss her2 but1 if otherwise1 he
 is  regularly soused with the contents 
of the bucket4 ,on a fine still autumn  
evening the #8crying of the neck' has a 

wonderful effect at a distance1 far     
finer than that of the ,turkish muezzin1
 which ,lord ,byron eulogises so  much1 
and which he says is preferable to all  
the bells in ,christendom4 ,i  have once
 or twice heard upwards of twenty men   
cry it1 and sometimes  joined by an     
equal number of female voices4 ,about   
three years back1 on  some high grounds1
 where our people were harvesting1 ,i   
heard six or seven  #8necks' cried in   
one night1 although ,i know that some of
 them were four  miles off4 ,they are   
heard through the quiet evening air at a
 considerable  distance                 
sometimes407#hag7 ,again1 ,mrs4 ,bray   
tells how1 travelling in  ,devonshire1  
8she saw a party of reapers standing in 
a circle on a rising  ground1 holding   
their sickles aloft4 ,one in the middle 
held up some ears  of corn tied together
 with flowers1 and the party shouted    
three times  7what she writes as7       
#8,arnack1 arnack1 arnack1 we haven1 we 
haven1 we  haven4' ,they went home1     

accompanied by women and children       
carrying  boughs of flowers1 shouting   
and singing4 ,the manservant who        
attended ,mrs4  ,bray said #8it was only
 the people making their games1 as they 
always did1  to the spirit of harvest4' 
07#hah7 ,here1 as ,miss ,burne remarks1 
8 #8arnack1 we haven6' is obviously in  
the ,devon dialect1 #8a neck 7or  nack76
 we have un6' 0 8,the neck0 is generally
 hung up in the farmhouse1  where it    
sometimes remains for two or three      
years47#hai7 ,a similar custom  is still
 observed in some parts of ,cornwall1 as
 ,i was told by my lamented  friend ,j4 
,h4 ,middleton4 8,the last sheaf is     
decked with ribbons4 ,two  strong-voiced
 men are chosen and placed 7one with the
 sheaf7 on opposite  sides of a valley4 
,one shouts1 #8,i've gotten it4' ,the   
other shouts1 #8,what  hast gotten8'    
,the first answers1 #8,i'se gotten the  
neck4' 07#hbj7    7,m#bbe7 ,another     
account of this old custom1 written at  
,truro in #ahci1 runs  thus3 8,now1 when

 all the corn was cut at ,heligan1 the  
farming men and  maidens come in front  
of the house1 and bring with them a     
small sheaf of  corn1 the last that has 
been cut1 and this is adorned with      
ribbons and  flowers1 and one part is   
tied quite tight1 so as to look like a  
neck4 ,then  they cry out #8,our 7my7   
side1 my side1' as loud as they can2    
then the  dairymaid gives the neck to   
the head farming-man4 ,he takes it1 and 
says1  very loudly three times1 #8,i    
have him1 ,i have him1 ,i have him4'    
,then  another farming-man shouts very  
loudly1 #8,what have ye8 what have ye8  
what  have ye8' ,then the first says1   
#8,a neck1 a neck1 a neck4' ,and when he
 has  said this1 all the people make a  
very great shouting4 ,this they do three
  times1 and after one famous shout go  
away and eat supper1 and dance1 and     
sing songs407#hba7 ,according to another
 account1 8all went out to the field    
when the last corn was cut1 the #8neck' 
was tied with ribbons and plaited1  and 

they danced round it1 and carried it to 
the great kitchen1 where  by-and-by the 
supper was4 ,the words were as given in 
the previous account1  and #8,hip1 hip1 
hack1 heck1 ,i have 'ee1 ,i have 'ee1 ,i
 have 'ee4' ,it was  hung up in the     
hall40 ,another account relates that one
 of the men rushed  from the field with 
the last sheaf1 while the rest pursued  
him with  vessels of water1 which they  
tried to throw over the sheaf before it 
could  be brought into the barn47#hbb7  
7,m#bbf7 ,similar customs appear to have
 been formerly observed in              
,pembrokeshire1 as appears from the     
following account1 in which1 however1   
nothing is said of the sonorous cries   
raised by the reapers when their  work  
was done3 8,at harvest-time1 in ,south  
,pembrokeshire1 the last ears of  corn  
left standing in the field were tied    
together1 and the harvesters  then tried
 to cut this neck by throwing their     
hatchets at it4 ,what  happened         
afterwards appears to have varied       

somewhat4 ,i have been told by  one old 
man that the one who got possession of  
the neck would carry it  over into some 
neighbouring field1 leave it there1 and 
take to his heels  as fast as he could2 
for1 if caught1 he had a rough time of  
it4 ,the men  who caught him would shut 
him up in a barn without food1 or       
belabour him  soundly1 or perhaps shoe  
him1 as it was called1 beating the soles
 of his  feet with rods--a very severe  
and much-dreaded punishment4 ,on my     
grandfather's farm the man used to make 
for the house as fast as possible1  and 
try to carry in the neck4 ,the maids    
were on the look-out for him1 and  did  
their best to drench him with water4 ,if
 they succeeded1 they got the  present  
of half-a-crown1 which my grandfather   
always gave1 and which was  considered a
 very liberal present indeed4 ,if the   
man was successful in  dodging the      
maids1 and getting the neck into the    
house without receiving  the wetting1   
the half-crown became his4 ,the neck was

 then hung up1 and  kept until the      
following year1 at any rate1 like the   
bunches of flowers or  boughs gathered  
at the ,st4 ,jean1 in the south of      
,france4 ,sometimes the  necks of many  
successive years were to be found       
hanging up together4 ,in  these two ways
 of disposing of the neck one sees the  
embodiment1 no doubt1  of the two ways  
of looking at the corn-spirit1 as good  
7to be kept7 or as  bad 7to be passed on
 to the neighbour7407#hbc7    7,m#bbg7  
,in the foregoing customs a particular  
bunch of ears1 generally the  last left 
standing17#hbd7 is conceived as the neck
 of the corn-spirit1 who  is            
consequently beheaded when the bunch is 
cut down4 ,similarly in  ,shropshire the
 name 8neck10 or 8the gander's neck10   
used to be commonly  given to the last  
handful of ears left standing in the    
middle of the field  when all the rest  
of the corn was cut4 ,it was plaited    
together1 and the  reapers1 standing ten
 or twenty paces off1 threw their       

sickles at it4  ,whoever cut it through 
was said to have cut off the gander's   
neck4 ,the  8neck0 was taken to the     
farmer's wife1 who was supposed to keep 
it in the  house for good luck till the 
next harvest came round47#hbe7 ,near    
,trves1  the man who reaps the last     
standing corn 8cuts the goat's neck     
off407#hbf7  ,at ,faslane1 on the       
,gareloch 7,dumbartonshire71 the last   
handful of standing  corn was sometimes 
called the 8head407#hbg7 ,at ,aurich1 in
 ,east ,friesland1  the man who reaps   
the last corn 8cuts the hare's tail     
off407#hbh7 ,in mowing  down the last   
corner of a field ,french reapers       
sometimes call out1 8,we  have the cat  
by the tail407#hbi7 ,in ,bresse         
7,bourgogne7 the last sheaf  represented
 the fox4 ,beside it a score of ears    
were left standing to form  the tail1   
and each reaper1 going back some paces1 
threw his sickle at it4  ,he who        
succeeded in severing it 8cut off the   
fox's tail10 and a cry of  8,you cou    

cou60 was raised in his honour47#hcj7   
,these examples leave no  room to doubt 
the meaning of the ,devonshire and      
,cornish expression 8the  neck10 as     
applied to the last sheaf4 ,the         
corn-spirit is conceived in human  or   
animal form1 and the last standing corn 
is part of its body--its neck1  its     
head1 or its tail4 ,sometimes1 as we    
have seen1 the last corn is  regarded as
 the navel-string47#hca7 ,lastly1 the   
,devonshire custom of  drenching with   
water the person who brings in 8the     
neck0 is a rain-charm1  such as we have 
had many examples of4 ,its parallel in  
the mysteries of  ,osiris was the custom
 of pouring water on the image of       
,osiris or on the  person who           
represented him4    7,m#bbh7 ,in        
,germany cries of ,waul6 or ,wol6 or    
,wld6 are sometimes  raised by the      
reapers at cutting the last corn4 ,thus 
in some places the  last patch of       
standing rye was called the ,waul-rye2 a
 stick decked with  flowers was inserted

 in it1 and the ears were fastened to   
the stick4 ,then  all the reapers took  
off their hats and cried thrice1 8,waul6
 ,waul6  ,waul60 ,sometimes they        
accompanied the cry by clashing with    
their  whetstones on their              
scythes47#hcb7            ,,chapter     
,,viii4 ,,the ,,corn-,,spirit ,,as ,,an 
,,animal4           #a4 ,animal         
,embodiments of the ,corn-spirit4       
7,m#bbi7 ,in some of the examples which 
,i have cited to establish the meaning  
of the term 8neck0 as applied to the    
last sheaf1 the corn-spirit appears  in 
animal form as a gander1 a goat1 a hare1
 a cat1 and a fox4 ,this  introduces us 
to a new aspect of the corn-spirit1     
which we must now  examine4 ,by doing so
 we shall not only have fresh examples  
of killing the  god1 but may hope also  
to clear up some points which remain    
obscure in the  myths and worship of    
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,dionysus1    
,demeter1 and  ,virbius4    7,m#bcj7    
,amongst the many animals whose forms   

the corn-spirit is supposed to  take are
 the wolf1 dog1 hare1 fox1 cock1 goose1 
quail1 cat1 goat1 cow 7ox1  bull71 pig1 
and horse4 ,in one or other of these    
shapes the corn-spirit is  often        
believed to be present in the corn1 and 
to be caught or killed in  the last     
sheaf4 ,as the corn is being cut the    
animal flees before the  reapers1 and if
 a reaper is taken ill on the field1 he 
is supposed to have  stumbled           
unwittingly on the corn-spirit1 who has 
thus punished the profane  intruder4 ,it
 is said 8the ,rye-wolf has got hold of 
him10 8the ,harvest-goat  has given him 
a push40 ,the person who cuts the last  
corn or binds the last  sheaf gets the  
name of the animal1 as the ,rye-wolf1   
the ,rye-sow1 the  ,oats-goat1 and so   
forth1 and retains the name sometimes   
for a year4 ,also  the animal is        
frequently represented by a puppet made 
out of the last  sheaf or of wood1      
flowers1 and so on1 which is carried    
home amid  rejoicings on the last       

harvest-waggon4 ,even where the last    
sheaf is not  made up in animal shape1  
it is often called the ,rye-wolf1 the   
,hare1 ,goat1  and so forth4 ,generally 
each kind of crop is supposed to have   
its special  animal1 which is caught in 
the last sheaf1 and called the          
,rye-wolf1 the  ,barley-wolf1 the       
,oats-wolf1 the ,pea-wolf1 or the       
,potato-wolf1 according to  the crop2   
but sometimes the figure of the animal  
is only made up once for  all at getting
 in the last crop of the whole harvest4 
,sometimes the  creature is believed to 
be killed by the last stroke of the     
sickle or  scythe4 ,but oftener it is   
thought to live so long as there is corn
 still  unthreshed1 and to be caught in 
the last sheaf threshed4 ,hence the man 
who  gives the last stroke with the     
flail is told that he has got the       
,corn-sow1  the ,threshing-dog1 or the  
like4 ,when the threshing is finished1 a
 puppet  is made in the form of the     
animal1 and this is carried by the      

thresher of  the last sheaf to a        
neighbouring farm1 where the threshing  
is still going  on4 ,this again shews   
that the corn-spirit is believed to live
 wherever the  corn is still being      
threshed4 ,sometimes the thresher of the
 last sheaf  himself represents the     
animal2 and if the people of the next   
farm1 who are  still threshing1 catch   
him1 they treat him like the animal he  
represents1  by shutting him up in the  
pig-sty1 calling him with the cries     
commonly  addressed to pigs1 and so     
forth47#hcc7 ,these general statements  
will now be  illustrated by examples4   
#b4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,wolf or a   
,dog4      7,m#bca7 ,we begin with the  
corn-spirit conceived as a wolf or a    
dog4 ,this  conception is common in     
,france1 ,germany1 and ,slavonic        
countries4 ,thus1  when the wind sets   
the corn in wave-like motion the        
peasants often say1  8,the ,wolf is     
going over1 or through1 the corn10 8the 
,rye-wolf is rushing  over the field10  

8the ,wolf is in the corn10 8the mad    
,dog is in the corn10  8the big ,dog is 
there407#hcd7 ,when children wish to go 
into the corn-fields  to pluck ears or  
gather the blue corn-flowers1 they are  
warned not to do  so1 for 8the big ,dog 
sits in the corn10 or 8the ,wolf sits in
 the corn1 and  will tear you in        
pieces10 8the ,wolf will eat you40 ,the 
wolf against whom  the children are     
warned is not a common wolf1 for he is  
often spoken of as  the ,corn-wolf1     
,rye-wolf1 or the like2 thus they say1  
8,the ,rye-wolf will  come and eat you  
up1 children10 8the ,rye-wolf will carry
 you off10 and so  forth47#hce7 ,still  
he has all the outward appearance of a  
wolf4 ,for in the  neighbourhood of     
,feilenhof 7,east ,prussia71 when a wolf
 was seen running  through a field1 the 
peasants used to watch whether he       
carried his tail in  the air or dragged 
it on the ground4 ,if he dragged it on  
the ground1 they  went after him1 and   
thanked him for bringing them a         

blessing1 and even set  tit-bits before 
him4 ,but if he carried his tail high1  
they cursed him and  tried to kill him4 
,here the wolf is the corn-spirit whose 
fertilising  power is in his tail47#hcf7
    7,m#bcb7 ,both dog and wolf appear  
as embodiments of the corn-spirit in    
harvest-customs4 ,thus in some parts of 
,silesia the person who cuts or  binds  
the last sheaf is called the ,wheat-dog 
or the ,peas-pug47#hcg7 ,but it  is in  
the harvest-customs of the north-east of
 ,france that the idea of the  ,corn-dog
 comes out most clearly4 ,thus when a   
harvester1 through sickness1  weariness1
 or laziness1 cannot or will not keep up
 with the reaper in  front of him1 they 
say1 8,the ,white ,dog passed near him10
 8he has the ,white  ,bitch10 or 8the   
,white ,bitch has bitten him407#hch7 ,in
 the ,vosges the  ,harvest-,may is      
called the 8,dog of the harvest107#hci7 
and the person who  cuts the last       
handful of hay or wheat is said to 8kill
 the ,dog407#hdj7  ,about               

,lons-le-,saulnier1 in the ,jura1 the   
last sheaf is called the ,bitch4  ,in   
the neighbourhood of ,verdun the regular
 expression for finishing the  reaping  
is1 8,they are going to kill the ,dog02 
and at ,epinal they say1  according to  
the crop1 8,we will kill the ,wheat-dog1
 or the ,rye-dog1 or the                
,potato-dog407#hda7 ,in ,lorraine it is 
said of the man who cuts the last  corn1
 8,he is killing the ,dog of the        
harvest407#hdb7 ,at ,dux1 in the ,tyrol1
  the man who gives the last stroke at  
threshing is said to 8strike down the   
,dog027#hdc7 and at ,ahnebergen1 near   
,stade1 he is called1 according to the  
crop1 ,corn-pug1 ,rye-pug1              
,wheat-pug47#hdd7    7,m#bcc7 ,so with  
the wolf4 ,in ,silesia1 when the reapers
 gather round the  last patch of        
standing corn to reap it they are said  
to be about 8to catch  the ,wolf407#hde7
 ,in various parts of ,mecklenburg1     
where the belief in the  ,corn-wolf is  
particularly prevalent1 every one fears 

to cut the last corn1  because they say 
that the ,wolf is sitting in it2 hence  
every reaper exerts  himself to the     
utmost in order not to be the last1 and 
every woman  similarly fears to bind the
 last sheaf because 8the ,wolf is in    
it40 ,so  both among the reapers and the
 binders there is a competition not to  
be  the last to finish47#hdf7 ,and in   
,germany generally it appears to be a   
common saying that 8the ,wolf sits in   
the last sheaf407#hdg7 ,in some places  
they call out to the reaper1 8,beware of
 the ,wolf02 or they say1 8,he is       
chasing the ,wolf out of the            
corn407#hdh7 ,in ,mecklenburg the last  
bunch of  standing corn is itself       
commonly called the ,wolf1 and the man  
who reaps it  8has the ,wolf10 the      
animal being described as the ,rye-wolf1
 the  ,wheat-wolf1 the ,barley-wolf1 and
 so on according to the particular crop4
  ,the reaper of the last corn is       
himself called ,wolf or the ,rye-wolf1  
if the  crop is rye1 and in many parts  

of ,mecklenburg he has to support the   
character by pretending to bite the     
other harvesters or by howling like a   
wolf47#hdi7 ,the last sheaf of corn is  
also called the ,wolf or the ,rye-wolf  
or the ,oats-wolf according to the crop1
 and of the woman who binds it they     
say1 8,the ,wolf is biting her10 8,she  
has the ,wolf10 8,she must fetch the    
,wolf0 7out of the corn74 ,moreover1 she
 herself is called ,wolf2 they cry  out 
to her1 8,thou art the ,wolf10 and she  
has to bear the name for a whole  year2 
sometimes1 according to the crop1 she is
 called the ,rye-wolf or the            
,potato-wolf47#hej7 ,in the island of   
,rgen not only is the woman who binds   
the last sheaf called ,wolf1 but when   
she comes home she bites the lady of    
the house and the stewardess1 for which 
she receives a large piece of  meat4    
,yet nobody likes to be the ,wolf4 ,the 
same woman may be ,rye-wolf1            
,wheat-wolf1 and ,oats-wolf1 if she     
happens to bind the last sheaf of rye1  

wheat1 and oats47#hea7 ,at ,buir1 in the
 district of ,cologne1 it was formerly  
the custom to give to the last sheaf the
 shape of a wolf4 ,it was kept in  the  
barn till all the corn was threshed4    
,then it was brought to the farmer  and 
he had to sprinkle it with beer or      
brandy47#heb7 ,at ,brunshaupten in      
,mecklenburg the young woman who bound  
the last sheaf of wheat used to take  a 
handful of stalks out of it and make    
8the ,wheat-wolf0 with them2 it was  the
 figure of a wolf about two feet long   
and half a foot high1 the legs of  the  
animal being represented by stiff stalks
 and its tail and mane by  wheat-ears4  
,this ,wheat-wolf she carried back at   
the head of the harvesters  to the      
village1 where it was set up on a high  
place in the parlour of the  farm and   
remained there for a long time47#hec7   
,in many places the sheaf  called the   
,wolf is made up in human form and      
dressed in clothes4 ,this  indicates a  
confusion of ideas between the          

corn-spirit conceived in human  and in  
animal form4 ,generally the ,wolf is    
brought home on the last waggon  with   
joyful cries4 ,hence the last           
waggon-load itself receives the name of 
the ,wolf47#hed7    7,m#bcd7 ,again1 the
 ,wolf is supposed to hide himself      
amongst the cut corn in  the granary1   
until he is driven out of the last      
bundle by the strokes of  the flail4    
,hence at ,wanzleben1 near ,magdeburg1  
after the threshing the  peasants go in 
procession1 leading by a chain a man who
 is enveloped in  the threshed-out straw
 and is called the ,wolf47#hee7 ,he     
represents the  corn-spirit who has been
 caught escaping from the threshed corn4
 ,in the  district of ,treves it is     
believed that the ,corn-wolf is killed  
at  threshing4 ,the men thresh the last 
sheaf till it is reduced to chopped     
straw4 ,in this way they think that the 
,corn-wolf1 who was lurking in the  last
 sheaf1 has been certainly killed47#hef7
    7,m#bce7 ,in ,france also the       

,corn-wolf appears at harvest4 ,thus    
they call out  to the reaper of the last
 corn1 8,you will catch the ,wolf40     
,near ,chambry  they form a ring round  
the last standing corn1 and cry1 8,the  
,wolf is in  there40 ,in ,finisterre1   
when the reaping draws near an end1 the 
harvesters  cry1 8,there is the ,wolf2  
we will catch him40 ,each takes a swath 
to reap1  and he who finishes first     
calls out1 8,i've caught the            
,wolf407#heg7 ,in  ,guyenne1 when the   
last corn has been reaped1 they lead a  
wether all round  the field4 ,it is     
called 8the ,wolf of the field40 ,its   
horns are decked with  a wreath of      
flowers and corn-ears1 and its neck and 
body are also  encircled with garlands  
and ribbons4 ,all the reapers march1    
singing1  behind it4 ,then it is killed 
on the field4 ,in this part of ,france  
the last  sheaf is called the           
coujoulage1 which1 in the patois1 means 
a wether4  ,hence the killing of the    
wether represents the death of the      

corn-spirit1  considered as present in  
the last sheaf2 but two different       
conceptions of  the corn-spirit--as a   
wolf and as a wether--are mixed up      
together47#heh7    7,m#bcf7 ,sometimes  
it appears to be thought that the ,wolf1
 caught in the  last corn1 lives during 
the winter in the farmhouse1 ready to   
renew his  activity as corn-spirit in   
the spring4 ,hence at midwinter1 when   
the  lengthening days begin to herald   
the approach of spring1 the ,wolf makes 
his appearance once more4 ,in ,poland a 
man1 with a wolf's skin thrown over  his
 head1 is led about at ,christmas2 or a 
stuffed wolf is carried about by        
persons who collect money47#hei7 ,there 
are facts which point to an old  custom 
of leading about a man enveloped in     
leaves and called the ,wolf1  while his 
conductors collected money47#hfj7       
#c4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,cock4       
7,m#bcg7 ,another form which the        
corn-spirit often assumes is that of a  
cock4  ,in ,austria children are warned 

against straying in the corn-fields1    
because the ,corn-cock sits there1 and  
will peck their eyes out47#hfa7 ,in     
,north ,germany they say that 8the ,cock
 sits in the last sheaf02 and at        
cutting the last corn the reapers cry1  
8,now we will chase out the ,cock40     
,when it is cut they say1 8,we have     
caught the ,cock407#hfb7 ,at ,braller1  
in  ,transylvania1 when the reapers come
 to the last patch of corn1 they cry1   
8,here we shall catch the ,cock407#hfc7 
,at ,frstenwalde1 when the last sheaf   
is about to be bound1 the master        
releases a cock1 which he has brought in
  a basket1 and lets it run over the    
field4 ,all the harvesters chase it till
  they catch it4 ,elsewhere the         
harvesters all try to seize the last    
corn  cut2 he who succeeds in grasping  
it must crow1 and is called ,cock47#hfd7
  ,among the ,wends it is or used to be 
customary for the farmer to hide a  live
 cock under the last sheaf as it lay on 
the field2 and when the corn  was being 

gathered up1 the harvester who lighted  
upon this sheaf had a  right to keep the
 cock1 provided he could catch it4 ,this
 formed the close  of the               
harvest-festival and was known as 8the  
,cock-catching10 and the beer  which was
 served out to the reapers at this time 
went by the name of  8,cock-beer407#hfe7
 ,the last sheaf is called ,cock1       
,cock-sheaf1 ,harvest-cock1             
,harvest-hen1 ,autumn-hen4 ,a           
distinction is made between a           
,wheat-cock1  ,bean-cock1 and so on1    
according to the crop47#hff7 ,at        
,wnschensuhl1 in  ,thringen1 the last   
sheaf is made into the shape of a cock1 
and called the  ,harvest-cock47#hfg7 ,a 
figure of a cock1 made of wood1         
pasteboard1 ears of  corn1 or flowers1  
is borne in front of the harvest-waggon1
 especially in  ,westphalia1 where the  
cock carries in his beak fruits of the  
earth of all  kinds4 ,sometimes the     
image of the cock is fastened to the top
 of a  ,may-tree on the last            

harvest-waggon4 ,elsewhere a live cock1 
or a figure of  one1 is attached to a   
harvest-crown and carried on a pole4 ,in
 ,galicia and  elsewhere this live cock 
is fastened to the garland of corn-ears 
or  flowers1 which the leader of the    
women-reapers carries on her head as she
  marches in front of the harvest       
procession47#hfh7 ,in ,silesia a live   
cock is  presented to the master on a   
plate4 ,the harvest-supper is called    
,harvest-cock1 ,stubble-cock1 etc41 and 
a chief dish at it1 at least in some    
places1 is a cock47#hfi7 ,if a waggoner 
upsets a harvest-waggon1 it is said     
that 8he has spilt the ,harvest cock10  
and he loses the cock1 that is1 the     
harvest-supper47#hgj7 ,the              
harvest-waggon1 with the figure of the  
cock on  it1 is driven round the        
farmhouse before it is taken to the     
barn4 ,then the  cock is nailed over or 
at the side of the house-door1 or on the
 gable1 and  remains there till next    
harvest47#hga7 ,in ,east ,friesland the 

person who  gives the last stroke at    
threshing is called the ,clucking-hen1  
and grain  is strewed before him as if  
he were a hen47#hgb7    7,m#bch7 ,again1
 the corn-spirit is killed in the form  
of a cock4 ,in parts of  ,germany1      
,hungary1 ,poland1 and ,picardy the     
reapers place a live cock in the  corn  
which is to be cut last1 and chase it   
over the field1 or bury it up  to the   
neck in the ground2 afterwards they     
strike off its head with a  sickle or   
scythe47#hgc7 ,in many parts of         
,westphalia1 when the harvesters  bring 
the wooden cock to the farmer1 he gives 
them a live cock1 which they  kill with 
whips or sticks1 or behead with an old  
sword1 or throw into the  barn to the   
girls1 or give to the mistress to cook4 
,if the harvest-cock  has not been      
spilt--that is1 if no waggon has been   
upset--the harvesters  have the right to
 kill the farmyard cock by throwing     
stones at it or  beheading it4 ,where   
this custom has fallen into disuse1 it  

is still common  for the farmer's wife  
to make cockie-leekie for the           
harvesters1 and to  shew them the head  
of the cock which has been killed for   
the soup47#hgd7 ,in  the neighbourhood  
of ,klausenburg1 ,transylvania1 a cock  
is buried on the  harvest-field in the  
earth1 so that only its head appears4 ,a
 young man  then takes a scythe and cuts
 off the cock's head at a single sweep4 
,if he  fails to do this1 he is called  
the ,red ,cock for a whole year1 and    
people  fear that next year's crop will 
be bad47#hge7 ,near ,udvarhely1 in      
,transylvania1 a live cock is bound up  
in the last sheaf and killed with a     
spit4 ,it is then skinned4 ,the flesh is
 thrown away1 but the skin and  feathers
 are kept till next year2 and in spring 
the grain from the last  sheaf is mixed 
with the feathers of the cock and       
scattered on the field  which is to be  
tilled47#hgf7 ,nothing could set in a   
clearer light the  identification of the
 cock with the spirit of the corn4 ,by  

being tied up  in the last sheaf and    
killed1 the cock is identified with the 
corn1 and  its death with the cutting of
 the corn4 ,by keeping its feathers till
  spring1 then mixing them with the     
seed-corn taken from the very sheaf in  
which the bird had been bound1 and      
scattering the feathers together with   
the seed over the field1 the identity of
 the bird with the corn is again        
emphasised1 and its quickening and      
fertilising power1 as an embodiment of  
the corn-spirit1 is intimated in the    
plainest manner4 ,thus the  corn-spirit1
 in the form of a cock1 is killed at    
harvest1 but rises to  fresh life and   
activity in spring4 ,again1 the         
equivalence of the cock to  the corn is 
expressed1 hardly less plainly1 in the  
custom of burying the  bird in the      
ground1 and cutting off its head 7like  
the ears of corn7 with  the scythe4     
#d4 ,the ,corn-spirit as a ,hare4       
7,m#bci7 ,another common embodiment of  
the corn-spirit is the hare47#hgg7 ,in  

,galloway the reaping of the last       
standing corn is called 8cutting the    
,hare40 ,the mode of cutting it is as   
follows4 ,when the rest of the corn has 
been reaped1 a handful is left standing 
to form the ,hare4 ,it is divided  into 
three parts and plaited1 and the ears   
are tied in a knot4 ,the reapers  then  
retire a few yards and each throws his  
or her sickle in turn at the  ,hare to  
cut it down4 ,it must be cut below the  
knot1 and the reapers  continue to throw
 their sickles at it1 one after the     
other1 until one of  them succeeds in   
severing the stalks below the knot4 ,the
 ,hare is then  carried home and given  
to a maidservant in the kitchen1 who    
places it over  the kitchen-door on the 
inside4 ,sometimes the ,hare used to be 
thus kept  till the next harvest4 ,in   
the parish of ,minnigaff1 when the ,hare
 was cut1  the unmarried reapers ran    
home with all speed1 and the one who    
arrived  first was the first to be      
married47#hgh7 ,in ,southern ,ayrshire  

the last corn  cut is also called the   
,hare1 and the mode of cutting it seems 
to be the  same as in ,galloway2 at     
least in the neighbourhood of           
,kilmarnock the last  corn left standing
 in the middle of the field is plaited1 
and the reapers  used to try to cut it  
by throwing their sickles at it4 ,when  
cut1 it was  carried home and hung up   
over the door47#hgi7 ,in the ,vosges    
,mountains the  person who cuts the last
 handful of hay or wheat is sometimes   
said to have  caught the ,hare2 he is   
congratulated by his comrades and has   
the honour of  carrying the nosegay or  
the small fir-tree decorated with       
ribbons which  marks the conclusion of  
the harvest47#hhj7 ,in ,germany also one
 of the names  for the last sheaf is the
 ,hare47#hha7 ,thus in some parts of    
,anhalt1 when  the corn has been reaped 
and only a few stalks are left standing1
 they  say1 8,the ,hare will soon come10
 or the reapers cry to each other1      
8,look  how the ,hare comes jumping     

out407#hhb7 ,in ,east ,prussia they say 
that the  ,hare sits in the last patch  
of standing corn1 and must be chased out
 by  the last reaper4 ,the reapers hurry
 with their work1 each being anxious not
  to have 8to chase out the ,hare02 for 
the man who does so1 that is1 who  cuts 
the last corn1 is much laughed at47#hhc7
 ,at ,birk1 in ,transylvania1  when the 
reapers come to the last patch1 they cry
 out1 8,we have the  ,hare407#hhd7 ,at  
,aurich1 as we have seen17#hhe7 an      
expression for cutting the  last corn is
 8to cut off the ,hare's tail40 8,he is 
killing the ,hare0 is  commonly said of 
the man who cuts the last corn in       
,germany1 ,sweden1  ,holland1 ,france1  
and ,italy47#hhf7 ,in ,norway the man   
who is thus said to  8kill the ,hare0   
must give 8hare's blood0 in the form of 
brandy1 to his  fellows to drink47#hhg7 
,in ,lesbos1 when the reapers are at    
work in two  neighbouring fields1 each  
party tries to finish first in order to 
drive  the ,hare into their neighbour's 

field2 the reapers who succeed in doing 
so  believe that next year the crop will
 be better4 ,a small sheaf of corn is   
made up and kept beside the holy picture
 till next harvest47#hhh7           #e4 
,the ,corn-spirit as a ,cat4            
7,m#bdj7 ,again1 the corn-spirit        
sometimes takes the form of a cat4 ,near
 ,kiel  children are warned not to go   
into the corn-fields because 8the ,cat  
sits  there40 ,in the ,eisenach         
,oberland they are told 8the ,corn-cat  
will come and  fetch you10 8the         
,corn-cat goes in the corn40 ,in some   
parts of ,silesia at  mowing the last   
corn they say1 8,the ,cat is caught02   
and at threshing1 the  man who gives the
 last stroke is called the ,cat4 ,in the
 neighbourhood of  ,lyons the last sheaf
 and the harvest-supper are both called 
the ,cat4 ,about  ,vesoul when they cut 
the last corn they say1 8,we have the   
,cat by the  tail40 ,at ,brianon1 in    
,dauphin1 at the beginning of reaping a 
cat is  decked out with ribbons1        

flowers1 and ears of corn4 ,it is called
 the ,cat  of the ball-skin 7le chat de 
peau de balle74 ,if a reaper is wounded 
at  his work1 they make the cat lick the
 wound4 ,at the close of the reaping    
the cat is again decked out with ribbons
 and ears of corn2 then they dance  and 
make merry4 ,when the dance is over the 
girls solemnly strip the cat of  its    
finery4 ,at ,grneberg1 in ,silesia1 the 
reaper who cuts the last corn  goes by  
the name of the ,tom-cat4 ,he is        
enveloped in rye-stalks and green       
withes1 and is furnished with a long    
plaited tail4 ,sometimes as a  companion
 he has a man similarly dressed1 who is 
called the 7female7 ,cat4  ,their duty  
is to run after people whom they see and
 to beat them with a  long stick4 ,near 
,amiens the expression for finishing the
 harvest is1 8,they  are going to kill  
the ,cat02 and when the last corn is cut
 they kill a cat  in the farmyard4 ,at  
threshing1 in some parts of ,france1 a  
live cat is  placed under the last      

bundle of corn to be threshed1 and is   
struck dead  with the flails4 ,then on  
,sunday it is roasted and eaten as a    
holiday  dish47#hhi7 ,in the ,vosges    
,mountains the close of haymaking or    
harvest is  called 8catching the cat10  
8killing the dog10 or more rarely       
8catching the  hare40 ,the cat1 the dog1
 or the hare is said to be fat or lean  
according  as the crop is good or bad4  
,the man who cuts the last handful of   
hay or of  wheat is said to catch the   
cat or the hare or to kill the dog4 ,he 
is  congratulated by his comrades and   
has the honour of carrying the nosegay  
or rather the small fir-tree decked with
 ribbons which marks the end of  the    
haymaking or of the harvest47#hij7 ,in  
,franche-,comt also the close of        
harvest is called 8catching or killing  
the cat407#hia7           #f4 ,the      
,corn-spirit as a ,goat4      7,m#bda7  
,further1 the corn-spirit often appears 
in the form of a goat4 ,in  some parts  
of ,prussia1 when the corn bends before 

the wind1 they say1 8,the  ,goats are   
chasing each other10 8the wind is       
driving the ,goats through the  corn10  
8the ,goats are browsing there10 and    
they expect a very good  harvest4 ,again
 they say1 8,the ,oats-goat is sitting  
in the oats-field10  8the ,corn-goat is 
sitting in the rye-field407#hib7        
,children are warned not  to go into the
 corn-fields to pluck the blue          
corn-flowers1 or amongst the  beans to  
pluck pods1 because the ,rye-goat1 the  
,corn-goat1 the ,oats-goat1  or the     
,bean-goat is sitting or lying there1   
and will carry them away or  kill       
them47#hic7 ,when a harvester is taken  
sick or lags behind his fellows  at     
their work1 they call out1 8,the        
,harvest-goat has pushed him10 8he has  
been pushed by the ,corn-goat407#hid7   
,in the neighbourhood of ,braunsberg    
7,east ,prussia7 at binding the oats    
every harvester makes haste 8lest the   
,corn-goat push him40 ,at ,oefoten1 in  
,norway1 each reaper has his allotted   

patch to reap4 ,when a reaper in the    
middle has not finished reaping his     
piece after his neighbours have finished
 theirs1 they say of him1 8,he  remains 
on the island40 ,and if the laggard is a
 man1 they imitate the cry  with which  
they call a he-goat2 if a woman1 the cry
 with which they call a  she-goat47#hie7
 ,near ,straubing1 in ,lower ,bavaria1  
it is said of the man who  cuts the last
 corn that 8he has the ,corn-goat1 or   
the ,wheat-goat1 or the  ,oats-goat10   
according to the crop4 ,moreover1 two   
horns are set up on the  last heap of   
corn1 and it is called 8the horned      
,goat40 ,at ,kreutzburg1 ,east          
,prussia1 they call out to the woman who
 is binding the last sheaf1 8,the  ,goat
 is sitting in the sheaf407#hif7 ,at    
,gablingen1 in ,swabia1 when the last   
field of oats upon a farm is being      
reaped1 the reapers carve a goat out of 
wood4 ,ears of oats are inserted in its 
nostrils and mouth1 and it is  adorned  
with garlands of flowers4 ,it is set up 

on the field and called the  ,oats-goat4
 ,when the reaping approaches an end1   
each reaper hastens to  finish his piece
 first2 he who is the last to finish    
gets the  ,oats-goat47#hig7 ,again1 the 
last sheaf is itself called the ,goat4  
,thus1 in  the valley of the ,wiesent1  
,bavaria1 the last sheaf bound on the   
field is  called the ,goat1 and they    
have a proverb1 8,the field must bear a 
goat407#hih7 ,at ,spachbrcken1 in       
,hesse1 the last handful of corn which  
is  cut is called the ,goat1 and the man
 who cuts it is much ridiculed47#hii7   
,at  ,drrenbchig and about ,mosbach in  
,baden the last sheaf is also called the
  ,goat47#ijj7 ,sometimes the last sheaf
 is made up in the form of a goat1 and  
they say1 8,the ,goat is sitting in     
it407#ija7 ,again1 the person who cuts  
or  binds the last sheaf is called the  
,goat4 ,thus1 in parts of ,mecklenburg  
they call out to the woman who binds the
 last sheaf1 8,you are the              
,harvest-goat40 ,near ,uelzen1 in       

,hanover1 the harvest festival begins   
with  8the bringing of the              
,harvest-goat02 that is1 the woman who  
bound the last  sheaf is wrapt in straw1
 crowned with a harvest-wreath1 and     
brought in a  wheelbarrow to the        
village1 where a round dance takes      
place4 ,about  ,luneburg1 also1 the     
woman who binds the last corn is decked 
with a crown  of corn-ears and is called
 the ,corn-goat47#ijb7 ,at ,mnzesheim in
 ,baden the  reaper who cuts the last   
handful of corn or oats is called the   
,corn-goat  or the ,oats-goat47#ijc7 ,in
 the ,canton ,st4 ,gall1 ,switzerland1  
the person who  cuts the last handful of
 corn on the field1 or drives the last  
harvest-waggon to the barn1 is called   
the ,corn-goat or the ,rye-goat1 or     
simply the ,goat47#ijd7 ,in the ,canton 
,thurgau he is called ,corn-goat2 like a
  goat he has a bell hung round his     
neck1 is led in triumph1 and drenched   
with liquor4 ,in parts of ,styria1 also1
 the man who cuts the last corn is      

called ,corn-goat1 ,oats-goat1 or the   
like4 ,as a rule1 the man who thus gets 
the name of ,corn-goat has to bear it a 
whole year till the next  harvest47#ije7
    7,m#bdb7 ,according to one view1 the
 corn-spirit1 who has been caught in the
  form of a goat or otherwise1 lives in 
the farmhouse or barn over winter4      
,thus1 each farm has its own embodiment 
of the corn-spirit4 ,but1 according  to 
another view1 the corn-spirit is the    
genius or deity1 not of the corn  of one
 farm only1 but of all the corn4 ,hence 
when the corn on one farm is  all cut1  
he flees to another where there is still
 corn left standing4 ,this  idea is     
brought out in a harvest-custom which   
was formerly observed in  ,skye4 ,the   
farmer who first finished reaping sent a
 man or woman with a  sheaf to a        
neighbouring farmer who had not         
finished2 the latter in his  turn1 when 
he had finished1 sent on the sheaf to   
his neighbour who was  still reaping2   
and so the sheaf made the round of the  

farms till all the  corn was cut4 ,the  
sheaf was called the goabbir bhacagh1   
that is1 the  ,cripple ,goat47#ijf7 ,the
 custom appears not to be extinct at the
 present  day1 for it was reported from 
,skye only a few years ago4 ,we are told
 that  when the crofters and small      
farmers are cutting down their corn1    
each  tries his best to finish before   
his neighbour4 ,the first to finish goes
 to  his neighbour's field and makes up 
at one end of it a bundle of sheaves in 
a fanciful shape which goes by the name 
of the gobhar bhacach or ,lame  ,goat4  
,as each man in succession finishes     
reaping his field1 he proceeds to  set  
up a lame goat of this sort in his      
neighbour's field where there is  still 
corn standing4 ,no one likes to have the
 ,lame ,goat put in his field1  8not    
from any ill-luck it brings1 but because
 it is humiliating to have it  standing 
there visible to all neighbours and     
passers-by1 and of course he  cannot    
retaliate407#ijg7 ,the corn-spirit was  

probably thus represented as  lame      
because he had been crippled by the     
cutting of the corn4 ,we have seen  that
 sometimes the old woman who brings home
 the last sheaf must limp on  one       
foot47#ijh7 ,in the ,bhmer ,wald        
mountains1 between ,bohemia and         
,bavaria1  when two peasants are driving
 home their corn together1 they race    
against  each other to see who shall get
 home first4 ,the village boys mark the 
loser in the race1 and at night they    
come and erect on the roof of his  house
 the ,oats-goat1 which is a colossal    
figure of a goat made of  straw47#iji7  
7,m#bdc7 ,but sometimes the corn-spirit1
 in the form of a goat1 is believed  to 
be slain on the harvest-field by the    
sickle or scythe4 ,thus1 in the         
neighbourhood of ,bernkastel1 on the    
,moselle1 the reapers determine by lot  
the order in which they shall follow    
each other4 ,the first is called the    
fore-reaper1 the last the tail-bearer4  
,if a reaper overtakes the man in  front

 he reaps past him1 bending round so as 
to leave the slower reaper in  a patch  
by himself4 ,this patch is called the   
,goat2 and the man for whom  8the ,goat 
is cut0 in this way1 is laughed and     
jeered at by his fellows for  the rest  
of the day4 ,when the tail-bearer cuts  
the last ears of corn1 it  is said1 8,he
 is cutting the ,goat's neck off407#iaj7
 ,in the neighbourhood of  ,grenoble1   
before the end of the reaping1 a live   
goat is adorned with  flowers and       
ribbons and allowed to run about the    
field4 ,the reapers chase  it and try to
 catch it4 ,when it is caught1 the      
farmer's wife holds it fast  while the  
farmer cuts off its head4 ,the goat's   
flesh serves to furnish the             
harvest-supper4 ,a piece of the flesh is
 pickled and kept till the next         
harvest1 when another goat is killed4   
,then all the harvesters eat of the     
flesh4 ,on the same day the skin of the 
goat is made into a cloak1 which  the   
farmer1 who works with his men1 must    

always wear at harvest-time if  rain or 
bad weather sets in4 ,but if a reaper   
gets pains in his back1 the  farmer     
gives him the goat-skin to wear47#iaa7  
,the reason for this seems to  be that  
the pains in the back1 being inflicted  
by the corn-spirit1 can  also be healed 
by it4 ,similarly1 we saw that          
elsewhere1 when a reaper is  wounded at 
reaping1 a cat1 as the representative of
 the corn-spirit1 is  made to lick the  
wound47#iab7 ,esthonian reapers in the  
island of ,mon think  that the man who  
cuts the first ears of corn at harvest  
will get pains in  his back17#iac7      
probably because the corn-spirit is     
believed to resent  especially the first
 wound2 and1 in order to escape pains in
 the back1  ,saxon reapers in           
,transylvania gird their loins with the 
first handful of  ears which they       
cut47#iad7 ,here1 again1 the corn-spirit
 is applied to for  healing or          
protection1 but in his original         
vegetable form1 not in the form  of a   

goat or a cat4    7,m#bdd7 ,further1 the
 corn-spirit under the form of a goat is
 sometimes  conceived as lurking among  
the cut corn in the barn1 till he is    
driven  from it by the threshing-flail4 
,thus in ,baden the last sheaf to be    
threshed is called the ,corn-goat1 the  
,spelt-goat1 or the ,oats-goat          
according to the kind of grain47#iae7   
,again1 near ,marktl1 in ,upper         
,bavaria1  the sheaves are called       
,straw-goats or simply ,goats4 ,they are
 laid in a  great heap on the open field
 and threshed by two rows of men        
standing  opposite each other1 who1 as  
they ply their flails1 sing a song in   
which  they say that they see the       
,straw-goat amongst the corn-stalks4    
,the last  ,goat1 that is1 the last     
sheaf1 is adorned with a wreath of      
violets and  other flowers and with     
cakes strung together4 ,it is placed    
right in the  middle of the heap4 ,some 
of the threshers rush at it and tear the
 best of  it out2 others lay on with    

their flails so recklessly that heads   
are  sometimes broken4 ,in threshing    
this last sheaf1 each man casts up to   
the  man opposite him the misdeeds of   
which he has been guilty throughout the 
year47#iaf7 ,at ,oberinntal1 in the     
,tyrol1 the last thresher is called     
,goat47#iag7 ,so at ,haselberg1 in ,west
 ,bohemia1 the man who gives the last   
stroke at threshing oats is called the  
,oats-goat47#iah7 ,at ,tettnang1 in     
,wrtemburg1 the thresher who gives the  
last stroke to the last bundle of  corn 
before it is turned goes by the name of 
the ,he-goat1 and it is said1  8,he has 
driven the ,he-goat away40 ,the person  
who1 after the bundle has  been turned1 
gives the last stroke of all1 is called 
the ,she-goat47#iai7 ,in  this custom it
 is implied that the corn is inhabited  
by a pair of  corn-spirits1 male and    
female4    7,m#bde7 ,further1 the       
corn-spirit1 captured in the form of a  
goat at  threshing1 is passed on to a   
neighbour whose threshing is not yet    

finished4 ,in ,franche ,comt1 as soon as
 the threshing is over1 the young       
people set up a straw figure of a goat  
on the farmyard of a neighbour who  is  
still threshing4 ,he must give them wine
 or money in return4 ,at  ,ellwangen1 in
 ,wrtemburg1 the effigy of a goat is    
made out of the last  bundle of corn at 
threshing2 four sticks form its legs1   
and two its horns4  ,the man who gives  
the last stroke with the flail must     
carry the ,goat to  the barn of a       
neighbour who is still threshing and    
throw it down on the  floor2 if he is   
caught in the act1 they tie the goat on 
his back47#ibj7 ,a  similar custom is   
observed at ,indersdorf1 in ,upper      
,bavaria2 the man who  throws the straw 
,goat into the neighbour's barn imitates
 the bleating of a  goat2 if they catch 
him1 they blacken his face and tie the  
,goat on his  back47#iba7 ,at ,zabern1  
in ,elsace1 when a farmer is a week or  
more behind  his neighbours with his    
threshing1 they set a real stuffed goat 

or fox  before his door47#ibb7          
7,m#bdf7 ,sometimes the spirit of the   
corn in goat form is believed to be     
killed at threshing4 ,in the district of
 ,traunstein1 ,upper ,bavaria1 they     
think that the ,oats-goat is in the last
 sheaf of oats4 ,he is represented  by  
an old rake set up on end1 with an old  
pot for a head4 ,the children are  then 
told to kill the ,oats-goat47#ibc7      
,elsewhere1 however1 the corn-spirit  in
 the form of a goat is apparently       
thought to live in the field  throughout
 the winter4 ,hence at ,wannefeld near  
,gardelegen1 and also  between ,calbe   
and ,salzwedel1 in the ,altmark1 the    
last stalks used to be  left uncut on   
the harvest-field with the words1 8,that
 shall the ,he-goat  keep60 ,evidently  
the last corn was here left as a        
provision for the  corn-spirit1 lest1   
robbed of all his substance1 he should  
die of hunger4 ,a  stranger passing a   
harvest-field is sometimes taken for the
 ,corn-goat  escaping in human shape    

from the cut or threshed grain4 ,thus1  
when a  stranger passes a harvest-field1
 all the labourers stop and shout as    
with  one voice1 8,he-goat6 ,he-goat60  
,at rape-seed threshing in ,schleswig1  
which  is generally done on the field1  
the same cry is raised if the stranger  
does not take off his hat47#ibd7        
7,m#bdg7 ,at sowing their winter corn   
the old ,prussians used to kill a goat1 
consume its flesh with many             
superstitious ceremonies1 and hang the  
skin on  a high pole near an oak and a  
large stone4 ,there it remained till    
harvest1  when a great bunch of corn and
 herbs was fastened to the pole above   
the  goat-skin4 ,then1 after a prayer   
had been offered by a peasant who acted 
as  priest 7,weidulut71 the young folks 
joined hands and danced round the oak   
and the pole4 ,afterwards they scrambled
 for the bunch of corn1 and the  priest 
distributed the herbs with a sparing    
hand4 ,then he placed the  goat-skin on 
the large stone1 sat down on it1 and    

preached to the people  about the       
history of their forefathers and their  
old heathen customs and  beliefs47#ibe7 
,the goat-skin thus suspended on the    
field from sowing time  to harvest      
perhaps represents the corn-spirit      
superintending the growth of  the corn4 
,the ,tomori of ,central ,celebes       
imagine that the spirits which  cause   
rice to grow have the form of great     
goats with long hair and long           
lips47#ibf7           #g4 ,the          
,corn-spirit as a ,bull1 ,cow1 or ,ox4  
7,m#bdh7 ,another form which the        
corn-spirit often assumes is that of a  
bull1  cow1 or ox4 ,when the wind sweeps
 over the corn they say at ,conitz1 in  
,west  ,prussia1 8,the ,steer is running
 in the corn027#ibg7 when the corn is   
thick  and strong in one spot1 they say 
in some parts of ,east ,prussia1 8,the  
,bull  is lying in the corn40 ,when a   
harvester has overstrained and lamed    
himself1 they say in the ,graudenz      
district of ,west ,prussia1 8,the ,bull 

pushed him02 in ,lothringen they say1   
8,he has the ,bull40 ,the meaning of    
both expressions is that he has         
unwittingly lighted upon the divine     
corn-spirit1 who has punished the       
profane intruder with lameness47#ibh7   
,so  near ,chambry when a reaper wounds 
himself with his sickle1 it is said     
that he has 8the wound of the           
,ox407#ibi7 ,in the district of ,bunzlau
  7,silesia7 the last sheaf is sometimes
 made into the shape of a horned ox1    
stuffed with tow and wrapt in corn-ears4
 ,this figure is called the ,old  ,man4 
,in some parts of ,bohemia the last     
sheaf is made up in human form and      
called the ,buffalo-bull47#icj7 ,these  
cases shew a confusion of the human     
with the animal shape of the            
corn-spirit4 ,the confusion is like that
 of  killing a wether under the name of 
a wolf47#ica7 ,in the ,canton of        
,thurgau1  ,switzerland1 the last sheaf1
 if it is a large one1 is called the    
,cow47#icb7  ,all over ,swabia the last 

bundle of corn on the field is called   
the ,cow2  the man who cuts the last    
ears 8has the ,cow10 and is himself     
called ,cow or  ,barley-cow or          
,oats-cow1 according to the crop2 at the
 harvest-supper he  gets a nosegay of   
flowers and corn-ears and a more liberal
 allowance of  drink than the rest4 ,but
 he is teased and laughed at2 so no one 
likes to  be the ,cow47#icc7 ,the ,cow  
was sometimes represented by the figure 
of a  woman made out of ears of corn and
 corn-flowers4 ,it was carried to the   
farmhouse by the man who had cut the    
last handful of corn4 ,the children  ran
 after him and the neighbours turned out
 to laugh at him1 till the  farmer took 
the ,cow from him47#icd7 ,here again the
 confusion between the  human and the   
animal form of the corn-spirit is       
apparent4 ,in various parts  of         
,switzerland the reaper who cuts the    
last ears of corn is called  ,wheat-cow1
 ,corn-cow1 ,oats-cow1 or ,corn-steer1  
and is the butt of many a  joke47#ice7  

,in some parts of ,east ,prussia1 when a
 few ears of corn have  been left       
standing by inadvertence on the last    
swath1 the foremost reaper  seizes them 
and cries1 8,bull6 ,bull607#icf7 ,on the
 other hand1 in the  district of        
,rosenheim1 ,upper ,bavaria1 when a     
farmer is later of getting in  his      
harvest than his neighbours1 they set up
 on his land a ,straw-bull1 as  it is   
called4 ,this is a gigantic figure of a 
bull made of stubble on a  framework of 
wood and adorned with flowers and       
leaves4 ,attached to it is a  label on  
which are scrawled doggerel verses in   
ridicule of the man on  whose land the  
,straw-bull is set up47#icg7    7,m#bdi7
 ,again1 the corn-spirit in the form of 
a bull or ox is killed on the           
harvest-field at the close of the       
reaping4 ,at ,pouilly1 near ,dijon1 when
  the last ears of corn are about to be 
cut1 an ox adorned with ribbons1        
flowers1 and ears of corn is led all    
round the field1 followed by the  whole 

troop of reapers dancing4 ,then a man   
disguised as the ,devil cuts the  last  
ears of corn and immediately slaughters 
the ox4 ,part of the flesh of  the      
animal is eaten at the harvest-supper2  
part is pickled and kept till  the first
 day of sowing in spring4 ,at ,pont     
,mousson and elsewhere on the  evening  
of the last day of reaping1 a calf      
adorned with flowers and ears  of corn  
is led thrice round the farmyard1 being 
allured by a bait or  driven by men with
 sticks1 or conducted by the farmer's   
wife with a rope4  ,the calf chosen for 
this ceremony is the calf which was born
 first on the  farm in the spring of the
 year4 ,it is followed by all the       
reapers with  their tools4 ,then it is  
allowed to run free2 the reapers chase  
it1 and  whoever catches it is called   
,king of the ,calf4 ,lastly1 it is      
solemnly  killed2 at ,lunville the man  
who acts as butcher is the ,jewish      
merchant of  the village47#ich7         
7,m#bej7 ,sometimes again the           

corn-spirit hides himself amongst the   
cut corn  in the barn to reappear in    
bull or cow form at threshing4 ,thus at 
,wurmlingen1 in ,thringen1 the man who  
gives the last stroke at threshing  is  
called the ,cow1 or rather the          
,barley-cow1 ,oats-cow1 ,peas-cow1 or   
the  like1 according to the crop4 ,he is
 entirely enveloped in straw2 his head  
is surmounted by sticks in imitation of 
horns1 and two lads lead him by  ropes  
to the well to drink4 ,on the way       
thither he must low like a cow1 and  for
 a long time afterwards he goes by the  
name of the ,cow47#ici7 ,at             
,obermedlingen1 in ,swabia1 when the    
threshing draws near an end1 each man   
is careful to avoid giving the last     
stroke4 ,he who does give it 8gets the  
,cow10 which is a straw figure dressed  
in an old ragged petticoat1 hood1  and  
stockings4 ,it is tied on his back with 
a straw-rope2 his face is  blackened1   
and being bound with straw-ropes to a   
wheelbarrow he is wheeled  round the    

village47#idj7 ,here1 again1 we meet    
with that confusion between  the human  
and animal shape of the corn-spirit     
which we have noted in other  customs4  
,in ,canton ,schaffhausen the man who   
threshes the last corn is  called the   
,cow2 in ,canton ,thurgau1 the          
,corn-bull2 in ,canton ,zurich1 the     
,thresher-cow4 ,in the last-mentioned   
district he is wrapt in straw and  bound
 to one of the trees in the             
orchard47#ida7 ,at ,arad1 in ,hungary1  
the  man who gives the last stroke at   
threshing is enveloped in straw and a   
cow's hide with the horns attached to   
it47#idb7 ,at ,pessnitz1 in the         
district of ,dresden1 the man who gives 
the last stroke with the flail is       
called ,bull4 ,he must make a straw-man 
and set it up before a neighbour's      
window47#idc7 ,here1 apparently1 as in  
so many cases1 the corn-spirit is       
passed on to a neighbour who has not    
finished threshing4 ,so at              
,herbrechtingen1 in ,thringen1 the      

effigy of a ragged old woman is flung   
into the barn of the farmer who is last 
with his threshing4 ,the man who  throws
 it in cries1 8,there is the ,cow for   
you40 ,if the threshers catch him  they 
detain him over night and punish him by 
keeping him from the                    
harvest-supper47#idd7 ,in these latter  
customs the confusion between the  human
 and the animal shape of the corn-spirit
 meets us again4    7,m#bea7 ,further1  
the corn-spirit in bull form is         
sometimes believed to be  killed at     
threshing4 ,at ,auxerre1 in threshing   
the last bundle of corn1  they call out 
twelve times1 8,we are killing the      
,bull40 ,in the  neighbourhood of       
,bordeaux1 where a butcher kills an ox  
on the field  immediately after the     
close of the reaping1 it is said of the 
man who  gives the last stroke at       
threshing that 8he has killed the       
,bull407#ide7 ,at  ,chambry the last    
sheaf is called the sheaf of the ,young 
,ox1 and a race  takes place to it in   

which all the reapers join4 ,when the   
last stroke is  given at threshing they 
say that 8the ,ox is killed02 and       
immediately  thereupon a real ox is     
slaughtered by the reaper who cut the   
last corn4  ,the flesh of the ox is     
eaten by the threshers at supper47#idf7 
7,m#beb7 ,we have seen that sometimes   
the young corn-spirit1 whose task it is 
to quicken the corn of the coming year1 
is believed to be born as a  ,corn-baby 
on the harvest-field47#idg7 ,similarly  
in ,berry the young  corn-spirit is     
sometimes supposed to be born on the    
field in calf form2  for when a binder  
has not rope enough to bind all the corn
 in sheaves1 he  puts aside the wheat   
that remains over and imitates the      
lowing of a cow4  ,the meaning is that  
8the sheaf has given birth to a         
calf407#idh7 ,in  ,puy-de-,dme when a   
binder cannot keep up with the reaper   
whom he or she  follows1 they say 8,he  
7or she7 is giving birth to the         
,calf407#idi7 ,in some  parts of        

,prussia1 in similar circumstances1 they
 call out to the woman1  8,the ,bull is 
coming10 and imitate the bellowing of a 
bull47#iej7 ,in these  cases the woman  
is conceived as the ,corn-cow or old    
corn-spirit1 while the  supposed calf is
 the ,corn-calf or young corn-spirit4   
,in some parts of  ,austria a mythical  
calf 7,muhklbchen7 is believed to be    
seen amongst the  sprouting corn in     
spring and to push the children2 when   
the corn waves in  the wind they say1   
8,the ,calf is going about40 ,clearly1  
as ,mannhardt  observes1 this calf of   
the spring-time is the same animal which
 is  afterwards believed to be killed at
 reaping47#iea7           #h4 ,the      
,corn-spirit as a ,horse or ,mare4      
7,m#bec7 ,sometimes the corn-spirit     
appears in the shape of a horse or mare4
  ,between ,kalw and ,stuttgart1 when   
the corn bends before the wind1 they    
say1  8,there runs the ,horse407#ieb7   
,at ,bohlingen1 near ,radolfzell in     
,baden1 the  last sheaf of oats is      

called the ,oats-stallion47#iec7 ,in    
,hertfordshire1 at  the end of the      
reaping1 there is or used to be observed
 a ceremony called  8crying the ,mare40 
,the last blades of corn left standing  
on the field are  tied together and     
called the ,mare4 ,the reapers stand at 
a distance and  throw their sickles at  
it2 he who cuts it through 8has the     
prize1 with  acclamations and good      
cheer40 ,after it is cut the reapers cry
 thrice with  a loud voice1 8,i have    
her60 ,others answer thrice1 8,what have
 you80--8,a  ,mare6 a ,mare6 a          
,mare60--8,whose is she80 is next asked 
thrice4 8,a4 ,b4's10  naming the owner  
thrice4 8,whither will you send         
her80--8,to ,c4 ,d410 naming  some      
neighbour who has not reaped all his    
corn47#ied7 ,in this custom the         
corn-spirit in the form of a mare is    
passed on from a farm where the corn  is
 all cut to another farm where it is    
still standing1 and where therefore  the
 corn-spirit may be supposed naturally  

to take refuge4 ,in ,shropshire  the    
custom is similar4 8,crying1 calling1 or
 shouting the mare is a  ceremony       
performed by the men of that farm which 
is the first in any  parish or district 
to finish the harvest4 ,the object of it
 is to make  known their own prowess1   
and to taunt the laggards by a pretended
 offer of  the #8owd mar'' old mare to  
help out their #8chem' team4 ,all the   
men  assemble 7the wooden harvest-bottle
 being of course one of the company7 in 
the stackyard1 or1 better1 on the       
highest ground on the farm1 and there   
shout the following dialogue1 preceding 
it by a grand #8,hip1 hip1 hip1         
hurrah6'    8 #8,i 'ave 'er1 ,i 'ave    
'er1 ,i 'ave 'er6'    8 #8,whad 'ast    
thee1 whad 'ast thee1 whad 'ast thee8'  
8 #8,a mar'6 a mar'6 a mar'6'    8      
#8,whose is 'er1 whose is 'er1 whose is 
'er8'    8 #8,maister ,a4's1 ,maister   
,a4's1 ,maister ,a4's6' 7naming the     
farmer whose  harvest is finished74    8
 #8,w'eer sha't the' send 'er8 w'eer    

sha't the' send 'er8 w'eer sha't the'   
send 'er8'    8 #8,to ,maister ,b4's1 to
 ,maister ,b4's1 to ,maister ,b4's'     
7naming one whose  harvest is not       
finished74    8 #8',uth a hip1 hip1 hip1
 hurrah6' 7in chorus740    ,the farmer  
who finishes his harvest last1 and who  
therefore cannot send  the ,mare to any 
one else1 is said 8to keep her all      
winter40 ,the mocking  offer of the     
,mare was sometimes responded to by a   
mocking acceptance of  her help4 ,thus  
an old man told an enquirer1 8,while we 
wun at supper1 a mon  cumm'd wi' a autar
 halter to fatch her away40 ,but at one 
place 7,longnor1  near ,leebotwood71    
down to about #ahej1 the ,mare used     
really to be sent4  8,the head man of   
the farmer who had finished harvest     
first was mounted on  the best horse of 
the team--the leader--both horse and man
 being adorned  with ribbons1 streamers1
 etc4 ,thus arrayed1 a boy on foot led  
the pair in  triumph to the neighbouring
 farmhouses4 ,sometimes the man who took

 the  #8mare' received1 as well as      
plenty of harvest-ale1 some rather      
rough1  though good-humoured1 treatment1
 coming back minus his decorations1 and 
so  on407#iee7    7,m#bed7 ,in the      
neighbourhood of ,lille the idea of the 
corn-spirit in horse  form is clearly   
preserved4 ,when a harvester grows weary
 at his work1 it is  said1 8,he has the 
fatigue of the ,horse40 ,the first      
sheaf1 called the  8,cross of the       
,horse10 is placed on a cross of boxwood
 in the barn1 and the  youngest horse on
 the farm must tread on it4 ,the reapers
 dance round the  last blades of corn1  
crying1 8,see the remains of the        
,horse40 ,the sheaf  made out of these  
last blades is given to the youngest    
horse of the parish  7commune7 to eat4  
,this youngest horse of the parish      
clearly represents1  as ,mannhardt says1
 the corn-spirit of the following year1 
the ,corn-foal1  which absorbs the      
spirit of the old ,corn-horse by eating 
the last corn  cut2 for1 as usual1 the  

old corn-spirit takes his final refuge  
in the last  sheaf4 ,the thresher of the
 last sheaf is said to 8beat the        
,horse407#ief7  ,again1 a trace of the  
horse-shaped corn-spirit is reported    
from ,berry4 ,the  harvesters there are 
accustomed to take a noonday nap in the 
field4 ,this  is called 8seeing the     
,horse40 ,the leader or 8,king0 of the  
harvesters gives  the signal for going  
to sleep4 ,if he delays giving the      
signal1 one of the  harvesters will     
begin to neigh like a horse1 the rest   
imitate him1 and  then they all go 8to  
see the ,horse407#ieg7           #i4    
,the ,corn-spirit as a ,bird4           
7,m#bee7 ,sometimes the corn-spirit     
assumes the form of a bird4 ,thus among 
the ,saxons of the ,bistritz district in
 ,transylvania there is a saying that   
the quail is sitting in the last        
standing stalks on the harvest-field1   
and  all the reapers rush at these      
stalks in order1 as they say1 to catch  
the  quail47#ieh7 ,exactly the same     

expression is used by reapers in        
,austrian  ,silesia when they are about 
to cut the last standing corn1 whatever 
the  kind of grain may be47#iei7 ,in the
 ,bocage of ,normandy1 when the reapers 
have come to the last ears of the last  
rig1 they surround them for the  purpose
 of catching the quail1 which is        
supposed to have taken refuge  there4   
,they run about the corn crying1 8,mind 
the ,quail60 and make believe  to grab  
at the bird amid shouts and             
laughter47#ifj7 ,connected with this    
identification of the corn-spirit with a
 quail is probably the belief that  the 
cry of the bird in spring is prophetic  
of the price of corn in the  autumn2 in 
,germany they say that corn will sell at
 as many gulden a bushel  as the quail  
uttered its cry over the fields in      
spring4 ,similar  prognostications are  
drawn from the note of the bird in      
central and  western ,france1 in        
,switzerland and in ,tuscany47#ifa7     
,perhaps one reason for  identifying the

 quail with the corn-spirit is that the 
bird lays its eggs  on the ground1      
without making much of a nest47#ifb7    
,similarly the ,toradjas  of ,central   
,celebes think that the soul of the rice
 is embodied in a pretty  little blue   
bird which builds its nest in the       
rice-field at the time when  the rice is
 beginning to germinate1 and which      
disappears again after the  harvest4    
,thus both the place and the time of the
 appearance of the bird  suggest to the 
natives the notion that the blue bird is
 the rice  incarnate4 ,and like the note
 of the quail in ,europe the note of    
this  little bird in ,celebes is        
believed to prognosticate the state of  
the  harvest1 foretelling whether the   
rice will be abundant or scarce4 ,nobody
  may drive the bird away2 to do so     
would not merely injure the rice1 it    
would hurt the eyes of the sacrilegious 
person and might even strike him  blind4
 ,in ,minahassa1 a district in the north
 of ,celebes1 a similar though  less    

definite belief attaches to a sort of   
small quail which loves to  haunt the   
rice-fields before the rice is reaped2  
and when the ,galelareeze  of ,halmahera
 hear a certain kind of bird1 which they
 call tog1 croaking  among the rice in  
ear1 they say that the bird is putting  
the grain into  the rice1 so they will  
not kill it47#ifc7           #aj4 ,the  
,corn-spirit as a ,fox4      7,m#bef7   
,another animal whose shape the         
corn-spirit is sometimes thought to     
assume is the fox4 ,the conception is   
recorded at various places in ,germany  
and ,france4 ,thus at ,nrdlingen in     
,bavaria1 when the corn waves to and fro
  in the wind1 they say1 8,the fox goes 
through the corn10 and at ,usingen in   
,nassau they say1 8,the foxes are       
marching through the corn40 ,at         
,ravensberg1  in ,westphalia1 and at    
,steinau1 in ,kurhessen1 children are   
warned against  straying in the corn1   
8because the ,fox is there40 ,at ,campe1
 near ,stade1  when they are about to   

cut the last corn1 they call out to the 
reaper1  8,the ,fox is sitting there1   
hold him fast60 ,in the ,department of  
the  ,moselle they say1 8,watch whether 
the ,fox comes out40 ,in ,bourbonnais   
the  expression is1 8,you will catch the
 ,fox40 ,when a reaper wounds himself or
  is sick at reaping1 they say in the   
,lower ,loire that 8,he has the ,fox40  
,in  ,cte-d'or they say1 8,he has killed
 the ,fox40 ,at ,louhans1 in            
,sone-et-,loire1 when the reapers are   
cutting the last corn they leave a      
handful standing and throw their sickles
 at it4 ,he who hits it is called  the  
,fox1 and two girls deck his bonnet with
 flowers4 ,in the evening there  is a   
dance1 at which the ,fox dances with all
 the girls4 ,the supper which  follows  
is also called the ,fox2 they say1 8,we 
have eaten the ,fox10 meaning  that they
 have partaken of the harvest-supper4   
,in the ,canton of ,zurich the  last    
sheaf is called the ,fox4 ,at           
,bourgogne1 in ,ain1 they cry out1 8,the

 ,fox  is sitting in the last sheaf10   
and having made the figure of an animal 
out  of white cloth and some ears of the
 last corn1 they dub it the ,fox and    
throw it into the house of a neighbour  
who has not yet got in all his          
harvest47#ifd7 ,in ,poitou1 when the    
corn is being reaped in a district1 all 
the reapers strive to finish as quickly 
as possible in order that they may  send
 8the ,fox0 to the fields of a farmer   
who has not yet garnered his  sheaves4  
,the man who cuts the last handful of   
standing corn is said to  8have the     
,fox40 ,this last handful is carried to 
the farmer's house and  occupies a place
 on the table during the harvest-supper2
 and the custom is  to drench it with   
water4 ,after that it is set up on the  
chimney-piece and  remains there the    
whole year47#ife7 ,at threshing1 also1  
in ,sone-et-,loire1  the last sheaf is  
called the ,fox2 in ,lot they say1 8,we 
are going to beat  the ,fox02 and at    
,zabern in ,alsace they set a stuffed   

fox before the door  of the             
threshing-floor of a neighbour who has  
not finished his  threshing47#iff7 ,with
 this conception of the fox as an       
embodiment of the  corn-spirit may      
possibly be connected an old custom1    
observed in ,holstein  and ,westphalia1 
of carrying a dead or living fox from   
house to house in  spring2 the intention
 of the custom was perhaps to diffuse   
the refreshing  and invigorating        
influence of the reawakened spirit of   
vegetation47#ifg7 ,in  ,japan the       
rice-god ,inari is represented as an    
elderly man with a long  beard riding on
 a white fox1 and the fox is always     
associated with this  deity4 ,in front  
of his shrines may usually be seen a    
pair of foxes carved  in wood or        
stone47#ifh7           #aa4 ,the        
,corn-spirit as a ,pig 7,boar or ,sow74 
7,m#beg7 ,the last animal embodiment of 
the corn-spirit which we shall notice   
is the pig 7boar or sow74 ,in ,thringen1
 when the wind sets the young corn  in  

motion1 they sometimes say1 8,the ,boar 
is rushing through the  corn407#ifi7    
,amongst the ,esthonians of the island  
of ,oesel the last sheaf  is called the 
,rye-boar1 and the man who gets it is   
saluted with a cry of  8,you have the   
,rye-boar on your back60 ,in reply he   
strikes up a song1 in  which he prays   
for plenty47#igj7 ,at ,kohlerwinkel1    
near ,augsburg1 at the  close of the    
harvest1 the last bunch of standing corn
 is cut down1 stalk  by stalk1 by all   
the reapers in turn4 ,he who cuts the   
last stalk 8gets the  ,sow10 and is     
laughed at47#iga7 ,in other ,swabian    
villages also the man who  cuts the last
 corn 8has the ,sow10 or 8has the       
,rye-sow407#igb7 ,in the  ,traunstein   
district1 ,upper ,bavaria1 the man who  
cuts the last handful of  rye or wheat  
8has the ,sow10 and is called           
,sow-driver47#igc7 ,at ,bohlingen1  near
 ,radolfzell in ,baden1 the last sheaf  
is called the ,rye-sow or the           
,wheat-sow1 according to the crop2 and  

at ,rhrenbach in ,baden the person  who 
brings the last armful for the last     
sheaf is called the ,corn-sow or  the   
,oats-sow4 ,and in the south-east of    
,baden the thresher who gives the  last 
stroke at threshing1 or is the last to  
hang up his flail on the wall1  is      
called the ,sow or the ,rye-sow47#igd7  
,at ,friedingen1 in ,swabia1 the        
thresher who gives the last stroke is   
called ,sow--,barley-sow1 ,corn-sow1 or 
the like1 according to the crop4 ,at    
,onstmettingen the man who gives the    
last stroke at threshing 8has the ,sow02
 he is often bound up in a sheaf  and   
dragged by a rope along the             
ground47#ige7 ,and1 generally1 in       
,swabia the  man who gives the last     
stroke with the flail is called ,sow4   
,he may1  however1 rid himself of this  
invidious distinction by passing on to a
  neighbour the straw-rope1 which is the
 badge of his position as ,sow4 ,so he  
goes to a house and throws the          
straw-rope into it1 crying1 8,there1 ,i 

bring  you the ,sow40 ,all the inmates  
give chase2 and if they catch him they  
beat  him1 shut him up for several hours
 in the pig-sty1 and oblige him to take 
the 8,sow0 away again47#igf7 ,in various
 parts of ,upper ,bavaria the man who   
gives the last stroke at threshing must 
8carry the ,pig0--that is1 either a     
straw effigy of a pig or merely a bundle
 of straw-ropes4 ,this he carries  to a 
neighbouring farm where the threshing is
 not finished1 and throws it  into the  
barn4 ,if the threshers catch him they  
handle him roughly1 beating  him1       
blackening or dirtying his face1        
throwing him into filth1 binding the    
,sow on his back1 and so on2 if the     
bearer of the ,sow is a woman they cut  
off her hair4 ,at the harvest supper or 
dinner the man who 8carried the  ,pig0  
gets one or more dumplings made in the  
form of pigs2 sometimes he  gets a large
 dumpling and a number of small ones1   
all in pig form1 the  large one being   
called the sow and the small ones the   

sucking-pigs4  ,sometimes he has the    
right to be the first to put his hand   
into the dish  and take out as many     
small dumplings 78sucking-pigs07 as he  
can1 while the  other threshers strike  
at his hand with spoons or sticks4 ,when
 the  dumplings are served up by the    
maid-servant1 all the people at table   
cry  8,sz1 sz1 sz60 that being the cry  
used in calling pigs4 ,sometimes after  
dinner the man who 8carried the ,pig0   
has his face blackened1 and is set on  a
 cart and drawn round the village by his
 fellows1 followed by a crowd  crying   
8,sz1 sz1 sz60 as if they were calling  
swine4 ,sometimes1 after  being wheeled 
round the village1 he is flung on the   
dunghill47#igg7    7,m#beh7 ,again1 the 
corn-spirit in the form of a pig plays  
his part at  sowing-time as well as at  
harvest ,at ,neuautz1 in ,courland1 when
 barley is  sown for the first time in  
the year1 the farmer's wife boils the   
chine of  a pig along with the tail1 and
 brings it to the sower on the field4   

,he  eats of it1 but cuts off the tail  
and sticks it in the field2 it is       
believed that the ears of corn will then
 grow as long as the tail47#igh7  ,here 
the pig is the corn-spirit1 whose       
fertilising power is sometimes  supposed
 to lie especially in his tail47#igi7   
,as a pig he is put in the  ground at   
sowing-time1 and as a pig he reappears  
amongst the ripe corn at  harvest4 ,for 
amongst the neighbouring ,esthonians1 as
 we have seen17#ihj7  the last sheaf is 
called the ,rye-boar4 ,somewhat similar 
customs are  observed in ,germany4 ,in  
the ,salza district1 near ,meiningen1 a 
certain bone  in the pig is called 8the 
,jew on the winnowing-fan40 ,the flesh  
of this  bone is boiled on ,shrove      
,tuesday1 but the bone is put amongst   
the ashes  which the neighbours exchange
 as presents on ,st4 ,peter's ,day 7the 
twenty-second of ,february71 and then   
mix with the seed-corn47#iha7 ,in the   
whole of ,hesse1 ,meiningen1 and other  
districts1 people eat pea-soup with     

dried pig-ribs on ,ash ,wednesday or    
,candlemas4 ,the ribs are then collected
  and hung in the room till sowing-time1
 when they are inserted in the sown     
field or in the seed-bag amongst the    
flax seed4 ,this is thought to be an    
infallible specific against earth-fleas 
and moles1 and to cause the flax  to    
grow well and tall47#ihb7 ,in many parts
 of ,white ,russia people eat a  roast  
lamb or sucking-pig at ,easter1 and then
 throw the bones backwards  upon the    
fields1 to preserve the corn from       
hail47#ihc7    7,m#bei7 ,but the idea of
 the corn-spirit as embodied in pig form
 is nowhere  more clearly expressed than
 in the ,scandinavian custom of the     
,yule ,boar4  ,in ,sweden and ,denmark  
at ,yule 7,christmas7 it is the custom  
to bake a loaf  in the form of a        
boar-pig4 ,this is called the ,yule     
,boar4 ,the corn of the  last sheaf is  
often used to make it4 ,all through     
,yule the ,yule ,boar stands  on the    
table4 ,often it is kept till the       

sowing-time in spring1 when part  of it 
is mixed with the seed-corn and part    
given to the ploughmen and              
plough-horses or plough-oxen to eat1 in 
the expectation of a good               
harvest47#ihd7 ,in this custom the      
corn-spirit1 immanent in the last sheaf1
  appears at midwinter in the form of a 
boar made from the corn of the last     
sheaf2 and his quickening influence on  
the corn is shewn by mixing part of  the
 ,yule ,boar with the seed-corn1 and    
giving part of it to the ploughman  and 
his cattle to eat4 ,similarly we saw    
that the ,corn-wolf makes his           
appearance at midwinter1 the time when  
the year begins to verge towards        
spring47#ihe7 ,we may conjecture that   
the ,yule straw1 which ,swedish peasants
  turn to various superstitious uses1   
comes1 in part at least1 from the  sheaf
 out of which the ,yule ,boar is made4  
,the ,yule straw is long  rye-straw1 a  
portion of which is always set apart for
 this season4 ,it is  strewn over the   

floor at ,christmas1 and the peasants   
attribute many  virtues to it4 ,for     
example1 they think that some of it     
scattered on the  ground will make a    
barren field productive4 ,again1 the    
peasant at  ,christmas seats himself on 
a log2 and his eldest son or daughter1  
or the  mother herself1 if the children 
are not old enough1 places a wisp of the
  ,yule straw on his knee4 ,from this he
 draws out single straws1 and throws    
them1 one by one1 up to the ceiling2 and
 as many as lodge in the rafters1  so   
many will be the sheaves of rye he will 
have to thresh at harvest47#ihf7        
,again1 it is only the ,yule straw which
 may be used in binding the  fruit-trees
 as a charm to fertilise them47#ihg7    
,these uses of the ,yule  straw shew    
that it is believed to possess          
fertilising virtues analogous to  those 
ascribed to the ,yule ,boar2 we may     
therefore fairly conjecture that  the   
,yule straw is made from the same sheaf 
as the ,yule ,boar4 ,formerly a  real   

boar was sacrificed at ,christmas17#ihh7
 and apparently also a man in  the      
character of the ,yule ,boar4 ,this1 at 
least1 may perhaps be inferred  from a  
,christmas custom still observed in     
,sweden4 ,a man is wrapt up in a  skin1 
and carries a wisp of straw in his      
mouth1 so that the projecting  straws   
look like the bristles of a boar4 ,a    
knife is brought1 and an old  woman1    
with her face blackened1 pretends to    
sacrifice him47#ihi7    7,m#bfj7 ,on    
,christmas ,eve in some parts of the    
,esthonian island of ,oesel  they bake a
 long cake with the two ends turned up4 
,it is called the  ,christmas ,boar1 and
 stands on the table till the morning of
 ,new ,year's  ,day1 when it is         
distributed among the cattle4 ,in other 
parts of the island  the ,christmas     
,boar is not a cake but a little pig    
born in ,march1 which the  housewife    
fattens secretly1 often without the     
knowledge of the other  members of the  
family4 ,on ,christmas ,eve the little  

pig is secretly killed1  then roasted in
 the oven1 and set on the table standing
 on all fours1  where it remains in this
 posture for several days4 ,in other    
parts of the  island1 again1 though the 
,christmas cake has neither the name nor
 the  shape of a boar1 it is kept till  
the ,new ,year1 when half of it is      
divided  among all the members and all  
the quadrupeds of the family4 ,the other
 half  of the cake is kept till         
sowing-time comes round1 when it is     
similarly  distributed in the morning   
among human beings and beasts47#iij7 ,in
 other  parts of ,esthonia1 again1 the  
,christmas ,boar1 as it is called1 is   
baked of  the first rye cut at harvest2 
it has a conical shape and a cross is   
impressed on it with a pig's bone or a  
key1 or three dints are made in it  with
 a buckle or a piece of charcoal4 ,it   
stands with a light beside it on  the   
table all through the festal season4 ,on
 ,new ,year's ,day and ,epiphany1       
before sunrise1 a little of the cake is 

crumbled with salt and given to  the    
cattle4 ,the rest is kept till the day  
when the cattle are driven out  to      
pasture for the first time in spring4   
,it is then put in the herdsman's  bag1 
and at evening is divided among the     
cattle to guard them from magic  and    
harm4 ,in some places the ,christmas    
,boar is partaken of by  farm-servants  
and cattle at the time of the barley    
sowing1 for the purpose  of thereby     
producing a heavier crop47#iia7         
#ab4 ,on the ,animal ,embodiments of the
 ,corn-spirit4      7,m#bfa7 ,so much   
for the animal embodiments of the       
corn-spirit as they are  presented to us
 in the folk-customs of ,northern       
,europe4 ,these customs  bring out      
clearly the sacramental character of the
 harvest-supper4 ,the  corn-spirit is   
conceived as embodied in an animal2 this
 divine animal is  slain1 and its flesh 
and blood are partaken of by the        
harvesters4 ,thus1  the cock1 the goose1
 the hare1 the cat1 the goat1 and the ox

 are eaten  sacramentally by the        
harvesters1 and the pig is eaten        
sacramentally by  ploughmen in          
spring47#iib7 ,again1 as a substitute   
for the real flesh of the  divine being1
 bread or dumplings are made in his     
image and eaten  sacramentally2 thus1   
pig-shaped dumplings are eaten by the   
harvesters1 and  loaves made in         
boar-shape 7the ,yule ,boar7 are eaten  
in spring by the  ploughman and his     
cattle4    7,m#bfb7 ,the reader has     
probably remarked the complete          
parallelism between  the conceptions of 
the corn-spirit in human and in animal  
form4 ,the  parallel may be here briefly
 resumed4 ,when the corn waves in the   
wind it  is said either that the        
,corn-mother or that the ,corn-wolf1    
etc41 is  passing through the corn4     
,children are warned against straying in
  corn-fields either because the        
,corn-mother or because the ,corn-wolf1 
etc41  is there4 ,in the last corn cut  
or the last sheaf threshed either the   

,corn-mother or the ,corn-wolf1 etc41 is
 supposed to be present4 ,the last      
sheaf is itself called either the       
,corn-mother or the ,corn-wolf1 etc41   
and  is made up in the shape either of a
 woman or of a wolf1 etc4 ,the person   
who cuts1 binds1 or threshes the last   
sheaf is called either the ,old ,woman  
or the ,wolf1 etc41 according to the    
name bestowed on the sheaf itself4 ,as  
in some places a sheaf made in human    
form and called the ,maiden1 the        
,mother of the ,maize1 etc41 is kept    
from one harvest to the next in order   
to secure a continuance of the          
corn-spirit's blessing2 so in some      
places  the ,harvest-cock and in others 
the flesh of the goat is kept for a     
similar  purpose from one harvest to the
 next4 ,as in some places the grain     
taken  from the ,corn-mother is mixed   
with the seed-corn in spring to make the
  crop abundant2 so in some places the  
feathers of the cock1 and in ,sweden    
the ,yule ,boar1 are kept till spring   

and mixed with the seed-corn for a  like
 purpose4 ,as part of the ,corn-mother  
or ,maiden is given to the cattle  at   
,christmas or to the horses at the first
 ploughing1 so part of the ,yule  ,boar 
is given to the ploughing horses or oxen
 in spring4 ,lastly1 the death  of the  
corn-spirit is represented by killing or
 pretending to kill either  his human or
 his animal representative2 and the     
worshippers partake  sacramentally      
either of the actual body and blood of  
the representative of  the divinity1 or 
of bread made in his likeness4          
7,m#bfc7 ,other animal forms assumed by 
the corn-spirit are the stag1 roe1      
sheep1 bear1 ass1 mouse1 stork1 swan1   
and kite47#iic7 ,if it is asked why  the
 corn-spirit should be thought to appear
 in the form of an animal and  of so    
many different animals1 we may reply    
that to primitive man the  simple       
appearance of an animal or bird among   
the corn is probably enough  to suggest 
a mysterious link between the creature  

and the corn2 and when  we remember that
 in the old days1 before fields were    
fenced in1 all kinds  of animals must   
have been free to roam over them1 we    
need not wonder that  the corn-spirit   
should have been identified even with   
large animals like  the horse and cow1  
which nowadays could not1 except by a   
rare accident1 be  found straying in an 
,english corn-field4 ,this explanation  
applies with  peculiar force to the very
 common case in which the animal        
embodiment of  the corn-spirit is       
believed to lurk in the last standing   
corn4 ,for at  harvest a number of wild 
animals1 such as hares1 rabbits1 and    
partridges1  are commonly driven by the 
progress of the reaping into the last   
patch of  standing corn1 and make their 
escape from it as it is being cut down4 
,so  regularly does this happen that    
reapers and others often stand round the
  last patch of corn armed with sticks  
or guns1 with which they kill the       
animals as they dart out of their last  

refuge among the stalks4 ,now1          
primitive man1 to whom magical changes  
of shape seem perfectly credible1  finds
 it most natural that the spirit of the 
corn1 driven from his home in  the ripe 
grain1 should make his escape in the    
form of the animal which is  seen to    
rush out of the last patch of corn as it
 falls under the scythe of  the reaper4 
,thus the identification of the         
corn-spirit with an animal is  analogous
 to the identification of him with a    
passing stranger4 ,as the  sudden       
appearance of a stranger near the       
harvest-field or threshing-floor  is1 to
 the primitive mind1 enough to identify 
him as the spirit of the  corn escaping 
from the cut or threshed corn1 so the   
sudden appearance of  an animal issuing 
from the cut corn is enough to identify 
it with the  corn-spirit escaping from  
his ruined home4 ,the two               
identifications are so  analogous that  
they can hardly be dissociated in any   
attempt to explain  them4 ,those who    

look to some other principle than the   
one here suggested  for the explanation 
of the latter identification are bound  
to shew that  their theory covers the   
former identification also4             
,,note4 ,,the ,,pleiades ,,in           
,,primitive ,,calendars4      7,m#bfd7  
,the constellation of the ,pleiades     
plays an important part in the  calendar
 of primitive peoples1 both in the      
northern and in the southern            
hemisphere2 indeed for reasons which at 
first sight are not obvious  savages    
appear to have paid more attention to   
this constellation than to  any other   
group of stars in the sky1 and in       
particular they have commonly  timed the
 various operations of the agricultural 
year by observation of  its heliacal    
rising or setting4 ,some evidence on the
 subject was adduced  by the late ,dr4  
,richard ,andree17#iid7 but much more   
exists1 and it may be  worth while to   
put certain of the facts together4      
7,m#bfe7 ,in the first place it deserves

 to be noticed that great attention  has
 been paid to the ,pleiades by savages  
in the southern hemisphere who do  not  
till the ground1 and who therefore lack 
that incentive to observe the  stars    
which is possessed by peoples in the    
agricultural stage of society2  for we  
can scarcely doubt that in early ages   
the practical need of  ascertaining the 
proper seasons for sowing and planting  
has done more than  mere speculative    
curiosity to foster a knowledge of      
astronomy by  compelling savages to     
scrutinise the great celestial clock for
 indications  of the time of year4 ,now 
amongst the rudest of savages known to  
us are the  ,australian aborigines1 none
 of whom in their native state ever     
practised  agriculture4 ,yet we are told
 that 8they do1 according to their      
manner1  worship the hosts of heaven1   
and believe particular constellations   
rule  natural causes4 ,for such they    
have names1 and sing and dance to gain  
the  favour of the ,pleiades            

7,mormodellick71 the constellation      
worshipped by  one body as the giver of 
rain2 but if it should be deferred1     
instead of  blessings curses are apt to 
be bestowed upon it407#iie7 ,according  
to a  writer1 whose evidence on other   
matters of ,australian beliefs is open  
to  grave doubt1 some of the aborigines 
of ,new ,south ,wales denied that the   
sun  is the source of heat1 because he  
shines also in winter when the weather  
is cold2 the real cause of warm weather 
they held to be the ,pleiades1  because 
as the summer heat increases1 that      
constellation rises higher and  higher  
in the sky1 reaching its greatest       
elevation in the height of  summer1 and 
gradually sinking again in autumn as the
 days grow cooler1  till in winter it is
 either barely visible or lost to view  
altogether47#iif7 ,another writer1 who  
was well acquainted with the natives  of
 ,victoria in the early days of the     
colony and whose testimony can be       
relied upon1 tells us that an old chief 

of the ,spring ,creek tribe 8taught  the
 young people the names of the favourite
 planets and constellations1 as         
indications of the seasons4 ,for        
example1 when ,canopus is a very little 
above the horizon in the east at        
daybreak1 the season for emu eggs has   
come2 when the ,pleiades are visible in 
the east an hour before sunrise1  the   
time for visiting friends and           
neighbouring tribes is at hand407#iig7  
7,m#bff7 ,again1 the ,abipones of       
,paraguay1 who neither sowed nor        
reaped17#iih7  nevertheless regarded the
 ,pleiades as an image of their         
ancestor4 ,as that  constellation is    
invisible in the sky of ,south ,america 
for several months  every year1 the     
,abipones believed that their ancestor  
was then sick1 and  they were dreadfully
 afraid that he would die4 ,but when the
 constellation  reappeared in the month 
of ,may1 they saluted the return of     
their ancestor  with joyous shouts and  
the glad music of flutes and horns1 and 

they  congratulated him on his recovery 
from sickness4 ,next day they all went  
out to collect wild honey1 from which   
they brewed a favourite beverage4  ,then
 at sunset they feasted and kept up the 
revelry all night by the light  of      
torches1 while a sorceress1 who presided
 at the festivity1 shook her  rattle and
 danced4 ,but the proceedings were      
perfectly decorous2 the sexes  did not  
mix with each other47#iii7 ,the ,mocobis
 of ,paraguay also looked upon  the     
,pleiades as their father and           
creator47#ajjj7 ,the ,guaycurus of the  
,gran  ,chaco used to rejoice greatly at
 the reappearance of the ,pleiades4 ,on 
this  occasion they held a festival at  
which men and women1 boys and girls all 
beat each other soundly1 believing that 
this brought them health1  abundance1   
and victory over their enemies47#ajja7  
,amongst the ,lengua  ,indians of       
,paraguay at the present day the rising 
of the ,pleiades is  connected with the 
beginning of spring1 and feasts are held

 at this time1  generally of a markedly 
immoral character47#ajjb7 ,the ,guaranis
 of ,paraguay  knew the time of sowing  
by observation of the ,pleiades27#ajjc7 
they are  said to have revered the      
constellation and to have dated the     
beginning of  their year from the rising
 of the constellation in ,may47#ajjd7   
,the  ,tapuiyas1 formerly a numerous and
 warlike tribe of ,brazil1 hailed the   
rising of the ,pleiades with great      
respect1 and worshipped the             
constellation with songs and            
dances47#ajje7 ,the ,indians of         
north-western  ,brazil1 an agricultural 
people who subsist mainly by the        
cultivation of  manioc1 determine the   
time for their various field labours by 
the position  of certain constellations1
 especially the ,pleiades2 when that    
constellation has sunk beneath the      
horizon1 the regular1 heavy rains set   
in47#ajjf7 ,the ,omagua ,indians of     
,brazil ascribe to the ,pleiades a      
special  influence on human             

destiny47#ajjg7 ,a ,brazilian name for  
the ,pleiades is  ,cyiuce1 that is1     
8,mother of those who are thirsty40 ,the
 constellation1  we are told1 8is known 
to the ,indians of the whole of ,brasil 
and appears  to be even worshipped by   
some tribes in ,matto ,grosso4 ,in the  
valley of the  ,amazon a number of      
popular sayings are current about it4   
,thus they say  that in the first days  
of its appearance in the firmament1     
while it is  still low1 the birds and   
especially the fowls sleep on the lower 
branches  or perches1 and that just as  
it rises so do they2 that it brings much
 cold  and rain2 that when the          
constellation vanishes1 the serpents    
lose their  venom2 that the reeds used  
in making arrows must be cut before the 
appearance of the ,pleiades1 else they  
will be worm-eaten4 ,according to the   
legend the ,pleiades disappear in ,may  
and reappear in ,june4 ,their           
reappearance coincides with the renewal 
of vegetation and of animal life4       

,hence the legend relates that          
everything which appears before the     
constellation is renewed1 that is1 the  
appearance of the ,pleiades1 marks  the 
beginning of spring407#ajjh7 ,the       
,indians of the ,orinoco called the     
,pleiades ,ucasu or ,cacasau1 according 
to their dialect1 and they dated  the   
beginning of their year from the time   
when these stars are visible in  the    
east after sunset47#ajji7    7,m#bfg7   
,by the ,indians of ,peru 8the ,pleiades
 were called ,collca 7the  maize-heap73 
in this constellation the ,peruvians    
both of the sierra and  the coast beheld
 the prototype of their cherished stores
 of corn4 ,it made  their maize to grow1
 and was worshipped accordingly407#ajaj7
 ,when the  ,pleiades appeared above the
 horizon on or about ,corpus ,christi   
,day1 these  ,indians celebrated their  
chief festival of the year and adored   
the  constellation 8in order that the   
maize might not dry up407#ajaa7         
,adjoining  the great temple of the ,sun

 at ,cuzco there was a cloister with    
halls  opening off it4 ,one of these    
halls was dedicated to the ,moon1 and   
another  to the planet ,venus1 the      
,pleiades1 and all the other stars4 ,the
 ,incas  venerated the ,pleiades because
 of their curious position and the      
symmetry  of their shape47#ajab7 ,the   
tribes of ,vera ,cruz1 on the coast of  
,mexico1  dated the beginning of their  
year from the heliacal setting of the   
,pleiades1 which in the latitude of     
,vera ,cruz 7#ai ,n47 in the year #aeai 
fell on the first of ,may of the        
,gregorian calendar47#ajac7 ,the ,aztecs
  appear to have attached great         
importance to the ,pleiades1 for they   
timed  the most solemn and impressive of
 all their religious ceremonies so as to
  coincide with the moment when that    
constellation was in the middle of the  
sky at midnight4 ,the ceremony consisted
 in kindling a sacred new fire on  the  
breast of a human victim on the last    
night of a great period of  fifty-two   

years4 ,they expected that at the close 
of one of these periods  the stars would
 cease to revolve and the world itself  
would come to an  end4 ,hence1 when the 
critical moment approached1 the priests 
watched from  the top of a mountain the 
movement of the stars1 and especially of
 the  ,pleiades1 with the utmost        
anxiety4 ,when that constellation was   
seen to  cross the meridian1 great was  
the joy2 for they knew that the world   
was  respited for another fifty-two     
years4 ,immediately the bravest and     
handsomest of the captives was thrown   
down on his back2 a board of dry  wood  
was placed on his breast1 and one of the
 priests made fire by  twirling a stick 
between his hands on the board4 ,as soon
 as the flame  burst forth1 the breast  
of the victim was cut open1 his heart   
was torn  out1 and together with the    
rest of his body was thrown into the    
fire4  ,runners carried the new fire at 
full speed to all parts of the kingdom  
to  rekindle the cold hearths2 for every

 fire throughout the country had been   
extinguished as a preparation for this  
solemn rite47#ajad7    7,m#bfh7 ,the    
,blackfeet ,indians of ,north ,america  
8know and observe the  ,pleiades1 and   
regulate their most important feast by  
those stars4 ,about  the first and the  
last days of the occultation of the     
,pleiades there is a  sacred feast among
 the ,blackfeet4 ,the mode of observance
 is national1 the  whole of the tribe   
turning out for the celebration of its  
rites1 which  include two sacred vigils1
 the solemn blessing and planting of the
 seed4  ,it is the opening of the       
agricultural season4444 ,in all highly  
religious  feasts the calumet1 or pipe1 
is always presented towards the         
,pleiades1  with invocation for         
life-giving goods4 ,the women swear by  
the ,pleiades as  the men do by the sun 
or the morning star40 ,at the general   
meeting of the  nation there is a dance 
of warriors1 which is supposed to       
represent the  dance of the seven young 

men who are identified with the         
,pleiades4 ,for the  ,indians say that  
the seven stars of the constellation    
were seven brothers1  who guarded by    
night the field of sacred seed and      
danced round it to keep  themselves     
awake during the long hours of          
darkness47#ajae7 ,according to  another 
legend told by the ,blackfeet1 the      
,pleiades are six children1 who  were so
 ashamed because they had no little     
yellow hides of buffalo calves  that    
they wandered away on the plains and    
were at last taken up into the  sky4    
8,they are not seen during the moon1    
when the buffalo calves are  yellow     
7spring1 the time of their shame71 but1 
every year1 when the calves  turn brown 
7autumn71 the lost children can be seen 
in the sky every  night407#ajaf7 ,this  
version of the myth1 it will be         
observed1 recognises  only six stars in 
the constellation1 and many savages     
apparently see no  more1 which speaks   
ill for the keenness of their vision2   

since among  ourselves persons endowed  
with unusually good sight are able1 ,i  
understand1 to discern seven4 ,among the
 ,pueblo ,indians of ,tusayan1 an       
ancient province of ,arizona1 the       
culmination of the ,pleiades is often   
used  to determine the proper time for  
beginning a sacred nocturnal rite1      
especially an invocation addressed to   
the six deities who are believed to     
rule the six quarters of the world4 ,the
 writer who records this fact adds3  8,i
 cannot explain its significance1 and   
why of all stellar objects this  minute 
cluster of stars of a low magnitude is  
more important than other  stellar      
groups is not clear to me407#ajag7 ,if  
the ,pueblo ,indians see only  six stars
 in the cluster1 as to which ,i cannot  
speak1 it might seem to  them a reason  
for assigning one of the stars to each  
of the six quarters1  namely1 north1    
south1 east1 west1 above1 and below4    
7,m#bfi7 ,the ,society ,islanders in the
 ,south ,pacific divided the year into  

two seasons1 which they determined by   
observation of the ,pleiades4 8,the     
first they called ,matarii i nia1       
,pleiades above4 ,it commenced when1 in 
the evening1 these stars appeared on or 
near the horizon2 and the half  year1   
during which1 immediately after sunset1 
they were seen above the  horizon1 was  
called ,matarii i nia4 ,the other season
 commenced when1 at  sunset1 the stars  
were invisible1 and continued until at  
that hour they  appeared again above the
 horizon4 ,this season was called       
,matarii i raro1  ,pleiades             
below407#ajah7 ,in the ,hervey ,islands 
of the ,south ,pacific it is  said that 
the constellation was originally a      
single star1 which was  shattered into  
six fragments by the god ,tane4 8,this  
cluster of little  stars is             
appropriately named ,mata-riki or       
little-eyes1 on account of  their       
brightness4 ,it is also designated      
,tau-ono1 or the-six1 on account  of the
 apparent number of the fragments2 the  

presence of the seventh star  not having
 been detected by the unassisted native 
eye407#ajai7 ,among these  islanders the
 arrival of the new year was indicated  
by the appearance of  the constellation 
on the eastern horizon just after       
sunset1 that is1 about  the middle of   
,december4 8,hence the idolatrous       
worship paid to this  beautiful cluster 
of stars in many of the ,south ,sea     
,islands4 ,the ,pleiades  were          
worshipped at ,danger ,island1 and at   
the ,penrhyns1 down to the  introduction
 of ,christianity in #aheg4 ,in many    
islands extravagant joy is  still       
manifested at the rising of this        
constellation out of the  ocean407#ajbj7
 ,for example1 in ,manahiki or          
,humphrey's ,island1 ,south  ,pacific1  
8when the constellation ,pleiades was   
seen there was unusual joy  all over the
 month1 and expressed by singing1       
dancing1 and blowing-shell              
trumpets407#ajba7 ,so the ,maoris of    
,new ,zealand1 another ,polynesian      

people  of the ,south ,pacific1 divided 
the year into moons and determined the  
first  moon by the rising of the        
,pleiades1 which they called            
,matariki47#ajbb7  ,indeed throughout   
,polynesia the rising of the ,pleiades  
7variously known as  ,matariki1         
,mataliki1 ,matalii1 ,makalii1 etc47    
seems to have marked the  beginning of  
the year47#ajbc7    7,m#bgj7 ,among some
 of the ,melanesians also the ,pleiades 
occupy an important  position in the    
calendar4 8,the ,banks' islanders and   
,northern ,new ,hebrides  people content
 themselves with distinguishing the     
,pleiades1 by which the  approach of yam
 harvest is marked407#ajbd7 8,amongst   
the constellations1 the  ,pleiades and  
,orion's belt seem to be those which are
 most familiar to the  natives of       
,bougainville ,straits4 ,the former1    
which they speak of as  possessing six  
stars1 they name ,vuhu2 the latter      
,matatala4 ,they have  also names for a 
few other stars4 ,as in the case of many

 other savage  races1 the ,pleiades is a
 constellation of great significance    
with the  inhabitants of these straits4 
,the ,treasury ,islanders hold a great  
feast  towards the end of ,october1 to  
celebrate1 as far as ,i could learn1 the
  approaching appearance of the         
constellation above the eastern horizon 
soon  after sunset4 ,probably1 as in    
many of the ,pacific ,islands1 this     
event  marks the beginning of their     
year4 ,i learned from ,mr4 ,stephens    
that1 in  ,ugi1 where of all the        
constellations the ,pleiades alone      
receives a name1  the natives are guided
 by it in selecting the times for       
planting and  taking up the             
yams407#ajbe7    7,m#bga7 ,the natives  
of the ,torres ,straits islands observe 
the appearance of  the ,pleiades        
7,usiam7 on the horizon at sunset2 and  
when they see it1  they say that the new
 yam time has come47#ajbf7 ,the ,kai and
 the ,bukaua1 two  agricultural tribes  
of ,german ,new ,guinea1 also determine 

the season of  their labour in the      
fields by observation of the ,pleiades3 
the ,kai say  that the time for such    
labours is when the ,pleiades are       
visible above the  horizon at           
night47#ajbg7 ,in some districts of     
northern ,celebes the  rice-fields are  
similarly prepared for cultivation when 
the ,pleiades are  seen at a certain    
height above the horizon47#ajbh7 ,as to 
the ,dyaks of  ,sarawak we read that    
8the ,pleiades themselves tell them when
 to farm2 and  according to their       
position in the heavens1 morning and    
evening1 do they  cut down the forest1  
burn1 plant1 and reap4 ,the ,malays are 
obliged to  follow their example1 or    
their lunar year would soon render their
 farming  operations                    
unprofitable407#ajbi7 ,when the season  
for clearing fresh land in  the forest  
approaches1 a wise man is appointed to  
go out before dawn and  watch for the   
,pleiades4 ,as soon as the constellation
 is seen to rise while  it is yet dark1 

they know that the time has come to     
begin4 ,but not until  the ,pleiades are
 at the zenith before dawn do the ,dyaks
 think it desirable  to burn the fallen 
timber and to sow the rice47#ajcj7      
,however1 the ,kenyahs  and ,kayans1 two
 other tribes of ,sarawak1 determine the
 agricultural  seasons by observation of
 the sun rather than of the stars2 and  
for this  purpose they have devised     
certain simple but ingenious mechanisms4
 ,the  ,kenyahs measure the length of   
the shadow cast by an upright pole at   
noon2  and the ,kayans let in a beam of 
light through a hole in the roof and    
measure the distance from the point     
immediately below the hole to the  place
 where the light reaches the            
floor47#ajca7 ,but the ,kayans of the   
,mahakam river1 in ,dutch ,borneo1      
determine the time for sowing by        
observing  when the sun sets in a line  
with two upright stones47#ajcb7 ,in     
,bali1 an  island to the east of ,java1 
the appearance of the ,pleiades at      

sunset in  ,march marks the end of the  
year47#ajcc7 ,the ,pleiades and ,orion  
are the only  constellations which the  
people of ,bali observe for the purpose 
of  correcting their lunar calendar by  
intercalation4 ,for example1 they bring 
the lunar year into harmony with the    
solar by prolonging the month ,asada    
until the ,pleiades are visible at      
sunset47#ajcd7 ,the natives of ,nias1 an
  island to the south of ,sumatra1 pay  
little heed to the stars1 but they  have
 names for the ,morning ,star and for   
the ,pleiades2 and when the  ,pleiades  
appear in the sky1 the people assemble  
to till their fields1 for  they think   
that to do so before the rising of the  
constellation would be  useless47#ajce7 
,in some districts of ,sumatra 8much    
confusion in regard to  the period of   
sowing is said to have arisen from a    
very extraordinary  cause4 ,anciently1  
say the natives1 it was regulated by the
 stars1 and  particularly by the        
appearance 7heliacal rising7 of the     

bintang baniak  or ,pleiades2 but after 
the introduction of the ,mahometan      
religion1 they  were induced to follow  
the returns of the pusa or great annual 
fast1  and forgot their old rules4 ,the 
consequence of this was obvious2 for the
  lunar year of the hejrah being eleven 
days short of the sidereal or  solar    
year1 the order of the seasons was soon 
inverted2 and it is only  astonishing   
that its inaptness to the purposes of   
agriculture should not  have been       
immediately discovered407#ajcf7 ,the    
,battas or ,bataks of central  ,sumatra 
date the various operations of the      
agricultural year by the  positions of  
,orion and the ,pleiades4 ,when the     
,pleiades rise before the sun  at the   
beginning of ,july1 the ,achinese of    
northern ,sumatra know that the  time   
has come to sow the rice47#ajcg7        
7,m#bgb7 ,scattered and fragmentary as  
these notices are1 they suffice to  shew
 that the ,pleiades have received much  
attention from savages in the  tropical 

regions of the world from ,brasil in the
 east to ,sumatra in the  west4 ,far to 
the north of the tropics the rude       
,kamchatkans are said to  know only     
three constellations1 the ,great ,bear1 
the ,pleiades1 and three  stars in      
,orion47#ajch7 ,when we pass to ,africa 
we again find the ,pleiades  employed by
 tribes in various parts of the         
continent to mark the seasons  of the   
agricultural year4 ,we have seen that   
the ,caffres of ,south ,africa  date    
their new year from the rising of the   
,pleiades just before sunrise  and fix  
the time for sowing by observation of   
that constellation47#ajci7  8,they      
calculate only twelve lunar months for  
the year1 for which they have           
descriptive names1 and this results in  
frequent confusion and difference  of   
opinion as to which month it really is4 
,the confusion is always  rectified by  
the first appearance of ,pleiades just  
before sunrise1 and a  fresh start is   
made and things go on smoothly till once

 more the moons get  out of place1 and  
reference has again to be made to the   
stars407#ajdj7  ,according to another   
authority on the ,bantu tribes of ,south
 ,africa1 8the  rising of the ,pleiades 
shortly after sunset was regarded as    
indicating the  planting season4 ,to    
this constellation1 as well as to       
several of the  prominent stars and     
planets1 they gave expressive names4    
,they formed no  theories concerning the
 nature of the heavenly bodies and their
 motions1  and were not given to        
thinking of such things407#ajda7 ,the   
,amazulu call the  ,pleiades ,isilimela1
 which means 8,the digging-for 7stars710
 because when  the ,pleiades appear the 
people begin to dig4 ,they say that     
8,isilimela  7the ,pleiades7 dies1 and  
is not seen4 ,it is not seen in winter2 
and at  last1 when the winter is coming 
to an end1 it begins to appear--one of  
its  stars first1 and then three1 until 
going on increasing it becomes a        
cluster of stars1 and is perfectly clear

 when the sun is about to rise4  ,and we
 say ,isilimela is renewed1 and the year
 is renewed1 and so we  begin to        
dig407#ajdb7 ,the ,bechuanas 8are       
directed by the position of  certain    
stars in the heavens1 that the time has 
arrived1 in the revolving  year1 when   
particular roots can be dug up for use1 
or when they may  commence their labours
 of the field4 ,this is their           
likhakologo 7turnings  or revolvings71  
or what we should call the spring time  
of the year4 ,the  ,pleiades they call  
selemla1 which may be translated        
#8cultivator1' or  the precursor of     
agriculture1 from lemla1 the relative   
verb to  cultivate for2 and se1 a       
pronominal prefix1 distinguishing them  
as the  actors4 ,thus1 when this        
constellation assumes a certain position
 in the  heavens1 it is the signal to   
commence cultivating their fields and   
gardens407#ajdc7 ,among some of these   
,south ,african tribes the period of    
seclusion observed by lads after        

circumcision comes to an end with the   
appearance of the ,pleiades1 and        
accordingly the youths are said to long 
as  ardently for the rising of the      
constellation as ,mohammedans for the   
rising  of the moon which will put an   
end to the fast of ,ramadan47#ajdd7 ,the
  ,hottentots date the seasons of the   
year by the rising and setting of the   
,pleiades47#ajde7 ,an early ,moravian   
missionary settled among the            
,hottentots1  reports that 8at the      
return of the ,pleiades these natives   
celebrate an  anniversary2 as soon as   
these stars appear above the eastern    
horizon  mothers will lift their little 
ones on their arms1 and running up to   
elevated spots1 will show to them those 
friendly stars1 and teach them to       
stretch their little hands towards them4
 ,the people of a kraal will  assemble  
to dance and to sing according to the   
old custom of their  ancestors4 ,the    
chorus always sings3 #8,o ,tiqua1 our   
,father above our heads1  give rain to  

us1 that the fruits 7bulbs1 etc471      
uientjes1 may ripen1 and  that we may   
have plenty of food1 send us a good     
year4' 07#ajdf7 ,with some  tribes of   
,british ,central ,africa the rising of 
the ,pleiades early in the  evening is  
the signal for the hoeing to            
begin47#ajdg7 ,to the ,masai of ,east   
,africa the appearance of the ,pleiades 
in the wrest is the sign of the         
beginning of the rainy season1 which    
takes its name from the                 
constellation47#ajdh7 ,in ,masailand the
 ,pleiades are above the horizon from   
,september till about the seventeenth of
 ,may2 and the people1 as they  express 
it themselves1 8know whether it will    
rain or not according to the  appearance
 or non-appearance of the six stars1    
called ,the ,pleiades1 which  follow    
after one another like cattle4 ,when the
 month which the ,masai call  #8,of the 
,pleiades'7#ajdi7 arrives1 and the      
,pleiades are no longer visible1  they  
know that the rains are over4 ,for the  

,pleiades set in that month and  are not
 seen again until the season of showers 
has come to an end37#ajej7  it is then  
that they reappear407#ajea7 ,the only   
other groups of stars for  which the    
,masai appear to have names are ,orion's
 sword and ,orion's  belt47#ajeb7 ,the  
,nandi of ,british ,east ,africa have a 
special name  7,koremerik7 for the      
,pleiades1 8and it is by the appearance 
or  non-appearance of these stars that  
the ,nandi know whether they may expect 
a good or a bad harvest407#ajec7 ,the   
,kikuyu of the same region say that     
8the ,pleiades is the mark in the       
heavens to show the people when to plant
  their crops2 they plant when this     
constellation is in a certain position  
early in the night407#ajed7 ,in ,sierra 
,leone 8the proper time for preparing   
the plantations is shewn by the         
particular situation in which the       
,pleiades1 called by the ,bulloms       
a-warrang1 the only stars which they    
observe or distinguish by peculiar      

names1 are to be seen at sunset407#ajee7
  ,we have seen that ancient ,greek     
farmers reaped their corn when the      
,pleiades rose at sunrise in ,may1 and  
that they ploughed their fields when    
the constellation set at sunrise in     
,november47#ajef7 ,the interval between 
the two dates is about six months4 ,both
 the ,greeks and the ,romans dated  the 
beginning of summer from the heliacal   
rising of the ,pleiades and the         
beginning of winter from their heliacal 
setting47#ajeg7 ,pliny regarded the     
autumnal setting of the ,pleiades as the
 proper season for sowing the corn1     
particularly the wheat and the barley1  
and he tells us that in ,greece and     
,asia all the crops were sown at the    
setting of that constellation47#ajeh7   
7,m#bgc7 ,so widespread over the world  
has been and is the association of the  
,pleiades with agriculture1 especially  
with the sowing or planting of the      
crops4 ,the reason for the association  
seems to be the coincidence of the      

rising or setting of the constellation  
with the commencement of the rainy      
season2 since men must very soon have   
learned that the best1 if not the  only1
 season to sow and plant is the time of 
year when the newly-planted  seeds or   
roots will be quickened by abundant     
showers4 ,the same association  of the  
,pleiades with rain seems sufficient to 
explain their importance  even for      
savages who do not till the ground2 for 
ignorant though such  races are1 they   
yet can hardly fail to observe that wild
 fruits grow more  plentifully1 and     
therefore that they themselves have more
 to eat after a  heavy fall of rain than
 after a long drought4 ,in point of fact
 we saw that  some of the ,australian   
aborigines1 who are wholly ignorant of  
agriculture1  look on the ,pleiades as  
the givers of rain1 and curse the       
constellation if  its appearance is not 
followed by the expected showers47#ajei7
 ,on the other  side of the world1 and  
at the opposite end of the scale of     

culture1 the  civilised ,greeks         
similarly supposed that the autumnal    
setting of the  ,pleiades was the cause 
of the rains which followed it2 and the 
astronomical writer ,geminus thought it 
worth while to argue against the        
supposition1 pointing out that the      
vicissitudes of the weather and of the  
seasons1 though they may coincide with  
the risings and settings of the         
constellations1 are not produced by     
them1 the stars being too distant from  
the earth to exercise any appreciable   
influence on our atmosphere4 ,hence1  he
 says1 though the constellations serve  
as the signals1 they must not be        
regarded as the causes1 of atmospheric  
changes2 and he aptly illustrates  the  
distinction by a reference to           
beacon-fires1 which are the signals1 but
  not the causes1 of war47#ajfj7        
,,footnotes         ,m#a ,death and     
resurrection of ,oriental gods of       
vegetation4 ,the ,dying and             
,reviving god of vegetation in ancient  

,greece4     ,m#b ,dionysus1 the god of 
the vine1 originally a ,thracian deity4 
#a ,on ,dionysus in general1 see ,l4    
,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1#d   
i4 #fei sqq42 ,fr4 ,lenormant1 s4v4     
8,bacchus10 in ,daremberg and           
,saglio's ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits  
,grecques et ,romaines1 i4 #eia         
sqq42 ,voigt and ,thraemer1 s4v4        
8,dionysus10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's      
,lexikon der griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1
 i4 #ajbi sqq42 ,e4 ,rohde1             
,psyche#c 7,tbingen and ,leipsic1       
#aijc71 ii4 #a sqq42 ,miss ,j4 ,e4      
,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of
 ,greek ,religion1 ,second              
,edition 7,cambridge1 #aijh71 pp4 #cfc  
sqq42 ,kern1 s4v4 8,dionysus10        in
 ,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie   
der classischen                         
,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 #ajaj sqq42  
,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1 ,griechische          
,feste von religiser ,bedeutung         
7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4 #beh sqq42 ,l4   
,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek 

,states1 v4 7,oxford1 #aiji7 pp4        
#he sqq4 ,the epithet ,bromios bestowed 
on ,dionysus1 and his                   
identification with the ,thracian and   
,phrygian deity ,sabazius1 have         
been adduced as evidence that ,dionysus 
was a god of beer or of other           
cereal intoxicants before he became a   
god of wine4 ,see ,w4 ,headlam1         
in ,classical ,review1 xv4 7#aija7 p4   
#bc2 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1           
,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek    
,religion1 pp4 #dad-dbf4        #b      
,plato1 ,laws1 i4 p4 #fcg ,e2           
,theopompus1 cited by ,athenaeus1 x4    
#fj1        p4 #ddb ,e ,f2 ,suidas1 s4v4
 2 compare ,xenophon1        ,anabasis1 
vii4 #c4 #cb4 ,for the evidence of the  
,thracian origin of        ,dionysus1   
see the writers cited in the preceding  
note1 especially        ,dr4 ,l4 ,r4    
,farnell1 op4 cit4 v4 #he sqq4 ,compare 
,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the        ,origin of   
,tragedy 7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4 #aj   
sqq4        #c ,herodotus1 ii4 #di2     

,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #ig4 #d2 ,p4     
,foucart1 ,le ,culte        de ,dionyse 
en ,attique 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #i     
sqq41 #aei sqq4        7,mmoires de     
l',acadmie des ,inscriptions et         
,belles-lettres1        xxxvii474       
,m#c ,dionysus a god of trees1          
especially of fruit-trees4        #d    
,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #c3    1
          1  4        #e ,hesychius1    
s4v4 4        #f ,see the pictures of   
his images1 drawn from ancient vases1 in
 ,c4        ,btticher's ,baumkultus der 
,hellenen 7,berlin1 #ahef71 plates #db1 
#dc1        #dc ,a1 #dc ,b1 #dd2        
,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des
 ,antiquits        ,grecques et         
,romaines1 i4 #cfa1 #fbf sq4        #g  
,daremberg et ,saglio1 op4 cit4 i4 #fbf4
        #h ,p4 ,wendland und ,o4 ,kern1 
,beitrge zur ,geschichte der            
griechischen        ,philosophie und    
,religion 7,berlin1 #ahie71 pp4 #gi     
sqq42 ,ch4 ,michel1        ,recueil d'  
,inscriptions ,grecques 7,brussels1     

#aijj71 ,no4 #hef4        #i ,cornutus1 
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #cj4  
#aj ,pindar1 quoted by ,plutarch1 ,isis 
et ,osiris1 #ce4       #aa ,maximus     
,tyrius1 ,dissertat4 viii4 #a4       #ab
 ,athenaeus1 iii4 chs4 #ad and #bc1 pp4 
#gh ,c1 #hb ,d4       #ac ,orphica1     
,hymn l4 #d4 liii4 #h4       #ad        
,aelian1 ,var4 ,hist4 iii4 #da2         
,hesychius1 s4v4 4 ,compare             
,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #h4 #c4 
#ae ,pausanias1 i4 #ca4 #d2 id4 vii4    
#ba4 #f4       #af ,dittenberger1       
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #fcf1 vol4 ii4        p4 #dce1     
4 ,however1 the words may equally       
well refer to the cereal crops4         
#ag ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 v4 #c4 
#ah ,pausanias1 ii4 #b4 #f sq4          
,pausanias does not mention the kind of 
tree2 but from ,euripides1 ,bacchae1    
#ajfd sqq41 and ,philostratus1          
,imag4 i4 #ag 7#ah71 we may infer that  
it was a pine1 though        ,theocritus
 7xxvi4 #aa7 speaks of it as a          

mastich-tree4       #ai                 
,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten   
,kunst1 ii4 pll4 xxxii4        sqq42 ,a4
 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler des klassischen 
,altertums1 i4        figures #dhi1     
#dia1 #dib1 #die4 ,compare ,f4          
,lenormant1 in ,daremberg et            
,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits   
,grecques et ,romaines1 i4 #fbc2        
,ch4 ,f4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus          
7,knigsberg1 #ahbi71 p4 #gjj4       #bj 
,pausanias1 i4 #ca4 #f4       #ba       
,athenaeus1 iii4 #ad1 p4 #gh ,c4        
,m#d ,dionysus as a god of agriculture  
and the corn4 ,the winnowing-fan as     
an emblem of ,dionysus4       #bb       
,himerius1 ,orat4 i4 #aj1  4       #bc  
,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #fd4 #a-c1 iv4 
#d4 #a sq4 ,on the agricultural         
aspect of ,dionysus1 see ,l4 ,r4        
,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek     
,states1 v4 7,oxford1 #aiji7 pp4 #abc   
sq4       #bd ,aristotle1 ,mirab4       
,auscult4 #abb 7p4 #hdb ,a1 ed4 ,im4    
,bekker1 ,berlin        edition74       

#be ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4     
#aff2 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce4 
,the literary and monumental evidence as
 to the winnowing-fan in the        myth
 and ritual of ,dionysus has been       
collected and admirably                 
interpreted by ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison  
in her article 8,mystica ,vannus        
,iacchi10 ,journal of ,hellenic         
,studies1 xxiii4 7#aijc7 pp4 #bib-cbd4  
,compare her ,prolegomena to the ,study 
of ,greek ,religion#b                   
7,cambridge1 #aijh71 pp4 #eag sqq4 ,i   
must refer the reader to these          
works for full details on the subject4  
,in the passage of ,servius             
referred to the reading is somewhat     
uncertain2 in his critical              
edition ,g4 ,thilo reads  and  instead  
of the usual         and 4 ,but the     
variation does not affect the meaning4  
,m#e ,use of the winnowing-fan to cradle
 infants4 ,the winnowing-fan            
sometimes intended to avert evil spirits
 from children4       #bf               

1 ,scholiast on ,callimachus1 i4 #dh    
7,callimachea1 edidit        ,o4        
,schneider1 ,leipsic1 #ahgj-ahgc1 vol4  
i4 p4 #aji74       #bg ,t4 ,s4 ,raffles1
 ,history of ,java 7,london1 #ahag71 i4 
#cbc2 ,c4 ,f4        ,winter1           
8,instellingen1 ,gewoontenen ,gebruiken 
der ,javanen te        ,soerakarta10    
,tijdschrift voor ,nerlands ,indie1     
,vijfde ,jaargang1        ,eerste ,deel 
7#ahdc71 p4 #fie2 ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 ,java  
7,haarlem1 #ahge-ahhd71        i4 #fci4 
#bh ,c4 ,poensen1 8,iets over de        
kleeding der ,javanen10 ,mededeelingen  
van        wege het ,nederlandsche      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xx4 7#ahgf7 pp4  
#bgi        sq4       #bi ,rev4 ,j4     
,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the        
,chinese1 edited and revised        by  
the ,rev4 ,paxton ,hood 7,london1       
#ahfh71 pp4 #ij sq4       #cj ,rev4 ,e4 
,m4 ,gordon1 8,some ,notes concerning   
the ,people of ,mungli        ,tahsl1   
,bilaspur ,district10 ,journal of the   
,asiatic ,society of        ,bengal1    

lxxi41 ,part iii4 7,calcutta1 #aijc7 p4 
#gd2 id41 ,indian        ,folk ,tales   
7,london1 #aijh71 p4 #da4       #ca ,c4 
,b4 ,klunzinger1 ,bilder aus ,obergypten
 7,stuttgart1 #ahgg71 pp4        #aha1  
#ahb2 id41 ,upper ,egypt1 its ,people   
and ,products 7,london1        #ahgh71  
pp4 #ahe1 #ahf4       #cb ,r4 ,c4       
,temple1 8,opprobrious ,names10 ,indian 
,antiquary1 x4 7#ahha7 pp4        #cca  
sq4 ,compare ,h4 ,a4 ,rose1 8,hindu     
,birth ,observances in the              
,punjab10 ,journal of the ,royal        
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvii4    
7#aijg7 p4 #bcd4 ,see also ,panjab      
,notes and ,queries1 vol4 iii4 ,august  
#ahhf1  #gfh1 pp4 #ahd sq43 8,the       
winnowing fan in which a newly-born     
child is laid1 is used on the fifth day 
for the worship of ,satw4        ,this  
makes it impure1 and it is henceforward 
used only for the                       
house-sweepings40       #cc             
,lieut4-,colonel ,gunthorpe1 8,on the   
,ghos or ,gadd ,gaols of the            

,deccan10 ,journal of the               
,anthropological ,society of ,bombay1 i4
 #de4       #cd ,c4 ,bock1 ,temples and 
,elephants 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #beh   
sq4       ,m#f ,use of the winnowing-fan
 to avert evil from children in ,india1 
,madagascar1 and ,china4 ,karen ceremony
 of fanning away evils from             
children4       #ce ,s4 ,mateer1 ,native
 ,life in ,travancore 7,london1 #ahhc71 
p4 #bac4       #cf ,j4 ,richardson1     
8,tanala ,customs1 ,superstitions1 and  
,beliefs10        ,antananarivo ,annual 
and ,madagascar ,magazine1 ,reprint of  
the ,first        ,four ,numbers        
7,antananarivo1 #ahhe71 pp4 #bbf sq4    
#cg ,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h2 ,k4 ,f4    
,hermann1 ,lehrbuch der                 
gottesdienstlichen ,alterthmer der      
,griechen#b 7,heidelberg1 #aheh71       
pp4 #acb sq41  #bc1 #be4       #ch ,rev4
 ,j4 ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the   
,chinese1 edited and revised        by  
the ,rev4 ,paxton ,hood 7,london1       
#ahfh71 pp4 #aad sq4 ,the beans used    

in the ceremony had previously been     
placed before an image of the           
goddess of small-pox4       #ci ,rev4   
,f4 ,mason1 ,d4,d41 8,physical          
,character of the ,karens10 ,journal of 
the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,new  
,series1 ,no4 cxxxi4 7,calcutta1        
#ahff71 pp4 #i sq4       ,m#g ,among the
 reasons for the use of the             
winnowing-fan in birth-rites        may 
have been the wish to avert evils and to
 promote fertility and        growth4   
#dj ,servius on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4     
#aff3 8,et vannus ,iacchi4444 ,mystica  
autem ,bacchi ideo ait1 quod ,liberi    
patris sacra ad purgationem             
animae pertinebant3 et sic homines ejus 
mysteriis purgabantur1 sicut            
vannis frumenta purgantur40       #da   
,w4 ,mannhardt1 8,kind und ,korn10      
,mythologische ,forschungen             
7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cea-cgd4      
#db ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cea   
sqq4       #dc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 
p4 #cgb1 citing ,a4 ,wuttke1 ,der       

deutsche        ,volks-aberglaube#b     
7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 #cci1  #edc2 ,l4   
,strackerjan1        ,aberglaube und    
,sagen aus dem ,herzogthum ,oldenburg   
7,oldenburg1        #ahfg71 i4 #ha4     
#dd ,boecler-,kreutzwald1 ,der ,ehsten  
aberglubische ,gebruche 7,st4           
,petersburg1 #ahed71 p4 #fa4 ,this      
custom is also cited by ,mannhardt      
7l4c474       ,m#h ,use of the          
winnowing-fan in the rites of ,dionysus4
       #de ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1     
8,mystica ,vannus ,iacchi10 ,journal of 
,hellenic        ,studies1 xxiii4       
7#aijc7 pp4 #bif sqq42 id41 ,prolegomena
 to the        ,study of ,greek         
,religion1#b pp4 #eah sqq42 ,l4 ,r4     
,farnell1 ,the ,cults        of the     
,greek ,states1 v4 7,oxford1 #aiji7 p4  
#bdc4       #df ,herodotus1 ii4 #dh1    
#di2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4
 ii4 #cd1        pp4 #bi-cj1 ed4        
,potter2 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge        
,inscriptionum        ,graecarum1#b ,no4
 #ai1 vol4 i4 p4 #cb2 ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson1 

,studia de        ,dionysiis ,atticis   
7,lund1 #aijj71 pp4 #ij sqq42 ,l4 ,r4   
,farnell1 ,the        ,cults of the     
,greek ,states1 v4 #abe1 #aie1 #bje4    
#dg ,augustine1 ,de civitate ,dei1 vii4 
#ba4       ,m#i ,myth of the death and  
resurrection of ,dionysus4 ,legend that 
the        infant ,dionysus occupied for
 a short time the throne of his father  
,zeus4 ,death and resurrection of       
,dionysus represented in his rites4     
#dh ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 vi4 #aee-bje4     
#di ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore     
profanarum religionum1 #f4       #ej    
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 
#ag4 ,compare ,ch4 ,a4 ,lobeck1         
,aglaophamus1 pp4 #aaaa sqq4       #ea  
,proclus on ,plato1 ,cratylus1 p4 #ei1  
quoted by ,e4 ,abel1 ,orphica1        p4
 #bbh4 ,compare ,chr4 ,a4 ,lobeck1      
,aglaophamus1 pp4 #eeb sq4       #eb    
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 
#ai4 ,compare id4 ii4 #bb2              
,scholiast on ,lucian1 ,dial4 ,meretr4  
vii4 p4 #bhj1 ed4 ,h4 ,rabe4       #ec  

,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 
#ah2 ,proclus on ,plato's               
,timaeus1 iii4 p4 #bjj ,d1 quoted by    
,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #efb1         
and by ,abel1 ,orphica1 p4 #bcd4 ,others
 said that the mangled body        was  
pieced together1 not by ,apollo but by  
,rhea 7,cornutus1        ,theologiae    
,graecae ,compendium1 #cj74       #ed   
,ch4 ,a4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 pp4 #egb
 sqq4 ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 p4         
#c4 ,for a conjectural restoration of   
the temple1 based on ancient            
authorities and an examination of the   
scanty remains1 see an article        by
 ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton1 in ,journal of     
,hellenic ,studies1 ix4 7#ahhh7 pp4     
#bhb sqq4 ,the ruins of the temple have 
now been completely        excavated by 
the ,french4       #ee ,s4 ,clemens     
,romanus1 ,recognitiones1 x4 #bd        
7,migne's ,patrologia        ,graeca1 i4
 col4 #adcd74       #ef ,diodorus       
,siculus1 iii4 #fb4       #eg           
,macrobius1 ,comment4 in ,somn4 ,scip4  

i4 #ab4 #ab2 ,scriptores rerum          
mythicarum ,latini tres ,romae nuper    
reperti 7commonly referred to as        
,mythographi ,vaticani71 ed4 ,g4 ,h4    
,bode 7,cellis1 #ahcd71 iii4 #ab4 #e1   
p4 #bdf2 ,origen1 ,contra ,celsum1 iv4  
#ag 7vol4 i4 p4 #bhf1 ed4 ,p4           
,koetschau74       #eh ,himerius1 ,orat4
 ix4 #d4       #ei ,proclus1 ,hymn to   
,minerva1 quoted by ,ch4 ,a4 ,lobeck1   
,aglaophamus1        p4 #efa2 ,orphica1 
ed4 ,e4 ,abel1 p4 #bce4       #fj       
,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #afg4       #fa ,the
 festivals of ,dionysus were biennial in
 many places4 ,see ,g4 ,f4              
,schmann1 ,griechische ,alterthmer1#d   
ii4 #ebd sqq4 7,the terms for        the
 festival were 1 1 both terms of the    
series        being included in the     
numeration1 in accordance with the      
ancient        mode of reckoning47      
,perhaps the festivals were formerly    
annual and        the period was        
afterwards lengthened1 as has happened  
with other        festivals4 ,see ,w4   

,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #agb1 #age1
 #dia1 #ecc        sq41 #eih4 ,some of  
the festivals of ,dionysus1 however1    
were annual4        ,dr4 ,farnell has   
conjectured that the biennial period in 
many ,greek        festivals is to be   
explained by 8the original shifting of  
land-cultivation which is frequent in   
early society owing to the              
backwardness of the agricultural        
processes2 and which would              
certainly be consecrated by a special   
ritual attached to the god of        the
 soil40 ,see ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the     
,cults of the ,greek ,states1 v4        
#ahj sq4       #fb ,firmicus ,maternus1 
,de errore profanarum religionum1 #f4   
#fc ,mythographi ,vaticani1 ed4 ,g4 ,h4 
,bode1 iii4 #ab4 #e1 p4 #bdf4       #fd 
,plutarch1 ,consol4 ad uxor4 #aj4       
,compare id41 ,isis et ,osiris1         
#ce2 id41 ,de ,e ,delphico1 #i2 id41 ,de
 esu carnium1 i4 #g4       #fe          
,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #b and #cg4 #e2    
,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #e4    

#c4       #ff ,pausanias1 ii4 #cg4 #e   
sq42 ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2  
id41        ,quaest4 ,conviv4 iv4 #f4   
#b4       #fg ,himerius1 ,orat4 iii4 #f1
 xiv4 #g4       #fh ,for ,dionysus in   
this capacity see ,f4 ,lenormant in     
,daremberg et        ,saglio1           
,dictionnaire des ,antiquits ,grecques  
et ,romaines1 i4 #fcb4        ,for      
,osiris1 see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1  
,second ,edition1 pp4 #cdd        sq4   
,m#aj ,dionysus represented in the form 
of a bull4       #fi ,plutarch1 ,isis et
 ,osiris1 #ce2 id41 ,quaest4 ,graec4    
#cf2        ,athenaeus1 xi4 #ea1 p4 #dgf
 ,a2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4
 ii4        #af2 ,orphica1 ,hymn xxx4   
vv4 #c1 #d1 xlv4 #a1 lii4 #b1 liii4 #h2 
,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #ii2 ,scholiast on
 ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #ceg2           
,nicander1 ,alexipharmaca1 #ca2 ,lucian1
 ,bacchus1 #b4 ,the title               
applied to ,dionysus 7,homeric ,hymns1  
xxxiv4 #b2 ,porphyry1        ,de        
abstinentia1 iii4 #ag2 ,dionysius1      

,perieg4 #egf2 ,etymologicum            
,magnum1 p4 #cga4 #eg7 is etymologically
 equivalent to the ,sanscrit            
varsabha1 8a bull10 as ,i was informed  
by my lamented friend the        late   
,r4 ,a4 ,neil of ,pembroke ,college1    
,cambridge4       #gj ,euripides1       
,bacchae1 #ibj sqq41 #ajag2 ,nonnus1    
,dionys4 vi4 #aig        sqq4       #ga 
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ce2       
,athenaeus1 xi4 #ea1 p4 #dgf ,a4        
#gb ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #fd4 #b1   
iv4 #d4 #b2 ,cornutus1 ,theologiae      
,graecae ,compendium1 #cj4       #gc    
,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #fd4 #b2 ,j4   
,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1        
#bji1 #abcf2 ,philostratus1 ,imagines1  
i4 #ad 7#ae74       #gd                 
,mller-,wieseler1 ,denkmler der alten   
,kunst1 ii4 pl4 xxxiii42                
,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des
 ,antiquits ,grecques et                
,romaines1 i4 #fai sq41 #fca2 ,w4 ,h4   
,roscher1 ,lexikon d4 griech4 u4        
rm4 ,mythologie1 i4 #aadi sqq42 ,f4     

,imhoof-,blumer1 8,coin-types of        
some ,kilikian ,cities10 ,journal of    
,hellenic ,studies1 xviii4 7#ahih7      
p4 #afe4       #ge ,f4 ,g4 ,welcker1    
,alte ,denkmler 7,gttingen1 #ahdi-ahfd71
 v4 taf4 #b4       #gf ,archaeologische 
,zeitung1 ix4 7#ahea7 pl4 xxxiii41 with 
,gerhard's        remarks1 pp4 #cga-cgc4
       #gg ,gazette ,archologique1 v4   
7#ahgi7 pl4 #c4       #gh ,pausanias1   
viii4 #ai4 #b4       #gi ,plutarch1     
,quaestiones ,graecae1 #cf2 id41 ,isis  
et ,osiris1 #ce4       #hj ,j4 ,tzetzes1
 ,schol4 on ,lycophron1 #abcf4       #ha
 ,nonnus1 ,dionys4 vi4 #bje4       #hb  
,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore         
profanarum religionum1 #f4       #hc    
,euripides1 ,bacchae1 #gce sqq42        
,scholiast on ,aristophanes1            
,frogs1 #ceg4      ,m#aa ,dionysus as a 
goat4 ,live goats rent and devoured by  
his worshippers4       #hd ,hesychius1  
s4v4   1 on which there is a marginal   
gloss   1     1   2        ,stephanus   
,byzantius1 s4v4 4       #he ,pausanias1

 ii4 #ce4 #a2 ,scholiast on             
,aristophanes1 ,acharn4 #adf2           
,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #aah4  
#ed sqq42 ,suidas1        s4vv4  and  2 
,nonnus1 ,dionys4 xxvii4        #cjb4   
,compare ,conon1 ,narrat4 #ci1 where for
  we should        perhaps read 4       
#hf ,pausanias1 ii4 #ac4 #f4 ,on their  
return from ,troy the ,greeks are said  
to have found goats and an image of     
,dionysus in a cave of ,euboea          
7,pausanias1 i4 #bc4 #a74       #hg     
,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #d4 #c4
       #hh ,ovid1 ,metam4 v4 #cbi2      
,antoninus ,liberalis1 ,transform4 #bh2 
,mythographi ,vaticani1 ed4 ,g4 ,h4     
,bode1 i4 #hf1 p4 #bi4       #hi        
,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 v4 #ai4  
,compare ,suidas1 s4v4        4 ,as     
fawns appear to have been also torn in  
pieces at the        rites of ,dionysus 
7,photius1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 2             
,harpocration1 s4v4 71 it is probable   
that the fawn was        another of the 
god's embodiments4 ,but of this there   

seems no direct        evidence4        
,fawn-skins were worn both by the god   
and his worshippers        7,cornutus1  
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #cj74 
,similarly the        female ,bacchanals
 wore goat-skins 7,hesychius1 s4v4 74   
,m#ab ,custom of rending and devouring  
animals and men as a religious rite4    
,ceremonial cannibalism among the       
,indians of ,british ,columbia4         
#ij ,mr4 ,duncan1 quoted by ,commander  
,r4 ,c4 ,mayne1 ,four ,years in ,british
        ,columbia and ,vancouver ,island
 7,london1 #ahfb71 pp4 #bhd-bhh4 ,the   
instrument which made the screeching    
sound was no doubt a        bull-roarer1
 a flat piece of stick whirled at the   
end of a string so        as to produce 
a droning or screaming note according to
 the speed of        revolution4 ,such  
instruments are used by the ,koskimo    
,indians of the        same region at   
their cannibal and other rites4 ,see    
,fr4 ,boas1 8,the        ,social        
,organization and the ,secret ,societies

 of the ,kwakiutl        ,indians10     
,report of the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 
for #ahie 7,washington1        #ahig71  
pp4 #faj1 #faa4      ,m#ac ,religious   
societies of ,cannibals and ,dog-eaters 
among the ,indians of        ,british   
,columbia4 ,live goats rent in pieces   
and devoured by fanatics        in      
,morocco4       #ia ,fr4 ,boas1 op4 cit4
 pp4 #dcg-ddc1 #ebg sq41 #ecf1 #ecg sq41
 #egi1        #ffd2 id41 in 8,fifth     
,report on the ,north-western ,tribes of
 ,canada10        ,report of the        
,british ,association for #ahhi1 pp4    
#ed-ef 7separate        reprint72 id41  
in 8,sixth ,report on the ,north-western
 ,tribes of        ,canada10 ,report of 
the ,british ,association for #ahij1 pp4
 #fb1 #fe        sq4 7separate reprint74
 ,as to the rules observed after the    
eating        of human flesh1 see ,taboo
 and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4      
#ahh-aij4       #ib ,fr4 ,boas1 8,the   
,social ,organization and the ,secret   
,societies of the        ,kwakiutl      

,indians10 ,report of the ,u4,s4        
,national ,museum for #ahie             
7,washington1 #ahig71 pp4 #fdi sq41 #feh
 sq42 id41 in 8,sixth        ,report on 
the ,north-western ,tribes of ,canada10 
,report of the        ,british          
,association for #ahij1 p4 #ea2         
7separate reprint72 id41                
8,seventh ,report on the ,north-western 
,tribes of ,canada10 ,report of         
the ,british ,association for #ahia1 pp4
 #aj sq4 7separate reprint72        id41
 8,tenth ,report on the ,north-western  
,tribes of ,canada10 ,report        of  
the ,british ,association for #ahie1 p4 
#eh 7separate reprint74       #ic ,g4   
,m4 ,dawson1 ,report on the ,queen      
,charlotte ,islands1 #ahgh              
7,montreal1 #ahhj71 pp4 #abe ,b1 #abh   
,b4       #id ,j4 ,r4 ,swanton1         
,contributions to the ,ethnology of the 
,haida 7,leyden        and ,new ,york1  
#aije71 pp4 #aef1 #afj sq41 #agj sq41   
#aha 7,the ,jesup        ,north ,pacific
 ,expedition1 ,memoir of the ,american  

,museum of ,natural        ,history74   
,for details as to the practice of these
 savage rites        among the ,indian  
coast tribes of ,british ,columbia1 see 
my ,totemism        and ,exogamy        
7,london1 #aiaj71 iii4 pp4 #eja1 #eaa   
sq41 #eae sq41        #eai1 #eba1 #ebf1 
#ece sq41 #ecg1 #eci sq41 #edb sq41     
#edd1 #ede4       #ie ,a4 ,leared1      
,morocco and the ,moors 7,london1       
#ahgf71 pp4 #bfg-bfi4        ,compare   
,budgett ,meakin1 ,the ,moors 7,london1 
#aijb71 pp4 #cca sq4        ,the same   
order of fanatics also exists and holds 
similar orgies in        ,algeria1      
especially at the town of ,tlemcen4 ,see
 ,e4 ,doutt1 ,les        ,assoua        
,tlemcen 7,chlons-sur-,marne1 #aijj71 p4
 #ac4      ,m#ad ,later                 
misinterpretations of the custom of     
killing a god in animal        form4    
#if ,varro1 ,rerum rusticarum1 i4 #b4   
#ai2 ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #cgf-cha1     
with the comments of ,servius on the    
passage and on ,aen4 iii4 #aah2         

,ovid1 ,fasti1 i4 #cec sqq42 id41       
,metamorph4 xv4 #aad sq42               
,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae         
,compendium1 #cj4       #ig ,euripides1 
,bacchae1 #ach sq43   1         4       
#ih ,schol4 on ,aristophanes1 ,frogs1   
#ceg4       #ii ,hera  at ,sparta1      
,pausanias1 iii4 #ae4 #i2 ,hesychius1   
s4v4         7compare the representation
 of ,hera clad in a goat's skin1        
with the animal's head and horns over   
her head1 ,mller-,wieseler1             
,denkmler der alten ,kunst1 i4 ,no4 #bbi
 ,b2 and the similar                    
representation of the ,lanuvinian ,juno1
 ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon d4          
griech4 u4 rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #fje    
sqq472 ,zeus 1        ,etymologicum     
,magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #bg4 #eb 7compare    
,scholiast on ,oppianus1 ,halieut4 iii4 
#aj2 ,l4 ,stephani1 in                  
,compte-,rendu de la ,commission        
,impriale ,archologique pour l'anne     
#ahfi 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahgj71 pp4    
#af-ah72 ,apollo  at ,elis1             

,athenaeus1 viii4 #cf1 p4 #cdf ,b2      
,artemis  in ,samos1        ,hesychius1 
s4v4 2 compare id41 s4v4 4              
,divine titles derived from killing     
animals are probably to be              
similarly explained1 as ,dionysus       
7,pausanias1 ix4 #h4 #b72        ,rhea  
or ,hecate  7,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,scholia on  
,lycophron1 #gg72        ,apollo        
7,sophocles1 ,electra1 #f72 ,apollo     
7,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxxiv4 #gj74      
#ajj ,see below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahd1     
#aid1 #aif1 #aig sq41 #bcc4      ,m#ae  
,human sacrifices in the worship of     
,dionysus4      #aja ,porphyry1 ,de     
abstinentia1 ii4 #ee4      #ajb         
,pausanias1 ix4 #h4 #b4      #ajc ,see  
,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #afc sq4          
,m#af ,the legendary deaths of ,pentheus
 and ,lycurgus may be reminiscences     
of a custom of sacrificing divine kings 
in the character of        ,dionysus4   
#ajd ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second  
,edition1 pp4 #ccb sq4      #aje        
,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4 #e4 #a4

      #ajf ,the ,magic ,art and the     
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #cdd1 #cde1    
#cdf1 #ceb1        #ced1 #cff sq4       
#ajg ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 iii4   
#e4 #a4      #ajh ,herodotus1 vii4 #aig2
 ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 i4 #i4 #a  
sq42        ,scholiast on ,aristophanes1
 ,clouds1 #beg2 ,j4 ,tzetzes1 ,schol4 on
        ,lycophron1 #ba2 ,hyginus1      
,fabulae1 #a-e4 ,see ,the ,dying ,god1  
pp4        #afa-afc4      #aji ,clemens 
,romanus1 ,recognitiones1 x4 #bd        
7,migne's ,patrologia        ,graeca1 i4
 col4 #adcd74      #aaj ,euripides1     
,bacchae1 #dc sqq41 #ajdc sqq42         
,theocritus1 ,idyl4        xxvi42       
,pausanias1 ii4 #b4 #g4 ,strictly       
speaking1 the murder of        ,pentheus
 is said to have been perpetrated not at
 ,thebes1 of which he        was king1  
but on ,mount ,cithaeron4      ,m#ag    
,survival of ,dionysiac rites among the 
modern ,thracian peasantry4      #aaa   
,see ,mr4 ,r4 ,m4 ,dawkins1 8,the       
,modern ,carnival in ,thrace and the    

,cult        of ,dionysus10 ,journal of 
,hellenic ,studies1 xxvi4 7#aijf7 pp4   
#aia-bjf4 ,mr4 ,dawkins describes the   
ceremonies partly from his own          
observation1 partly from an account of  
them published by ,mr4 ,g4 ,m4          
,vizyenos in a ,greek periodical  1 of  
which only one        number was        
published at ,athens in #ahig4 ,from his
 personal        observations ,mr4      
,dawkins was able to confirm the        
accuracy of ,mr4        ,vizyenos's     
account4      #aab ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #ccc sq4 
,m#ah ,drama annually performed at the  
,carnival in the villages round ,viza1  
an old ,thracian capital4 ,the actors in
 the drama4      #aac ,strabo1 vii4     
frag4 #dh2 ,stephanus ,byzantius1 s4v4 4
      #aad ,r4 ,m4 ,dawkins1 op4 cit4 p4
 #aib4      ,m#ai ,the ceremonies       
include the forging of a ploughshare1 a 
mock        marriage1 and a pretence of 
death and resurrection4    ,m#bj ,the   
ceremonies also include a simulation of 

ploughing and sowing by        skin-clad
 men1 accompanied by prayers for good   
crops4      #aae ,r4 ,m4 ,dawkins1 8,the
 ,modern ,carnival in ,thrace and the   
,cult of        ,dionysus10 ,journal of 
,hellenic ,studies1 xxvi4 7#aijf7 pp4   
#aic-bja4      ,m#ba ,kindred ceremony  
performed by a masked and skin-clad man 
who is        called a king4      #aaf  
,r4 ,m4 ,dawkins1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bja sq4 
,m#bb ,analogy of these modern ,thracian
 ceremonies to the ancient rites of     
,dionysus4      #aag ,they have been    
clearly indicated by ,mr4 ,r4 ,m4       
,dawkins1 op4 cit4        pp4 #bjc sqq4 
,compare ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin of 
,tragedy        7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 pp4
 #ae sqq41 who fully recognises the     
connexion        of the modern ,thracian
 ceremonies with the ancient rites of   
,dionysus4      #aah ,lucian1 ,dialogi  
,deorum1 ix4 #b2 ,apollodorus1          
,bibliotheca1 iii4 #d4        #d4       
,according to the latter writer         
,dionysus was born in the sixth         

month4      ,m#bc ,the modern ,thracian 
celebration seems to correspond most    
closely to        the ancient ,athenian 
festival of the ,anthesteria4      #aai 
,as to such festivals of ,all ,souls see
 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1              
,second ,edition1 pp4 #cja-cah4         
#abj ,the passages of ancient authors   
which refer to the ,anthesteria are     
collected by ,professor ,martin ,p4     
,nilsson1 ,studia de ,dionysiis         
,atticis 7,lund1 #aijj71 pp4 #adh sqq4  
,as to the festival1 which has          
been much discussed of late years1 see  
,august ,mommsen1 ,heortologie          
7,leipsic1 #ahfd71 pp4 #cde sqq42 id41  
,feste der ,stadt ,athen im             
,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #chd   
sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,schoemann1               
,griechische ,alterthmer#d 7,berlin1    
#aijb71 ii4 #eaf sqq42 ,e4 ,rohde1      
,psyche#c 7,tbingen and ,leipsic1       
#aijc71 i4 #bcf sqq42 ,martin ,p4       
,nilsson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aae sqq42 ,p4   
,foucart1 ,le ,culte de        ,dionysos

 en ,attique 7,paris1 #aijd71 pp4 #ajg  
sqq42 ,miss ,j4 ,e4        ,harrison1   
,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek    
,religion#b 7,cambridge1        #aijh71 
pp4 #cb sqq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the    
,cults of the ,greek        ,states1 v4 
7,oxford1 #aiji7 pp4 #bad sqq4 ,as to   
the marriage of        ,dionysus to the 
,queen of ,athens1 see ,the ,magic ,art 
and the        ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 
#acf sq4      #aba ,by ,professor ,u4   
von ,wilamowitz-,moellendorff1          
,aristoteles und ,athen        7,berlin1
 #ahic71 ii4 #db2 and afterwards by     
,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1                
,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek    
,religion1#b p4 #ecf4      #abb ,the    
,dying ,god1 p4 #ga4      #abc          
,plutarch1 ,conjugalia ,praecepta1 #db4 
#abd ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,mythology
 and ,monuments of ,ancient ,athens     
7,london1 #ahij71 pp4 #aff sq4      #abe
 ,aristotle1 ,constitution of ,athens1  
#c4 ,as to the situation of the         
,prytaneum see my note on ,pausanias1 i4

 #ah4 #c 7vol4 ii4 p4 #agb74      ,m#bd 
,theory that the rites of the           
,anthesteria comprised a drama of the   
violent death and resurrection of       
,dionysus4      #abf ,august ,mommsen1  
,heortologie1 pp4 #cga sqq42 id41 ,feste
 der        ,stadt ,athen im ,altertum1 
pp4 #cih sqq42 ,p4 ,foucart1 ,le ,culte 
de        ,dionysos en ,attique1 pp4    
#ach sqq4      #abg ,demosthenes1       
,contra ,neaer4 #gc1 pp4 #acfi sq42     
,julius ,pollux1        viii4 #ajh2     
,etymologicum ,magnum1 p4 #bbg1 s4v4 2  
,hesychius1 s4v4 4      #abh ,chr4 ,a4  
,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #eje4         
#abi ,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ah1  
#db4      #acj ,the resurrection of     
,osiris is not described by ,plutarch in
 his        treatise ,isis et ,osiris1  
which is still our principal source for 
the myth of the god2 but it is          
fortunately recorded in native          
,egyptian writings4 ,see ,adonis1       
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 p4   
#bgd4 ,p4 ,foucart supposes that the    

resurrection of ,dionysus was           
enacted at the ,anthesteria2 ,august    
,mommsen prefers to suppose that        
it was enacted in the following month at
 the ,lesser ,mysteries4      ,m#be     
,legends of human sacrifice in the      
worship of ,dionysus may be mere        
misinterpretations of ritual4      #aca 
,aelian1 ,de ,natura ,animalium1 xii4   
#cd4 ,compare ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1    
,religion of the ,semites#b 7,london1   
#ahid71 pp4 #cjj sqq4      #acb ,aulus  
,gellius1 v4 #ab4 #ab4      #acc ,see   
,the ,dying ,god1 p4 #aff note #a1 and  
below1 p4 #bdi4      ,m#bf ,demeter and 
,persephone as ,greek personifications  
of the decay and        revival of      
vegetation4    ,m#bg ,the ,homeric ,hymn
 to ,demeter4 ,the rape of ,persephone4 
,the wrath of        ,demeter4 ,the     
return of ,persephone4      #acd ,r4    
,foerster1 ,der ,raub und die ,rckkehr  
der ,persephone 7,stuttgart1            
#ahgd71 pp4 #cg-ci2 ,the ,homeric       
,hymns1 edited by ,t4 ,w4 ,allen and ,e4

        ,e4 ,sikes 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4
 #aj sq4 ,a later date--the age of the  
,pisistratids--is assigned to the hymn  
by ,a4 ,baumeister 7,hymni              
,homerici1 ,leipsic1 #ahfj1 p4 #bhj74   
#ace ,hymn to ,demeter1 #a sqq41 #cjb   
sqq41 #ccj sqq41 #cdi sqq41 #dad        
sqq41 #dej sqq4      #acf ,hymn to      
,demeter1 #caj sqq4 ,with the myth as   
set forth in the        ,homeric hymn   
may be compared the accounts of         
,apollodorus        7,bibliotheca1 i4   
#e7 and ,ovid 7,fasti1 iv4 #dbe-fah2    
,metamorphoses1 v4 #che sqq474          
,m#bh ,the aim of the ,homeric ,hymn to 
,demeter is to explain the              
traditional foundation of the           
,eleusinian mysteries by ,demeter4      
#acg ,hymn to ,demeter1 #dg-ej1         
#aia-baa1 #bib-bie1 with the notes of   
,messrs4 ,allen and ,sikes in their     
edition of the ,homeric ,hymns          
7,london1 #aijd74 ,as to representations
 of the candidates for        initiation
 seated on stools draped with           

sheepskins1 see ,l4 ,r4        ,farnell1
 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 iii4
 7,oxford1 #aijg7 pp4        #bcg sqq41 
with plate xv a4 ,on a well-known marble
 vase there        figured the stool is 
covered with a lion's skin and one of   
the        candidate's feet rests on a  
ram's skull or horns2 but in two other  
examples of the same scene the ram's    
fleece is placed on the seat            
7,farnell1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdj note a71    
just as it is said to have been         
placed on ,demeter's stool in the       
,homeric hymn4 ,as to the form of       
communion in the ,eleusinian mysteries1 
see ,clement of ,alexandria1            
,protrept4 #ba1 p4 #ah ed4 ,potter2     
,arnobius1 ,adversus nationes1 v4       
#bf2 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 op4 cit4 iii4    
#ahe sq41 #aie sq4 ,for                 
discussions of the ancient evidence     
bearing on the ,eleusinian              
mysteries it may suffice to refer to    
,chr4 ,a4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus         
7,knigsberg1 #ahbi71 pp4 #c sqq42 ,g4   

,f4 ,schoemann1 ,griechische            
,alterthmer1#d ii4 #chg sqq42 ,aug4     
,mommsen1 ,heortologie 7,leipsic1       
#ahfd71 pp4 #bbb sqq42 id41 ,feste der  
,stadt ,athen im ,altertum              
7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #bjd sqq42 ,p4   
,foucart1 ,recherches sur               
l',origine et la ,nature des ,mystres   
d',eleusis 7,paris1 #ahie7              
7,mmoires de l',acadmie des             
,inscriptions1 xxxv472 id41 ,les        
grands ,mystres d',eleusis 7,paris1     
#aijj7 7,mmoires de l',acadmie          
des ,inscriptions1 xxxvii472 ,f4        
,lenormant and ,e4 ,pottier1 s4v4       
8,eleusinia10 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 
,dictionnaire des ,antiquits            
,grecques et ,romaines1 ii4 #edd sqq42  
,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of        
the ,greek ,states1 iii4 #abf sqq4      
,m#bi ,revelation of a reaped ear of    
corn the crowning act of the            
mysteries4      #ach ,hippolytus1       
,refutatio ,omnium ,haeresium1 v4 #h1 p4
 #afb1 ed4 ,l4        ,duncker et ,f4   

,g4 ,schneidewin 7,gttingen1 #ahei74    
,the word which the        poet uses to 
express the revelation 71 ,hymn to      
,demeter1 verse        #dgd7 is a       
technical one in the mysteries2 the full
 phrase was          4 ,see ,plutarch1  
,alcibiades1 #bb2 ,xenophon1            
,hellenica1 vi4 #c4 #f2 ,isocrates1     
,panegyricus1 #f2 ,lysias1 ,contra      
,andocidem1 #ea2 ,chr4 ,a4 ,lobeck1     
,aglaophamus1 p4 #ea4      #aci ,clement
 of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4 ii4 #ab1 p4 
#ab ed4 ,potter3               2        
4 ,compare ,f4 ,lenormant1        s4v4  
8,eleusinia10 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 
,dictionnaire des        ,antiquits     
,grecques et ,romaines iii4 #egh3 8,que 
le drame mystique        des aventures  
de ,dmter et de ,cor constitut le       
spectacle        essentiel de           
l'initiation1 c'est ce dont il nous     
semble impossible        de douter40 ,a 
similar view is expressed by ,g4 ,f4    
,schoemann        7,griechische         
,alterthmer1#d ii4 #djb72               

,preller-,robert 7,griechische          
,mythologie1 i4 #gic72 ,p4 ,foucart     
7,recherches sur l',origine et la       
,nature des ,mystres d',eleusis1 ,paris1
 #ahie1 pp4 #dc sqq42 id41        ,les  
,grands ,mystres d',eleusis1 ,paris1    
#aijj1 p4 #acg72 ,e4 ,rohde             
7,psyche1#c i4 #bhi72 and ,l4 ,r4       
,farnell 7,the ,cults of the ,greek     
,states1 iii4 #acd1 #agc sqq474         
,m#cj ,demeter and ,persephone          
personifications of the corn4           
,persephone the        seed sown in     
autumn and sprouting in spring4 ,demeter
 the old corn of        last year4 ,the 
view that ,demeter was the ,earth       
goddess is implicitly        rejected by
 the author of the ,homeric ,hymn to    
,demeter4      #adj ,on ,demeter and    
,proserpine as goddesses of the corn1   
see ,l4 ,preller1        ,demeter und   
,persephone 7,hamburg1 #ahcg71 pp4 #cae 
sqq42 and        especially ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen 
7,strasburg1        #ahhd71 pp4 #bjb    

sqq4      #ada ,according to the author 
of the ,homeric ,hymn to ,demeter       
7verses #cih        sqq41 #dde sqq47 and
 ,apollodorus 7,bibliotheca1 i4 #e4 #c7 
the        time which ,persephone had to
 spend under ground was one third of the
        year2 according to ,ovid        
7,fasti1 iv4 #fac sq42 ,metamorphoses1  
v4        #efd sqq47 and ,hyginus       
7,fabulae1 #adf7 it was one half4       
#adb ,this view of the myth of          
,persephone is1 for example1 accepted   
and        clearly stated by ,l4        
,preller 7,demeter und ,persephone1 pp4 
#abh        sq474      #adc ,see1 for   
example1 ,firmicus ,maternus1 ,de errore
 profanarum        religionum1 #ag4 #c3 
8,frugum substantiam volunt ,proserpinam
 dicere1        quia fruges hominibus   
cum seri coeperint prosunt4 ,terram     
ipsam        ,cererem nominant1 nomen   
hoc a gerendis fructibus mutuati02 ,l4  
,preller1 ,demeter und ,persephone1 p4  
#abh1 8,der ,erdboden wird              
,demeter1 die ,vegetation ,persephone40 

,franois ,lenormant1 again1        held 
that ,demeter was originally a          
personification of the earth            
regarded as divine1 but he admitted that
 from the time of the        ,homeric   
poems downwards she was sharply         
distinguished from ,ge1 the             
earth-goddess proper4 ,see ,daremberg et
 ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des             
,antiquits ,grecques et ,romaines1 s4v4 
8,ceres10 ii4 #ajbb sq4        ,some    
light might be thrown on the question   
whether ,demeter was an        ,earth   
,goddess or a ,corn ,goddess1 if we     
could be sure of the        etymology of
 her name1 which has been variously     
explained as 8,earth        ,mother0 7  
equivalent to  7 and as 8,barley        
,mother0        7from an alleged ,cretan
 word  8barley03 see ,etymologicum      
,magnum1 s4v4 1 pp4 #bfc sq474 ,the     
former etymology has been        the    
most popular2 the latter is maintained  
by ,w4 ,mannhardt4 ,see ,l4             
,preller1 ,demeter und ,persephone1 pp4 

#cag1 #cff sqq42 ,f4 ,g4                
,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre1 i4  
#che sqq42 ,preller-,robert1            
,griechische ,mythologie1 i4 #gdg note  
#f2 ,kern1 in ,pauly-,wissowa's         
,real-,encyclopdie der classischen      
,altertumswissenschaft1 iv4 #bgac2      
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische          
,forschungen1 pp4 #bha sqq4 ,but my     
learned friend the ,rev4 ,professor ,j4 
,h4 ,moulton informs me that both       
etymologies are open to serious         
philological objections1 and that no    
satisfactory derivation of the first    
syllable of ,demeter's name has         
yet been proposed4 ,accordingly ,i      
prefer to base no argument on an        
analysis of the name1 and to rest my    
interpretation of the goddess           
entirely on her myth1 ritual1 and       
representations in art4 ,etymology      
is at the best a very slippery ground on
 which to rear mythological             
theories4      #add ,hymn to ,demeter1  
#h sqq4      ,m#ca ,the ,yellow         

,demeter1 the goddess who sifts the ripe
 grain from the        chaff at the     
threshing-floor4 ,the ,green ,demeter   
the goddess of the        green corn4   
#ade ,hymn to ,demeter1 #bgi1 #cjb4     
#adf ,homer1 ,iliad1 v4 #dii-ejd4       
#adg ,iliad1 xiii4 #cbb1 xxi4 #gf4      
#adh ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #ca sq4 
#adi ,quoted by ,plutarch1 ,isis et     
,osiris1 #ff4      #aej ,pausanias1 i4  
#bb4 #c with my note2 ,dittenberger1    
,sylloge        ,inscriptionum          
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fae2 ,j4 de ,prott  
et ,l4 ,ziehen1 ,leges        ,graecorum
 ,sacrae1 ,fasciculus ,i4 7,leipsic1    
#ahif7 p4 #di2 ,cornutus1               
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1 #bh2  
,scholiast on ,sophocles1               
,oedipus ,colon4 #afjj2 ,l4 ,r4         
,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the ,greek     
,states1 iii4 #cab sq4      ,m#cb ,the  
cereals called 8,demeter's fruits40     
#aea ,herodotus1 i4 #aic1 iv4 #aih2     
,xenophon1 ,hellenica1 vi4 #c4 #f2      
,aelian1        ,historia ,animalium1   

xvii4 #af2 ,cornutus1 ,theologiae       
,graecae        ,compendium1 #bh2       
,geoponica1 i4 #ab4 #cf2 ,paroemiographi
 ,graeci1        ed4 ,leutsch et        
,schneidewin1 ,appendix iv4 #bj 7vol4 i4
 p4 #dci74      #aeb ,cerealia in       
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xxiii4 #a2         
,cerealia munera and        ,cerealia   
dona in ,ovid1 ,metamorphoses1 xi4 #aba 
sq4      #aec ,libanius1 ed4 ,j4 ,j4    
,reiske1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cfg1 ,corinth4    
,oratio3               8              8 
2         1     2                       
4  1    2    1          4 ,in this      
passage1 which no doubt                 
represents the common ,greek view on the
 subject1 the earth is        plainly   
personified 7  71 which points the      
antithesis between her and the goddess  
of the corn4 ,diodorus ,siculus         
also says 7v4 #fh7 that corn grew wild  
with the other plants before            
,demeter taught men to cultivate it and 
to sow the seed4      ,m#cc ,corn and   
poppies as symbols of ,demeter4         

#aed ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #faf2 ,eusebius1
 ,praeparatio ,evangelii1 iii4 #aa4     
#e2 ,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae     
,compendium1 #bh2 ,anthologia           
,palatina1 vi4 #ajd4 #h2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4        
#bce2 ,j4 ,overbeck1 ,griechische       
,kunstmythologie1 iii4 7,leipsic1       
#ahgc-ahgh7 pp4 #dbj1 #dba1 #dec1 #dgi1 
#dhj1 #ejb1 #eje1 #ejg1 #ead1 #ebb1     
#ebc1 #ebd1 #ebe sq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 
,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1      
iii4 #bag sqq41 #bbj sq41 #bbb1 #bbf1   
#bcb1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bfj1 #bfe1 #bfh1     
#bfi sq41 #bga4      #aee ,theocritus1  
,idyl4 vii4 #aee sqq4 ,that the sheaves 
which the        goddess grasped were of
 barley is proved by verses #ca-cd of   
the        poem4      #aef ,eusebius1   
,praeparatio ,evangelii1 iii4 #aa4 #e2  
,cornutus1 ,theologiae        ,graecae  
,compendium1 #bh1 p4 #ef1 ed4 ,c4 ,lang2
 ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4        #bab1 with  
the comment of ,servius4      #aeg ,see 
the references to the works of ,overbeck

 and ,farnell above4 ,for               
example1 a fine statue at ,copenhagen1  
in the style of the age of              
,phidias1 represents ,demeter holding   
poppies and ears of corn in her         
left hand4 ,see ,farnell1 op4 cit4 iii4 
#bfh1 with plate xxviii4      #aeh      
,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae         
,compendium1 #bh1 p4 #ef ed4 ,c4 ,lang4 
,m#cd ,persephone portrayed as the young
 corn sprouting from the ground4        
#aei ,percy ,gardner1 ,types of ,greek  
,coins 7,cambridge1 #ahhc71 p4 #agd1    
with plate x4 ,no4 #be4      ,m#ce      
,demeter invoked and propitiated by     
,greek farmers before the autumnal      
sowing4 ,boeotian festival of mourning  
for the descent of ,persephone        at
 the autumnal sowing4      #afj         
,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #fh4 #a4         
#afa ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1         
#ddh-dgd2 ,epictetus1 ,dissertationes1  
iii4        #ba4 #ab4 ,for the autumnal 
migration and clangour of the cranes as 
the        signal for sowing1 see       

,aristophanes1 ,birds1 #gaa2 compare    
,theognis1        #aaig sqq4 ,but the   
,greeks also ploughed in spring         
7,hesiod1 op4        cit4 #dfb2         
,xenophon1 ,oeconom4 #af72 indeed they  
ploughed thrice in        the year      
7,theophrastus1 ,historia ,plantarum1   
vii4 #ac4 #f74 ,at the        approach  
of autumn the cranes of northern ,europe
 collect about        rivers and lakes1 
and after much trumpeting set out in    
enormous        bands on their southward
 journey to the tropical regions of     
,africa        and ,india4 ,in early    
spring they return northward1 and their 
flocks        may be descried passing at
 a marvellous height overhead or halting
        to rest in the meadows beside   
some broad river4 ,the bird emits its   
trumpet-like note both on the ground and
 on the wing4 ,see ,alfred              
,newton1 ,dictionary of ,birds 7,london1
 #ahic-ahif71 pp4 #aaj sq4      #afb    
,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #chc sq41    
#fae-fag2 ,aratus1 ,phaenomena1         

#bed-bfg2 ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der    
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie 7,berlin1 #ahbe-ahbf71 i4  
#bda sq4 ,according to ,pliny           
7,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4 #di7 wheat1 barley1
 and all other cereals were        sown 
in ,greece and ,asia from the time of   
the autumn setting of the               
,pleiades4 ,this date for ploughing and 
sowing is confirmed by                  
,hippocrates and other medical writers4 
,see ,w4 ,smith's ,dictionary of        
,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1#c i4    
#bcd4 ,latin writers prescribe the      
same date for the sowing of wheat4 ,see 
,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #bai-bbf2           
,columella1 ,de re rustica1 ii4 #h2     
,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4             
#bbc-bbf4 ,in ,columella's time the     
,pleiades1 he tells us 7l4c471 set      
in the morning of ,october #bdth of the 
,julian calendar1 which would           
correspond to the ,october #afth of our 
reckoning4      #afc ,plutarch1 ,isis et
 ,osiris1 #fi4      #afd ,plutarch1     

,isis et ,osiris1 #gj4 ,similarly       
,cornutus says that 8,hades        is   
fabled to have carried off ,demeter's   
daughter because the seed               
vanishes for a time under the earth10   
and he mentions that a        festival  
of ,demeter was celebrated at the time  
of sowing        7,theologiae ,graecae  
,compendium1 #bh1 pp4 #ed1 #ee ed4 ,c4  
,lang74 ,in a        fragment of a      
,greek calendar which is preserved in   
the ,louvre 8the        ascent 77 of the
 goddess0 is dated the seventh day of   
the        month ,dius1 and 8the descent
 or setting 77 of the goddess0 is       
dated the fourth day of the month       
,hephaestius1 a month which seems       
to be otherwise unknown4 ,see ,w4       
,froehner1 ,muse ,nationale du          
,louvre1 ,les ,inscriptions ,grecques   
7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #ej sq4 ,greek     
inscriptions found at ,mantinea refer to
 a worship of ,demeter and              
,persephone1 who are known to have had a
 sanctuary there 7,pausanias1           

viii4 #i4 #b74 ,the people of ,mantinea 
celebrated 8mysteries of the            
goddess0 and a festival called the      
koragia1 which seems to have            
represented the return of ,persephone   
from the lower world4 ,see ,w4          
,immerwahr1 ,die ,kulte und ,mythen     
,arkadiens 7,leipsic1 #ahia71 pp4 #ajj  
sq42 ,s4 ,reinach1 ,trait d',epigraphie 
,grecque 7,paris1 #ahhe71 pp4           
#ada sqq42 ,hesychius1 s4v4 4      ,m#cf
 ,thank-offerings of ripe grain         
presented by ,greek farmers to ,demeter 
after the harvest4 ,theocritus's        
description of a harvest-home in        
,cos4      #afe ,theocritus1 ,idyl4 vii4
      ,m#cg ,the harvest-home described 
by ,theocritus fell in autumn4      #aff
 ,in ancient ,greece the vintage seems  
to have fallen somewhat earlier2        
for ,hesiod bids the husbandman gather  
the ripe clusters at the time           
when ,arcturus is a morning star1 which 
in the poet's age was on the            
#ahth of ,september4 ,see ,hesiod1      

,works and ,days1 #fji sqq42 ,l4        
,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen   
und technischen ,chronologie1        i4 
#bdg4      #afg ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1   
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #aij note 
#b4      ,m#ch ,the ,greeks seem to have
 deferred the offering of first-fruits  
till        the autumn in order to      
propitiate the ,corn ,goddess at the    
moment of        ploughing and sowing1  
when her help was urgently needed4      
#afh ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1     
,second ,edition1 p4 #aij note #b4      
#afi ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #chc sq4
      #agj ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der   
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 i4 #bdb4      #aga        
,compare ,xenophon1 ,oeconomicus1 #ag1  
1        1              4      #agb     
,august ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt     
,athen im ,altertum1 p4 #aic4      #agc 
,see above1 pp4 #dd sqq4      ,m#ci ,the
 festival of the ,proerosia 78,before   
the ,ploughing07 held at        ,eleusis
 in honour of ,demeter4      #agd ,see  

,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 pp4 #bhc sqq4      #age       
,scholiast on ,aristophanes1 ,knights1  
#gbj2 ,suidas1 s4vv4         and 2      
,etymologicum ,magnum1 ,hesychius1 and  
,photius1        ,lexicon1 s4v4 2       
,plutarch1 ,septem ,sapientum           
,convivium1        #ae2 ,dittenberger1  
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #eba1 line        #bi1 and ,no4    
#fbh2 ,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt 
,athen im ,altertum        7,leipsic1   
#ahih71 pp4 #aib sqq4 ,the inscriptions 
prove that the        ,proerosia was    
held at ,eleusis and that it was        
distinct from the        ,great         
,mysteries1 being mentioned separately  
from them4 ,some of the        ancients 
accounted for the origin of the festival
 by a universal        plague instead of
 a universal famine4 ,but this version  
of the story        no doubt arose from 
the common confusion between the similar
 ,greek        words for plague and     
famine 7 and 74 ,that in the original   

version famine and not plague must have 
been alleged as the reason        for   
instituting the ,proerosia1 appears     
plainly from the reference of        the
 name to ploughing1 from the dedication 
of the festival to        ,demeter1 and 
from the offerings of first-fruits2 for 
these        circumstances1 though quite
 appropriate to ceremonies designed to  
stay or avert dearth and famine1 would  
be quite inappropriate in the           
case of a plague4      ,m#dj ,the       
,proerosia seems to have been held      
before the ploughing in        ,october 
but after the ,great ,mysteries in      
,september4 ,however1 the        date of
 the ,great ,mysteries1 being determined
 by the lunar calendar1        must have
 fluctuated in the solar year2 whereas  
the date of the        ,proerosia1 being
 determined by observation of ,arcturus1
 must have        been fixed4      #agf 
,hesychius1 s4v4 4      #agg ,august    
,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen im   
,altertum1 p4 #aid4      #agh ,august   

,mommsen1 l4c4      #agi ,dittenberger1 
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #eba1 lines #bi        sqq4        
#ahj ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fbh4 
#aha ,the view that the ,festival before
 ,ploughing 7,proerosia7 fell in        
,pyanepsion is accepted by ,w4          
,mannhardt and ,w4 ,dittenberger4 ,see  
,w4        ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald-   
und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 pp4    
#bch        sq42 id41 ,mythologische    
,forschungen1 p4 #beh2 ,dittenberger1   
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
note #b on ,inscr4 ,no4 #fbh 7vol4      
ii4 pp4 #dbc sq474 ,the view that the   
,festival before ,ploughing fell        
in ,boedromion is maintained by ,august 
,mommsen4 ,see his ,heortologie         
7,leipsic1 #ahfd71 pp4 #bah sqq42 id41  
,feste der ,stadt ,athen im             
,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #aib   
sqq4      #ahb ,see below1 p4 #hb4      
#ahc ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der         
mathematischen und technischen          

,chronologie        7,berlin1           
#ahbe-ahbf71 i4 #bib sq42 compare       
,august ,mommsen1        ,chronologie   
7,leipsic1 #ahhc71 pp4 #eh sq4      #ahd
 ,for example1 ,theophrastus notes that 
squills flowered thrice a year1         
and that each flowering marked the time 
for one of the three        ploughings4 
,see ,theophrastus1 ,historia           
,plantarum1 vii4 #ac4 #f4      #ahe     
,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #chc sqq4    
,the poet indeed refers 7vv4        #gfe
 sqq47 to days of the month as proper   
times for engaging in        certain    
tasks2 but such references are always   
simply to days of the        lunar month
 and apply equally to every month2 they 
are never to days        as dates in the
 solar year4      ,m#da ,offerings of   
the first-fruits of the barley and wheat
 to ,demeter and        ,persephone at  
,eleusis4 ,isocrates on the offerings of
 first-fruits at        ,eleusis4       
#ahf ,see below1 p4 #gb4      #ahg      
,dionysius ,halicarnasensis1 ,antiquit4 

,rom4 i4 #ab4 #b4      #ahh ,xenophon1  
,historia ,graeca1 vi4 #c4 #f4      #ahi
 ,isocrates1 ,panegyric1 #f sq4         
,m#db ,athenian decree concerning the   
offerings of first-fruits at ,eleusis4  
#aij ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #bj   
7vol4 i4        pp4 #cc sqq472 ,e4 ,s4  
,roberts and ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,an      
,introduction to        ,greek          
,epigraphy1 ,part ii4 7,cambridge1      
#aije7 ,no4 #i1 pp4 #bb sqq4      #aia  
,aristides1 ,panathen4 and ,eleusin41   
vol4 i4 pp4 #afg sq41 #dag        ed4   
,g4 ,dindorf 7,leipsic1 #ahbi74         
,m#dc ,even after foreign states ceased 
to send first-fruits of the corn to     
,eleusis1 they continued to acknowledge 
the benefit which the        ,athenians 
had conferred on mankind by diffusing   
among them ,demeter's        gift of the
 corn4 ,testimony of the ,sicilian      
historian ,diodorus4        ,testimony  
of ,cicero and ,himerius4      #aib     
,diodorus ,siculus1 v4 #b and #d2       

,cicero1 ,in ,c4 ,verrem1 act4 ii4 bk4  
iv4 chapters #dh sq4 ,both writers      
mention that the whole of ,sicily       
was deemed sacred to ,demeter and       
,persephone1 and that corn was said     
to have grown in the island before it   
appeared anywhere else4 ,in             
support of the latter claim ,diodorus   
,siculus 7v4 #b4 #d7 asserts that       
wheat grew wild in many parts of        
,sicily4      #aic ,diodorus ,siculus1  
v4 #d4      #aid ,this legend1 which is 
mentioned also by ,cicero 7,in ,c4      
,verrem1 act4        ii4 bk4 iv4 ch4    
#dh71 was no doubt told to explain the  
use of torches        in the mysteries  
of ,demeter and ,persephone4 ,the author
 of the        ,homeric ,hymn to        
,demeter tells us 7verses #dg sq47 that 
,demeter        searched for her lost   
daughter for nine days with burning     
torches in        her hands1 but he does
 not say that the torches were kindled  
at the        flames of ,etna4 ,in art  
,demeter and ,persephone and their      

attendants        were often represented
 with torches in their hands4 ,see ,l4  
,r4        ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the 
,greek ,states1 iii4 7,oxford1 #aijg7   
plates        xiii41 xv4 a1 xvi41 xvii41
 xviii41 xix41 xx41 xxi4 a1 xxv41       
xxvii4 b4 ,perhaps the legend of the    
torchlight search for        ,persephone
 and the use of the torches in the      
mysteries may have        originated in 
a custom of carrying fire about the     
fields as a charm        to secure      
sunshine for the corn4 ,see ,the ,golden
 ,bough1#b iii4 #cac4      #aie ,the    
words which ,i have translated 8the     
bringing home of the ,maiden0        7  
7 are explained with great probability  
by        ,professor ,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson as
 referring to the bringing of the ripe  
corn to the barn or the threshing-floor 
7,griechische ,feste1        ,leipsic1  
#aijf1 pp4 #cef sq474 ,this             
interpretation accords perfectly        
with a well-attested sense of  and its  
cognate verb        1 and is preferable 

to the other possible interpretation    
8the bringing down10 which would refer  
to the descent of ,persephone           
into the nether world2 for such a       
descent is hardly appropriate to a      
harvest festival4      #aif ,cicero1    
,pro ,l4 ,flacco1 #bf4      #aig        
,himerius1 ,orat4 ii4 #e4      #aih   1 
,aristides1 ,panathen4 vol4 i4 p4 #afh  
ed4 ,g4        ,dindorf 7,leipzig1      
#ahbi74      ,m#dd ,the ,sicilians seem 
to have associated ,demeter with the    
seed-corn and        ,persephone with   
the ripe ears4 ,difficulty of           
distinguishing between        ,demeter  
and ,persephone as personifications of  
different aspects of        the corn4   
,m#de ,the time of the year when the    
first-fruits of the corn were offered   
to ,demeter and ,persephone at ,eleusis 
is not known4      #aii ,dittenberger1  
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #bj1 lines #be        sqq42 ,e4 ,s4
 ,roberts and ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1         
,introduction to ,greek                 

,epigraphy1 ii4 7,cambridge1 #aije7 ,no4
 #i1 lines #be sqq41                    
4 ,by        coupling  with  instead of 
with 1 ,miss        ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison   
understands the offering instead of the 
exhortation        to have been made at 
the mysteries 7,prolegomena to the      
,study of        ,greek ,religion1      
,second ,edition1 p4 #aee1 8,let the    
,hierophant and the        ,torchbearer 
command that at the mysteries the       
,hellenes should offer                  
first-fruits of their crops10 etc474    
,this interpretation is no doubt        
grammatically permissible1 but the      
context seems to plead strongly1        
if not to be absolutely decisive1 in    
favour of the other4 ,it is to        be
 observed that the exhortation was      
addressed not to the ,athenians         
and their allies 7who were compelled to 
make the offering7 but only        to   
the other ,greeks1 who might make it or 
not as they pleased2 and        the     
amount of such voluntary contributions  

was probably small        compared to   
that of the compulsory contributions1 as
 to the date of        which nothing is 
said4 ,that the proclamation to the     
,greeks in        general was an        
exhortation 771 not a command1 is       
clearly        shewn by the words of the
 decree a few lines lower down1 where   
commissioners are directed to go to all 
,greek states exhorting but        not  
commanding them to offer the            
first-fruits 7          1               
74 ,the ,athenians could not command    
free        and independent states to   
make such offerings1 still less could   
they        prescribe the exact date    
when the offerings were to be made4 ,all
        that they could and did do was1 
taking advantage of the great           
assembly of ,greeks from all quarters at
 the mysteries1 to invite or            
exhort1 by the mouth of the great       
priestly functionaries1 the             
foreigners to contribute4      #bjj     
,august ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt     

,athen im ,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71  
pp4 #aib sqq4      ,m#df ,the ,festival 
of the ,threshing-floor 7,haloa7 at     
,eleusis4      #bja ,eustathius on      
,homer1 ,iliad1 ix4 #ecd1 p4 #ggb2 ,im4 
,bekker1 ,anecdota        ,graeca1 i4   
#chd sq41 s4v4 4 ,compare ,o4           
,rubensohn1 ,die                        
,mysterienheiligtmer in ,eleusis und    
,samothrake 7,berlin1 #ahib71 p4        
#aaf4      #bjb ,eustathius on ,homer1  
,iliad1 ix4 #ecd1 p4 #ggb2 ,im4 ,bekker1
 ,anecdota        ,graeca1 i4 #chd sq41 
s4v4 4      #bjc ,scholia in ,lucianum1 
ed4 ,h4 ,rabe 7,leipsic1 #aijf71 pp4    
#bgi sq4        7scholium on ,dialog4   
,meretr4 vii4 #d74      #bjd            
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,nos4 #aib1 #bdf1         
#ehg1 #fdj2  1 #ahhd1 coll4 #ace sq4    
,the passages        of inscriptions and
 of ancient authors which refer to the  
festival        are collected by ,dr4   
,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the    
,greek ,states1        iii4 7,oxford1   

#aijg7 pp4 #cae sq4 ,for a discussion of
 the evidence        see ,august        
,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen im   
,altertum 7,leipsic1        #ahih71 pp4 
#cei sqq42 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1     
,prolegomena to the        ,study of    
,greek ,religion1 ,second ,edition      
7,cambridge1 #aijh71 pp4 #ade           
sqq4      #bje ,the threshing-floor of  
,triptolemus at ,eleusis 7,pausanias1 i4
 #ch4 #f7        is no doubt identical  
with the ,sacred ,threshing-floor       
mentioned in        the great           
,eleusinian inscription of #cbi ,b4,c4  
7,dittenberger1 ,sylloge                
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 
line #bcd74 ,we read of a               
hierophant who1 contrary to ancestral   
custom1 sacrificed a victim on          
the hearth in the ,hall at ,eleusis     
during the ,festival of the             
,threshing-floor1 8it being unlawful to 
sacrifice victims on that        day0   
7,demosthenes1 ,contra ,neaeram1 #aaf1  
pp4 #achd sq471 but from        such an 

unlawful act no inference can be drawn  
as to the place where        the        
festival was held4 ,that the festival   
probably had special        reference to
 the threshing-floor of ,triptolemus has
 already been        pointed out by ,o4 
,rubensohn 7,die ,mysterienheiligtmer in
 ,eleusis        und ,samothrake1       
,berlin1 #ahib1 p4 #aah74      #bjf ,see
 above1 pp4 #da sq41 #dc4 ,maximus      
,tyrius observes 7,dissertat4           
xxx4 #e7 that husbandmen were the first 
to celebrate sacred rites in            
honour of ,demeter at the               
threshing-floor4      #bjg ,see above1  
p4 #fa1 note #d4      #bjh              
,harpocration1 s4v4  7vol4 i4 p4 #bd1   
ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf74      #bji            
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 lines          
#abd1 #add1 with the editor's notes2    
,august ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt     
,athen im ,altertum1 p4 #cfj4      #baj 
,so ,i am informed by my friend         
,professor ,j4 ,l4 ,myres1 who speaks   

from        personal observation4       
#baa ,this is recognised by ,professor  
,m4 ,p4 ,nilsson4 ,see his ,studia de   
,dionysiis ,atticis 7,lund1 #aijj71 pp4 
#ie sqq41 and his ,griechische          
,feste1 p4 #cbi4 ,to explain the        
lateness of the festival1 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 
,harrison suggests that 8the shift of   
date is due to ,dionysos4 ,the          
rival festivals of ,dionysos were in    
mid-winter4 ,he possessed himself       
of the festivals of ,demeter1 took over 
her threshing-floor and        compelled
 the anomaly of a winter threshing      
festival0 7,prolegomena        to the   
,study of ,greek ,religion1 ,second     
,edition1 p4 #adg74      #bab ,scholiast
 on ,lucian1 ,dial4 ,meretr4 vii4 #d    
7,scholia in ,lucianum1        ed4 ,h4  
,rabe1 ,leipsic1 #aijf1 pp4 #bgi-bha74  
#bac ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4
 ii4 #ae and #bj1 pp4 #ac and #ag ed4   
,potter2 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,nationes1
 v4 #be-bg1 #ce1 #ci4      #bad ,see    
below1 p4 #aaf2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ag sqq4   

,m#dg ,the ,green ,festival and the     
,festival of the ,cornstalks at         
,eleusis4        ,epithets of ,demeter  
referring to the corn4      #bae        
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fdj2 ,ch4           
,michel1 ,recueil d',inscriptions       
,grecques 7,brussels1 #aijj71 ,no4 #ace1
        p4 #ade4 ,to be exact1 while the
 inscription definitely mentions the    
sacrifices to ,demeter and ,persephone  
at the ,green ,festival1 it does        
not record the deities to whom the      
sacrifice at the ,festival of the       
,cornstalks 7   7 was offered4 ,but     
mentioned as        it is in immediate  
connexion with the sacrifices to        
,demeter and        ,persephone at the  
,green ,festival1 we may fairly suppose 
that the        sacrifice at the        
,festival of the ,cornstalks was also   
offered to        these goddesses4      
#baf ,see above1 p4 #db4      #bag      
,anthologia ,palatina1 vi4 #cf4 #a sq4  
#bah ,polemo1 cited by ,athenaeus1 iii4 

#i1 p4 #daf ,b4      #bai ,nonnus1      
,dionys4 xvii4 #aec4 ,the ,athenians    
sacrificed to her under        this     
title 7,eustathius1 on ,homer1 ,iliad1  
xviii4 #eec1 p4 #aafb74      #bbj       
,theocritus1 ,idyl4 vii4 #aee2 ,orphica1
 xl4 #e4      #bba ,anthologia          
,palatina1 vi4 #ih4 #a4      #bbb       
,orphica1 xl4 #c4      #bbc ,anthologia 
,palatina1 vi4 #ajd4 #h4      #bbd      
,orphica1 xl4 #e4      #bbe ,ibid4      
#bbf ,orphica1 xl4 #ah4      #bbg ,this 
title she shared with ,persephone at    
,tegea 7,pausanias1 viii4 #ec4          
#g71 and under it she received annual   
sacrifices at ,ephesus                  
7,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum 
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fee74 ,it was       
applied to her also at ,epidaurus 74 41 
#ahhc1 col4 #aec7 and at        ,athens 
7,aristophanes1 ,frogs1 #chb71 and      
appears to have been a        common    
title of the goddess4 ,see ,l4 ,r4      
,farnell1 ,the ,cults of the            
,greek ,states1 iii4 #cah note #cj4     

#bbh ,polemo1 cited by ,athenaeus1 iii4 
#gc1 p4 #aji ,a ,b1 x4 #i4 p4 #daf ,c4  
,m#dh ,belief in ancient and modern     
times that the corn-crops depend on     
possession of an image of ,demeter4     
#bbi ,e4 ,dodwell1 ,a ,classical and    
,topographical ,tour through ,greece    
7,london1 #ahai71 i4 #ehc4 ,e4 ,d4      
,clarke found the image 8on the side of 
the road1 immediately before entering   
the village1 and in the midst        of 
a heap of dung1 buried as high as the   
neck1 a little beyond the        farther
 extremity of the pavement of the       
temple4 ,yet even this        degrading 
situation had not been assigned to it   
wholly independent        of its antient
 history4 ,the inhabitants of the small 
village which        is now situated    
among the ruins of ,eleusis still       
regarded this        statue with a very 
high degree of superstitious veneration4
 ,they        attributed to its presence
 the fertility of their land2 and it was
        for this reason that they heaped

 around it the manure intended for      
their fields4 ,they believed that the   
loss of it would be followed by         
no less a calamity than the failure of  
their annual harvests2 and        they  
pointed to the ears of bearded wheat1   
upon the sculptured        ornaments    
upon the head of the figure1 as a       
never-failing indication        of the  
produce of the soil40 ,when the statue  
was about to be        removed1 a       
general murmur ran among the people1 the
 women joining in        the clamour4   
8,they had been always10 they said1     
8famous for their        corn2 and the  
fertility of the land would cease when  
the statue was        removed40 ,see ,e4
 ,d4 ,clarke1 ,travels in various       
,countries of ,europe1        ,asia1 and
 ,africa1 iii4 7,london1 #ahad7 pp4     
#ggb-ggd1 #ghg sq4        ,compare ,j4  
,c4 ,lawson1 ,modern ,greek ,folklore   
and ,ancient ,greek        ,religion    
7,cambridge1 #aiaj71 p4 #hj1 who tells  
us that 8the statue        was regularly

 crowned with flowers in the avowed hope
 of obtaining        good harvests40    
#bcj ,cicero1 ,in ,c4 ,verrem1 act4 ii4 
lib4 iv4 #ea4      ,m#di ,sacred        
marriage of ,zeus and ,demeter at       
,eleusis4 ,homer on the love of         
,zeus for ,demeter4 ,zeus the ,sky ,god 
may have been confused with             
,subterranean ,zeus1 that is1 ,pluto4   
,demeter may have been confused         
with ,persephone2 in art the types of   
the two goddesses are often        very 
similar4      #bca ,the ,magic ,art and 
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #ach sq4  
#bcb ,this view was expressed by my     
friend ,professor ,ridgeway in a paper  
which ,i had the advantage of hearing   
him read at ,cambridge in the           
early part of #aiaa4 ,compare ,the      
,athenaeum1 ,no4 #dcfj1 ,may #bjth1     
#aiaa1 p4 #egf4      #bcc ,dittenberger1
 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b  
,no4 #bj2 ,e4 ,s4        ,roberts and   
,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,introduction to      
,greek ,epigraphy1 ii4                  

7,cambridge1 #aije7 ,no4 #i1 pp4 #bb sq4
 ,see above1 pp4 #ee sq4      #bcd      
,homer1 ,iliad1 xiv4 #cbf4      #bce    
,homer1 ,odyssey1 v4 #abe sqq4      #bcf
 ,diodorus ,siculus1 iii4 #fb4 #f4      
#bcg ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,protrept4
 #ab1 p4 #ab1 ed4 ,potter4      #bch    
,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #dfe sqq4    
#bci ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #fae1 
lines #be        sq42 ,ch4 ,michel1     
,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 ,no4
 #gad2 ,j4 de        ,prott et ,l4      
,ziehen1 ,leges ,graecorum ,sacrae1 ,no4
 #d4      #bdj ,see ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1   
,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 iii4 
7,oxford1        #aijg71 p4 #bei1 8,it  
was long before the mother could be     
distinguished        from the daughter  
by any organic difference of form or by 
any        expressive trait of          
countenance4 ,on the more ancient vases 
and        terracottas they appear      
rather as twin-sisters1 almost as if the
        inarticulate artist were aware  

of their original identity of           
substance4 ,and even among the monuments
 of the transitional period        it is
 difficult to find any representation of
 the goddesses in        characters at  
once clear and impressive4 ,we miss this
 even in the        beautiful vase of   
,hieron in the ,british ,museum1 where  
the divine        pair are seen with    
,triptolemos3 the style is delicate and 
stately1        and there is a certain  
impression of inner tranquil life in the
        group1 but without the aid of   
the inscriptions the mother would not   
be known from the daughter02 id41 vol4  
iii4 #bgd1 8,but it would be            
wrong to give the impression that the   
numismatic artists of this        period
 were always careful to distinguish--in 
such a manner as the        above works 
indicate--between mother and daughter4  
,the old idea of        their unity of  
substance still seemed to linger as an  
art-tradition3        the very type we  
have just been examining appears on a   

fourth-century coin of ,hermione1 and   
must have been used here to             
designate ,demeter ,chthonia who was    
there the only form that the            
corn-goddess assumed4 ,and even at      
,metapontum1 where coin-engraving       
was long a great art1 a youthful head   
crowned with corn1 which in        its  
own right and on account of its         
resemblance to the masterpiece        of
 ,euainetos could claim the name of     
,kore ,persephone1 is actually          
inscribed #8,damater4' 0 ,compare ,j4   
,overbeck1 ,griechische                 
,kunstmythologie1 iii4 7,leipsic1       
#ahgc-ahgh71 p4 #dec4 ,in regard1 for   
example1 to the famous ,eleusinian      
bas-relief1 one of the most             
beautiful monuments of ancient religious
 art1 which seems to        represent   
,demeter giving the corn-stalks to      
,triptolemus1 while        ,persephone  
crowns his head1 there has been much    
divergence of        opinion among the  
learned as to which of the goddesses is 

,demeter        and which ,persephone4  
,see ,j4 ,overbeck1 op4 cit4 iii4 #dbg  
sqq42        ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 op4 cit4 
iii4 #bfc sq4 ,on the close resemblance 
of        the artistic types of ,demeter
 and ,persephone see further ,e4        
,gerhard1        ,gesammelte akademische
 ,abhandlungen 7,berlin1 #ahff-ahfh71   
ii4 #ceg        sqq42 ,f4 ,lenormant1 in
 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire   
des        ,antiquits ,grecques et      
,romaines1 i4 #b1 s4v4 8,ceres10 p4     
#ajdi4      ,m#ej ,the date of the      
,eleusinian ,mysteries in ,september    
would have been a        very           
appropriate time for a ,sacred ,marriage
 of the ,sky ,god with the        ,corn 
,goddess or the ,earth ,goddess4        
#bda ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #ig sqq4      #bdb      
,homer1 ,odyssey1 v4 #abe sqq4      #bdc
 ,proclus1 on ,plato1 ,timaeus1 p4 #bic 
c1 quoted by ,l4 ,f4 ,farnell1          
,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 iii4 
#ceg1 where ,lobeck's emendation        

of 1  for 1  7,aglaophamus1 p4 #ghb7 may
 be accepted        as certain1         
confirmed as it is by ,hippolytus1      
,refutatio ,omnium        ,haeresium1 v4
 #g1 p4 #adf1 ed4 ,duncker and          
,schneidewin 7,gttingen1        #ahei71 
4      ,m#ea ,the ,eleusinian games     
distinct from the ,eleusinian           
,mysteries4 ,the        ,eleusinian     
games of later origin than the          
,eleusinian ,mysteries4 ,the            
,eleusinian games sacred to ,demeter and
 ,persephone4 ,triptolemus1 the         
mythical hero of the corn4      #bdd ,as
 to the ,eleusinian games see ,august   
,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt             
,athen im ,altertum1 pp4 #agi-bjd2 ,p4  
,foucart1 ,les ,grands ,mystres         
d'leusis 7,paris1 #aijj71 pp4 #adc-adg2 
,p4 ,stengel1 in                        
,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der
 classischen                            
,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 coll4 #bccj  
sqq4 ,the quadriennial                  
celebration of the ,eleusinian ,games is

 mentioned by ,aristotle                
7,constitution of ,athens1 #ed71 and in 
the great ,eleusinian        inscription
 of #cbi ,b4,c41 which is also our only 
authority for the        biennial       
celebration of the games4 ,see          
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge                 
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 
lines #beh sqq4 ,the regular and        
official name of the games was simply   
,eleusinia 7 71 a        name which late
 writers applied incorrectly to the     
,mysteries4 ,see        ,august         
,mommsen1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agi sqq42       
,dittenberger1 op4 cit4        ,no4     
#ehg1 note #aga4      #bde              
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #bdf1 lines #be      
sqq42 id4 ,no4 #ehg1 lines #bdd sq41    
#beh sqq4      #bdf ,marmor ,parium1 in 
,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4
 ,c4        ,mller1 i4 #edd sq4         
#bdg ,aristides1 ,panathen4 and         
,eleusin4 vol4 i4 pp4 #afh1 #dag1 ed4   
,g4        ,dindorf4      #bdh ,schol4  

on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 ix4 #aej1 p4 #bbh1  
ed4 ,aug4 ,boeckh4      #bdi ,aristides1
 ll4cc4      #bej ,dittenberger1        
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #bdf1 lines #be        sqq4 ,the   
editor rightly points out that the      
,great ,eleusinian ,games        are    
identical with the games celebrated     
every fourth year1 which are            
mentioned in the decree of #cbi ,b4,c4  
7,dittenberger1 ,sylloge                
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 
lines #bfj sq474      #bea              
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 lines #bei     
sqq4 ,from other ,attic inscriptions we 
learn that the ,eleusinian        games 
comprised a long foot-race1 a race in   
armour1 and a        pancratium4 ,see   
,dittenberger1 op4 cit4 ,no4 #ehg note  
#aga 7vol4 ii4        p4 #cac74 ,the    
,great ,eleusinian ,games also included 
the pentathlum        7,dittenberger1   
op4 cit4 ,no4 #fgh1 line #b74 ,the      
pancratium included        wrestling and

 boxing2 the pentathlum included a      
foot-race1 leaping1        throwing the 
quoit1 throwing the spear1 and          
wrestling4 ,see ,w4 ,smith1             
,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman        
,antiquities1 ,third ,edition1 s4vv4    
8,pancratium0 and 8,pentathlon40        
#beb ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #bdf1 
lines #df        sqq42 ,ch4 ,michel1    
,recueil d',inscriptions ,grecques1 ,no4
 #fji4 ,see        above1 p4 #fa4 ,the  
identification lies all the nearer to   
hand because        the inscription     
records a decree in honour of a man who 
had        sacrificed to ,demeter and   
,persephone at the ,great ,eleusinian   
,games1        and a provision is       
contained in the decree that the honour 
should be        proclaimed 8at the     
,ancestral ,contest of the ,festival of 
the        ,threshing-floor40 ,the same 
,ancestral ,contest at the ,festival of 
the        ,threshing-floor is mentioned
 in another ,eleusinian inscription1    

which records honours decreed to a man  
who had sacrificed to ,demeter          
and ,persephone at the ,festival of the 
,threshing-floor4 ,see         1 #ahhd1 
coll4 #ace sq4      #bec ,see above1 p4 
#fa4      #bed ,diodorus ,siculus1 v4   
#fh2 ,arrian1 ,indic4 #g2 ,lucian1      
,somnium1 #ae2        id41              
,philopseudes1 #c2 ,plato1 ,laws1 vi4   
#bb1 p4 #ghb2        ,apollodorus1      
,bibliotheca1 i4 #e4 #b2 ,cornutus1     
,theologiae ,graecae        ,compendium1
 #bh1 p4 #ec1 ed4 ,c4 ,lang2 ,pausanias1
 i4 #ad4 #b1 vii4 #ah4        #b1 viii4 
#d4 #a2 ,aristides1 ,eleusin4 vol4 i4   
pp4 #daf sq41 ed4 ,g4        ,dindorf2  
,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #adg1 #bei1 #bgg2   
,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #edi        sqq42    
id41 ,metamorph4 v4 #fde sqq42 ,servius1
 on ,virgil1        ,georg4 i4 #ai4 ,see
 also above1 p4 #ed4 ,as to             
,triptolemus1 see ,l4        ,preller1  
,demeter und ,persephone 7,hamburg1     
#ahcg71 pp4 #bhb sqq42        id41      
,griechische ,mythologie1#d i4 #gfi sqq4

      #bee ,c4 ,strube1 ,studien ber den
 ,bilderkreis von ,eleusis 7,leipsic1   
#ahgj71 pp4 #d sqq42 ,j4 ,overbeck1     
,griechische ,kunstmythologie1          
iii4 7,leipsic1 #ahgc-ahhj71 pp4 #ecj   
sqq42 ,a4 ,baumeister1 ,denkmler        
des classischen ,altertums1 iii4 #ahee  
sqq4 ,that ,triptolemus sowed        the
 earth with corn from his car is        
mentioned by ,apollodorus1              
,bibliotheca1 i4 #e4 #b2 ,cornutus1     
,theologiae ,graecae ,compendium1       
#bh1 pp4 #ec sq41 ed4 ,c4 ,lang2        
,hyginus1 ,fabulae1 #adg2 and ,servius1 
on ,virgil1 ,georg4 i4 #ai4      #bef   
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #bj1 lines #cg       
sqq42 ,e4 ,s4 ,roberts and ,e4 ,a4      
,gardner1 ,introduction to ,greek       
,epigraphy1 ii4 7,cambridge1 #aije71    
,no4 #i1 p4 #bd4      #beg ,arrian1     
,epicteti ,dissertationes1 i4 #d4 #cj4  
#beh ,scholiast on ,homer1 ,iliad1      
xviii4 #dhc2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,demeter und 
,persephone1 p4 #bhf2 ,f4 ,a4 ,paley on 

,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #dfj4        
,the custom of ploughing the land thrice
 is alluded to by ,homer        7,iliad1
 xviii4 #edb1 ,odyssey1 v4 #abg7 and    
,hesiod 7,theogony1        #iga71 and is
 expressly mentioned by ,theophrastus   
7,historia        ,plantarum1 vii4 #ac4 
#f74      #bei ,so ,i am informed by my 
learned friend the ,rev4 ,professor ,j4 
,h4        ,moulton4      #bfj ,j4      
,toepffer1 ,attische ,genealogie        
7,berlin1 #ahhi71 pp4 #ach sq4          
,however1 the ,eleusinian ,torchbearer  
,callias apparently claimed to be       
descended from ,triptolemus1 for in a   
speech addressed to the                 
,lacedaemonians he is said by ,xenophon 
7,hellenica1 vi4 #c4 #f7 to        have 
spoken of ,triptolemus as 8our ancestor0
 7  74        ,see above1 p4 #ed4 ,but  
it is possible that ,callias was here   
speaking1        not as a direct        
descendant of ,triptolemus1 but merely  
as an        ,athenian1 who naturally   
ranked ,triptolemus among the most      

illustrious of the ancestral heroes of  
his people4 ,even if he        intended 
to claim actual descent from the hero1  
this would prove        nothing as to   
the historical character of             
,triptolemus1 for many        ,greek    
families boasted of being descended from
 gods4      ,m#eb ,prizes of barley     
given to victors in the ,eleusinian     
games4      #bfa ,the prize of barley is
 mentioned by the ,scholiast on ,pindar1
        ,olymp4 ix4 #aej4 ,the          
,scholiast on ,aristides 7vol4 iii4 pp4 
#ee1 #ef1        ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf7      
mentions ears of corn as the prize      
without        specifying the kind of   
corn4 ,in the official ,athenian        
inscription of        #cbi ,b4,c41      
though the amount of corn distributed in
 prizes both at        the quadriennial 
and at the biennial games is stated1 we 
are not        told whether the corn was
 barley or wheat4 ,see ,dittenberger1   
,sylloge ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b   
,no4 #ehg1 lines #bei sqq4              

,according to ,aristides 7,eleusin4 vol4
 i4 p4 #dag1 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf1          
compare p4 #afh7 the prize consisted of 
the corn which had first        appeared
 at ,eleusis4      #bfb ,marmor ,parium1
 in ,fragmenta ,historicorum ,graecorum1
 ed4 ,c4        ,mller1 i4 #edd4 ,that  
the ,rarian plain was the first to be   
sown and        the first to bear crops 
is affirmed by ,pausanias 7i4 #ch4 #f74 
#bfc ,pausanias1 i4 #ch4 #f4      #bfd  
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 lines #aai     
sq4 ,in the same inscription1 a few     
lines lower down1 mention is        made
 of two pigs which were used in         
purifying the sanctuary at              
,eleusis4 ,on the pig in ,greek         
purificatory rites1 see my notes on     
,pausanias1 ii4 #ca4 #h and v4 #af4 #h4 
,m#ec ,the ,eleusinian games primarily  
concerned with ,demeter and             
,persephone4 ,the ,ancestral ,contest in
 the games may have been                
originally a contest between the reapers

 to finish reaping4      #bfe ,see      
below1 pp4 #adj sqq41 #aee sqq41 #afd   
sqq41 compare #bah        sqq4      #bff
 ,see below1 pp4 #adg sqq41 #bba sq41   
#bbc sq4      #bfg ,see above1 p4 #dc4  
,m#ed ,games at harvest festivals in    
modern ,europe4      #bfh ,a4 ,kuhn und 
,w4 ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1    
,mrchen und ,gebruche        7,leipsic1 
#ahdh71 pp4 #cih1 #cii1 #djj4      #bfi 
,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und     
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #gj sq4      #bgj ,a4  
,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen und ,mrchen     
7,berlin1 #ahdc71 pp4 #cda sq4      #bga
 ,see below1 pp4 #acc sqq4      ,m#ee   
,date of the ,eleusinian games          
uncertain4      #bgb ,scholiast on      
,pindar1 ,olymp4 ix4 #aej1 p4 #bbh1 ed4 
,aug4 ,boeckh4      #bgc ,the games are 
assigned to ,metageitnion by ,p4        
,stengel 7,pauly-,wissowa1              
,real-,encyclopdie der classischen      
,altertumswissenschaft1 v4 #b4          
coll4 #bcca sq47 and to ,boedromion by  

,august ,mommsen and ,w4                
,dittenberger4 ,the last-mentioned      
scholar supposes that the games         
immediately followed the ,mysteries1 and
 ,august ,mommsen formerly              
thought so too1 but he afterwards       
changed his view and preferred to       
suppose that the games preceded the     
,mysteries4 ,see ,aug4 ,mommsen1        
,heortologie 7,leipsic1 #ahfd71 p4 #bfc2
 id41 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen        im
 ,altertum 7,leipsic1 #ahih71 pp4 #ahb  
sqq42 ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge           
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 
note #aga 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #cac            
sq474 ,the dating of the games in       
,metageitnion or in the early part      
of ,boedromion depends on little more   
than a series of conjectures1           
particularly the conjectural restoration
 of an inscription and the              
conjectural dating of a certain         
sacrifice to ,democracy4      ,m#ef ,why
 should games intended to promote the   
annual growth of the crops        be    

held only every second or fourth year8  
,the ,eleusinian ,mysteries             
probably much older than the ,eleusinian
 games4      #bgd ,a4 de ,candolle1     
,origin of ,cultivated ,plants 7,london1
 #ahhd71 pp4        #ced sq41 #cfg sqq42
 ,r4 ,munro1 ,the ,lake-dwellings of    
,europe        7,london1 ,paris1 and    
,melbourne1 #ahij71 pp4 #dig sqq42 ,o4  
,schrader1        ,reallexikon der      
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71        pp4 #h sqq42
 id41 ,sprachvergleichung und           
,urgeschichte 7,jena1                   
#aijf-aijg71 ii4 #ahe sqq42 ,h4 ,hirt1  
,die ,indogermanen 7,strasburg1         
#aije-aijg71 i4 #bed sqq41 #bgc sq41    
#bgf sqq41 ii4 #fdj sqq42 ,m4           
,much1 ,die ,heimat der ,indogermanen   
7,jena and ,berlin1 #aijd71 pp4 #bba    
sqq42 ,t4 ,e4 ,peet1 ,the ,stone and    
,bronze ,ages in ,italy and ,sicily     
7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #cfb4      ,m#eg   
,quadriennial period of many of the     
great games of ,greece4 ,old            

octennial period of the ,pythian and    
probably of the ,olympian games4        
,the octennial cycle was instituted by  
the ,greeks at a very early era         
for the purpose of harmonising solar and
 lunar time4      #bge ,aristotle1      
,constitution of ,athens1 #ed1 where the
 quadriennial        7penteteric7       
festival of the ,eleusinian ,games is   
mentioned along        with the         
quadriennial festivals of the           
,panathenaica1 the ,delia1 the          
,brauronia1 and the ,heraclea4 ,the     
biennial 7trieteric7 festival of        
the ,eleusinian ,games is mentioned only
 in the inscription of #cbi             
,b4,c4 7,dittenberger1 ,sylloge         
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,no4 #ehg1 
lines #bei sq474 ,as to the identity of 
the ,great ,eleusinian ,games           
with the quadriennial games see         
,dittenberger1 ,sylloge ,inscriptionum  
,graecarum1 ,no4 #bdf note #i1 ,no4 #ehg
 note #aga4      #bgf ,as to the        
,plataean games see ,plutarch1          

,aristides1 #ba2 ,pausanias1        ix4 
#b4 #f4      #bgg ,strabo1 vii4 #g4 #f1 
p4 #cbe2 ,suetonius1 ,augustus1 #ah2    
,dio ,cassius1        li4 #a2 ,daremberg
 et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des          
,antiquits ,grecques et                 
,romaines1 s4v4 8,actia40      #bgh     
,pausanias1 viii4 #i4 #h4      #bgi     
,scholiast on ,pindar1 ,pyth41          
,argument1 p4 #bih1 ed4 ,aug4 ,boeckh2  
,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 xviii4 #f4 
,according to the scholiast on          
,pindar 7l4c47 the change from the      
octennial to the quadriennial           
period was occasioned by the nymphs of  
,parnassus bringing ripe        fruits  
in their hands to ,apollo1 after he had 
slain the dragon at        ,delphi4     
#bhj ,scholiast on ,pindar1 ,olymp4 iii4
 #ce 7#bj71 p4 #ih1 ed4 ,aug4 ,boeckh4  
,compare ,boeckh's commentary on ,pindar
 7vol4 iii4 p4 #ach of his              
edition72 ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der    
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 i4 #cff sq41 ii4 #fje sqq4

      #bha ,see ,the ,dying ,god1       
chapter ii4  #d1 8,octennial ,tenure of 
the        ,kingship10 especially pp4   
#fh sq41 #hj1 #hi sq4      #bhb         
,geminus1 ,elementa ,astronomiae1 viii4 
#be sqq41 pp4 #aaj sqq41        ed4 ,c4 
,manitius 7,leipsic1 #ahih72            
,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 xviii4     
#b-f4      #bhc ,geminus1 l4c4      #bhd
 ,geminus1 ,elementa ,astronomiae1 viii4
 #cf-da4      #bhe ,censorinus1 ,de die 
natali1 xviii4 #e4 ,as ,eudoxus         
flourished in the        fourth century 
,b4,c41 some sixty or seventy years     
after ,meton1 who        introduced the 
nineteen years' cycle to remedy the     
defects of the        octennial cycle1  
the claim of ,eudoxus to have instituted
 the latter        cycle may at once be 
put out of court4 ,the claim of         
,cleostratus1 who        seems to have  
lived in the sixth or fifth century     
,b4,c41 cannot be        dismissed so   
summarily2 but for the reasons given in 
the text he can        hardly have done 

more than suggest corrections or        
improvements of        the ancient      
octennial cycle4      #bhf ,geminus1    
,elementa ,astronomiae1 viii4 #bg4 ,with
 far less probability        ,censorinus
 7,de die natali1 xviii4 #b-d7 supposes 
that the octennial        cycle was     
produced by the successive duplication  
of biennial and        quadriennial     
cycles4 ,see below1 pp4 #hf sq4         
#bhg ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der         
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 ii4 #fje4      #bhh ,the  
,dying ,god1 pp4 #eh sqq4 ,speaking of  
the octennial cycle        ,censorinus  
observes that 8,ob hoc in ,graecia      
multae religiones hoc        intervallo 
temporis summa caerimonia coluntur0 7,de
 die natali1        xviii4 #f74 ,compare
 ,l4 ,ideler1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fje sq42 ,g4
 ,f4 ,unger1        8,zeitrechnung der  
,griechen und ,rmer10 in ,iwan ,mller's 
,handbuch        der classischen        
,altertumswissenschaft1 i4#b #gcb sq4   
,the great age        and the wide      

diffusion of the octennial cycle in     
,greece are rightly        maintained by
 ,a4 ,schmidt 7,handbuch der            
griechischen ,chronologie1        ,jena1
 #ahhh1 pp4 #fa sqq471 who suggests that
 the cycle may have        owed         
something to the astronomy of the       
,egyptians1 with whom the               
inhabitants of ,greece are known to have
 had relations from a very        early 
time4      ,m#eh ,the motive for        
instituting the eight years' cycle was  
religious1 not        practical or      
scientific4      #bhi ,aratus1          
,phaenomena1 #gcc sqq42 ,l4 ,ideler1    
,handbuch der        mathematischen und 
technischen ,chronologie1 i4 #bee sq4   
#bij ,geminus1 ,elementa ,astronomiae1  
viii4 #ae-de4      ,m#ei ,in early times
 the regulation of the calendar is      
largely an affair        of religion4   
#bia ,macrobius1 ,saturnalia1 i4 #ae4 #i
 sqq42 ,livy1 ix4 #df4 #e2 ,valerius    
,maximus1 ii4 #e4 #b2 ,cicero1 ,pro     
,muraena1 xi4 #be2 id41 ,de             

legibus1 ii4 #ab4 #bi2 ,suetonius1      
,divus ,iulius1 #dj2 ,plutarch1         
,caesar1 #ei4      ,m#fj ,the           
quadriennial period of games and        
festivals in ,greece was        probably
 arrived at by bisecting an older       
octennial period4      #bib ,see ,the   
,dying ,god1 pp4 #ib sqq4      #bic     
,plato1 ,meno1 p4 #ha ,a-,c2 ,pindar1   
ed4 ,aug4 ,boeckh1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #fbc   
sq41 ,frag4 #ih4 ,see further ,the      
,dying ,god1 pp4 #fi sq4      #bid      
,plutarch1 ,aristides1 #ba2 ,pausanias1 
ix4 #b4 #f4      #bie ,see above1 p4    
#hj4      ,m#fa ,the reasons for        
bisecting the old octennial period into 
two        quadriennial periods may have
 been partly religious1 partly          
political4      #bif ,pausanias1 iv4 #e4
 #aj2 compare ,aristotle1 ,constitution 
of ,athens1        iii4 #a2 ,g4         
,gilbert1 ,handbuch der griechischen    
,staatsalterthumer1        i4#b         
7,leipsic1 #ahic7 pp4 #abb sq4      #big
 ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #hi-ib4     

,m#fb ,the biennial period of some      
,greek games may have been obtained by  
bisecting the quadriennial period4      
#bih ,l4 ,ideler1 ,handbuch der         
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 ii4 #fjf sq4      #bii    
,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 xviii4     
#b-d4      #cjj ,censorinus1 ,de die    
natali1 xviii4 #b4      #cja ,l4        
,ideler1 ,handbuch der mathematischen   
und technischen        ,chronologie1 i4 
#bgj4      ,m#fc ,application of the    
foregoing conclusion to the ,eleusinian 
games4    ,m#fd ,varro on the rites of  
,eleusis4      #cjb ,augustine1 ,de     
civitate ,dei1 vii4 #bj4 8,in ,cereris  
autem sacris        praedicantur illa   
,eleusinia1 quae apud ,athenienses      
nobilissima        fuerunt4 ,de quibus  
iste ,varro nihil interpretatur1 nisi   
quod        attinet ad frumentum1 quod  
,ceres invenit1 et ad ,proserpinam1 quam
        rapiente ,orco perdidit4 ,et    
hanc ipsam dicit significare            
foecunditatem seminum4444 ,dicit deinde 

multa in mysteriis ejus        tradi1   
quae nisi ad frugum inventionem non     
pertineant40      ,m#fe ,the close      
resemblance between the artistic types  
of ,demeter and        ,persephone      
militates against the theory that the   
two goddesses        personified two    
things so different as the earth and the
 corn4      #cjc ,a4 ,baumeister1       
,denkmler des classischen ,altertums1 i4
 #egg sq42        ,drexler1 s4v4 ,gaia1 
in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's ,lexikon der      
griech4 und        rm4 ,mythologie1 i4  
#aegd sqq42 ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,the      
,cults of the        ,greek ,states1    
iii4 7,oxford1 #aijg7 p4 #bg4      #cjd 
,pausanias1 vii4 #ba4 #aa4 ,at ,athens  
there was a sanctuary of ,earth the     
,nursing-,mother and of ,green ,demeter 
7,pausanias1 i4 #bb4 #c71 but we do     
not know how the goddesses were         
represented4      #cje ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1
 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 iii4
 #bef with plate        xxi4 b4         
#cjf ,the distinction between ,demeter  

7,ceres7 and the ,earth ,goddess is     
clearly marked by ,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4    
#fgc sq43          8,officium commune   
,ceres et ,terra tuentur2         ,haec 
praebet causam frugibus1 illa locum40   
#cjg ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge            
,inscriptionum ,graecarum1#b ,nos4 #bj1 
#djh1 #daa1        #ehg1 #fdf1 #fdg1    
#feb1 #gbj1 #ghi4 ,compare the          
expression          applied to them by  
,euripides1 ,phoenissae1 #fhc1 with the 
,scholiast's note4      #cjh ,the       
substantial identity of ,demeter and    
,persephone has been        recognised  
by some modern scholars1 though their   
interpretations of        the myth do   
not altogether agree with the one       
adopted in the text4        ,see ,f4 ,g4
 ,welcker1 ,griechische ,gtterlehre     
7,gttingen1 #aheg-ahfb71        ii4     
#ecb2 ,l4 ,preller1 in ,pauly's         
,realencyclopdie der classischen        
,altertumswissenschaft1 vi4 #ajf sq42   
,f4 ,lenormant1 in ,daremberg et        
,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits   

,grecques et ,romaines1 i4 #b4          
pp4 #ajdg sqq4      ,m#ff ,as goddesses 
of the corn ,demeter and ,persephone    
came to be        associated with the   
ideas of death and resurrection4        
#cji ,homeric ,hymn to ,demeter1 #dhj   
sqq42 ,pindar1 quoted by ,clement of    
,alexandria1 ,strom4 iii4 #c4 #ag1 p4   
#eah1 ed4 ,potter2 ,sophocles1          
quoted by ,plutarch1 ,de audiendis      
poetis1 #d2 ,isocrates1                 
,panegyricus1 #f2 ,cicero1 ,de legibus1 
ii4 #ad4 #cf2 ,aristides1               
,eleusin4 vol4 i4 p4 #dba1 ed4 ,g4      
,dindorf4      #caj ,a learned ,german  
professor has thought it worth while to 
break the        poor butterfly argument
 on the wheel of his inflexible logic4  
,the        cruel act1 while it proves  
the hardness of the professor's head1   
says little for his knowledge of human  
nature1 which does not always        act
 in strict accordance with the impulse  
of the syllogistic        machinery4    
,see ,erwin ,rohde1 ,psyche#c 7,tbingen 

and ,leipsic1 #aijc71        i4 #bij    
sqq4      #caa #a ,corinthians xv4 #ce  
sqq4      ,m#fg ,games played as magical
 ceremonies to promote the growth of the
        crops4 ,the ,kayans of central  
,borneo1 a primitive agricultural       
people4 ,the sacred rice-fields 7luma   
lali7 on which all religious            
ceremonies requisite for agriculture are
 performed4      #cab ,see above1 p4    
#ga1 with the footnote #e4      #cac    
,see above1 pp4 #gd sqq4      #cad ,a4  
,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo   
7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4 #aef          
sq4      ,m#fh ,ceremonies observed at  
the sowing festival4 ,taboos observed at
 the        sowing festival4      #cae  
,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4 #afd4 
#caf ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch  
,borneo1 i4 #afd-afg4      #cag ,a4 ,w4 
,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4 #afc4 ,the    
motive assigned for the        exclusion
 of strangers at the sowing festival    
applies equally to all        religious 
rites4 8,in all religious observances10 

says ,dr4        ,nieuwenhuis1 8the     
,kayans fear the presence of strangers1 
because        these latter might       
frighten and annoy the spirits which are
        invoked40 ,on the periods of    
seclusion and quiet observed in         
connexion with agriculture by the       
,kayans of ,sarawak1 see ,w4 ,h4        
,furness1 ,home-life of ,borneo         
,head-hunters 7,philadelphia1 #aijb71   
pp4 #afj sqq4      ,m#fi ,games played  
at the sowing festival4 ,masquerade at  
the sowing        festival4      #cah   
,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4       
#afg-afi4      ,m#gj ,rites at hoeing4  
#cai ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4  
#afi4      ,m#ga ,the ,kayan ,new ,year 
festival4 ,offerings and addresses to   
the spirits4        ,sacrifice of pigs4 
#cbj ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch  
,borneo1 i4 #aga-ahb4      ,m#gb ,dr4   
,nieuwenhuis on the games played by the 
,kayans in connexion with               
agriculture4      #cba ,a4 ,w4          
,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4 #afi sq4      

,m#gc ,serious religious or magical     
significance of the games4      #cbb ,a4
 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4 #afc sq4 
#cbc ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch  
,borneo1 ii4 #acj sq4 ,the game as to   
the religious significance of which ,dr4
 ,nieuwenhuis has no doubt is        the
 masquerade performed by the ,kayans of 
the ,mahakam river1 where               
disguised men personate spirits and     
pretend to draw home the souls        of
 the rice from the far countries to     
which they may have wandered4           
,see below1 pp4 #ahf sq4      ,m#gd ,the
 ,kai1 an agricultural people of ,german
 ,new ,guinea4 ,superstitious           
practices observed by the ,kai for the  
good of the crops4      #cbd ,ch4       
,keysser1 8,aus dem ,leben der          
,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1 ,deutsch  
,neu-,guinea1 iii4 7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 
#c1 #i sq41 #ab sq4      #cbe ,ch4      
,keysser1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abc-abe4        
,m#ge ,games played by the ,kai people  
to promote the growth of the yams and   

taro4 ,tales and legends told by the    
,kai to cause the fruits of the         
earth to thrive4      #cbf ,ch4         
,keysser1 op4 cit4 iii4 #abe sq4        
#cbg ,ch4 ,keysser1 op4 cit4 iii4 #afa4 
,m#gf ,thus among these ,new ,guinea    
people games are played and stories told
        as charms to ensure good crops4 
#cbh ,on the principles of homoeopathic 
or imitative magic1 see ,the ,magic     
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4   
#eb sqq4 ,the ,esquimaux play           
cat's cradle as a charm to catch the sun
 in the meshes of the string        and 
so prevent him from sinking below the   
horizon in winter4 ,see        ,the     
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #caf sq4 ,cat's        cradle
 is played as a game by savages in many 
parts of the world1        including the
 ,torres ,straits ,islands1 the ,andaman
 ,islands1 ,africa1        and ,america4
 ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,study of   
,man 7,london and ,new        ,york1    
#ahih71 pp4 #bbd-bcb2 ,miss ,kathleen   

,haddon1 ,cat's ,cradles from           
,many ,lands 7,london1 #aiaa74 ,for     
example1 the ,indians of                
,north-western ,brazil play many games  
of cat's cradle1 each of which          
has its special name1 such as the ,bow1 
the ,moon1 the ,pleiades1 the           
,armadillo1 the ,spider1 the            
,caterpillar1 and the ,guts of the      
,tapir4        ,see ,th4 ,koch-,grnberg1
 ,zwei ,jahre unter den ,indianern      
7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71 i4 #abj1  
#abc1 #beb1 #bec1 ii4 #abg1 #aca4       
,finding the game        played as a    
magical rite to stay the sun or promote 
the growth of        the crops among    
peoples so distant from each other as   
the ,esquimaux        and the natives of
 ,new ,guinea1 we may reasonably surmise
 that it has        been put to similar 
uses by many other peoples1 though      
civilised        observers have commonly
 seen in it nothing more than a pastime4
        ,probably many games have thus  
originated in magical rites4 ,when      

their old serious meaning was forgotten1
 they continued to be        practised  
simply for the amusement they afforded  
the players4        ,another such game  
seems to be the 8,tug of ,war40 ,see    
,the ,golden        ,bough1#b iii4 #ie4 
#cbi ,see ,taboo and the ,perils of the 
,soul1 pp4 #cah sqq4      #ccj ,stefan  
,lehner1 ,bukaua1 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1     
,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4             
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #dgh sq4      ,m#gg
 ,the ,yabim of ,german ,new ,guinea    
also tell tales on purpose to obtain    
abundant crops4      #cca ,see ,taboo   
and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #chf4  
#ccb ,h4 ,zahn1 8,die ,jabim10 in ,r4   
,neuhauss1 ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4  
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 p4 #bij4      #ccc ,h4 
,zahn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccb sq4      ,m#gh 
,specimens of ,yabim tales told as      
charms to procure a good harvest4       
,such tales may be called narrative     
spells4      #ccd ,h4 ,zahn1 op4 cit4 p4
 #ccc4      #cce ,stefan ,lehner1       
8,bukaua10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1 ,deutsch   

,neu-,guinea1 iii4        7,berlin1     
#aiaa7 p4 #ddh4      ,m#gi ,use of the  
bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the
 earth4      #ccf ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in   
,reports of the ,cambridge              
,anthropological        ,expedition to  
,torres ,straits1 v4 7,cambridge1 #aijd7
 pp4 #bah1 #bai4        ,compare id41   
,head-hunters1 ,black1 ,white1 and      
,brown 7,london1        #aija7 p4 #ajd4 
#ccg ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 in ,reports of the
 ,cambridge ,anthropological            
,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 v4     
7,cambridge1 #aijd7 pp4 #cdf sq4        
#cch ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 8,the ,dieri and  
other kindred ,tribes of ,central       
,australia10 ,journal of the            
,anthropological ,institute1 xx4 7#ahia7
        p4 #hc2 id41 ,native ,tribes of 
,south-,east ,australia 7,london1       
#aijd71 p4 #ffj4 ,the first1 ,i believe1
 to point out the fertilising           
power ascribed to the bull-roarer by    
some savages was ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4           
,haddon4 ,see his essay1 8,the          

,bull-roarer10 in ,the ,study of ,man   
7,london and ,new ,york1 #ahih71 pp4    
#bgg-cbg4 ,in this work ,dr4 ,haddon    
recognises the general principle of the 
possible derivation of many        games
 from magical rites4 ,as to the         
bull-roarer compare my paper 8,on       
some ,ceremonies of the ,central        
,australian ,tribes10 in the ,report of 
the ,australasian ,association for the  
,advancement of ,science for the        
year #aijj 7,melbourne1 #aija71 pp4     
#cac-cbb4      ,m#hj ,swinging as an    
agricultural charm4      #cci ,j4 ,g4   
,kohl1 ,die deutsch-russischen          
,ostseeprovinzen 7,dresden and          
,leipsic1 #ahda71 ii4 #be4      #cdj    
,for the evidence see ,the ,dying ,god1 
pp4 #bgg-bhe4      ,m#ha ,analogy of the
 ,kayans of ,borneo to the ,greeks of   
,eleusis in the        early time4 ,the 
,sacred ,ploughing at ,eleusis4         
#cda ,on the ,kayan chiefs and their    
religious duties1 see ,a4 ,w4           
,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 i4   

#eh-fj4      #cdb ,see above1 p4 #cf4   
#cdc ,see above1 p4 #gd4      #cdd      
,plutarch1 ,praecepta ,conjugalia1 #db4 
,another of these ,sacred               
,ploughings was performed at ,scirum1   
and the third at the foot of the        
,acropolis at ,athens2 for in this      
passage of ,plutarch we must1 with      
the latest editor1 read   for the   of  
the        manuscripts4      #cde ,see  
above1 pp4 #ej sqq4      #cdf           
,etymologicum ,magnum1 s4v4 1 p4 #bjf1  
lines #dg sqq42 ,im4        ,bekker1    
,anecdota ,graeca 7,berlin1 #ahad-ahba71
 i4 #bba2 ,pliny1 ,nat4        ,hist4   
vii4 #aii2 ,hesychius1 s4v4 2           
2 ,paroemiographi        ,graeci1 ed4   
,e4 ,l4 ,leutsch und ,f4 ,g4            
,schneidewin 7,gttingen1                
#ahci-ahea71 i4 #chh1 2    4            
444                                 2   
,scholiast on ,sophocles1 ,antigone1    
#bee1                 4 ,the            
,sacred ,ploughing at the foot of the   
,acropolis was specially called         

bouzygios 7,plutarch1 ,praecepta        
,conjugalia1 #db74 ,compare ,j4         
,toepffer1 ,attische ,genealogie        
7,berlin1 #ahhi7 pp4 #acf sqq4      #cdg
 ,such ,sabbaths are very commonly and  
very strictly observed in               
connexion with the crops by the         
agricultural hill tribes of ,assam4     
,the native name for such a ,sabbath is 
genna4 ,see ,t4 ,c4 ,hodson1            
8,the ,genna amongst the ,tribes of     
,assam10 ,journal of the                
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4     
7#aijf7 pp4 #id sq43 8,communal         
tabus are observed by the whole         
village4444 ,those which are of         
regular occurrence are for the most part
 connected with the crops4        ,even 
where irrigated terraces are made1 the  
rice plant is much        affected by   
deficiencies of rain and excess of sun4 
,before the crop        is sown1 the    
village is tabu or genna4 ,the gates are
 closed and        the friend without   
has to stay outside1 while the stranger 

that is        within the gates remains 
till all is ended4 ,the festival is     
marked        among some tribes by an   
outburst of licentiousness1 for1 so long
 as        the crops remain ungarnered1 
the slightest incontinence might ruin   
all4 ,an omen of the prosperity of the  
crops is taken by a mock        contest1
 the girls pulling against the men4 ,in 
some villages the        gennas last for
 ten days1 but the tenth day is the     
crowning day of        all4 ,the men    
cook1 and eat apart from the women      
during this time1        and the food   
tabus are strictly enforced4 ,from the  
conclusion of the        initial crop   
genna to the commencement of the genna  
which ushers        in the harvest-time1
 all trade1 all fishing1 all hunting1   
all        cutting grass and felling    
trees is forbidden4 ,those tribes which 
specialise in cloth-weaving1 salt-making
 or pottery-making are        forbidden 
the exercise of these minor but valuable
 industries4 ,drums        and bugles   

are silent all the while4444 ,between   
the initial crop        genna and the   
harvest-home1 some tribes interpose a   
genna day        which depends on the   
appearance of the first blade of rice4  
,all        celebrate the commencement  
of the gathering of the crops by a      
genna1 which lasts at least two days4   
,it is mainly a repetition of        the
 initial genna and1 just as the first   
seed was sown by the        gennabura1  
the religious head of the village1 so he
 is obliged to        cut the first ear 
of rice before any one else may begin40 
,on such        occasions among the     
,kabuis1 in spite of the licence        
accorded to the        people generally1
 the strictest chastity is required of  
the        religious head of the village
 who initiates the sowing and the       
reaping1 and his diet is extremely      
limited2 for example1 he may not        
eat dogs or tomatoes4 ,see ,t4 ,c4      
,hodson1 8,the ,native ,tribes of       
,manipur10 ,journal of the              

,anthropological ,institute1 xxxi4      
7#aija7        pp4 #cjf sq42 and for    
more details1 id41 ,the ,naga ,tribes of
        ,manipur 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4  
#afh sqq4 ,the resemblance of some of   
these customs to those of the ,kayans of
 ,borneo is obvious4 ,we may            
conjecture that the 8tug of war0 which  
takes place between the sexes        on 
several of these ,sabbaths was          
originally a magical ceremony to        
ensure good crops rather than merely a  
mode of divination to        forecast   
the coming harvest4 ,magic regularly    
dwindles into        divination before  
it degenerates into a simple game4 ,at  
one of these        taboo periods the   
men set up an effigy of a man and throw 
pointed        bamboos at it4 ,he who   
hits the figure in the head will kill an
        enemy2 he who hits it in the    
belly will have plenty of food4 ,see ,t4
        ,c4 ,hodson1 in ,journal of the 
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxvi4     
7#aijf7 p4 #ie2 id41 ,the ,naga ,tribes 

of ,manipur1 p4 #aga4 ,here also        
we probably have an old magical ceremony
 passing through a phase of             
divination before it reaches the last   
stage of decay4 ,on ,sabbaths           
observed in connexion with agriculture  
in ,borneo and ,assam1 see              
further ,hutton ,webster1 ,rest ,days1 a
 ,sociological ,study1 pp4 #aa          
sqq4 7,university ,studies1 ,lincoln1   
,nebraska1 vol4 xi4 ,nos4 #a-b1         
,january-,april1 #aiaa74      ,m#hb ,the
 connexion of the ,eleusinian games with
 agriculture1 attested by        the    
ancients1 is confirmed by modern savage 
analogies4      #cdh ,see above1 p4 #ga4
      #cdi ,see above1 p4 #ga note #e4  
#cej ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #acg-aci4      
#cea ,see the old ,greek scholiast on   
,clement of ,alexandria1 quoted by ,chr4
        ,aug4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus     
7,knigsberg1 #ahbi71 p4 #gjj2 ,andrew   
,lang1        ,custom and ,myth         
7,london1 #ahhd71 p4 #ci4 ,it is true   

that the        bull-roarer seems to    
have been associated with the rites of  
,dionysus        rather than of         
,demeter2 perhaps the sound of it was   
thought to        mimick the bellowing  
of the god in his character of a bull4  
,but the        worship of ,dionysus was
 from an early time associated with that
 of        ,demeter in the ,eleusinian  
mysteries2 and the god himself1 as we   
have        seen1 had agricultural      
affinities4 ,see above1 p4 #e4 ,an      
annual        festival of swinging      
7which1 as we have seen1 is still       
practised        both in ,new ,guinea   
and ,russia for the good of the crops7  
was held by        the ,athenians in    
antiquity and was believed to have      
originated in        the worship of     
,dionysus4 ,see ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4   
#bha sq4      ,m#hc ,the sacred drama of
 the ,eleusinian mysteries compared to  
the masked        dances of agricultural
 savages4      #ceb ,see above1 pp4 #ie 
sq41 and below1 pp4 #ahf sq4      #cec  

,see above1 p4 #ci4      #ced ,th4      
,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den  
,indianern 7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71
 i4 #acg-adj1 ii4 #aic-aif4 ,as to the  
cultivation of manioc        among these
 ,indians see id4 ii4 #bjb sqq4         
,m#hd ,theory that the personification  
of corn as feminine was suggested by    
the part played by women in primitive   
agriculture4      #cee ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons1 
,introduction to the ,history of        
,religion 7,london1        #ahif71 p4   
#bdj2 ,h4 ,hirt1 ,die ,indogermanen     
7,strasburg1 #aije-aijg71        i4 #bea
 sqq4      ,m#he ,among many savage     
tribes the labour of hoeing the ground  
and sowing        the seed devolves on  
women4 ,agricultural work done by women 
among        the ,zulus and other tribes
 of ,south ,africa4      #cef ,rev4 ,j4 
,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal and the
 ,zulu ,country 7,london1        #aheg71
 pp4 #ag sq4 ,speaking of the ,zulus    
another writer observes3        8,in    
gardening1 the men clear the land1 if   

need be1 and sometimes        fence it  
in2 the women plant1 weed1 and harvest0 
7,rev4 ,l4 ,grout1        ,zulu-land1   
,philadelphia1 ,n4,d41 p4 #aaj74        
#ceg ,a4 ,delegorgue1 ,voyage dans      
l',afrique ,australe 7,paris1 #ahdg71   
ii4        #bbe4      #ceh ,h4 ,a4      
,junod1 ,les ,ba-,ronga 7,neuchatel1    
#aijh71 pp4 #aie sq4      #cei ,l4      
,decle1 ,three ,years in ,savage ,africa
 7,london1 #ahih71 p4 #he4      #cfj ,l4
 ,decle1 op4 cit4 p4 #afj4      #cfa ,c4
 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1 ,the      
,great ,plateau of ,northern            
,rhodesia 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4 #cjb4    
,m#hf ,chastity required in the sowers  
of seed4      #cfb ,l4 ,decle1 op4 cit4 
p4 #bie4      #cfc ,c4 ,gouldsbury and  
,h4 ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of    
,northern ,nigeria        7,london1     
#aiaa71 p4 #agi4      #cfd ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4
 ,weeks1 8,notes on some ,customs of the
 ,lower ,congo ,people10                
,folk-lore1 xx4 7#aiji7 p4 #caa4        
#cfe ,in order to guard against any     

breach of the rule they strewed ,agnus  
castus and other plants1 which were     
esteemed anaphrodisiacs1 under          
their beds4 ,see ,dioscorides1 ,de      
,materia ,medica1 i4 #acd 7#ace71 vol4  
i4 p4 #acj1 ed4 ,c4 ,sprengel 7,leipsic1
 #ahbi-ahcj72 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4      
xxiv4 #ei2 ,aelian1 ,de ,natura         
,animalium1 ix4 #bf2 ,hesychius1 s4v4   
2 ,scholiast on ,theocritus1 iv4 #be2   
,scholiast on ,nicander1        ,ther4  
#gj sq4      #cff ,scholiast on         
,aristophanes1 ,thesmophor4 #hj2        
,plutarch1        ,demosthenes1 #cj2    
,aug4 ,mommsen1 ,feste der ,stadt ,athen
 im ,altertum        7,leipsic1 #ahih71 
pp4 #caj sq4 ,that ,pyanepsion was the  
month of        sowing is mentioned by  
,plutarch 7,isis et ,osiris1 #fi74 ,see 
above1        pp4 #de sq4      #cfg ,see
 below1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ag sq4      ,m#hg  
,woman's part in agriculture among the  
,caffres of ,south ,africa in           
general4      #cfh ,dudley ,kidd1 ,the  
,essential ,kaffir 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 

#cbc4 ,compare        ,b4 ,ankermann1   
8,l',ethnographie actuelle de l',afrique
 mridionale10        ,anthropos1 i4     
7#aijf7 pp4 #ege sq4 ,as to the use of  
the ,pleiades        to determine the   
time of sowing1 see note at the end of  
the volume1        8,the ,pleiades in   
,primitive ,calendars40      #cfi ,rev4 
,e4 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos 7,london1   
#ahfa71 pp4 #adc 7with plate71          
pp4 #afb-afe4      ,m#hh ,agricultural  
work done by women among the ,nandi1    
,baganda1 the ,congo1        and other  
tribes of ,central and ,western ,africa4
      #cgj ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 
7,oxford1 #aiji71 p4 #ai4 ,however1     
among the        ,bantu ,kavirondo1 an  
essentially agricultural people of      
,british ,east        ,africa1 both men 
and women work in the fields with large 
iron hoes4        ,see ,sir ,harry      
,johnston1 ,the ,uganda ,protectorate   
7,london1 #aijd71        ii4 #gch4      
#cga ,m4 ,w4 ,h4 ,beech1 ,the ,suk      
7,oxford1 #aiaa71 p4 #cc4      #cgb ,f4 

,stuhlmann1 ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz
 von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71        p4
 #cf4      #cgc ,f4 ,stuhlmann1 op4 cit4
 p4 #ge4      #cgd ,rev4 ,j4 ,roscoe1   
,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4     
#dbf1 #dbg2 compare        pp4 #e1 #ch1 
#ia sq41 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #bfh4      #cge 
,h4 ,rehse1 ,kiziba1 ,land und ,leute   
7,stuttgart1 #aiaj71 p4 #ec4      #cgf  
,g4 ,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of       
,africa#c 7,london1 #ahgh71 i4 #bha4    
#cgg ,g4 ,schweinfurth1 op4 cit4 ii4    
#dj4      #cgh ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,weeks1    
8,anthropological ,notes on the ,bangala
 of the ,upper        ,congo ,river10   
,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological 
,institute1        xxxix4 7#aiji7 pp4   
#aag1 #abh4      #cgi ,e4 ,torday1 8,der
 ,tofoke10 ,mitteilungen der            
,anthropologischen        ,gesellschaft 
in ,wien1 xli4 7#aiaa7 p4 #aih4         
#chj ,e4 ,torday and ,t4 ,a4 ,joyce1    
8,notes on the ,ethnography of the      
,ba-,mbala10 ,journal of the            
,anthropological ,institute1 xxxv4      

7#aije7        p4 #dje4      #cha ,p4   
,b4 du ,chaillu1 ,explorations and      
,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa      
7,london1 #ahfa71 p4 #bb4      #chb ,p4 
,b4 du ,chaillu1 op4 cit4 p4 #dag4      
,m#hi ,agricultural work done by women  
among the ,indian tribes of ,south      
,america4      #chc ,a4 ,d',orbigny1    
,l',homme ,amricain 7de l',amrique      
,mridionale7        7,paris1 #ahci71 i4 
#aih sq4      #chd ,le ,sieur de la     
,borde1 8,relation de l',origine1 ,murs1
 ,coustumes1        ,religion1 ,guerres 
et ,voyages des ,caraibes ,sauvages des 
,isles        ,antilles de l',amerique10
 pp4 #ba-bc1 in ,recueil de divers      
,voyages        faits en ,afrique et en 
l',amerique 7,paris1 #afhd74      #che  
,e4 ,f4 im ,thurn1 ,among the ,indians  
of ,guiana 7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4        
#bej sqq41 #bfj sqq4      ,m#ij         
,cultivation of manioc by women among   
the ,indian tribes of tropical          
,south ,america4      #chf ,c4 ,f4      
,phil4 v4 ,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie  

,amerika's1 zumal        ,brasiliens    
7,leipsic1 #ahfg71 pp4 #dhf-dhi4 ,on the
 economic importance        of the      
manioc or cassava plant in the life of  
the ,south ,american        ,indians1   
see further ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1 ,history of 
the ,new ,world called        ,america1 
i4 7,oxford1 #ahib7 pp4 #caj sqq41 #cab 
sq4      #chg ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1         
,narrative of ,travels on the ,amazon   
and ,rio ,negro        7,london1 #ahhi71
 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg 7,the ,minerva          
,library74 ,mr4 ,wallace's              
account of the agriculture of these     
tribes is entirely confirmed by         
the observations of a recent explorer in
 north-western ,brazil4 ,see        ,th4
 ,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den 
,indianern 7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71
 ii4 #bjb-bji2 id41 8,frauenarbeit bei  
den ,indianern                          
,nordwest-,brasiliens10 ,mitteilungen   
der ,anthropologischen                  
,gesellschaft in ,wien1 xxxviii4 7#aijh7
 pp4 #agb-agd4 ,this writer        tells

 us 7,zwei ,jahre unter den ,indianern1 
ii4 #bjc7 that these        ,indians    
determine the time for planting by      
observing certain        constellations1
 especially the ,pleiades4 ,the rainy   
season begins        when the ,pleiades 
have disappeared below the horizon4 ,see
 ,note at        end of the volume4     
#chh ,r4 ,southey1 ,history of ,brazil1 
vol4 i4 ,second ,edition 7,london1      
#ahbb71 p4 #bec4      #chi ,j4 ,b4 von  
,spix und ,c4 ,f4 ,ph4 von ,martius1    
,reise in ,brasilien        7,munich1   
#ahbc-ahca71 i4 #cha4      #cij ,k4 von 
den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern   
,zentral-,brasiliens        7,berlin1   
#ahid71 p4 #bad4      #cia ,j4 ,j4 von  
,tschudi1 ,peru 7,st4 ,gallen1 #ahdf71  
ii4 #bad4      ,m#ia ,agricultural work 
done by women among savage tribes in    
,india1 ,new        ,guinea1 and ,new   
,britain4      #cib ,captain ,t4 ,h4    
,lewin1 ,wild ,races of ,south-,eastern 
,india 7,london1        #ahgj71 p4 #bee4
      #cic ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive

 ,ethnology of ,bengal 7,calcutta1      
#ahgb71 p4        #cc4      #cid ,e4 ,t4
 ,dalton1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbf1 #bbg4      
#cie ,nieuw ,guinea1 ethnographisch en  
natuurkundig onderzocht en              
beschreven 7,amsterdam1 #ahfb71 p4 #aei4
      #cif ,op4 cit4 p4 #aai2 ,h4 von   
,rosenberg1 ,der ,malayische ,archipel  
7,leipsic1 #ahgh71 p4 #dcc4      #cig   
,p4 ,a4 ,kleintitschen1 ,die            
,kstenbewohner der ,gazellehalbinsel    
7,hiltrup bei ,mnster1 preface dated    
,christmas1 #aijf71 pp4 #fj sq42        
,g4 ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,melanesians and    
,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4      
#cbd sq4      ,m#ib ,division of        
agricultural work between men and women 
in the ,indian        ,archipelago4     
#cih ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,een en ander    
aangaande het geestelijk en             
maatschappelijk leven van den           
,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege 
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxix4 7#ahie7   
pp4 #acb1 #acd2        ,j4 ,boot1       

8,korte schets der noordkust van        
,ceram10 ,tijdschrift van        het    
,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig          
,genootschap1 ,tweede ,serie1 x4        
7#ahic7 p4 #fgb2 ,e4 ,h4 ,gomes1        
,seventeen ,years among the ,sea ,dyaks 
of        ,borneo 7,london1 #aiaa71 p4  
#df2 ,e4 ,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a    
,nas        7,milan1 #ahij71 pp4 #eij   
sq42 ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm herber und hilf 
uns6 ,heft #b 7,barmen1 #ahih71 pp4 #f  
sq42 ,ch4 ,keysser1 8,aus dem           
,leben der ,kaileute10 in ,r4 ,neuhauss1
 ,deutsch ,neu-,guinea1 iii4            
7,berlin1 #aiaa7 pp4 #ad1 #he4      #cii
 ,j4 ,gumilla1 ,histoire ,naturelle1    
,civile et ,gographique de              
l',ornoque 7,avignon1 #ageh71 ii4 #aff  
sqq41 #ahc sqq4 ,compare ,the           
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 i4 #aci sqq4      ,m#ic ,among  
savages who have not learned to till the
 ground the task of        collecting   
the vegetable food in the form of wild  
seeds and roots        generally        

devolves on women4 ,examples furnished  
by the ,californian        ,indians4    
#djj ,s4 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california
 7,washington1 #ahgg71 p4 #bc4      #dja
 ,father ,geronimo ,boscana1            
8,chinigchinich10 in ,a4 ,robinson's    
,life        in ,california 7,new ,york1
 #ahdf71 p4 #bhg4 ,elsewhere the same   
well-informed writer observes of these  
,indians that 8they neither             
cultivated the ground1 nor planted any  
kind of grain2 but lived upon        the
 wild seeds of the field1 the fruits of 
the forest1 and upon the                
abundance of game0 7op4 cit4 p4 #bhe74  
#djb ,father ,geronimo ,boscana1 op4    
cit4 pp4 #cjb-cje4 ,as to the puplem1   
see id4 p4 #bfd4 ,the writer says that  
criers informed the people        8when 
to cultivate their fields0 7p4 #cjb74   
,but taken along with his        express
 statement that they 8neither cultivated
 the ground1 nor        planted any kind
 of grain0 7p4 #bhe1 see above1 p4 #abe 
note #b71 this        expression 8to    

cultivate their fields0 must be         
understood loosely to        denote     
merely the gathering of the wild seeds  
and fruits4      #djc ,see above1 pp4   
#ha sq4      ,m#id ,among the aborigines
 of ,australia the women provided the   
vegetable        food1 while the men    
hunted4      #djd ,h4 ,e4 ,a4 ,meyer1   
8,manners and ,customs of the ,encounter
 ,bay ,tribe10 in        ,native ,tribes
 of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1       
#ahgi71 pp4 #aia sq4      #dje 7,sir7   
,george ,grey1 ,journals of ,two        
,expeditions of ,discovery in           
,north-,west and ,western ,australia    
7,london1 #ahda71 ii4 #bib sq4 ,the     
women also collect the nuts from the    
palms in the month of ,march        7id4
 ii4 #bif74      #djf 7,sir7 ,george    
,grey1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ab4 ,the yam       
referred to is a        species of      
,diascorea1 like the sweet potato4      
#djg ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the           
,aborigines of ,victoria 7,melbourne1   
#ahgh71 i4        #bji4      #djh ,p4   

,beveridge1 8,of the ,aborigines        
inhabiting the ,great ,lacustrine and   
,riverine ,depression of the ,lower     
,murray1 ,lower ,murrumbidgee1 ,lower   
,lachlan1 and ,lower ,darling10 ,journal
 and ,proceedings of the ,royal         
,society of ,new ,south ,wales for      
#ahhc1 vol4 xvii4 7,sydney1 #ahhd7 p4   
#cf4      #dji ,r4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the 
,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 #bad4      
#daj ,w4 ,stanbridge1 8,some            
,particulars of the ,general            
,characteristics1        ,astronomy1 and
 ,mythology of the ,tribes in the       
,central ,part of        ,victoria1     
,south ,australia10 ,transactions of the
 ,ethnological        ,society of       
,london1 ,n4,s41 i4 7#ahfa7 p4 #bia4    
#daa ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4      
,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central    
,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #bb4    
,m#ie ,the digging of the earth for wild
 fruits may have led to the origin      
of agriculture4    ,m#if ,the discovery 
of agriculture due mainly to women4     

,m#ig ,women as agricultural labourers  
among the ,aryans of ,europe4 ,the      
,greek conception of the ,corn ,goddess 
probably originated in a simple         
personification of the corn4      #dab  
,o4 ,schrader1 ,reallexikon der         
indogermanischen ,altertumskunde        
7,strasburg1 #aija71 pp4 #f sqq41 #fcj  
sqq42 id41        ,sprachvergleichung   
und ,urgeschichte#c 7,jena1 #aije-aijg71
 ii4 #bja        sqq42 ,h4 ,hirt1 ,die  
,indogermanen1 i4 #bea sqq41 #bfc1 #bgd4
 ,the        use of oxen to draw the    
plough is very ancient in ,europe4 ,on  
the        rocks at ,bohusln in ,sweden 
there is carved a rude representation of
        a plough drawn by oxen and      
guided by a ploughman3 it is believed to
        date from the ,bronze ,age4 ,see
 ,h4 ,hirt1 op4 cit4 i4 #bhf4      #dac 
,strabo1 iii4 #d4 #ag1 p4 #afe2         
,heraclides ,ponticus1 8,de rebus       
publicis10 #cc1 in ,fragmenta           
,historicorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,c4       
,mller1        ii4 #bai4      #dad      

,tacitus1 ,germania1 #ae4      #dae ,j4 
,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1     
#aijf71 p4 #cac4      #daf 7,sir7 ,g4   
,grey1 ,journals of ,two ,expeditions of
 ,discovery in        ,north-west and   
,western ,australia 7,london1 #ahda71   
ii4 #bib4      ,m#ih ,suggested         
derivation of the name ,demeter4        
#dag ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen 7,strasburg1 #ahhd71 pp4   
#bib        sqq4 ,see above1 p4 #dj1    
note #c4      #dah ,o4 ,schrader1       
,reallexikon der indogermanischen       
,altertumskunde        7,strasburg1     
#aija71 pp4 #aa1 #bhi2 id41             
,sprachvergleichung und                 
,urgeschichte#b 7,jena1 #ahij71 pp4     
#dji1 #dbb2 id41                        
,sprachvergleichung und ,urgeschichte#c 
7,jena1 #aije-aijg71 ii4 #ahh        sq4
 ,compare ,v4 ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen und
 ,hausthiere in ihrem        ,uebergang 
aus ,asien#g 7,berlin1 #aijb71 pp4 #eh  
sq4      #dai ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #ifi     
sqq42 ,f4 ,lenormant1 in ,daremberg et  

,saglio1        ,dictionnaire des       
,antiquits ,grecques et ,romaines1 i4   
#b1 p4 #ajbi2        ,kern1 in          
,pauly-,wissowa's ,real-,encyclopdie der
 classischen                            
,altertumswissenschaft1 iv4 #b1 coll4   
#bgbj sq4      #dbj ,my friend          
,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,moulton tells me    
that there is great doubt        as to  
the existence of a word 1 8barley0      
7,etymologicum ,magnum1        p4 #bfd1 
lines #ab sq471 and that the common form
 of ,demeter's name1        ,dmter      
7except in ,ionic and ,attic7 is        
inconsistent with  in the               
supposed ,cretan form4 8,finally if   1 
you are bound to        regard her as a 
,cretan goddess1 or as arising in some  
other area        where the dialect     
changed ,indogermanic y into  and not 3 
since        ,ionic and ,attic have 1   
the two crucial letters of the name tell
        different tales0 7,professor ,j4
 ,h4 ,moulton1 in a letter to me1 dated 
#ai ,december #aijc74      #dba ,a4     

,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des ,feuers und 
des ,gttertranks#b        7,gtersloh1   
#ahhf71 pp4 #fh sq42 ,o4 ,schrader1     
,reallexikon der        indogermanischen
 ,altertumskunde1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 #bhi2   
id41        ,sprachvergleichung und     
,urgeschichte1#c ii4 #ahi1 #aia1 #aig   
sq42 ,h4        ,hirt1 ,die             
,indogermanen 7,strasburg1 #aije-aijg71 
i4 #bgf sqq4 ,in        the oldest      
,vedic ritual barley and not rice is the
 cereal chiefly        employed4 ,see   
,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion des ,veda
 7,berlin1 #ahid71        p4 #cec4 ,for 
evidence that barley was cultivated in  
,europe by the        lake-dwellers of  
the ,stone ,age1 see ,a4 de ,candolle1  
,origin of        ,cultivated ,plants   
7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi2 ,r4   
,munro1 ,the        ,lake-dwellings of  
,europe 7,london1 ,paris1 and           
,melbourne1 #ahij71 pp4        #dig sq4 
,according to ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4      
xviii4 #gb7 barley was the        oldest
 of all foods4      ,m#ii ,the          

,corn-mother among the ,germans and the 
,slavs4      #dbb ,w4 ,mannhardt1       
,mythologische ,forschungen 7,strasburg1
 #ahhd71 p4 #bif4        ,compare ,o4   
,hartung1 8,zur ,volkskunde aus         
,anhalt10 ,zeitschrift des              
,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4
 #aej4      #dbc ,w4 ,mannhardt1        
,mythologische ,forschungen 7,strasburg1
 #ahhd71 p4 #big4      #dbd ,ibid4 pp4  
#big sq4      #dbe ,ibid4 p4 #bii4      
,compare ,r4 ,andree1 ,braunschweiger   
,volkskunde        7,brunswick1 #ahif71 
p4 #bha4      #dbf ,w4 ,mannhardt1      
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cjj4   
#dbg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #caj4      #dbh ,ibid4 
pp4 #caj sq4 ,compare ,o4 ,hartung1 l4c4
     ,m#ajj ,the ,corn-mother in the    
last sheaf4 ,fertilising power of the   
,corn-mother4 ,the ,corn-mother in the  
last sheaf among the ,slavs and         
in ,france4      #dbi ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
op4 cit4 p4 #caf4      #dcj ,ibid4 p4   
#caf4      #dca ,ibid4 pp4 #caf sq4     

#dcb ,ibid4 p4 #cag4 ,as to such        
rain-charms see ,adonis1 ,attis1        
,osiris1        ,second ,edition1 pp4   
#aie-aig4      #dcc ,w4 ,mannhardt1     
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cag4   
#dcd ,ibid4 pp4 #cag sq4      #dce      
,ibid4 p4 #cah4      #dcf ,ibid4        
#dcg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cah  
sq4      #dch ,p4 ,sbillot1 ,coutumes   
populaires de la ,haute-,bretagne       
7,paris1        #ahhf71 p4 #cjf4        
,m#aja ,the ,harvest-mother or the      
,great ,mother in the last sheaf4       
#dci ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #cai4     ,m#ajb ,the  
,grandmother in the last sheaf4         
#ddj ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #cbj4      #dda ,ibid4 
p4 #cba4     ,m#ajc ,the ,old ,woman or 
the ,old ,man in the last sheaf4        
#ddb ,ibid4 pp4 #cba1 #cbc1 #cbe sq4    
#ddc ,ibid4 p4 #cbc2 ,f4 ,panzer1       
,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie      
7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71 ii4 p4 #bai1     
#djc4      #ddd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4

 p4 #cbe4      #dde ,ibid4 p4 #cbc4     
#ddf ,ibid4      #ddg ,a4 ,kuhn and ,w4 
,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen
 und ,gebruche        7,leipsic1 #ahdh71
 pp4 #cif sq41 #cii2 ,k4 ,bartsch1      
,sagen1 ,mrchen und        ,gebruche aus
 ,meklenburg 7,vienna1 #ahgi-ahhj71 ii4 
#cji1  #adid4      #ddh ,w4 ,mannhardt1 
op4 cit4 pp4 #cbc sq4      #ddi ,h4     
,prahn1 8,glaube und ,brauch in der     
,mark ,brandenburg10 ,zeitschrift       
des ,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 i4 7#ahia7 
pp4 #ahf sq4      #dej ,k4 ,haupt1      
,sagenbuch der ,lausitz 7,leipsic1      
#ahfb-ahfc71 i4 p4 #bcc1        ,no4    
#bgg note4     ,m#ajd ,the ,old ,man or 
the ,old ,woman in the last sheaf4      
#dea ,r4 ,krause1 ,sitten1 ,gebruche und
 ,aberglauben in ,westpreussen          
7,berlin1 preface dated ,march #aijd71  
p4 #ea4      #deb ,p4 ,drechsler1       
,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube in     
,schlesien 7,leipsic1                   
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fe sqq4      #dec ,a4 
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 

im deutschen ,westbhmen        7,prague1
 #aije71 p4 #ahi4      #ded ,a4 ,kuhn1  
,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus       
,westfalen 7,leipsic1        #ahei71 ii4
 #ahd1  #eab b1 #ead4      #dee ,w4 von 
,schulenburg1 ,wendisches ,volksthum    
7,berlin1 #ahhb71 p4 #adg4      #def ,a4
 ,jaussen1 ,coutumes des ,arabes au pays
 de ,moab 7,paris1 #aijh71 pp4          
#beb sq4     ,m#aje ,identification of  
the harvester with the corn-spirit4     
#deg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #cbd4      #deh ,ibid4 
p4 #cbj4      #dei ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4  
cit4 p4 #cbe4      #dfj ,see ,the ,magic
 ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 
#gd sqq4     ,m#ajf ,the last sheaf made
 unusually large and heavy4      #dfa   
,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbd4       
#dfb ,ibid4 pp4 #cbd sq4      #dfc      
,ibid4 p4 #cbe4 ,the author of ,die     
gestriegelte ,rockenphilosophie         
7,chemnitz1 #agei7 mentions 7p4 #hia7   
the ,german superstition that the       
last sheaf should be made large in order

 that all the sheaves next        year  
may be of the same size2 but he says    
nothing as to the shape or        name  
of the sheaf4 ,compare ,a4 ,john1       
,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube        
im deutschen ,westbhmen 7,prague1       
#aije71 p4 #ahh4      #dfd ,w4          
,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbg4      #dfe 
,ibid4 p4 #cbh4     ,m#ajg ,the ,carlin 
and the ,maiden in ,scotland4 ,the ,old 
,wife 7,cailleach7 at        harvest in 
the ,highlands of ,scotland4      #dff  
,j4 ,jamieson1 ,dictionary of the       
,scottish ,language1 ,new ,edition      
7,paisley1 #ahgi-ahhb71 iii4 #bjf1 s4v4 
8,maiden02 ,w4 ,mannhardt1              
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cbf4   
#dfg ,that is1 with the reaping4        
#dfh ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1           
,superstitions of the ,highlands and    
,islands of        ,scotland 7,glasgow1 
#aijj71 pp4 #bdc sq4     ,m#ajh ,the    
,old ,wife 7,cailleach7 in the last     
sheaf at harvest in the        islands  
of ,lewis and ,islay4 ,the ,old ,wife at

 harvest in ,argyleshire4        ,the   
reaper of the last sheaf called the     
,winter4      #dfi ,r4 ,c4 ,maclagan1   
8,notes on folk-lore objects collected  
in        ,argyleshire10 ,folk-lore1 vi4
 7#ahie7 pp4 #adi sq4      #dgj ,r4 ,c4 
,maclagan1 op4 cit4 p4 #aea4      #dga  
,r4 ,c4 ,maclagan1 op4 cit4 p4 #adi4    
#dgb ,ibid4 pp4 #aea sq4      #dgc ,rev4
 ,walter ,gregor1 ,notes on the         
,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of       
,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahb4    
#dgd ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,religion and
 ,myth 7,london1 #ahic71 p4 #ada4       
,m#aji ,the ,hag 7wrach7 at harvest in  
,north ,pembrokeshire4   ,m#aaj ,the    
,hag 7wrach7 at harvest in ,south       
,pembrokeshire4 ,the ,carley at         
harvest in ,antrim4      #dge ,d4       
,jenkyn ,evans1 in an article entitled  
8,the ,harvest ,customs of              
,pembrokeshire10 ,pembroke ,county      
,guardian1 #gth ,december #ahie4 ,in a  
letter to me1 dated #bc ,february #aija1
 ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland was so good     

as to correct the ,welsh words in the   
text4 ,he tells me that they        mean
 literally1 8,i rose early1 ,i pursued  
late on her neck10 and he        adds3  
8,the idea seems to be that the man has 
pursued the ,hag or        ,corn-spirit 
to a later refuge1 namely1 his          
neighbour's field not yet               
completely reaped1 and now he leaves her
 for the other reapers to        catch4 
,the proper form of the ,welsh word for 
,hag is ,gwrach4 ,that        is the    
radical from gwr1 man2 gwraig1 woman4   
,wrach is the        #8middle mutation4'
 0      #dgf ,m4 ,s4 ,clark1 8,an old   
,south ,pembrokeshire ,harvest ,custom10
        ,folk-lore1 xv4 7#aijd7 pp4     
#aid-aif4      #dgg ,communicated by my 
friend ,professor ,w4 ,ridgeway4        
,m#aaa ,the ,old ,woman 7the ,baba7 at  
harvest among ,slavonic peoples4        
#dgh ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #cbh4      #dgi ,w4    
,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #bch4      #dhj 
,ibid4 pp4 #cbh sq4      #dha ,ibid4 p4 

#cbi4      #dhb ,ibid4 p4 #ccj4         
,m#aab ,the ,old ,woman 7the ,baba7 at  
harvest in ,lithuania4      #dhc ,ibid4 
#dhd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #cca4  
#dhe ,ibid4     ,m#aac ,the ,corn-queen 
and the ,harvest-queen4      #dhf ,ibid4
 p4 #ccb4      #dhg ,th4 ,vernaleken1   
,mythen und ,bruche des ,volkes in      
,oesterreich        7,vienna1 #ahei71 p4
 #caj4      #dhh ,hutchinson1 ,history  
of ,northumberland1 ii4 ad finem1 #ag1  
quoted        by ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular   
,antiquities of ,great ,britain1 ii4    
#bj1 ,bohn's        edition4      #dhi  
,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 ,travels in ,various   
,countries of ,europe1 ,asia1 and       
,africa1 ,part ii41 ,section ,first1    
,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahac71 p4   
#bbi4 ,perhaps ,morgay 7which ,clarke   
absurdly explains as  7        is a     
mistake for ,hawkie or ,hockey4 ,the    
waggon in which the last        corn was
 brought from the harvest field was     
called the hockey cart        or hock   
cart4 ,in a poem called 8,the ,hock-cart

 or ,harvest ,home0        ,herrick has 
described the joyous return of the laden
 cart drawn by        horses swathed in 
white sheets and attended by a merry    
crowd1 some        of whom kissed or    
stroked the sheaves1 while others       
pranked them        with oak leaves4    
,see further ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular       
,antiquities1 ii4 #bb        sq41       
,bohn's edition4 ,the name ,hockey or   
,hawkie is no doubt the        same with
 the ,german hokelmei1 hrkelmei1 or     
harkelmei1 which        in ,westphalia  
is applied to a green bush or tree set  
up in the field        at the end of    
harvest and brought home in the last    
waggon-load2 the        man who carries 
it into the farmhouse is sometimes      
drenched with        water4 ,see ,a4    
,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus
 ,westfalen        7,leipsic1 #ahei71   
ii4 #agh-ahj1  #did-dig4 ,the word is   
thought to be        derived from the   
,low ,german hokk 7plural hokken71 8a   
heap of        sheaves40 ,see ,joseph   

,wright1 ,english ,dialect ,dictionary1 
iii4        7,london1 #aijb7 p4 #aij1   
s4v4 8,hockey10 from which it appears   
that        in ,england the word has    
been in use in ,yorkshire1              
,cambridgeshire1        and ,suffolk4   
#dij ,book ix4 lines #hch-hdb4          
,m#aad ,the corn-spirit as the ,old     
,woman or ,old ,man at threshing4       
#dia ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 pp4 #ccc sq4      #dib    
,ibid4 p4 #ccd4      #dic ,w4           
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #ccd4      #did ,ibid4 p4 #ccf4     
,m#aae ,the man who gives the last      
stroke at threshing is called the       
,corn-fool1 the ,oats-fool1 etc4        
#die ,a4 ,kuhn and ,w4 ,schwartz1       
,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und       
,gebruche        7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4  
#cig4      #dif ,a4 ,peter1             
,volksthmliches aus                     
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bgj4     ,m#aaf ,the  
man who gives the last stroke at        

threshing is said to get the        ,old
 ,woman or the ,old ,man4 ,the          
,corn-woman at threshing4      #dig     
,bavaria ,landes- und ,volkskunde des   
,knigreichs ,bayern1 iii4               
7,munich1 #ahfe7 pp4 #cdd1 #ifi4        
#dih ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und
 ,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1  
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fg4      #dii ,a4     
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 
in deutschen ,westbhmen        7,prague1
 #aije71 pp4 #aic1 #aid1 #aig4      #ejj
 ,r4 ,wuttke1 ,schsische ,volkskunde    
7,dresden1 #aija71 p4 #cfj4      #eja   
,w4 ,mannhardt4 ,mythologische          
,forschungen1 p4 #ccf4      #ejb ,ibid4 
p4 #ccf2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 p4
 #fab4      #ejc ,a4 ,john1 ,sitte1     
,brauch und ,volksglaube im deutschen   
,westbhmen        7,prague1 #aije71 p4  
#aid4      #ejd ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1         
,badisches ,volksleben 7,strasburg1     
#aijj71 p4 #dcg4     ,m#aag ,the        
corn-spirit as a child at harvest4      
#eje ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und   

,mrchen aus ,westfalen 7,leipsic1       
#ahei71 ii4 #ahd sq41  #eae4      #ejf  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen        
7,berlin1 #ahfh71 p4 #bh4      #ejg ,w4 
,mannhardt1 l4c4      #ejh ,w4          
,mannhardt1 l4c4     ,m#aah ,the last   
corn cut called the mell1 the kirn1 or  
the churn in        various parts of    
,england4 ,the churn cut by throwing    
sickles at it4      #eji ,joseph        
,wright1 ,english ,dialect ,dictionary1 
vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahih7        p4 #fje 
s4v4 8,churn02 id41 vol4 iii4 7,london1 
#aijb7 p4 #dec s4v4        8,kirn02 id4 
vol4 iv4 7,london1 #aijc7 pp4 #hb sq4   
,sir ,james ,murray1        editor of   
the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 kindly   
informs me that the        popular      
etymology which identifies kern or kirn 
in this sense        with corn is       
entirely mistaken2 and that 8baby0 or   
8babbie0 in the        same phrase means
 only 8doll10 not 8infant40 ,he writes1 
8,kirn-babbie does not mean             
#8corn-baby1' but merely kirn-doll1     

harvest-home doll4 ,bab1 babbie was even
 in my youth the        regular name for
 #8doll' in the district1 as it was     
formerly in        ,england2 the only   
woman who sold dolls in ,hawick early in
 the        nineteenth century1 and     
whose toy-shop all bairns knew1 was     
known        as #8,betty o' the ,babs1' 
,betty of the dolls40      #eaj ,w4     
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern 
,counties of ,england        7,london1  
#ahgi71 pp4 #hh sq42 ,m4 ,c4 ,f4        
,morris1 ,yorkshire        ,folk-talk1  
pp4 #bab-bad4 ,compare ,f4 ,grose1      
,provincial ,glossary        7,london1  
#ahaa71 s4v4 8,mell-supper02 ,j4 ,brand1
 ,popular        ,antiquities1 ii4 #bg  
sqq41 ,bohn's edition2 ,the ,denham     
,tracts1        edited by ,dr4 ,james   
,hardy 7,london1 #ahib-ahie71 ii4 #b sq4
 ,the sheaf        out of which the     
,mell-doll was made was no doubt the    
,mell-sheaf1        though this is not  
expressly said4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,wright1   
editor of ,the        ,english ,dialect 

,dictionary1 kindly informs me that the 
word mell        is well known in these 
senses in all the northern counties of  
,england down to ,cheshire4 ,he tells me
 that the proposals to connect          
mell with 8meal0 or with 8maiden0       
7through a form like the ,german        
,mdel7 are inadmissible4      #eaa      
,joseph ,wright1 ,the ,english ,dialect 
,dictionary1 vol4 iv4 7,london1         
#aijc7 s4v4 8,mell10 p4 #hc4      #eab  
,r4 ,chambers1 ,the ,book of ,days      
7,edinburgh1 #ahhf71 ii4 #cgg sq4 ,the  
expression 8,corn ,baby0 used by the    
writer is probably his                  
interpretation of the correct expression
 kirn or kern baby4 ,see        above1  
p4 #aea1 note #c4 ,it is not clear      
whether the account refers to           
,england or ,scotland4 ,compare ,f4     
,grose1 ,provincial ,glossary 7,london  
#ahaa71 s4v4 8,kern-baby10 8an image    
dressed up with corn1 carried           
before the reapers to their mell-supper1
 or harvest-home02 ,j4 ,brand1          

,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 #bj2 ,w4     
,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the           
,northern ,counties of ,england1 p4 #hg4
      #eac ,joseph ,wright1 ,the        
,english ,dialect ,dictionary1 iii4     
7,london1 #aijb7        s4v4 8,kirn10 p4
 #dec4      #ead ,joseph ,wright1 ,the  
,english ,dialect ,dictionary1 i4       
7,london1 #ahih7        p4 #fje4        
#eae ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 
ii4 #ba sq4     ,m#aai ,the last corn   
cut called the kirn in some parts of    
,scotland4 ,the        kirn cut by      
reapers blindfold4      #eaf ,j4        
,jamieson1 ,etymological ,dictionary of 
the ,scottish ,language1 ,new           
,edition 7,paisley1 #ahgi-ahhb71 iii4   
#db sq41 s4v4 8,kirn40      #eag ,mrs4  
,a4 ,b4 ,gomme1 8,a ,berwickshire       
,kirn-dolly10 ,folk-lore1 xii4          
7#aija7 p4 #bae4      #eah ,mrs4 ,a4 ,b4
 ,gomme1 8,harvest ,customs10           
,folk-lore1 xiii4 7#aijb7 p4            
#agh4      #eai ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 8,notes
 on ,harvest ,customs10 ,folk-lore1 vii4

 7#ahhi7        p4 #dh4     ,m#abj ,the 
churn in ,ireland cut by throwing the   
sickles at it4      #ebj 7,rev47 ,h4 ,w4
 ,lett1 8,winning the ,churn 7,ulster710
 ,folk-lore1 xvi4        7#aije7 p4     
#ahe4 ,my friend ,miss ,welsh1 formerly 
,principal of ,girton        ,college1  
,cambridge1 told me 7#cjth ,may #aija7  
that she remembers the        custom of 
the churn being observed in the north of
 ,ireland2 the        reapers cut the   
last handful of standing corn 7called   
the churn7        by throwing their     
sickles at it1 and the corn so cut was  
taken home        and kept for some     
time4     ,m#aba ,the last corn cut     
called the ,maiden in the ,highlands of 
,scotland4      #eba ,j4 ,jamieson1     
,dictionary of the ,scottish ,language1 
,new ,edition        7,paisley1         
#ahgi-ahhb71 iii4 #bjf1 s4v4 8,maiden40 
,an old ,scottish        name for the   
,maiden 7autumnalis nymphula7 was       
,rapegyrne4 ,see        ,fordun1        
,scotichren4 ii4 #dah1 quoted by ,j4    

,jamieson1 op4 cit4        iii4 #fbd1   
s4v4 8,rapegyrne40      #ebb ,r4 ,c4    
,maclagan1 in ,folk-lore1 vi4 7#ahie7   
pp4 #adi1 #aea4     ,m#abb ,the cutting 
of the ,maiden at harvest in            
,argyleshire4      #ebc ,rev4 ,m4       
,mac,phail 7,free ,church ,manse1       
,kilmartin1 ,lochgilphead71             
8,folk-lore from the ,hebrides10        
,folk-lore1 xi4 7#aijj7 p4 #dda4 ,that  
the ,maiden1 hung up in the house1 is   
thought to keep out witches        till 
the next harvest is mentioned also by   
the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,campbell1            
,superstitions of the ,highlands and    
,islands of ,scotland 7,glasgow1        
#aijj71 p4 #bj4 ,so with the churn      
7above1 p4 #aec74     ,m#abc ,the       
cutting of the ,maiden at harvest in    
,perthshire4      #ebd ,sir ,john       
,sinclair1 ,statistical ,account of     
,scotland1 xix4        7,edinburgh1     
#agig71 pp4 #eej sq4 ,compare ,miss ,e4 
,j4 ,guthrie1 ,old        ,scottish     
,customs 7,london and ,glasgow1 #ahhe71 

pp4 #acj sq4      #ebe ,folk-lore       
,journal1 vi4 7#ahhh7 pp4 #bfh sq4      
#ebf ,the late ,mrs4 ,macalister1 wife  
of ,professor ,alexander ,macalister1   
,cambridge4 ,her recollections referred 
especially to the        neighbourhood  
of ,glen ,farg1 some ten or twelve miles
 to the south of        ,perth4         
,m#abd ,the ,maiden at harvest in       
,lochaber4 ,the cutting of the ,maiden  
at        harvest on the ,gareloch in   
,dumbartonshire4      #ebg ,rev4 ,james 
,macdonald1 ,religion and ,myth         
7,london1 #ahic71 pp4 #ada        sq4   
#ebh ,from information supplied by      
,archie ,leitch1 late gardener to my    
father at ,rowmore1 ,garelochhead4 ,the 
,kirn was the name of the        harvest
 festivity in the south of ,scotland    
also4 ,see ,lockhart's        ,life of  
,scott1 ii4 #ahd 7first edition72 ,early
 ,letters of ,thomas        ,carlyle1   
ed4 ,norton1 ii4 #cbe sq4      #ebi     
,communicated by the late ,mr4          
,macfarlane of ,faslane1 ,gareloch4     

,m#abe ,the cutting of the clyack sheaf 
at harvest in ,aberdeenshire4   ,m#abf  
,the clyack sheaf cut by the youngest   
girl and not allowed to touch        the
 ground4      #ecj ,a slightly different
 mode of making up the clyack sheaf is  
described by the ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor  
elsewhere 7,notes on the                
,folk-lore of the ,north-east of        
,scotland1 ,london1 #ahha1 pp4 #aha     
sq473 8,the clyack sheaf was cut by the 
maidens on the harvest        field4 ,on
 no account was it allowed to touch the 
ground4 ,one of the        maidens      
seated herself on the ground1 and over  
her knees was the        band of the    
sheaf laid4 ,each of the maidens cut a  
handful1 or more        if necessary1   
and laid it on the band4 ,the sheaf was 
then bound1        still lying over the 
maiden's knees1 and dressed up in       
woman's        clothing40     ,m#abg    
,the clyack feast or 8meal and ale40    
,m#abh ,the clyack sheaf in the dance4  
,m#abi ,the clyack sheaf given to a mare

 in foal or to a cow in calf4      #eca 
,w4 ,gregor1 8,quelques coutumes du     
,nord-est du ,comt d',aberdeen10        
,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 
7,october1 #ahhh7 pp4 #dhd-dhg          
7wrong pagination2 should be #ecb-ece74 
,this account1 translated into          
,french by ,m4 ,loys ,brueyre from the  
author's ,english and translated        
by me back from ,french into ,english1  
is fuller than the account        given 
by the same writer in his ,notes on the 
,folk-lore of the        ,north-east of 
,scotland 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4         
#aha-ahc4 ,i have        translated 8une
 jument ayant son poulain0 by 8a mare in
 foal10 and        8la plus ancienne    
vache ayant son veau0 by 8the oldest cow
 in        calf10 because in the        
author's ,notes on the ,folk-lore of the
        ,north-east of ,scotland 7p4    
#ahb7 we read that the last sheaf was   
8carefully preserved till ,christmas or 
,new ,year morning4 ,on that            
morning it was given to a mare in foal10

 etc4 ,otherwise the ,french            
words might naturally be understood of a
 mare with its foal and a        cow    
with its calf4     ,m#acj ,sanctity     
attributed to the clyack sheaf4 ,the    
sacrament of        barley-meal and     
water at ,eleusis4      #ecb ,see above1
 pp4 #aae sq4      #ecc ,see below1 vol4
 ii4 p4 #aaj4      #ecd ,the drinking of
 the draught 7called the 7 as a solemn  
rite in        the ,eleusinian mysteries
 is mentioned by ,clement of ,alexandria
        7,protrept4 #ba1 p4 #ah1 ed4    
,potter7 and ,arnobius 7,adversus       
,nationes1 v4 #bf74 ,the composition of 
the draught is revealed by the          
author of the ,homeric ,hymn to ,demeter
 7verses #bjf-baa71 where he            
represents ,demeter herself partaking of
 the sacred cup4 ,that the              
compound was a kind of thick gruel1     
half-solid1 half-liquid1 is             
mentioned by ,eustathius 7on ,homer1    
,iliad1 xi4 #fch1 p4 #hgj74             
,compare ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1       

,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek    
,religion1 ,second ,edition 7,cambridge1
 #aijh71 pp4 #aee sqq4      #ece ,rev4  
,j4 ,macdonald1 ,religion and ,myth     
7,london1 #ahic71 pp4 #adj        sq41  
from ,,ms4 notes of ,miss ,j4           
,ligertwood4      #ecf ,folk-lore       
,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7 p4 #ea2 ,the     
,quarterly ,review1        clxxii4      
7#ahia7 p4 #aie4      #ecg ,as to       
,inverness-shire my old friend ,mr4     
,hugh ,e4 ,cameron1 formerly of         
,glen ,moriston1 ,inverness-shire1 wrote
 to me many years ago3 8,as a           
boy1 ,i remember the last bit of corn   
cut was taken home1 and neatly          
tied up with a ribbon1 and then stuck up
 on the wall above the        kitchen   
fire-place1 and there it often remained 
till the #8maiden' of        the        
following year took its place4 ,there   
was no ceremony about it1        beyond 
often a struggle as to who would get1 or
 cut1 the last sheaf        to select   
the #8maiden' from0 7,the ,folk-lore    

,journal1 vii4 #ahhi1        pp4 #ej    
sq474 ,as to ,sutherlandshire my mother 
was told by a        servant1 ,isabella 
,ross1 that in that county 8they hang up
 the        #8maiden' generally over the
 mantel-piece 7chimney-piece7 till the  
next harvest4 ,they have always a kirn1 
whipped cream1 with often a        ring 
in it1 and sometimes meal sprinkled over
 it4 ,the girls must all        be      
dressed in lilac prints1 they all dance1
 and at twelve o'clock        they eat  
potatoes and herrings0 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ec
 sq474     ,m#aca ,the corn-spirit as a 
bride4      #ech ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die   
,korndmonen 7,berlin1 #ahfh71 p4 #cj4   
#eci ,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur           
,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren    
7,vienna        and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 p4  
#cbg4      #edj ,j4 ,e4 ,waldfreund1    
8,volksgebruche und ,aberglaube in      
,tirol und dem        ,salzburger       
,gebirg10 ,zeitschrift fr deutsche      
,mythologie und        ,sittenkunde1    
iii4 7#ahee7 p4 #cdj4      #eda ,th4    

,vernaleken1 ,mythen und ,bruche des    
,volkes in ,oesterreich        7,vienna1
 #ahei71 p4 #caj4      #edb ,mr4 ,r4    
,matheson1 in ,the ,folk-lore ,journal1 
vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #di1 #ej4     ,m#acb   
,the corn-spirit as ,bride and          
,bridegroom4      #edc ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,die ,korndmonen 7,berlin1 #ahfh71 p4   
#cj4      #edd ,e4 ,sommer1 ,sagen1     
,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,sachsen und  
,thringen        7,halle1 #ahdf71 pp4   
#afj sq42 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c4      #ede
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c42 ,e4 ,peter1      
,volksthmliches aus                     
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bfi4     ,m#acc ,the  
corn-spirit in the double form of the   
,old ,wife and the ,maiden              
simultaneously at harvest in the        
,highlands of ,scotland4      #edf      
,alexander ,nicolson1 ,a ,collection of 
,gaelic ,proverbs and ,familiar         
,phrases1 based on ,macintosh's         
,collection 7,edinburgh and ,london1    
#ahha71 p4 #bdh4      #edg ,a4          

,nicolson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dae sq4        
#edh ,r4 ,c4 ,maclagan1 8,corn-maiden in
 ,argyleshire10 ,folk-lore1 vii4        
7#ahif7 pp4 #gh sq4     ,m#acd ,in these
 customs the ,old ,wife represents the  
old corn of last year1        and the   
,maiden the new corn of this year4      
#edi ,see above1 p4 #adi1 where1        
however1 the corn-spirit is conceived as
        an ,old ,man4     ,m#ace        
,analogy of the harvest customs to the  
spring customs of ,europe4      #eej    
,see ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 ii4 #gc sqq4      #eea      
,above1 pp4 #acd1 #acg1 #ach sq41 #adb1 
#ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi4      #eeb ,see  
below1 pp4 #bcg sq4      #eec ,the      
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #dg sqq4      #eed ,above1  
pp4 #acd1 #ace4      #eee ,above1 pp4   
#ada1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj sq41 #afb1 
#afe4      #eef ,see above1 p4 #ace4    
#eeg ,above1 p4 #ade4 ,compare ,a4      
,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus
        ,westfalen 7,leipsic1 #ahei71   

ii4 p4 #ahe1  #eaf4      #eeh ,above1   
pp4 #acf1 #aci1 #aee1 #aeg sq41 #afb2   
compare p4 #afj4     ,m#acf ,the spring 
and harvest customs of ,europe are parts
 of a primitive        heathen ritual4  
,m#acg ,marks of a primitive ritual4    
#eei ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution
 of ,kings1 i4 #bbj sqq4     ,m#ach     
,reasons for regarding the spring and   
harvest customs of modern        ,europe
 as a primitive ritual4      #efj       
,above1 p4 #adf4 ,the common custom of  
wetting the last sheaf and its          
bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm2   
indeed the intention to        procure  
rain or make the corn grow is sometimes 
avowed4 ,see above1        pp4 #acd1    
#acg1 #adc1 #add1 #ade2 ,adonis1 ,attis1
 ,osiris1 ,second        ,edition1 pp4  
#aie-aig4      #efa ,above1 pp4 #ace    
sq41 #ach1 #aci1 #aeb4      #efb ,above1
 p4 #acd4      #efc ,above1 pp4 #acd1   
#aee1 #aeh1 #afa4     ,m#aci ,the       
,corn-mother in many lands4   ,m#adj    
,the ,maize-mother among the ,peruvian  

,indians4      #efd ,above1 pp4 #acf1   
#ach1 #adj1 #adc1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1     
#aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh3 ,w4             
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 pp4 #g1   
#bf4      #efe ,j4 de ,acosta1 ,natural 
and ,moral ,history of the ,indies1 bk4 
v4 ch4        #bh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgd     
7,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahhj74 ,in
 quoting the        passage ,i have     
modernised the spelling4 ,the original  
,spanish text of        ,acosta's work  
was reprinted in a convenient form at   
,madrid in #ahid4        ,see vol4 ii4  
p4 #aag of that edition4     ,m#ada ,the
 ,maize-mother1 the ,quinoa-mother1 the 
,coca-mother1 and the                   
,potato-mother among the ,peruvian      
,indians4      #eff ,w4 ,mannhardt1     
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #cdb   
sq4 ,mannhardt's        authority is a  
,spanish tract 7,carta pastorale de     
exortacion e        instruccion contra  
las idolatrias de los ,indios del       
arobispado de        ,lima7 by ,pedro de
 ,villagomez1 ,archbishop of ,lima1     

published at ,lima        in #afdi1 and 
communicated to ,mannhardt by ,j4 ,j4 v4
 ,tschudi4 ,the        ,carta ,pastorale
 itself seems to be partly based on an  
earlier        work1 the ,extirpacion de
 la ,idolatria del ,piru4 ,dirigido al  
,rey        ,n4,s4 en ,su real conseio  
de ,indias1 por el ,padre ,pablo ,joseph
 de        ,arriaga de la ,compaia de   
,jesus 7,lima1 #afba74 ,a copy of this  
work        is possessed by the ,british
 ,museum1 where ,i consulted it4 ,the   
writer        explains 7p4 #af7 that the
 ,maize-mothers 7,zaramamas7 are of     
three        sorts1 namely 7#a7 those   
which are made of maize stalks1 dressed 
up        like women1 7#b7 those which  
are carved of stone in the likeness of  
cobs of maize1 and 7#c7 those which     
consist simply of fruitful stalks       
of maize or of two maize-cobs naturally 
joined together4 ,these last1        the
 writer tells us1 were the principal    
,zaramamas1 and were        revered by  
the natives as ,mothers of the ,maize4  

,similarly1 when two        potatoes    
were found growing together the ,indians
 called them        ,potato-mothers     
7,axomamas7 and kept them in order to   
get a good        crop of potatoes4 ,as 
,arriaga's work is rare1 it may be well 
to give        his account of the       
,maize-mothers1 ,coca-mothers1 and      
,potato-mothers        in his own words4
 ,he says 7p4 #af73 8,zaramamas1 son de 
tres maneras1        y son las que se   
quentan entre las cosas halladas en los 
pueblos4 ,la        primera es una como 
mueca hecha de caas de maiz1 vestida    
como        muger con su anaco1 y       
llicilla1 y sus topos de plata1 y       
entienden1        que como madre tiene  
virtud de engendrar1 y parir mucho maiz4
 ,a este        modo tienen tambien     
,cocamamas para augmento de la coca4    
,otras son de        piedra labradas    
como choclos1 o mazorcas de maiz1 con   
sus granos        relevados1 y de estas 
suelen tener muchas en lugar de ,conopas
        household gods4 ,otras son      

algunas caas fertiles de maiz1 que con  
la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas
 maorcas1 y grandes1 o        quando    
salen dos maorcas juntas1 y estas son   
las principales1        ,zaramamas1 y   
assi las reverencian como a madres del  
maiz1 a estas        llaman tambien     
,huantayzara1 o ,ayrihuayzara4 ,a este  
tercer genero no        le dan la       
adoracion que a ,huaca1 ni ,conopa1 sino
 que le tienen        supersticiosamente
 como una cosa sagrada1 y colgando estas
 caas con        muchos choclos de unos 
ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el      
bayle1 que        llaman ,ayrihua1 y    
acabado el bayle1 las queman1 y         
sacrifican a        ,libiac para que les
 de buena cosecha4 ,con la misma        
supersticion        guardan las mazorcas
 del maiz1 que salen muy pintadas1 que  
llaman        ,micsazara1 o ,mantayzara1
 o ,caullazara1 y otros que llaman      
,piruazara1        que son otras maorcas
 en que van subiendo los granos no      
derechos        sino haziendo caracol4  

,estas ,micsazara1 o ,piruazara1 ponen  
supersticiosamente en los montones de   
maiz1 y en las ,piruas 7que son         
donde guardan el maiz7 paraque se las   
guarde1 y el dia de las                 
exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas    
maorcas1 que tienen bien que            
comer las mulas4 ,la misma supersticion 
tienen con las que llaman               
,axomamas1 que son quando salen algunas 
papas juntas1 y las guardan        para 
tener buena cosecha de papas40 ,the     
exhibiciones here        referred to are
 the occasions when the ,indians brought
 forth their        idols and other     
relics of superstition and delivered    
them to the        ecclesiastical       
visitors4 ,at ,tarija in ,bolivia1 down 
to the present        time1 a cross is  
set up at harvest in the maize-fields1  
and on it        all maize-spadices     
growing as twins are hung4 ,they are    
called        ,pachamamas               
7,earth-mothers7 and are thought to     
bring good harvests4        ,see ,baron 

,e4 ,nordenskild1 8,travels on the      
,boundaries of ,bolivia and             
,argentina10 ,the ,geographical         
,journal1 xxi4 7#aijc7 pp4 #eag1 #eah4  
,compare ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1 ,history of the
 ,new ,world called ,america            
7,oxford1 #ahib71 i4 #dad sq4     ,m#adb
 ,customs of the ancient ,mexicans at   
the maize-harvest4      #efg ,brasseur  
de ,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations   
civilises du ,mexique        et de      
l',amrique ,centrale 7,paris            
#aheg-ahei71 iii4 #dj sqq4 ,compare     
id41 iii4 #eje sq42 ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1     
,history of the ,new ,world called      
,america1 i4 #dai sq4     ,m#adc        
,sahagun's account of the ancient       
,mexican religion4   ,m#add ,sahagun's  
description of the ,mexican             
,maize-goddess and her festival4        
#efh ,e4 ,seler1 8,altmexikanische      
,studien1 ii410 ,verffentlichungen aus  
dem kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1  
vi4 7,berlin1 #ahii7 #b_/d        ,heft1
 pp4 #fg sqq4 ,another chapter of       

,sahagun's work1 describing        the  
costumes of the ,mexican gods1 has been 
edited and translated        into       
,german by ,professor ,e4 ,seler in the 
same series of publications             
78,altmexikanische ,studien10           
,verffentlichungen aus dem kniglichen   
,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 i4 #d 7,berlin1 
#ahij7 pp4 #aag sqq474        ,sahagun's
 work as a whole is known to me only in 
the excellent        ,french translation
 of ,messrs4 ,d4 ,jourdanet and ,r4     
,simeon 7,histoire        ,gnrale des   
choses de la ,nouvelle-,espagne par le  
,r4 ,p4 ,fray        ,bernardino de     
,sahagun1 ,paris1 #ahhj74 ,as to the    
life and character        of ,sahagun   
see ,m4 ,r4 ,simeon's introduction to   
the translation1 pp4        vii4 sqq4   
#efi ,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,aztec text of    
book ii41 translated by ,professor ,e4  
,seler1 8,altmexikanische ,studien1     
ii410 ,verffentlichungen aus dem        
kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 vi4  
#b_/d ,heft 7,berlin1 #ahii71        pp4

 #ahh-aid4 ,the account of the          
ceremonies given in the ,spanish        
version of ,sahagun's work is a good    
deal more summary4 ,see ,b4 de          
,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des choses  
de la ,nouvelle ,espagne        7,paris1
 #ahhj71 pp4 #id-if4     ,m#ade ,the    
,corn-mother among the ,north ,american 
,indians4      #egj ,j4 ,mooney1 8,myths
 of the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth ,annual 
,report of the        ,bureau of        
,american ,ethnology1 ,part ,i4         
7,washington1 #aijj7 pp4 #dbc1          
#dcb4 ,see further ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #bif     
sq4      #ega ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,league  
of the ,iroquois 7,rochester1 #ahea71   
pp4 #afa        sq41 #aii4 ,according to
 the ,iroquois the corn plant sprang    
from the        bosom of the mother of  
the ,great ,spirit after her burial 7,l4
 ,h4        ,morgan1 op4 cit4 p4 #aii   
note #a74      #egb ,c4 ,lumholtz1      
,unknown ,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 ii4  
#bhj4     ,m#adf ,the ,mother-cotton in 

the ,punjaub4      #egc ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot1
 ,supplemental ,glossary of ,terms used 
in the        ,north-,western           
,provinces1 edited by ,j4 ,beames       
7,london1 #ahfi71 i4        #bed4       
,m#adg ,the ,barley ,bride among the    
,berbers4      #egd ,w4 ,b4 ,harris1    
8,the ,berbers of ,morocco10 ,journal of
 the        ,anthropological ,institute1
 xxvii4 7#ahih7 p4 #fh4     ,m#adh      
,another account of the ,barley ,bride  
among the ,berbers4 ,competitions       
for the possession of the image that    
represents the ,corn-mother4      #ege  
,sir ,john ,drummond ,hay1 ,western     
,barbary1 its ,wild ,tribes and ,savage 
,animals 7#ahdd71 p4 #i1 quoted in      
,folk-lore1 vii4 7#ahif7 pp4 #cjf       
sq4      #egf ,see above1 pp4 #gj sqq4  
,m#adi ,comparison of the ,european     
ritual of the corn with the ,indonesian 
ritual of the rice4   ,m#aej ,the       
,indonesian ritual of the rice is based 
on the belief that the        rice is   
animated by a soul4   ,m#aea            

,parallelism between the human soul and 
the rice-soul4      #egg ,r4 ,j4        
,wilkinson 7of the ,civil ,service of   
the ,federated ,malay        ,states71  
,malay ,beliefs 7,london and ,leyden1   
#aijf71 pp4 #di-ea4 ,on        the      
conception of the soul as a bird1 see   
,taboo and the ,perils of        the    
,soul1 pp4 #cc sqq4 ,the ,toradjas of   
,central ,celebes think that        the 
soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty
 little blue bird1 which        builds  
its nest in the rice-field when the ears
 are forming and        vanishes after  
harvest4 ,hence no one may drive away1  
much less kill1        these birds2 to  
do so would not only injure the crop1   
the        sacrilegious wretch himself  
would suffer from sickness1 which might 
end in blindness4 ,see ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1  
8,de ,rijstmoeder in den ,indischen     
,archipel10 p4 #cgd 7see the full       
reference in the next note74     ,m#aeb 
,the soul-stuff of rice4      #egh ,a4  
,c4 ,kruyt1 8,de ,rijstmoeder in den    

,indischen ,archipel10 ,verslagen       
en ,mededeelingen der koninklijke       
,akademie van ,wetenschappen1           
,afdeeling ,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1
 v4 part #d 7,amsterdam1 #aijc71        
pp4 #cfa sq4 ,this essay 7pp4 #cfa-daa7 
contains a valuable        collection of
 facts relating to what the writer calls
 the        ,rice-mother in the ,east   
,indies4 ,but it is to be observed that 
while        all the ,indonesian peoples
 seem to treat a certain portion of the 
rice at harvest with superstitious      
respect and ceremony1 only a part       
of them actually call it 8the           
,rice-mother40 ,mr4 ,kruyt prefers to   
speak of 8soul-stuff0 rather than of 8a 
soul10 because1 according to        him1
 in living beings the animating         
principle is conceived1 not as a        
tiny being confined to a single part of 
the body1 but as a sort of        fluid 
or ether diffused through every part of 
the body4 ,see his        work1 ,het    
,animisme in den ,indischen ,archipel   

7,the ,hague1 #aijf71        pp4 #a sqq4
 ,in the latter work 7pp4 #ade-aej7 the 
writer gives a        more summary      
account of the ,indonesian theory of the
 rice-soul4     ,m#aec ,rice treated by 
the ,indonesians as if it were a woman4 
#egi ,see ,the ,magic ,art and the      
,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #bh sq42 ,a4  
,c4        ,kruyt1 8,de ,rijstmoeder10  
op4 cit4 pp4 #cfc sq41 #cgj sqq4        
#ehj ,see above1 pp4 #aac sqq4      #eha
 ,see above1 p4 #aha4      #ehb ,see    
,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4
 #daa sq42 ,a4 ,c4 ,kruyt1        8,de  
,rijstmoeder10 op4 cit4 p4 #cgb4        
,m#aed ,the ,kayans of ,borneo1 their   
treatment of the soul of the rice4      
#ehc ,see above1 pp4 #ib sqq4      #ehd 
,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch       
,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4 #aeg  
sq4     ,m#aee ,instruments used by the 
,kayans for the purpose of catching and 
detaining the soul of the rice4         
,ceremonies performed by ,kayan         
housewives at fetching rice from the    

barn4      #ehe ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1   
op4 cit4 i4 #aah-aba4 ,compare id41 ,in 
,centraal ,borneo 7,leyden1 #aijj71 i4  
#aed sqq4     ,m#aef ,masquerade        
performed by the ,kayans before sowing  
for the purpose of        attracting the
 soul of the rice4      #ehf ,a similar 
belief probably explains the masked     
dances and pantomimes        of many    
savage tribes4 ,if that is so1 it shews 
how deeply the        principle of      
imitative magic has influenced savage   
religion4      #ehg ,a4 ,w4             
,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 i4   
#cbb-ccj4 ,compare id41        ,in      
,centraal ,borneo1 i4 #ahe sq4 ,as to   
the masquerades performed        and the
 taboos observed at the sowing season by
 the ,kayans of the        ,mendalam    
river1 see above1 pp4 #id sqq4      #ehh
 ,a4 ,w4 ,nieuwenhuis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cag4
     ,m#aeg ,comparison of the ,kayan   
masquerade with the ,eleusinian drama4  
,m#aeh ,securing the soul of the rice   
among the ,dyaks of ,northern ,borneo4  

#ehi ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 ,life in the  
,forests of the ,far ,east#b 7,london1  
#ahfc71 i4 #ahg1 #aib sqq42 ,w4         
,chalmers1 quoted in ,h4 ,ling ,roth's  
,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north
 ,borneo 7,london1 #ahif71 i4           
#dab-dad4     ,m#aei ,recalling the soul
 of the rice among the ,karens of       
,burma4      #eij ,rev4 ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 
8,on the ,karens10 ,journal of the      
,american ,oriental        ,society1 iv4
 7#ahed7 p4 #cji4     ,m#afj ,securing  
the soul of the rice in various parts of
 ,burma4      #eia 7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott
 and ,j4 ,p4 ,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of   
,upper ,burma and        of the ,shan   
,states 7,rangoon1 #aijj-aija71 ,part i4
 vol4 i4 p4 #eei4      #eib ,j4 ,mooney1
 8,myths of the ,cherokee10 ,nineteenth 
,annual ,report of the        ,bureau of
 ,american ,ethnology1 ,part i4         
7,washington1 #aijj7 p4 #dbc4           
,compare ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1      
,second ,edition1 pp4 #bif sq4      #eic
 7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4      

,hardiman1 op4 cit4 ,part ii4 vol4 i4 p4
        #agb4      #eid ,from a letter  
written to me by ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,furnivall
 and dated ,pegu        ,club1 ,rangoon1
 #f_/f 7sic74 ,mr4 ,furnivall adds that 
in ,upper ,burma        the custom of   
the ,bonmagyi sheaf is unknown4         
,m#afa ,the ,rice-mother among the      
,minangkabauers of ,sumatra4      #eie  
,j4 ,l4 van der ,toorn1 8,het animisme  
bij den ,minangkabauer der              
,padangsche ,bovenlanden10 ,bijdragen   
tot de ,taal- ,land- en                 
,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch ,indi1   
xxxix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #fc-fe4 ,in the      
charm recited at sowing the ,rice-mother
 in the bed1 ,i have        translated  
the ,dutch word stoel as 8root10 but ,i 
am not sure of        its precise       
meaning in this connexion4 ,it is       
doubtless identical        with the     
,english agricultural term 8to stool10  
which is said of a        number of     
stalks sprouting from a single seed1 as 
,i learn from my        friend          

,professor ,w4 ,somerville of ,oxford4  
,m#afb ,the ,rice-mother among the      
,tomori of ,celebes4 ,special words used
 at        reaping among the ,tomori4   
,riddles and stories in connexion with  
the        rice4      #eif ,a4 ,c4      
,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische        
aanteekeningen omtrent de               
,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10             
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 pp4
 #bbg1 #bcj sq4      #eig ,see ,taboo   
and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #daa  
sq4      #eih ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 op4 cit4 
p4 #bbh4      #eii ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1     
8,een en ander aangaande het geestelijk 
en        maatschapelijk leven van den  
,poso-,alfoer10 ,mededeelingen van wege 
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xxxix4 7#ahie7   
pp4 #adb sq4     ,m#afc ,the            
,rice-mother among the ,toradjas of     
,celebes4      #fjj ,g4 ,maan1 8,eenige 
mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en       

gewoonten der        ,toerateya ten     
opzichte van den rijstbouw10            
,tijdschrift voor        ,indische      
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xlvi4    
7#aijc7 pp4 #ccj-ccg4 ,the        writer
 dates his article from ,tanneteya 7in  
,celebes871 but otherwise        gives  
no indication of the geographical       
position of the people he               
describes4 ,a similar omission is common
 with ,dutch writers on the             
geography and ethnology of the ,east    
,indies1 who too often appear to        
assume that the uncouth names of these  
barbarous tribes and obscure            
hamlets are as familiar to ,european    
readers as ,amsterdam or the            
,hague4 ,the ,toerateyas whose customs  
,mr4 ,maan describes in this            
article are the inland inhabitants of   
,celebes4 ,their name ,toerateyas       
or ,toradjas signifies simply           
8inlanders0 and is applied to them by   
their neighbours who live nearer the    
sea2 it is not a name used by        the

 people themselves4 ,the ,toradjas      
include many tribes and the             
particular tribe whose usages in regard 
to the ,rice-mother are        described
 in the text is probably not one of     
those whose customs and        beliefs  
have been described by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4     
,kruijt in many valuable        papers4 
,see above1 p4 #ahc note #a1 and ,the   
,magic ,art and the        ,evolution of
 ,kings1 i4 #aji note #a4     ,m#afd    
,the rice personified as a young woman  
among the ,bataks of ,sumatra4      #fja
 ,m4 ,joustra1 8,het leven1 de zeden en 
gewoonten der ,bataks10                 
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xlvi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #dbe sq4      #fjb ,j4
 ,h4 ,neumann1 8,iets over den landbouw 
bij de ,karo-,bataks10                  
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xlvi4 7#aijb7 pp4 #chj sq4 ,as to the   
employment in ritual of young           
people whose parents are both alive1 see

 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1              
,second ,edition1 pp4 #dac sqq4         
,m#afe ,the ,king of the ,rice in       
,mandeling4      #fjc ,a4 ,l4 van       
,hasselt1 8,nota1 betreffende de        
rijstcultuur in de        ,residentie   
,tapanoeli10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische
 ,taal- ,land- en        ,volkenkunde1  
xxxvi4 7#ahic7 pp4 #ebf-ebi2 ,th4 ,a4   
,l4 ,heyting1        8,beschrijving der 
,onderafdeeling ,groot- mandeling en    
,batangnatal10        ,tijdschrift van  
het ,nederlandsch ,aardrijkskundig      
,genootschap1        ,tweede ,serie1    
xiv4 7#ahig7 pp4 #bij sq4 ,as to the    
rule of sowing        seed on a full    
stomach1 which is a simple case of      
homoeopathic or        imitative magic1 
see further ,the ,magic ,art and the    
,evolution of        ,kings1 i4 #acf4   
,m#aff ,the ,rice-mother and the        
,rice-child at harvest in the ,malay    
,peninsula4      #fjd ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1   
,malay ,magic 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #bbe
 sq4      #fje ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,malay   

,magic1 pp4 #bce-bdi4     ,m#afg ,the   
,rice-bride and the ,rice-bridegroom at 
harvest in ,java4      #fjf ,see above1 
pp4 #afc sq4      #fjg ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1   
,java 7,haarlem1 #ahge-ahhd71 i4        
#ebd-ebf4 ,the ceremony        has also 
been described by ,miss ,augusta de ,wit
 7,facts and ,fancies        about      
,java1 ,singapore1 #ahih1 pp4 #bbi-bda71
 who lays stress on the        extreme  
importance of the rice-harvest for the  
,javanese4 ,the whole        island of  
,java1 she tells us1 8is one vast       
rice-field4 ,rice on the        swampy  
plains1 rice on the rising ground1 rice 
on the slopes1 rice        on the very  
summits of the hills4 ,from the sod     
under one's feet to        the verge of 
the horizon1 everything has one and the 
same colour1        the bluish-green of 
the young1 or the gold of the ripened   
rice4 ,the        natives are all1      
without exception1 tillers of the soil1 
who reckon        their lives by seasons
 of planting and reaping1 whose         

happiness or        misery is synonymous
 with the abundance or the dearth of the
        precious grain4 ,and the great  
national feast is the harvest home1     
with its crowning ceremony of the       
,wedding of the ,rice0 7op4 cit4        
pp4 #bbi sq474 ,i have to thank my      
friend ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon for         
directing my attention to ,miss de      
,wit's book4     ,m#afh ,another account
 of the ,javanese custom4      #fjh ,a4 
,c4 ,kruijt1 8,gebruiken bij den        
rijstoogst in enkele streken op         
,oost-,java10 ,mededeelingen van wege   
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap1 xlvii4 7#aijc7   
pp4 #acb-acd4 ,compare id41 8,de        
rijst-moeder in den ,indischen          
,archipel10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen
        der koninklijke ,akademie van   
,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling ,letterkunde1
        ,vierde ,reeks1 v4 part #d      
7,amsterdam1 #aijc71 pp4 #cih sqq4      
,m#afi ,the rice-spirit as husband and  
wife in ,bali and ,lombok4      #fji ,j4

 ,c4 van ,eerde1 8,gebruiken bij den    
rijstbouw en rijstoogst op              
,lombok10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische   
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1          
xlv4 7#aijb7 pp4 #efc-efe note4         
#faj ,j4 ,c4 van ,eerde1 8,gebruiken bij
 den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op         
,lombok10 ,tijdschrift voor ,indische   
,taal- ,land- en ,volkenkunde1          
xlv4 7#aijb7 pp4 #efc-egc4     ,m#agj   
,the ,father and ,mother of the ,rice   
among the ,szis of ,burma4      #faa    
7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4       
,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma  
and        the ,shan ,states1 ,part i4  
vol4 i4 7,rangoon1 #aijj7 p4 #dbf4      
,m#aga ,the spirit of the corn sometimes
 thought to be embodied in men or       
women4   ,m#agb ,the ,old ,woman who    
,never ,dies1 the goddess of the crops  
among the        ,mandans and           
,minnitarees4      #fab ,maximilian1    
,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das innere   
,nord-,america        7,coblenz1        
#ahci-ahda71 ii4 #ahb sq4     ,m#agc    

,miami myth of the ,corn-spirit in the  
form of a broken-down old man4      #fac
 ,h4 ,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes  
of the ,united ,states1 v4              
7,philadelphia1 #ahef7 pp4 #aic-aie4    
,m#agd ,the harvest-goddess ,gauri      
represented by a girl and a bundle of   
plants4      #fad ,b4 ,a4 ,gupte1       
8,harvest ,festivals in honour of ,gauri
 and ,ganesh10        ,indian           
,antiquary1 xxxv4 7#aijf7 p4 #fa4 ,for  
details see ,the ,magic        ,art and 
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #gg sq4   
,m#age ,analogy of ,demeter and         
,persephone to the ,corn-mother1 the    
,harvest-maiden1 and similar figures in 
the harvest customs of modern           
,european peasantry4 ,the rustic        
analogues of ,demeter and ,persephone4  
#fae ,it is possible that the image of  
,demeter with corn and poppies in       
her hands1 which ,theocritus 7vii4 #aee 
sqq47 describes as standing        on a 
rustic threshing-floor 7see above1 p4   
#dg71 may have been a                   

,corn-mother or a ,corn-maiden of the   
kind described in the text4 ,the        
suggestion was made to me by my learned 
and esteemed friend ,dr4 ,w4        ,h4 
,d4 ,rouse4      #faf ,homer1 ,odyssey1 
v4 #abe sqq42 ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #ifi sqq4
      #fag ,see above1 pp4 #aej sq4     
#fah ,it is possible that a ceremony    
performed in a ,cyprian worship of      
,ariadne may have been of this nature3  
at a certain annual sacrifice        a  
young man lay down and mimicked a woman 
in child-bed4 ,see        ,plutarch1    
,theseus1 #bj3                          
4 ,we have already seen grounds for     
regarding ,ariadne as a goddess or      
spirit of vegetation4 ,see ,the         
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #ach4 ,amongst the          
,minnitarees in ,north ,america1 the    
,prince of ,neuwied saw a tall          
strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk
 of maize out of her        stomach2 the
 object of the ceremony was to secure a 
good crop of        maize in the        

following year4 ,see ,maximilian1 ,prinz
 zu ,wied1 ,reise        in das innere  
,nord-,america 7,coblenz1 #ahci-ahda71  
ii4 #bfi4      #fai ,see ,the ,magic    
,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4  
#ig sqq4     ,m#agf ,why did the ,greeks
 personify the corn as a mother and a   
daughter8   ,m#agg ,demeter was perhaps 
the ripe crop and ,persephone the       
seed-corn4      #fbj ,see above1 p4     
#ace4      #fba ,see above1 pp4 #adj    
sqq41 #aee sqq41 #afd sqq41 #aig sqq4   
#fbb ,however1 the ,sicilians seem on   
the contrary to have regarded ,demeter  
as the seed-corn and ,persephone as the 
ripe crop4 ,see above1 pp4 #eg1         
#eh sq4      #fbc ,according to         
,augustine 7,de civitate ,dei1 iv4 #h7  
the ,romans        imagined a whole     
series of distinct deities1 mostly      
goddesses1 who        took charge of the
 corn at all its various stages from the
 time when        it was committed to   
the ground to the time when it was      
lodged in the        granary4 ,such a   

multiplication of mythical beings to    
account for the        process of growth
 is probably late rather than early4    
,m#agh ,or the ,greeks may have started 
with the personification of the corn    
as a single goddess1 and the conception 
of a second goddess may have        been
 a later development4 ,duplication of   
deities as a consequence of        the  
anthropomorphic tendency4 ,example of   
such duplication in ,japan1        where
 there are two distinct deities of the  
sun4 ,perhaps the ,greek                
personification of the corn as a mother 
and a daughter 7,demeter and            
,persephone7 is a case of such a        
mythical duplication4      #fbd ,in some
 places it was customary to kneel down  
before the last sheaf1        in others 
to kiss it4 ,see ,w4 ,mannhardt1        
,korndmonen1 p4 #bf2 id41               
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cci4   
,the custom of kneeling and             
bowing before the last corn is said to  
have been observed1 at least            

occasionally1 in ,england4 ,see         
,folk-lore ,journal1 vii4 7#ahhh7 p4    
#bgj2 and ,herrick's evidence1 above1 p4
 #adg1 note #a4 ,the ,malay             
sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice
 to form the ,rice-child        kissed  
the ears after she had cut them 7,w4 ,w4
 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1        p4 #bda74
      #fbe ,above1 pp4 #acb sq4         
#fbf ,even in one of the oldest         
documents1 the ,homeric ,hymn to        
,demeter1        ,demeter is represented
 as the goddess who controls the growth 
of the        corn rather than as the   
spirit who is immanent in it4 ,see      
above1 pp4        #cf sq4      #fbg ,w4 
,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1 #aije71 p4
 #abg4      #fbh ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1  
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #cbc     
sqq41 #ccj        sqq41 #cdf sqq4       
#fbi ,a4 ,pauly1 ,real-,encyclopdie der 
classischen                             
,alterthumswissenschaft1 v4 7,stuttgart1
 #ahdi7 p4 #ajaa4     ,m#agi ,death and 
resurrection a leading incident in the  

myth of ,persephone1        as in the   
myths of ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 and  
,dionysus4   ,m#ahj ,popular harvest and
 vintage customs in ancient ,egypt1     
,syria1 and        ,phrygia4   ,m#aha   
,maneros1 a plaintive song of ,egyptian 
reapers4      #fcj ,diodorus ,siculus1  
i4 #ad1                                 
4 ,for  we should        perhaps read 1 
which is supported by the following     
4      #fca ,herodotus1 ii4 #gi2 ,julius
 ,pollux1 iv4 #ed2 ,pausanias1 ix4 #bi4 
#g2        ,athenaeus1 xiv4 #aa1 p4 #fbj
 ,a4      #fcb ,h4 ,brugsch1 ,die       
,adonisklage und das ,linoslied         
7,berlin1 #aheb71 p4        #bd4        
,according to another interpretation1   
however1 ,maneros is the                
,egyptian manurosh1 8,let us be merry40 
,see ,lauth1 8ber den        gyptischen 
,maneros10 ,sitzungsberichte der knigl4 
bayer4        ,akademie der             
,wissenschaften zu ,mnchen1 #ahfi1 ii4  
#afc-aid4      #fcc ,above1 pp4 #aig    
sqq4      #fcd ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1    

,songs of the ,russian ,people 7,london1
 #ahgb71 pp4        #bdi sq4      #fce  
,see above1 pp4 #aeh sq4      #fcf ,w4  
,gregor1 8,quelques coutumes du         
,nord-est du comt d',aberdeen10         
,revue des ,traditions populaires1 iii4 
7#ahhh7 p4 #dhg 7should be        #ece74
     ,m#ahb ,linus or ,ailinus1 a       
plaintive song sung at the vintage in   
,phoenicia4      #fcg ,homer1 ,iliad1   
xviii4 #egj2 ,herodotus1 ii4 #gi2       
,pausanias1 ix4 #bi4        #f-i2       
,conon1 ,narrat4 #ai4 ,for the form     
,ailinus see ,suidas1 s4v42             
,euripides1 ,orestes1 #acie2 ,sophocles1
 ,ajax1 #fbg4 ,compare ,moschus1        
,idyl4 iii4 #a2 ,callimachus1 ,hymn to  
,apollo1 #bj4 ,see ,greve1 s4v4         
8,linos10 in ,w4 ,h4 ,roscher's         
,ausfhrliches ,lexikon der griech1 und  
rm4 ,mythologie1 ii4 #bjec sqq4         
#fch ,conon1 ,narrat4 #ai4      #fci ,f4
 ,c4 ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 i4 7,bonn1
 #ahda71 p4 #bdf2 ,w4        ,mannhardt1
 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte 7,berlin1

 #ahgg71 p4 #bha4 ,in        ,hebrew the
 expression would be o lanu 7 71 which  
occurs in        #a ,samuel1 iv4 #g and 
#h2 ,jeremiah1 iv4 #ac1 vi4 #d4         
,however1 the        connexion of the   
,linus song with the lament for ,adonis 
is regarded        by ,baudissin as very
 doubtful4 ,see ,w4 ,w4 ,graf           
,baudissin1 ,adonis und        ,esmun   
7,leipsic1 #aiaa71 p4 #cfj1 note #c4    
#fdj ,pausanias1 ix4 #bi4 #h4     ,m#ahc
 ,bormus1 a plaintive song sung by      
,mariandynian reapers in ,bithynia4     
#fda ,julius ,pollux1 iv4 #ed2          
,athenaeus1 xiv4 #aa1 pp4 #fai ,f-#fbj  
,a2        ,hesychius1 svv4  and  4     
,m#ahd ,lityerses1 a song sung at       
reaping and threshing in ,phrygia4      
,legend        of ,lityerses4      #fdb 
,the story was told by ,sositheus in his
 play of ,daphnis4 ,his verses          
have been preserved in the tract of an  
anonymous writer4 ,see                  
,scriptores rerum mirabilium ,graeci1   
ed4 ,a4 ,westermann 7,brunswick1        

#ahci71 pp4 #bbj sq42 also ,athenaeus1  
x4 #h1 p4 #dae ,b2 ,scholiast on        
,theocritus1 x4 #da2 ,photius1 ,lexicon1
 ,suidas1 and ,hesychius1 s4v4          
8,lityerses02 ,apostolius1 ,centur4 x4  
#gd2 ,servius1 on ,virgil1              
,bucol4 viii4 #fh4 ,photius mentions the
 sickle with which ,lityerses           
beheaded his victims4 ,servius calls    
,lityerses a king and says that         
,hercules cut off his head with the     
sickle that had been given him to       
reap with4 ,lityerses is the subject of 
a special study by ,w4        ,mannhardt
 7,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #a   
sqq471 whom ,i        follow4 ,compare  
,o4 ,crusius1 s4v4 8,lityerses10 in ,w4 
,h4 ,roscher's        ,ausfhrliches     
,lexikon der griech4 und rm4            
,mythologie1 ii4 #bjfe        sqq4      
#fdc ,julius ,pollux1 iv4 #ed4          
,m#ahe ,the story of ,lityerses seems to
 reflect an old ,phrygian harvest       
custom of killing strangers as          
embodiments of the corn-spirit4         

#fdd ,in this comparison ,i closely     
follow ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische   
,forschungen1 pp4 #ah sqq4     ,m#ahf   
,contests among reapers1 binders1 and   
threshers in order not to be        the 
last at their work4      #fde ,compare  
above1 pp4 #acd1 #acf1 #acg sq41 #adj1  
#adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade1 #adg        sq41
 #adi1 #afd sq4 ,on the other hand1 the 
last sheaf is sometimes        an object
 of desire and emulation4 ,see above1   
pp4 #acf1 #ada1 #aec1 #aed        sq41  
#aef1 #afb note #c1 #afe4 ,it is so at  
,balquhidder also        7,folk-lore    
,journal1 vi4 #bfi72 and it was formerly
 so on the        ,gareloch1            
,dumbartonshire1 where there was a      
competition for the        honour of    
cutting it1 and handfuls of standing    
corn used to be        hidden under     
sheaves in order that the last to be    
uncovered should        form the        
,maiden4--7,from the information of     
,archie ,leitch4 ,see pp4 #aeg          
sq47      #fdf ,w4 ,mannhardt1          

,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #ai sq4
      #fdg ,a4 ,kuhn1 ,mrkische ,sagen  
und ,mrchen 7,berlin1 #ahdc71 p4 #cdb4  
#fdh ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #bj2 ,f4 ,panzer1      
,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie      
7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71 ii4 p4 #bag1     
#cig2 ,a4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten   
und ,gebruche aus ,thringen             
7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bbb1  #fi4        
,m#ahg ,custom of wrapping up in        
corn-stalks the last reaper1 binder1 or 
thresher4      #fdi ,above1 pp4 #afg sq4
      #fej ,w4 ,mannhardt1              
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #bb4    
#fea ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #bb4      #feb ,ibid4  
pp4 #bb sq4      #fec ,ibid4 p4 #bc4    
#fed ,ibid4 pp4 #bc sq4      #fee ,ibid4
 p4 #bd4      #fef ,ibid4 p4 #bd4       
#feg ,ibid4 p4 #bd4      #feh ,ibid4 pp4
 #bd sq4      #fei ,ibid4 p4 #be4       
#ffj ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und
 ,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1  
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fe4      #ffa ,a4     

,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1       
#ahgh71 p4 #bbc1  #gj4     ,m#ahh ,the  
corn-spirit1 driven out of the last     
corn1 lives in the barn        during   
the winter4      #ffb ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #be sq4
     ,m#ahi ,similar ideas as to the    
last corn in ,india4      #ffc ,c4 ,a4  
,elliot1 ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1
 p4 #agh1 quoted in        ,panjab      
,notes and ,queries1 iii4  #h1 #afh     
7,october and ,december1        #ahhe72 
,w4 ,crooke1 ,popular ,religion and     
,folklore of ,northern ,india           
7,westminster1 #ahif71 ii4 #cjf4        
#ffd ,w4 ,crooke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #cjf sq4 
,m#aij ,the corn-spirit supposed to be  
killed at reaping or threshing4         
,corn-spirit represented by a man1 who  
is threshed4      #ffe ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ca4    
#fff ,ibid4 p4 #ccd4      #ffg ,ibid4 p4
 #ccj4      #ffh ,ibid4      #ffi ,ibid4
 p4 #cca4      #fgj ,w4 ,mannhardt1     

,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cce4   
#fga ,ibid4 p4 #cce4      #fgb ,above1  
pp4 #ace1 #adf4      #fgc ,j4           
,nicholson1 ,folk-lore of ,east         
,yorkshire 7,london1 ,hull1 and         
,driffield1 #ahij71 p4 #bh1 supplemented
 by a letter of the author's            
addressed to ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland and 
dated #cc ,leicester ,street1 ,hull1    
#aath ,september1 #ahij4 ,i have to     
thank ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hartland for calling
        my attention to the custom and  
allowing me to see ,mr4 ,nicholson's    
letter4      #fgd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die  
,korndmonen1 p4 #bf4      #fge ,above1  
pp4 #adi sq4      #fgf ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ej4    
#fgg ,ibid4 pp4 #ej sq4      #fgh ,see  
above1 pp4 #adf1 #agj note #a2 ,adonis1 
,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second                
,edition1 pp4 #aie sqq4     ,m#aia      
,corn-spirit represented by a stranger  
or a visitor to the                     
harvest-field1 who is treated           
accordingly4      #fgi ,w4 ,mannhardt1  

,mythologische ,forschunge pp4 #cb sqq4 
,compare ,k4        ,bartsch1 ,sagen1   
,mrchen und ,gebruche aus ,meklenburg   
7,vienna1        #ahgi-ahhj71 ii4 #bif  
sq42 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und
        ,volksglaube in ,schlesien      
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fb sq42 ,a4
        ,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und      
,volksglaube im deutschen ,westbhmen    
7,prague1 #aije71 p4 #aic2 ,a4          
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche        aus ,thringen 7,vienna1
 #ahgh71 p4 #bba1  #fa2 ,r4 ,krause1    
,sitten1        ,gebruche und           
,aberglauben in ,westpreussen 7,berlin1 
preface dated        ,march1 #aijd71 p4 
#ea2 ,revue des ,traditions populaires1 
iii4 7#ahhh7        p4 #eih4      #fhj  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische          
,forschungen1 pp4 #ce sq4      #fha     
,ibid4 p4 #cf4      #fhb ,a4 ,john1     
,sitte1 ,brauch1 und ,volksglaube im    
deutschen ,westbhmen1        7,prague1  
#aije71 p4 #aid4      #fhc ,o4 ,hartung1
 8,zur ,volkskunde aus ,anhalt10        

,zeitschrift des ,vereins        fr     
,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4 #aec4      
#fhd ,j4 ,lecur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage  
,normand 7,cond-sur-,noireau1           
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bdj sq4      #fhe ,w4 
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #cf4      #fhf ,for the evidence1   
see ibid4 p4 #cf1 note #b4 ,the 8key0 in
 the        ,european custom is probably
 intended to serve the same purpose as  
the 8knot0 in the ,cingalese custom1 as 
to which see ,taboo and the             
,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #cjh sq4      
#fhg ,from a letter written to me by    
,colonel ,henry ,wilson1 of ,farnborough
        ,lodge1 ,farnborough1 ,kent4    
,the letter is dated #bast ,march1      
#aija4      #fhh 8,notes on ,harvest    
,customs10 ,the ,folk-lore ,journal1    
vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4        #eb sq4         
,m#aib ,ceremonies of the ,tarahumare   
,indians at hoeing1 ploughing1 and      
harvest4      #fhi ,c4 ,lumholtz1       
,unknown ,mexico 7,london1 #aijc71 i4   
#bad sq4      #fij ,compare ,adonis1    

,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4  
#ge sq4      #fia ,k4 ,vetter1 ,komm    
herber und hilf uns6 ,heft #b 7,barmen1 
#ahih71 p4 #g4      #fib ,a4 ,c4        
,kruijt1 8,een en ander aangaande het   
geestelijk en        maatschappelijk    
leven van den ,poso-,alfoer10           
,mededeelingen van wege        het      
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xxxix4 7#ahie7 p4 #acg4 ,as to          
influence which the spirits of the dead 
are thought to exercise on        the   
growth of the crops1 see above1 pp4 #ajc
 sq41 and below1 vol4        ii4 pp4    
#aji sqq4     ,m#aic ,pretence made by  
the reapers of killing some one with    
their scythes4      #fic ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ci4   
#fid ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 pp4 #ci sq4      #fie     
,ibid4 p4 #dj4 ,for the speeches made by
 the woman who binds the        stranger
 or the master1 see ibid4 p4 #da2 ,c4   
,lemke1        ,volksthmliches in       
,ostpreussen 7,mohrungen1 #ahhd-ahhg71  

i4 #bc sq4      #fif ,w4 ,mannhardt1    
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #da sq4
     ,m#aid ,pretence made by threshers 
of choking a person with their flails4  
#fig ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #db4   
,see also above1 p4 #aej4      #fih ,w4 
,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #db4 ,see above1
 p4 #adi4 ,in ,thringen a        being  
called the ,rush-cutter                 
7,binsenschneider7 used to be much      
dreaded4 ,on the morning of ,st4 ,john's
 ,day he was wont to walk        through
 the fields with sickles tied to his    
ankles cutting avenues        in the    
corn as he walked4 ,to detect him1 seven
 bundles of brushwood        were       
silently threshed with the flail on the 
threshing-floor1 and        the stranger
 who appeared at the door of the barn   
during the        threshing was the     
,rush-cutter4 ,see ,a4 ,witzschel1      
,sagen1 ,sitten und        ,gebruche aus
 ,thringen 7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bba4   
,with the        ,binsenschneider       
compare the ,bilschneider and           

,biberschneider        7,f4 ,panzer1    
,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1     
,munich1 #ahdh-ahee1        ii4 pp4 #baj
 sq41  #cgb-cgh74     ,m#aie ,custom    
observed at the madder-harvest in       
,zealand4      #fii ,w4 ,mannhardt1     
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #dg sq4
     ,m#aif ,the spirit of the corn     
conceived as poor and robbed by the     
reapers4        ,some of the corn left  
on the harvest-field for the            
corn-spirit4        ,little fields or   
gardens cultivated for spirits or gods4 
#gjj ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #dh4   
#gja ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c4      #gjb     
,ibid4 pp4 #dh sq4      #gjc ,w4        
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #di4      #gjd ,ibid4 p4 #ccg4      
#gje ,ibid4      #gjf ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #ccg   
sq4      #gjg ,a4 ,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch
 und ,volksglaube im deutschen          
,westbhmen        7,prague1 #aije71 p4  
#ahi4      #gjh ,a4 ,witzschel1 ,sagen1 
,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen     

7,vienna1        #ahgh71 p4 #bbd1  #gd4 
#gji ,bavaria1 ,landes- und ,volkskunde 
des ,knigreichs ,bayern 7,munich1       
#ahfj-ahfg71 iii4 #cdc sq4      #gaj    
,zeitschrift des ,vereins fr            
,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4 #aed4      
#gaa ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch1   
und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien          
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fd1  #dai4 
#gab ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 ,ralston1 ,songs of the
 ,russian ,people1 ,second ,edition     
7,london1 #ahgb71 pp4 #bea sq4 ,as to   
,perun1 the old ,slavonic               
thunder-god1 see ,the ,magic ,art and   
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4           
#cfe4      #gac ,rev4 ,walter ,gregor1  
,notes on the ,folk-lore of the         
,north-east of        ,scotland         
7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ahb4      #gad    
,see above1 pp4 #acf sqq4      #gae ,a4 
,germain1 8,note zur ,zanzibar et la    
,cte ,orientale d',afrique10            
,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie    
7,paris71 ,vme ,srie1 xvi4              
7#ahfh7 p4 #eee4      #gaf ,e4          

,modigliani1 ,un ,viaggio a ,nas        
7,milan1 #ahij71 p4 #eic4      #gag ,j4 
,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,stmme 7,berlin1     
#aijf71 p4 #cjc4 ,in the ,central       
,provinces of ,india 8sometimes the     
oldest man in the house cuts the        
first five bundles of the crop and they 
are afterwards left in the        fields
 for the birds to eat4 ,and at the end  
of harvest the last one        or two   
sheaves are left standing in the field  
and any one who likes        can cut and
 carry them away4 ,in some localities   
the last sheaves are        left        
standing in the field and are known as  
barhona1 or the giver        of         
increase4 ,then all the labourers rush  
together at this last patch        of   
corn and tear it up by the roots2       
everybody seizes as much as he          
can and keeps it1 the master having no  
share in this patch4 ,after        the  
barhona has been torn up all the        
labourers fall on their faces        to 
the ground and worship the field0 7,a4  

,e4 ,nelson1 ,central        ,provinces 
,gazetteers1 ,bilaspur ,district1 vol4  
,a1 #aiaj1 p4 #ge74 ,this               
quotation was kindly sent to me by ,mr4 
,w4 ,crooke2 ,i have not seen        the
 original4 ,it seems to shew that in the
 ,central ,provinces the        last    
corn is left standing on the field as a 
portion for the        corn-spirit1 and 
that he is believed to be immanent in   
it2 hence the        name of 8the giver 
of increase0 bestowed on it1 and the    
eagerness        with which other       
people1 though not the owner of the     
land1 seek to        appropriate it4    
,m#aig ,hence perhaps we may explain the
 dedication of sacred fields and the    
offering of first-fruits to gods and    
spirits4      #gah ,see above1 pp4 #ic  
sq4      #gai ,see above1 pp4 #cf1 #gd4 
#gbj ,leviticus1 xix4 #i sq41 xxiii4    
#bb2 ,deuteronomy1 xxiv4 #ai-ba4        
#gba ,see above1 pp4 #df sq41 #ec sqq41 
and below1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aji        sqq4
     ,m#aih ,passing strangers treated  

as the spirit of the madder-roots4      
#gbb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 pp4 #di sq42 ,a4 ,wuttke1 
,der deutsche ,volksaberglaube#b        
7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 #bed1  #djj2 ,m4   
,tppen1 ,aberglaube aus ,masuren#b      
7,danzig1 #ahfg71 p4 #eg4 ,the same     
belief is held and acted upon in ,japan 
7,l4 ,hearn1 ,glimpses of               
,unfamiliar ,japan1 ,london1 #aijd1 ii4 
#fjc74      #gbc ,the explanation of the
 custom is ,w4 ,mannhardt's             
7,mythologische        ,forschungen1 p4 
#di74      #gbd ,odyssey1 xvii4 #dhe    
sqq4 ,compare ,plato1 ,sophist1 p4 #baf 
,a4      #gbe ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,mijne  
eerste ervaringen te ,poso10            
,mededeelingen van        wege het      
,nederlandsche ,zendelinggenootschap1   
xxxvi4 7#ahib7 p4 #djb4     ,m#aii      
,killing of the personal representative 
of the corn-spirit4      #gbf ,for      
throwing him into the water1 see p4     
#bbe4     ,m#bjj ,human sacrifices for  
the crops in ,south and ,central        

,america4      #gbg ,cieza de ,leon1    
,travels1 translated by ,c4 ,r4         
,markham1 p4 #bjc        7,hakluyt      
,society1 ,london1 #ahfd74      #gbh    
,juan de ,velasco1 ,histoire du ,royaume
 de ,quito1 i4 7,paris1 #ahdj7          
pp4 #aba sq4 7,ternaux-,compans1        
,voyages1 ,relations et ,mmoires        
,originaux pour servir  l',histoire de  
la ,dcouverte de l',amrique1        vol4
 xviii474      #gbi ,brasseur de        
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique        et de      
l',amrique ,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71 i4 #bgd2 ,h4 ,h4           
,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the        
,pacific ,states 7,london1 #ahge-ahgf71 
ii4 #cdj4      #gcj ,brasseur de        
,bourbourg1 8,aperus d'un voyage dans   
les tats de        ,san-,salvador et de 
,guatemala10 ,bulletin de la ,socit de  
,gographie 7,paris71 ,,ivme ,srie1 xiii4
 7#aheg7 pp4 #bgh sq4      #gca         
,herrera1 quoted by ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die  
,culturlnder des alten ,amerika         

7,berlin1 #ahgh71 ii4 #cgi sq4 ,see     
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 pp4 #cch sq4     ,m#bja ,human
 sacrifices for the crops among the     
,pawnees4      #gcb ,e4 ,james1 ,account
 of an ,expedition from ,pittsburgh to  
the ,rocky        ,mountains 7,london1  
#ahbc71 ii4 #hj sq42 ,h4 ,r4            
,schoolcraft1 ,indian        ,tribes of 
the ,united ,states 7,philadelphia1     
#ahec-ahef71 v4 #gg        sqq42 ,j4 ,de
 ,smet1 in ,annales de la ,propagation  
de la ,foi1 xi4        7#ahch7 pp4 #dic 
sq42 id41 in ,annales de la ,propagation
 de la        ,foi1 xv4 7#ahdc7 pp4     
#bgg-bgi2 id41 ,voyages aux ,montagnes  
,rocheuses1 ,nouvelle ,edition 7,paris  
and ,brussels1 #ahgc71 pp4 #aba         
sqq4 ,the accounts by ,schoolcraft and  
,de ,smet of the sacrifice of        the
 ,sioux girl are independent and        
supplement each other4 ,according       
to ,de ,smet1 who wrote from the        
descriptions of four eye-witnesses1     
the procession from hut to hut for the  

purpose of collecting wood        took  
place on the morning of the sacrifice4  
,another description of        the      
sacrifice is given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4      
,grinnell from the recollection         
of an eye-witness 7,pawnee ,hero        
,stories and ,folk-tales1 ,new ,york1   
#ahhi1 pp4 #cfb-cfi74 ,according to this
 last account the victim was        shot
 with arrows and afterwards burnt4      
,before the body was consumed        in 
the fire a man pulled out the arrows1   
cut open the breast of the              
victim1 and having smeared his face with
 the blood ran away as fast        as he
 could4     ,m#bjb ,human sacrifices for
 the crops in ,africa4      #gcc ,j4 ,b4
 ,labat1 ,relation historique de        
l',ethiopie occidentale 7,paris1        
#agcb71 i4 #chj4      #gcd ,john ,adams1
 ,sketches taken during ,ten ,voyages in
 ,africa between the        years #aghf 
and #ahjj 7,london1 ,n4,d471 p4 #be4    
#gce ,p4 ,bouche1 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves
 7,paris1 #ahhe71 p4 #acb4      #gcf ,t4

 ,arbousset et ,f4 ,daumas1 ,voyage     
d'exploration au ,nord-est de la        
,colonie du ,cap de ,bonne-,esprance    
7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4 #aag sq4 ,the      
custom has probably long been obsolete4 
#gcg ,from information given me by my   
friend the ,rev4 ,john ,roscoe1 who     
resided for some time among the ,wamegi 
and suppressed the sacrifice        in  
#ahhf4     ,m#bjc ,human sacrifices for 
the crops in the ,philippines4      #gch
 ,f4 ,blumentritt1 8,das ,stromgebiet   
des ,rio ,grande de ,mindanao10         
,petermanns ,mitteilungen1 xxxvii4      
7#ahia7 p4 #aaj4      #gci ,a4          
,schadenberg1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss  
der im ,innern ,nordluzons              
lebenden ,stmme10 ,verhandlungen der    
,berliner ,gesellschaft fr              
,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und         
,urgeschichte1 #ahhh1 p4 7#ci7 7bound   
with ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xx4   
#ahhh74      #gdj ,schadenberg1 in      
,verhandlungen der ,berliner            
,gesellschaft fr        ,anthropologie1 

,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte1 #ahhi1 p4
 7#fha7 7bound        with ,zeitschrift 
fr ,ethnologie1 xxi4 #ahhi74     ,m#bjd 
,human sacrifices for the crops among   
the ,wild ,wa of ,burma4      #gda      
7,sir7 ,j4 ,g4 ,scott and ,j4 ,p4       
,hardiman1 ,gazetteer of ,upper ,burma  
and        the ,shan ,states 7,rangoon1 
#aijj-aija71 ,part i4 vol4 i4 pp4       
#dic-eji4     ,m#bje ,human sacrifices  
for the crops among the ,shans of       
,indo-,china and the        ,nagas and  
other tribes of ,india4      #gdb ,col4 
,r4 ,g4 ,woodthorpe1 8,some ,account of 
the ,shans and ,hill ,tribes of         
the ,states on the ,mekong10 ,journal of
 the ,anthropological        ,institute1
 xxvi4 7#ahig7 p4 #bd4      #gdc ,for a 
general description of the country and  
the tribes see ,l4 ,a4        ,waddell1 
8,the ,tribes of the ,brahmaputra       
,valley10 ,journal of the               
,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 lxix4     
,part iii4 7,calcutta1 #aija71 pp4      
#a-abg4      #gdd ,miss ,g4 ,m4 ,godden1

 8,naga and other ,frontier ,tribes of  
,north-,eastern        ,india10 ,journal
 of the ,anthropological ,institute1    
xxvii4 7#ahih7        pp4 #i sq41 #ch   
sq4      #gde ,north ,indian ,notes and 
,queries1 i4 p4 #d1  #ae 7,april #ahia74
      #gdf ,panjab ,notes and ,queries1 
ii4 pp4 #abg sq41  #gba 7,may #ahhe74   
#gdg ,rev4 ,p4 ,dehon1 ,s4,j41          
8,religion and ,customs of the ,uraons10
 ,memoirs        of the ,asiatic        
,society of ,bengal1 vol4 i4 ,no4 #i    
7,calcutta1 #aijf71        pp4 #ada sq4 
,m#bjf ,human sacrifices for the crops  
among the ,khonds4      #gdh ,major ,s4 
,c4 ,macpherson1 ,memorials of ,service 
in ,india 7,london1        #ahfe71 pp4  
#aac-aca2 ,major-,general ,john         
,campbell1 ,wild ,tribes of             
,khondistan 7,london1 #ahfd71 pp4       
#eb-eh1 etc4 ,compare ,mgr4 ,neyret1    
,bishop of ,vizagapatam1 in ,annales de 
la ,propagation de la ,foi1             
xxiii4 7#ahea7 pp4 #djb-djd2 ,e4        
,thurston1 ,ethnographic ,notes on      

,southern ,india 7,madras1 #aijf71 pp4  
#eaj-eai2 id41 ,castes and              
,tribes of ,southern ,india 7,madras1   
#aiji71 iii4 #cga-che4      #gdi ,j4    
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #ef4      #gej   
,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aae  
sq4      #gea ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4  
cit4 pp4 #aag sq42 ,j4 ,campbell1 op4   
cit4        p4 #aab4     ,m#bjg         
,ceremonies preliminary to the          
sacrifice4      #geb ,s4 ,c4            
,macpherson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aag sq4      
#gec ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4   
#aah4      #ged ,j4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 
pp4 #ed sq4     ,m#bjh ,consummation of 
the sacrifice4      #gee ,j4 ,campbell1 
op4 cit4 pp4 #ee1 #aab4      #gef ,s4   
,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aai2 ,j4  
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #aac4      #geg  
,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg4  
,instead of the branch of a        green
 tree1 ,campbell mentions two strong    
planks or bamboos 7p4 #eg7        or a  
slit bamboo 7p4 #ahb74      #geh ,j4    
,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ef1 #eh1 #abj4 

#gei ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive      
,ethnology of ,bengal 7,calcutta1       
#ahgb71 p4        #bhh1 quoting ,colonel
 ,campbell's ,report4      #gfj ,j4     
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #abf4 ,the       
elephant represented the ,earth         
,goddess herself1 who was here conceived
 in elephant-form 7,campbell1        op4
 cit4 pp4 #ea1 #abf74 ,in the hill      
tracts of ,goomsur she was              
represented in peacock-form1 and the    
post to which the victim was            
bound bore the effigy of a peacock      
7,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #ed74      #gfa 
,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #acj4  
,in ,mexico also the tears of the       
human victims were sometimes regarded as
 an omen of rain 7,b4 de                
,sahagun1 ,histoire gnrale des ,choses  
de la ,nouvelle ,espagne1               
traduite par ,d4 ,jourdanet et ,r4      
,simeon1 ,paris1 #ahhj1 bk4 ii4 ch4 #bj1
        p4 #hf74     ,m#bji ,flesh of   
the victim used to fertilise the fields4
      #gfb ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive

 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bhh1        
referring        to ,colonel ,campbell's
 ,report4      #gfc ,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1
 op4 cit4 p4 #abi4 ,compare ,j4         
,campbell1 op4 cit4        pp4 #ee1 #eh1
 #aac1 #aba1 #ahg4      #gfd ,j4        
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahb4      #gfe  
,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #abh2  
,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive           
,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bhh4         
#gff ,j4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ee1   
#ahb4      #gfg ,j4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 
p4 #ahg4      #gfh ,e4 ,thurston1       
,castes and ,tribes of ,southern ,india 
7,madras1 #aiji71        iii4 #cha-che4 
,m#baj ,in these ,khond sacrifices the  
human victims appear to have been       
regarded as divine4      #gfi ,j4       
,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #aab4      #ggj  
,s4 ,c4 ,macpherson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aah4  
,m#baa ,traces of an identification of  
the human victim with the god in        
other sacrifices4      #gga ,above1 pp4 
#bci1 #bdj1 #bdd4     ,m#bab ,analogy of
 these barbarous rites to the harvest   

customs of ,europe4      #ggb ,above1 p4
 #acd4      #ggc ,above1 pp4 #acd1 #aeg 
sqq4      #ggd ,above1 p4 #bbc4         
#gge ,above1 p4 #bbd4      #ggf ,above1 
p4 #agj1 with the references in note #a2
 ,adonis1 ,attis1        ,osiris1       
,second ,edition1 pp4 #aie-aig4         
,m#bac ,human representative of the     
corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field4 
,m#bad ,the victim who represented the  
corn-spirit may have been a passing     
stranger or the reaper1 binder1 or      
thresher of the last corn4      #ggg    
,see above1 p4 #bag4      #ggh ,above1  
p4 #bbd4      #ggi ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die 
,korndmonen1 p4 #e4      #ghj ,h4       
,pfannenschmid1 ,germanische ,erntefeste
 7,hanover1 #ahgh71 p4 #ih4     ,m#bae  
,perhaps the victim annually sacrificed 
in the character of the                 
corn-spirit may have been the king      
himself4      #gha ,above1 p4 #bag4 ,it 
is not expressly said that he was wrapt 
in a        sheaf4      #ghb ,above1 pp4
 #bbe sq41 #bbi sq4      #ghc ,see ,the 

,dying ,god1 pp4 #afj sqq4     ,m#baf   
,relation of ,lityerses to ,attis3 both 
may have been originally                
corn-spirits1 or the one a corn-spirit  
and the other a tree-spirit4            
,human representatives both of          
,lityerses and ,attis annually slain4   
#ghd ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1     
,second ,edition1 pp4 #bca sqq41 #bci   
sq4      #ghe ,see ,the ,magic ,art and 
the ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #dg sqq4  
#ghf ,i do not know when the corn is    
reaped in ,phrygia2 but the high        
upland character of the country makes it
 likely that harvest is        later    
there than on the coasts of the         
,mediterranean4      #ghg ,see above1   
pp4 #bdj sqq42 and ,adonis1 ,attis1     
,osiris1 ,second        ,edition1 pp4   
#bdg-bdi4 ,as to head-hunting in        
,british ,borneo see ,h4 ,l4            
,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and    
,british ,north ,borneo 7,london1       
#ahif71 ii4 #adj sqq42 in ,central      
,celebes1 see ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,het    

koppensnellen der ,toradja's van        
,midden-,celebes1 en zijne              
,beteekenis10 ,verslagen en             
,mededeelingen der koninklijke ,akademie
        van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeelung  
,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1 iii4 part 
#b        7,amsterdam1 #ahii71 pp4      
#adg-bbi2 among the ,igorot of ,bontoc  
in ,luzon1        see ,a4 ,e4 ,jenks1   
,the ,bontoc ,igorot 7,manilla1 #aije71 
pp4 #agb        sqq42 among the ,naga   
tribes of ,assam1 see ,miss ,g4 ,m4     
,godden1 8,naga        and other        
,frontier ,tribes of ,north-,east       
,india01 ,journal of the                
,anthropological ,institute1 xxvii4     
7#ahih7 pp4 #ab-ag4 ,it must not1       
however1 be thought that among these    
tribes the custom of procuring          
human heads is practised merely as a    
means to ensure the growth of        the
 crops2 it is apparently supposed to    
exert a salutary influence        on the
 whole life of the people by providing  
them with guardian        spirits in the

 shape of the ghosts of the men to whom 
in their        lifetime the heads      
belonged4 ,the ,scythians of ,central   
,europe in        antiquity set great   
store on the heads of the enemies whom  
they had        slain in war4 ,see      
,herodotus1 iv4 #fd sq4      #ghh ,there
 are traces in ,greece itself of an old 
custom of sacrificing        human      
victims to promote the fertility of the 
earth4 ,see ,pausanias1        vii4 #ai4
 #c sq4 compared with vii4 #bj4 #a2 id41
 viii4 #ec4 #c2 ,l4 ,r4        ,farnell1
 ,the ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ii4 
7,oxford1 #ahif7 p4 #dee2        and    
,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #afa sq4          
,m#bag ,similarity of the ,bithynian    
,bormus to the ,phrygian ,attis4        
#ghi ,above1 pp4 #bae sq4      #gij     
,above1 p4 #baf4      #gia ,hesychius1  
s4v4 4     ,m#bah ,the ,phoenician      
,linus song at the vintage4 ,linus      
identified with        ,adonis1 who may 
have been annually represented by a     
human victim4      #gib ,apollodorus1   

,bibliotheca1 ii4 #f4 #c4      #gic ,the
 scurrilities exchanged both in ancient 
and modern times between                
vine-dressers1 vintagers1 and passers-by
 seem to belong to a        different   
category4 ,see ,w4 ,mannhardt1          
,mythologische ,forschungen1        pp4 
#ec sq4      #gid ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 
,osiris1 ,second ,edition1 pp4 #ahh sqq4
      #gie ,above1 pp4 #bcf sq41 #bdj1  
#bdc1 #bdd1 #bdh sq4      #gif ,the     
probable correspondence of the months1  
which supplies so welcome        a      
confirmation of the conjecture in the   
text1 was pointed out to me        by my
 friend ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 who      
furnished me with the following         
note3 8,in the ,syro-,macedonian        
calendar ,lous represents ,ab1 not      
,tammuz4 ,was it different in ,babylon8 
,i think it was1 and one month          
different1 at least in the early times  
of the ,greek monarchy in        ,asia4 
,for we know from a ,babylonian         
observation in the ,almagest            

7,ideler1 i4 #cif7 that in #bbi ,b4,c4  
,xanthicus began on ,february #bf4      
,it was therefore the month before the  
equinoctial moon1 not ,nisan        but 
,adar1 and consequently ,lous answered  
to the lunar month ,tammuz40     ,m#bai 
,the corn-spirit in ,egypt 7,osiris7    
annually represented by a human         
victim4      #gig ,above1 p4 #bae4      
#gih ,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca1 ii4 #e4
 #aa2 ,scholiast on ,apollonius         
,rhodius1 ,argon4 iv4 #acif2 ,plutarch1 
,parall4 #ch4 ,herodotus 7ii4           
#de7 discredits the idea that the       
,egyptians ever offered human           
sacrifices4 ,but his authority is not to
 be weighed against that of             
,manetho 7,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1  
#gc71 who affirms that they did4        
,see further ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis       
,budge1 ,osiris and the ,egyptian       
,resurrection 7,london and ,new ,york1  
#aiaa71 i4 #baj sqq41 who says          
7pp4 #baj1 #bab73 8,there is abundant   
proof for the statement that the        

,egyptians offered up sacrifices of     
human beings1 and that1 in common       
with many ,african tribes at the present
 day1 their customs in        dealing   
with vanquished enemies were            
bloodthirsty and savage4444 ,the        
passages from ,egyptian works quoted    
earlier in this chapter prove           
that human sacrifices were offered up at
 ,heliopolis as well as at        ,tetu1
 or ,busiris1 and the rumour of such    
sacrifices has found        expression  
in the works of ,greek writers40        
#gii ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte des        
,altertums1 i4 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd71     
#eg1 p4        #fh4      #hjj ,e4       
,meyer1 ,geschichte des ,altertums1#b i4
 #b 7,stuttgart and ,berlin1            
#aiji71 p4 #ig2 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire 
,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient     
,classique1 ,les ,origines 7,paris1     
#ahie71 pp4 #abi sqq4 ,both these       
eminent historians have abandoned their 
former theory that ,osiris        was   
the ,sun-god4 ,professor ,e4 ,meyer now 

speaks of ,osiris as 8the        great  
vegetation god0 and1 on the same page1  
as 8an earth-god0 7op4        cit4 i4   
#b4 p4 #gj74 ,i am happy to find the    
view of the nature of        ,osiris1   
which ,i advocated many years ago1      
supported by the authority        of so 
distinguished an ,oriental scholar4 ,dr4
 ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge        holds    
that ,busiris was the oldest shrine of  
,osiris in the north of        ,egypt1  
but that it was less ancient than his   
shrine at ,abydos in the        south4  
,see ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,osiris and
 the ,egyptian        ,resurrection     
7,london and ,new ,york1 #aiaa71 ii4 #a4
      #hja ,diodorus ,siculus1 i4 #hh2  
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #gc1       
compare #cj1        #cc4      #hjb      
,margaret ,a4 ,murray1 ,the ,osireion at
 ,abydos 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #cj1      
referring to ,mariette1 ,dendereh1 iv4  
plates xxxi41 lvi41 and        lxxxi4   
,the passage of ,diodorus ,siculus      
referred to is i4 #fb4 #d4 ,as        to

 masks of animals worn by ,egyptian men 
and women in religious        rites see 
,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of  
,kings1 ii4 #acc2 ,the        ,dying    
,god1 p4 #gb4     ,m#bbj ,assimilation  
of human victims to the corn which they 
represent4      #hjc ,above1 pp4 #bcg   
sq41 #bdj1 #bea4      #hjd ,e4 ,j4      
,payne1 ,history of the ,new ,world     
called ,america1 i4 7,oxford1           
#ahib7 p4 #dbb4      #hje ,brasseur de  
,bourbourg1 ,histoire des ,nations      
civilises du ,mexique        et de      
l',amrique ,centrale 7,paris1           
#aheg-ahei71 iii4 #ece4      #hjf       
,festus1 s4v4 ,catularia1 p4 #de ed4 ,c4
 ,o4 ,mller4 ,compare id41        s4v4  
,rutilae canes1 p4 #bhe2 ,columella1 ,de
 re rustica1 x4 #cdb        sq42 ,ovid1 
,fasti1 iv4 #ije sqq42 ,pliny1 ,nat4    
,hist4 xviii4 #ad4      #hjg ,d4        
,chwolsohn1 ,die ,ssabier und der       
,ssabismus 7,st4 ,petersburg1           
#ahef71 ii4 #chh sq4 ,compare ibid41 pp4
 #chd sq41 #chf sq41 #cia1        #cic1 

#cie1 #cig4 ,for other instances of the 
assimilation of the victim        to the
 god1 see ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,religion
 des ,veda 7,berlin1        #ahid71 pp4 
#gg sq41 #ceg-cei4     ,m#bba ,remains  
of victims scattered over the fields to 
fertilise them4      #hjh ,above1 pp4   
#bdj1 #bdi4      #hji ,above1 pp4 #adi  
sq41 #bcg sq41 #bci4      #haj          
,plutarch1 ,isis et ,osiris1 #ah4       
#haa ,see above1 p4 #bdh2 and compare   
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 pp4 #cca sqq4      #hab ,see  
,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,second       
,edition1 p4 #cbc4     ,m#bbb ,the black
 and green ,osiris like the black and   
green ,demeter4      #hac ,plutarch1    
,isis et ,osiris1 #bb1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1   
#gc4      #had ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,wilkinson1 
,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient   
,egyptians        7ed4 #ahgh71 iii4 #ha4
      #hae ,pausanias1 i4 #bb4 #c1 viii4
 #e4 #h1 viii4 #db4 i4      #haf        
,cornutus1 ,theologiae ,graecae         
,compendium1 #bh4 ,see above1 p4 #db4   

,m#bbc ,the key to the mysteries of     
,osiris furnished by the lamentations of
        the reapers for the annual death
 of the corn-spirit4   ,m#bbd ,crying   
8the neck0 at harvest in ,devonshire4   
#hag ,w4 ,hone1 ,every-day ,book        
7,london1 ,n4,d471 ii4 coll4 #aagj sq4  
#hah ,miss ,c4 ,s4 ,burne and ,miss ,g4 
,f4 ,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore    
7,london1 #ahhc71 pp4 #cgb sq41         
referring to ,mrs4 ,bray's ,traditions  
of ,devon1 i4 #ccj4      #hai ,w4 ,hone1
 op4 cit4 ii4 #aagb4      #hbj ,the     
,rev4 ,sydney ,cooper1 of #hj           
,gloucester ,street1 ,cirencester1 wrote
        to me 7#dth ,february #ahic7    
that his wife remembers the 8neck0 being
        kept on the mantelpiece of the  
parlour in a ,cornish farmhouse2 it     
generally stayed there throughout the   
year4     ,m#bbe ,other accounts of     
cutting and crying 8the neck0 in        
,devonshire4      #hba 8,old ,harvest   
,customs in ,devon and ,cornwall10      
,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7        p4 #bhj4  

#hbb ,ibid4     ,m#bbf ,cutting 8the    
neck0 in ,pembrokeshire4      #hbc      
,frances ,hoggan1 ,m4,d41 8,the ,neck   
,feast10 ,folk-lore1 iv4 7#ahic7 p4     
#abc4 ,in ,pembrokeshire the last sheaf 
of corn seems to have been              
commonly known as 8the ,hag0 7wrach7    
rather than as 8the ,neck40 ,see        
above1 pp4 #adb-add4     ,m#bbg ,cutting
 8the neck0 in ,shropshire4 ,why the    
last corn cut is called        8the     
neck40      #hbd ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular   
,antiquities1 ii4 #bj 7,bohn's edition72
 ,miss ,c4 ,s4        ,burne and ,miss  
,g4 ,f4 ,jackson1 ,shropshire           
,folk-lore1 p4 #cga4      #hbe ,burne   
and ,jackson1 l4c4      #hbf ,w4        
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #ahe4      #hbg ,see above1 p4 #aeh4
      #hbh ,w4 ,mannhardt1              
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ahe4   
#hbi ,ibid4      #hcj ,revue des        
,traditions populaires1 ii4 7#ahhg7 p4  
#ejj4      #hca ,above1 p4 #aej4        
,m#bbh ,cries of the reapers in         

,germany4      #hcb ,e4 ,meier1 in      
,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,mythologie und
 ,sittenkunde1        i4 7#ahec7 pp4    
#agj-agc2 ,u4 ,jahn1 ,die deutschen     
,opfergebruche bei        ,ackerbau und 
,viehzucht 7,breslau1 #ahhd71 pp4       
#aff-afi2 ,h4        ,pfannenschmid1    
,germanische ,erntefeste 7,hanover1     
#ahgh71 pp4 #ajd        sq42 ,a4 ,kuhn1 
,sagen1 ,gebruche und ,mrchen aus       
,westfalen        7,leipsic1 #ahei71 ii4
 pp4 #agg sq41  #dia1 #dib2 ,a4 ,kuhn   
und ,w4        ,schwartz1 ,norddeutsche 
,sagen1 ,mrchen und ,gebruche 7,leipsic1
        #ahdh71 p4 #cie71  #ig2 ,k4     
,lynker1 ,deutsche ,sagen und ,sitten in
        hessischen ,gauen 7,cassel and  
,gttingen1 #ahfj71 p4 #bef1  #cdj4      
,m#bbi ,the corn-spirit as an animal4   
,m#bcj ,the corn-spirit in the form of  
an animal is supposed to be present     
in the last corn cut or threshed1 and to
 be caught or killed by the             
reaper or thresher4      #hcc ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen 7,berlin1  

#ahfh71 pp4 #a-f4     ,m#bca ,the       
corn-spirit as a wolf or a dog1 supposed
 to run through the        corn4        
#hcd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und    
,roggenhund#b 7,danzig1 #ahff71 pp4 #f  
sqq42 id41 ,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte
 7,berlin1 #ahgg71 pp4 #cah        sq42 
id41 ,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4    
#ajc2 ,a4 ,witzchel1        ,sagen1     
,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,thringen     
7,vienna1 #ahgh71 p4 #bac2        ,o4   
,hartung1 8,zur ,volkskunde aus         
,anhalt10 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins     
fr ,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4 #aej2   
,w4 ,mller1 ,beitrge zur                
,volkskunde der ,deutschen in ,mhren    
7,vienna and ,olmtz1 #ahic71 p4         
#cbg2 ,p4 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch   
und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien          
7,leipsic1 #aijc-aijf71 ii1 #fj4        
#hce ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und    
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #aj sqq42 id41       
,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #cai4 
#hcf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und    
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #ad sq4     ,m#bcb   

,the corn-spirit as a dog at reaping and
 threshing4      #hcg ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ajd2   
,p4 ,drechsler1        ,sitte1 ,brauch  
und ,volksglaube in ,schlesien1 ii4 #fd4
      #hch ,w4 ,mannhardt1              
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ajd4   
#hci ,ibid4 pp4 #ajd sq4 ,on the        
,harvest-,may1 see ,the ,magic ,art and 
the        ,evolution of ,kings1 ii4 #dg
 sq4      #hdj ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,folk-lore
 des ,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 p4
 #aia4      #hda ,w4 ,mannhardt1        
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #aje4   
#hdb ,ibid4 p4 #cj4      #hdc ,ibid4 pp4
 #cj1 #aje4      #hdd ,ibid4 pp4 #aje   
sq4     ,m#bcc ,the corn-spirit as a    
wolf at reaping4      #hde ,p4          
,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und         
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fd4      #hdf ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und             
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #cc1 #ci2 ,k4        
,bartsch1        ,sagen1 ,mrchen und    
,gebruche aus ,meklenburg 7,vienna1     

#ahgi-ahhj71        ii4 p4 #cji1  #adif1
 p4 #caj1  #adig1 #adih4      #hdg ,w4  
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 p4 #cbj4      #hdh ,w4      
,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und             
,roggenhund1#b p4 #cc4      #hdi ,w4    
,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und             
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #cc sq42 ,k4         
,bartsch1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #cji1  #adif1 
p4 #caj1  #adig1 #aejj1 #aeja4      #hej
 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und        
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #cc1 #cd4      #hea  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und         
,roggenhund1#b p4 #ch2 id41 ,antike     
,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #cbj4         
#heb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf und    
,roggenhund1#b pp4 #cd sq4      #hec ,k4
 ,bartsch1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #caa1  #aeje4
      #hed ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,roggenwolf  
und ,roggenhund1#b pp4 #ce-cg2 ,k4      
,bartsch1        op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #cji1  
#adif1 p4 #caj1  #adii1 #aeja1 p4 #caa1 
#aejf1 #aejg4     ,m#bcd ,the           
corn-spirit as a wolf killed at         
threshing4      #hee ,w4 ,mannhardt1    

,antike ,wald- und ,feldkulte1 p4 #cba4 
#hef ,ibid4 pp4 #cba sq4     ,m#bce ,the
 corn-wolf at harvest in ,france4 ,the  
corn-wolf killed on the                 
harvest-field4      #heg ,ibid4 p4 #cbj4
      #heh ,ibid4 pp4 #cbj sq4          
,m#bcf ,the corn-wolf at midwinter4     
#hei ,ibid4 p4 #cbb4      #hfj ,ibid4 p4
 #cbc4     ,m#bcg ,the corn-spirit as a 
cock at harvest4      #hfa ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4   
#hfb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 l4c42 ,j4 ,h4      
,schmitz1 ,sitten und ,sagen1 ,lieder1  
,sprchwrter und ,rathsel des ,eifler    
,volkes 7,treves1 #ahef-aheh71 i4       
#ie2 ,a4 ,kuhn und ,w4 ,schwartz1       
,norddeutsche ,sagen1 ,mrchen und       
,gebruche 7,leipsic1 #ahdh71 p4 #cih4   
#hfc ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische     
,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen
        ,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1   
#ahhj71 p4 #ba4      #hfd ,w4           
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4   
,compare ,a4 ,kuhn and ,w4              
,schwartz1 l4c4      #hfe ,k4 ,haupt1   

,sagenbuch der ,lausitz 7,leipsic1      
#ahfb-ahfc71 i4 p4 #bcb1        ,no4    
#bgg note4      #hff ,w4 ,mannhardt1    
,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ac4      #hfg ,a4 
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1       
#ahgh71 p4 #bbj4      #hfh ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 pp4 #ac   
sq42 ,j4 ,h4 ,schmitz1        ,sitten   
und ,sagen1 ,lieder1 ,sprchwrter und    
,rthsel des ,eifler        ,volkes      
7,treves1 #ahef-aheh71 i4 #ie2 ,a4      
,kuhn1 ,sagen1 ,gebruche und            
,mrchen aus ,westfalen 7,leipsic1       
#ahei71 ii4 #ahj sq42 ,h4               
,pfannenschmid1 ,germanische ,erntefeste
 7,hanover1 #ahgh71 p4 #aaj4      #hfi  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4    
#ad2 ,h4 ,pfannenschmid1 op4 cit4       
pp4 #aaa1 #dai sq4      #hgj ,w4        
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #ae4   
,so in ,shropshire1 where the           
corn-spirit is conceived in the form of 
a gander 7see above1 p4        #bfh71   
the expression for overthrowing a load  

at harvest is 8to lose        the       
goose10 and the penalty used to be the  
loss of the goose at the                
harvest-supper 7,c4 ,s4 ,burne and ,g4  
,f4 ,jackson1 ,shropshire               
,folk-lore1 ,london1 #ahhc1 p4 #cge72   
and in some parts of ,england the       
harvest-supper was called the ,harvest  
,gosling1 or the ,inning ,goose         
7,j4 ,brand1 ,popular ,antiquities1 ii4 
#bc1 #bf1 ,bohn's edition74      #hga   
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4    
#ad4      #hgb ,ibid4 p4 #ae4     ,m#bch
 ,the corn-spirit killed in the form of 
a live cock4      #hgc ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cj4    
#hgd ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1  
p4 #ae4      #hge ,ibid4 pp4 #ae sq4    
#hgf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1  
p4 #ae2 id41 ,mythologische             
,forschungen1 p4 #cj4     ,m#bci ,the   
corn-spirit as a hare at harvest4 ,the  
corn-spirit as a hare        killed in  
the last corn cut4      #hgg ,w4        
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen1 p4 #a4    

#hgh ,w4 ,gregor1 8,preliminary ,report 
on ,folklore in ,galloway1 ,scotland10  
,report of the ,british ,association for
 #ahif1 p4 #fbc4      #hgi ,folk-lore   
,journal1 vii4 7#ahhi7 pp4 #dg sq4      
#hhj ,l4 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,folk-lore des      
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 p4     
#aia4      #hha ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,die    
,korndmonen1 p4 #c4      #hhb ,o4       
,hartung1 8,zur ,volkskunde aus         
,anhalt10 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins     
fr ,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4 #aed4   
#hhc ,c4 ,lemke1 ,volksthmliches in     
,ostpreussen 7,mohrungen1 #ahhd-ahhg71  
i4 #bd4      #hhd ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1    
,agrarische ,sitten und ,gebruche unter 
den ,sachsen        ,siebenbrgens       
7,hermannstadt1 #ahhj71 p4 #ba4         
#hhe ,above1 p4 #bfh4      #hhf ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #bi4      #hhg ,w4 ,mannhardt1      
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #bi    
sq42 id41 ,die        ,korndmonen1 p4   
#e4      #hhh ,georgeakis et ,pineau1   
,folk-lore de ,lesbos 7,paris1 #ahid71  

p4 #caj4     ,m#bdj ,the corn-spirit as 
a cat sitting in the corn4 ,the         
corn-spirit as a        cat killed at   
reaping and threshing4      #hhi ,w4    
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 pp4 #agb-agd2 id41          
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #cj2 ,p4
 ,drechsler1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und        
,volksglaube in ,schlesien 7,leipsic1   
#aijc-aijf71 ii4 #fd1 #fe4      #hij ,l4
 ,f4 ,sauv1 ,le ,folk-lore des          
,hautes-,vosges 7,paris1 #ahhi71 p4     
#aia4      #hia ,ch4 ,beauquier1 ,les   
,mois en ,franche-,comt 7,paris1 #aijj71
 p4 #ajb4     ,m#bda ,the corn-spirit as
 a goat running through the corn or     
sitting in it4        ,the corn-goat at 
reaping and binding the corn4      #hib 
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und      
,feldkulte1 pp4 #aee sq4      #hic      
,ibid4 pp4 #aeg sq4      #hid ,ibid4 p4 
#aei4      #hie ,ibid4 pp4 #afa sq4     
#hif ,ibid4 p4 #afb4      #hig ,f4      
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie 7,munich1 #ahdh-ahee71      

ii4 pp4 #bcb sq41  #dbf2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 ,antike ,wald- und        ,feldkulte1  
p4 #afb4      #hih ,f4 ,panzer1 op4 cit4
 ii4 pp4 #bbh sq41  #dbb2 ,w4           
,mannhardt1        ,antike ,wald- und   
,feldkulte1 p4 #afc2 ,bavaria1 ,landes- 
und        ,volkskunde des ,knigreichs  
,bayern1 iii4 7,munich1 #ahfe7 p4 #cdd4 
#hii ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und 
,feldkulte1 p4 #afc4      #ijj ,e4 ,h4  
,meyer1 ,badisches ,volksleben          
7,strasburg1 #aijj71 p4 #dbh4      #ija 
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und      
,feldkulte1 p4 #afd4      #ijb ,ibid4 p4
 #afd4      #ijc ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1        
,badisches ,volksleben 7,strasburg1     
#aijj71 p4 #dbh4      #ijd ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 pp4 #afd sq4      #ije      
,ibid4 p4 #afe4     ,m#bdb ,the         
corn-spirit as the ,cripple ,goat in    
,skye4      #ijf ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular   
,antiquities1 ii4 #bd1 ,bohn's edition1 
quoting        ,the ,gentleman's        
,magazine for ,february1 #agie1 p4 #abd2

 ,w4 ,mannhardt1        op4 cit4 p4     
#afe4      #ijg ,r4 ,c4 ,maclagan1      
8,notes on folk-lore objects collected  
in        ,argyleshire10 ,folk-lore1 vi4
 7#ahie7 p4 #aea1 from information given
        by ,mrs4 ,c4 ,nicholson4        
#ijh ,above1 p4 #bcb4      #iji ,w4     
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 p4 #afe4     ,m#bdc ,the    
corn-spirit killed as a goat on the     
harvest-field4      #iaj ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 op4 cit4 p4 #aff2 id41 ,mythologische  
,forschungen1        p4 #ahe4      #iaa 
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und      
,feldkulte1 p4 #aff4      #iab ,above1  
p4 #bha4      #iac ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1  
8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der         
gelehrten ,estnischen                   
,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 ,heft #b 
7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 p4 #ajg4      #iad ,g4
 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische ,sitten und 
,gebruche unter den ,sachsen            
,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1 #ahhj71 p4
 #ai4 ,compare ,w4 ,mannhardt1          
,baumkultus1 pp4 #dhb sqq4     ,m#bdd   

,the corn-spirit in the form of a goat  
supposed to lurk among the        corn  
in the barn1 till he is expelled by the 
flail at threshing4      #iae ,e4 ,l4   
,meyer1 ,badisches ,volksleben          
7,strasburg1 #aijj71 p4 #dcf4      #iaf 
,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen     
,mythologie1 ii4 pp4 #bbe sqq41         
#dba2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und
 ,feldkulte1 pp4 #afg sq4      #iag ,w4 
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 p4 #afh4      #iah ,a4      
,john1 ,sitte1 ,brauch und ,volksglaube 
im deutschen ,westbhmen        7,prague1
 #aije71 p4 #aid4      #iai ,e4 ,meier1 
,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 
aus ,schwaben        7,stuttgart1       
#aheb71 p4 #dde1  #afb2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 
,antike ,wald- und        ,feldkulte1 p4
 #afh4     ,m#bde ,the corn-spirit in   
the form of a goat passed on to a       
neighbour who        has not finished   
his threshing4      #ibj ,w4 ,mannhardt1
 op4 cit4 p4 #afi4      #iba ,f4        
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         

,mythologie1 ii4 pp4 #bbd sq41          
#dbj2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und
 ,feldkulte1 p4 #afi4      #ibb ,w4     
,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #afi4     ,m#bdf
 ,the corn-spirit in goat form killed at
 threshing4      #ibc ,ibid4 p4 #agj4   
#ibd ,ibid4 p4 #agj4 ,as to the custom  
of leaving a little corn on the         
field for the subsistence of the        
corn-spirit1 see above1 pp4 #bca        
sqq4     ,m#bdg ,old ,prussian custom of
 killing a goat at sowing4      #ibe ,m4
 ,praetorius1 ,deliciae ,prussicae      
7,berlin1 #ahga71 pp4 #bc sq42 ,w4      
,mannhardt1 ,baumkultus1 pp4 #cid sq4   
#ibf ,a4 ,c4 ,kruijt1 8,eenige          
ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
        ,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10     
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 p4 
#bda4     ,m#bdh ,the corn-spirit in the
 form of a bull running through the corn
 or        lying in it4 ,the corn-spirit
 as a bull1 ox1 or cow at harvest4      

#ibg ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #eh4      #ibh ,ibid4  
#ibi ,ibid4 p4 #fb4      #icj ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #ei4      #ica ,above1 p4 #bge4     
#icb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #ei4   
#icc ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1      
,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben     
7,stuttgart1 #aheb71 pp4 #ddj sq41      
#aea1 #aeb1 #aec2 ,f4 ,panzer1          
,beitrag zur deutschen ,mythologie1 ii4 
p4 #bcd1  #dbh2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1         
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ei4    
#icd ,f4 ,panzer1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bcc1 
#dbg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1                   
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #ei4    
#ice ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ei   
sq4      #icf ,ibid4 p4 #eh4      #icg  
,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische          
,forschungen1 pp4 #eh sq4     ,m#bdi    
,the corn-spirit in the form of a bull  
or ox killed at the close of        the 
reaping4      #ich ,ibid4 p4 #fj4       
,m#bej ,the corn-spirit as a bull or cow
 at threshing4      #ici ,e4 ,meier1    

,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebruche 
aus ,schwaben1 pp4        #ddd sq41     
#afb2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische    
,forschungen1 p4 #fa4      #idj ,f4     
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #bcc1  #dbg4        
#ida ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 pp4 #fa sq4      #idb     
,ibid4 p4 #fb4      #idc ,ibid4 p4 #fb4 
#idd ,e4 ,meier1 ,deutsche ,sagen1      
,sitten und ,gebruche aus ,schwaben1 pp4
        #dde sq41  #afc4     ,m#bea ,the
 corn-spirit in the form of a bull      
supposed to be killed at                
threshing4      #ide ,w4 ,mannhardt1    
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #fj4    
#idf ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4 p4 #fb4   
,m#beb ,the corn-spirit as a calf at    
harvest or in spring4      #idg ,above1 
pp4 #aej sq4      #idh ,laisnel de la   
,salle1 ,croyances et ,lgendes du       
,centre de la ,france        7,paris1   
#ahge71 ii4 #ace4      #idi ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #fb3 8,il fait le        veau40     

#iej ,ibid4      #iea ,ibid4 p4 #fc4    
,m#bec ,the corn-spirit as a horse or   
mare running through the corn4 8,crying 
the ,mare0 in ,hertfordshire and        
,shropshire4      #ieb ,ibid4 p4 #afg4  
#iec ,e4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,badisches         
,volksleben 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 p4     
#dbh4      #ied ,j4 ,brand1 ,popular    
,antiquities1 ii4 #bd1 ,bohn's edition4 
#iee ,c4 ,f4 ,burne and ,g4 ,f4         
,jackson1 ,shropshire ,folk-lore        
7,london1        #ahhc71 pp4 #cgc sq4   
,m#bed ,the corn-spirit as a horse in   
,france4      #ief ,w4 ,mannhardt1      
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #afg4   
,we may compare        the ,scotch      
custom of giving the last sheaf to a    
horse or mare to        eat4 ,see above1
 pp4 #ada1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj sq41 #afb4  
#ieg ,laisnel de la ,salle1 ,croyances  
et ,lgendes du ,centre de la ,france    
7,paris1 #ahge71 ii4 #acc2 ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
        pp4 #afg sq4 ,we have seen      
7above1 p4 #bfg7 that in ,south         

,pembrokeshire the man who cut the      
8,neck0 used to be 8shod10 that is1     
to have the soles of his feet severely  
beaten with sods4 ,perhaps he        was
 thus treated as representing the       
corn-spirit in the form of a            
horse4     ,m#bee ,the corn-spirit as a 
quail4 ,the rice-spirit as a blue bird4 
,the        rice-spirit as a quail4     
#ieh ,g4 ,a4 ,heinrich1 ,agrarische     
,sitten und ,gebruche unter den ,sachsen
        ,siebenbrgens 7,hermannstadt1   
#ahhj71 p4 #ba4      #iei ,a4 ,peter1   
,vlksthumliches aus                     
sterreichisch-,schlesien 7,troppau1     
#ahfe-ahfg71 ii4 #bfh4      #ifj ,j4    
,lecoeur1 ,esquisses du ,bocage ,normand
 7,cond-sur-,noireau1                   
#ahhc-ahhg71 ii4 #bdj4      #ifa ,a4    
,wuttke1 ,der deutsche ,volks           
aberglaube#b 7,berlin1 #ahfi71 p4 #ahi1 
#bgg2 ,chr4 ,schneller1 ,mrchen und     
,sagen aus ,wlschtirol                  
7,innsbruck1 #ahfg71 p4 #bch2 ,rev4 ,ch4
 ,swainson1 ,the ,folk ,lore and        

,provincial ,names of ,british ,birds   
7,london1 #ahhf71 p4 #agc4      #ifb    
,alfred ,newton1 ,dictionary of ,birds1 
,new ,edition 7,london1                 
#ahic-ahif71 p4 #gee4      #ifc ,a4 ,c4 
,kruijt1 8,eenige ethnografische        
aanteekeningen omtrent de               
,toboengkoe en de ,tomori10             
,mededeelingen van wege het             
,nederlandsche                          
,zendelinggenootschap1 xliv4 7#aijj7 pp4
 #bbh1 #bbi2 id41 8,de                  
rijstmoeder in den ,indischen           
,archipel10 ,verslagen en ,mededeelingen
        van der koninklijke ,akademie   
van ,wetenschappen1 ,afdeeling          
,letterkunde1 ,vierde ,reeks1 v41 part  
#c 7,amsterdam1 #aijc71 pp4 #cgd        
sq4     ,m#bef ,the corn-spirit as a fox
 running through the corn or sitting in 
it4        ,the corn-spirit as a fox at 
reaping the last corn4 ,the corn-spirit 
as a fox at threshing4 ,the ,japanese   
rice-god associated with the        fox4
      #ifd ,w4 ,mannhardt1              

,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #aji    
note #b4      #ife ,l4 ,pineau1         
,folk-lore du ,poitou 7,paris1 #ahib71  
pp4 #ejj sq4      #iff ,w4 ,mannhardt1  
,mythologische ,forschungen1 pp4 #aji   
sq41 note #b4      #ifg ,j4 ,f4 ,l4     
,woeste1 ,vlksberlieferungen in der     
,grafschaft ,mark        7,iserlohn1    
#ahdh71 p4 #bg2 ,w4 ,mannhardt1         
,mythologische ,forschungen1        p4  
#aaj note4      #ifh ,lafcadio ,hearn1  
,glimpses of ,unfamiliar ,japan         
7,london1 #ahid71 ii4        #cab sqq42 
,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 ,shinto 7,london1       
#aije71 pp4 #afb sq4 ,at        the     
festival of the ,roman corn-goddess     
,ceres1 celebrated on the               
nineteenth of ,april1 foxes were allowed
 to run about with burning              
torches tied to their tails1 and the    
custom was explained as a               
punishment inflicted on foxes because a 
fox had once in this way        burned  
down the crops 7,ovid1 ,fasti1 iv4 #fgi 
sqq474 ,samson is        said to have   

burned the crops of the ,philistines in 
a similar        fashion 7,judges xv4 #d
 sq474 ,whether the custom and the      
tradition        are connected with the 
idea of the fox as an embodiment of the 
corn-spirit is doubtful4 ,compare ,w4   
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische              
,forschungen1 pp4 #ajh sq42 ,w4 ,warde  
,fowler1 ,roman ,festivals of        the
 ,period of the ,republic 7,london1     
#ahii71 pp4 #gg-gi4     ,m#beg ,the     
corn-spirit as a boar rushing through   
the corn4 ,the corn-spirit        as a  
boar or sow at reaping4 ,the corn-spirit
 as a sow at threshing4      #ifi ,a4   
,witzschel1 ,sagen1 ,sitten und         
,gebruche aus ,thringen 7,vienna1       
#ahgh71 p4 #bac1  #d4 ,so at ,klepzig1  
in ,anhalt 7,zeitschrift des            
,vereins fr ,volkskunde1 vii4 7#ahig7 p4
 #aej74      #igj ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1   
8,osiliana10 ,verhandlungen der         
gelehrten ,estnischen                   
,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4 ,heft #b 
7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 p4 #ajg2 ,w4          

,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 p4 #ahg4      #iga ,a4 ,birlinger1 ,aus
 ,schwaben 7,wiesbaden1 #ahgd71 ii4     
#cbh4      #igb ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag   
zur deutschen ,mythologie 7,munich1     
#ahdh-ahee71        ii4 pp4 #bbc1 #bbd1 
#dag1 #dai4      #igc ,w4 ,mannhardt1   
,mythologische ,forschungen1 p4 #aab4   
#igd ,e4 ,l4 ,meyer1 ,badisches         
,volksleben 7,strasburg1 #aijj71 pp4    
#dbh1 #dcf4      #ige ,e4 ,meier1       
,deutsche ,sagen1 ,sitten und ,gebache  
aus ,schwaben        7,stuttgart1       
#aheb71 p4 #dde1  #afb4      #igf ,a4   
,birlinger1 ,volksthmliches aus         
,schwaben 7,freiburg im ,breisgau1      
#ahfa-ahfb71 ii4 p4 #dbe1  #cgi4        
#igg ,f4 ,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen
 ,mythologie1 ii4 pp4 #bba-bbd1         
#dji1 #daj1 #daa1 #dab1 #dac1 #dad1     
#dae1 #dah4     ,m#beh ,the corn-spirit 
as a pig at sowing4      #igh ,w4       
,mannhardt1 ,mythologische ,forschungen1
 pp4 #ahf sq4      #igi ,above1 p4 #bgb2
 compare #bfh4      #ihj ,above1 p4     

#bih4      #iha ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 cit4
 p4 #ahg4      #ihb ,w4 ,mannhardt1 op4 
cit4 pp4 #ahg sq42 ,a4 ,witzschel1      
,sagen1 ,sitten        und ,gebruche aus
 ,thringen1 pp4 #ahi1 #bah2 ,w4 ,kolbe1 
,hessische        ,volks-,sitten und    
,gebruche 7,marburg1 #ahhh71 p4 #ce4    
#ihc ,w4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythologische     
,forschungen1 p4 #ahh2 ,w4 ,r4 ,s4      
,ralston1        ,songs of the ,russian 
,people 7,london1 #ahgb71 p4 #bbj4      
,m#bei ,the corn-spirit embodied in the 
,yule ,boar of ,scandinavia4 ,the ,yule 
straw in ,sweden4      #ihd ,w4         
,mannhardt1 ,antike ,wald- und          
,feldkulte1 pp4 #aig sq42 ,f4           
,panzer1 ,beitrag zur deutschen         
,mythologie1 ii4 #dia2 ,j4 ,jamieson1   
,etymological ,dictionary of the        
,scottish ,language1 ,new ,edition      
7,paisley1 #ahgi-ahhb71 vol4 iii4 pp4   
#bjf sq41 s4v4 8,maiden02 ,arv4         
,aug4 ,afzelius1 ,volkssagen und        
,volkslieder aus ,schwedens lterer und  
neuerer ,zeit1 bersetzt von ,f4 ,h4     

,ungewitter 7,leipsic1 #ahdb71 i4 #i4   
#ihe ,above1 p4 #bge4      #ihf ,l4     
,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden       
7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #afi sq41         
#ahb4 ,on ,christmas night children     
sleep on a bed of the ,yule straw       
7ibid4 p4 #agg74      #ihg ,u4 ,jahn1   
,die deutschen ,opfergebruche 7,breslau1
 #ahhd71 p4 #bae4        ,compare ,the  
,magic ,art and the ,evolution of       
,kings1 ii4 #ag1 #bg sq4      #ihh ,a4  
,a4 ,afzelius1 op4 cit4 i4 #ca4         
#ihi ,a4 ,a4 ,afzelius1 op4 cit4 i4 #i2 
,l4 ,lloyd1 ,peasant ,life in ,sweden1  
pp4 #aha1 #ahe4     ,m#bfj ,the         
,christmas ,boar among the ,esthonians4 
#iij ,j4 ,b4 ,holzmayer1 8,osiliana10   
,verhandlungen der gelehrten ,estnischen
        ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat1 vii4  
,heft #b 7,dorpat1 #ahgb71 pp4 #ee sq4  
#iia ,f4 ,j4 ,wiedemann1 ,aus dem       
inneren und ussern ,leben der ,ehsten   
7,st4        ,petersburg1 #ahgf71 pp4   
#cdd1 #dhe4     ,m#bfa ,sacramental     
character of the harvest-supper4        

#iib ,above1 pp4 #bgg sq41 #bhj1 #bha1  
#bhe1 #bij1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,in regard to   
the        hare1 the substitution of    
brandy for hare's blood is probably     
modern4     ,m#bfb ,parallelism between 
the conceptions of the corn-spirit in   
human and        animal forms4   ,m#bfc 
,the reason why the corn-spirit is      
thought to take the forms of so         
many animals may be that wild creatures 
are commonly penned by the              
advance of the reapers into the last    
patch of standing corn1 which        is 
usually regarded as the last refuge of  
the corn-spirit4      #iic ,w4          
,mannhardt1 ,die ,korndmonen 7,berlin1  
#ahfh71 p4 #a4     ,m#bfd ,importance of
 the ,pleiades in primitive calendars4  
#iid ,r4 ,andree1 8,die ,pleiaden im    
,mythus und in ihrer ,beziehung zum     
,jahresbeginn und ,landbau10 ,globus1   
lxiv4 7#ahic7 pp4 #cfb-cff4     ,m#bfe  
,attention paid to the ,pleiades by the 
,australian aborigines4      #iie ,mr4  
,mc,kellar1 quoted by the ,rev4 ,w4     

,ridley1 8,report on ,australian        
,languages and ,traditions10 ,journal of
 the ,anthropological        ,institute1
 ii4 7#ahgc7 p4 #bgi2 id41 ,kamilaroi   
7,sydney1 #ahge71 p4        #ach4 ,mr4  
,mc,kellar's evidence was given before a
 ,select ,committee of        the       
,legislative ,council of ,victoria in   
#aheh2 from which we may        perhaps 
infer that his statement refers         
especially to the tribes of             
,victoria or at all events of           
south-eastern ,australia4 ,it seems to  
be        a common belief among the     
aborigines of central and south-eastern 
,australia that the ,pleiades are women 
who once lived on earth but             
afterwards went up into the sky4 ,see   
,w4 ,e4 ,stanbridge1 in                 
,transactions of the ,ethnological      
,society of ,london1 ,n4,s4 i4 7#ahfa7  
p4 #cjb2 ,p4 ,beveridge1 8,of the       
,aborigines inhabiting the great        
,lacustrine and ,riverine ,depression of
 the ,lower ,murray10 etc41             

,journal and ,proceedings of the ,royal 
,society of ,new ,south ,wales1         
xvii4 7,sydney1 #ahhd7 p4 #fa2 ,baldwin 
,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1           
,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia  
7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #eff2 id41         
,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia
 7,london1 #aijd71 p4 #fbh2 ,a4 ,w4     
,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east
 ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4       
#dbi sq4 ,some tribes of ,victoria      
believed that the ,pleiades were        
originally a queen and six of her       
attendants1 but that the ,crow          
7,waa7 fell in love with the queen and  
ran away with her1 and that        since
 then the ,pleiades have been only six  
in number4 ,see ,james        ,dawson1  
,australian ,aborigines 7,melbourne1    
,sydney1 and ,adelaide1        #ahha71  
p4 #ajj4      #iif ,j4 ,manning1 8,notes
 on the ,aborigines of ,new ,holland10  
,journal and        ,proceedings of the 
,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1  
xvi4 7,sydney1        #ahhc7 p4 #afh4   

#iig ,james ,dawson1 ,australian        
,aborigines1 p4 #ge4     ,m#bff         
,attention paid to the ,pleiades by the 
,indians of ,paraguay and               
,brazil4      #iih ,m4 ,dobrizhoffer1   
,historia de ,abiponibus 7,vienna1      
#aghd71 ii4 #aah4      #iii ,m4         
,dobrizhoffer1 op4 cit4 ii4 #gg sq41    
#aja-aje4     #ajjj ,pedro de ,angelis1 
,coleccion de ,obras y ,documentes      
relativos a la        ,historia antigua 
y moderna de las ,provincias del ,rio de
 la ,plata        7,buenos ,ayres1      
#ahcf-ahcg71 iv4 #ae4     #ajja ,p4     
,lozano1 ,descripcion chorographico del 
terreno1 rios1 arboles1 y               
animales del ,gran ,chaco 7,cordova1    
#agcc74 p4 #fg4     #ajjb ,w4 ,barbrooke
 ,grubb1 ,an ,unknown ,people in an     
,unknown ,land 7,london1        #aiaa71 
p4 #aci4     #ajjc ,pedro de ,angelis1  
op4 cit4 iv4 #ad4     #ajjd ,th4 ,waitz1
 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 iii4   
7,leipsic1 #ahfb7 p4        #dah1       
referring to ,marcgrav de ,liebstadt1   

,hist4 rerum naturalium        ,brasil4 
7,amsterdam1 #afdh71 viii4 #e and #ab4  
#ajje ,m4 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,historia de   
,abiponibus1 ii4 #ajd4     #ajjf ,th4   
,koch-,grnberg1 ,zwei ,jahre unter den  
,indianern 7,berlin1        #aiji-aiaj71
 ii4 #bjc4     #ajjg ,c4 ,f4 ,phil4 v4  
,martius1 ,zur ,ethnographie ,amerika's1
 zumal        ,brasiliens 7,leipsic1    
#ahfg71 p4 #dda4     #ajjh ,carl        
,teschauer1 ,s4,j41 8,mythen und alte   
,volkssagen aus ,brasilien10            
,anthropos1 i4 7#aijf7 p4 #gcf4         
#ajji ,j4 ,gumilla1 ,histoire ,naturelle
 et ,civile et ,gographique de          
l',orenoque 7,avignon1 #ageh71 iii4 #bed
 sq4     ,m#bfg ,attention paid to the  
,pleiades by the ,indians of ,peru and  
,mexico4     #ajaj ,e4 ,j4 ,payne1      
,history of the ,new ,world called      
,america1 i4 7,oxford1        #ahib7 p4 
#dib4     #ajaa ,p4 ,j4 de ,arriaga1    
,extirpacion de la ,idolatria del ,piru 
7,lima1        #afba71 pp4 #aa1 #bi sq4 
,according to ,arriaga1 the ,peruvian   

name for        the ,pleiades is ,oncoy4
     #ajab ,garcilasso de la ,vega1     
,first ,part of the ,royal ,commentaries
 of the        ,yncas1 translated by    
7,sir7 ,clements ,r4 ,markham 7,london1 
#ahfi-ahga1        ,hakluyt ,society71  
i4 #bge4 ,compare ,j4 de ,acosta1       
,natural and ,moral        ,history of  
the ,indies 7,london1 #ahhj1 ,hakluyt   
,society71 ii4 #cjd4     #ajac ,e4      
,seler1 ,alt-,mexikanische ,studien1 ii4
 7,berlin1 #ahii7 pp4 #aff        sq41  
referring to ,petrus ,martyr1 ,de nuper 
sub ,d4 ,carolo repertis        insulis 
7,basileae1 #aeba71 p4 #ae4     #ajad   
,b4 de ,sahagun1 ,histoire ,gnrale des  
choses de la ,nouvelle ,espagne         
7,paris1 #ahhj71 pp4 #bhh sq41 #dhi     
sqq42 ,a4 de ,herrera1 ,general         
,history of the ,vast ,continent and    
,islands of ,america1 translated by     
,capt4 ,j4 ,stevens 7,london1           
#agbe-agbf71 iii4 #bbb2 ,f4 ,s4         
,clavigero1        ,history of ,mexico1 
translated by ,c4 ,cullen 7,london1     

#ahjg71 i4 #cae        sq42 ,j4 ,g4     
,mller1 ,geschichte der amerikanischen  
,urreligionen        7,ble1 #ahfg71 pp4 
#eai sq42 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,the       
,native ,races of        the ,pacific   
,states of ,north ,america 7,london1    
#ahge-ahgf71 iii4        #cic-cie4      
,m#bfh ,attention paid to the ,pleiades 
by the ,north ,american ,indians4       
#ajae ,jean l',heureux1 8,ethnological  
,notes on the ,astronomical ,customs and
        ,religious ,ideas of the        
,chokitapia or ,blackfeet ,indians10    
,journal of        the ,anthropological 
,institute1 xv4 7#ahhf7 pp4 #cja-cjc4   
#ajaf ,walter ,mc,clintock1 ,the ,old   
,north ,trail 7,london1 #aiaj71 p4 #dij4
     #ajag ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes1 8,the   
,tusayan ,new ,fire ,ceremony10         
,proceedings of        the ,boston      
,society of ,natural ,history1 xxvi4    
7#ahie7 p4 #dec4     ,m#bfi ,attention  
paid to the ,pleiades by the            
,polynesians4     #ajah ,rev4 ,w4       
,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second

 ,edition 7,london1        #ahcb-ahcf71 
i4 #hg4     #ajai ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1  
,myths and ,songs from the ,south       
,pacific 7,london1        #ahgf71 p4    
#dc4     #ajbj ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 op4 
cit4 p4 #cag1 compare p4 #dd4     #ajba 
,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa 7,london1 #ahhd71 p4
 #bgi4     #ajbb ,e4 ,shortland1        
,traditions and ,superstitions of the   
,new ,zealanders1        ,second        
,edition 7,london1 #ahef71 p4 #bai4     
#ajbc ,the ,united ,states ,exploring   
,expedition1 ,ethnography and           
,philology1        by ,horatio ,hale    
7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #agj2 ,e4    
,tregear1        ,maori-,polynesian     
,comparative ,dictionary 7,wellington1  
,n4,z41 #ahia71        p4 #bbf4         
,m#bgj ,attention paid to the ,pleiades 
by the ,melanesians4     #ajbd ,rev4 ,r4
 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians     
7,oxford1 #ahia71 p4 #cdh4 ,in          
the island of ,florida the ,pleiades are
 called togo ni samu1 8the              
company of maidens0 7op4 cit4 p4 #cdi74 

#ajbe ,h4 ,b4 ,guppy1 ,the ,solomon     
,islands and their ,natives 7,london1   
#ahhg71        p4 #ef4     ,m#bga       
,attention paid to the ,pleiades by the 
natives of ,new ,guinea and the         
,indian ,archipelago4     #ajbf ,a4 ,c4 
,haddon1 8,legends from ,torres         
,straits10 ,folk-lore1 i4 7#ahij7       
p4 #aie4 ,we may conjecture that the    
8new yam time0 means the time for       
planting yams4     #ajbg ,r4 ,neuhauss1 
,deutsch ,neu-,guinea 7,berlin1 #aiaa71 
pp4 #aei1 #dca sq4     #ajbh ,a4 ,f4 van
 ,spreeuwenberg1 8,een blik op de       
,minahassa10 ,tijdschrift        voor   
,neerlands ,indi1 ,vierde ,deel         
7,batavia1 #ahde71 p4 #caf2 ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 
,riedel1 8,de landschappen ,holontalo1  
,limoeto1 ,bone1 ,boalemo1 en           
,kattinggola1 of ,andagile10            
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-      
,land- en        ,volkenkunde1 xix4     
7#ahfi7 p4 #adj2 id41 in ,zeitschrift fr
        ,ethnologie1 iii4 7#ahga7 p4    
#djd4     #ajbi ,spenser ,st4 ,john1    

,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1
 ,second        ,edition 7,london1      
#ahfc71 i4 #bad4 ,compare ,h4 ,low1     
,sarawak 7,london1        #ahdh71 p4    
#bea4     #ajcj ,dr4 ,charles ,hose1    
8,various ,modes of computing the ,time 
for ,planting        among the ,races of
 ,borneo10 ,journal of the ,straits     
,branch of the        ,royal ,asiatic   
,society1 ,no4 #db 7,singapore1 #aije71 
pp4 #a sq4        ,compare ,charles     
,brooke1 ,ten ,years in ,sarawak        
7,london1 #ahff71 i4        #ei2 ,rev4  
,j4 ,perham1 8,sea ,dyak ,religion10    
,journal of the ,straits        ,branch 
of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,no4   
#aj 7,singapore1 #ahhc71 p4        #bbi4
     #ajca ,dr4 ,charles ,hose1 op4 cit4
 p4 #d4 ,compare id41 8,the ,natives of 
,borneo10 ,journal of the               
,anthropological ,institute1 xxiii4     
7#ahid7        pp4 #afh sq41 where the  
writer tells us that the ,kayans and    
many        other races in ,borneo sow  
the rice when the ,pleiades appear just 

above the horizon at daybreak1 though   
the ,kayans more usually                
determine the time for sowing by        
observation of the sun4 ,as to the      
,kayan mode of determining the time for 
sowing by the length of        shadow   
cast by an upright pole1 see also ,w4   
,kkenthal1        ,forschungsreise in   
den ,molukken und in ,borneo            
7,frankfort1 #ahif71        pp4 #bib sq4
 ,some ,dyaks employ a species of       
sun-dial for dating the        twelve   
months of the year4 ,see ,h4 ,e4 ,d4    
,engelhaard1 8,aanteekeningen           
betreffende de ,kindjin ,dajaks in het  
,landschap ,baloengan10                 
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-      
,land- en ,volkenkunde1 xxxix4          
7#ahig7 pp4 #dhd-dhf4     #ajcb ,a4 ,w4 
,nieuwenhuis1 ,quer durch ,borneo       
7,leyden1 #aijd-aijg71 i4 #afj4         
#ajcc ,f4 ,k4 ,ginzel1 ,handbuch der    
mathematischen und technischen          
,chronologie1 i4 7,leipsic1 #aijf7 p4   
#dbd4     #ajcd ,r4 ,friederich1        

8,voorloopig ,verslag van het eiland    
,bali10        ,verhandelingen van het  
,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten  
en        ,wetenschappen1 xxiii4 7#ahdi7
 p4 #di4     #ajce ,j4 ,t4              
,nieuwenhuisen en ,h4 ,c4 ,b4 von       
,rosenberg1 8,verslag omtrent het       
eiland ,nias en deszelfs ,bewoners10    
,verhandelingen van het                 
,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten  
en ,wetenschappen1 xxx4                 
7,batavia1 #ahfc7 p4 #aai4     #ajcf ,w4
 ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 ,third 
,edition 7,london1 #ahaa71 p4           
#ga4     #ajcg ,f4 ,k4 ,ginzel1         
,handbuch der mathematischen und        
technischen        ,chronologie1 i4     
7,leipsic1 #aijf7 p4 #dbh4     ,m#bgb   
,attention paid to the ,pleiades by the 
natives of ,africa1 ,greeks1 and        
,romans4     #ajch ,s4 ,krascheninnikow1
 ,beschreibung des ,landes ,kamtschatka 
7,lemgo1        #agff71 p4 #bag4 ,the   
three stars are probably the ,belt4     
#ajci ,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #aaf4      

#ajdj ,rev4 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,light in   
,africa1 ,second ,edition 7,london1     
#ahij71        pp4 #aid sq4 ,compare ,j4
 ,sechefo1 8,the ,twelve ,lunar ,months 
among the        ,basuto10 ,anthropos1  
iv4 7#aiji7 p4 #ica4     #ajda ,g4      
,mc,call ,theal1 ,records of            
,south-,eastern ,africa1 vii4 7#aija7 p4
        #dah4 ,compare ,g4 ,thompson1   
,travels and ,adventures in ,southern   
,africa 7,london1 #ahbg71 ii4 #cei4     
#ajdb ,rev4 ,h4 ,callaway1 ,the         
,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1     
,part iii4        7,london1 etc41       
#ahgj71 p4 #cig4     #ajdc ,r4 ,moffat1 
,missionary ,labours and ,scenes in     
,southern ,africa        7,london1      
#ahdb71 pp4 #ccg sq4     #ajdd ,stephen 
,kay1 ,travels and ,researches in       
,caffraria 7,london1 #ahcc71        p4  
#bgc4     #ajde ,gustav ,fritsch1 ,die  
,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrika's 7,breslau1  
#ahgb74 p4        #cdj4     #ajdf       
,theophilus ,hahn1 ,tsuni-,goam1 the    
,supreme ,being of the ,khoi-,khoi      

7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #dc1 quoting the   
,moravian missionary ,george            
,schmidt1 who was sent out to the ,cape 
of ,good ,hope in #agcg4     #ajdg ,h4  
,s4 ,stannus1 8,notes on some ,tribes of
 ,british ,central ,africa10            
,journal of the ,r4 ,anthropological    
,institute1 xl4 7#aiaj7 p4 #bhi4        
#ajdh ,m4 ,merker1 ,die ,masai 7,berlin1
 #ahid71 pp4 #aee1 #aih4     #ajdi ,may4
     #ajej ,june-,august4     #ajea ,a4 
,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,masai 7,oxford1      
#aije71 p4 #bge1 compare p4 #ccc4       
,the 8season of showers0 seems to be a  
name for the dry season 7,june1         
,july1 ,august71 when rain falls only   
occasionally2 it is thus                
distinguished from the rainy season of  
winter1 which begins after        the   
reappearance of the ,pleiades in        
,september4     #ajeb ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis1  
,the ,masai1 pp4 #bge sq4     #ajec ,a4 
,c4 ,hollis1 ,the ,nandi 7,oxford1      
#aiji71 p4 #ajj4     #ajed ,c4 ,w4      
,hobley1 8,further ,researches into     

,kikuyu and ,kamba ,religious           
,beliefs and ,customs10 ,journal of the 
,royal ,anthropological                 
,institute1 xli4 7#aiaa7 p4 #ddb4       
#ajee ,thomas ,winterbottom1 ,an        
,account of the ,native ,africans in the
        ,neighbourhood of ,sierra ,leone
 7,london1 #ahjc71 p4 #dh4     #ajef    
,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #chc sq41    
#fae sqq4 ,see above1 pp4 #de1          
#dh4     #ajeg ,aratus1 ,phaenomena1    
#bfd-bfg2 ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #abc1
 #abe1        xviii4 #bhj1 8,vergiliae  
privatim attinent ad fructus1 ut quarum 
exortu aestas incipiat1 occasu hiems1   
semenstri spatio intra se        messes 
vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem      
conplexae40 ,compare ,l4        ,ideler1
 ,handbuch der mathematischen und       
technischen ,chronologie                
7,berlin1 #ahbe-ahbf71 i4 #bda sq4      
,pliny dated the rising of the          
,pleiades on the #ajth of ,may and their
 setting on the #aath of                
,november 7,nat4 ,hist4 ii4 #abc1 #abe74

     #ajeh ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xviii4  
#di and #bbc4     ,m#bgc ,the widespread
 association of the ,pleiades with      
agriculture seems to        be based on 
the coincidence of their rising or      
setting with the        commencement of 
the rainy season4     #ajei ,see above1 
p4 #cjg4     #ajfj ,geminus1 ,elementa  
,astronomiae1 xvii4 #aj sqq4 ,if 8the   
sweet        influences of the          
,pleiades0 in the ,authorised ,version  
of the ,english        ,bible were an   
exact translation of the corresponding  
,hebrew words in        ,job xxxviii4   
#ca1 we should naturally explain the    
8sweet influences0        by the belief 
that the autumnal setting of the        
constellation is the        cause of    
rain4 ,but the rendering of the words is
 doubtful2 it is not        even certain
 that the constellation referred to is  
the ,pleiades4 ,see        the          
commentaries of ,a4 ,b4 ,davidson and   
,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,peak on the         
passage4 ,the ,revised ,english ,version

 translates the words in        question
 8the cluster of the ,pleiades40        
,compare ,h4 ,grimme1 ,das              
israelitische ,pfingstfest und der      
,plejadenkult 7,paderborn1 #aijg71      
pp4 #fa sqq4