file which includes the original        
illustration4       ,see #dbjee-;h4htm  
or #dbjee-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu
b_/#dbjee_/pg#dbjee-;images4html7       
or                                      
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#db
jee_/dbjee-;h4zip7         ,images of   
the original pages are available through
       ,internet ,archive4 ,see         
http3_/_/archive4org_/details_/yourmindh
owtouse#jj;atki   ,transcriber's note3  
,the author's use of three asterisks 99 
99 99 to serve as ellipses       has    
been preserved as printed in the        
original publication4                   
,illustration3 ,william ,walker         
,atkinson   ,,your ,,mind ,,and ,,how   
,,to ,,use ,,it  ,a ,manual of          
,practical ,psychology  by  ,,william   
,,walker ,,atkinson     ,it is not      
enough merely to have a sound mind--one 
must also learn how to use it1 if he    
would    become mentally efficient4     
,published by the ,elizabeth ,towne     

,co41 ,holyoke1 ,mass4  ,l4,n4 ,fowler  
,co41 ,london4  ,copyright1 #aiaa4      
,elizabeth ,towne4  ,copyrighted in the 
,united ,states and ,england4           
,contents4     ,,chapter                
,,page         ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,the    
,,mind                     #e           
,,ii4 ,,the ,,mechanism ,,of ,,mental   
,,states      #aa       ,,iii4 ,,the    
,,great ,,nerve ,,centers               
#ag        ,,iv4 ,,consciousness        
#bd         ,v4 ,,attention             
#bi        ,,vi4 ,,perception           
#cf       ,,vii4 ,,memory               
#de      ,,viii4 ,,memory 7continued7   
#ed        ,,ix4 ,,imagination          
#fb         ,x4 ,,the ,,feelings        
#gb        ,,xi4 ,,the ,,emotions       
#gi       ,,xii4 ,,the ,,instinctive    
,,emotions            #hh      ,,xiii4  
,,the ,,passions                        
#if       ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,social         
,,emotions                #ajd          
,,xv4 ,,the ,,religious ,,emotions      
#aaa       ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,sthetic       

,,emotions              #aag            
,,xvii4 ,,the ,,intellectual ,,emotions 
#abe     ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,role ,,of     
,,the ,,emotions           #aca         
,,xix4 ,,the ,,emotions ,,and           
,,happiness         #acf        ,,xx4   
,,the ,,intellect                       
#adc       ,,xxi4 ,,conception          
#aea      ,,xxii4 ,,classes ,,of        
,,concepts                #aeh          
,,xxiii4 ,,judgments                    
#afd      ,,xxiv4 ,,primary ,,laws ,,of 
,,thought            #aga       ,,xxv4  
,,reasoning                             
#agf      ,,xxvi4 ,,inductive           
,,reasoning                #aha         
,,xxvii4 ,,deductive ,,reasoning        
#ahf    ,,xxviii4 ,,fallacious          
,,reasoning               #aic          
,,xxix4 ,,the ,,will                    
#bja       ,,xxx4 ,,will-,,training     
#bac      ,,xxxi4 ,,will-,,tonic        
#bai     ,,chapter ,i4  ,what is the    
,mind8   ,psychology is generally       
considered to be the science of mind1   

although more properly it is the science
 of mental states--thoughts1 feelings1  
and acts of volition4 ,it was formerly  
the custom of writers on the subject of 
psychology to begin by an attempt to    
define and describe the nature of mind1 
before proceeding to a consideration of 
the subject of the various mental spates
 and activities4 ,but more recent       
authorities have rebelled against this  
demand1 and have claimed that it is no  
more reasonable to hold that psychology 
should be held to an explanation of the 
ultimate nature of mind than it is that 
physical science be held to an          
explanation of the ultimate nature of   
matter4 ,the attempt to explain the     
ultimate nature of either is futile--no 
actual necessity exists for explanation 
in either case4 ,physics may explain the
 phenomena of matter1 and psychology the
 phenomena of mind1 without regard to   
the ultimate nature of the substance of 
either4  ,the science of physics has    
progressed steadily during the past     

century1 notwithstanding the fact that  
the theories regarding the ultimate     
nature of matter have been              
revolutionized during that period4 ,the 
facts of the phenomena of matter remain1
 notwithstanding the change of theory   
regarding the nature of matter itself4  
,science demands and holds fast to      
facts1 regarding theories as but working
 hypotheses at the best4 ,some one has  
said that theories are but the bubbles  
with which the grown-up children of     
science amuse themselves4 ,science holds
 several well-supported1 though         
opposing1 theories regarding the nature 
of electricity1 but the facts of the    
phenomena of electricity1 and the       
application thereof1 are agreed upon by 
the disputing theorists4 ,and so it is  
with psychology2 the facts regarding    
mental states are agreed upon1 and      
methods of developing mental powers are 
effectively employed1 without regard to 
whether mind is a product of the brain1 
or the brain merely an organ of the     

mind4 ,the fact that the brain and      
nervous system are employed in the      
phenomena of thought is conceded by all1
 and that is all that is necessary for a
 basis for the science of psychology4   
,disputes regarding the ultimate nature 
of mind are now generally passed over to
 the philosophers and metaphysicians1   
while psychology devotes its entire     
attention to studying the laws of mental
 activities1 and to discovering methods 
of mental development4 ,even philosophy 
is beginning to tire of the eternal why 
and is devoting its attention to the how
 phase of things4 ,the pragmatic spirit 
has invaded the field of philosophy1    
expressing itself in the words of ,prof4
 ,william ,james1 who said3 ,pragmatism 
is the attitude of looking away from    
first things1 principles1 categories1   
supposed necessities2 and of looking    
forward toward last things1 fruits1     
consequences1 facts4 ,modern psychology 
is essentially pragmatic in its         
treatment of the subject of the mind4   

,leaving to metaphysics the old         
arguments and disputes regarding the    
ultimate nature of mind1 it bends all   
its energies upon discovering the laws  
of mental activities and states1 and    
developing methods whereby the mind may 
be trained to perform better and more   
work1 to conserve its energies1 to      
concentrate its forces4 ,to modern      
psychology the mind is something to be  
used1 not merely something about which  
to speculate and theorize4 ,while the   
metaphysicians deplore this tendency1   
the practical people of the world       
rejoice4   ,,mind ,,defined4  ,mind is  
defined as the faculty or power whereby 
thinking creatures1 feel1 think1 and    
will4 ,this definition is inadequate and
 circular in nature1 but this is        
unavoidable1 for mind can be defined    
only in its own terms and only by       
reference to its own processes4 ,mind1  
except in reference to its own          
activities1 cannot be defined or        
conceived4 ,it is known to itself only  

through its activities4 ,mind without   
mental states is a mere abstraction--a  
word without a corresponding mental     
image or concept4 ,sir ,william         
,hamilton expressed the matter as       
clearly as possible1 when he said3 ,what
 we mean by mind is simply that which   
perceives1 thinks1 feels1 wills1 and    
desires4 ,without the perceiving1       
thinking1 feeling1 willing1 and         
desiring1 it is impossible to form a    
clear conception or mental image of     
mind2 deprived of its phenomena it      
becomes the merest abstraction4         
,,think ,,about ,,that ,,which ,,thinks4
  ,perhaps the simplest method of       
conveying the idea of the existence and 
nature of the mind is that attributed to
 a celebrated ,german teacher of        
psychology who was wont to begin his    
course by bidding his students think of 
something1 his desk1 for example4 ,then 
he would say1 ,now think of that which  
thinks about the desk4 ,then1 after a   
pause1 he would add1 ,this thing which  

thinks about the desk1 and about which  
you are now thinking1 is the subject    
matter of our study of psychology4 ,the 
professor could not have said more had  
he lectured for a month4  ,professor    
,gordy has well said on this point3 ,the
 mind must either be that which thinks1 
feels1 and wills1 or it must be the     
thoughts1 feelings1 and acts of will of 
which we are conscious--mental facts1 in
 one word4 ,but what can we know about  
that which thinks1 feels1 and wills1 and
 what can we find out about it8 ,where  
is it8 ,you will probably say1 in the   
brain4 ,but1 if you are speaking        
literally1 if you say that it is in the 
brain1 as a pencil is in the pocket1    
then you must mean that it takes up     
room1 that it occupies space1 and that  
would make it very much like a material 
thing4 ,in truth1 the more carefully you
 consider it1 the more plainly you will 
see what thinking men have known for a  
long time--that we do not know and      
cannot learn anything about the thing   

which thinks1 and feels1 and wills4 ,it 
is beyond the range of human knowledge4 
,the books which define psychology as   
the science of mind have not a word to  
say about that which thinks1 and feels1 
and wills4 ,they are entirely taken up  
with these thoughts and feelings and    
acts of the will1--mental facts1 in a   
word1--trying to tell us what they are1 
and to arrange them in classes1 and tell
 us the circumstances or conditions     
under which they exist4 ,it seems to me 
that it would be better to define       
psychology as the science of the        
experiences1 phenomena1 or facts of the 
mind1 soul1 or self--of mental facts1 in
 a word4  ,in view of the facts of the  
case1 and following the example of the  
best of the modern authorities1 in this 
book we shall leave the consideration of
 the question of the ultimate nature of 
mind to the metaphysicians1 and shall   
confine ourselves to the mental facts1  
the laws governing them1 and the best   
methods of governing and using them in  

the business of life4  ,the             
classification and method of development
 to be followed in this book is as      
follows3--  ,i4 ,the mechanism of mental
 states1 i4e41 the brain1 nervous       
system1 sense organs1 etc4  ,,ii4 ,the  
fact of ,consciousness and its planes4  
,,iii4 ,mental processes or faculties1  
i4e41 7#a7 ,sensation and ,perception2  
7#b7 ,representation1 or ,imagination   
and ,memory2 7#c7 ,feeling or ,emotion2 
7#d7 ,intellect1 or ,reason and         
,understanding2 7#e7 ,will or ,volition4
  ,mental states depend upon the        
physical mechanism for manifestation1   
whatever may be the ultimate nature of  
mind4 ,mental states1 whatever their    
special character1 will be found to fit 
into one of the above five general      
classes of mental activities4           
,,chapter ,,ii4  ,the ,mechanism of     
,mental ,states4   ,the mechanism of    
mental states--the mental machinery by  
means of which we feel1 think1 and      
will--consists of the brain1 nervous    

system1 and the organs of sense4 ,no    
matter what may be the real nature of   
mind1--no matter what may be the theory 
held regarding its activities1--it must 
be admitted that the mind is dependent  
upon this mechanism for the             
manifestation of what we know as mental 
states4 ,wonderful as is the mind1 it is
 seen to be dependent upon this physical
 mechanism for the expression of its    
activities4 ,and this dependence is not 
upon the brain alone1 but also upon the 
entire nervous system4  ,the best       
authorities agree that the higher and   
more complex mental states are but an   
evolution of simple sensation1 and that 
they are dependent upon sensation for   
their raw material of feeling and       
thought4 ,therefore it is proper that we
 begin by a consideration of the        
machinery of sensation4 ,this           
necessitates a previous consideration of
 the nerves4   ,,the ,,nerves4  ,the    
body is traversed by an intricate system
 of nerves1 which has been likened to a 

great telegraph system4 ,the nerves     
transmit sensations from the various    
parts of the body to the great receiving
 office of the brain4 ,they also serve  
to transmit the motor impulses from the 
brain to the various parts of the body1 
which impulses result in motion of      
appropriate parts of the body4 ,there   
are also other nerves with which we have
 no concern in this book1 but which     
perform certain physiological functions1
 such as digestion1 secretion1          
excretion1 and circulation4 ,our chief  
concern1 at this point1 is with the     
sensory nerves4  ,the sensory nerves    
convey the impressions of the outside   
world to the brain4 ,the brain is the   
great central station of the sensory    
nerves1 the latter having countless     
sending stations in all parts of the    
body1 the wires terminating in the skin4
 ,when these nervous terminal stations  
are irritated or excited1 they send to  
the brain messages calling for          
attention4 ,this is true not only of the

 nerves of touch or feeling1 but also of
 those concerned with the respective    
senses of sight1 smell1 taste1 and      
hearing4 ,in fact1 the best authorities 
hold that all the five senses are but an
 evolution of the primary sense of touch
 or feeling4   ,,the ,,sense ,,of       
,,touch4  ,the nerves of the sense of   
touch have their ending in the outer    
covering or skin of the body4 ,they     
report contact with other physical      
objects4 ,by means of these reports we  
are aware not only of contact with the  
outside object1 but also of many facts  
concerning the nature of that object1 as
 for instance1 its degree of hardness1  
roughness1 etc41 and its temperature4   
,some of these nerve ends are very      
sensitive1 as1 for example1 those of the
 tip of the tongue and finger ends1     
while others are comparatively lacking  
in sensitiveness1 as1 for illustration1 
those of the back4 ,certain of these    
sensory nerves confine themselves to    
reporting contact and degrees of        

pressure1 while others concern          
themselves solely with reporting the    
degrees of temperature of the objects   
with which their ends come in contact4  
,some of the latter respond to the      
higher degrees of heat1 while others    
respond only to the lower degrees of    
cold4 ,the nerves of certain parts of   
the body respond more readily and       
distinctly to temperature than do those 
of other parts4 ,to illustrate1 the     
nerves of the cheek are quite responsive
 to heat impressions4   ,,the ,,sense   
,,of ,,sight4  ,the nerves of the sense 
of sight terminate in the complex       
optical apparatus which in popular      
terminology is known as the eye4 ,what  
is known as the retina is a very        
sensitive nervous membrane which lines  
the inner1 back part of the eye1 and in 
which the fibers of the optic nerve     
terminate4 ,the optical instrument of   
the eye conveys the focused light       
vibrations to the nerves of the retina1 
from which the impulse is transmitted to

 the brain4 ,but1 contrary to the       
popular notion1 the nerves of the eye do
 not gauge distances1 nor form          
inferences of any kind2 that is         
distinctly the work of the mind4 ,the   
simple office of the optical nerves     
consists in reporting color and degrees 
of intensity of the light waves4   ,,the
 ,,sense ,,of ,,hearing4  ,the nerves of
 the sense of hearing terminate in the  
inner part of the ear4 ,the tympanum1 or
 ear drum1 receives the sound vibrations
 entering the cavities of the ear1 and1 
intensifying and adapting them1 it      
passes them on to the ends of the       
auditory nerve in the internal ear1     
which conveys the sensation to the      
brain4 ,the auditory nerve reports to   
the brain the degrees of pitch1         
intensity1 quality1 and harmony1        
respectively1 of the sound waves        
reaching the tympanum4 ,as is well      
known1 there are certain vibrations of  
sound which are too low for the auditory
 nerve to register1 and others too high 

for it to record1 both classes1 however1
 capable of being recorded by scientific
 instruments4 ,it is also regarded as   
certain that some of the lower animals  
are conscious of sound vibrations which 
are not registered by the human auditory
 nerves4   ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,smell4  
,the nerves of the sense of smell       
terminate in the mucous membrane of the 
nostrils4 ,in order that these nerves   
report the odor of outside objects1     
actual contact of minute particles of   
the object with the mucous membrane of  
the nostrils is necessary4 ,this is     
possible only by the passage through the
 nostrils of air containing these       
particles2 mere nearness to the nostril 
will not suffice4 ,these particles are  
for the most part composed of tenuous   
gases4 ,certain substances affect the   
olfactory nerves much more than do      
others1 the difference arising from the 
chemical composition of the substance4  
,the olfactory nerves convey the report 
to the brain4   ,,the ,,sense ,,of      

,,taste4  ,the nerves of the sense of   
taste terminate in the tongue1 or rather
 in the tiny cells of the tongue which  
are called taste buds4 ,substances taken
 into the mouth chemically affect these 
tiny cells1 and an impulse is           
transmitted to the gustatory nerves1    
which then report the sensation to the  
brain4 ,the authorities claim that taste
 sensations may be reduced to five      
general classes1 viz43 sweet1 bitter1   
sour1 salty1 and hot4  ,there are       
certain nerve centers having important  
offices in the production and expression
 of mental states1 located in the skull 
and in the spinal column--the brain and 
the spinal cord--which we shall consider
 in the following chapter4     ,,chapter
 ,,iii4  ,the ,great ,nerve ,centers4   
,the great nerve centers which play an  
important part in the production and    
expression of mental states are those of
 the brain and spinal cord1             
respectively4   ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord4  
,the spinal cord is that cord or rope of

 nerve substance which is inclosed in   
the spinal column or backbone4 ,it      
leaves the lower part of the skull and  
extends downward in the interior of the 
spinal column for about eighteen inches4
 ,it is continuous with the brain1      
however1 and it is difficult to         
determine where one begins and the other
 ends4 ,it is composed of a mass of gray
 matter surrounded by a covering of     
white matter4 ,from the spinal cord1    
along its length1 emerge thirty-one     
pairs of spinal nerves which branch out 
to each side of the body and connect    
with the various smaller nerves1        
extending to all parts of the system4   
,the spinal cord is the great central   
cable of the nervous telegraphic system1
 and any injury to or obstruction of it 
cripples or paralyzes those portions of 
the body the nerves of which enter the  
spinal cord below the seat of the injury
 or obstruction4 ,injuries or           
obstructions of this kind not only      
inhibit the sensory reports from the    

affected area1 but also inhibit the     
motor impulses from the brain which are 
intended to move the limbs or parts of  
the body4   ,,the ,,ganglia ,,or ,,tiny 
,,brains4  ,what are known as ganglia1  
or tiny bunches of nerve cells1 are     
found in various parts of the nervous   
system1 including the spinal nerves4    
,these groups of nerve cells are        
sometimes called little brains1 and     
perform quite important offices in the  
mechanism of thought and action4 ,the   
spinal ganglia receive sensory reports1 
and issue motor impulses1 in many cases1
 without troubling the central brain    
regarding the matter4 ,these activities 
are known as reflex nervous action4     
,,reflex ,,action4  ,what is known as   
reflex nervous action is one of the most
 wonderful of the activities of the     
nervous and mental mechanism1 and the   
knowledge thereof usually comes as a    
surprise to the average person1 for he  
is generally under the impression that  
these activities are possible only to   

the central brain4 ,it is a fact that   
not only is the central brain really a  
trinity of three brains1 but that1 in   
addition to these1 every one has a great
 number of little brains distributed    
over his nervous system1 any and all of 
which are capable of receiving sensory  
reports and also of sending forth motor 
impulses4 ,it is quite worth while for  
one to become acquainted with this      
wonderful form of neuro-mental activity4
  ,a cinder enters the eye1 the report  
reaches a ganglion1 a motor impulse is  
sent forth1 and the eyelid closes4 ,the 
same result ensues if an object         
approaches the eye but without actually 
entering it4 ,in either case the person 
is not conscious of the sensation and   
motor impulse until the latter has been 
accomplished4 ,this is reflex action4   
,the instinctive movement of the tickled
 foot is another instance4 ,the jerking 
away of the hand burnt by the lighted   
end of the cigar1 or pricked by the     
point of the pin1 is another instance4  

,the involuntary activities1 and those  
known as unconscious activities1 result 
from reflex action4  ,more than this1 it
 is a fact that many activities         
originally voluntary become what is     
known as acquired reflexes1 or motor    
habits1 by means of certain nervous     
centers acquiring the habit of sending  
forth certain motor impulses in response
 to certain sensory reports4 ,the       
familiar movements of our lives are     
largely performed in this way1 as1 for  
instance1 walking1 using knife and fork1
 operating typewriters1 machines of all 
kinds1 writing1 etc4 ,the squirming of a
 decapitated snake1 the muscular        
movements of a decapitated frog1 and the
 violent struggles1 fluttering1 and     
leaps of the decapitated fowl1 are      
instances of reflex action4 ,medical    
reports indicate that in cases of       
decapitation even man may manifest      
similar reflex action in some cases4    
,thus we may see that we may feel and   
will by means of our little brains as   

well as by the central brain or brains4 
,whatever mind may be1 it is certain    
that in these processes it employs other
 portions of the nervous system than the
 central brain4   ,,the ,,three         
,,brains4  ,what is known as the brain  
of man is really a trinity of three     
brains1 known respectively as 7#a7 the  
medulla oblongata1 7#b7 the cerebellum1 
and 7#c7 the cerebrum4 ,if one wishes to
 limit the mental activity to conscious 
intellectual effort1 then and then only 
is he correct in considering the        
cerebrum or large brain as the brain4   
,the ,medulla ,oblongata4--,the medulla 
oblongata is an enlargement of the      
spinal cord at the base of the brain4   
,its office is that of controlling the  
involuntary activities of the body1 such
 as respiration1 circulation1           
assimilation1 etc4 ,in a broad sense1   
its activities may be said to be of the 
nature of highly developed and complex  
reflex activities4 ,it manifests chiefly
 through the sympathetic nervous system 

which controls the vital functions4 ,it 
does not need to call on the large brain
 in these matters1 ordinarily1 and is   
able to perform its tasks without the   
plane of ordinary consciousness4  ,the  
,cerebellum4--,the cerebellum1 also     
known as the little brain1 lies just    
above the medulla oblongata1 and just   
below the rear portion of the cerebrum  
or great brain4 ,it combines the nature 
of a purely reflex center on the one    
hand1 with that of habit mind on the    
other4 ,in short1 it fills a place      
between the activities of the cerebrum  
and the medulla oblongata1 having some  
of the characteristics of each4 ,it is  
the organ of a number of important      
acquired reflexes1 such as walking1 and 
many other familiar muscular movements1 
which have first been consciously       
acquired and then become habitual4 ,the 
skilled skater1 bicyclist1 typist1 or   
machinist depends upon the cerebellum   
for the ease and certainty with which he
 performs his movements without thinking

 of them4 ,one may be said never to have
 thoroughly acquired a set of muscular  
movements such as we have mentioned1    
until the cerebellum has taken over the 
task and relieved the cerebrum of the   
conscious effort4 ,one's technique is   
never perfected until the cerebellum    
assumes control and direction of the    
necessary movements and the impulses are
 sent forth from below the plane of     
ordinary consciousness4  ,the           
,cerebrum4--,the cerebrum1 or great     
brain 7which is regarded as the brain by
 the average person71 is situated in the
 upper portion of the skull1 and        
occupies by far the larger portion of   
the cavity of the skull4 ,it is divided 
into two great divisions or hemispheres4
 ,the best of the modern authorities are
 agreed that the cerebrum has zones or  
areas of specialized functioning1 some  
of which receive the sensory reports of 
the nerves and organs of sense1 while   
others send forth the motor impulses    
which result in voluntary physical      

action4 ,many of these areas or zones   
have been located by science1 while     
others remain as yet unlocated4 ,the    
probability is that in time science will
 succeed in correctly locating the area 
or zone of each and every class of      
sensation and motor impulse4   ,,the    
,,cortex4  ,the area of thought1 memory1
 and imagination has not been clearly   
located1 except that these mental states
 are believed to have their seat in the 
cortex or outer thin rind of gray brain 
matter which envelopes and covers the   
mass of brain substance4 ,it is1        
moreover1 considered probable that the  
higher processes of reasoning are       
performed in or by the cortex of the    
frontal lobes4 ,the cortex of a person  
of average intelligence1 if spread out  
on a flat surface1 measures about four  
square feet4 ,the higher the degree of  
intelligence possessed by a lower animal
 or human being1 as a rule1 the deeper  
and more numerous are the folds or      
convolutions of the cortex1 and the     

finer its structure4 ,it may be stated  
as a general rule1 with but very few    
exceptions1 that the higher the degree  
of intelligence in a lower animal or    
human being1 the greater is the area of 
its cortex in proportion to the size of 
the brain4 ,the cortex1 it must be      
remembered1 is folded into deep furrows 
or convolutions1 the brain in shape1    
divisions1 and convolutions resembling  
the inner portion of an ,english walnut4
 ,the interior of the two hemispheres of
 the cerebrum is composed largely of    
connective nerves which doubtless serve 
to produce and maintain the unity of    
function of the mental processes4       
,while physiological psychology has     
performed great work in discovering     
brain-centers and explaining much of the
 mechanism of mental processes1 it has  
but touched the most elementary and     
simple of the mental processes4 ,the    
higher processes have so far defied     
analysis or explanation in the terms of 
physiology4     ,,chapter ,,iv4         

,consciousness4   ,the fact of          
consciousness is the great mystery of   
psychology4 ,it is difficult even to    
define the term1 although every person  
of average intelligence understands what
 is sought to be conveyed by it4        
,webster defines it as knowledge of     
one's own existence1 sensations1 mental 
operations1 etc42 immediate knowledge or
 perception of any object1 state1 or    
sensation2 being aware2 being sensible  
of4 ,another authority defines the term 
as the state of being aware of one's    
sensations2 the power1 faculty1 or      
mental state of being aware of one's own
 existence1 condition at the moment1    
thoughts1 feelings1 and actions4        
,halleck's definition is3 ,that         
indefinable characteristic of mental    
states which causes us to be aware of   
them4  ,it will be seen that the idea of
 awareness is the essence of the idea of
 consciousness4 ,but1 at the last1 we   
are compelled to acknowledge that it is 
impossible to closely define            

consciousness1 for it is something so   
entirely unique and different from      
anything else that we have no other     
terms at all synonymous to it4 ,we can  
define it only in its own terms1 as will
 be seen by reference to the definitions
 above given4 ,and it is equally        
impossible to clearly account for its   
appearance and being4 ,huxley has well  
said3 ,how it is that anything so       
remarkable as a state of consciousness  
comes about by the result of irritating 
nervous tissue1 is just as unaccountable
 as the appearance of the jinnee when   
,aladdin rubbed his lamp4 ,all that we  
can ever know regarding the nature of   
consciousness must be learned from      
turning the consciousness in ourselves  
back upon itself--by focusing           
consciousness upon its own mental       
operations by means of introspection4   
,by turning inward the conscious gaze we
 may perceive the flow of the stream of 
thought from its rise from the          
subconscious regions of the mind to its 

final disappearance in the same region4 
,it is a common error to suppose that we
 are directly conscious of objects      
outside of ourselves4 ,this is          
impossible1 for there is no direct      
knowledge of such outside objects4 ,we  
are conscious merely of our sensations  
of1 or mental images of1 the outside    
objects4 ,all that it is possible for us
 to be directly conscious of are our own
 mental experiences or states4 ,we      
cannot be directly conscious of anything
 outside of our own minds4 ,we are not  
directly conscious of the tree which we 
see2 we are directly conscious merely of
 the sensation of the nerves arising    
from the impact of the light waves      
carrying the image of the tree4 ,we are 
not directly conscious of the tree when 
we touch it and perceive its character  
in that way2 we are directly conscious  
merely of the sensation reported by the 
nerves in the finger tips which have    
come in contact with the tree4 ,we are  
directly conscious even of our own      

bodies only in the same way4 ,it is     
necessary for the mind to experience    
that of which it may become conscious4  
,we are conscious only of 7#a7 that     
which our mind is experiencing at this  
moment1 or 7#b7 that which it has       
experienced in the past1 and which is   
being re-experienced this moment by the 
process of the memory1 or which is being
 re-combined or re-arranged this moment 
by the imagination4   ,,subconscious    
,,planes4  ,but it must not be thought  
that every mental state or mental fact  
is in the field of consciousness4 ,this 
error has been exploded for many years4 
,the fact is now recognized that the    
field of consciousness is a very narrow 
and limited one1 and that the great     
field of mental activity lies outside of
 its narrow limits4 ,beyond and outside 
of the narrow field of consciousness    
lies the great subconscious storehouse  
of memory in which are stored the       
experiences of the past1 to be drawn    
again into the field of consciousness by

 an effort of the will in the act of    
recollection1 or by association in      
ordinary remembrance4 ,in that great    
region1 also1 the mind manifests many of
 its activities and performs much of its
 work4 ,in that great region are evolved
 the emotions and feelings which play   
such an important part in our lives1 and
 which often manifest a vague disturbing
 unrest long before they rise to the    
plane of consciousness4 ,in that great  
region are produced the ideas1 feelings1
 and conceptions which arise to the     
plane of consciousness and manifest that
 which men call genius4  ,on the        
subconscious plane the imagination does 
much of its work1 and startles its owner
 by presenting him with the accomplished
 result in the field of consciousness4  
,in the subconscious field is performed 
that peculiar process of mental         
mastication1 digestion1 and assimilation
 with which all brain workers are       
familiar1 and which absorbs the raw     
mental material given it1 separates1    

digests1 and assimilates it1 and        
re-presents it to the conscious         
faculties sometime after as a           
transformed substance4 ,it has been     
estimated that at least eighty-five per 
cent4 of our mental activities are      
performed below or outside of the field 
of consciousness4 ,the psychology of    
to-day is paying much attention to this 
formerly neglected great area or areas  
of the mind4 ,the psychology of         
to-morrow will pay still greater        
attention to it4  ,the best of the      
modern authorities agree that in the    
great field of subconscious mentation is
 to be found the explanation of much    
that is unexplainable otherwise4 ,in    
fact1 it is probable that before long   
consciousness will be regarded as a mere
 focusing of attention upon mental      
states1 and the objects of consciousness
 merely as that portion of the contents 
of the mind in the field of mental      
vision created by such focusing4        
,,chapter ,v4  ,attention4   ,intimately

 connected with the object of           
consciousness is that process of the    
mind which we call attention4 ,attention
 is generally defined as the application
 of the mind to a mental state4 ,it is  
often referred to as concentrated       
consciousness1 but others have ventured 
the somewhat daring conjecture that     
consciousness itself is rather the      
result of attention1 instead of the     
latter being an incident of             
consciousness4 ,we shall not attempt to 
discuss this question here1 except to   
state that consciousness depends very   
materially upon the degree of attention 
bestowed upon its object4 ,the          
authorities place great importance upon 
the intelligent direction of the        
attention1 and hold that without this   
the higher forms of knowledge are       
impossible4  ,it is the common belief   
that we feel1 see1 hear1 taste1 or smell
 whenever objects affecting those senses
 come in contact with the organs of     
sense governing them4 ,but this is only 

a partial truth4 ,the real truth is that
 we become conscious of the report of   
these senses only when the attention is 
directed toward the sensation1          
voluntarily or involuntarily4 ,that is  
to say1 that in many cases although the 
sense nerves and organs report a        
disturbance1 the mind does not become   
consciously aware of the report unless  
the attention is directed toward it     
either by an act of will or else by     
reflex action4 ,for instance1 the clock 
may strike loudly1 and yet we may not be
 conscious of the fact1 for we are      
concentrating our attention upon a book2
 or we may eat the choicest food without
 tasting it1 for we are listening       
intently to the conversation of our     
charming neighbor4 ,we may fail to      
perceive some startling occurrence      
happening under our very eyes1 for we   
are buried in deep thought concerning   
something far removed from the present  
scene4 ,there are many cases on record  
showing that one may be so interested in

 speaking1 thinking1 or acting that he  
will not experience pain that would     
otherwise be intolerable4 ,writers have 
forgotten their pain in the concentrated
 interest bestowed upon their work2     
mothers have failed to feel pain when   
their infants required urgent attention2
 orators have been so carried away by   
their own eloquence that they have      
failed to feel the pricking of the pin  
by means of which their friends have    
sought to attract their attention4 ,not 
only perception and feeling depend      
largely upon attention1 but the         
processes of reasoning1 memory1 and even
 of will1 depend upon attention for much
 of their manifestation4  ,psychologists
 divide attention into two general      
classes1 viz43 7#a7 voluntary attention 
and 7#b7 involuntary attention4         
,voluntary attention is attention       
directed by the will to some object of  
our own more or less deliberate         
selection4 ,it requires a distinct      
effort of the will in order to focus the

 attention in this way1 and many persons
 are scarcely aware of its existence1 so
 seldom do they manifest it4 ,voluntary 
attention is the result of training and 
practice1 and marks the man of strong   
will1 concentration1 and character4     
,some authorities go so far as to say   
that much of that which is commonly     
called will power is really but a       
developed form of voluntary attention1  
the man of strong will holding before   
him the one idea which he wishes to     
realize4  ,involuntary attention1 often 
called reflex attention1 is attention   
called forth by a nervous response to   
some sense stimulus4 ,this is the common
 form of attention1 and is but the same 
form which is so strongly manifested by 
children whose attention is caught by   
every new object1 but which cannot be   
held for any length of time by a        
familiar or uninteresting one4  ,it is  
of the utmost importance that one should
 cultivate his power of voluntary       
attention4 ,not only is the will power  

strengthened and developed in this way1 
but every mental faculty is developed by
 reason thereof4 ,the training of the   
voluntary attention is the first step in
 mental development4   ,,training ,,the 
,,attention4  ,that the voluntary       
attention may be deliberately trained   
and developed is a fact which many of   
the world's greatest men have proved for
 themselves4 ,there is only one way to  
train and develop any mental power of   
faculty--and that is by practice and    
use4 ,by practice1 interest may be given
 to objects previously uninteresting1   
and thus the use of the attention       
develops the interest which further     
holds it4 ,interest is the natural road 
over which attention travels easily1 but
 interest itself may be induced by      
concentrated attention4 ,by studying and
 examining an object1 the attention     
brings to light many new and novel      
features regarding the thing1 and these 
produce a new interest which in turn    
attracts further and continued          

attention4  ,there is no royal road to  
the development of voluntary attention4 
,the only true method is work1 practice1
 and use4 ,you must practice on         
uninteresting things1 the primary       
interest being your desire to develop   
the power of voluntary attention4 ,but  
as you begin to attend to the           
uninteresting thing you will become     
interested in the task for its own sake4
 ,take some object and place your mind  
upon it4 ,think of its nature1 where it 
came from1 its use1 its associations1   
its probable future1 of things related  
to it1 etc41 etc4 ,keep the attention   
firmly upon it1 and shut out all outside
 ideas4 ,then1 after a little practice  
of this kind1 lay aside the object for  
the time being1 and take it up again the
 next day1 endeavoring to discover new  
points of interest in it4 ,the main     
thing to be sought is to hold the thing 
in your mind1 and this can be done only 
by discovering features of interest in  
it4 ,the interest-loving attention may  

rebel at this task at first1 and will   
seek to wander from the path into the   
green pastures which are found on each  
side thereof4 ,but you must bring the   
mind back to the task1 again and again4 
,after a time the mind will become      
accustomed to the drill1 and will even  
begin to enjoy it4 ,give it some variety
 by occasionally changing the objects of
 examination4 ,the object need not      
always be something to be looked at4    
,instead1 select some subject in history
 or literature1 and run it down1        
endeavoring to bring to light all the   
facts relating to it that are possible  
to you4 ,anything may be used as the    
subject or object of your inquiry2 but  
what is chosen must be held in the field
 of conscious attention firmly and      
fixedly4 ,the habit once acquired1 you  
will find the practice most fascinating4
 ,you will invent new subjects or       
objects of inquiry1 investigation1 and  
thought1 which in themselves will well  
repay you for your work and time4 ,but  

never lose sight of the main point--the 
development of the power of voluntary   
attention4  ,in studying the methods of 
developing and training the voluntary   
attention1 the student should remember  
that any exercise which develops the    
will1 will result in developing the     
attention2 and1 likewise1 any exercise  
which develops the voluntary attention  
will tend to strengthen the will4 ,the  
will and attention are so closely bound 
together that what affects one also     
influences the other4 ,this fact should 
be borne in mind1 and the exercises and 
practices based upon it4  ,in practicing
 concentration of voluntary attention1  
it should be remembered that            
concentrating consists not only of      
focusing the attention upon a given     
object or subject1 but also of the      
shutting out of impressions from other  
objects or subjects4 ,some authorities  
advise that the student endeavor to     
listen to one voice among many1 or one  
instrument among the many of a band or  

orchestra4 ,others advise the practice  
of concentrating on the reading of a    
book in a room filled by persons engaged
 in conversation1 and similar exercises4
 ,whatever aids in narrowing the circle 
of attention at a given moment tends to 
develop the power of voluntary          
attention4  ,the study of mathematics   
and logic is also held to be an         
excellent practice in concentration of  
voluntary attention1 inasmuch as these  
studies require close concentration and 
attention4 ,attention is also developed 
by any study or practice which demands  
analysis of a whole into its parts1 and 
then the synthesis or building up of a  
whole from its scattered parts4 ,each of
 the senses should play a part in the   
exercises1 and in addition to this the  
mind should be trained to concentrate   
upon some one idea held within          
itself--some mental image or abstract   
idea existing independently of any      
object of immediate sense report4       
,,chapter ,,vi4  ,perception4   ,it is a

 common mistake that we perceive        
everything that is reported to the mind 
by the senses4 ,as a matter of fact we  
perceive but a very small portion of the
 reports of the senses4 ,there are      
thousands of sights reported by our     
eyes1 sounds reported by our ears1      
smells reported by our nostrils1 and    
contacts reported by our nerves of      
touch1 every day of our lives1 but which
 are not perceived or observed by the   
mind4 ,we perceive and observe only when
 the attention1 reflex or voluntary1 is 
directed to the report of the senses1   
and when the mind interprets the report4
 ,while perception depends upon the     
reports of the senses for its raw       
material1 it depends entirely upon the  
application of the mind for its complete
 manifestation4  ,the student usually   
experiences great difficulty in         
distinguishing between sensation and    
perception4 ,a sensation is a simple    
report of the senses1 which is received 
in consciousness4 ,perception is the    

thought arising from the feeling of the 
sensation4 ,perception usually combines 
several sensations into one thought or  
percept4 ,by sensation the mind feels2  
by perception it knows that it feels1   
and recognizes the object causing the   
sensation4 ,sensation merely brings a   
report from outside objects1 while      
perception identifies the report with   
the object which caused it4 ,perception 
interprets the reports of sensation4    
,sensation reports a flash of light from
 above2 perception interprets the light 
as starlight1 or moonlight1 or sunlight1
 or as the flash of a meteor4 ,sensation
 reports a sharp1 pricking1 painful     
contact2 perception interprets it as the
 prick of a pin4 ,sensation reports a   
red spot on a green background2         
perception interprets it as a berry on a
 bush4  ,moreover1 while we may perceive
 a simple single sensation1 our         
perceptions are usually of a group of   
sensations4 ,perception is usually      
employed in grouping sensations and     

identifying them with the object or     
objects causing them4 ,in its           
identification it draws upon whatever   
memory of past experiences the mind may 
possess4 ,memory1 imagination1 feeling1 
and thought are called into play1 to    
some extent1 in every clear perception4 
,the infant has but feeble perception1  
but as it gains experience it begins to 
manifest perceptions and form percepts4 
,sensations resemble the letters of the 
alphabet1 and perception the forming of 
words and sentences from the letters4   
,thus c1 a1 and t symbolize sensations1 
while the word cat1 formed from them1   
symbolizes the perception of the object4
  ,it is held that all knowledge begins 
with sensation2 that the mental history 
of the race or individual begins with   
its first sensation4 ,but1 while this is
 admitted1 it must be remembered that   
sensation simply provides the simple1   
elementary1 raw material of thought4    
,the first process of actual thought1 or
 knowledge1 begins with perception4     

,from our percepts all of our higher    
concepts and ideas are formed4          
,perception depends upon association of 
the sensation with other sensations     
previously experienced2 it is based upon
 experience4 ,the greater the           
experience1 the greater is the          
possibility of perception1 all else     
being equal4  ,when perception begins1  
the mind loses sight of the sensation in
 itself1 for it identifies it as a      
quality of the thing producing it4 ,the 
sensation of light is thought of as a   
quality of the star2 the pricking       
sensation is thought of as a quality of 
the pin or chestnut bur2 the sensation  
of odor is thought of as a quality of   
the rose4 ,in the case of the rose1 the 
several sensations of sight1 touch1 and 
smell1 in their impression of the       
qualities of color1 shape1 softness1 and
 perfume1 are grouped together in the   
percept of the complete object of the   
flower4  ,a percept is that which is    
perceived2 the object of the act of     

perception4 ,the percept1 of course1 is 
a mental state corresponding with its   
outside object4 ,it is a combination of 
several sensations which are regarded as
 the qualities of the outside object1 to
 which are combined the memories of past
 experiences1 ideas1 feelings1 and      
thoughts4 ,a percept1 then1 while the   
simplest form of thought1 is seen to be 
a mental state4 ,the formation of a     
percept consists of three gradual       
stages1 viz43 7#a7 ,the attention forms 
definite conscious sensations from      
indefinite nervous reports2 7#b7 the    
mind interprets these definite conscious
 sensations and attributes them to the  
outside object causing them2 7#c7 the   
related sensations are grouped together1
 their unity perceived1 and they are    
regarded as qualities of the outside    
object4  ,the plain distinction between 
a sensation and a percept may be fixed  
in the mind by remembering the          
following3 ,a sensation is a feeling2 a 
percept is a simple thought identifying 

one or more sensations4 ,a sensation is 
merely the conscious recognition of an  
excitation of a nerve end2 a percept    
results from a distinct mental process  
regarding the sensation4   ,,developing 
,,perception4  ,it is of the utmost     
importance that we develop and train our
 powers of perception4 ,for our         
education depends very materially upon  
our perceptive power4 ,what matters it  
to us if the outside world be filled    
with manifold objects1 if we do not     
perceive them to exist8 ,upon perception
 depends the material of our mental     
world4 ,many persons go through the     
world without perceiving even the most  
obvious facts4 ,their eyes and ears are 
perfect instruments1 their nerves convey
 accurate reports1 but the perceptive   
faculties of the mind fail to observe   
and interpret the report of the senses4 
,they see and hear distinctly1 but the  
reports of the senses are not observed  
or noted by them2 they mean nothing to  
them4 ,one may see many things1 and yet 

observe but few4 ,it is not upon what we
 see or hear that our stock of knowledge
 depends1 so much as it does upon what  
we perceive1 notice1 or observe4  ,not  
only is one's stock of practical        
knowledge largely based upon developed  
perception1 but one's success also      
depends materially upon the same        
faculties4 ,in business and professional
 life the successful man is usually he  
who has developed perceptive powers2 he 
who has learned to perceive1 observe1   
and note4 ,the man who perceives and    
takes mental notes of what occurs in his
 world is the man who is apt to know    
things when such knowledge is needed4   
,in this age of book education we find  
that the young people are not nearly so 
observant as are those children who had 
to depend upon the powers of perception 
for their knowledge4 ,the young ,arab or
 ,indian will observe more in an hour   
than the civilized child will in a day4 
,to live in a world of books tends1 in  
many cases1 to weaken the powers of     

observation and perception4  ,perception
 may be developed by practice4 ,begin by
 taking notice of the things seen and   
heard in your usual walks4 ,keep wide   
open the eyes of the mind4 ,notice the  
faces of people1 their walk1 their      
characteristics4 ,look for interesting  
and odd things1 and you will see them4  
,do not go through life in a daydream1  
but keep a sharp lookout for things of  
interest and value4 ,the most familiar  
things will repay you for the time and  
work of examining them in detail1 and   
the practice gained by such tasks will  
prove valuable in your development of   
perception4  ,an authority remarks that 
very few persons1 even those living in  
the country1 know whether a cow's ears  
are above1 below1 behind1 or in front of
 her horns2 nor whether cats descend    
trees head first or tail first4 ,very   
few persons can distinguish between the 
leaves of the various kinds of familiar 
trees in their neighborhood4            
,comparatively few persons are able to  

describe the house in which they live1  
at least beyond the most general        
features--the details are unknown4      
,houdin1 the ,french conjurer1 was able 
to pass by a shop window and perceive   
every article in it1 and then repeat    
what he had seen4 ,but he acquired this 
skill only by constant and gradual      
practice4 ,he himself decried his skill 
and claimed that it was as nothing      
compared to that of the fashionable     
woman who can pass another woman on the 
street and take in her entire attire1   
from head to foot1 at one glance1 and be
 able to describe not only the fashion  
and quality of the stuffs1 but also say 
if the lace be real or only machine     
made4 ,a former president of ,yale is   
said to have been able to glance at a   
book and read a quarter of a page at one
 time4  ,any study or occupation which  
requires analysis will develop the power
 of perception4 ,consequently1 if we    
will analyze the things we see1         
resolving them into their parts or      

elements1 we will likewise develop the  
perceptive faculties4 ,it is a good     
exercise to examine some small object   
and endeavor to discover as many        
separate points of perception as        
possible1 noting them on a sheet of     
paper4 ,the most familiar object1 if    
carefully examined1 will yield rich     
returns4  ,if two persons will enter    
into a contest of this kind1 the spirit 
of rivalry and competition will quicken 
the powers of observation4 ,those who   
have had the patience and perseverance  
to systematically practice exercises of 
this kind1 report that they notice a    
steady improvement from the very start4 
,but even if one does not feel inclined 
to practice in this way1 it will be     
found possible to begin to take notice  
of the details of things one sees1 the  
expression of persons' faces1 the       
details of their dress1 their tone of   
voice1 the quality of the goods we      
handle1 and the little things           
especially4 ,perception1 like attention1

 follows interest2 but1 likewise1       
interest may be created in things by    
observing their details1 peculiarities1 
and characteristics4  ,the best         
knowledge gained by one is that         
resulting from his own personal         
perception4 ,there is a nearness and    
trueness about that which one knows in  
this way which is lacking in that which 
he merely believes because he has read  
or heard it4 ,one can make such         
knowledge a part of himself4 ,not only  
is one's knowledge dependent upon what  
he perceives1 but his very character    
also results from the character of his  
percepts4 ,the influence of environment 
is great--and what is environment but   
things perceived about one8 ,it is not  
so much what lies outside of one1 as    
what part of it gets inside of one by   
perception4 ,by directing his attention 
to desirable objects1 and perceiving as 
much of them as is possible1 one really 
builds his own character at will4  ,the 
world needs good perceivers in all the  

walks of life4 ,it finds a shortage of  
them1 and is demanding them loudly1     
being willing to pay a good price for   
their services4 ,the person who can     
voluntarily perceive and observe the    
details of any profession1 business1 or 
trade will go far in that vocation4 ,the
 education of children should take the  
faculty of perception into active       
consideration4 ,the kindergarten has    
taken some steps in this direction1 but 
there is much more to be done4          
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,memory4              
,psychologists class as representative  
mental processes those known as memory  
and imagination1 respectively4 ,the term
 representation is used in psychology to
 indicate the processes of              
re-presentation or presenting again to  
consciousness that which has formerly   
been presented to it but which afterward
 passed from its field4 ,as ,hamilton   
says3 ,the general capability of        
knowledge necessarily requires that1    
besides the power of evoking out of     

unconsciousness one portion of our      
retained knowledge in preference to     
another1 we possess the faculty of      
representing in consciousness what is   
thus evoked4  ,memory is the primary    
representative faculty or power of the  
mind4 ,imagination depends upon memory  
for its material1 as we shall see when  
we consider that faculty4 ,every mental 
process which involves the remembrance1 
recollection1 or representation of a    
sensation1 perception1 mental image1    
thought1 or idea previously experienced 
must depend upon memory for its         
material4 ,memory is the great          
storehouse of the mind in which are     
placed the records of previous mental   
experiences4 ,it is a part of the great 
subconscious field of mental activity1  
and the greater part of its work is     
performed below the plane of            
consciousness4 ,it is only when its     
results are passed into the field of    
consciousness that we are aware of its  
existence4 ,we know memory only by its  

works4 ,of its nature we know but       
little1 although certain of its         
principal laws and principles have been 
discovered4  ,it was formerly customary 
to class memory with the various        
faculties of the mind1 but later        
psychology no longer so considers it4   
,memory is now regarded as a power of   
the general mind1 manifesting in        
connection with every faculty of the    
mind4 ,it is now regarded as belonging  
to the great subconscious field of      
mentation1 and its explanation must be  
sought there4 ,it is utterly            
unexplainable otherwise4  ,the          
importance of memory cannot be          
overestimated4 ,not only does a man's   
character and education depend chiefly  
upon it1 but his very mental being is   
bound up with it4 ,if there were no     
memory1 man would never progress        
mentally beyond the mental state of the 
newborn babe4 ,he would never be able to
 profit by experience4 ,he would never  
be able to form clear perceptions4 ,he  

would never be able to reason or form   
judgments4 ,the processes of thought    
depend for material upon the memory of  
past experiences2 this material lacking1
 there can be no thought4  ,memory has  
two important general functions1 viz43  
7#a7 ,the retention of impressions and  
experiences2 and 7#b7 the reproduction  
of the impressions and experiences so   
retained4  ,it was formerly held that   
the memory retained only a portion of   
the impressions and experiences         
originally noted by it4 ,but the present
 theory is that it retains every        
impression and experience which is noted
 by it4 ,it is true that many of these  
impressions are never reproduced in     
consciousness1 but experiments tend to  
prove1 nevertheless1 that the records   
are still in the memory and that        
appropriate and sufficiently strong     
stimuli will bring them into the field  
of consciousness4 ,the phenomena of     
somnambulism1 dreams1 hysteria1         
delirium1 approach of death1 etc41 show 

that the subconscious mind has an       
immense accumulation of apparently      
forgotten facts1 which unusual stimuli  
will serve to recall4  ,the power of the
 memory to reproduce the retained       
impressions and experiences is variously
 called remembrance1 recollection1 or   
memory4 ,this power varies materially in
 various individuals1 but it is an axiom
 of psychology that the memory of any   
person may be developed and trained by  
practice4 ,the ability to recall depends
 to a great extent upon the clearness   
and depth of the original impression1   
which in turn depends upon the degree of
 attention given to it at the time of   
its occurrence4 ,recollection is also   
greatly aided by the law of association1
 or the principle whereby one mental    
fact is linked to another4 ,the more    
facts to which a given fact is linked1  
the greater the ease by which it is     
recalled or remembered4 ,recollection is
 also greatly assisted by use and       
exercise4 ,like the fingers1 the memory 

cells of the brain become expert and    
efficient by use and exercise1 or stiff 
and inefficient by lack of the same4    
,in addition to the phases of retention 
and reproduction1 there are two         
important phases of memory1 viz43 7#c7  
,recognition of the reproduced          
impression or experience2 and 7#d7      
localization of the impression1 or its  
reference to a more or less definite    
time and place4  ,the recognition of the
 recalled impression is quite important4
 ,it is not enough that the impression  
be retained and recalled4 ,if we are not
 able to recognize the recalled         
impression as having been experienced   
before1 the recollection will be of but 
little use to us in our thought         
processes2 the purposes of thought      
demand that we shall be able to identify
 the recalled impression with the       
original one4 ,recognition is really    
re-cognition--re-knowing4 ,recognition  
is akin to perception4 ,the mind becomes
 conscious of the recalled impression   

just as it becomes conscious of the     
sensation4 ,it then recognizes the      
relation of the recalled impression to  
the original one just as it realizes the
 relation of the sensation to its       
object4  ,the localization of the       
recalled and recognized impression is   
also important4 ,even if we recognize   
the recalled impression1 it will be of  
comparatively little use to us unless we
 are able to locate it as having        
happened yesterday1 last week1 last     
month1 last year1 ten years ago1 or at  
some time in the past2 and as having    
happened in our office1 house1 or in    
such-and-such a place in the street1 or 
in some distant place4 ,without the     
power of localization we should be      
unable to connect and associate the     
remembered fact with the time1 place1   
and persons with which it should be     
placed to be of use and value to us in  
our thought processes4   ,,retention4   
,the retention of a mental impression in
 the memory depends very materially upon

 the clearness and depth of the original
 impression4 ,and this clearness and    
depth1 as we have previously stated1    
depend upon the degree of attention     
bestowed upon the original impression4  
,attention1 then1 is the important      
factor in the forming and recording of  
impressions4 ,the rule is3 ,slight      
attention1 faint record2 marked         
attention1 clear and deep record4 ,to   
fix this fact in the mind1 the student  
may think of the retentive and          
reproductive phases of memory as a      
phonographic record4 ,the receiving     
diaphragm of the phonograph represents  
the sense organs1 and the recording     
needle represents the attention4 ,the   
needle makes the record on the cylinder 
deep or faint according to the condition
 of the needle4 ,a loud sound may be    
recorded but faintly1 if the needle is  
not properly adjusted4 ,and1 further1 it
 must be remembered that the strength of
 the reproduction depends almost        
entirely upon the clearness and depth of

 the original impression on the         
cylinder2 as is the record1 so is the   
reproduction4 ,it will be well for the  
student to carry this symbol of the     
phonograph in his mind2 it will aid him 
in developing his powers of memory4  ,in
 this connection we should remember that
 attention depends largely upon         
interest4 ,therefore we would naturally 
expect to find that we remember         
interesting things far more readily than
 those which lack interest4 ,this       
supposition is borne out in actual      
experience4 ,this accounts for the fact 
that every one remembers a certain class
 of things better than he does others4  
,one remembers faces1 another dates1    
another spoken conversation1 another    
written words1 and so on4 ,it will be   
found1 as a rule1 that each person is   
interested in the class of things which 
he most easily remembers4 ,the artist   
easily remembers faces and details of   
faces1 or scenery and details thereof4  
,the musician easily recalls passages or

 bars of music1 often of a most         
complicated nature4 ,the speculator     
easily recalls the quotations of his    
favorite stocks4 ,the racing man recalls
 without difficulty the odds posted on a
 certain horse on a certain day1 or the 
details of a race which was run many    
years ago4 ,the moral is3 ,arouse and   
induce an interest in the things which  
you wish to remember4 ,this interest may
 be aroused by studying the things in   
question1 as we have suggested in a     
preceding chapter4   ,,visualization    
,,in ,,memory4  ,many of the best       
authorities hold that original          
impressions may be made clear and deep1 
and the process of reproduction         
accordingly rendered more efficient1 by 
the practice of visualizing the thing to
 be remembered4 ,by visualizing is meant
 the formation of a mental image of the 
thing in the imagination4 ,if you wish  
to remember the appearance of anything1 
look at it closely1 with attention1 and 
then turning away from it endeavor to   

reproduce its appearance as a mental    
picture in the mind4 ,if this is done1 a
 particularly clear impression will be  
made in the memory1 and when you recall 
the thing you will find that you will   
also recall the clear mental image of   
it4 ,of course the greater the number of
 details observed and included in the   
original mental image1 the greater the  
remembered detail4   ,,perception ,,in  
,,memory4  ,not only is attention       
necessary in forming clear memory       
records1 but careful perception is also 
important4 ,without clear perception    
there is a lack of detail in the        
retained record1 and the element of     
association is lacking4 ,it is not      
enough to merely remember the thing     
itself2 we should also remember what it 
is1 and all about it4 ,the practice of  
the methods of developing perception1   
given in a preceding lesson1 will tend  
to develop and train the retentive1     
reproductive1 recognitive1 and locative 
powers of the memory4 ,the rule is3 ,the

 greater the degree of perception       
accorded a thing1 the greater the detail
 of the retained impression1 and the    
greater the ease of the recollection4   
,,understanding ,,and ,,memory4         
,another important point in acquiring   
impressions in memory is this3 ,that the
 better the understanding of the subject
 or object1 the clearer the impressions 
regarding it1 and the clearer the       
recollection of it4 ,this fact is proved
 by experiment and experience4 ,a       
subject which will be remembered only   
with difficulty under ordinary          
circumstances will be easily remembered 
if it is fully explained to the person1 
and accompanied by a few familiar       
illustrations or examples4 ,it is very  
difficult to remember a meaningless     
string of words1 while a sentence which 
conveys a clear meaning may be memorized
 easily4 ,if we understand what a thing 
is for1 its uses and employment1 we     
remember it far more easily than if we  
lack this understanding4 ,elbringhaus1  

who conducted a number of experiments   
along this line1 reports that he could  
memorize a stanza of poetry in about one
 tenth the time required to memorize the
 same amount of nonsense syllables4     
,gordy states that he once asked a      
capable student of the ,johns ,hopkins  
,university to give him an account of a 
lecture to which he had just listened4  
,i cannot do it1 replied the student2 it
 was not logical4 ,the rule is3 ,the    
more one knows about a certain thing1   
the more easily is that thing           
remembered4 ,this is a point worth      
noting4     ,,chapter ,,viii4           
,memory--,continued4   ,the subject of  
memory cannot be touched upon           
intelligently without a consideration of
 the ,law of ,association1 one of the   
important psychological principles4     
,,the ,,law ,,of ,,association4  ,what  
is known in psychology as the ,law of   
,association is based on the fact that  
no idea exists in the mind except in    
association with other ideas4 ,this is  

not generally recognized1 and the       
majority of persons will dispute the law
 at first thought4 ,but the existence   
and appearance of ideas in the mind are 
governed by a mental law as invariable  
and constant as the physical law of     
gravitation4 ,every idea has            
associations with other ideas4 ,ideas   
travel in groups1 and one group is      
associated with another group1 and so   
on1 until in the end every idea in one's
 mind is associated directly or         
indirectly with every other idea4       
,theoretically1 at least1 it would be   
possible to begin with one idea in the  
mind of a person1 and then gradually    
unwind his entire stock of ideas like   
the yarn on the ball4 ,our thoughts     
proceed according to this law4 ,we sit  
down in a brown study and proceed from  
one subject to another1 until we are    
unable to remember any connection       
between the first thought and the last4 
,but each step of the reverie was       
connected with the one preceding and the

 one succeeding it4 ,it is interesting  
to trace back these connections4 ,poe   
based one of his celebrated detective   
stories on this law4 ,the reverie may be
 broken into by a sudden impression from
 outside1 and we will then proceed from 
that impression1 connecting it with     
something else already in our           
experience1 and starting a new chain of 
sequence4  ,often we fail to trace the  
associations governing our ideas1 but   
the chain is there nevertheless4 ,one   
may think of a past scene or experience 
without any apparent cause4 ,a little   
thought will show that something seen1  
or a few notes of a song floating to the
 ears1 or the fragrance of a flower1 has
 supplied the connecting link between   
the past and the present4 ,a suggestion 
of mignonette will recall some past     
event in which the perfume played a     
part2 some one's handkerchief1 perhaps1 
carried the same odor4 ,or an old       
familiar tune reminds one of some one1  
something1 or some place in the past4 ,a

 familiar feature in the countenance of 
a passer-by will start one thinking of  
some one else who had that kind of a    
mouth1 that shaped nose1 or that        
expression of the eye--and away he will 
be off in a sequence of remembered      
experiences4 ,often the starting idea1  
or the connecting links1 may appear but 
dimly in consciousness2 but rest assured
 they are always there4 ,in fact1 we    
frequently accept this law1             
unconsciously and without realizing its 
actual existence4 ,for instance1 one    
makes a remark1 and at once we wonder1  
,how did he come to think of that8 and1 
if we are shrewd1 we may discover what  
was in his mind before he spoke4  ,there
 are two general classes of association 
of ideas in memory1 viz43 7#a7          
,association of contiguity1 and 7#b7    
logical association4  ,association of   
contiguity is that form of association  
depending upon the previous association 
in time or space of ideas which have    
been impressed on the mind4 ,for        

instance1 if you met ,mr4 and ,mrs4     
,wetterhorn and were introduced to them 
one after the other1 thereafter you will
 naturally remember ,mr4 ,w4 when you   
think of ,mrs4 ,w41 and vice versa4 ,you
 will naturally remember ,napoleon when 
you think of ,wellington1 or ,benedict  
,arnold when you think of ,major ,andr1 
for the same reason4 ,you will also     
naturally remember b and c when you     
think of a4 ,likewise1 you will think of
 abstract time when you think of        
abstract space1 of thunder when you     
think of lightning1 of colic when you   
recall green apples1 of love making and 
moonlight nights when you think of      
college days4 ,in the same way we       
remember things which occurred just     
before or just after the event in our   
mind at the moment2 of things near in   
space to the thing of which we are      
thinking4  ,logical association depends 
upon the relation of likeness or        
difference between several things       
thought of4 ,things thus associated may 

have never come into the mind at the    
same previous time1 nor are they        
necessarily connected in time and space4
 ,one may think of a book1 and then     
proceed by association to think of      
another book by the same author1 or of  
another author treating of the same     
subject4 ,or he may think of a book     
directly opposed to the first1 the      
relation of distinct difference causing 
the associated idea4 ,logical           
association depends upon inner          
relations1 and not upon the outer       
relations of time and space4 ,this      
innerness of relation between things not
 connected in space or time is          
discovered only by experience and       
education4 ,the educated man realizes   
many points of relationship between     
things that are thought by the          
uneducated man to be totally unrelated4 
,wisdom and knowledge consist largely in
 the recognition of relations between   
things4   ,,association ,,in ,,memory4  
,it follows from a consideration of the 

,law of ,association that when one      
wishes to impress a thing upon the      
memory he should1 as an authority says1 
,multiply associations2 entangle the    
fact you wish to remember in a net of as
 many associations as possible1         
especially those that are logical4      
,hence the advice to place your facts in
 groups and classes in the memory4 ,as  
,blackie says3 ,nothing helps the mind  
so much as order and classification4    
,classes are always few1 individuals    
many2 to know the class well is to know 
what is most essential in the character 
of the individual1 and what burdens the 
memory least to retain4   ,,repetition  
,,in ,,memory4  ,another important      
principle of memory is that the         
impressions acquire depth and clearness 
by repetition4 ,repeat a line of poetry 
once1 and you may remember it2 repeat it
 again1 and your chances of remembering 
it are greatly increased2 repeat it a   
sufficient number of times1 and you     
cannot escape remembering it4 ,the      

illustration of the phonograph record   
will help you to understand the reason  
of this4 ,the rule is3 ,constant        
repetition deepens memory impressions2  
frequent reviewing and recalling what   
has been memorized tends to keep the    
records clear and clean1 beside         
deepening the impression at each review4
   ,,general ,,rules ,,of ,,memory4     
,the following general rules will be of 
service to the student who wishes to    
develop his memory3--   ,making         
,impressions4    7#a7 ,bestow attention4
   7#b7 ,cultivate interest4   7#c7     
,manifest perception4   7#d7 ,cultivate 
understanding4   7#e7 ,form             
associations4   7#f7 ,repeat and review4
   ,recalling ,impressions4  7#a7       
,endeavor to get hold of the loose end  
of association1 and then unwind your    
memory ball of yarn4  7#b7 ,when you    
recall an impression1 send it back with 
energy to deepen the impression1 and    
attach it to as many new associations as
 possible4  7#c7 ,practice a little     

memorizing and recalling each day1 if   
only a line of verse4 ,the memory       
improves by practice1 and deteriorates  
by neglect and disuse4  7#d7 ,demand    
good service of your memory1 and it will
 learn to respond4 ,learn to trust it1  
and it will rise to the occasion4 ,how  
can you expect your memory to give good 
service when you continually abuse it   
and tell every one of the wretched      
memory ,i have2 ,i can never remember   
anything8 ,your memory is very apt to   
accept your statements as truth2 our    
mental faculties have an annoying habit 
of taking us at our word in these       
matters4 ,tell your memory what you     
expect it to do2 then trust it and      
refrain from abusing it and giving it a 
bad name4   ,,final ,,advice4  ,finally1
 remember this rule3 ,you get out of    
your memory only that which you place in
 it4 ,place in it good1 clear1 deep     
impressions1 and it will reproduce good1
 clear1 strong recollections4 ,think of 
your memory as a phonographic record1   

and take care that you place the right  
kind of impressions upon it4 ,in memory 
you reap that which you have sown4 ,you 
must give to the memory before you can  
receive from it4 ,of one thing you may  
rest assured1 namely1 that unless you   
take sufficient interest in the things  
to be remembered1 you will find that the
 memory will not take sufficient        
interest in them to remember them4      
,memory demands interest before it will 
take interest in the task4 ,it demands  
attention before it will give attention4
 ,it demands understanding before it    
will give understanding4 ,it demands    
association before it will respond to   
association4 ,it demands repetition     
before it will repeat4 ,the memory is a 
splendid instrument1 but it stands on   
its dignity and asserts its rights4 ,it 
belongs to the old dispensation--it     
demands compensation and believes in    
giving only in equal measure to what it 
receives4 ,our advice is to get         
acquainted with your memory1 and make   

friends with it4 ,treat it well and it  
will serve you well4 ,but neglect it1   
and it will turn its back on you4       
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,imagination4   ,the   
imagination belongs to the general class
 of mental processes called the         
representative faculties1 by which is   
meant the processes in which there are  
re-presented1 or presented again1 to    
consciousness impressions previously    
presented to it4  ,as we have indicated 
elsewhere1 the imagination is dependent 
upon memory for its materials--its      
records of previous impressions4 ,but   
imagination is more than mere memory or 
recollection of these previously        
experienced and recorded impressions4   
,there is1 in addition to the           
re-presentation and recollection1 a     
process of arranging the recalled       
impressions into new forms and new      
combinations4 ,the imagination not only 
gathers together the old impressions1   
but also creates new combinations and   
forms from the material so gathered4    

,psychology gives us many hairsplitting 
definitions and distinctions between    
simple reproductive imagination and     
memory1 but these distinctions are      
technical and as a rule perplexing to   
the average student4 ,in truth1 there is
 very little1 if any1 difference between
 simple reproductive imagination and    
memory1 although when the imagination   
indulges in constructive activity a new 
feature enters into the process which is
 absent in pure memory operations4 ,in  
simple reproductive imagination there is
 simply the formation of the mental     
image of some previous experience--the  
reproduction of a previous mental image4
 ,this differs very little from memory1 
except that the recalled image is       
clearer and stronger4 ,in the same way  
in ordinary memory1 in the manifestation
 of recollection1 there is often the    
same clear1 strong mental image that is 
produced in reproductive imagination4   
,the two mental processes blend into    
each other so closely that it is        

practically impossible to draw the line 
between them1 in spite of the technical 
differences urged by the psychologists4 
,of course the mere remembrance of a    
person who presents himself to one is   
nearer to pure memory than to           
imagination1 for the process is that of 
recognition4 ,but the memory or         
remembrance of the same person when he  
is absent from sight is practically that
 of reproductive imagination4 ,memory1  
in its stage of recognition1 exists in  
the child mind before reproductive      
imagination is manifested4 ,the latter1 
therefore1 is regarded as a higher      
mental process4  ,but still higher in   
the scale is that which is known as     
constructive imagination4 ,this form of 
imagination appears at a later period of
 child mentation1 and is regarded as a  
later evolution of mental processes of  
the race4 ,gordy makes the following    
distinction between the two phases of   
imagination3 ,the difference between    
reproductive imagination and            

constructive imagination is that the    
images resulting from reproductive      
imagination are copies of past          
experience1 while those resulting from  
constructive imagination are not4 99 99 
99 ,to learn whether any particular     
image1 or combination of images1 is the 
product of reproductive or constructive 
imagination1 all we have to do is to    
learn whether or not it is a copy of a  
past experience4 ,our memories1 of      
course1 are defective1 and we may be    
uncertain on that account2 but apart    
from that1 we need be in no doubt       
whatever4  ,many persons hearing for the
 first time the statement of            
psychologists that the imaginative      
faculties can re-present and re-produce 
or re-combine only the images which have
 previously been impressed upon the     
mind1 are apt to object that they can1  
and frequently do1 image things which   
they have not previously experienced4   
,but can they and do they8 ,is it not   
true that what they believe to be       

original creations of the imagination   
are merely new combinations of original 
impressions8 ,for instance1 no one ever 
saw a unicorn1 and yet some one         
originally imagined its form4 ,but a    
little thought will show that the image 
of the unicorn is merely that of an     
animal having the head1 neck1 and body  
of a horse1 with the beard of a goat1   
the legs of a buck1 the tail of a lion1 
and a long1 tapering horn1 spirally     
twisted1 in the middle of the forehead4 
,each of the several parts of the       
unicorn exists in some living animal1   
although the unicorn1 composed of all of
 these parts1 is non-existent outside of
 fable4 ,in the same way the centaur is 
composed of the body1 legs1 and tail of 
the horse and the trunk1 head1 and arms 
of a man4 ,the satyr has the head1 body1
 and arms of a man1 with the horns1     
legs1 and hoofs of a goat4 ,the mermaid 
has the head1 arms1 and trunk of a      
woman1 joined at the waist to the body  
and tail of a fish4 ,the mythological   

devil has the head1 body1 and arms of a 
man1 with the horns1 legs1 and cloven   
foot of the lower animal1 and a peculiar
 tail composed of that of some animal   
but tipped with a spearhead4 ,each of   
these characteristics is composed of    
familiar images of experience4 ,the     
imagination may occupy itself for a     
lifetime turning out impossible animals 
of this kind1 but every part thereof    
will be found to correspond to something
 existent in nature1 and experienced by 
the mind of the person creating the     
strange beast4  ,in the same way the    
imagination may picture a familiar      
person or thing acting in an            
unaccustomed manner1 the latter having  
no basis in fact so far as the          
individual person or thing is concerned1
 but being warranted by some experience 
concerning other persons or things4 ,for
 instance1 one may easily form the image
 of a dog swimming under water like a   
fish1 or climbing a tree like a cat4    
,likewise1 one may form a mental image  

of a learned1 bewigged ,high            
,chancellor1 or a venerable ,archbishop 
of ,canterbury1 dressed like a clown1   
standing on his head1 balancing a       
colored football on his feet1 sticking  
his tongue in his cheek and winking at  
the audience4 ,in the same way one may  
imagine a railroad running across a     
barren desert1 or a steep mountain1 upon
 which there is not as yet a rail laid4 
,the bridge across a river may be imaged
 in the same way4 ,in fact1 this is the 
way that everything is mentally created1
 constructed1 or invented--the old      
materials being combined in a new way1  
and arranged in a new fashion4 ,some    
psychologists go so far as to say that  
no mental image of memory is an exact   
reproduction of the original impression2
 that there are always changes due to   
the unconscious operation of the        
constructive imagination4  ,the         
constructive imagination is able to tear
 things to pieces in search for         
material1 as well as to join things     

together in its work of building4 ,the  
importance of the imagination in all the
 processes of intellectual thought is   
great4 ,without imagination man could   
not reason or manifest any intellectual 
process4 ,it is impossible to consider  
the subject of thought without first    
regarding the processes of imagination4 
,and yet it is common to hear persons   
speak of the imagination as if it were a
 faculty of mere fancy1 useless and     
without place in the practical world of 
thought4   ,,developing ,,the           
,,imagination4  ,the imagination is     
capable of development and training4    
,the general rules for development of   
the imagination are practically those   
which we have stated in connection with 
the development of the memory4 ,there is
 the same necessity for plenty of       
material2 for the formation of clear and
 deep impressions and clear-cut mental  
images2 the same necessity for repeated 
impression1 and the frequent use and    
employment of the faculty4 ,the practice

 of visualization1 of course1           
strengthens the power of the imagination
 as it does that of the memory1 the two 
powers being intimately related4 ,the   
imagination may be strengthened and     
trained by deliberately recalling       
previous impressions and then combining 
them into new relations4 ,the materials 
of memory may be torn apart and then    
re-combined and re-grouped4 ,in the same
 way one may enter into the feelings and
 thoughts of other persons by imagining 
one's self in their place and           
endeavoring to act out in imagination   
the life of such persons4 ,in this way  
one may build up a much fuller and      
broader conception of human nature and  
human motives4  ,in this place1 also1 we
 should caution the student against the 
common waste of the powers of the       
imagination1 and the dissipation of its 
powers in idle fancies and daydreams4   
,many persons misuse their imagination  
in this way and not only weaken its     
power for effective work but also waste 

their time and energy4 ,daydreams are   
notoriously unfit for the real1         
practical work of life4   ,,imagination 
,,and ,,ideals4  ,and1 finally1 the     
student should remember that in the     
category of the imaginative powers must 
be placed that phase of mental activity 
which has so much to do with the making 
or marring of one's life--the formation 
of ideals4 ,our ideals are the patterns 
after which we shape our life4          
,according to the nature of our ideals  
is the character of the life we lead4   
,our ideals are the supports of that    
which we call character4  ,it is a      
truth1 old as the race1 and now being   
perceived most clearly by thinkers1 that
 indeed as a man thinketh in his heart  
so is he4 ,the influence of our ideals  
is perceived to affect not only our     
character but also our place and degree 
of success in life4 ,we grow to be that 
of which we have held ideals4 ,if we    
create an ideal1 either of general      
qualities or else these qualities as    

manifested by some person living or     
dead1 and keep that ideal ever before   
us1 we cannot help developing traits and
 qualities corresponding to those of our
 ideal4 ,careful thought will show that 
character depends greatly upon the      
nature of our ideals2 therefore we see  
the effect of the imagination in        
character building4  ,moreover1 our     
imagination has an important bearing on 
our actions4 ,many a man has committed  
an imprudent or immoral act which he    
would not have done had he been         
possessed of an imagination which showed
 him the probable results of the action4
 ,in the same way many men have been    
inspired to great deeds and achievements
 by reason of their imagination         
picturing to them the possible results  
of certain action4 ,the big things in   
all walks of life have been performed by
 men who had sufficient imagination to  
picture the possibilities of certain    
courses or plans4 ,the railroads1       
bridges1 telegraph lines1 cable lines1  

and other works of man are the results  
of the imagination of some men4 ,the    
good fairy godmother always provides a  
vivid and lively imagination among the  
gifts she bestows upon her beloved      
godchildren4 ,well did the old          
philosopher pray to the gods3 ,and1 with
 all1 give unto me a clear and active   
imagination4  ,the dramatic values of   
life depend upon the quality of the     
imagination4 ,life without imagination  
is mechanical and dreary4 ,imagination  
may increase the susceptibility to pain1
 but it pays for this by increasing the 
capacity for joy and happiness4 ,the pig
 has but little imagination1--little    
pain and little joy1--but who envies the
 pig8 ,the person with a clear and      
active imagination is in a measure a    
creator of his world1 or at least a     
re-creator4 ,he takes an active part in 
the creative activities of the universe1
 instead of being a mere pawn pushed    
here and there in the game of life4     
,again1 the divine gift of sympathy and 

understanding depends materially upon   
the possession of a good imagination4   
,one can never understand the pain or   
problems of another unless he first can 
imagine himself in the place of the     
other4 ,imagination is at the very heart
 of sympathy4 ,one may be possessed of  
great capacity for feeling1 but owing to
 his lack of imagination may never have 
this feeling called into action4 ,the   
person who would sympathize with others 
must first learn to understand them and 
feel their emotions4 ,this he can do    
only if he has the proper degree of     
imagination4 ,those who reach the heart 
of the people must first be reached by  
the feelings of the people4 ,and this is
 possible only to him whose imagination 
enables him to picture himself in the   
same condition as others1 and thus      
awaken his latent feelings and          
sympathies and understanding4 ,thus it  
is seen that the imagination touches not
 only our intellectual life but also our
 emotional nature4 ,imagination is the  

very life of the soul4     ,,chapter ,x4
  ,the ,feelings4   ,in thinking of the 
mind and its activities we are          
accustomed to the general idea that the 
mental processes are chiefly those of   
intellect1 reason1 thought4 ,but1 as a  
fact1 the greater part of the mental    
activities are those concerned with     
feeling and emotion4 ,the intellect is  
the youngest child of the mind1 and     
while making its presence strenuously   
known in the manner of all youngest     
children so that one is perhaps         
justified in regarding it as the whole  
thing in the family1 nevertheless it    
really plays but a comparatively small  
part in the general work of the mental  
family4 ,the activities of the feeling  
side of life greatly outnumber those of 
the thinking side1 are far stronger in  
their influence and effect1 as a rule1  
and1 in fact1 so color the intellectual 
processes1 unconsciously1 as to         
constitute their distinctive quality    
except in the case of a very few        

advanced thinkers4  ,but there is a     
difference between feeling and emotion1 
as the terms are employed in psychology4
 ,the former is the simple phase1 the   
latter the complex4 ,generally speaking1
 the resemblance or difference is akin  
to that existing between sensation and  
perception1 as explained in a previous  
chapter4 ,beginning with the simple1 in 
order later on to reach the complex1 we 
shall now consider that which is known  
as simple feeling4  ,the term feeling1  
as used in this connection in           
psychology1 has been defined as the     
simple agreeable or disagreeable side of
 any mental state4 ,these agreeable or  
disagreeable sides of mental states are 
quite distinct from the act of knowing1 
which accompanies them4 ,one may        
perceive and thus know that another is  
speaking to him and be fully aware of   
the words being used and of their       
meaning4 ,ordinarily1 and so far as pure
 thought processes are concerned1 this  
would complete the mental state4 ,but we

 must reckon on the feeling side as well
 as on the thinking side of the mental  
state4 ,accordingly we find that the    
knowledge of the words of the other     
person and the meaning thereof results  
in a mental state agreeable or          
disagreeable4 ,in the same way the      
reading of the words of a book1 the     
hearing of a song1 or a sight or scene  
perceived1 may result in a more or less 
strong feeling1 agreeable or            
disagreeable4 ,this sense of agreeable  
or disagreeable consciousness is the    
essential characteristic of what we call
 feeling4  ,it is very difficult to     
explain feeling except in its own terms4
 ,we know very well what we mean1 or    
what another means1 when it is said that
 we or he feels sad1 or has a joyous    
feeling1 or a feeling of interest4 ,and 
yet we shall find it very hard to       
explain the mental state except in terms
 of feeling itself4 ,our knowledge      
depends entirely upon our previous      
experience of the feeling4 ,as an       

authority says3 ,if we have never felt  
pleasure1 pain1 fear1 or sorrow1 a      
quarto volume cannot make us understand 
what such a mental state is4 ,every     
mental state is not distinguished by    
strong feeling4 ,there are certain      
mental states which are concerned       
chiefly with intellectual effort1 and in
 which all trace of feeling seems to be 
absent1 unless1 as some have claimed1   
the feeling of interest or the lack of  
same is a faint form of the feeling of  
pleasure or pain4 ,habit may dull the   
feeling of a mental state until it is   
apparently neutral1 but there is        
generally a faint feeling of like or    
dislike still left4  ,the elementary    
forms of feeling are closely allied with
 those of simple sensation4 ,but        
experiments have revealed that there is 
a distinction in consciousness4 ,it has 
been discovered that one is often       
conscious of the touch of a heated      
object before he is of the feeling or   
pain resulting from it4 ,psychologists  

have pointed out another distinction1   
namely3 ,when we experience a sensation 
we are accustomed to refer it to the    
outside thing which is the object of it1
 as when we touch the heated object2 but
 when we experience a feeling we        
instinctively refer it to ourself1 as   
when the heated object gives us pain4   
,as an authority has said3 ,my feelings 
belong to me2 but my sensations seem to 
belong to the object which caused them4 
,another proof of the difference and    
distinction between sensation and       
feeling is the fact that the same       
sensation will produce different        
feelings in different persons           
experiencing the former1 even at the    
same time4 ,for instance1 the same sight
 will cause one person to feel elated1  
and the other depressed2 the same words 
will produce a feeling of joy in one1   
and a feeling of sorrow in another4 ,the
 same sensation will produce different  
feelings in the same person at different
 times4 ,an authority well says3 ,you   

drop your purse1 and you see it lying on
 the ground as you stoop to pick it up1 
with no feeling either of pleasure or   
pain4 ,but if you see it after you have 
lost it and have hunted for it a long   
time in vain1 you have a pronounced     
feeling of pleasure4  ,there is a vast  
range of degree and kind in feeling4    
,gordy says3 ,all forms of pleasure and 
pain are called feelings4 ,between the  
pleasure which comes from eating a peach
 and that which results from solving a  
difficult problem1 or learning good news
 of a friend1 or thinking of the        
progress of civilization--between the   
pain that results from a cut in the hand
 and that which results from the failure
 of a long-cherished plan or the death  
of a friend--there is a long distance4  
,but the one group are all pleasures2   
the other all pains4 ,and1 whatever the 
source of the pleasure or pain1 it is   
alike feeling4  ,there are many         
different kinds of feelings4 ,some arise
 from sensations of physical comfort or 

discomfort2 others from purely          
physiological conditions2 others from   
the satisfaction of accustomed tastes1  
or the dissatisfaction arising from the 
stimulation of unaccustomed tastes2     
others from the presence or absence of  
comfort2 others from the presence or    
absence of things or persons for whom we
 have an affection or liking4           
,over-indulgence often transforms the   
feeling of pleasure into that of pain2  
and1 likewise1 habit and practice may   
cause us to experience a pleasurable    
feeling from that which formerly        
inspired feeling of an opposite kind4   
,feelings also differ in degree2 that is
 to say1 some things cause us to        
experience pleasurable feelings of a    
greater intensity than do others1 and   
some cause us to experience painful     
feelings of a greater intensity than do 
others4 ,these degrees of intensity     
depend more or less upon the habit or   
experience of the individual4 ,as a     
general rule1 feelings may be classified

 into 7#a7 those arising from physical  
sensations1 and 7#b7 those arising from 
ideas4  ,the feelings depending upon    
physical sensations arise either from   
inherited tendencies and inclinations or
 from acquired habits and experience4   
,it is an axiom of the evolutionary     
school that any physical activity that  
has been a habit of the race1 long      
continued1 becomes an instinctive       
pleasure-giving activity in the         
individual4 ,for instance1 the race for 
many generations was compelled to hunt1 
fish1 travel1 swim1 etc41 in order to   
maintain existence4 ,the result is that 
we1 the descendants1 are apt to find    
pleasure in the same activities as      
sport1 games1 exercise1 etc4 ,many of   
our tendencies and feelings are         
inherited in this way4 ,to these we have
 added many acquired habits of physical 
activity1 which follow the same rule1   
i4e41 that habit and practice impart    
more or less pleasurable feeling4 ,we   
find more pleasure in doing those things

 which we can do easily or quite well   
than in the opposite kind of things4    
,the feelings depending upon ideas may  
also arise from inheritance4 ,many of   
our mental tendencies and inclinations  
have come down to us from the past4     
,there are certain feelings that are    
born in one1 without a doubt2 that is to
 say1 there is a great capacity for such
 feelings which will be transformed into
 manifestation upon the presentation of 
the proper stimulus4 ,other mental      
feelings depend upon our individual past
 experience1 association1 or suggestions
 from others--upon our past environment1
 in fact4 ,the ideals of those around us
 will cause us to experience pleasure or
 pain1 as the case may be1 under certain
 circumstances2 the force of suggestion 
along these lines is very strong indeed4
 ,not only do we experience feelings in 
response to present sensations1 but the 
recollection of some previous experience
 will also arouse feeling4 ,in fact1    
feelings of this kind are closely bound 

up with memory and imagination4 ,persons
 of vivid imagination are apt to feel   
far more than others4 ,they suffer more1
 and enjoy more4 ,our sympathies1 which 
depend largely upon our imaginative     
power1 are the cause of many of our     
feelings of this kind4  ,many of the    
facts which we generally ascribe to     
feeling are really a part of the        
phenomena of emotion1 the latter being  
the more complex phase of feeling4 ,for 
the purposes of this consideration we   
have regarded simple feeling as the raw 
material of emotion1 the relation being 
compared to that existing between       
sensation and perception4 ,in our       
consideration of emotion we shall see   
the fuller manifestation of feeling1 and
 its more complex expressions4          
,,chapter ,,xi4  ,the ,emotions4   ,as  
we have seen in the preceding lessons1  
an emotion is the more complex phase of 
feeling4 ,as a rule an emotion arises   
from a number of feelings4 ,moreover1 it
 is of a higher order of mental         

activity4 ,as we have seen1 a feeling   
may arise either from a physical        
sensation or from an idea4 ,emotion1    
however1 as a rule1 is dependent upon an
 idea for its expression1 and always    
upon an idea for its direction and its  
continuance4 ,feeling1 of course1 is the
 elemental spirit of all emotional      
states1 and1 as an authority has said1  
is the thread upon which the emotional  
states are strung4  ,halleck says3 ,when
 representative ideas appear1 the       
feeling in combination with them        
produces emotion4 ,after the waters of  
the ,missouri combine with another      
stream1 they receive a different name1  
although they flow toward the gulf in as
 great volume as before4 ,suppose we    
liken the feeling due to sensation to   
the ,missouri ,river2 the train of      
representative ideas to the ,mississippi
 before its junction with the ,missouri4
 ,emotion may then be likened to the    
,mississippi after its junction--after  
feeling has combined with representative

 ideas4 ,the emotional stream will not  
be broader and deeper than before4 ,this
 analogy is employed only to make the   
distinction clearer4 ,the student must  
remember that mental powers are never   
actually as distinct as two rivers      
before their union4 99 99 99 ,the       
student must beware of thinking that we 
have done with feeling when we consider 
emotion4 ,just as the waters of the     
,missouri flow on until they reach the  
gulf1 so does feeling run through every 
emotional state4 ,in the above analogy  
the term representative ideas1 of       
course1 means the ideas of memory and   
imagination as explained in previous    
chapters4  ,there is a close relation   
between emotion and the physical        
expression thereof--a peculiar mutual   
action and reaction between the mental  
state and the physical action           
accompanying it4 ,psychologists are     
divided regarding this relation4 ,one   
school holds that the physical          
expression follows and results from the 

mental state4 ,for instance1 we hear or 
see something1 and thereupon experience 
the feeling or emotion of anger4 ,this  
emotional feeling reacts upon the body  
and causes an increased heart beat1 a   
tight closing of the lips1 a frown and  
lowered eyebrows1 and clinched fists4   
,or we may perceive something which     
causes the feeling or emotion of fear1  
which reacts upon the body and produces 
pallor1 raising of the hair1 dropping of
 the jaw1 opening of the eyelids1       
trembling of the legs1 etc4 ,according  
to this school1 and the popular idea1   
the mental state precedes and causes the
 physical expression4  ,but another     
school of psychology1 of which the late 
,prof4 ,william ,james is a leading     
authority1 holds that the physical      
expression precedes and causes the      
mental state4 ,for instance1 in the     
cases above cited1 the perception of the
 anger-causing or fear-causing sight    
first causes a reflex action upon the   
muscles1 according to inherited race    

habits of expression4 ,this muscular    
expression and activity1 in turn1 is    
held to react upon the mind and to cause
 the feeling or emotion of anger or     
fear1 as the case may be4 ,professor    
,james1 in some of his works1 makes a   
forcible argument in support of this    
theory1 and his opinions have influenced
 the scientific thought of the day upon 
this subject4 ,others1 however1 have    
sought to combat his theory by equally  
forcible argument1 and the subject is   
still under lively and spirited         
discussion in psychological circles4    
,without taking sides in the above      
controversy1 many psychologists proceed 
upon the hypothesis that there is a     
mutual action and reaction between      
emotional mental states and the         
appropriate physical expression thereof1
 each in a measure being the cause of   
the other1 and each likewise being the  
effect of the other4 ,for instance1 in  
the cases above cited1 the perception of
 the anger-producing or fear-producing  

sight causes1 almost or quite           
simultaneously1 the emotional mental    
state of anger or fear1 as the case may 
be1 and the physical expression thereof4
 ,then rapidly ensues a series of mental
 and physical reactions4 ,the mental    
state acts upon the physical expression 
and intensifies it4 ,the physical       
expression in turn reacts upon the      
mental state and induces a more intense 
degree of the emotional feeling4 ,and so
 on1 until the mental state and physical
 expression reach their highest point   
and then begin to subside from          
exhaustion of energy4 ,this             
middle-ground conception meets all the  
requirements of the facts1 and is       
probably more nearly correct than either
 extreme theory4  ,darwin in his classic
 work1 ,the ,expression of the ,emotions
 in ,man and ,animals1 has thrown a     
great light on the subject of the       
expression of emotion in physical       
motions4 ,the ,florentine scientist1    
,paolo ,mantegazza1 added to ,darwin's  

work with ideas of his own and countless
 examples drawn from his own experience 
and observation4 ,the work of ,franois  
,delsarte1 the founder of the school of 
expression which bears his name1 is also
 a most valuable addition to the thought
 on this subject4 ,the subject of the   
relation and reaction between emotional 
feeling and physical expression is a    
most fascinating one1 and one in which  
we may expect interesting and valuable  
discoveries during the next twenty      
years4  ,the relation and reaction above
 mentioned are interesting not only from
 the viewpoint of theory but also       
because of their practicable application
 in emotional development and training4 
,it is an established truth of          
psychology that each physical expression
 of an emotional state serves to        
intensify the latter2 it is pouring oil 
on the fire4 ,likewise1 it is equally   
true that the repression of the physical
 expression of an emotion tends to      
restrain and inhibit the emotion itself4

  ,halleck says3 ,if we watch a person  
growing angry1 we shall see the emotion 
increase as he talks loud1 frowns       
deeply1 clinches his fist1 and          
gesticulates wildly4 ,each expression of
 his passion is reflected back upon the 
original anger and adds fuel to the     
fire4 ,if he resolutely inhibits the    
muscular expressions of his anger1 it   
will not attain great intensity1 and it 
will soon die a quiet death4 99 99 99   
,not without reason are those persons   
called cold blooded who habitually      
restrain as far as possible the         
expression of their emotion2 who never  
frown or throw any feeling into their   
tones1 even when a wrong inflicted upon 
some one demands aggressive measures4   
,there is here no wave of bodily        
expression to flow back and augment the 
emotional state4  ,in this connection we
 call your attention to the familiar and
 oft-quoted passage from the works of   
,prof4 ,william ,james3 ,refuse to      
express a passion and it dies4 ,count   

ten before venting your anger and its   
occasion seems ridiculous4 ,whistling to
 keep up courage is no mere figure of   
speech4 ,on the other hand1 sit all day 
in a moping posture1 sigh and reply to  
everything with a dismal voice1 and your
 melancholy lingers4 ,there is no more  
valuable precept in moral education than
 this1 as all who have experience know3 
,if we wish to conquer undesirable      
emotional tendencies in ourselves1 we   
must assiduously1 and in the first      
instance cold-bloodedly1 go through the 
outward movements of those contrary     
dispositions which we prefer to         
cultivate4 ,smooth the brow1 brighten   
the eye1 contract the dorsal rather than
 the ventral aspect of the frame1 and   
speak in a major key1 and your heart    
must be frigid indeed if it does not    
gradually thaw4  ,along the same lines  
,halleck says3 ,actors have frequently  
testified to the fact that emotion will 
arise if they go through the appropriate
 muscular movements4 ,in talking to a   

character on the stage1 if they clinch  
the fists and frown1 they often find    
themselves becoming really angry2 if    
they start with counterfeit laughter1   
they find themselves growing cheerful4  
,a ,german professor says that he cannot
 walk with a schoolgirl's mincing step  
and air without feeling frivolous4  ,the
 wise student will acquire a great      
control over his emotional nature if he 
will re-read and study the above        
statements and quotations until he has  
grasped their spirit and essence4 ,in   
those few lines he is given a philosophy
 of self-control and self-mastery that  
will be worth much to him if he will but
 apply it in practice4 ,patience1       
perseverance1 practice1 and will are    
required1 but the reward is great4 ,even
 to those who have not the persistency  
to apply this truth fully1 there will be
 a partial reward if they will use it to
 the extent of restraining so far as    
possible any undue physical expression  
of undesirable emotional excitement4    

,some writers seem to regard capacity   
for great emotional excitement and      
expression as a mark of a rich and full 
character or noble soul4 ,this is far   
from being true4 ,while it is a fact    
that the cultivation of certain emotions
 tends to create a noble character and a
 full life1 it is equally true that the 
tendency to gush and indulge in         
hysterical or sentimental excesses is a 
mark of an ill-controlled nature and a  
weak1 rather than strong1 character4    
,moreover1 it is a fact that excess in  
emotional excitement and expression     
tends toward the dissipation of the     
finer and nobler feelings which         
otherwise would seek an outlet in actual
 doing and practical action4 ,in the    
language of the old ,scotch engineer in 
the story1 they are like the old        
locomotive which spends sae much steam  
at the whustle that she hae nane left to
 gae by4  ,emotional excitement and     
expression are largely dependent upon   
habit and indulgence1 although there is 

a great difference1 of course1 in the   
emotional nature and tendencies of      
various persons4 ,emotions1 like        
physical actions or intellectual        
processes1 become habitual by           
repetition4 ,and habit renders all      
physical or mental actions easy of      
repetition4 ,each time one manifests    
anger1 the deeper the mental path is    
made1 and the easier it is to travel    
that path the next time4 ,in the same   
way each time that anger is conquered   
and inhibited1 the easier will it be to 
restrain it the next time4 ,in the same 
way desirable habits of emotion and     
expression may be formed4  ,another     
point in the cultivation1 training1 and 
restraint of the emotions is that which 
has to do with the control of the ideas 
which we allow to come into the mind4   
,ideative habits may be formed--are     
formed1 in fact1 by the majority of     
persons4 ,we may cultivate the habit of 
looking on the bright side of things2 of
 looking for the best in those we meet2 

of expecting the best things instead of 
the worst4 ,by resolutely refusing to   
give welcome to ideas calculated to     
arouse certain emotions1 feelings1      
passions1 desires1 sentiments1 or       
similar mental states1 we may do much to
 prevent the arousing of the emotion    
itself4 ,emotions usually are called    
forth by some idea1 and if we shut out  
the idea we may prevent the emotional   
feeling from appearing4 ,in this        
connection the universal rule of        
psychology may be applied3 ,a mental    
state may be inhibited or restrained by 
turning the attention to the opposite   
mental state4  ,the control of the      
attention is really the control of every
 mental state4  ,we may use the will in 
the direction of the control of the     
attention--the development and direction
 of voluntary attention--and thus       
actually control every phase of mental  
activity4 ,the will is nearest to the   
ego1 or central being of man1 and the   
attention is the chief tool and         

instrument of the will4 ,this fact      
cannot be repeated too often4 ,if it is 
impressed upon the mind it will prove to
 be useful and valuable in many         
emergencies of mental life4 ,he who     
controls his attention controls his     
mind1 and in controlling his mind       
controls himself4     ,,chapter ,,xii4  
,the ,instinctive ,emotions4   ,many    
attempts to classify the emotions have  
been made by the psychologists1 but the 
best authorities hold that beyond the   
purpose of ordinary convenience in      
considering the subject any             
classification is scientifically useless
 by reason of its incompleteness4 ,as   
,james cleverly puts it3 ,any           
classification of the emotions is seen  
to be as true and as natural as any     
other1 if it only serves some purpose4  
,the difficulty attending the attempted 
classification arises from the fact that
 every emotion is more or less complex1 
and is made up of various feelings and  
shades of emotional excitement4 ,each   

emotion blends into others4 ,just as a  
few elements of matter may be grouped   
into hundreds of thousands of           
combinations1 so the elements of feeling
 may be grouped into thousands of shades
 of emotion4 ,it is said that the two   
elements of carbon and hydrogen form    
combinations resulting in five thousand 
varieties of material substance1 from   
anthracite to marsh gas1 from black coke
 to colorless naphtha4 ,the same thing  
may be said of the emotional            
combinations formed from two principal  
elements of feeling4 ,moreover1 the     
close distinction between sensation and 
feeling on the one hand1 and between    
feeling and emotion on the other1 serves
 to further complicate the task4  ,for  
the purposes of our consideration1 let  
us divide the emotions into five general
 classes1 as follows3 7#a7 ,instinctive 
emotions1 7#b7 social emotions1 7#c7    
religious emotions1 7#d7 sthetic        
emotions1 7#e7 intellectual emotions4   
,we shall now consider each of the above

 five classes in turn4   ,,the          
,,instinctive ,,emotions4  ,instinct is 
defined as unconscious1 involuntary1 or 
unreasoning prompting to any action1 or 
the natural unreasoning impulse by which
 an animal is guided to the performance 
of any action1 without thought of       
improving the method4 ,an authority     
says3 ,instinct is a natural impulse    
leading animals1 even prior to all      
experience1 to perform certain actions  
tending to the welfare of the individual
 or the perpetuation of the species1    
apparently without understanding the    
object at which they may be supposed to 
aim1 or deliberating as to the best     
methods to employ4 ,in many cases1 as in
 the construction of the cells of the   
bee1 there is a perfection about the    
result which reasoning man could not    
have equaled1 except by an application  
of the higher mathematics to direct the 
operations carried out4 ,mr4 ,darwin    
considers that animals1 in time past as 
now1 have varied in their mental        

qualities1 and that those variations are
 inherited4 ,instincts also vary        
slightly in a state of nature4 ,this    
being so1 natural selection can         
ultimately bring them to a high degree  
of perfection4  ,it was formerly the    
fashion to ascribe instinct in the lower
 animals1 and in man1 to something akin 
to innate ideas implanted in each       
species and thereafter continued by     
inheritance4 ,but the application of the
 idea of evolution to the science of    
psychology has resulted in brushing away
 these old ideas4 ,to-day it holds that 
that which we call instinct is the      
result of gradual development in the    
course of evolution1 the accumulated    
experience of the race being stored away
 in the race memory1 each individual    
adding a little thereto by his acquired 
habits and experiences4 ,psychologists  
now hold that the lower forms of these  
race tendencies are closely akin to     
purely reflex actions1 and the higher   
forms1 which are known as instinctive   

emotions1 are phenomena of the          
subconscious mind resulting from race   
memory and race experience4  ,clodd     
says3 ,instinct is the higher form of   
reflex action4 ,the salmon migrates from
 sea to river2 the bird makes its nest  
or migrates from one zone to another by 
an unvarying route1 even leaving its    
young behind to perish2 the bee builds  
its six-sided cell2 the spider spins its
 web2 the chick breaks its way through  
the shell1 balances itself1 and picks up
 grains of corn2 the newborn babe sucks 
its mother's breast--all in virtue of   
like acts on the part of their          
ancestors1 which1 arising in the needs  
of the creature1 and gradually becoming 
automatic1 have not varied during long  
ages1 the tendency to repeat them being 
transmitted within the germ from which  
insect1 fish1 bird1 and man have        
severally sprung4  ,schneider says3 ,it 
is a fact that men1 especially in       
childhood1 fear to go into a dark       
cavern1 or a gloomy wood4 ,this feeling 

of fear arises1 to be sure1 partly from 
the fact that we easily suspect that    
dangerous beasts may lurk in these      
localities--a suspicion due to stories  
we have heard and read4 ,but1 on the    
other hand1 it is quite sure that this  
fear at a certain perception is also    
directly inherited4 ,children who have  
been carefully guarded from all ghost   
stories are nevertheless terrified and  
cry if led into a dark place1 especially
 if sounds are made there4 ,even an     
adult can easily observe that an        
uncomfortable timidity steals over him  
in a lonely wood at night1 although he  
may have the fixed conviction that not  
the slightest danger is near4 ,this     
feeling of fear occurs in many men even 
in their own houses after dark1 although
 it is much stronger in a dark cavern or
 forest4 ,the fact of such instinctive  
fear is easily explicable when we       
consider that our savage ancestors      
through immemorable generations were    
accustomed to meet with dangerous beasts

 in caverns1 especially bears1 and were 
for the most part attacked by such      
beasts during the night and in the      
woods1 and that thus an inseparable     
association between the perceptions of  
darkness1 caverns1 woods1 and fear took 
place1 and was inherited4  ,james says3 
,nothing is commoner than the remark    
that man differs from lower creatures by
 the almost total absence of instincts1 
and the assumption of their work in him 
by reason4 99 99 99 ,we may confidently 
say that however uncertain man's        
reactions upon his environment may      
sometimes seem in comparison with those 
of the lower mammals1 the uncertainty is
 probably not due to their possession of
 any principles of action which he      
lacks4 ,on the contrary1 man possesses  
all the impulses that they have1 and a  
great many more besides4 99 99 99 ,high 
places cause fear of a peculiarly       
sickening sort1 though here again       
individuals differ4 ,the utterly blind  
instinctive character of the motor      

impulses here is shown by the fact that 
they are almost always entirely         
unreasonable1 but that reason is        
powerless to suppress them4 99 99 99    
,certain ideas of supernatural agency1  
associated with real circumstances1     
produce a peculiar kind of horror4 ,this
 horror is probably explicable as the   
result of a combination of simple       
horrors4 ,to bring the ghostly terror to
 its maximum1 many unusual elements of  
the dreadful must combine1 such as      
loneliness1 darkness1 inexplicable      
sounds1 especially of a dismal          
character1 moving pictures half         
discerned 7or1 if discerned1 of dreadful
 aspect71 and a vertiginous baffling of 
the expectation4 99 99 99 ,in view of   
the fact that cadaveric1 reptilian1 and 
underground horrors play so specific and
 constant a part in many nightmares and 
forms of delirium1 it seems not         
altogether unwise to ask whether these  
forms of dreadful circumstance may not  
at a former period have been more normal

 objects of the environment than now4   
,the evolutionist ought to have no      
difficulty in explaining these terrors1 
and the scenery that provokes them1 as  
relapses into the consciousness of the  
cave men1 a consciousness usually       
overlaid in us by experiences of a more 
recent date4  ,instinctive emotion      
manifests as an impulse arising from the
 dim recesses of the feeling or         
emotional nature--an incentive toward a 
dimly conscious end4 ,it differs from   
the almost purely automatic nature of   
certain forms of reflex process1 for its
 beginning is a feeling arising from the
 subconscious regions1 which strives to 
excite an activity of conscious         
volition4 ,the feeling is from the      
subconscious1 but the activity is       
conscious4 ,the end may not be perceived
 in consciousness1 or at least is but   
dimly perceived1 but the action leading 
to the end is in full consciousness4    
,instinct is seen to have its origin in 
the past experiences of the race1       

transmitted by heredity and preserved in
 the race memory4 ,it has for its object
 the preservation of the individual and 
of the species4 ,its end is often       
something far removed in time from the  
moment1 or the welfare of the species   
rather than that of the individual2 for 
instance1 the caterpillar providing for 
its future states1 or the bird building 
its nest1 or the bees building cells and
 providing honey for their successors1  
for very few bees live to partake of the
 honey which they have gathered and     
stored--they are animated by the spirit 
of the hive4  ,the most elementary forms
 of the instinctive emotions are those  
which have to do with the preservation  
of the individual1 his comfort1 and     
personal physical welfare4 ,this class  
of emotions comprises what are generally
 known as purely selfish feelings1      
having little or no concern for the     
welfare of others4 ,in this class we    
find the emotional feelings which have  
to do with the satisfaction of hunger   

and thirst1 the securing of comfortable 
quarters and warm clothing1 and the     
spirit of combat and strife arising from
 the desire to obtain these4 ,these     
elemental feelings had their birth early
 in the history of life1 and indeed life
 itself depended very materially upon   
them for its preservation and           
continuance4 ,it was necessary for the  
primitive living thing to be selfish4   
,when man appeared1 only those survived 
who manifested these feelings strongly2 
the others were pushed to the wall and  
perished4 ,even in our civilization the 
man below the average in this class of  
feelings will find it difficult to      
survive4     ,,chapter ,,xiii4  ,the    
,passions4   ,arising from the most     
elemental instinctive emotions1 we find 
what may be termed the passions4 ,by the
 term passion is meant those strong     
feelings in which the elemental selfish 
instincts are manifested in relation to 
other persons1 either in the phase of   
attraction or repulsion4 ,in this class 

we find the elementary phases of love1  
and the feelings of hate1 anger1        
jealousy1 revenge1 etc4 ,this class of  
emotions usually manifests violently1 as
 compared with the other emotions4 ,the 
passions generally arise from           
self-preservation1 race preservation and
 reproduction1 self-interest1           
self-aggrandizement1 etc41 and may be   
regarded as a more complex phase of the 
elemental instinctive emotions4 ,the    
elemental instinctive emotions of       
self-preservation and self-comfort cause
 the individual to experience and       
manifest the passional emotions of      
desire for combat1 anger1 hate1 revenge1
 etc41 while the instinctive emotions   
leading to reproduction and continuance 
of the race give rise to the passional  
emotions of sexual love1 jealousy1 etc4 
,the desire to attract the other sex    
increases ambition1 vanity1 love of     
display1 and other feelings4  ,it is    
only when this class of emotions blends 
with the higher emotions that the       

passions become purified and refined4   
,but it must not be forgotten that these
 emotions were very necessary for the   
welfare of the race in the early stage  
of its evolution1 and that they still   
play an active part in human life1 under
 the greater or less restraint imposed  
by civilized society4 ,nor should it be 
forgotten that from these emotions have 
evolved the highest love of one human   
being for another4 ,from instinctive    
sexual love and the racial instinct have
 developed the higher affection of man  
for woman1 and woman for man1 in all    
their beautiful manifestations--and the 
love of the parent for the child1 and   
the love of the child for the parent4   
,the first manifestation of altruism    
arises in the love of the living        
creature for its mate1 and in the love  
of the parents for their offspring4 ,in 
certain forms of life where the         
association of the sexes is merely for  
the moment1 and is not followed by      
protection1 mutual aid1 and             

companionship1 there is found an absence
 of mutual affection of any kind1 the   
only feeling being an elemental         
reproductive instinct bringing the male 
and female together for the moment--an  
almost purely reflex activity4 ,in the  
same way1 in the cases of certain       
animals 7the rattlesnake1 for instance7 
in which the young are able to protect  
themselves from birth1 there is seen a  
total absence of parental affection or  
the return thereof4 ,human love between 
the sexes1 in its higher and lower      
degrees1 is a natural evolution from    
passional emotion of a low order1 due to
 the growth of social1 ethical1 moral1  
and sthetic emotion arising from the    
necessities of the increasing complexity
 and development of human life4  ,the   
simpler forms of passional emotion are  
almost entirely instinctive in their    
manifestation4 ,indeed1 in many cases1  
there appears to be but little more than
 a high form of reflex nervous action4  
,the following words of ,william ,james 

give us an interesting view of this fact
 of life3 ,the cat runs after the mouse1
 runs or shows fight before the dog1    
avoids falling from walls and trees1    
shuns fire and water1 not because he has
 any notion either of life or of death  
or of self-preservation4 ,he acts in    
each case separately and simply because 
he cannot help it2 being so framed that 
when that particular running thing      
called a mouse appears in his field of  
vision1 he must pursue2 that when that  
particular barking and obstreperous     
thing called a dog appears there1 he    
must retire if at a distance1 and       
scratch if close by2 that he must       
withdraw his feet from water1 and his   
face from flame1 etc4 99 99 99 ,now1 why
 do the various animals do what seem to 
us such strange things in the presence  
of such outlandish stimuli8 ,why does   
the hen1 for instance1 submit herself to
 the tedium of incubating such a        
fearfully uninteresting set of objects  
as a nestful of eggs1 unless she have   

some sort of prophetic inkling of the   
result8 ,the only answer is ad hominem4 
,we can only interpret the instinct of  
brutes by what we know of instincts in  
ourselves4 ,why do men always lie down1 
when they can1 on soft beds rather than 
on soft floors8 ,why do they sit around 
a stove on a cold day8 ,why1 in a room1 
do they place themselves1 ninety-nine   
times out of a hundred1 with their faces
 toward its middle rather than to the   
wall8 ,why does the maiden interest the 
youth so much that everything about her 
seems more important and significant    
than anything else in the world8        
,nothing more can be said than that     
these are human ways1 and that every    
creature likes its own ways1 and takes  
to following them as a matter of course4
 ,science may come and consider these   
ways1 and find that most of them are    
useful4 ,but it is not for the sake of  
their utility that they are followed1   
but because at the moment of following  
them we feel that it is the only        

appropriate and natural thing to do4    
,not one man in a million1 when taking  
his dinner1 ever thinks of its utility4 
,he eats because the food tastes good1  
and makes him want more4 ,if you should 
ask him why he wants to eat more of what
 tastes like that1 instead of revering  
you as a philosopher he will probably   
laugh at you for a fool4  ,james        
continues3 ,it takes1 in short1 what    
,berkeley called a mind debauched by    
learning to carry the process of making 
the natural seem strange1 so far as to  
ask the why of any instinctive human    
act4 ,to the metaphysician alone can    
such questions arise as3 ,why do we     
smile when pleased and not scowl8 ,why  
are we unable to talk to a crowd as to a
 single friend8 ,why does a particular  
maiden turn our wits upside down8 ,the  
common man can only say1 ',of course we 
smile1 of course our heart palpitates at
 the sight of the crowd1 of course we   
love the maiden--that beautiful soul    
clad in that perfect form1 so palpably  

and flagrantly made from all eternity to
 be loved6' ,and so1 probably1 does each
 animal feel about the particular things
 it tends to do in the presence of      
particular objects4 ,they1 too1 are a   
priori syntheses4 ,to the lion it is the
 lioness which is made to be loved2 to  
the bear1 the she bear4 ,to the broody  
hen the notion would seem monstrous that
 there should be a creature in the world
 to whom a nestful of eggs was not the  
utterly fascinating1 precious1 and      
never-to-be-too-much-sat-upon object    
which it is to her4 ,thus we may be sure
 that however mysterious some animals'  
instincts may appear to us1 our         
instincts will appear no less mysterious
 to them4 ,and we may conclude that1 to 
the animal which obeys it1 every impulse
 and every step of that instinct shines 
with its own sufficient light1 and seems
 at the moment the only externally right
 and proper thing to do4 ,it may be done
 for its own sake exclusively4  ,one has
 very little need1 as a rule1 to develop

 the passional emotions4 ,instinct has  
taken pretty good care that we shall    
have our share of this class of         
feelings4 ,but there is a need to train1
 restrain1 govern1 and control these    
emotions1 for the conditions which      
brought about their original being have 
changed4 ,our social conventions require
 that we should subordinate these       
passional feelings1 to some extent at   
least4 ,society insists that we must    
restrict our love impulses to certain   
limits and to certain quarters1 and that
 we subdue our anger and hate1 except   
toward the enemies of our land1 the     
disturbers of public peace1 and the     
menacers of the social conventions of   
our time and land4 ,the public welfare  
requires that we inhibit our fighting   
impulses1 except in cases of            
self-defense or war4 ,public policy     
requires that we keep our ambitions     
within reasonable limits1 which limits  
change from time to time1 of course4 ,in
 short1 society has stepped in and      

insisted that man1 as a social being1   
must not only acquire a social          
conscience but must also develop        
sociable emotions and inhibit his       
unsociable ones4 ,the evolution of man's
 nature has caused him unconsciously to 
modify his elemental1 instinctive1      
passional emotions1 and subordinate them
 to the dictates of social1 ethical1    
moral1 and sthetic feelings and ideals1 
and to intellectual considerations4     
,even the original elemental instincts  
of the lower animals have been modified 
by reason of the social requirements of 
the pack1 herd1 or drove1 until the     
modified instinct is now the ruling     
force4  ,the general principles of      
emotional control1 restraint1 and       
mastery1 as given in a preceding        
chapter1 are applicable to the          
particular class of emotions now under  
consideration here4      7#a7 ,by       
refraining from the physical expression1
 one may at least     partially inhibit 
the emotion4      7#b7 ,by refusing to  

create the habit1 one may more easily   
manifest     control4      7#c7 ,by     
refusing to dwell upon the idea or      
mental picture of the     exciting      
object1 one may lessen the stimulus4    
7#d7 ,by cultivating the opposite class 
of emotions1 one may inhibit     any    
class of feeling4      7#e7 ,and1       
finally1 by acquiring a control of the  
attention1 by means     of the will1 one
 has the reins firmly in hand1 and may  
drive or hold     back the steeds of    
passion as he wills4  ,the passions are 
like fiery horses1 useful if well under 
control1 but most dangerous if the      
control is lost4 ,the ego is the driver1
 the will his hands1 attention the      
reins1 habit the bit1 and the passions  
the horses4 ,to drive the chariot of    
life under social conditions1 the ego   
must have strong hands 7will7 to tighten
 or loosen the reins of attention4 ,he  
must also employ a well designed and    
shaped bit of habit4 ,without strong    
hands1 good reins1 and well-adjusted    

bit1 the fiery steeds of passion may    
gain control and1 running away1 dash the
 chariot and its driver over the        
precipice and on to the jagged rocks    
below4     ,,chapter ,,xiv4  ,the       
,social ,emotions4   ,as man became a   
social animal he developed new traits of
 character1 new habits of action1 new   
ideals1 new customs1 and consequently   
new emotions4 ,emotions long entertained
 and long manifested by the race become 
more or less instinctive1 and are passed
 along in the form of either 7a7        
inherited stimulus akin to1 but lesser  
in degree and force than1 the more      
elemental emotions2 or 7b7 of inherited 
tendency to manifest the acquired       
emotional feeling upon the presentation 
of sufficiently strong stimuli4 ,hence  
arises that which we have called the    
social emotions4  ,under the            
classification of the social emotions   
are those acquired tendencies of action 
and feeling of the race which are more  
or less altruistic1 and are concerned   

with the welfare of others and one's    
duties and obligations toward society   
and our fellow men4 ,in this class are  
found the emotions which impel us to    
perform what we consider or feel to be  
our duty toward our neighbors1 and our  
obligations and duty toward the state1  
as expressed in its laws1 the customs of
 men of our country1 or the ideals of   
the community4 ,in another phase it     
manifests as sympathy1 fellow feeling1  
and kindness in general4 ,in its first  
phase we find civic virtue1 law-abiding 
inclination1 honesty1 square dealing1   
and patriotism2 in its second phase we  
find sympathy for others1 charity1      
mutual aid1 the alleviation of poverty  
and suffering1 the erection of asylums  
for orphans and the aged1 hospitals for 
the sick1 and the formation of societies
 for general charitable work4  ,in many 
cases we find the social1 ethical1 and  
moral emotions closely allied with      
religious emotion1 and by many these are
 supposed to be practically identical1  

but there is a vast difference in spite 
of their frequent association4 ,for     
instance1 we find many persons of high  
civic virtue1 of exalted moral ideals1  
and manifesting ethical qualities of the
 most advanced type1 who are lacking in 
the ordinary religious feelings4 ,on the
 other hand1 we too frequently find     
persons professing great religious zeal1
 and apparently experiencing the most   
intense religious emotional feeling1 who
 are deficient in social1 civic1        
ethical1 and moral qualities1 in the    
best sense of these terms4 ,the aim of  
all religion worthy of the name1        
however1 is to encourage ethical and    
moral as well as religious emotions4    
,we must here make the distinction      
between those manifesting the actions   
termed ethical and moral because they   
feel that way1 and those who merely     
comply with the conventional            
requirements because they fear the      
consequences of their violation4 ,the   
first class have the true social1       

ethical1 and moral feelings1 tastes1    
ideals1 and inclinations2 while the     
second manifest merely the elementary   
feelings of self-preservation and       
selfish prudence4 ,the first class are  
good because they feel that way and find
 it natural to be so2 while the others  
are good merely because they have to be 
or be punished by legal penalty or      
public opinion1 loss of prestige1 loss  
of financial support1 etc4  ,the social1
 moral1 and ethical emotions are        
believed to have arisen in the race by  
reason of the association of individuals
 in communities and the rise of the     
necessity for mutual aid and            
forbearance4 ,even many of the species  
of the lower animals have social1 moral1
 or ethical codes of their own1 based on
 the experience of the species or       
family1 infractions of which they punish
 severely4 ,in the same way sympathy and
 the altruistic feelings are supposed to
 have arisen4 ,the community of interest
 and understanding in the tribe1 family1

 or clan brought not only the feeling of
 natural defense and protection but also
 the finer1 inner sympathetic feeling of
 the pains and sufferings of their      
associates4 ,this1 in the progress of   
the race1 has developed into broader and
 more complex ideals and feelings4      
,theology explains the moral feelings as
 resulting from conscience1 which it    
holds to be a special faculty of the    
mind1 or soul1 divinely given4 ,science1
 while admitting the existence of the   
state of feelings which we call         
conscience1 denies its supernatural     
origin1 and ascribes it to the result of
 evolution1 heredity1 experience1       
education1 and suggestion4 ,conscience1 
according to science1 is a compound of  
intellectual and emotional states4      
,conscience is not an invariable or     
infallible guide1 but depends entirely  
upon the heredity1 education1           
experience1 and environment of the      
individual4 ,it accompanies the moral   
and ethical codes of the race1 which    

vary with time and with country4        
,actions which were thought right a     
century ago are condemned now2 likewise1
 things condemned a century ago are     
thought right now4 ,what is commended in
 ,turkey is condemned in ,england1 and  
vice versa4 ,moral tastes and ideals1   
like sthetic ones1 vary with time and   
country4 ,there is no absolute code     
which has been always true1 in all      
places4 ,there is an evolution in the   
ideals of morals and ethics as in       
everything else1 and conscience and the 
moral and ethical emotions accompany the
 changing ideals4  ,many of the moral   
and ethical principles originally arose 
from necessity or utility1 but have     
since developed into natural1           
spontaneous feeling on the part of the  
race4 ,it is held that the race is      
rapidly developing a social conscience  
which will cause the wiping out of many 
social conditions which are now the     
disgrace of civilization4 ,it is        
predicted that in time the race will    

look back upon the existence of poverty 
in our civilization as our generation   
now looks back upon the existence of    
slavery1 imprisonment for debt1 capital 
punishment for the theft of a loaf of   
bread1 the killing of prisoners of war1 
etc4 ,it is thought that1 in time1 wars 
of conquest will be deemed as utterly   
immoral as to-day is regarded the murder
 of a body of men by a band of pirates  
or bandits4 ,in the same way the        
economic slavery of to-day will be seen 
as immoral as now seems the physical    
slavery of the past4 ,in not far distant
 time it will seem incredible that      
society could have ever allowed one of  
its members to die of hunger in the     
streets1 or of poverty and inattention  
in the sick room of the hovel4 ,not only
 will the ideals and feelings of ethical
 and moral responsibility change and    
evolve1 but the feelings of personal    
sympathy will evolve in accordance      
therewith4 ,at least such is the dream  
and prophecy of some of the world's     

greatest thinkers4  ,the social1        
ethical1 and moral emotions may be      
developed by a study of the evolution   
and meaning of society on the one hand1 
and the perception of the condition of  
the lives of less fortunate individuals 
on the other4 ,the first will awaken new
 ideas of the history and real meaning  
of social association and mutual        
intercourse1 and will develop a new     
sense of responsibility1 duty1 and civic
 and social pride4 ,the second will     
awaken understanding and sympathy1 and a
 desire to do what one can to help those
 who are the under dog1 and also to     
bring about a better state of affairs in
 general4 ,the study of history and     
civilization1 of sociology and civics1  
will do much in the first direction4    
,the study of human-kind1 and its life  
problems and condition1 will do the same
 in the second case4 ,in both cases     
there will be awakened a new sense of   
right and wrong--a new conception of    
ought and ought not--regarding one's    

relations to the race1 society1 and his 
fellow beings4  ,let no one deceive     
himself or herself by the smug          
assumption that the race has entirely   
emerged from barbarism and is now on the
 top wave of civilization4 ,the truth1  
as known to all careful and             
conscientious thinkers1 is that we are  
but half civilized1 if1 indeed1 that    
much4 ,many of our customs and          
conventions are those of a              
half-barbarous people4 ,our ideals are  
low1 our customs often vile4 ,we lack   
not only high ideals but in many cases  
we show a lack of sanity in our social  
conventions4 ,but evolution is moving us
 slowly ahead4 ,a better day is dawning4
 ,the signs are in the air1 to be seen  
by all thoughtful men4 ,civilization is 
climbing the ladder1 aided by the       
evolution of the social1 ethical1 and   
moral emotions and the development of   
the intellect4  ,in connection with this
 phase of the emotions1 we invite the   
student to consider the following       

excellent words of ,professor ,davidson 
in his ,history of ,greek ,education3   
,it is not enough for a man to          
understand the conditions of rational   
life in his own time4 ,he must likewise 
love these conditions and hate whatever 
leads to life of an opposite kind4 ,this
 is only another way of saying that he  
must love the good and hate the evil2   
for the good is simply what conduces to 
rational or moral life1 and the evil    
simply what leads away from it4 ,it is  
perfectly obvious1 as soon as it is     
pointed out1 that all immoral life is   
due to a false distribution of          
affection1 which again is often1 though 
by no means always1 due to a want of    
intellectual cultivation4 ,he that      
attributes to anything a value greater  
or less than it really possesses1 in the
 order of things1 has already placed    
himself in a false relation to it1 and  
will certainly1 when he comes to act    
with reference to it1 act immorally4    
,,chapter ,,xv4  ,the ,religious        

,emotions4   ,by the religious emotions 
is meant that class of emotional feeling
 arising from the faith and belief in1  
or consciousness of the presence of1    
supernatural beings1 powers1 entities1  
or forces4 ,this form of emotion is     
regarded as distinct from the ethical   
and moral emotions1 although frequently 
found in connection therewith4          
,likewise1 it is independent of any     
special form of intellectual belief1 for
 it is far more fundamental and often   
exists without creed1 philosophy1 or    
stated belief1 the only manifestation in
 such cases being a feeling of the      
existence of supernatural beings1       
forces1 and powers to which man has a   
relation and to which he owes obedience4
 ,to those who may think that this is   
too narrow a conception of religious    
emotion we refer the following          
definition of religion from the         
dictionaries3 ,the acts or feelings     
which result from the belief of a god1  
or gods1 having superior control over   

matter1 life1 or destiny4 ,religion is  
subjective1 designating the feelings and
 acts of men which relate to ,god2      
theology is objective1 denoting the     
science which investigates the          
existence1 laws1 and attributes of ,god2
 or 7objectively7 the outer form and    
embodiment which the inward spirit of a 
true or a false devotion assumes1       
7subjectively7 the feeling of veneration
 with which the worshiper regards the   
,being he adores4  ,darwin1 in his      
,descent of ,man1 says that the feeling 
of religious devotion is a highly       
complex one1 consisting of love1        
complete submission to an exalted and   
mysterious superior1 a strong sense of  
dependence1 fear1 reverence1 gratitude1 
hope for the future1 and perhaps other  
elements4 ,he is of the opinion that no 
man can experience so complex an emotion
 until advanced in his intellectual and 
moral faculties to at least a moderately
 high level4 ,the authorities generally 
agree with ,darwin1 although the more   

recent study of the history of religion 
has shown that religious feeling has a  
far more primitive origin than that     
indicated by ,darwin4  ,it is true that 
the lower animals are not deemed capable
 of anything approaching religious      
feeling1 unless there is a feeling      
approaching it in the attitude of the   
dog and horse and other domestic animals
 toward their masters4 ,but man1 as soon
 as he is able to attribute natural     
phenomena to a supernatural cause and   
power1 manifests a crude religious      
feeling and emotion4 ,he begins by      
believing in1 fearing1 and worshiping   
natural forces and objects1 such as the 
sun1 the moon1 the wind1 thunder and    
lightning1 the ocean1 rivers1 mountains1
 etc4 ,it is claimed that there is no   
natural object that has not been deified
 and worshiped by some people at some   
time in the history of the race4 ,later1
 man acquired the anthropomorphic       
conception of deities and created many  
gods in his own image1 endowing them    

with his own attributes1 qualities1 and 
characteristics4 ,the mental            
characteristics and morals of a people  
can always be ascertained by a knowledge
 of the average conception of deity held
 by them4 ,polytheism1 or the belief in 
many gods1 was succeeded by monotheism1 
or belief in one god4  ,monotheism      
ranges from the crudest conception of a 
manlike god to the highest conception of
 a spiritual ,being transcending all    
human qualities1 attributes1 or         
characteristics4 ,man began by believing
 in many god things1 then in many god   
persons1 then in a one god-person1 then 
in one ,god who is a spirit1 then in    
,one ,universal ,spirit which is ,god4  
,it is a far cry from the savage1       
manlike god of old to the conception of 
the ,universal ,spirit of the           
,god-drunken philosopher1 ,spinoza4 ,the
 extreme of religious belief is that    
which holds that there is nothing but   
,god--all else is illusion1 of          
pantheistic idealism4 ,buddhism 7at     

least in its original form7 discarded   
the idea of a ,supreme ,being1 and held 
that ,ultimate ,reality is but          
,universal ,law2 hence the accusation   
that ,buddhism is an atheistic religion1
 although it is one of the world's      
greatest religions1 having over         
#djj1jjj1jjj followers4  ,but the       
beliefs of the religious person may be  
considered as resulting from            
intellectual processes2 his religious   
feelings and emotions arise from another
 part of his mental being4 ,it is the   
testimony of the authorities of all     
religions that religious conviction is  
an inner experience rather than an      
intellectual conception4 ,the emotional 
element is always active in religious   
manifestations everywhere4 ,the purely  
intellectual religion is naught but a   
philosophy4 ,religion without feeling   
and emotion is an anomaly4 ,in all true 
religion there exists a feeling of inner
 assurance and faith1 love1 awe1        
dependence1 submission1 reverence1      

gratitude1 hope1 and perhaps fear4 ,the 
emotional element must always be        
present1 not necessarily in the form of 
emotional excess1 as in the case of     
revival hysteria or the dance of the    
whirling dervishes1 but at least in the 
form of the calm1 fervent feeling of    
that peace which passeth understanding4 
,when religion departs from the         
emotional phase it becomes merely a     
school of philosophy1 or an ethical     
culture society4  ,the student must not 
lose sight of the uplifting influence of
 true religious emotion by reason of his
 knowledge of its lowly origin4 ,like   
the lotus1 which has its roots in the   
slimy1 filthy mud of the river1 and its 
stem in the muddy1 stagnant1 and foul   
waters thereof1 but its beautiful flower
 unfolded in the clear air and facing   
the sun1 so is religious feeling        
responsible for some of the most        
beautiful and uplifting ideals and      
actions of the race4 ,if its origin and 
history contain much that is not        

consistent with the highest ideals of   
the race to-day1 it is not the fault of 
religion but of the race itself4        
,religion1 like all else in the         
universal manifestation1 is under the   
laws of evolution1 growth1 and          
development4 ,what the religion of the  
future may be1 we know not4 ,but the    
prophets of the race are dreaming       
visions of a religion as much higher    
than that of to-day as the latter is    
higher than the crude fetichism of the  
savage4  ,the following quotation from  
,john ,fiske's ,through ,nature to ,god 
is appropriate in this place4 ,fiske    
says3 ,my aim is to show that 'that     
other influence1' that inward           
conviction1 the craving for a final     
cause1 the theistic assumption1 is      
itself one of the master facts of the   
universe1 and as much entitled to       
respect as any fact in physical nature  
can possibly be4 ,the argument flashed  
upon me about ten years ago while       
reading ,herbert ,spencer's controversy 

with ,frederic ,harrison concerning the 
nature and reality of religion4 ,because
 ,spencer derived historically the      
greater part of modern belief in an     
,unseen ,world from the savage's        
primeval world of dreams and ghosts1    
some of his critics maintained that     
logical consistency required him to     
dismiss the modern belief as utterly    
false2 otherwise he would be guilty of  
seeking to evolve truth from falsehood4 
',by no means1' replied ,spencer4       
',contrariwise1 the ultimate form of the
 religious consciousness is the final   
development of a consciousness which at 
the outset contained a germ of truth    
obscured by multitudinous errors4'      
,fiske1 in this connection1 quotes the  
,tennysonian question3--      ',who     
forged that other influence1       ,that
 heat of inward evidence1       ,by     
which he doubts against the sense8'     
,the religious emotions may be developed
 by allowing the mind to dwell upon the 
,power underlying the universe of       

fleeting1 changing forms2 by reading    
prose and poetry in which an appeal is  
made to the religious instinct2 by      
listening to music which awakens the    
emotion of reverence and awe2 and1      
finally1 by meditating upon the inner   
spirit immanent in every living being4  
,as an old ,hindu sage once said3 ,there
 are many paths by which men arrive at a
 knowledge of the presence of ,god1 but 
there is but one goal and destination4  
,,chapter ,,xvi4  ,the ,aesthetic       
,emotions4   ,by the sthetic emotions is
 meant those emotional feelings which   
are concerned with the perception of    
beauty or taste1 and by reason of which 
we like or dislike certain perceptions  
of sensory impressions4 ,in order to get
 a clearer idea1 let us consider what is
 meant by beauty and taste4  ,beauty is 
defined as that quality or assemblage of
 qualities in an object which gives the 
eye or the ear intense pleasure2 or that
 characteristic in an object which      
gratifies the intellect or moral        

feeling4 ,taste 7in this sense of the   
term7 is defined as nice perception1 or 
the power of perceiving and relishing   
excellence in human performances2 the   
power of appreciating the finer         
qualities of art2 the faculty of        
discerning beauty1 order1 congruity1    
proportion1 symmetry1 or whatever       
constitutes excellence1 particularly in 
the fine arts or literature2 the faculty
 of the mind by which we both perceive  
and enjoy whatever is beautiful or      
sublime in the works of nature and art4 
,the possession of taste insures grace  
and beauty in the works of an artist1   
and the avoidance of all that is low or 
mean4 ,it is as often the result of an  
innate sense of beauty or propriety as  
of art education1 and no genius can     
compensate for the want of it4 99 99 99 
,tastes differ so much among            
individuals1 nations1 or in different   
ages and conditions of civilization that
 it is utterly impossible to set up a   
standard of taste applicable to all men 

and to all stages in the evolution of   
society4  ,the sthetic sense1 feeling1  
and emotion are products of the later   
stages of the evolution of the mind of  
man4 ,their roots1 however1 may be seen 
in the crude attempts at decoration and 
adornment in the savage1 and still      
further back in the tendency of certain 
birds to adorn their nests or bowers4   
,moreover1 some sense of beauty must    
exist in the lower animals1 which are   
influenced thereby in the selection of  
their mates1 the bright plumage of the  
birds1 and the coloring of the insects  
and higher animals evidencing the       
existence of at least a primitive       
sthetic sense4 ,herbert ,spencer says   
that one characteristic of the sthetic  
feelings is that they are separated from
 the functions vitally requisite and    
necessary to sustain life1 and it is not
 until the latter are reasonably well   
satisfied that the former begin to      
manifest in force4  ,the authorities    
hold that the basic element concerned in

 the manifestation of the sthetic       
emotional feeling is the sensory        
element1 which consists of the pleasure 
arising from the perception of objects  
of vision or hearing which are deemed   
beautiful4 ,there is a certain nervous  
satisfaction which arises from the      
perception of the sensation of the sight
 of a beautiful thing1 or of the hearing
 of beautiful sound4 ,just why certain  
sights prove agreeable and others       
disagreeable1 or certain sounds pleasant
 and others unpleasant1 is very         
difficult to determine4 ,association and
 habit may have something to do with the
 beauty of sight object1 and there may  
be natural harmony of vibration in      
colors as there is in sound4 ,in the    
case of sounds there is undoubtedly a   
natural harmony between the vibrations  
of certain notes of the scale and       
inharmony between others4 ,some have    
held that the secret of the enjoyment of
 music is found in the natural          
appreciation of rhythm1 as rhythm is a  

cosmic manifestation evident in         
everything from great to small4 ,but    
these theories do not account for the   
differences existing in the tastes      
regarding color and music manifested by 
different individuals1 races1 and       
classes of people4  ,grant ,allen says3 
,the vulgar are pleased with great      
masses of color1 especially red1 orange1
 and purple1 which give their coarse1   
nervous organization the requisite      
stimulus4 ,the refined1 with nerves of  
less caliber1 but greater               
discriminativeness1 require delicate    
combinations of complementaries and     
prefer neutral tints to the glare of the
 primary hues4 ,children and savages    
love to dress in all the colors of the  
rainbow4 ,in the same way persons of    
certain types of taste are pleased with 
rag time and cheap1 rollicking songs or 
dances1 while others shudder at these   
and find delight in the classic         
productions of the great composers4     
,there is also the intellectual element 

to be reckoned with in the sthetic      
emotions4 ,the intellect must discover  
the beauty in certain objects before the
 emotion is aroused by the perception4  
,halleck says3 ,every time the mind     
discerns unity amid variety1 order1     
rhythm1 proportion1 or symmetry1 an     
sthetic emotion arises4 99 99 99 ,the   
traveler with a trained intellect will  
see far more beauty than an ignorant    
one4 ,in looking at a cathedral1 a large
 part of the sthetic enjoyment comes    
from tracing out the symmetry1 from     
comparing part with part4 ,not until    
this process is complete will the full  
beauty of the structure as a whole be   
perceived4 ,if the traveler knows       
something of medival architecture before
 starting on his ,european trip1 he will
 see far more beauty4 ,the opposite of  
the sthetic1 which we call the ugly1 is 
the unsymmetrical1 the disorderly--that 
in which we can discover no rhythm1     
plan1 or beauty4  ,the element of       
associative suggestion also enters into 

the manifestation of sthetic emotional  
feeling4 ,the mind accepts the          
suggestion of the beauty of certain     
styles of art1 or the excellence of     
certain classes of music4 ,there are    
fashions in art and music1 as in        
clothes1 and what is thought beautiful  
to-day may be deemed hideous to-morrow4 
,this is not entirely due to the        
evolution of taste1 for in many cases   
the old fashions are revived and again  
deemed beautiful4 ,there is1 moreover1  
the effect of the association of the    
object of emotion with certain events or
 persons4 ,this association renders the 
thing popular1 and therefore agreeable  
and beautiful for the time being4 ,the  
suggestion in a story will often cause  
the beauty of a certain scene1 or the   
harmony of a certain piece of music1 to 
dawn upon thousands of persons4 ,some   
noted person sets the seal of approval  
upon a certain picture or musical       
composition and lo6 the multitude calls 
it beautiful4 ,it must not be supposed1 

however1 that the crowd always          
counterfeits this sense of beauty and   
excellence which has been suggested to  
it4 ,on the contrary1 genuine sthetic   
feeling often results from the discovery
 so made4  ,there is style and fashion  
in the use of words1 resulting from     
fashion1 which gives rise to sthetic    
feelings regarding them4 ,these feelings
 do not arise from the consideration of 
the nature of the object expressed by   
the word2 of two words designating the  
same thing1 one causes disgust and the  
other at least passive tolerance4 ,for  
instance1 in speaking of the sensible   
moisture which is emitted from the pores
 of the skin1 we may use either of the  
respective terms sweat or perspiration4 
,both mean the same thing1 and have an  
equally respectable origin4 ,but to many
 persons the word sweat causes          
unpleasant sthetic emotion1 while the   
word perspiration is accepted without   
remonstrance4 ,some persons abhor the   
term victuals1 while viands or food are 

accepted without protest4 ,there is     
often an unpleasant1 low1 vulgar        
association connected with some words   
which accounts for the disfavor with    
which they are received1 and which      
association is absent from the more     
polite terms employed to indicate the   
same thing4 ,but in other cases there is
 nothing but the simple suggestion of   
fashion and style to account for the    
sthetic acceptance or rejection4  ,it is
 possible that some psychologist of the 
future will establish the truth of the  
theory now tentatively advanced by a few
 investigators1 namely1 that taste and  
the sense of beauty depend almost       
entirely upon the element of suggestion1
 manifested as association1 influence of
 authority1 habit1 fashion1 imitation1  
etc4 ,it is known that the emotional    
nature is peculiarly liable to          
suggestion1 and that tastes may be      
created or destroyed by repeated        
suggestion under the most favorable     
circumstances4 ,it is thought likely    

that if we could trace back to its roots
 every emotion of taste1 we would find  
it arising from some associative1       
suggestive influence connected with     
another and more elemental class of     
emotions4  ,regarding the fact that     
there is no universal standard of taste 
or beauty1 ,halleck says3 ,it has been  
said that sthetics cannot be treated in 
a scientific way because there is no    
standard of taste4 ',de gustibus non est
 disputandum' 7'there is no disputing   
about tastes'7 is an old proverb4 ,of   
two equally intelligent persons1 the one
 may like a certain book1 the other     
dislike it4 99 99 99 ,while it is true  
that the standard of taste is a varying 
one within certain limits1 it is no more
 so than that of morals4 ,as men's      
nervous systems1 education1 and         
associations differ1 we may             
scientifically conclude that their      
tastes must differ4 ,the greater the    
uniformity in the factors the less does 
the product vary4 ,on the other hand1   

within certain limits1 the standard of  
sthetics is relatively uniform4 ,it is  
fixed by the majority of intelligent    
people of any age and country4 ,to      
estimate the standard by which to judge 
of the correctness of language or of the
 literary taste of any era1 we examine  
the conversations of the best speakers1 
the works of the standard writers4  ,the
 sthetic emotions may be developed and  
cultivated by exercise and practice1 and
 particularly by association and        
familiarity with beautiful things1 and  
with those who have good taste4         
,appreciation of beauty is more or less 
contagious1 up to a certain point of    
development1 at least1 and if one wishes
 to recognize1 understand1 and          
appreciate beauty1 he should go where   
beauty is1 and where its votaries are   
gathered4 ,the study of standard works  
of art1 or objects of nature1 or the    
best productions of the composers of    
music1 will do much to develop and      
unfold one's higher sthetic feelings and

 understanding4  ,it is claimed by some 
of the best authorities that to develop 
the finer and higher sthetic feelings   
and understanding we must learn to find 
beauty and excellence in things removed 
from ourselves or our selfish interests4
 ,the narrow1 selfish emotions kill the 
sthetic feelings--the two cannot exist  
together4 ,the person whose thoughts are
 centered on himself or herself very    
rarely finds beauty or excellence in    
works of art or music4 ,grant ,allen    
well sums up the subject in the         
following words3 ,good taste is the     
progressive product of progressing      
fineness and discrimination in the      
nerves1 educated attention1 high and    
noble emotional constitution1 and       
increasing intellectual faculties4      
,,chapter ,,xvii4  ,the ,intellectual   
,emotions4   ,by the intellectual       
emotions is meant that class of         
emotional feeling resulting from the    
presence of objects of intellectual     
interest4 ,this class of emotions       

depends for its satisfaction upon the   
exercise of the intellectual faculties1 
from the most simple to the most        
complex1 and including perception1      
memory1 imagination1 reason1 judgment1  
and all the logical faculties4 ,those   
who are accustomed to employing the mind
 through voluntary attention1           
particularly in the direction of        
creative ideation or constructive       
imagination1 experience these emotions  
to a greater or less degree4  ,the      
exercise of perception1 if we are       
skilled therein1 gives us a pleasurable 
feeling1 and if we succeed in making an 
interesting or important discovery by   
reason thereof1 we experience a strong  
degree of emotional satisfaction4       
,likewise1 we experience agreeable      
feelings when we are able to remember   
distinctly something which might well   
have been forgotten1 or when we succeed 
in recalling something which had escaped
 our memory for the moment4 ,in the same
 way the exercise of the imagination is 

a source of great pleasure in many cases
 in the direction of writing1 planning1 
inventing1 or other creative processes1 
or even in the building of air castles4 
,the exercise of the logical faculties  
gives great pleasure to those in whom   
these faculties are well developed4     
,halleck well says3 ,there was probably 
not a happier moment in ,newton's life  
than when he had succeeded in           
demonstrating that the same power which 
caused the apple to fall held the moon  
and the planets in their orbits4 ,when  
,watts discovered that steam might be   
harnessed like a horse1 when an inventor
 succeeds in perfecting a               
labor-lightening device1 whenever an    
obscurity is cleared away1 the reason   
for a thing understood1 and a baffling  
instance brought under a general law1   
intellectual emotion results4  ,the     
pleasurable feelings we experience upon 
the reading of a good book1 or the      
discovery of real poetry1 are forms of  
intellectual emotion4 ,the same class of

 emotional feeling is aroused when we   
witness a good play4 ,among other       
instances of this class we mention the  
perception of clever work of any kind1  
intricate machinery1 ingenious devices1 
helpful improvements1 or other works of 
man which indicate the existence of     
thought and inventive ability in the    
designer or builder4 ,to appreciate     
mental work of this kind we must bring a
 mind developed along the same or       
similar lines4 ,it has well been said   
that before one can take away anything  
from a book he must bring something to  
it4 ,it takes mentality to recognize and
 appreciate mentality or the work of    
mentality4  ,the study of scientific    
subjects is a source of great pleasure  
to those who are inclined to such       
pursuits4 ,to the scientific mind the   
study of the latest work on the favorite
 branch gives a joy which nothing else  
is capable of arousing4 ,to the         
philosopher the works of other          
philosophers of the same school give    

intense satisfaction4  ,it is claimed   
that the sense of humor and wit is an   
intellectual emotion1 for it depends    
upon the detection of the ludicrous     
features of a happening4 ,certain       
psychologists have held that the        
distinctive element of humor is the     
feeling attendant upon the perception of
 incongruity2 while that of wit is the  
feeling of superiority on the part of   
the witty person1 and the corresponding 
chagrin of the object of his wit4 ,it   
would seem1 however1 that the           
appreciation of wit must depend upon the
 intellectual perception of cleverness  
of expression and the pleasure resulting
 from the discovery thereof1 and that   
the feeling of humor is aroused         
principally by reason of the incongruous
 element2 the feeling of                
self-satisfaction as contrasted with the
 discomfiture of the other person       
belongs to the more selfish emotions4   
,an authority says3 ,humor is a mental  
faculty which tends to discover         

incongruous resemblances between things 
which essentially differ1 or essential  
differences between things put forth as 
the same1 the result being internal     
mirth or an outburst of laughter4 ,wit  
does so likewise1 but the two are       
different4 ,humor has deep human        
sympathy1 and loves men while raising a 
laugh against their weaknesses4 ,wit is 
deficient in sympathy1 and there is     
often a sting in its ridicule4 ,somewhat
 contemptuous of mankind1 it has not the
 patience to study them thoroughly1 but 
must content itself with noting         
superficial resemblances or differences4
 ,humor is patient and keenly observant1
 and penetrates beneath the surface2    
while1 therefore1 the sallies of wit are
 often one-sided and unfair1 those of   
humor are1 as a rule1 just and wise4    
,the development and cultivation of the 
intellectual emotions depend1 of course1
 upon education1 training1 exercise1 and
 practice4 ,the cultivation of the      
intellect 7which has been referred to1  

in part1 in the previous parts of this  
book1 and which will be again considered
 in the chapters devoted to the         
intellect7 results in the development   
and cultivation of the emotions         
accompanying intellectual effort4 ,in a 
general way1 however1 it may be said    
that the reading of the best works of   
fiction1 science1 and philosophy will   
bring out in time the best form of      
intellectual enjoyment and feeling4 ,the
 highest gives the best--that is the    
rule4 ,the present chapter should be    
read and studied in connection with     
those devoted to the intellect4         
,,blended ,,emotions4  ,as we have said 
at the beginning of our consideration of
 the subject of the emotions1 the       
majority of emotions are composed of    
several feelings1 and tend to blend and 
combine emotional elements4 ,for        
instance1 the emotion of sexual love    
certainly has its origin in the         
instinctive feelings of the race1 and   
its motive element is that of passion4  

,but passion is far from being all there
 is in human sexual love4 ,above the    
plane of passion is found the social    
emotion of companionship1 protection1   
and care2 the desire for the welfare of 
the loved one2 the mingling of the love 
of the parent with that of the mate4    
,human love manifests many of the       
altruistic emotions during its course4  
,the welfare of the loved one becomes   
the chief concern of life1 often        
stronger even than self-preservation4   
,the joy of the loved one becomes the   
greatest joy1 far surpassing the more   
selfish forms of happiness4 ,then come  
the sthetic feelings1 which find        
satisfaction in the two liking the same 
things1 sympathy and community of       
feeling being the connecting link4 ,the 
several ideals of the two combining1    
there is produced an idealistic union1  
which is often called spiritual harmony4
 ,finally1 there is found the blending  
of the intellectual emotions1 in which  
harmony there exists one of the highest 

forms of pleasure satisfaction between  
two persons of opposite sexes4 ,it is   
said that the more things that a man and
 woman like in common1 the closer will  
be their liking for each other4 ,i love 
you because you love the things ,i love1
 is no rare thought and expression4  ,so
 it is seen that though born in         
elemental instinct and passion1 human   
sexual love is something far different  
in its flowering4 ,and yet without its  
root it would not be1 and cannot be4    
,this is an excellent example of the    
complex nature of the most common       
emotions4 ,it may be used as a typical  
illustration4 ,what is true of it is    
also true1 in a way and in a degree1 of 
every other form of emotion4 ,therefore 
in studying a particular emotion1 be not
 too quick to cry1 ,it is this2 it is   
that6 but rather seek to say1 ,it is    
composed of this and that1 of this and  
that6 ,few1 if any1 emotions are simple2
 the majority are very complex4 ,hence  
the difficulty of satisfactory          

classification1 and the danger of       
dogmatic definition4     ,,chapter      
,,xviii4  ,the ,role of the ,emotions4  
,the average person greatly             
underestimates the part played by the   
emotional nature in the mental          
activities of the individual4 ,he is    
inclined to the opinion that1 with the  
exception of the occasional             
manifestation of some strong emotional  
feeling1 the majority of persons go     
through life using only the reasoning   
and reflective faculties in deciding the
 problems of life and guiding the mental
 course of action4 ,there can be no     
greater mistake concerning the mental   
activities4 ,so far from being          
subordinate to the intellect1 the       
emotional nature in the majority of     
cases dominates the reasoning faculties4
 ,there are but very few persons who are
 able to detach themselves1 even in a   
small degree1 from the feelings1 and to 
decide questions cold-bloodedly by pure 
reason or intellectual effort4          

,moreover1 there are but few persons    
whose wills are guided by pure reason2  
the feelings supply the motive for the  
majority of acts of will4 ,the          
intellect1 even when used1 is generally 
employed to better carry out the        
dictates of feeling and desire4 ,much of
 our reasoning is performed in order to 
justify our feelings1 or to find proofs 
for the position dictated by our        
desires1 feelings1 sympathies1          
prejudices1 or sentiments4 ,it has been 
said that men seek not reasons but      
excuses for their actions4  ,moreover1  
in the elementary processes of the      
intellect the emotions play an important
 part4 ,we have seen that attention     
largely follows interest1 and interest  
results from feeling4 ,therefore our    
attention1 and that which arises from   
it1 is dependent largely upon the       
feelings4 ,thus feeling asserts its     
power in guarding the very outer gate of
 knowledge1 and determines largely what 
shall or shall not enter therein4 ,it is

 one of the constantly-appearing        
paradoxes of psychology1 that while     
feelings have originally arisen from    
attention1 it is equally true that      
attention depends largely upon the      
interest resulting from the feelings4   
,this is readily admitted in the case of
 involuntary attention1 which always    
goes out toward objects of interest and 
feeling1 but is likewise true of even   
voluntary attention1 which we direct to 
something of greater or more nearly     
ultimate interest than the things of    
lesser or more immediate interest4      
,sully says3 ,by an act of will ,i may  
resolve to turn my attention to         
something--say a passage in a book4 ,but
 if1 after the preliminary process of   
adjustment of the mental eye the object 
opens up no interesting phase1 all the  
willing in the world will not produce a 
calm1 settled state of concentration4   
,the will introduces mind and object2 it
 cannot force an attachment between     
them4 ,no compulsion of attention ever  

succeeded in making a young child       
cordially embrace and appropriate1 by an
 act of concentration1 an unsuitable and
 therefore uninteresting object4 ,we    
thus see that even voluntary interest is
 not removed from the sway of interest4 
,what the will does is to determine the 
kind of interest that shall prevail at  
the moment4  ,again1 we may see that    
memory is largely dependent upon        
interest in recording and recalling its 
impressions4 ,we remember and recall    
most easily that which most greatly     
interests us4 ,in proportion to the lack
 of interest in a thing do we find      
difficulty in remembering or recalling  
it4 ,this is equally true of the        
imagination1 for it refuses to dwell    
upon that which is not interesting4     
,even in the reasoning processes we find
 the will balking at uninteresting      
subjects1 but galloping along1 pushing  
before it the rolling chair of          
interesting intellectual application4   
,our judgments are affected by our      

feelings4 ,it is much easier to approve 
of the actions of some person we like1  
or whose views accord with our own1 than
 of an individual whose personality and 
views are distasteful to us4 ,it is very
 difficult to prevent prejudice1 for or 
against1 from influencing our judgments4
 ,it is also true that we find that for 
which we look in things and persons1 and
 that which we expect and look for is   
often dependent upon our feelings4 ,if  
we dislike a person or thing we are     
usually able to perceive no end of      
undesirable things in him or it2 while  
if we are favorably inclined we easily  
find many admirable qualities in the    
same person or thing4 ,a little change  
in our feeling often results in the     
formation of an entirely new set of     
judgments regarding a person or thing4  
,halleck well says3 ,on the one hand the
 emotions are favorable to intellectual 
action1 since they supply the interest  
one feels in study4 ,one may feel       
intensely concerning a certain subject  

and be all the better student4 ,hence   
the emotions are not1 as was formerly   
thought1 entirely hostile to            
intellectual action4 ,emotion often     
quickens the perception1 burns things   
indelibly into the memory1 and doubles  
the rapidity of thought4 ,on the other  
hand strong feelings often vitiate every
 operation of the intellect4 ,they cause
 us to see only what we wish to1 to     
remember only what interests our narrow 
feeling at the time1 and to reason from 
selfish data only4 99 99 99 ,emotion    
puts the magnifying end of the telescope
 to our intellectual eyes where our own 
interests are concerned1 the minimizing 
end when we are looking at the interest 
of others4 99 99 99 ,thought is         
deflected when it passes through an     
emotional medium1 just as a sunbeam is  
when it strikes water4  ,as for the     
will1 the best authorities hold that it 
is almost if not entirely dependent upon
 desire for its motive force4 ,as desire
 is an outgrowth and development of     

feeling and emotion1 it is seen that    
even the will depends upon feeling for  
its inciting motives and its direction4 
,we shall consider this point at greater
 detail in the chapters devoted to the  
activities of the will4  ,we would      
remind you again1 at this point1 of the 
great triangle of the mind1 the         
emotional1 ideative1 and volitional     
activities--feeling1 thinking1 and      
willing--and their constant reaction    
upon each other and absolute            
interdependence4 ,we find that our      
feelings arise from previous willing and
 ideation1 and are aroused by ideas and 
repressed by will2 again we see that our
 ideas are largely dependent upon the   
interest supplied by our feelings1 and  
that our judgments are influenced by the
 emotive side of our mental life1 the   
will also having its part to play in the
 matter4 ,we also see that the will is  
called into activity by the feelings1   
and often guided or restrained by our   
thoughts1 the will1 indeed1 being       

considered as moved entirely by our     
feelings and ideas4 ,thus is the trinity
 of mental forces seen ever in mutual   
relation--constant action and reaction  
ever existing between them4             
,,chapter ,,xix4  ,the ,emotions and    
,happiness4   ,happiness has been       
defined by an authority as the          
pleasurable emotion arising from the    
gratification of all desires2 the       
enjoyment of pleasure without pain4     
,another has said that happiness is the 
state in which all desires are          
satisfied4 ,but these definitions have  
been attacked4 ,it is held by many that 
a state of the absolute satisfaction of 
desire would not be happiness1 for      
happiness consists largely in           
pleasurable anticipation and imaginings 
which disappear upon the realization of 
the desire4 ,it is held that absolute   
satisfaction would be a negative state4 
,paley expressed a better idea when he  
said that any condition may be          
denominated 'happy' in which the amount 

or aggregate of pleasure exceeds that of
 pain1 and the degree of happiness      
depends upon the quantity of this       
excess4  ,some have held that an        
existing contrast between pain and      
pleasure 7the balance being in favor of 
the latter7 is necessary to establish   
happiness4 ,be this as it may1 it is    
admitted by all that one's happiness or 
unhappiness depends entirely upon one's 
emotional nature and the degree of the  
satisfaction thereof4 ,and it is        
generally admitted that to be happy is  
the great aim and object of the life of 
the majority of persons1--if1 indeed1   
not of every person1--the happiness1 of 
course1 depending upon the quality and  
degree of the emotions forming the      
person's emotional nature4 ,thus it is  
seen that we are dependent upon the     
emotional side of our mental life in    
this as in nearly everything else making
 life worth while4  ,theologians have   
often sought to point out that happiness
 is not the goal of life and living1 but

 human nature has always insisted that  
happiness is the greatest end1 and      
philosophy has generally supported it4  
,but wisdom shows that happiness is not 
always dependent upon the pleasure of   
the moment1 for the sacrifice of        
immediate pleasure frequently results in
 a much greater happiness in the future4
 ,in the same way an immediate          
disagreeable task often gains for us a  
greater satisfaction in the future4     
,likewise1 it is frequently greater     
happiness to sacrifice a personal       
pleasure for the happiness of others    
than it would be to enjoy the pleasure  
of the moment at the expense of the pain
 of the other4 ,there is often a far    
greater pleasure resulting from an      
altruistic action of self-sacrifice than
 in the performance of the selfish1     
egoistic act4 ,but1 as the subtle       
reasoner may insist1 the result is the  
same--the ultimate happiness and        
satisfaction of the self4 ,this         
conclusion does not rob the altruistic  

act of its virtue1 however1 for the     
person who finds his greatest pleasure  
in giving pleasure to others is to be   
congratulated--as is the community which
 shelters him4  ,there is no virtue in  
pain1 suffering1 sacrifice1 or          
unhappiness for its own sake4 ,this     
illusion of asceticism is vanishing from
 the human mind4 ,sacrifice on the part 
of the individual is valuable and valid 
only when it results in higher present  
or future happiness for the individual  
or some one else4 ,there is no virtue in
 pain1 physical or mental1 except as a  
step to a greater good for ourselves or 
others4 ,pain at the best is merely     
nature's alarm and warning of not this  
way4 ,it is also held that pain serves  
to bring out pleasure by contrast1 and  
is therefore valuable in this way4 ,be  
this as it may1 no normal individual    
deliberately seeks ultimate pain in     
preference to ultimate happiness2 the   
greatest ultimate happiness to one's    
self and to those he loves is the normal

 and natural goal of the normal person4 
,but the concept of those he loves1 in  
many cases1 includes the race as well as
 the immediate family4  ,wisdom shows   
the individual that the greatest        
happiness comes to him who controls and 
restrains many of his feelings4         
,dissipation results in pain and        
unhappiness ultimately4 ,the doctrine of
 thoughtless indulgence is              
unphilosophical and is contradicted by  
the experience of the race4 ,moreover1  
wisdom shows that the highest happiness 
comes not from the indulgence of the    
physical feelings alone1 or to excess1  
but rather from the cultivation1        
development1 and manifestation of the   
higher feelings--the social1 sthetic1   
and intellectual emotions4 ,the higher  
pleasures of life1 literature1 art1     
music1 science1 invention1 constructive 
imagination1 etc41 yield a satisfaction 
and happiness keener and more enduring  
than can possibly the lower forms of    
feeling4 ,but the human being must not  

despise any part of his emotional being4
 ,everything has its uses1 which are    
good2 and its abuses1 which are bad4    
,every part of one's being1 mental and  
physical1 is well to use2 but no part is
 well used if it uses the individual    
instead of being itself used4  ,a recent
 writer has held that the end and aim of
 life should not be the pursuit of      
happiness1 but rather the building of   
character4 ,the obvious answer is that  
the two are identical in spirit1 for to 
the man who appreciates the value of    
character1 its attainment is the        
greatest happiness2 the wise teach that 
the greatest happiness comes to him who 
is possessed of a well-rounded1         
developed character4 ,another writer has
 said that the aim of life should be    
self-improvement1 with a due regard to  
the interest of others4 ,this is but    
saying that the greatest happiness to   
the wise man lies in this course4 ,any  
one who is wise enough1 or great enough1
 to make these ends the aim and goal of 

life will find the greatest happiness   
therefrom4 ,arnold ,bennett advances as 
a good working philosophy of life3      
cheerfulness1 kindliness1 and rectitude4
 ,can any one doubt that this course    
would bring great ultimate happiness8   
,happiness consists in that which       
contents the spirit1 and the latter     
depends entirely upon the character of  
the feelings and emotions entertained by
 one1 as weighed in the balance of      
reason1 and as passed upon by judgment  
and the sense of right action4 ,the     
greatest degree of happiness1 or at     
least the greatest ratio of pleasure    
over pain1 is obtained by a careful and 
intelligent cultivation of the feeling  
side of one's being in connection with  
the cultivation of the intellect and the
 mastery of the will4 ,to be able to    
bring the capacity for enjoyment to its 
highest2 to be able to intelligently    
choose that which will bring the        
greatest ultimate happiness in          
accordance with right action2 and1      

finally1 to be able to use the will in  
the direction of holding fast to that   
which is good and rejecting that which  
is bad--this is the power of creating   
happiness4 ,the feelings1 the intellect1
 and the will--here1 as ever--combine to
 manifest the result4  ,finally1 it must
 be remembered that all human happiness 
consists in part of the ability to bear 
pain--to suffer4 ,there must be the dash
 of ,stoicism in the wise ,epicurean4   
,one must learn to pluck from pain1     
suffering1 and unhappiness the secret   
drop of honey which lies at its heart1  
and which consists in the knowledge of  
the meaning and use of pain and the     
means whereby it may be transmuted into 
knowledge and experience1 from which    
later happiness may be distilled4 ,to   
profit by pain1 to transmute suffering  
into joy1 to transform present          
unhappiness into a future greater       
happiness--this is the privilege of the 
philosopher4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,the mental states

 and activities known as desire are a   
direct development of the feeling and   
emotional phase of the mind and form the
 motive power of the will4 ,desire1 in  
fact1 may be said to be composed of     
feeling on one side and will on the     
other4 ,but the influence of the        
intellect or reasoning faculties has a  
most important part to play in the      
evolution of feeling into desire1 and in
 the consequent action of the will by   
the presentation and weighing of        
conflicting desires4 ,therefore1 the    
logical place for the consideration of  
the activities of the intellect is at   
this point--between emotion and will4   
,accordingly1 we shall leave the subject
 of feeling and emotion for the present1
 to be taken up again in connection with
 the subject of desire1 after we have   
considered the intellectual processes of
 the mind4 ,but1 as has been indicated1 
we shall see the presence and influence 
of the feelings and emotions even in the
 activities of the intellect4           

,,chapter ,,xx4  ,the ,intellect4   ,the
 class of mental states or processes    
grouped together under the name of      
intellectual processes1 forms the second
 great division of the mental states1   
the two others being feeling and will1  
respectively4  ,intellect has been      
defined as follows3 ,the part or faculty
 of the human mind by which it knows1 as
 distinguished from the power to feel   
and to will2 the thinking faculty2 the  
understanding2 also as that faculty of  
the human mind by which it receives or  
comprehends the ideas communicated to it
 by the senses or the perception1 or    
other means1 as distinguished from the  
power to feel and to will2 the power or 
faculty to perceive objects in their    
relations2 the power to judge and       
comprehend2 also the capacity for higher
 forms of knowledge1 as distinguished   
from the power to perceive and imagine4 
,in the preceding chapters we have seen 
that the individual is able to          
experience sensations in consciousness1 

and that he is able to perceive them    
mentally1 the latter being the first    
step in intellectual activity4 ,we have 
also seen that he is able to reproduce  
the perception by means of memory and   
imagination1 and that by means of the   
latter he is able to re-combine and     
rearrange the objects of perception4 ,we
 have also seen that he has what are    
known as feelings1 which depend upon his
 previous experience and that of his    
progenitors4 ,so far the mind has been  
considered merely as a receiving and    
reproducing instrument1 with the added  
attachment of the re-combining power of 
the imagination4 ,up to this point the  
mind may be compared to the phonographic
 cylinder1 with an attachment capable of
 re-combining its recorded impressions4 
,the impressions are received and       
perceived1 are stored away1 are         
reproduced1 and by the use of the       
imagination are re-combined4  ,up to    
this point the mind is seen to be more  
or less of an automatic1 instinctive    

faculty4 ,it may be traced from the     
purely reflex activity of the lowest    
forms of life up through the lower      
animals1 step by step1 until a very high
 degree of mental power is perceived in 
animals like the horse1 dog1 or         
elephant4 ,but there is something       
lacking4 ,there is missing that peculiar
 power of thinking in symbols and       
abstract conceptions which distinguishes
 the human race and which is closely    
bound up with the faculty of language or
 expressing thoughts in words4 ,the     
comparatively high mental process of the
 lower animals is dwarfed by the human  
faculty of thinking4 ,and thinking is   
the manifestation of the intellect4     
,what is it to think8 ,strange to say1  
very few persons can answer this        
question correctly at first4 ,they find 
themselves inclined to answer the       
inquiry in the words of the child3 ,why1
 to think is to think6 ,let us see if we
 can make it plain4 ,the dictionary     
definition is a little too technical to 

be of much use to the beginner1 but here
 it is3 ,to employ any of the           
intellectual powers except that of      
simple perception through the senses4   
,but what are the intellectual powers so
 employed1 and how are they employed8   
,let us see4  ,stating the matter       
plainly in common terms1 we may say that
 thinking is the mental process of 7#a7 
comparing our perceptions of things with
 each other1 noting the points of       
likeness and of difference2 7#b7        
classifying them according to the       
ascertained likeness or difference1 and 
thus tying them up in mental bundles    
with each set of things of a kind in its
 own bundle2 7#c7 forming the abstract1 
symbolic mental idea 7concept7 of each  
class of things1 so grouped1 which we   
may afterward use as we use figures in  
mathematical calculations2 7#d7 using   
these concepts in order to form         
inferences1 that is1 to reason from the 
known to the unknown1 and to form       
judgments regarding things2 7#e7        

comparing these judgments and deducing  
higher judgments from them2 and so on4  
,without thinking1 man would be         
dependent upon each particular          
experience for his knowledge1 except so 
far as memory and imagination could     
instinctively aid him4 ,by thought      
processes he is enabled to infer that if
 certain things be true of one of a     
certain kind of things1 the same thing  
may be expected from others of the same 
class4 ,as he is able to note points of 
likeness or difference1 he is able to   
form clearer and truer inferences4 ,in  
addition1 he is able to apply his       
constructive imagination to the         
rearrangement and recombination of      
things whose nature he has discovered1  
and thus progress along the line of     
material achievement as well as of      
knowledge4 ,it must be remembered1      
however1 that the intellect depends     
entirely for its material upon the      
perception1 which in turn receives its  
raw material from the senses4 ,the      

intellect merely groups together the    
material of perception1 makes           
inferences1 draws conclusions from1 and 
forms conclusions regarding1 them1 and  
in the case of constructive imagination 
recombines them in effective forms and  
arrangement4 ,the intellect is the last 
in order in the course of mental        
evolution4 ,it appears last in order in 
the mind of the child1 but it often     
persists in old age after the feelings  
have grown dim and the memory weak4     
,,concepts4  ,what is known as the      
concept is the first fruit of the       
elemental processes of thought4 ,the    
various images of outside objects are   
sensed1 then perceived1 and then grouped
 according to their likenesses and      
differences1 and the result is the      
production of concepts4 ,it is difficult
 to define a concept so as to convey any
 meaning to the beginner4 ,for instance1
 the dictionaries give the definition as
 an abstract1 general conception1 idea1 
or notion formed in the mind4 ,not very 

clear this1 is it8 ,perhaps we can      
understand it better if we say that the 
terms dog1 cat1 man1 horse1 house1 etc41
 each expresses a concept4 ,every term  
expresses a concept2 every general name 
of a thing or quality is a term applied 
to the concept4 ,we shall see this a    
little clearer as we proceed4  ,we form 
a concept in this way3 7#a7 ,we perceive
 a number of things2 7#b7 then we notice
 certain qualities possessed by         
things--certain properties1 attributes1 
or characteristics which make the thing 
what it is2 7#c7 then we compare these  
qualities of the thing with the         
qualities of other things and see that  
there is a likeness in some cases1 in   
various degrees1 and a difference in    
other cases1 in various degrees2 7#d7   
then we generalize or classify the      
perceived things according to their     
ascertained likenesses and differences2 
7#e7 then we form a general idea or     
concept embodying each class of thing2  
and1 finally1 we give to the concept a  

term1 or name1 which is its symbol4     
,the concept is a general idea of a     
class of things2 the term is the        
expression of that general idea4 ,the   
concept is the idea of a class of       
things2 the term is the label affixed to
 the thing4 ,to illustrate this last    
distinction1 let us take the concept and
 term of bird1 for instance4 ,by        
perception1 comparison1 and             
classification of the qualities of      
living things we have arrived at the    
conclusion that there exists a great    
general class the qualities of which may
 be stated thus3 ,warm-blooded1         
feathered1 winged1 oviparous1           
vertebrate4 ,to this general class of   
quality-possessing animals we apply the 
,english term bird4 ,the name is merely 
a symbol4 ,in ,german the term is vogel2
 in ,latin1 avis2 but in each and every 
case the general idea or concept above  
stated1 i4e41 warm-blooded1 feathered1  
winged1 oviparous1 vertebrate1 is meant4
 ,if anything is found having all of    

those particular qualities1 then we know
 it must be what we call a bird4 ,and   
everything that we call a bird must have
 those qualities4 ,the term bird is the 
symbol for that particular combination  
of qualities existing in a thing4       
,there is a difference between a mental 
image of the imagination and a concept4 
,the mental image must always be of a   
particular thing1 while the concept is  
always an idea of a general class of    
things which cannot be clearly pictured 
in the mind4 ,for instance1 the         
imagination may form the mental picture 
of any known bird1 or even of an        
imaginary bird1 but that bird always    
will be a distinct1 particular bird4    
,try to form a mental picture of the    
general class of birds--how will you do 
it8 ,do you realize the difficulty8     
,first1 such an image would have to     
include the characteristics of the large
 birds1 such as the eagle1 ostrich1 and 
condor2 and of the small birds1 such as 
the wren and humming bird4 ,it must be a

 composite of the shape of all birds1   
from the ostrich1 swan1 eagle1 crane1   
down to the sparrow1 swallow1 and       
humming bird4 ,it must picture the      
particular qualities of birds of prey1  
water birds1 and domestic fowls1 as well
 as the grain eaters4 ,it must exhibit  
all the colors found in bird life1 from 
the brightest reds and greens down to   
the sober grays and browns4 ,a little   
thought will show that a clear mental   
image of such a concept is impossible4  
,what the most of us do1 when we think  
of bird1 is to picture a vague1 flying  
shape of dull color2 but when we stop to
 think that the term must also include  
the waddling duck and the scratching    
barnyard chicken1 we see that our mental
 image is faulty4 ,the trouble is that  
the term bird really means all-bird1 and
 we cannot picture an all-bird from the 
very nature of the case4 ,our terms1    
therefore1 are like mathematical        
figures1 or algebraic symbols1 which we 
use for ease1 speed1 and clearness of   

thinking4  ,the trouble does not end    
here4 ,concepts not only include the    
general idea of things1 but also the    
general idea of the qualities of things4
 ,thus sweetness1 hardness1 courage1 and
 energy are concepts1 but we cannot form
 a mental image of them by themselves4  
,we may picture a sweet thing1 but not  
sweetness itself4 ,so you see that a    
concept is a purely abstract mental     
idea--a symbol--akin to the figures #a1 
#b1 #c1 etc41 and used in the same way4 
,they stand for general classes of      
things4 ,a term is the verbal and       
written expression of the general idea  
or concept4 ,the student is requested to
 fix these distinctions in his mind1 so 
as to render further understanding of   
them easy4     ,,chapter ,,xxi4         
,conception4   ,the process of          
conception has been well defined by     
,gordy as that act of mind by which it  
forms an idea of a class2 or that act of
 the mind that enables us to use general
 names intelligently4 ,he adds3 ,it is1 

of course1 understood that ,i am using  
the word 'class' to denote an indefinite
 number of individuals that resemble    
each other in certain particulars4      
,,perception4  ,the first step in       
conception1 as we have seen1 is that of 
perception4 ,it is readily perceived    
that the character of our intellectual  
processes depends materially upon the   
variety1 clearness1 and accuracy of our 
perceptions4 ,therefore1 again1 we would
 refer our students to the chapter in   
which we have stated the importance of  
clear perception4   ,,memory4  ,the     
future steps of conception depend       
materially upon the clearness of the    
memory1 as we can classify objects only 
by remembering their qualities beyond   
the immediate moment of actual1 original
 perception4 ,therefore1 the memory     
should be strengthened for this as well 
as other objects4   ,,abstraction4  ,the
 second step in conception is that of   
the mental abstraction of qualities from
 the observed thing4 ,that is1 we must  

perceive and then mentally set aside the
 observed qualities of the thing4 ,for  
instance1 man first perceived the       
existence of certain qualities in       
things4 ,he found that a certain number 
of things possessed some of these       
qualities in common1 while others       
possessed other qualities in the same   
way1 and thus arose classification from 
comparison4 ,but both comparison and    
classification are possible only by     
abstraction1 or the perception of the   
quality as a thing2 thus1 the           
abstraction of the idea of the quality  
of sweetness from the idea of sugar4    
,sweetness is a quality rather than a   
thing itself4 ,it is something possessed
 by sugar which helps to make sugar what
 it is4  ,color1 shape1 size1 mental    
qualities1 habits of action--these are  
some of the qualities first observed in 
things and abstracted from them in      
thought4 ,redness1 sweetness1 hardness1 
softness1 largeness1 smallness1         
fragrance1 swiftness1 slowness1         

fierceness1 gentleness1 warmness1       
coldness1 etc4--these are abstracted    
qualities of things4 ,of course these   
qualities are really never divorced from
 things1 but the mind divorces them in  
order to make thinking easier4 ,an      
authority says3 ,animals are incapable  
of making abstractions1 and that is the 
reason why they cannot develop formal   
thought4 99 99 99 ,abstract thought is  
identical with rational thought1 which  
is the characteristic feature of the    
thought of speaking beings4 ,this is the
 reason why abstract thought is upon    
earth the exclusive property of man1 and
 why brutes are incapable of abstract   
thought4 ,the process of naming is the  
mechanism of abstraction1 for names     
establish the mental independence of the
 objects named4  ,the processes of      
abstraction depend upon                 
attention--concentrated attention4      
,attention directed to the qualities of 
a thing tends to abstract the qualities 
in thought from the thing itself4 ,mill 

says3 ,abstraction is primarily the     
result of attention4 ,hamilton says3    
,attention and abstraction are only the 
same process viewed in different        
relations4 ,cultivation of the power of 
abstraction means principally           
cultivation of attention4 ,any mental   
activity which tends toward analysis or 
separation of a thing into its parts1   
qualities1 or elements will serve to    
cultivate and develop the power of      
abstraction4  ,the habit of converting  
qualities into concepts is acquired by  
transforming adjective terms into their 
corresponding noun terms4 ,for instance1
 a piece of colored candy possesses the 
qualities of being round1 hard1 red1    
sweet1 etc4 ,transforming these         
adjective qualities into noun terms we  
have the concepts of roundness1         
hardness1 redness1 and sweetness1       
respectively4   ,,comparison4  ,the     
third step in conception is that of     
comparison1 in which the qualities of   
several things are compared or examined 

for likenesses and differences4 ,we find
 many qualities in which the several    
things differ1 and a few in which there 
is a likeness4 ,classes are formed from 
resemblances or likenesses1 while       
individuals are separated from apparent 
classes by detection of differences4    
,finally1 it is found that separate     
things1 while having many points of     
difference which indicate their         
individuality1 nevertheless have a few  
points of likeness which indicate that  
they belong to the same general family  
or class4 ,the detection of likenesses  
and differences in the qualities of     
various things is an important mental   
process4 ,many of the higher thought    
processes depend largely upon the       
ability to compare things properly4 ,the
 development of attention and perception
 tends to develop the power of          
comparison4   ,,classification ,,or     
,,generalization4  ,the fourth step in  
conception is that of classification or 
generalization1 whereby we place        

individual things in a mental bundle or 
class1 and then this bundle in company  
with other bundles into a higher class1 
and so on4 ,thus we group all the       
individual small birds having certain   
characteristics into a species1 then    
several related species into a larger   
family1 and this into a still larger1   
until finally we group all the bird     
families into the great family which we 
call birds and of which the simple term 
bird expresses the general concept4     
,jevons says3 ,we classify things       
together whenever we observe that they  
are like each other in any respect1 and 
therefore think of them together4 ,in   
classifying a collection of objects1 we 
do not merely put together into groups  
those which resemble each other1 but we 
also divide each class into smaller ones
 in which the resemblance is more       
complete4 ,thus the class of white      
substances may be divided into those    
which are solid1 and those which are    
fluid1 so that we get the two minor     

classes of solid-white and fluid-white  
substances4 ,it is desirable to have    
names by which to show that one class is
 contained in another1 and1 accordingly1
 we call the class which is divided into
 two or more smaller ones the genus1 and
 the smaller ones into which it is      
divided1 the species4  ,every species is
 a small family of the individuals      
composing it1 and at the same time is an
 individual species of the genus just   
above it2 the genus1 in turn1 is a      
family of several species1 and at the   
same time an individual genus in the    
greater family or genus above it4  ,the 
student may familiarize himself with the
 idea of generalization by considering  
himself as an individual1 ,john ,smith4 
,john represents that unit of           
generalization4 ,the next step is to    
combine ,john with the other ,smiths of 
his immediate family4 ,then this family 
may be grouped with his near blood      
relations1 and so on1 until finally all 
the related ,smiths1 near and remote1   

are grouped together in a great ,smith  
family4  ,or1 in the same way1 the      
family group may be enlarged until it   
takes in all the white people in a      
county1 then all the white people in the
 state1 then all in the ,united ,states2
 then all the white races1 then all the 
white and other light-skinned races1    
then all mankind4 ,then1 if one is      
inclined1 the process may be continued  
until it embraces every living creature 
from moneron to man4 ,reversing the     
process1 living creatures may be divided
 and subdivided until all mankind is    
seen to stand as a class4 ,then the race
 of man may be divided into sub-races   
according to color2 then the white race 
may be subdivided into ,americans and   
non-,americans4 ,then the ,americans may
 be divided into inhabitants of the     
several states1 or into ,indianans and  
non-,indianans2 then into the           
inhabitants of the several counties of  
,indiana1 and thus the ,posey ,countians
 are reached4 ,then the ,posey ,county  

people are divided into ,smiths and     
non-,smiths2 then the ,smith family into
 its constituent family groups1 and then
 into the smaller families1 and so on1  
until the classification reaches one    
particular ,john ,smith1 who at last is 
found to be an individual--in a class by
 himself4 ,this is the story of the     
ascending and descending processes of   
generalization4     ,,chapter ,,xxii4   
,classes of ,concepts4   ,in the        
preceding chapter we have seen the      
process of conception--of the forming of
 concepts4 ,the idea of a general class 
of things or qualities is a concept4    
,each concept contains the qualities    
which are common to all the individuals 
composing the class1 but not those      
qualities which pertain only to the     
minor classes or the individuals4 ,for  
instance1 the concept of bird will      
necessarily include the common qualities
 of warm-bloodedness1 featheredness1    
wingedness1 oviparousness1 and          
vertebratedness4 ,but it will not       

include color1 special shape1 size1 or  
special features or characteristics of  
the subfamilies or individuals composing
 the great class4 ,the class comprises  
the individuals and subclasses composing
 it2 the concept includes the general   
and common qualities which all in the   
class possess4 ,a percept is the mental 
image of a particular thing2 a concept  
is the mental idea of the general       
qualities of a class of things4 ,a      
percept arises from the perception of a 
sensation2 a concept is a purely mental1
 abstract creation1 whose only existence
 is in the world of ideas and which has 
no corresponding individual object in   
the world of sense4  ,there are two     
general classes of concepts1 namely3    
7#a7 concrete concepts1 in which the    
common qualities of a class of things   
are combined into one conceptual idea1  
such as bird1 of which we have spoken2  
7#b7 abstract concepts1 in which is     
combined the idea of some quality common
 to a number of things1 such as         

sweetness or redness4 ,jevons's         
well-known rule for terms is an aid in  
remembering this classification3 ,a     
concrete term is the name of a thing2 an
 abstract term is the name of a quality 
of a thing4  ,it is a peculiar fact and 
rule of concrete concepts that 7#a7 the 
larger the class of things embraced in a
 concept1 the smaller are its general   
qualities2 and 7#b7 the larger the      
number of general qualities included in 
a concept1 the smaller the number of    
individuals embraced by it4 ,for        
instance1 the term bird embraces a great
 number of individuals--all the birds   
that are in existence1 in fact1 but it  
has but few general qualities1 as we    
have seen4 ,on the contrary1 the concept
 stork has a much larger number of      
general qualities1 but embraces far     
fewer individuals4 ,finally1 the        
individual is reached1 and we find that 
it has more qualities than any class can
 have2 but it is composed of the        
smallest possible number of individuals1

 one4 ,the secret is this3 ,no two      
individuals can have as many qualities  
in common as each has individually1     
unless they are precisely alike1 which  
is impossible in nature4   ,,imperfect  
,,concepts4  ,it is said that outside of
 strictly scientific definitions very   
few persons agree in their concepts of  
the same thing4 ,each has his or her own
 concept of the particular thing which  
he or she expresses by the same term4 ,a
 number of persons asked to define a    
common term like love1 religion1 faith1 
belief1 etc41 will give such a variety  
of answers as to cause wonderment4 ,as  
,green says3 ,my idea or image is mine  
alone--the reward of careless           
observation if imperfect2 of attentive1 
careful1 and varied observation if      
correct4 ,between mine and yours a great
 gulf is fixed4 ,no man can pass from   
mine to yours1 or from yours to mine4   
,neither in any proper sense of the term
 can mine be conveyed to you4 ,words do 
not convey thoughts2 they are not       

vehicles of thoughts in any true sense  
of that term4 ,a word is simply a common
 symbol which each associates with his  
own idea or image4  ,the reason of the  
difference in the concepts of several   
persons is that very few of our concepts
 are nearly perfect2 the majority of    
them are quite imperfect and incomplete4
 ,jevons gives us an idea of this in his
 remarks on classification3 ,things may 
seem to be very much like each other    
which are not so4 ,whales1 porpoises1   
seals1 and several other animals live in
 the sea exactly like a fish2 they have 
a similar shape and are usually classed 
among fish4 ,people are said to go whale
 fishing4 ,yet these animals are not    
really fish at all1 but are much more   
like dogs and horses and other          
quadrupeds than they are like fish4     
,they cannot live entirely under water  
and breathe the air contained in the    
water like fish1 but they have to come  
to the surface at intervals to take     
breath4 ,similarly1 we must not class   

bats with birds because they fly about1 
although they have what would be called 
wings2 these wings are not like those of
 birds1 and1 in truth1 bats are much    
more like rats and mice than they are   
like birds4 ,botanists used at one time 
to classify plants according to their   
size1 as trees1 shrubs1 or herbs1 but we
 now know that a great tree is often    
more similar in character to a tiny herb
 than it is to other great trees4 ,a    
daisy has little resemblance to a great 
,scotch thistle2 yet the botanist       
regards them as very similar4 ,the lofty
 growing bamboo is a kind of grass1 and 
the sugar cane also belongs to the same 
class with wheat and oats4  ,it is a    
matter of importance that clear concepts
 should be formed regarding at least the
 familiar things of life4 ,the list of  
clear concepts should be added to from  
time to time by study1 investigation1   
and examination4 ,the dictionary should 
be consulted frequently1 and a term     
studied until one has a clear meaning of

 the concept the term seeks to express4 
,a good encyclopedia 7not necessarily an
 expensive one1 in these days of cheap  
editions7 will also prove very useful in
 this respect4 ,as ,halleck says3 ,it   
must be borne in mind that most of our  
concepts are subject to change during   
our entire life2 that at first they are 
made only in a tentative way2 that      
experience may show us1 at any time1    
that they have been erroneously formed1 
that we have abstracted too little or   
too much1 made the class too wide or too
 narrow1 or that here a quality must be 
added or there one taken away4  ,it is a
 good practice to make a memorandum of  
anything of which you may hear1 but of  
which you know nothing1 and then later  
to make a brief but thorough            
investigation of that thing1 by means of
 the dictionary and encyclopedia1 and of
 whatever good works may be obtained on 
the subject1 not leaving it until you   
feel that you have obtained at least a  
clear idea of what the thing really     

means4 ,a half hour each evening devoted
 to exercise of this kind will result in
 a wonderful increase of general        
information4 ,we have heard of a man who
 made a practice of reading a short     
article in the encyclopedia every       
evening1 giving preference to subjects  
generally classed as familiar4 ,in a    
year he made a noticeable advance in    
general knowledge as well as habits of  
thought4 ,in five years he was looked   
upon by his associates as a man of a    
remarkably large field of general       
information and of more than ordinary   
intelligence1 which verdict was a just  
one4 ,as a rule we waste far more time  
on worthless fiction than we are willing
 to devote to a little self-improvement 
of this kind4 ,we shrink at the idea of 
a general course of instructive reading1
 little realizing that we can take our  
study in small installments and at a    
very little cost in time or labor4  ,our
 concepts form the material which our   
intellect uses in its reasoning         

processes4 ,no matter how good a        
reasoner one may be1 unless he has a    
good supply of general information about
 the things of which he is reasoning1 he
 will not make much real headway4 ,we   
must begin at the bottom and build a    
firm foundation upon which the          
intellectual structure may be erected4  
,this foundation is composed of facts4  
,these facts are represented by our     
clear and correct concepts4             
,,chapter ,,xxiii4  ,judgments4   ,we   
have seen the several steps of the      
mental process whereby simple sensations
 are transformed into percepts and then 
into concepts or general ideas4 ,the    
formation of the concept is considered  
as the first great step in thinking4    
,the second great step in thinking is   
that of the formation of the judgment4  
,the definition of judgment1 as the term
 is used in logic2 is the comparing     
together in the mind of two ideas of    
things1 and determining whether they    
agree or disagree with each other1 or   

that one of them does or does not belong
 to the other4 ,judgment is1 therefore1 
7a7 affirmative or 7b7 negative1 as 7a7 
',snow is white1' or 7b7 ',all white men
 are not ,europeans4'  ,what in logic is
 called a proposition is the expression 
in words of a logical judgment4 ,hyslop 
defined the term proposition as follows3
 ,any affirmation or denial of an       
agreement between two conceptions4 ,for 
instance1 we compare the concepts       
sparrow and bird and find that there is 
an agreement1 and that the former       
belongs to the latter2 this mental      
process is a judgment4 ,we then announce
 the judgment in the proposition3 ,the  
sparrow is a bird4 ,in the same way we  
compare the concepts bat and bird1 find 
that there is a disagreement1 and form  
the judgment that neither belongs to the
 other1 which we express in the         
proposition3 ,the bat is not a bird4 ,or
 we may form the judgment that sweetness
 is a quality of sugar1 which we express
 in the proposition3 ,sugar is sweet4   

,likewise1 we may form the judgment     
which results in the proposition3       
,vinegar is not sweet4  ,while the      
process of judgment is generally        
considered as constituting the second   
great step of thinking1 coming after the
 formation of the concept1 and          
consisting of the comparing of concepts1
 it must be remembered that the act of  
judging is far more elementary than     
this1 for it is found still farther back
 in the history of thought processes4   
,by that peculiar law of paradox which  
we find everywhere operative in mind    
processes1 the same process of forming  
judgments which is used in comparing    
concepts also has been used in forming  
the same concepts in the stage of       
comparison4 ,in fact1 the result of all 
comparison1 high or low1 must be a      
judgment4  ,halleck says3 ,judgment is  
necessary in forming concepts4 ,when we 
decide that a quality is or is not      
common to a class1 we are really        
judging4 ,this is another evidence of   

the complexity and unified action of the
 mind4 ,brooks says3 ,the power of      
judgment is of great value in its       
products4 ,it is involved in or         
accompanies every act of the intellect1 
and thus lies at the foundation of all  
intellectual activity4 ,it operates     
directly in every act of the            
understanding1 and even aids the other  
faculties of the mind in completing     
their activities and products4 99 99 99 
,strictly speaking1 every intelligent   
act of the mind is accompanied with a   
judgment4 ,to know is to discriminate   
and1 therefore1 to judge4 ,every        
sensation or cognition involves a       
knowledge and so a judgment that it     
exists4 ,the mind cannot think at all   
without judging2 to think is to judge4  
,even in forming the notions which      
judgment compares1 the mind judges4     
,every notion or concept implies a      
previous act of judgment to form it2 in 
forming a concept we compare the common 
attributes before we unite them1 and    

comparison is judgment4 ,it is thus true
 that ',every concept is a contracted   
judgment2 every judgment an expanded    
concept4'  ,it is needless to say that  
as judgments lie at the base of our     
thinking1 and also appear in every part 
of its higher structure1 the importance 
of correct judgment in thought cannot be
 overestimated4 ,but it is often very   
difficult to form correct judgment even 
regarding the most familiar things      
around us4 ,halleck says3 ,in actual    
life things present themselves to us    
with their qualities disguised or       
obscured by other conflicting qualities4
 ,men had for ages seen burning         
substances and had formed a concept of  
them4 ,a certain hard1 black1 stony     
substance had often been noticed1 and a 
concept had been formed of it4 ,this    
concept was imperfect2 but it is very   
seldom that we meet with perfect1       
sharply-defined concepts in actual life4
 ,so it happened that for ages the      
concept of burning substance was never  

linked by judgment to the concept of    
stone coal4 ,the combustible quality in 
the coal was overshadowed by its stony  
attributes4 ',of course stone will not  
burn1' people said4 ,one cannot tell how
 long the development of mankind was    
retarded for that very reason4 ,england 
would not to-day be manufacturing       
products for the rest of the world had  
not some one judged coal to be a        
combustible substance4 99 99 99         
,judgment is ever silently working and  
comparing things that to past ages      
seemed dissimilar2 and it is constantly 
abstracting and leaving out of the field
 of view those qualities which have     
simply served to obscure the point at   
issue4  ,gordy says3 ,the credulity of  
children is proverbial2 but if we get   
our facts at first hand1 if we study    
'the living1 learning1 playing child1'  
we shall see that he is quite as        
remarkable for incredulity as for       
credulity4 ,the explanation is simple3  
,he tends to believe the first          

suggestion that comes into his mind1 no 
matter from what source2 and since his  
belief is not the result of any rational
 process1 he cannot be made to          
disbelieve it in any rational way4      
,hence it is that he is very credulous  
about any matter about which he has no  
ideas2 but let the idea once get        
possession of his mind1 and he is quite 
as remarkable for incredulity as before 
for credulity4 99 99 99 ,if we study the
 larger child1--the man with a child's  
mind1 an uneducated man1--we shall have 
the same truth forced upon us4 ,if the  
beliefs of men were due to processes of 
reasoning1 where they have not reasoned 
they would not believe4 ,but do we find 
it so8 ,is it not true that the men who 
have the most positive opinions on the  
largest variety of subjects--so far as  
they have ever heard of them--are       
precisely those who have the least right
 to them8 ,socrates1 we remember1 was   
counted the wisest man in ,athens       
because he alone resisted his natural   

tendency to believe in the absence of   
evidence2 he alone would not delude     
himself with the conceit of knowledge   
without the reality2 and it would       
scarcely be too much to say that the    
intellectual strength of men is in      
direct proportion to the number of      
things they are absolutely certain of4  
99 99 99 ,i do not1 of course1 mean to  
intimate that we should have no opinions
 about matters that we have not         
personally investigated4 ,we take1 and  
ought to take1 the opinion of some men  
about law1 and others about medicine1   
and others about particular sciences1   
and so on4 ,but we should clearly       
realize the difference between holding  
an opinion on trust and holding it as   
the result of our own investigations4   
,brooks says3 ,it should be one of the  
leading objects of the culture of young 
people to lead them to acquire the habit
 of forming judgments4 ,they should not 
only be led to see things but to have   
opinions about things4 ,they should be  

trained to see things in their relations
 and to put these relations into        
definite propositions4 ,their ideas of  
objects should be worked up into        
thoughts concerning the objects4 ,those 
methods of teaching are best which tend 
to excite a thoughtful habit of mind    
that notices the similitudes and        
diversities of objects and endeavors to 
read the thoughts which they embody and 
of which they are the symbols4  ,the    
study of logic1 geometry1 and the       
natural sciences is recommended for     
exercise of the faculty of judgment and 
the development thereof4 ,the study and 
practice of even the lower branches of  
mathematics are also helpful in this    
direction4 ,the game of checkers or     
chess is recommended by many            
authorities4 ,some have advocated the   
practice of solving enigmas1 problems1  
rebuses1 etc41 as giving exercise to    
this faculty of the mind4 ,the          
cultivation of the ,why8 attitude of    
mind1 and the answering of one's own    

mental questions1 is also helpful1 if   
not carried to excess4 ,doubting ,thomas
 is not always a term of reproach in    
these days of scientific habits of      
thought1 and the man from ,missouri has 
many warm admirers4     ,,chapter       
,,xxiv4  ,primary ,laws of ,thought4    
,in connection with this subject we     
herewith call the attention of the      
student to the well-known ,primary ,laws
 of ,thought which have been recognized 
as valid from the time of the ancient   
,greek logicians4 ,these laws are       
self-evident1 and are uncontradictable4 
,they are axiomatic4 ,jevons says of    
them3 ,students are seldom able to see  
at first their full meaning and         
importance4 ,all arguments may be       
explained when these self-evident laws  
are granted2 and it is not too much to  
say that the whole of logic will be     
plain to those who will constantly use  
these laws as their key4 ,here are the  
,three ,primary ,laws of ,thought3--    
,i4 ,law of ,identity4 ,whatever is1 is4

    ,,ii4 ,law of ,contradiction4       
,nothing can both be and not be4        
,,iii4 ,law of ,excluded ,middle4       
,everything must either be or not be2   
there is no middle course4  ,i4 ,the    
first of these laws1 called ,the ,law of
 ,identity1 informs us that a thing is  
always itself1 no matter under what     
guise or form it is perceived or may    
present itself4 ,an animal is always a  
bird if it possesses the general        
characteristics of a bird1 no matter    
whether it exhibits the minor           
characteristics of an eagle1 a wren1 a  
stork1 or a humming bird4 ,in the same  
way a whale is a mammal because it      
possesses the general characteristics of
 a mammal notwithstanding that it swims 
in the water like a fish4 ,also1        
sweetness is always sweetness1 whether  
manifested in sugar1 honey1 flowers1 or 
products of coal tar4 ,if a thing is    
that thing1 then it is1 and it cannot be
 logically claimed that it is not4      
,,ii4 ,the second of these laws1 called 

,the ,law of ,contradiction1 informs us 
that the same quality or class cannot be
 both affirmed and denied of a thing at 
the same time and place4 ,a sparrow     
cannot be said to be both bird and not  
bird at the same time4 ,neither can     
sugar be said to be sweet and not sweet 
at the same time4 ,a piece of iron may  
be hot at one end and not hot at        
another1 but it cannot be both hot and  
not hot at the same place at the same   
time4  ,,iii4 ,the third of these laws1 
called ,the ,law of ,excluded ,middle1  
informs us that a given quality or class
 must be affirmed or denied to          
everything at any given time and place4 
,everything either must be of a certain 
class or not1 must possess a certain    
quality or not1 at a given time or      
place4 ,there is no other alternative or
 middle course4 ,it is axiomatic that   
any statement must either be or not be  
true of a certain other thing at any    
certain time and place2 there is no     
escape from this4 ,anything either must 

be black or not black1 a bird or not a  
bird1 alive or not alive1 at any certain
 time or place4 ,there is nothing else  
that it can be2 it cannot both be and   
not be at the same time and place1 as we
 have seen2 therefore1 it must either be
 or not be that which is asserted of it4
 ,the judgment must decide which        
alternative2 but it has only two        
possible choices4  ,but the student must
 not confuse opposite qualities or      
things with not-ness4 ,a thing may be   
black or not black1 but it need not be  
white to be not black1 for blue is      
likewise not black just as it is not    
white4 ,the neglect of this fact        
frequently causes error4 ,we must always
 affirm either the existence or         
non-existence of a quality in a thing2  
but this is far different from affirming
 or denying the existence of the        
opposite quality4 ,thus a thing may be  
not hard and yet it does not follow that
 it is soft2 it may be neither hard nor 
soft4   ,,fallacious ,,application4     

,there exists what are known as         
fallacies of application of these       
primary laws4 ,a fallacy is an unsound  
argument or conclusion4 ,for instance1  
because a particular man is found to be 
a liar1 it is fallacious to assume that 
all men are liars1 for lying is a       
particular quality of the individual    
man1 and not a general quality of the   
family of men4 ,in the same way because 
a stork has long legs and a long bill1  
it does not follow that all birds must  
have these characteristics simply       
because the stork is a bird4 ,it is     
fallacious to extend an individual      
quality to a class4 ,but it is sound    
judgment to assume that a class quality 
must be possessed by all individuals in 
that class4 ,it is a far different      
proposition which asserts that some     
birds are black1 from that which asserts
 that all birds are black4 ,the same    
rule1 of course1 is true regarding      
negative propositions4  ,another fallacy
 is that which assumes that because the 

affirmative or negative proposition has 
not been1 or cannot be1 proved1 it      
follows that the opposite proposition   
must be true4 ,the true judgment is     
simply not proven4  ,another fallacious 
judgment is that which is based on      
attributing absolute quality to that    
which is but relative or comparative4   
,for instance1 the terms hot and cold   
are relative and comparative1 and simply
 denote one's relative opinion regarding
 a fixed and certain degree of          
temperature4 ,the certain thing is the  
degree of temperature1 say #ge degrees  
,fahrenheit2 of this we may logically   
claim that it is or is not true at a    
certain time or place4 ,it either is #ge
 degrees ,fahrenheit or it is not4 ,but 
to one man this may seem warm and to    
another cold2 both are right in their   
judgments1 so far as their own relative 
feelings are concerned4 ,but neither can
 claim absolutely that it is warm or    
cold4 ,therefore1 it is a fallacy to    
ascribe absolute quality to a relative  

one4 ,the absolute fact comes under the 
,law of ,excluded ,middle1 but a        
personal opinion is not an absolute     
fact4  ,there are other fallacies which 
will be considered in other chapters of 
this book1 under their appropriate      
heading4     ,,chapter ,,xxv4           
,reasoning4   ,reasoning1 the third     
great step in thinking1 may be said to  
consist of ascertaining new truths from 
old ones1 new judgments from old ones1  
unknown facts from known ones2 in short1
 of proceeding logically from the known 
to the unknown1 using the known as the  
foundation for the unknown which is     
sought to be known4 ,gordy gives us the 
following excellent definition of the   
term3 ,reasoning is the act of going    
from the known to the unknown through   
other beliefs2 of basing judgment upon  
judgments2 reaching beliefs through     
beliefs4 ,reasoning1 then1 is seen to be
 a process of building a structure of   
judgments1 one resting upon the other1  
the topmost point being the final       

judgment1 but the whole constituting an 
edifice of judgment4 ,this may be seen  
more clearly when the various forms of  
reasoning are considered4   ,,immediate 
,,reasoning4  ,the simplest form of     
reasoning is that known as immediate    
reasoning1 by which is meant reasoning  
by directly comparing two judgments     
without the intervention of the third   
judgment1 which is found in the more    
formal classes of reasoning4 ,this form 
of reasoning depends largely upon the   
application of the ,three ,primary ,laws
 of ,thought1 to which we have referred 
in a previous chapter4  ,it will be seen
 that if 7a7 a thing is always itself1  
then 7b7 all that is included in it must
 partake of its nature4 ,thus1 the bird 
family has certain class                
characteristics1 therefore by immediate 
reasoning we know that any member of    
that family must possess those class    
characteristics1 whatever particular    
characteristics it may have in addition4
 ,and we likewise know that we cannot   

attribute the particular                
characteristics1 as a matter of course1 
to the other members of the class4      
,thus1 though all sparrows are birds1 it
 is not true that all birds are         
sparrows4 ,all biscuits are bread2 but  
all bread is not biscuit4  ,in the same 
way we know that a thing cannot be bird 
and mammal at the same time1 for the    
mammals form a not-bird family4 ,and1   
likewise1 we know that everything must  
be either bird or not bird1 but that    
being not bird does not mean being a    
mammal1 for there are many other        
not-bird things than mammals4 ,in this  
form of reasoning distinction is always 
made between the universal or general   
class1 which is expressed by the word   
all1 and the particular or individual1  
which is expressed by the word some4    
,many persons fail to note this         
difference in their reasoning1 and      
fallaciously reason1 for instance1 that 
because some swans are white1 all swans 
must be so1 which is a far different    

thing from reasoning that if all is so  
and so1 then some must be so and so4    
,those who are interested in this       
subject are referred to some elementary 
text-book on logic1 as the detailed     
consideration is too technical for      
consideration here4   ,,reasoning ,,by  
,,analogy4  ,reasoning by analogy is an 
elementary form of reasoning1 and is the
 particular kind of reasoning employed  
by the majority of persons in ordinary  
thought4 ,it is based upon the          
unconscious recognition by the human    
mind of the principle which is expressed
 by ,jevons as3 ,if two or more things  
resemble each other in many points1 they
 will probably resemble each other in   
more points4 ,the same authority says3  
,reasoning by analogy differs only in   
degree from that kind of reasoning      
called 'generalization4' ,when many     
things resemble each other in a few     
properties1 we argue about them by      
generalization4 ,when a few things      
resemble each other in many properties1 

it is a case of analogy4  ,while this   
form of reason is frequently employed   
with more or less satisfactory results1 
it is always open to a large percentage 
of error4 ,thus1 persons have been      
poisoned by toadstools by reason of     
false analogous reasoning that because  
mushrooms are edible1 then toadstools1  
which resemble them1 must also be fit   
for food2 or1 in the same way1 because  
certain berries resemble other edible   
berries they must likewise be good food4
 ,as ,brooks says3 ,to infer that       
because ,john ,smith has a red nose and 
is also a drunkard1 then ,henry ,jones1 
who also has a red nose1 is also a      
drunkard1 would be dangerous inference4 
,conclusions of this kind drawn from    
analogy are frequently dangerous4       
,halleck says3 ,many false analogies are
 manufactured1 and it is excellent      
thought training to expose them4 ,the   
majority of people think so little that 
they swallow these false analogies just 
as newly-fledged robins swallow small   

stones dropped into their mouths4       
,jevons1 one of the best authorities on 
the subject1 says3 ,there is no way in  
which we can really assure ourselves    
that we are arguing safely by analogy4  
,the only rule that can be given is     
this3 ,that the more closely two things 
resemble each other1 the more likely it 
is that they are the same in other      
respects1 especially in points closely  
connected with those observed4 ,in order
 to be clear about our conclusions1 we  
ought1 in fact1 never to rest satisfied 
with mere analogy1 but ought to try to  
discover the general laws governing the 
case4 99 99 99 ,we find that reasoning  
by analogy is not to be depended upon1  
unless we make such an inquiry into the 
causes and laws of the things in        
question that we really employ inductive
 and deductive reasoning4   ,,higher    
,,forms ,,of ,,reasoning4  ,the two     
higher forms of reasoning are known1    
respectively1 as 7#a7 inductive         
reasoning1 or inference from particular 

facts to general laws2 and 7#b7         
deductive reasoning1 or inference from  
general truths to particular truths4    
,while the class distinction is made for
 the purpose of clear consideration1 it 
must not be forgotten that the two forms
 of reasoning are generally found in    
combination4 ,thus1 in inductive        
reasoning many steps are taken by the   
aid of deductive reasoning2 and1        
likewise1 before we can reason          
deductively from general truths to      
particular ones we must have discovered 
the general truths by inductive         
reasoning from particular facts4 ,thus  
there is a unity in all reasoning       
processes as there is in all mental     
operations4 ,inductive reasoning is a   
synthetical process2 deductive          
reasoning1 an analytical one4 ,in the   
first we combine and build up1 in the   
latter we dissect and separate4         
,,chapter ,,xxvi4  ,inductive           
,reasoning4   ,inductive reasoning is   
based upon the axiom3 ,what is true of  

the many is true of the whole4 ,this    
axiom is based upon man's belief in the 
uniformity of nature4 ,inductive        
reasoning is a mental ladder by which we
 climb from particular facts to general 
laws1 but the ladder rests upon the     
belief that the universe is governed by 
law4  ,the steps in inductive reasoning 
are as follows3--  ,i4 ,observation1    
investigation1 and examination of       
particular facts or things4 ,if we wish 
to know the general characteristics of  
the bird family1 we must first examine a
 sufficient number of birds of many     
kinds so as to discover the             
comparatively few general               
characteristics possessed by all of the 
bird family1 as distinct from the       
particular characteristics possessed by 
only some of that family4 ,the greater  
the number of individuals examined1 the 
narrower becomes our list of the general
 qualities common to all4 ,in the same  
way we must examine many kinds of       
flowers before we come to the few       

general qualities common to all flowers1
 which we combine in the general concept
 of flower4 ,the same1 of course1 is    
true regarding the discovery of general 
laws from particular facts4 ,we examine 
the facts and then work toward a general
 law which will explain them4 ,for      
instance1 the ,law of ,gravitation was  
discovered by the observation and       
investigation of the fact that all      
objects are attracted to the earth2     
further investigation revealed the fact 
that all material objects are attracted 
to each other2 then the general law was 
discovered1 or1 rather1 the hypothesis  
was advanced1 was found to explain the  
facts1 and was verified by further      
experiments and observation4  ,,ii4 ,the
 second step in inductive reasoning is  
the making of an hypothesis4 ,an        
hypothesis is a proposition or principle
 assumed as a possible explanation for a
 set or class of facts4 ,it is regarded 
as a working theory1 which must be      
examined and tested in connection with  

the facts before it is finally accepted4
 ,for instance1 after the observation   
that a number of magnets attracted      
steel1 it was found reasonable to       
advance the hypothesis that all magnets 
attract steel4 ,in the same way was     
advanced the hypothesis that all birds  
are warm-blooded1 winged1 feathered1    
oviparous vertebrates4 ,subsequent      
observation and experiment established  
the hypothesis regarding the magnet1 and
 regarding the general qualities of the 
bird family4 ,if a single magnet had    
been found which did not attract steel1 
then the hypothesis would have fallen4  
,if a single bird had been discovered   
which was not warm-blooded1 then that   
quality would have been stricken from   
the list of the necessary               
characteristics of all birds4  ,a theory
 is merely an hypothesis which has been 
verified or established by continued and
 repeated observation1 investigation1   
and experiment4  ,hypotheses and        
theories arise very frequently from the 

subconscious assimilation of a number of
 particular facts and the consequent    
flashing of a great guess1 or sacred    
suspicion of the truth1 into the        
conscious field of attention4 ,the      
scientific imagination plays an         
important part in this process4 ,there  
is1 of course1 a world of difference    
between a blind guess based upon        
insufficient data and a scientific guess
 resulting from the accumulation of a   
vast store of careful and accurate      
information4 ,as ,brooks says3 ,the     
forming of an hypothesis requires a     
suggestive mind1 a lively fancy1 a      
philosophic imagination that catches a  
glimpse of the idea through the form or 
sees the law standing behind the fact4  
,but accepted theories1 in the majority 
of cases1 arise only by testing out and 
rejecting many promising hypotheses and 
finally settling upon the one which best
 answers all the requirements and best  
explains the facts4 ,as an authority    
says3 ,to try wrong guesses is with most

 persons the only way to hit upon right 
ones4  ,,iii4 ,testing the hypothesis by
 deductive reasoning is the third step  
in inductive reasoning4 ,this test is   
made by applying the hypothetical       
principle to particular facts or things2
 that is1 to follow out mentally the    
hypothetical principle to its logical   
conclusion4 ,this may be done in this   
way3 ,if so and so is correct1 then it  
follows that thus and so is true1 etc4  
,if the conclusion agrees with reason1  
then the test is deemed satisfactory so 
far as it has gone4 ,but if the result  
proves to be a logical absurdity or     
inconsistent with natural facts1 then   
the hypothesis is discredited4  ,,iv4   
,practical verification of the          
hypothesis is the fourth step in        
inductive reasoning4 ,this step consists
 of the actual comparison of observed   
facts with the logical conclusions      
arising from applying deductive         
reasoning to the general principle      
assumed as a premise4 ,the greater      

number of facts agreeing with the       
conclusions arising from the premise of 
the hypothesis1 the greater is deemed   
the probability of the latter4 ,the     
authorities generally assume an         
hypothesis to be verified when it       
accounts for all the facts which        
properly are related to it4 ,some       
extremists contend1 however1 that before
 an hypothesis may be considered as     
absolutely verified1 it must not only   
account for all the associated facts but
 that also there must be no other       
possible hypothesis to account for the  
same facts4 ,the facts referred to in   
this connection may be either 7#a7      
observed phenomena1 or 7#b7 the         
conclusions of deductive reasoning      
arising from the assumption of the      
hypothesis1 or 7#c7 the agreement       
between the observed facts and the      
logical conclusions4 ,the last          
combination is generally regarded as the
 most logical4 ,the verification of an  
hypothesis must be an all-around one1   

and there must be an agreement between  
the observed facts and the logical      
conclusions in the case--the hypothesis 
must fit the facts1 and the facts must  
fit the hypothesis4 ,the facts are the  
glass slipper of the ,cinderella        
legend--the several sisters of          
,cinderella were discarded hypotheses1  
the slipper and the sisters not fitting4
 ,when ,cinderella's foot was found to  
be the one foot upon which the glass    
slipper fitted1 then the ,cinderella    
hypothesis was considered to have been  
proved--the glass slipper was hers and  
the prince claimed his bride4           
,,chapter ,,xxvii4  ,deductive          
,reasoning4   ,we have seen in the      
preceding chapter that from particular  
facts we reason inductively to general  
principles or truths4 ,we have also seen
 that one of the steps of inductive     
reasoning is the testing of the         
hypothesis by deductive reasoning4 ,we  
shall now also see that the results of  
inductive reasoning are used as premises

 or bases for deductive reasoning4      
,these two forms of reasoning are       
opposites and yet complementary to each 
other2 they are in a sense independent  
and yet are interdependent4 ,brooks     
says3 ,the two methods of reasoning are 
the reverse of each other4 ,one goes    
from particulars to generals2 the other 
from generals to particulars4 ,one is a 
process of analysis2 the other is a     
process of synthesis4 ,one rises from   
facts to laws2 the other descends from  
laws to facts4 ,each is independent of  
the other1 and each is a valid and      
essential method of inference4  ,halleck
 well expresses the spirit of deductive 
reasoning as follows3 ,after induction  
has classified certain phenomena and    
thus given us a major premise1 we may   
proceed deductively to apply the        
inference to any new specimen that can  
be shown to belong to that class4       
,induction hands over to deduction a    
ready-made premise4 ,deduction takes    
that as a fact1 making no inquiry       

regarding its truth4 ,only after general
 laws have been laid down1 after objects
 have been classified1 after major      
premises have been formed1 can deduction
 be employed4  ,deductive reasoning     
proceeds from general principles to     
particular facts4 ,it is a descending   
process1 analytical in its nature4 ,it  
rests upon the fundamental axiomatic    
basis that whatever is true of the whole
 is true of its parts1 or whatever is   
true of the universal is true of the    
particulars4  ,the process of deductive 
reasoning may be stated briefly as      
follows3 7#a7 ,a general principle of a 
class is stated as a major premise2 7#b7
 a particular thing is stated as        
belonging to that general class1 this   
statement being the minor premise2      
therefore 7#c7 the general class        
principle is held to apply to the       
particular thing1 this last statement   
being the conclusion4 7,a premise is a  
proposition assumed to be true47  ,the  
following gives us an illustration of   

the above process3--    ,i4 7,major     
premise7--,a bird is a warm-blooded1    
feathered1 winged1     oviparous        
vertebrate4    ,,ii4 7,minor            
premise7--,the sparrow is a bird2       
therefore    ,,iii4 7,conclusion7--,the 
sparrow is a warm-blooded1 feathered1   
winged1     oviparous vertebrate4  ,or1 
again3--    ,i4 7,major                 
premise7--,rattlesnakes frequently bite 
when enraged1 and     their bite is     
poisonous4    ,,ii4 7,minor             
premise7--,this snake before me is a    
rattlesnake2     therefore    ,,iii4    
7,conclusion7--,this snake before me may
 bite when enraged1 and     its bite    
will be poisonous4  ,the average person 
may be inclined to object that he is not
 conscious of going through this        
complicated process when he reasons     
about sparrows or rattlesnakes4 ,but he 
does1 nevertheless4 ,he is not conscious
 of the steps1 because mental habit has 
accustomed him to the process1 and it is
 performed more or less automatically4  

,but these three steps manifest in all  
processes of deductive reasoning1 even  
the simplest4 ,the average person is    
like the character in the ,french play  
who was surprised to learn that he had  
been talking prose for forty years      
without knowing it4 ,jevons says that   
the majority of persons are equally     
surprised when they find out that they  
have been using logical forms1 more or  
less correctly1 without having realized 
it4 ,he says3 ,a large number even of   
educated persons have no clear idea of  
what logic is4 ,yet1 in a certain way1  
every one must have been a logician     
since he began to speak4  ,there are    
many technical rules and principles of  
logic which we cannot attempt to        
consider here4 ,there are1 however1 a   
few elementary principles of correct    
reasoning which should have a place     
here4 ,what is known as a syllogism is  
the expression in words of the various  
parts of the complete process of        
reasoning or argument4 ,whately defines 

it as follows3 ,a syllogism is an       
argument expressed in strict logical    
form so that its conclusiveness is      
manifest from the structure of the      
expression alone1 without any regard to 
the meaning of the term4 ,in short1 if  
the two premises are accepted as        
correct1 it follows that there can be   
only one true logical conclusion        
resulting therefrom4 ,in abstract or    
theoretical reasoning the word if is    
assumed to precede each of the two      
premises1 the therefore before the      
conclusion resulting from the if1 of    
course4 ,the following are the general  
rules governing the syllogism3--  ,i4   
,every syllogism must consist of three1 
and no more than three1 propositions1   
namely 7#a7 the major premise1 7#b7 the 
minor premise1 and 7#c7 the conclusion4 
,,ii4 ,the conclusion must naturally    
follow from the premises1 otherwise the 
syllogism is invalid and constitutes a  
fallacy or sophism4  ,,iii4 ,one        
premise1 at least1 must be affirmative4 

,,iv4 ,if one premise is negative1 the  
conclusion must be negative4  ,v4 ,one  
premise1 at least1 must be universal or 
general4  ,,vi4 ,if one premise is      
particular1 the conclusion also must be 
particular4  ,the last two rules 7,v4   
and ,,vi47 contain the essential        
principles of all the rules regarding   
syllogisms1 and any syllogism which     
breaks them will be found also to break 
other rules1 some of which are not      
stated here for the reason that they are
 too technical4 ,these two rules may be 
tested by constructing syllogisms in    
violation of their principles4 ,the     
reason for them is as follows3 7,rule   
,v47 ,because from two particular       
premises no conclusion can be drawn1 as1
 for instance3 7#a7 ,some men are       
mortal2 7#b7 ,john is a man4 ,we cannot 
reason from this either that ,john is or
 is not mortal4 ,the major premise      
should read all men4 7,rule ,,vi47      
,because a universal conclusion can be  
drawn only from two universal premises1 

an example being needless here1 as the  
conclusion is so obvious4               
,,cultivation ,,of ,,reasoning          
,,faculties4  ,there is no royal road to
 the cultivation of the reasoning       
faculties4 ,there is but the old        
familiar rule3 ,practice1 exercise1 use4
 ,nevertheless there are certain studies
 which tend to develop the faculties in 
question4 ,the study of arithmetic1     
especially mental arithmetic1 tends to  
develop correct habits of reasoning from
 one truth to another--from cause to    
effect4 ,better still is the study of   
geometry2 and best of all1 of course1 is
 the study of logic and the practice of 
working out its problems and examples4  
,the study of philosophy and psychology 
also is useful in this way4 ,many       
lawyers and teachers have drilled       
themselves in geometry solely for the   
purpose of developing their logical     
reasoning powers4  ,brooks says3 ,so    
valuable is geometry as a discipline    
that many lawyers and others review     

their geometry every year in order to   
keep the mind drilled to logical habits 
of thinking4 99 99 99 ,the study of     
logic will aid in the development of the
 power of deductive reasoning4 ,it does 
this1 first1 by showing the method by   
which we reason4 ,to know how we reason1
 to see the laws which govern the       
reasoning process1 to analyze the       
syllogism and see its conformity to the 
laws of thought1 is not only an exercise
 of reasoning but gives that knowledge  
of the process that will be both a      
stimulus and a guide to thought4 ,no one
 can trace the principles and processes 
of thought without receiving thereby an 
impetus to thought4 ,in the second      
place1 the study of logic is probably   
even more valuable because it gives     
practice in deductive thinking4 ,this1  
perhaps1 is its principal value1 since  
the mind reasons instinctively without  
knowing how it reasons4 ,one can think  
without the knowledge of the science of 
thinking just as one can use language   

correctly without a knowledge of        
grammar2 yet as the study of grammar    
improves one's speech1 so the study of  
logic can but improve one's thought4    
,in the opinion of the writer hereof1   
one of the best though simple methods of
 cultivating the faculties of reasoning 
is to acquaint one's self thoroughly    
with the more common fallacies or forms 
of false reasoning--so thoroughly that  
not only is the false reasoning detected
 at once but also the reason of its     
falsity is readily understood4 ,to      
understand the wrong ways of reasoning  
is to be on guard against them4 ,by     
guarding against them we tend to        
eliminate them from our thought         
processes4 ,if we eliminate the false we
 have the true left in its place4       
,therefore we recommend the weeding of  
the logical garden of the common        
fallacies1 to the end that the flowers  
of pure reason may flourish in their    
stead4 ,accordingly1 we think it well to
 call your attention in the next chapter

 to the more common fallacies1 and the  
reason of their falsity4     ,,chapter  
,,xxviii4  ,fallacious ,reasoning4   ,a 
fallacy is defined as an unsound        
argument or mode of arguing which1 while
 appearing to be decisive of a question1
 is in reality not so2 or a fallacious  
statement or proposition in which the   
error is not readily apparent4 ,when a  
fallacy is used to deceive others1 it is
 called 'sophistry1' ,it is important   
that the student should understand the  
nature of the fallacy and understand its
 most common forms4 ,as ,jevons says3   
,in learning how to do right it is      
always desirable to be informed as to   
the ways in which we are likely to go   
wrong4 ,in describing to a man the road 
which he should follow1 we ought to tell
 him not only the turnings which he is  
to take but also the turnings which he  
is to avoid4 ,similarly1 it is a useful 
part of logic which teaches us the ways 
and turnings by which people most       
commonly go astray in reasoning4  ,in   

presenting the following brief statement
 regarding the more common forms of     
fallacy1 we omit so far as possible the 
technical details which belong to       
text-books on logic4   ,,fallacies4  ,i4
 ,true ,collective but ,false           
,particular4--,an example of this       
fallacy is found in the argument that   
because the ,french race1 collectively1 
are excitable1 therefore a particular   
,frenchman must be excitable4 ,or that  
because the ,jewish race1 collectively1 
are good business people1 therefore the 
particular ,jew must be a good business 
man4 ,this is as fallacious as arguing  
that because a man may drown in the     
ocean he should avoid the bath1 basin1  
or cup of water4 ,there is a vast       
difference between the whole of a thing 
and its separate parts4 ,nitric acid and
 glycerin1 separately1 are not          
explosive1 but1 combined1 they form     
nitro-glycerin1 a most dangerous and    
powerful explosive4 ,reversing this form
 of illustration1 we remind you of the  

old saying3 ,salt is a good thing2 but  
one doesn't want to be put in pickle4   
,,ii4 ,irrelevant ,conclusion4--,this   
fallacy consists in introducing in the  
conclusion matter not contained in the  
premises1 or in the confusing of the    
issue4 ,for instance3 7#a7 ,all men are 
sinful2 7#b7 ,john ,smith is a man2     
therefore 7#c7 ,john ,smith is a horse  
thief4 ,this may sound absurd1 but many 
arguments are as fallacious as this1 and
 for the same reason4 ,or another and   
more subtle form3 7#a7 ,all thieves are 
liars2 7#b7 ,john ,smith is a liar2     
therefore 7#c7 ,john ,smith is a thief4 
,the first example arises from the      
introduction of new matter1 and the last
 from the confusion of the issue4       
,,iii4 ,false ,cause4--,this fallacy    
consists in attributing cause to a thing
 which is merely coincident with1 or    
precedent to1 the effect4 ,for instance3
 7#a7 ,the cock crows just before or at 
the moment of sunrise2 therefore 7#b7   
the cock-crowing is the cause of the    

sunrise4 ,or1 again3 7#a7 ,bad crops    
followed the election of a ,whig        
president2 therefore 7#b7 the ,whig     
party is the cause of the bad crops4    
,or1 again3 7#a7 ,where civilization is 
the highest1 there we find the greatest 
number of high hats2 therefore 7#b7 high
 hats are the cause of civilization4    
,,iv4 ,circular ,reasoning4--,in this   
form of fallacy the person reasoning or 
arguing endeavors to explain or prove a 
thing by itself or its own terms4 ,for  
instance3 7#a7 ,the ,whig party is      
honest because it advocates honest      
principles2 7#b7 the ,whig principles   
are honest because they are advocated by
 an honest party4 ,a common form of this
 fallacy in its phase of sophistry is   
the use of synonyms in such a manner    
that they seem to express more than the 
original conception1 whereas they are   
really but other terms for the same     
thing4 ,an historic example of circular 
reasoning is the following3 7#a7 ,the   
,church of ,england is the true ,church1

 because it was established by ,god2    
7#b7 it must have been established by   
,god1 because it is the true ,church4   
,this form of sophistry is most         
effective when employed in long         
arguments in which it is difficult to   
detect it4  ,v4 ,begging the            
,question4--,this fallacy arises from   
the use of a false premise1 or at least 
of a premise the truth of which is not  
admitted by the opponent4 ,it may be    
stated1 simply1 as the unwarranted      
assumption of a premise1 generally the  
major premise4 ,many persons in public  
life argue in this way4 ,they boldly    
assert an unwarranted premise1 and then 
proceed to argue logically from it4 ,the
 result is confusing to the average     
person1 for1 the steps of the reasoning 
being logical1 it seems as if the       
argument is sound1 the fact of the      
unwarranted premise being overlooked4   
,the person using this form of sophistry
 proceeds on ,aaron ,burr's theory of   
truth being that which is boldly        

asserted and plausibly maintained4      
,bulwer makes one of his characters     
mention a particularly atrocious form of
 this fallacy 7although an amusing one7 
in the following words3 ,whenever you   
are about to utter something            
astonishingly false1 always begin with3 
',it is an acknowledged fact1' etc4 ,sir
 ,robert ,filmer was a master of this   
manner of writing4 ,thus with what a    
solemn face that great man attempted to 
cheat4 ,he would say3 ',it is a truth   
undeniable that there cannot be any     
multitude of men whatsoever1 either     
great or small1 etc41 but that in the   
same multitude there is one man among   
them that in nature hath a right to be  
,king of all the rest--as being the next
 heir of ,adam6'  ,look carefully for   
the major premise of propositions       
advanced in argument1 spoken or written4
 ,be sure that the person making the    
proposition is not begging the question 
by the unwarranted assumption of the    
premise4   ,,general ,,rule ,,of        

,,inference4  ,hyslop says concerning   
valid inferences and fallacious ones3   
,we cannot infer anything we please from
 any premises we please4 ,we must       
conform to certain definite rules or    
principles4 ,any violation of them will 
be a fallacy4 ,there are two simple     
rules which should not be violated3 7#a7
 ,the subject-matter in the conclusion  
should be of the same general kind as in
 the premises2 7#b7 the facts           
constituting the premises must be       
accepted and must not be fictitious4 ,a 
close observance of these rules will    
result in the detection and avoidance of
 the principal forms of fallacious      
reasoning and sophistry4   ,,sophistical
 ,,arguments4  ,there are a number of   
tricky practices resorted to by persons 
in argument1 that are fallacious in     
intent and result1 which we do not      
consider here in detail as they scarcely
 belong to the particular subject of    
this book4 ,a brief mention1 however1   
may be permitted in the interest of     

general information4 ,here are the      
principal ones3--  7#a7 ,arguing that a 
proposition is correct because the      
opponent cannot prove the contrary4 ,the
 fallacy is seen when we realize that   
the statement1 ,the moon is made of     
green cheese1 is not proved because we  
cannot prove the contrary4 ,no amount of
 failure to disprove a proposition      
really proves it2 and no amount of      
failure to prove a proposition really   
disproves it4 ,as a general rule1 the   
burden of proof rests upon the person   
stating the proposition1 and his        
opponent is not called upon to disprove 
it or else have it considered proved4   
,the old cry of ,you cannot prove that  
it is not so is based upon a fallacious 
conception4  7#b7 ,abuse of the         
opponent1 his party1 or his cause4 ,this
 is no real argument or reasoning4 ,it  
is akin to proving a point by beating   
the opponent over the head4  7#c7       
,arguing that an opponent does not live 
up to his principles is no argument     

against the principles he advocates4 ,a 
man may advocate the principle of       
temperance and yet drink to excess4     
,this simply proves that he preaches    
better than he practices2 but the truth 
of the principle of temperance is not   
affected in any way thereby4 ,the proof 
of this is that he may change his       
practices2 and it cannot be held that   
the change of his personal habits       
improves or changes the nature of the   
principle4  7#d7 ,argument of authority 
is not based on logic4 ,authority is    
valuable when really worthy1 and merely 
as corroboration or adding weight2 but  
it is not logical argument4 ,the reasons
 of the authority alone constitute a    
real argument4 ,the abuse of this form  
of argument is shown1 in the above      
reference to begging the question1 in   
the quotation from ,bulwer4  7#e7       
,appeal to prejudice or public opinion  
is not a valid argument1 for public     
opinion is frequently wrong and         
prejudice is often unwarranted4 ,and1 at

 the best1 they have nothing to do with 
the case from the standpoint of logic4  
,the abuse of testimony and claimed     
evidence is also worthy of examination1 
but we cannot go into the subject here4 
,,fallacies ,,of ,,prejudice4  ,but     
perhaps the most dangerous of all       
fallacies in the search for truth on the
 part of the most of us are those which 
arise from the following3--  7#a7 ,the  
tendency to reason from what we feel and
 wish to be true1 rather than from the  
actual facts of the case1 which causes  
us unconsciously to assume the mental   
attitude of if the facts agree with our 
likes and pet theories1 all is well2 if 
they do not1 so much the worse for the  
facts4  7#b7 ,the tendency in all of us 
to perceive only the facts that agree   
with our theories and to ignore the     
others4 ,we find that for which we seek1
 and overlook that which does not       
interest us4 ,our discoveries follow our
 interest1 and our interest follows our 
desires and beliefs4  ,the intelligent  

man or woman realizes these tendencies  
of human nature and endeavors to avoid  
them in his or her own reasoning1 but is
 keenly conscious of them in the        
arguments and reasoning of others4 ,a   
failure to observe and guard one's self 
against these tendencies results in     
bigotry1 intolerance1 narrowness1 and   
intellectual astigmatism4     ,,chapter 
,,xxix4  ,the ,will4   ,the activities  
of the will comprise the third great    
class of mental processes4              
,psychologists always have differed     
greatly in their conception of just what
 constitutes these activities4 ,even    
to-day it is difficult to obtain a      
dictionary definition of the will that  
agrees with the best opinion on the     
subject4 ,the dictionaries adhere to the
 old classification and conception which
 regarded the will as that faculty of   
the mind or soul by which it chooses or 
decides4 ,but with the growth of the    
idea that the will acts according to the
 strongest motive1 and that the motive  

is supplied by the average struck       
between the desires of the moment1 under
 the supervision of the intellect1 the  
conception of will as the choosing and  
deciding faculty is passing from favor4 
,in the place of the older conception   
has come the newer one which holds that 
the will is primarily concerned with    
action4  ,it is difficult to place the  
will in the category of mental          
processes4 ,but it is generally agreed  
that it abides in the very center of the
 mental being1 and is closely associated
 with what is called the ego1 or self4  
,the will seems to have at least three  
general phases1 viz43 7#a7 ,the phase of
 desire1 7#b7 the phase of deliberation 
or choice1 and 7#c7 the phase of        
expression in action4 ,in order to      
understand the will1 it is necessary to 
consider each of these three phases of  
its activities4   7#a74 ,,desire4  ,the 
first phase of will1 which is called    
desire1 is in itself somewhat complex4  
,on its lower side it touches1 and1 in  

fact1 blends into1 feeling and emotion4 
,its center consists of a state of      
tension1 akin to that of a coiled spring
 or a cat crouching ready for a spring4 
,on its higher side it touches1         
penetrates1 and blends into the other   
phases of the will which we have        
mentioned4  ,desire is defined as a     
feeling1 emotion1 or excitement of the  
mind directed toward the attainment1    
enjoyment1 or possession of some object 
from which pleasure1 profit1 or         
gratification is expected4 ,halleck     
gives us the following excellent        
conception of the moving spirit of      
desire3 ,desire has for its object      
something which will bring pleasure or  
get rid of pain1 immediate or remote1   
for the individual or for some one in   
whom he is interested4 ,aversion1 or a  
striving away from something1 is merely 
the negative aspect of desire4  ,in     
,halleck's statement1 above quoted1 we  
have the explanation of the part played 
by the intellect in the activities of   

will4 ,the intellect is able to perceive
 the relations between present action   
and future results1 and is able to point
 the way toward the suppression of some 
desires in order that other and better  
ones may be manifested4 ,it also serves 
its purposes in regulating the striking 
of the average between conflicting      
desires4 ,without the intervention of   
the intellect1 the temporary desire of  
the moment would invariably be acted    
upon without regard to future results or
 consequences to one's self and others4 
,it also serves to point out the course 
of action calculated to give the most   
satisfactory expression of the desire4  
,while it is a fact that the action of  
will depends almost entirely upon the   
motive force of desire1 it is likewise  
true that desire may be created1        
regulated1 suppressed1 and even killed  
by the action of the will4 ,the will1 by
 giving or refusing attention to a      
certain class of desires1 may either    
cause them to grow and wax strong1 or   

else die and fade away4 ,it must be     
remembered1 however1 that this use of   
the will itself springs from another set
 of desires or feelings4  ,desire is    
aroused by feelings or emotions rising  
from the subconscious planes of the mind
 and seeking expression and             
manifestation4 ,we have considered the  
nature of the feelings and emotions in  
previous chapters1 which should be read 
in connection with the present one4 ,it 
should be remembered that the feeling or
 emotional side of desire arises from   
either inherited race memories existing 
as instincts1 or from the memory of the 
past experiences of the individual4 ,in 
some cases the feeling first manifests  
in a vague unrest caused by subconscious
 promptings and excitement4 ,then the   
imagination pictures the object of the  
feeling1 or certain memory images       
connected with it1 and the desire thus  
manifests on the plane of consciousness4
  ,the entrance of the desire feeling   
into consciousness is accompanied by    

that peculiar tension which marks the   
second phase of desire4 ,this tension1  
when sufficiently strong1 passes into   
the third phase of desire1 or that in   
which desire blends into will action4   
,desire in this stage makes a demand    
upon will for expression and action4    
,from mere feeling1 and tension of      
feeling1 it becomes a call to action4   
,but before expression and action are   
given to it1 the second phase of will   
must manifest at least for a moment2    
this second phase is that known as      
deliberation1 or the weighing and       
balancing of desires4   7#b74           
,,deliberation4  ,the second phase of   
will1 known as deliberation1 is more    
than the purely intellectual process    
which the term would indicate4 ,the     
intellect plays an important part1 it is
 true1 but there is also an almost      
instinctive and automatic weighing and  
balancing of desires4 ,there is seldom  
only one desire presenting its claims   
upon the will at any particular moment4 

,it is true that occasionally there     
arises an emotional desire of such      
dominant power and strength that it     
crowds out every other claimant at the  
bar of deliberation4 ,but such instances
 are rare1 and as a rule there are a    
host of rival claimants1 each insisting 
upon its rights in the matter at issue4 
,in the man of weak or undeveloped and  
untrained intellect1 the struggle is    
usually little more than a brief combat 
between several desires1 in which the   
strongest at the moment wins4 ,but with 
the development of intellect new factors
 arise and new forces are felt4         
,moreover1 the more complex one's       
emotional nature1 and the greater the   
development of the higher forms of      
feeling1 the more intense is the        
struggle of deliberation or the fight of
 the desires4  ,we see1 in ,halleck's   
definition1 that desire has not only the
 object of bringing pleasure or getting 
rid of pain for the individual1 but that
 the additional element of the welfare  

of some one in whom he is interested is 
added1 which element is often the       
deciding factor4 ,this element1 of      
course1 arises from the development and 
cultivation of one's emotional nature4  
,in the same way we also see that it is 
not merely the immediate welfare of     
one's self or those in whom one is      
interested that speaks before the bar1  
but also the more remote welfare4 ,this 
consideration of future welfare depends 
upon the intellect and cultivated       
imagination under its control4          
,moreover1 the trained intellect is able
 to discover possible greater           
satisfaction in some course of action   
other than in the one prompted by the   
clamoring desire of the moment4 ,this   
explains why the judgment and action of 
an intelligent man1 as a rule1 are far  
different from those of the             
unintelligent one2 and also why a man of
 culture tends toward different action  
from that of the uncultured2 and        
likewise1 why the man of broad          

sympathies and high ideals acts in a    
different way from one of the opposite  
type4 ,but the principle is ever the    
same--the feelings manifest in desire1  
the greatest ultimate satisfaction      
apparent at the moment is sought1 and   
the strongest set of desires wins the   
day4  ,halleck's comment on this point  
is interesting4 ,he says3 ,desire is not
 always proportional to the idea of     
one's own selfish pleasure4 ,many       
persons1 after forming an idea of the   
vast amount of earthly distress1 desire 
to relieve it1 and the desire goes out  
in action1 as the benevolent societies  
in every city testify4 ,here the        
individual pleasure is none the less1   
but it is secondary1 coming from the    
pleasure of others4 ,the desire of the  
near often raises a stronger desire than
 the remote4 ,a child frequently prefers
 a thing immediately if it is only one  
tenth as good as something he might have
 a year hence4 ,a student often desires 
more the leisure of to-day than the     

success of future years4 ,though        
admonished to study1 he wastes his time 
and thus loses incomparably greater     
future pleasure when he is tossed to the
 rear in the struggle for existence4    
,the result of this weighing and        
balancing of the desire is1 or should   
be1 decision and choice1 which then     
passes into action4 ,but many persons   
seem unable to make up their own mind1  
and require a push or urge from without 
before they will act4 ,others decide1   
without proper use of the intellect1    
upon what they call impulse1 but which  
is merely impatience4 ,some are like the
 fabled donkey which starved to death   
when placed at an equal distance between
 two equally attractive haystacks and   
was unable to decide towards which to   
move4 ,others follow the example of     
,jeppe1 in the comedy1 who1 when given a
 coin with which to buy a piece of soap 
for his wife1 stood on the corner       
deliberating whether to obey orders or  
to buy a drink with the money4 ,he wants

 the drink1 but realizes that his wife  
will beat him if he returns without the 
soap4 ,my stomach says drink2 my back   
says soap1 says ,jeppe4 ,but1 finally he
 remarks1 is not a man's stomach more to
 him than his back8 ,yes1 says ,i4  ,the
 final decision depends upon the        
striking a balance between the          
desires1--the weighing of desire for and
 desire against1--desire for this and   
desire for something else4 ,the strength
 of the several desires depends upon    
nearness and present interest arising   
from attention1 as applied to the       
feelings and emotions arising from      
heredity1 environment1 experience1 and  
education1 which constitute character2  
and also upon the degree of intellectual
 clearness and power in forming correct 
judgments between the desires4  ,it must
 be remembered1 however1 that the       
intellect appears not as an opponent of 
the principle of the satisfaction of    
desire1 but merely as an instrument of  
the ego in determining which course of  

action will result in the greatest      
ultimate satisfaction1 direct or        
indirect1 present or future4 ,for1 at   
the last1 every individual acts so as to
 bring himself the greatest             
satisfaction1 immediate or future1      
direct or indirect1 either personal or  
through the welfare of others1 as this  
may appear to him at the particular     
moment of deliberation4 ,we always act  
in the direction of that which will     
greater content our spirit4 ,this will  
be found to be the spirit of all        
decisions1 although the motive is often 
hidden and difficult to find even by the
 individual himself1 many of the        
strongest motives having their origin in
 the subconscious planes of mentality4  
7#c74 ,,action4  ,the third and final   
phase of will is that known as          
action--the act of volition by which the
 desire-idea is expressed in physical or
 mental activity4 ,the old conception of
 the will held that the decisive phase  
of the will was its characteristic and  

final phase1 ignoring the fact that the 
very essence or spirit of will is bound 
up with action4 ,even those familiar    
with the newer conception frequently    
assume that the act of decision is the  
final phase of will1 ignoring the fact  
that we frequently decide to do a thing 
and yet may never carry out the         
intention and decision4 ,the act of     
willing is not complete unless action is
 expressed4 ,there must be the          
manifestation of the motor element or   
phase of will1 else the will process is 
incomplete4  ,a weakness of this last   
phase of will affects the entire will   
and renders its processes ineffective4  
,the world is filled with persons who   
are able to decide what is best to do1  
and what should be done1 but who never  
actually act upon the decision4 ,the few
 persons who promptly follow up the     
decision with vigorous action are those 
who accomplish the world's work4        
,without the full manifestation of this 
third phase of will the other two phases

 are useless4   ,,types ,,of ,,will4    
,so far we have considered merely the   
highest type of will--that which is     
accompanied by conscious deliberation1  
in which the intellect takes an active  
part4 ,in this process1 not only do the 
conflicting feelings push themselves    
forward with opposing claims for        
recognition1 but the intellect is active
 in examining the case and offering     
valuable testimony as to the comparative
 merits of the various claimants and the
 effect of certain courses of action    
upon the individual4 ,there are1        
however1 several lower forms of will    
manifestation which we should briefly   
consider in passing4  ,reflex           
,action4--,the will is moved to action  
by the reflex activities of the nervous 
system which have been mentioned in the 
earlier chapters of this book4 ,in this 
general type we find unconscious reflex 
action1 such as that manifested when a  
sleeper is touched and moves away1 or   
when the frog's leg twitches when the   

nerve end is excited4 ,we also find     
conscious reflex action1 such as that   
manifested by the winking of the eye1 or
 the performance of habitual physical   
motion1 such as the movement in walking1
 operating the sewing machine or        
typewriter1 playing the piano1 etc4     
,impulsive ,action4--,the will is often 
moved to action by a dim idea or faint  
perception of purpose or impulse4 ,the  
action is almost instinctive1 although  
there is a vague perception of purpose4 
,for instance1 we feel an impulse to    
turn toward the source of a strange     
sound or sight1 or other source of      
interest or curiosity4 ,or we may feel  
an impulse arising from the subconscious
 plane of our mind1 causing a           
dimly-conscious idea of movement or     
action to relieve the tension4 ,for     
instance1 one may feel a desire to      
exercise1 or to seek fresh air or green 
fields1 although he had not been        
thinking of these things at the time4   
,these impulses arise from a            

subconscious feeling of fatigue or      
desire for change1 which1 added to a    
fleeting idea1 produces the impulse4    
,unless an impulse is inhibited by the  
will activities inspired by other       
desires1 habits1 ideas1 or ideals1 we   
act upon it in precisely the same way   
that a young child or animal does4      
,hoffding says of this type of action3  
,the psychological condition of the     
impulse is1 that with the momentary     
feeling and sensation should be combined
 a more or less clear idea of something 
which may augment the pleasure or       
diminish the pain of the moment4        
,instinctive ,action4--,the will is     
frequently moved to action by an        
instinctive stimulus4 ,this form of will
 activity closely resembles the last    
mentioned form1 and often it is         
impossible to distinguish between the   
two4 ,the activities of the bee in      
building its comb and storing its honey1
 the work of the silkworm and           
caterpillar in building their resting   

places1 are examples of this form of    
action4 ,indeed1 even the building of   
the nest of the bird may be so classed4 
,in these cases there is an intelligent 
action toward a definite end1 but the   
animal is unconscious of that end4 ,the 
experiences of the remote ancestors of  
these creatures recorded their          
impressions upon the subconscious mind  
of the species1 and they are transmitted
 in some way to all of that species4    
,the nervous system of every living     
thing is a record cylinder of the       
experiences of its early ancestors1 and 
these cylinders tend to reproduce these 
impressions upon appropriate occasions4 
,in preceding chapters we have shown    
that even man is under the influence of 
instinct to a greater extent than he    
imagines himself to be4     ,,chapter   
,,xxx4  ,will-,training4   ,it is of the
 utmost importance that the individual  
develop1 cultivate1 and train his will  
so as to bring it under the influence of
 the higher part of his mental and moral

 being4 ,while the will is used most    
effectively in developing and training  
the intellect and building character1 it
 itself must be trained by itself to    
habitually come under the guidance of   
the intellect and under the influence of
 that which we call character4  ,the    
influence of the trained will upon the  
several mental faculties is most marked4
 ,there are no faculties which may not  
be cultivated by the will4 ,the first   
and great task of the will in this      
direction is the control and direction  
of the attention4 ,the will determines  
the kind of interest that shall prevail 
at the moment1 and the kind of interest 
largely determines the character of the 
man1 his tastes1 his feelings1 his      
thoughts1 his acts4 ,gordy says3        
,coperating with a pre-existing         
influence1 the will can make a weaker   
one prevail over a stronger4 99 99 99   
,it determines which of pre-existing    
influences shall have control over the  
mind4  ,moreover1 concentrated and      

continued attention depends entirely    
upon the exercise of the will4 ,as      
,gordy says3 ,if the will relaxes its   
hold upon the activities of the mind1   
the attention is liable to be carried   
away by any one of the thousands of     
ideas that the laws of association are  
constantly bringing into our minds4     
,even in the matter of mental images the
 will asserts its sway1 and the         
imagination may be trained to be the    
obedient servant of the developed will4 
,regarding the influence of the will    
upon character1 ,davidson says3 ,it is  
not enough for a man to understand      
correctly and love duly the conditions  
of moral life in his own time2 he must1 
still further1 be willing and able to   
fulfill these conditions4 ,and he       
certainly cannot do this unless his will
 is trained to perfect freedom1 so that 
it responds1 with the utmost readiness1 
to the suggestions of his discriminating
 intelligence and the movements of his  
chastened affections4 ,halleck says3 ,we

 gradually make our characters by       
separate acts of will1 just as a        
blacksmith by repeated blows beats out a
 horseshoe or an anchor from a shapeless
 mass of iron4 ,a finished anchor or    
horseshoe was never the product of a    
single blow4   ,,training ,,the ,,will4 
,perhaps the best way to train the will 
is to use it intelligently1 and with a  
purpose4 ,the training of any faculty of
 the mind is at the same time a training
 of the will4 ,the attention being so   
closely allied to the will1 it follows  
that a careful training of attention    
will result in a strengthening of the   
will4 ,the training of the emotional    
side of one's nature also brings results
 in the strengthening of the will4      
,halleck gives his students excellent   
advice regarding the training of the    
will4 ,it would be hard to find anything
 better along these lines than the      
following from his pen3 ,nothing schools
 the will1 and renders it ready for     
effort in this complex world1 better    

than accustoming it to face disagreeable
 things4 ,professor ,james advises all  
to do something occasionally for no     
other reason than that they would rather
 not do it1 if it is nothing more than  
giving up a seat in a street car4 ,he   
likens such effort to the insurance that
 a man pays on his house4 ,he has       
something that he can fall back on in   
time of trouble4 ,a will schooled in    
this way is always ready to respond1 no 
matter how great the emergency4 ,while  
another would be crying over spilled    
milk1 the possessor of such a will has  
already found another cow4 99 99 99 ,the
 only way to secure such a will is to   
practice doing disagreeable things4     
,there are daily opportunities4 99 99 99
 ,a man who had declared his aversion to
 what he deemed the dry facts of        
political economy was one day found     
knitting his brow over a chapter of     
,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,when a friend     
expressed surprise1 the man replied3 ',i
 am playing the schoolmaster with       

myself4 ,i am reading this because ,i   
dislike it4' ,such a man has the        
elements of success in him4 99 99 99 ,on
 the other hand1 the one who habitually 
avoids disagreeable action is training  
his will to be of no use to him at a    
time when supreme effort is demanded4   
,such a will can never elbow its way to 
the front in life4   ,,habits4  ,habits 
are the beaten track over which the will
 travels4 ,the beaten path of habit is  
the line of least resistance to the     
will4 ,one who would train his will must
 needs pay attention to providing it    
with the proper mental paths over which 
to travel4 ,the rule for the creation of
 habits is simply this3 ,travel over the
 mental path as often as possible4 ,the 
rule for breaking undesirable habits is 
this3 ,cultivate the opposite habit4 ,in
 these two rules is expressed the gist  
of what has been written on the subject4
  ,professor ,william ,james has left to
 the world some invaluable advice       
regarding the cultivation of right      

habits4 ,he bases his rules upon those  
of ,professor ,bain1 elaborates these1  
and adds some equally good ones4 ,we    
herewith quote freely from both ,james  
and ,bain on this subject2 it is the    
best ever written regarding habit       
building4  ,i4 ,in the acquisition of a 
new habit1 or the leaving off of an old 
one1 launch yourself with as strong and 
decided an initiative as possible4 ,this
 will give your new beginning such a    
momentum that the temptation to break   
down will not occur as soon as it       
otherwise might2 and every day during   
which a breakdown is postponed adds to  
the chances of it not occurring at      
all4--,james4  ,,ii4 ,never suffer an   
exception to occur till the new habit is
 securely rooted in your life4 ,every   
lapse is like the letting fall of a ball
 of string which one is carefully       
winding up--a single slip undoes more   
than a great many turns will wind       
again4--,james4 ,it is necessary1 above 
all things1 in such a situation1 never  

to lose a battle4 ,every gain on the    
wrong side undoes the effect of many    
conquests on the right4 ,the essential  
precaution is so to regulate the two    
opposing powers that the one may have a 
series of uninterrupted successes1 until
 repetition has fortified it to such a  
degree as to enable it to cope with the 
opposition1 under any                   
circumstances4--,bain4  ,,iii4 ,seize   
the very first possible opportunity to  
act on every resolution you make1 and on
 every emotional prompting you may      
experience in the direction of the      
habits you aspire to gain4 ,it is not in
 the moment of their forming1 but in the
 moment of their producing motor        
effects1 that resolves and aspirations  
communicate their new 'set' to the      
brain4--,james4 ,the actual presence of 
the practical opportunity alone         
furnishes the fulcrum upon which the    
lever can rest1 by which the moral will 
may multiply its strength and raise     
itself aloft4 ,he who has no solid      

ground to press against will never get  
beyond the stage of empty gesture       
making4--,bain4  ,,iv4 ,keep the faculty
 alive in you by a little gratuitous    
exercise every day4 ,that is1 be        
systematically ascetic or heroic in     
little1 unnecessary points2 do every day
 something for no other reason than that
 you would rather not do it1 so that    
when the hour of dire need draws nigh1  
it may find you not unnerved and        
untrained to stand the test4 99 99 99   
,the man who has daily inured himself to
 habits of concentrated attention1      
energetic volition1 and self-denial in  
unnecessary things will stand like a    
tower when everything rocks around him1 
and when his softer fellow mortals are  
winnowed like chaff in the              
blast4--,james4     ,,chapter ,,xxxi4   
,will-,tonic4   ,in addition to the     
general rules for developing and        
training the will given in the preceding
 chapter1 we ask you to tone up and     
strengthen the will by the inspiration  

to be derived from the words of some of 
the world's great thinkers and doers4   
,in these words there is such a vital   
statement of the recognition1           
realization1 and manifestation of that  
something within1 which we call will1   
that it is a dull soul1 indeed1 which is
 not inspired by the contagion of the   
idea4 ,these expressions are the        
milestones on the ,path of ,attainment1 
placed by those who have preceded us on 
the journey4 ,we submit these quotations
 without comment2 they speak for        
themselves4   ,,words ,,of ,,the ,,wise4
  ,they can who think they can4         
,character is a perfectly educated will4
  ,nothing can resist the will of a man 
who knows what is true and wills what is
 good4  ,in all difficulties advance and
 will1 for within you is a power1 a     
living force1 which the more you trust  
and learn to use will annihilate the    
opposition of matter4      ,the star of 
the unconquered will1        ,it rises  
in my breast1      ,serene and resolute 

and still1        ,and calm and         
self-possessed4      ,so nigh is        
grandeur to our dust1        ,so near is
 ,god to man1      ,when duty whispers  
low1 ',thou must6'        ,the youth    
replies1 ',i can6'  ,the longer ,i live1
 the more certain ,i am that the great  
difference between men1 between the     
feeble and the powerful1 the great and  
the insignificant1 is                   
energy1--invincible determination1--a   
purpose once fixed1 and then death or   
victory4 ,that quality will do anything 
that can be done in this world1 and no  
talents1 no circumstances1 no           
opportunities will make a two-legged    
creature a man without it4--,buxton4    
,the human will1 that force unseen1     
,the offspring of a deathless soul1     
,can hew a way to any goal1      ,though
 walls of granite intervene4      ,you  
will be what you will to be2        ,let
 failure find its false content         
,in that poor word environment1         
,but spirit scorns it and is free4      

,it masters time1 it conquers space1    
,it cows that boastful trickster1       
chance1        ,and bids the tyrant     
circumstance      ,uncrown and fill a   
servant's place4  ,resolve is what makes
 a man manifest2 not puny resolve1 not  
crude determinations1 not errant        
purpose1 but that strong and            
indefatigable will which treads down    
difficulties and danger as a boy treads 
down the heaving frost lands of winter1 
which kindles his eye and brain with a  
proud pulse beat toward the             
unattainable4 ,will makes men           
giants4--,donald ,g4 ,mitchell4         
,there is no chance1 no destiny1 no fate
      ,can circumvent1 or hinder1 or    
control      ,the firm resolve of a     
determined soul4      ,gifts count for  
nothing1 will alone is great2      ,all 
things give way before it soon or late4 
,what obstacle can stay the mighty force
      ,of the sea-seeking river in its  
course1      ,or cause the ascending orb
 of day to wait8      ,each well-born   

soul must win what it deserves4         
,let the fools prate of luck4 ,the      
fortunate      ,is he whose earnest     
purpose never swerves1      ,whose      
slightest action1 or inaction1          
,serves the one great aim4 ,why1 even   
death itself      ,stands still and     
waits an hour sometimes      ,for such a
 will4       --,ella ,wheeler ,wilcox4  
,i have brought myself by long          
meditation to the conviction that a     
human being with a settled purpose must 
accomplish it1 and that nothing can     
resist a will which will stake even     
existence upon its fulfillment4 --,lord 
,beaconsfield4  ,a passionate desire and
 an unwearied will can perform          
impossibilities1 or what may seem to be 
such to the cold and feeble4--,sir ,john
 ,simpson4  ,it is wonderful how even   
the casualties of life seem to bow to a 
spirit that will not bow to them1 and   
yield to subserve a design which they   
may1 in their first apparent tendency1  
threaten to frustrate4 ,when a firm1    

decisive spirit is recognized1 it is    
curious to see how the space clears     
around a man and leaves him room and    
freedom4--,john ,foster4  ,the great    
thing about ,general ,grant is cool     
persistency of purpose4 ,he is not      
easily excited1 and he has got the grip 
of a bulldog4 ,when he once gets his    
teeth in1 nothing can shake him         
off4--,abraham ,lincoln4  ,i am bigger  
than anything that can happen to me4    
,all these things are outside my door1  
and ,i've got the key4 99 99 99 ,man was
 meant to be1 and ought to be1 stronger 
and more than anything that can happen  
to him4 ,circumstances1 ',fate1'        
',luck1' are all outside2 and if he     
cannot change them1 he can always beat  
them4--,charles ,f4 ,lummis4  ,the      
truest wisdom is a resolute             
determination4  ,impossible is a word   
found only in the dictionary of fools4  
,circumstances6 ,i make                 
circumstances6--,napoleon4  ,he who     
fails only half wills4--,suwarrow4      

,that which the easiest becomes a habit 
in us is the will4 ,learn1 then1 to will
 strongly and decisively2 thus fix your 
floating life1 and leave it no longer to
 be carried hither and thither1 like a  
withered leaf1 by every wind that blows4
  ,man owes his growth chiefly to that  
active striving of the will1--that      
encounter which we call effort1--and it 
is astonishing to find how often results
 apparently impracticable are thus made 
possible4 99 99 99 ,it is will--force of
 purpose--that enables a man to do or be
 whatever he sets his mind upon being or
 doing4  ,a strong1 defiant purpose is  
many-handed and lays hold of whatever is
 near that can serve it2 it has a       
magnetic purpose that draws to itself   
whatever is kindred4 99 99 99 ,let it be
 your first study to teach the world    
that you are not wood and straw2 that   
there is some iron in you4--,munger4    
,it's dogged as does it4--,yorkshire    
,proverb4  ,one talent with a will      
behind it will accomplish more than ten 

without it1 as a thimbleful of powder in
 a rifle1 the bore of whose barrel will 
give it direction1 will do greater      
execution than a carload burned in the  
open air4--,o4,s4 ,marden4  ,will may   
not endow man with talents or           
capacities2 but it does one very        
important matter--it enables him to make
 the best1 the very best1 of his        
powers4--,fothergill4                   
,tender-handed stroke a nettle1         
,and it stings you for your pains4      
,grasp it like a man of mettle1         
,and it soft as down remains4  ,don't   
flinch2 don't foul2 but hit the line    
hard4--,roosevelt4  ,the more           
difficulties one has to encounter1      
within and without1 the more significant
 and the higher in inspiration his life 
will be4           99      99      99   
99      99     ,transcriber's note3     
,obvious typographcial errors and       
printer errors have been corrected      
without comment4 ,other than obvious    
errors1 no attempt has been made to     

correct unconventional spelling1        
punctuation1 grammar1 etc4 ,the author's
 usage is preserved as printed in the   
original publication4